~ one 4 Z m = : 7 eres Stage rtcltiny aes as . - Shred Rg : aw y ¢ (ein gnes Wtelt pb aectpncgedt oe —— Son oes a ; as . 2 font eoneran ST oa “= cane 2 ts DEP UE MR Et any. Due ae 3 Shp ae ; SRasneinscRatenoe EN Race ean enc aeedgieoteme r- = pbk Bbkak Se a yr ite a > ES - Seeater ty pans J abate rg al Naas rik pei + ee neeeaencertes SR EP ier easel os Bo ner rae oe ue Wii Aah are . my hak he ‘e : a h ea? SAE 7 } hh “Ot wie ‘t ital : Anh at a aa y vs hal i yn mii, iri mi Pes es ety hes Do Bok Wat avn - ee THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND TITLE PAGE VOL. 47 Sg 706. NOS. 1 & 2 1956 6 ‘SaaS @ APP o Aas @ NO 4 Jos)? F SS Rtionst hese QS i , Seng) Price Rs. 3-0-0 MADRAS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 1950 INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound :— Title page ees Contents of Nos. 1 & 2 of Vol. 47 oa ; : Pao | rontis- List of contributors Be t,\ HOON ORAS ( piece in this order. List of plates ... wee | Index to illustrations ae ae Index to species ... as .. Lo goratethemendsor the two numbers. THE JOURNAL OF THE BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY S. H. PRATER, 0.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.ZS., C. McCANN, F.L.S. and SALIM ALI VOL. 47 Nos. 1 & 2 Containing 2 coloured plates, 47 black and white plates, 7 Maps, 5 photographs and 25 text-figures Dates of Publication Part 1. (Pages 1 to 194) ... Atigust 1947 » 2 ( 4 £195 to 400) ... December 1947 LONDON AGENTS DAVID NUTT (A. G. BERRY) 212 Shaftesbury Avenue LONDON, W.C. 2. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1950 WAR 3 0 195° F weg Ewe: bie eth WRIA Laree od on } 3 Be : , ; ay ; a , * 7 A o« : % pare ot 3 Asa - -* 7 3 cf Pct 4 sats vt om ny 7 " 2 ae o Eel ¥ esta ee ‘See done Us Rees oe a) an es Psa yaitixol 2 Dae 4 Aq sigolan 4 wy ma i: ‘ 4 “> : ; : m +3 ewan tse |B 2 Me a ae. eer ea Bs, So pel aah Ge anes ee fe Wah A. 2t od Be Sea. ane = Brae aOGnou: : ; . : sia % » 1 ) ws -i : as “1h \ ah i a i F ‘ ‘ 4 TNS ‘ - 4 1 7 i 1 5 i w j ¢: - ; : i A = 7 ) tap 5 By ; A at ry ar a ; ri Y. A \ A . : oer a ORS 7 f 7 m : TO ia ae (ey! i ; CT 4 i yf te a7 2 ] scores 6. Natural Death of Elephants. By A (Cy Tein Nolthenius, F.z.S., A.C.L.. “Da abbesiowass batvemeeee 7. The Piscivorous Habits of ae Roraeal or Fin Whale (Balaenoptera ae By P. K. Jacob and ‘M. Devidas Menon.. seo bacenteet decengnies ot 8. Curious nesting site of in ae Robin [ Copsy- ss chus_-saulavis (Linn.)]. By R. E. Parsons, Weight of Bull Bison. By R. C. Morris......,..... PAGE 128 tS 145 146 147 148 150 151 383 154 154 156 9, An early nest of the Tailor Bird [ Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant)]. By S. N. Sen............... 10. Occurrence of the Waxwing [Bombycilla gar- vulus (Linn.)] in Baluchistan. By Major T.J. PUD Sis. becca Sica shied oaeenceelinee ce teeec mreworasee 11. Arrival dates of Wagtails in Upper Assam. By F, Woolley Smith.. ekbanes es 12. Abnormal egg Auies Mee aes Abdulali 13. Nightjars on roads. By Humayun Abdulali...... 14, Occurrence of the Southern Green Pigeon [C7vo- copus phoenicopterus chlorigaster (Blyth)]| in Ceylon... By W. W. A. Phillips... cesscossoree 163 US) 16. We 18. 19: 20. ray QD, bo 24. Zo ile 28. 29. CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47 The Persian name for the Flamingo. By Hamid /\, dA FoCSs CROUEN) «pace ee Flamingoes in Kutch—A Comment. By C. Mic alia in eeeraaetioathatee secre: cites w Seaerteed Oieweteuides Alpheraky’s Swan (Cygnus bewickit jankowskiz JNO) HR GEN BAY SEMA ZN oboctoeanarnec: Periodic abundance of Bar-headed Goose [Aznser indicus (Latham)| on Chilka Lakes. By ea Cem thalee major slcen sci sitios wae saniane aaa ehh vv dls Sushkin’s Goose (Anser neglectus Sushkin) in ASSaii as yar let. COlagd neLUtnrell nt san eceace es « The language of Birds. By Claude A. Claremont Some further suggestions for field ornithologists in post-war Burma. By B. E. Smythies vate ¢Shamming Death’—Snakes. By A. St. J. Ma Cd OmalGore. dalek. Sak « calisaded cettunittes codevescaidee eee An uncommon habit observed in the Frog Rana erythraea Schleg. By J. D. Romer, EiZiSs conden aduee es@e eadee0e Mating and the parental instinct of the Marsh Crocodile (C. palustris Lesson). By K. S. I DJoeeyg oak) {baa TEES ONS Soro neamod concer aODOCO OOOH scOaRanE Indian Monitors in the ,United Provinces. By Cole FO MG WIL OWNGES A ai..cees ste hat he ee ibease's Discovery of the hitherto unknown female of the Butterfly Chavana cephets De Niceville. By NEMO te OlnePernyeewameinceits «venecesasscucctee The enemies of Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus). By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar BE MU eereteotecren eae eer on aor ee ter testeccesriine ces Note on the occurrence of Aipalzum in Junagadh (Kathiawar). By G. A. iapadianesnen en sec Flowering of Bamboos. By Col. D. G. AZ ONVENGL CS re an ee Sete an Stiale nots Hoosen asics ceases Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year ending 3lst December, TQ4G is, eee ead tks aes loes 167 168 168 169 171 173 173 174 176 ad 177 178 180 181 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47 No. 2 SomE BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part SOOVille By, Ne Ww. Bor, (CB MoAt DAS Cy mebolacon, LF.S., and M, B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 1 coloured and 1 OlACK ANA WRAL Plate): io. cise ver wwo,sesnerlons owe seine ielebiend ncteltaiA aes Tur EARLY STAGES OF INDIA LEPIDOPTERA. Part XIX. By WAG. SeVvastopulOs PeR.ES....sececusnsesess lceteneaes eenites THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HItts. Part II. By A. E. Jones, M.B.0.U. (deceased). (Wzth a plate)... A NOoTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN BURMA. By W.'F. H: Ansell. (With a map and a@ plate) .....0.0.00.0000. Tur Brrps oF DELHI AND District. By N. F. Frome, C.LE., D.F.C., M.Sc., M.B.0.U. (Wzth a map and 4 sketches). NoTES ON THE BIRDS. OF THE GYANTSE ROAD, SOUTHERN Tibet, MAy 1946. By P.I.R. Maclaren. (With a map)... As-ISTADEH, -A-. BREEDING PLACE .OF THE © FLAMINGO | Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (PALLAS)] IN AFGHANIS- TAN, By S.A. Akhtar. (Wzth 2 maps and a plate)...... A NOTE.ON THE COLLECTION,..CONDITIONING AND. TRANS- PORT OF FINGERLINGS OF Catla IN THK MADRAS PRESIDENCY. by N. Jagannadhaim scca eee eeeeeeee eee NoTEe ON FRESHWATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE Istanps. By Dr. C. V. Kulkarani, B.A. (Hons.) M.sc., Php. (With a photo.and 4 text-(2 2176s) \ssneceres eeeeees Extent oF DAMAGE By THE Mots Dichocrocis punctiteralts Fs. TO THREE STRAINS OF THE CASTOR PLANT. By INS (OB BRIE) CATT ON CIEL L A) Vos6 660 000,006,660 000 anp 498 0090050000000 Tur LAc Insect oF THE WEST Coast or InpIA. By S. Mahdibassan. (W2th 2 plates)... VARIATION IN THE FLOWERS OF Quisqualis indica LINN. (ORDER Combretaceae). By G. A. Kapadia .. NOTES ON THE Convolvulaceae OF BOMBAY. 7 H. oatele 28 Savon 196) Bq'S6|000 006-000 680000 pee Ceo econ eee 6CGe OBO cee eee THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE Famity Moringaceae BASED ON THE STUDY OF Moringa plery gosperma GAERTN. (=WM. oleitera LAMK.). By Robindra Mohon Datta al Jatindra Nath Mitra, M.sc. (Wath 2 plates)... worn PAGE 195 ST, ZAG 249 LUT 30] 308 315 334 337 355 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47 OBITUARY NOTICES :— MheodoremRathbonew rub backs eercsas-coeetedecttvoncescsebe _ Sir David Ezra.. Joo dhoeDohoosodacGS Laon CORSO RUE EDEL O nC aces ~ Reginald Innis. Fasaasle “(With his Bibliography on (LOT EO ES SV) ASPB SSG Bc ica ORE GOON CARO OCE COICO ERE DT CRCOREP ERE MAIexancemmawatcedonesee ee te re eee MIscELLANEOUS NotTEs :— le 14. Behaviour of Hyena and Panther at a ‘ Kill’. By Capt. K. Boswell, 1.A.M.C.. eaves The sense of smell in Hever spe C. dc r. Nie inh CC tereacnanctortehwt crcl «shee senlaccioes veluenieaeee's ‘Death Cry’ of Tiger. By Capt. K. Boswell, TAMIR CM RN it Ned wate tice a, Bees Peculiar reaction of a Dog to the hooting of a siren. By M.:L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D. (CANTAB), F.N.I.. 00 6 On the Leopard Cat Prionaturas bengal By E. P.Gee. (With a photo)... Sctislee Procession of Musk Shrews. By R. N. De, B.SC., FERSG <8) (ZONG)) y Iason (INGLE) ari-tassiscecsenscslecs The habits of the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Afthe- vurus macrourus) By C. R. Stonor... Serve The Nilgiri Vahr (Hemitragus linens Duel between Males. By A. F. Hutton......... The ‘Watching’ attitude of the Cheetal or Spotted Deer (Axis axis aus By H. L. Hiteshi. ‘With a plate)... eae teenic 7 Stranding of Whales on the coasts a India. “By SPA VNOSe Stee stool eens eee ca Notes on some Burmese mammals. By W.F. Eee Atiaselllen (1720) Gu DHOlO cee eeeeseneectsase sec Display of a male Minivet. By C. R. Stonor..... Occurrence of the Laggar Falcon (Falco jugger Gray) at Mt. Abu. By Major R.K.M. Battye, GAM Male buSatentevudnsautete eat snisns ceeeas oes aie sansa The altitudinal limit of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana See tu es aU By F. A. Betterton.. I Mae i wcslewea Ss 383 384 Vail MWD AG. a8 Os). ZO: lle CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47 Recovery of ringed duck in India. By Editors. The Great Crested Grebe [Podziceps cristatus _cristatus (Linn.)| in Bhavnagar State. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji... ee Morning song of birds ath May, 1947). ta Samsar Chand Koul.. Backes The late stay of migratory Wes in Hayate Kathiawar. By K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji..... On the Common Blind Snake (Zyph/lops bramt- EPS JEN WIE WORST 125 SHIA) ca doqooq00c 000020000000 Aggressive demonstration by Russell’s Viper (Vipera russelic), By AACA. EYWZeGiedesctonsnee Hamadryad at Bhim Tal, U. P. By A. St. J. MacdOnaldsc.....c.eccos scsecccss ve dansliciesstnemesenectens . Notes on the ‘Fauna of British India: Reptilia and Amphibia’, by Malcolm A. Smith. By Rev. C. 1S So THe ; See Note on the Bull- Frog (poe 3 everting lung. By C. McCann.. ccsattect Culture of Murral fish (Ophicephalus Ee Hamilton) in irrigation wells. By P.I. Chacko and’ GlK. Kuriyan....iicc:..00<6 eee eee A large Black Rock Scorpion. By S, G. Bur- hoe Err nr Ree Marea AAG 500005000 00000000 An anomalous antenna in Rhipiphorothrips cruentaius Hood. from Tambaram South India. By T. N. Anantha Krishnan, B.Sc. (Hlon's)n(W72tit a *1ext-1 71.2070) ene eee Migration of the butterfly Appzas albina danada. Dyelxe i. earsOns, EsRyE Sn 1s) ee Observations on the habits of the conchostracan Caenestheria sp. recorded from Tambaram (S. India). By T. N. Anantha Krishnan...... Aerial roots in the Sponge Gourd, Luffa sp. By Surendra Nath Singh, m.sc. (Ag.) (With a Abnormal palms of South Travancore—A three- erowned Coconut Palm. By Trupapur A. Davis. (With a PULLER Se REL SRS Aoecioas oa aiee PAGE 385 385 386 387 388 388 389 390 391 392 393 393 394 396 397 398 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS VOLUME 47 Nos. 1 and 2 ABDULALI, HuMAayun, Abnor- mal egg clutches ses — Night- jars on roads a0 cee AKHTaR, S. A. Ab- fecader a breeding place of the Flamin- go [ Phoenicopterus ruber rose- us (Pallas)] in Afghanistan (With two maps and a plate) Atti, HamMip A., I.c.S., (Retd.) Persian name for the Flamin- go nee ALI, SALIM, Aipherainyis s Swan (Cygnus bewickit jankowskit Alph.) in Kutch es ANSELL, W. F. H., A note on the position of Rhinoceros in Burma (With a map and a plate) Notes on mammals some Burmese (With a photo) Basu, A. C., Extent of aerraaee by the moth Dichocrocis punc- tiferalis Fb. to three strains of Castor Plant BaTTvE, Major R. K. M.,, I.A., I.P.S., Occurrence of the Lag- gar Faleon (Falco jugger Gray) at Mt. Abu BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR, Séé Mukerji. BENTHALL, E.C. Periodic abun- dance oi Bar-Headed Goose Anser indicus (Latham) on Chilka Lakes ... 5 _ BETTERTON, F.A., The Aeiire dinal limit of the Pheasant- tailed Jacana [Hydrophast- anus chirurgus (Scopoli)] ... Bor, N. L., C.1.E., M.A., D.SC,, F,L.S., 1. F..S., and RAIZADA, PAGE 161 162 308 164 167 249 379 326 383 168 384 M. B., M. Sc., Some Beautiful L PAGER Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XXVI ( With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates, and 16 text-figures) Part XX VII. (With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plate) BAL 500 BOSWELL, Capt. K., I. A. M.C., Behaviour of Hyena and Panther at a ‘ Kill’ ———— ‘Death Cry’ of Tiger BuRGESS, S. G., A ee Black Rock Seeman (From the Field 12-4-1947 p. 351) dee Burton, Lt.-Col. R.W., A man- eating Tiger of the Nelliam- pathy Hills (Wth a photo) ... Cuacko, P, I. and Kurrvan, G. K., Culture of Murral Fish (Ophicephalus marulius Hamil- ton) in irrigation wells CLAREMONT, CLAUDE A., The language of Birds CoLLINsS, S. J. K., Birds of the Lalmai Area, near Comilla, Tippera, Bengal ( With a map) Cott, Dr. Hucu B., An Appeal —Egg Inquiry Davis, TRUPAPUR A, Anoor mal palms of South Travan- core II— A Three-crowned Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.) (With a plate) DE,R.N. B.SC., F.R.G.S.,(Lond. ) I.F.S. (Retd,}, Procession of Musk Shrews a5 wee DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K, S., Mating and the parental ins- - tinct of the Marsh Crocodile (EG Bees Lesson) ‘The Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps 366 368 393 148 392 169 37 146 398 373 174 bs LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS cristatus cristatus Winn.) in Bhavnagar State ese 000 aa The Late stay of migratory birds in Bhavnagar, Kathiawar Epitors, Recovery of ringed duck in India see Seon FROME, N.F., C. 1. E., D. F.C., M. S.C., M. B. O. U., The Birds of Delhi and District. ( With a map and 4 sketches) v5 FyzEE, A. A. A., Aggressive demonstration by Russell’s age (Vipera russelli) 3 ~P., On the Leopard Cat GEE, E (Pricnuiluras bengalensis) (With a photo) oe HAMEED, ABDUL, M.SC., Notes on the Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill. ( With.12 plates). HitesuI, H. L., The ‘ Watch- ing’ attitude of the Cheetal or Spotted Deer (Axis axis Erxl.) (With @ plate) HURRELL, Lt.-Col. J., Sushkin’s Goose (.Auser neglectus Sush- kin) in Assam. Hutton, A. F., The ‘Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitra, gus hylocrius)— A duel. between males i The Return- ing Tigress JacoB, K.CHERIAN, L. We 3) EeLsSe, Some new Species of South ‘Indian plants (Wzth 3 plates). JacoB, P. K. ‘and MENoN, M. Devipas. The _ piscivorous habits of the Rorqual or Fin Whale ( Lalaenoptera sp.) JAGANNADHAM, N. A Note on the Collection, Conditioning and Transport of Fingerlings of Catla in the Madras Presi- dency 600 600 000 JATINDRA, NATH MITRA, M.Sc., seé Robindra Mohon Datta. JonES, A. E., M.B. 0. U., The Birds of the Simla and Adja- cent Hills. PartI ... Part II (With a plate) . bee PAGE 385 387 3385 277 388 376 168 374 151 156 315 117 219 KAPADIA, G, A., Notes on the occurrence of &ipalium in Junagadh (Kathiawar) -->:.. Variation in the flowers of Quisgualis indica Linn. (Order Combretaceae ... KoELzZ, WALTER, Ph.p., Notes on a Collection of Birds from Madras Presidency 9...) 73 KOUL, SAMSAR CHAND. Mor- ning song of birds (24th May, 1947) eee pe B08 KRISHNAN, ‘TIT. N; \ANANTHA, B. Sc., (Hons.), An anoma- PAGE 178 334 17123: - 386 lous antennain ARhipiphoroth- ~ rips cruentatus Hood. Tambaram, South (With a text-figure) AO Observations on the habits of the conchos- tracan Caenestheria sp.record- ed from Tambaram, ae India KULKARNI, DE 6. ¥. B, AY from | x India ~ 1 393, 396 (Hons.) M.sc., Ph.D. Note on » Fresh Water Fishes of Bom- bay and Salsette Islands (1 °° photo and 4 text-figures) -s KuRIAN, G.K., see CHACKO, P.I. LEIGH, Rev. C., s. J. Notes on the Fauna of India: Reptilia and Amphibia by MalcolmA. Smith, Volume... , III Serpentes 1943 .... LOWNDES, Col. D. G., An Ap-.~ peal to Botanists 500 a , Indian Moni tors in the United Provinces Flowering of Bamboos wer 600 MACDONALD, A. St. J., A Fish- ing Trip to Karwar ind Mal- van (15th October to 10th November, 1946). (With 2 plates) 50 ve Amok’ see we 500 = ‘Shamming’ ee eee Death ’—Snakes ———__=: Hamadryad at Bhim Tal, U.P wy)? 13 os ia Tiger ‘Runs 319. British 390 147, 176 180 N69": 150 vit 173 ~ 389 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS MACLAREN, P.LR.,- Notes on the Birds of the Gyantse Road, Southern Tibet, 1946. (With a map) re Fr Bt MAHDIBASSAN, S., The Lac In- sect of the West Coast of India (With 2 plates) ee ManmMoop, S., M.se., and RAHI- MULLAH, M., D.Sc., Fish Survey of Hyderabad State, Part [V —Fishes of the Nizamabad ’ District. plates) ‘ ae Mayr, ERNST, Ph.D., On the Correct Name of the Tibetan Shrike usually called Lanzus tephronotus wa McCann, C., Flamingoes in Kutch—A Comment ——-——- Note on the Bull- Frog (Rana tigrina) gia lung ee ies MENON, M. DEVIDAS see Peo Boek. MineETT, F.C., M.R. C.V.S., Notes on a Flying Squirrel (Petaurista sp.) (With a plate) ase Morris, R.C., Weight 6 Bull Bison MosEs, S.T. Stmadine? Witales on the coasts of India MUKERJEE, DURGADAS and BEHURA, BASANTA KUMAR, On the Biology of Danaus chrysip- pus (Linnaeus) and its Para- sites 56 ob j The enemies of Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus) NoLTHENIUS, A. C. TUTEIN, F.Z.S.,A.C.L., Natural death of Elephants ... 600 Parsons, R.E., F.R.£.S., Migration of the butterfly AZ- pias albina danada 08 PERRY, M.E. St. JoHN, Dis- covery of the hitherto un- known female of the butter- fly Charana cepheis De Nice- ville (With a map and 2 PAGE (" 201 329 102 125 164 391 52 153 377 TUE) 177 154 394. 177 PHILLIPS, Lt.-Cor. B, T Aas RP: PAGE Bird Photographer’s Musings" from - Kashmir—Part> EMEA: Major T. J., IN0b Occur- i 84 rence of the Waxwing Ryo cilla garrulus (Linn,) in Balu- chistan ... PHILLIPS, W. W. IN: The Tee A Bird Sanctuary in Ceylon (With 6 plates) of the Southern Green” Pigeon [ (Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorigaster ee Je in an lon Pocock, The ees R. Te PGI RSSop Two New Local Races of ie Asiatic Wild Ass ROBINDRA, MOHON Datta & MITRA, JATINDRA NATH M.Sc, The Systematic Position of the Family A/oringaceae based on the study of Moringa ptery- gosperma Gaertn. (MM. oleife- va Lamk.) (With 2 plates)... RAHIMULLAH, M., D.sc., MAuHMOOD, S., RAIZADA, M.B., M.sc., See Bor, INE Lee, Romer, J. D., F.z.s. An uncommon habit observed in the frog Rana erythraea Schleg ... 50 x Roonwat, M. L., M.sc., tht D. (Cantab.), F. Sit, Peculiar reaction of a Dog to the hooting of a siren 566 SANTAPAU, Hl, 4 (Side, F.L.S., Notes on the Convolvulaceae of Bombay ot SEN, S.N., An early nest of the Wailer Bird [Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant) ] SEVASTOPULO, D.G., F.R.E.S., The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera. Part XVIII ... —— Part XIX SIGHTS, WARREN, P., On the Common Blind Snake (Typh- lops braminus) oes See . 160. ae Occurrence rarely 163 143 335 173 370 887 388 xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS SINGH, SURENDRA NATH, M.Sc. (Ag.) Aerial roots in the Sponge Gourd, Luffa sp. (With a photo) aoe cee SMITH, F. WooLLEy, Arrival dates of Wagztails in Upper Assam ... 60 ee SMYTHIES, B.E., Sone frumner suggestions for field ornitho- logists in post-war Burma ... SRINIVASAN, K. S., Observa- tions on some Balanidae PAGE 397 160 from Mahabalipuram t With a plate) “S : STONOR, C. R., NaS on the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Athe- vuva macrura 1.) onc The habits of the Brush-tailed Porcupine (A¢he- rurus macrourus ) Display of a mae Minivet . Wieninee (Galle ., of smell in eer The sense PAGa 115 154 373 383 367 LIST OF PLATES VOLUME 47 Nos. 1 and 2 Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs Plate XXVIII. Princess Charlotte’s Passion-flower (Fassiflora racemosa Brot.) Plate I. FPassiflora incarnata Linn. New Forest, Dehra Dun Plate II. Pussiflora edulis Sims. - ‘, Plate III. Passiflora holosericea Linn. ‘s x The Islet: A Bird Sanctuary in Ceylon. Plate I. Ceylon Black-winged Stilt about to settle on eggs Plate II. White-shafted Little Terns on eggs all facing the prevailing wind 6 Plate III, Little Ringed Plover incubating Plate IV. Eggs of Great Stone-Plover Plate V. Great Stone-Plover—a pair on Sanctuary Islet Stone-Plover incubating eggs on Sanctuary Islet Plate VI. Downy chick of Great Stone-Plover Young Great Stone-Plovers Some New Species of South Indian Plants Plate I. Dimeria kanjirapallilana K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. Plate Il. Dimeria kurumthotticalana K.-C. Jacob, sp. nov. Plate III. Szda Beddomei K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. bet. 46/47 \ bet. 46/47 soe 1 eee 44 see 45 46 47 47 48 49 Eragrostis uniolotdes Nees var. tremula K.C, Jacob, 50 var. nov. Notes on a Flying Squirrel (Petaurista sp.) Plate: Fig. 1. Petaurista canciceps Gray. Fig.2. Ventral surface of body and parachute. A Fishing Trip to Karwar and Malvan (15th Oct. to 10th Nov. 1946) Plate I. Bag of Mackerel (Bangra) and 20 lb. Queen Fish / (Dagol) ». 500 % Plate I]. 161bs. Black King Fish (M/orousa) Notes on the Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill Plate I. Fig. 1. Asplenium alternans \ rhs _ Fig. 2. Asplenium varians Plate II. Fig.3. Asplenium trichomanes ; Fig. 4. Chetlanthes albamarginata Plate III. Fig.5. FPelleae nitidula \ Fig.6. Adiantum caudatum Plate IV. Fig. 7. Adiantum venustum Plate V. Fig.8. Adiantum capillus-veneris Plate VI. Fig.9. Athyrium schempert .. Plate VII. Fig. 10. Contogramme fraxinea Plate VIII. Fig. 11. Ptesis cretica a6 Plate IX. Fig.12. Dryopteris odontoloma ... Plate xX. Fig. 13. Polystichum angulare Plate XI. Fig. 14. Cystopteris fragilis Plate XII, Fig. 15. Onychium japonicum \ Fig. 16. Selaginella chrysorhizus A Bird Photographer’s Musings from Kashmir Plate I. The House Crow. ‘The Jungle Crow Plate II, The Jackdaw. Tickell’s Thrush ... bet. 82/83 bet, 82/83 bet, 82/83 bet. 82/83 bet. 82/83 bet. 82/83 bet. 82/83 bet. 82/83 bet. 82/83 bet. 82/83 83 aoe 86 88 xiv LIST OF PLATES PAGE Elate III. The Indian Oriole 3 Female at nest. Male feeding mays chicks 560 coe 2s ae 94 Plate IV. The Himalayan Starling: » The Wriitieck. sani Go Plate .V. TheIndian Hoopoe. The Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker 98 "Plate VI. The Black-eared Kite. The Indian Ring Dove ee OO Fish Survey of Hyderabad State Plate I. Nizamsagar—General views (1) showing the dam (2) in which some islands are visible ... an 106 Plate II. Nizamsagar—(1) West channel. Guest House is on the extreme left of the picture. (2) River Godavari during _ rainy.season as ee 107, Observations on some Balanidae from Manabalipuramn Plate I. Fig. 1. Chthamalus stellatus (Poli)—extensive growth. on the exposed and splashed surfaces —... - 116 Fig. 2. Chihamalus stellatus—different stages of growth he 500 ie cee me Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs Plate XXIX. .The Coral Creeper (Anmtigonon leptopus Hook. and Arn.) Oni 195 Plate Antigonon leptopus Hook. and Arn. New Hpreee _ Dehra Dun aS Boe 500. Piece 2 196 The Birds of the Simla and Adjacent Hills” ‘ Plate: Views of the terrain, Simla Hills 50h ies. we 220 A Note on the Position of Rhinoceros in Burma ip Plate: The Sumatran Two-horned Rhinoceros __ fh BTS SD Talons The Smaller One-horned Rhinoceros a eee: NPS Istadeh: A breeding place of the Flamingo, [Phoenicobterus oppo voseus (Pallas)]'in Afghanistan _ f Hyd Deh es Plate: Rosy, Flamingo shot on outskirts of Kerandaine Bre ie ate Collection of Flamingo eggs made on Hillock IL on The Lac Insect of the West Coast of India... .. Ls hh, SOS Plate: Fig.1. Lakshadia communis eronminee a ‘typical? -encrista- eave tion on Ficus bengalensis .. “wex-- 332 Plate: Fig. 2. Lakshadia communis encrustation on a Fi icus ee: PENSIS. : AS aS Figs. 3-5. Lakshadia communis on neDichrastachye) cinerea | arranged triangularly Fig. 7. Same as Fig. 6 The Systematic Position of the Family Moringaceae based on the study 0 of wi Worahee plerygosperma (aaertn. (= MW, oleifera Lamk.) Fig.6. Portion of Fig. 5 enlaryed to show three dots 338 Plate: Figs. 1—11 a (tee. SIRE, _ Plate: Moringaceae by R. M. Data ase ot i Ra eY/ Obituary: : : The late Reginald Innes Pocock, F.R.s. (1863-1947) 500 -~ 360 The. ‘ Watching’ attitude of the Cheetal or Spotted Deer (ais axis Erxl.) § : Plate: 00 son 5 376 Abnormal palms of South Travancore II—A Three-crowned Coconut : -Palm.( Cocos nucifera L.) ¥ Plate I. 00 ce RED Feta’ © sepee: P| vac” 398 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Cocos nucifera Plate 550 Conitogramme traxinea 3 Plate VII, Fig. 10 bet. 82/83 Corvus monedula sommeringt 398 Plate II. ,.. aes 88 Crow, The House ea Plate I, 200 ; £5 86 VOLUME 47 Nos. 1 & 2 "s PAGE . PaGE Adiantum ca pillus-veneris Crow The Jungle Plate V, Fig. 8... bet. 82/83 Plate Ty «2. tbs 86 — caudatum Cystopleris fragilis Plate Ill, Fig.6 ...,, 82/83 Plate XI, Fig. 14 bet. 82/83 ———_ venusium Damage by the moth Dichocrocis Plate IV, Fig.7 ...,, 82/83 punctiferalis Fb. to ~ Antigonon leptopus three strains of the Castor Coloured plate... 195 Plant, 1 .. Plate S00 000 196 Graph 328 Asplenium alternans: Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Plate I, Fig.l 82 Platen ach 262 ——— trichomanes Dimeria kanjirapallilana Plate II, Fig. 3 82/83 Plate I... ake 48 — varians ———. kurumthotticalana Platerinehiow27s cs. 82 Plates laa, ny 49 Athyrium schempert Dryobates brunnitrons - 24 Plate VI, Fig. 9 one 99 82/83 Plate V a Ae 98 ‘Axis aie meres ae Dryopteris odontoloma (Be REISS ee Plate IX, Fig. 12. bet. 82/83 -Balanidae from Mahabalipuram : E : Fees ; ragrostis untoloides Nees | Plate: Figs. 1 & 2. 116 ES, (HID a Barbus (Puntius) sarana Plate III hs 50 ., . , Pext fig. 1 (b) 322) Hsacus yecurvirostris Birds of Delhi and District Plates IV & V. bet. 46/47 “Map Oo 20 278 Plate VI or 47 Birds of the Gyantse Rima Etroplus suratensis — Southern Tibet: , Text fig. 3 Age 398 see pe $02 Fish Survey of Hyderabad — = ain ‘Birds of the Lalmai Area near State Comilla, SHEE: pene Map ke 102 Map Te) eee 58 00D 3 QUD. Birds of the Simla’ and adjacent ies PE A SSIES a5 ag Hills. me aoe TPE Plate : Views of the Ter- oo gee Loe ESE | rain, Simla Hills. ste Bis es ; ~Burmese:mammals: Notes on = i es i oi some. Photo 382 Fresh W “ = ee f ns : Charadrius dubius jerdoni i Gk ciate SES : Bombay & Salsette Plate III. Fae 46 Photo : nae 399 Cheilanthes albomarginata A oS ee ae i ite cs Pilate ft, hee. tel SO/RR || Sees Gee: ! Text fig. -- = 286 Glossogobius giuris Aexthhioenls (ai) ue ose 322 Himantopus h. ceylonensis ae Plate I ... ee 44 Iynx torquilla Text fig. ... ae 286 ——_—— japonica 4 ‘te: Plate IV es 96 RVI INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Kite, The Black eared- Plate VI 000 100 Lakshadia communis Plate ant 332 Plate apr rae 333 Lobipluvia malabarica Text-Fig. 5 286 Lutta aegyptiaca Photo st od Com Mackerel skeletons from the stomach of ths stranded Whale Photo sh 157 Moringa plerygosperma Plate a eat 356 Plate Bs, aaes 357 Onychium japonicum Plate XII, Fig. 15 83 Oriolus ovriolus kundoo Plate III ... as 94 Osphronemus goranty Text fig. 2 324 Passitlora caerulea Text fig. 2 vee 4 Text fig. 7 A 11 ———— calcarata oF Text fig. 15 600 24 qa 6111018 Text fig. 11 500 17 ———— edulis Te IRS Plate II ... ae 16 Text fig. 10 a 15 Passitlora toetida ALES AE Toke is) => Cae 20 ——-—_ graciits Text fig. 16 eee 25 -—_—— holosericea Plate III ... ae 18 Text fig. 12 oS, 18 ————— incarnata - Plates ss. ar 12 Text fig. 9 508 14 ———— Leschenaulti Text fig. 6 600 10 ——— — lunaia Text fig. 5 ase 9) ———— Minima Text fig. 3 600 6 moritolia Text fig. 14 Sisk Mee PAGE Passitlova quadrangularis Text fig. 4 500 7 ———~— racemosa Coloured plate... 1 —-—-— suberosa : Text fig. 8 ase 13 Passion Flower, Old concep- tion of Text fig. I ae 2 Pelleae nitidula Plate III, Fig.5 bet. 82/83 Petaurista canciceps Plate cee ae 52 Phoenicopterus ruber roséus (Palias) in Afghanistan, Maps) «. 310 Plate ane “00 312 Polystichum angulare | Plate X. Fig. 13 bet. 82/83 Prionailurus bengalensis Photos ye.: 05 371 Psittacula cyanocephala Text fig. AOC 286 Pteris cretica t Plate VIII, Fig. 11 bet. 82/83 Rhinoceros in Burma, A Note on the position of se sty atea Map ieee. ‘at 250 Rhinoceros sondaicus Plate.) & cone ice ayy weneGe Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus, Anomalous antenna in _ Text fig, A&B. 398 Selaginella chrysorhizus Plate XII, Fig. 16 83 Sida Beddomei Plate III. O00 50 Skull of the Nelliampathy Maneater ‘ Photo 150 Sterna albitrons sinensis Plate II ... a0 45 Streptopelia decaocto Plate VI ... 0 100 Sturvnus vulgaris humit Plate IV coe 96 ZTurdus unicolor | Plate II ... aoe 88 Upupa epops = Plate V ... A 98 ~~ PAGE Abies pindrow 117 Abraxas sylvata eonardive 218 Acanthis flavirostris rufostrigata 307 Acanthocybium solandri O08 703 Accipiter badius dussumieri 141 — nisus aot op ——— virgalus affinis 365 — — virgatus besra 141 Acridotheres ginginianus ... 284 — - tristis . 61, 96, 284 GriStishmene: 387 Acrocephalus agricola agricola 134 ——---—— dumetorum 134, 282 stentoreus 282 Acrocodia 267 acuticauda (L.) ... aoe) Emmeiows epee SO Adelura coeruleocephala _ ... Bs SPER N) Adiantum capillus-veneris _... 76, 79, 80, 83. ————- caudatum _... ...20, 79,-80, 83 — venustum -...- 76, 79, 83 Aegithaliscus concinnus iredalei 124 ——_—_——-— niveogularis 124 Aegithina nigrolutea ... on 279 a tiphia 58. ————_ ——-— bumei 5a 130 Aethiopsar fuscus BAY 3 6] —_— —— mahrattensis se. . 136 alata, (Passiflora) 2 Alauda arvensis inopinata 304 gulgula 286 ee australis — 137 Albara argenticeps 020 31 albicillus, (Haliactus) ... 305 | albiventer (Petaurista) ... 52 Albizzia lebbek ... §o0 YAY) ————. stipulata 102,03 Alboides, (M.) 5 161 Albonotatus, (C. macrourus) ... 162 Alcedo atthis Ges «65, 288 Alcemerops athertoni ainartont 140 Alcippe poioicephala brucei srt 130) | — poioicephala 130 Alhagi camelorum 309 Alseonax latirostris poonensis 2 INDEX OF SPECIES aieeae dae | PAGE Amandava amandava 284 Amaurornis phoenicurus 293 Ambassis nama 110 ————_ranga ... 110 Amblonyx 381 Amblypharyngodon ole 109 Amblypygia : 360 Ammomanes BOeAie aT 286 — phoenicura,.. 137 Ampelopsis sf. ... aes . 208 Anabas testudineus 321 Anas acuta As 606 300 —-—— crecca oss cae 299 —- falcata 299 —-—-~ penelope 299 —-— poecilorhyncha 299 —-— p. plalyrhyncha 307 —-— platyrhyncha 299) —-— querquedula 142, 300 —-— strepera ‘ages 299 Anastomous oscitans ... 298 anfracta (Panacra metallica) 209 Anguilla bengalensis : 104, 109 Anhinga melanogaster AS) Aniseia 337 —~—— parlevioides 346 —-—— calycina 346 ——— martinicensis — 343 ——— uniflora 343 Anisodes obrinaria 40 Anser anser 299 —-— indicus 299, 306, 308 —— neglecttis 5 167 Anthracoceros malabaricus 288 Anthropoides virgo 500 ans 294 Anthus campestris 550 286 ——— ————— godlewskii ... 137 ——— hodgsoni ... : 286 —-— inopinatus 137 ——— nilghiriensis 137 ——— rufulus Sua 63, 286 ——._ —-—-— malayensis vv 137 ceteeted similis a 286 ——— trivialis __ 286 INDEX OF SPECIES viii PAGE Antigone antigone 294 Auntigonon : 195 Antigonon leptopus 195 ——_ —_—— albus LOG Aplocheilus blochii ae St 324, 326 | —--—— lineatus Byala SAG) | Aporiaagathon .. co (AE Appias albina danada ... 394, 395 —--—indraindra .. 395 | Aquila chrysaetos 290 | ———— heliaca 1.0 wee 290 —-—— vipalensis 290 ——— pomarina 290 ——— rapax 290 Atachnida 360 Araneae .. 360 | Arceuthornis vietconus hone pattel 50 CA | Archibuteo hemiptilus ... 305, 308 Arctonyx ... 363 Ardea soot lO ——— cinerea a Gels) —+-— purpurea .., coo Osh} Ardeola grayii 68, 298 Areca catechu ae 398 argentimaculatus, iedneaueye 000 12 Argya caudata ... a of pe 279 —— — —-—-— caudata 222 ae—— earlil 500 660 278 =—-— malcolmi... ee of BIE Argyreia Bet 37 O00 ,rdo)l: —-—— agereasta Sood 351 ——-— elliptica 351 — nervosa eee 351 s——-——— setosa obi0 351 | = — speciosa 351 Argyreiosus brevoorti .. 72 armatus, (Mastacembalus) 109 | Artamus fuscus 249 Artemia sacua 166 | Arundinaria falcata 180 Ascelepiadaceae 177 Ascotis (Boarmia) Selenaria Ny) asiaticus, (Caprimulgus... 162 Asinus 143 Asio flammeus 289 Aspidiim angulare 81 Aspidoparia morar 109 Asplenium adiantum:- nigrum 75 —— polypodiodes ae 82 ————- trichomanes 76, 77, 83 eo VATIANS 76, 77, 78, 83 PAGE Astragalus sp. 312 Astur badius 55. PBS Athene brama €7, 289 - brama 141 -noctua ludlowi ... 308 Atherura macrura » Lod Atherurus macrourus ... aoe 373, 374 Athyrium filix-foemina polyspora 80 —-—— Schimperi... ©... 76, 80, 83 Awaous ob 323 ——-— stamiuens 323 Aythya ferina 300 - fuligula ae — 300 - rufa . -- 800 Axis axis 376. Bagarius bagarius 110 bahram, (Microhippus h.) wi- 144 Balaenoptera edeni sie ede -- — musculus ing. ol Cis Balaenoptera sp. feel 6) Balaenopteridae 500. = Les Balanus amphitrite 500 115, 116 —__— ——__-——- venustus ... oot lS balanoides 116, 117 —~—— longirostrum Sielo ———~—— tintinnabulum oy, JENS, Seale) — + —- communis .«.-° IDS. Bangarus caeruleus ..._ 390 Barbus Puntius amphibius 109° ——— —— — chola sprloo ——— ——— chrysopoma \.. weet 09. a -conchonius °° se 10d ——— ———- kolus ... esi 09 ——_—_— ——— ... - 145 165, 314 | ————— livia... ele 67, 292. 294 ——-—— rupestris barkectanven iS ioe 294 Colymbus arcticus ree 118),364, 365, 279 | Comibaenasubhyalina... ..,. cay. ed 130 | communis, (L.) ... oe (ERD, 332,. 333 72 + Compositae + eae gy bead eeehenSlO o— DOA congesta, (a5) eee 00 citys, HOE ee, 348, chrysippus (D.) ... iia; 113, 114, 17, 178 | Coniogramme fraxinea ..,.. otsthii 76, 80, 83: Chrysocolaptes guttacristata socialis 139 | Conservula indica ie 6 Pe Oo) Chrysomma sinensis 279 | Convolvulaceae ... co, BER _337, 338, 351 —- - hypoieuca 129 | Convolvulus Bis, ie wee 2... BS/s BAZ ————— = ——- sinensis ..- 223 | -—-———--- aculeatus... soo Cie aoseg oto chrysopoma, (B.) we. oe. - 921 | ——— alsinoides... ae Boe INL Chthamalus stellatus .. 215, 116, 117 | —— = ArvensiS 2. is Oe) Cicada platypleura -309 | —— Batatas ... nee ww» _ 348 Ciconia ciconia 297 | ——— bicoloreiees. 500 seg One) = nigra 907, | SS = cainicns aie Pe ses, G48 Cidaria obfuscata 40 | ———---—— copticus ... be soo ead) ciliata, (P.) 5 | ———-—— cymosus ... ie so. ele! cingala (Eterusia a.) 27 | ——~-——- denticulatus ss .., aeons: Cinclus pallassi tenuirostris 229 | ---——-——— qdissectus ... 5a MO eS Cinnyris asiatica ... ae Go 63 | ————-—— edulis ae at o. altks) - ~ brevirostris ... 138 | ——- hastatus ... B55 .. «= 44 ———~ asiaticus eee 287 | ——-—- hederaceus ... sak 37290848 —— =— lotenia... 133 | = Jhispid isa een eAG ——— minima... agp dlshss -— martinicensis ds wee pods —— —— zeylonica ee et ee rane 0 a _4—-—- zeylonicus ». 50 20 63 | ——- muricatus ... 566 we O49 Circaetus ferox ... - 291 | ————-—— nervosus ... ‘vs eee eb (Circus aeruginosus 291 | ———_-—._ Nil .. or Sis mete 4948 cyaneus ... , 291 | ————-- = nummularius ts Bees oel INDEX OF SPECIES | Ta PAGE Convolyulus obscurus 347 -—— paniculatus... 347 ———--—- parviflorus... 343 ——— -—— pentaphyllus 345 -——- per-caprae ... 347 ———-—- purpureus ... 349 ——_-—— reniformis ... 344 -——_—. ——- repens nent eG) —-- reptans Se omenoLO ——: Rottlerianus 343 ——_-——- semidigynus - 342 —- simplex S44 -—-- Speciosus 50 Solleul ———-:-— sublobatus ... ots ee oe ————_--— tridentatus ... 600 ww. 344 —_—— -—— tuberosus 345 —~--——— Turpenthum 346 ——-——— umbellatus.. 344 ——_— -——_ uniflortis 343 —_-—+—_——- vitifolius wae wre GAS Copsychus saularis . 99, 159, 280 ——_ --___ ——___—- saularis ... 2131, 235 Coracias benghalensis ... 65, 288 —____ _____-—— indica 140 Corvidae 3 —— FENG US, 140, 288 Lutra ae ae AEE Soo. = koi |p) a — ——-— persicus oes BU EZRO Lutrogale eereprcillata an ... 9881 | Merremia aegyptia aie 344, 345 . Luxiaria obliquata os eee ~ 42 | —=-—-—chryseides .... .. i 2845 Lycaenopsis huegelli huegelli co GSS, | —— == Cynon, 500 see we 344 —-— ladonides gigas Be 9300 ||) a CISSeetal See ager er on) Oao4O Lymantria bivittata ... wee 500 30) == emarainatagees. ee 343, 344 —___-_--—. mathura 99 | ———-— hastata se: 500 343, 344 Lymnocryptes minimus we soon CY |, = SIS, c00. | 000 343, 345 Lyngbya : = 115 | ———-—— pentaphylla a ode a otO Macaca mulatta ... ee 52 ea VIC OnMIZA aes 344, 345 —— -— nemestrina s5; ee O28 eee ath emtatc «. 343, 344 ——-— radiata ... eee 600 wee = B02. | subs. ——-— sinica ... eee OO hastata ... wes O44 Machlolophus panthowengs apionotust 128 | ——~--— tuberosa wie rr Senineso rn | ——-—-—— umbellata . ae + 56 Peyssonnelia soo taay ose a CORE Phalacrocorax-carbo.: -... 297 - niger-iiNe. 2°22 = -—-68;-287 Pharbitis hispida, ..° ... S=s-#22 =773-7349 —laciniata .....--. Boo eg ———— Leari ... SA 348 ———— purpurea obo wee 349 Philomachus pugnax 296 Phoeniconaias minor 299 Phoenicopterus ruber jon) | (CSIs} — —_—_———- —--— roseus . 164, 308, 314 Phoenicurus erythronotus 232 — —-— frontalis 232 SEE ie hodgsoni ... aS 150103303 SaEEEEEiaREEEE ochruros ; 280 | a pheoniculondes: 232 | wee rufiventris 131 —__.—__—. rufiventris 303 Phragmaticola aedon aedon 134 Phthonoloba decussata.... «... 1, ..41 sehylloscopus;afinis, | ~.. Takeno: Seen Sb PAGE Phylloscopus collybita ... 282 —-———-— griseolus ... 283 ——-——— humii a 283 er inornatus race 135 nn magnirostris 135 — nitidus nitidus 135 —-—_—_—-— ——— viridanus... 135 ———-— — occipitalis... boo, Chel} a —occipitalis ... 135 ao trochiloides... 283 Physeter macrocephalus “5 377 Phytometra (Plusia) abostriata 216 —--——- — (——--) orichalcea 38 ———-—--— (——-—-) tarassota ... 216 Picea morinda 0 76,117 Picus chlorolophus anloniyaeter? 138 Pinus exelsa 76 —-— longifolia 76 pin willi@eeSi)inwcce <.s0cs 222 Piprisoma agile saturatior 138 Pitta brachyura brachyura 138 Platalea leucorodia - 297 Plegadis falcinellus 297 Ploceus bengalensis ... bas 284 ———--—— manyar HL See Ad ib 284 —-—— philippinus ...... .,, §2, 284 Pnoepyga albiventris.pallidior — ... 228 OCICENSICaChiS ra tllSaaee ameter owe ~ 307 —>-—— cristatus 9 ou. az -- 300 ——-——- ———— cristatus oi 385 —-———— rufieollis coou eter: wwe =~ OO BOCOCES MUMS a seg SLE ewes tee tem vosieners x SOG Doceiliunon( MS) ieee ce «we ie ida 35 Polvaalaceae tyes nai ees .,.:. others e385 Polygonaceae. ... oes 195 Polygonum chinensis 214 a japonicum ik ose 213 ————— sp. RW ELE 208, 214 polymnestor (Papilio) ... 198 Polypetalae Hos e ie ee 355 Polystichum angulare aes 76, 81, 83 polytess) (Bs) se tecs ie 506 500 198 Pomatorhinus erythrogenys erythrogenys 9220 | horsfieldi horsfieldi 129 ——_—_—_—_-—- erythrogenys travan- coreensis _ 129 | ————-—— schisticeps pinwilli meced | Pongamia glabra 460 we BA 329 | Porana 060 339, 340 — pralenttee in inakes Shicpoe 340 XXX PAGE Porana malabarica 340 porosus, (C.) 176 Porzana pusilla 293 Primula lacei 147 principalis (A. a.) 395 Prinia gracilis 283 aa INOrnata 283 ——— franklinii 135 ——— ———— inornata 135 socialis 400 oor 100 283 ——— ——— socialis 135 —-—— sylvatica mahendrae 135 ——— _ —-— -— palniensis 135 — —— sylvatica ; 135 Prionailurus bengalensis 371, 379 Prismosticta fenestrata ee 31 procera, (C.) bee O06 500 Ibi Proeutropiichthys taakree 119 Profelis sie 380 Prunella atrogulurs 606 Ae 241 ——-—— strophiata jerdoni 241 ——— rubeculoides 303 przewalskii, (S. torquata) 230 Psendorca crassidens 378 Pseudibis papillosus 297 Pseudogyps bengalensis 67, 290 Psittacala cyanocephala Sh rt 288 ———— columboides 140 | ———— cyanocephala cyanocephala 139 | ————- eulpatria . sae 288 | ———— krameri ne 288 | — ——-— manillensis ~ 139 Fsychotria eee aie eee 508 2il | Pteris cretica 400 76, 81, 83 | Pterocles exustus onc 386 292 Sea indicus 292 ————- orientalis adc S00 292 Pteromys ale see 52 Pteruthius erythropterus 225 —-— xanthochloris 500 365 occidentalis 226 pterygosperma, (M.) 357 Ptyonoprogre rupestris 304 pulchella, (1.) eee 609 348 punctiferalis, (D.) ae » 327, 328, 329 Pycnonotus gularis ... 006 eae 130 ————-— Juteolus luteolus 131 Pyctorhis altirostris eae 00 172 Pyrotrogon wardi 50 eee 172 Pyrrhocorax graculus graculus. ... 122 INDEX OF SPECIES ; PAGE Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 121 himalayensis 302 pyrrhosticta (M.) 35 Python molurus 391 quadrangularis, (P.) on Sy le Quamoclit 337 Quamoclit coccinea 349 ————— phoenicea 349 ———-—-— pinnata ... on 350. ee ee Quamoclit on0 350 —— vulgaris... 706 349 Quercus lineata 31 ——-— semecarpifolia 125 ———— semiserrata 30 —— Sp, 500 39 Quisqualis indica | 334, 336, 367 racemosa, (N.) 2a eee oo of) ————,, (P.) D0 oa on Bp MZ Raddina, (P.) 500 mm. 1 Rana cyanophlyctis 173, 174 erythraea 400 500 173, 174 —-— tigrina 50 173, S91 rangoonensis, (L.) ... O00 OMAR) Rasbora daniconius ... 500 109, 321 Rastrelliger kanagurta _ 198, Recurvirostra a. avocetta 306 -———- avosetta 286 reflexa, (C.) 0 +1 SBE | Resedaceae 600 ée ot 353,. 356. Rhagastis albomarginatus of albomargingtus 36 —— aurifera aurifera senan ANN ———-— confusa 5 ais anaes Rhinoceros tae 600 abate (oee odie — — sondaicus 250203) 257,-209;5 264, 265, 273, 275, 276 —-—-—-——._ unicornis 250 Rhinocerotidae 400 are 250 | Rhipidura aes 500 245 | albicollis ad 200 vue ~ 246 ————— aureola aureola 245 Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus ... 393, 394 Rhodophila ferrea 580 aes 230, 279 Rhyacornis fuliginosus fuliginosus ... 233 Rhynchobdella aculeata 109 | Rhynchops albicollis 295 Rhopocichla atriceps atriceps 130 Rhopodytes viridirostris 139 Rimator malacoptilus 172 | Riparia concolor oe 136, 285 PAGE Riparia paludicola 285 | Seicercus burkii burkii ——-— riparia ijimae 307 | Selaginellia chrysorhizus ———— rupestris 136 | semicarpifolia, (Q.) Risoba basalis 37 | semi- flava OEDES, Rita hastata 110 | Seriola 0 —— pavimentata 110 | Shutereia Rivea SD) — bicolor nervosa wo» dol | ————— sublobata Rohtee belangeri 109 | Siccia (Aemene) taprobanis — cotio cunma 109 | Sida Beddomei vigorsii 199 | —— humilis Rohu = 315 | —— veronicaefolia romulus (Polytes), He 500 198 | Silonopanyasius childreni Rondeletia odorata 336, 337 | simile (T. v.) FOSEUSS (Reyne eee eee) ase 117 | simum, (C.) Rostratula benghalensis . 293 | Siphia parva parva . rubeculoides, (M.) 244 | — strophiata strophiata ... ae () .. 241 | Sitta castanea Rubia cordifolia vee ee = QAL | —— formosa Rubus sf. cee 00 . 32, 42,217 | —— frontalis simplex rupchandi (Saxicolac.)... ©... +. - 131 | —— himalayensis Ruppia 000 164, 165 | —— leucopsis leucopsis Salpornis spilonotus ~ see 279 | Siva strigula simlaensis Samydaceae- ... 60 356 | Skiminia 2 sarana, (B.) BARBOSA. 88 321, 324 | Solifugae ; Bas Sarcogyps calvus 67, 230 | Somera viridifusca Sarkidiornis melanotos 299 | sondaicus, (R.) Saurauja nepalensis ll — tristula 500.) -G0c BOD Claes : Saxicola caprata yt sas j 279 | Spatula clypeata oe ——-—_—- ——+— atrata .. . 13] | Speciosus, (P.) ——_—_— ——--— bicolor . s. x» 229 | Sphyracnajello ee ——-+ caprata »- -131.| splendens, (C.) ane saxicola, (Panthera pardus) ... sw» 362 | Stachyridopsis pyrrhops Saxicola torquata ate ese «- 279 | stellatarum (M.) Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis 235 | Sterna albifrons : = —— — —— ——-— sinensis cambayensis an; . 280 | ——— aurantia Ri i inter- hirundo tibetana media... 131 | ——— melanogaster Salix 500 56 506 500 5 B® | Stocksii, (I.) >... 600 schach (L A066) bs » 088 ose .. 127 | Streptopelia chinensis —=—— tricolor (L. ) slona *da7/ ——— decaocto schisticeps, (P.) 222, 223 | —————— Berens Sciaena sira 6 72 decaocto Scirpus maritima a 164) | eS “orientalis Scolopax rusticola indica By og | en ee senegalensis Scomber microlepidotus -_... 500 72 | Strix indranee indranee Scomberomorus scerra 73 | Strobilanthes Seddera 342 | Sturmia x latifolia 342 | ——— aaa INDEX OF SPECIES Xxxi PAGE E135 76, 82, 83 L117 395 72 342 242 242 ds 28 510), toy 506 50 560 UML 110 221 sor = CHE) 7 242 242 278 Vals 199 ren 25 tube! 75) ws «= 284 Sifted e740) 360 36 290, 251, 253, 254, 295 297,.259, 260, 264; 265, 266, 276, 363, a2 Bue cp. EY fee ent ae Ls agen 204 i eee ee A 235 45 295 305 295 Me eeeedsc Sev 346 aK 68, 292 : 102, 292 os 142, 387 Pp ey: 68, 292 141 152 ene ZS TA 177 eed INDEX. OF SPECIES PAGE Sturmia sp. ie ee see uoreoea Sturnia malabarica iE a 61, 252 Sturnopastor contra 50 As 62, 284 Sturnus vulgaris aC A eeenaZOo —__——_ —-. humii Ar 95, 387 subbuteo, (F.) ae fF SOS suberosa, (P.) ... aac wee ce 5 || sumatrensis, (Dicerorhinus) 252, 253, 256, 257, 259, 264, 265, 267, Tringa erythropus Ae C8) ——— glareola 296 ——— nebularia... 296 ——— ocrophus... i 296 ——-— stagnatalis Hag. cnn 296 | ——— totanus 295 = terrignotae 06 Trochalopteron cachinnans cachinnans 129 ——————— erythrocephalum ery- throcephalum ... 3 ep e20: =——————— jerdoni fairbanki Oe 2) ———--— —— lineatum Spe PPA ———-—--———> variegatum _variega- .. _tum 220. Troglodytes t. negieetie) 228. — —— troglodytes tibetanus .. 307. enpe lenis 178 Turdoides griseus eccil Bireas 129 —-——— somervillei ... Hl pe hi SOiees ——-—--— ———-~— malabaricus .,, 129 ———-—— somervillei sindianus sterti- colonimersr v6 ale ia no aes Turdus Alooe naire , 236 - atrogularis Bc ar 237, 280 ——-— merula maximus ae 235 ——-—'—- rubrocanus rubrocanus _ 236 ——-— simillimus bourdilloni isiiaioL —-—— ——-—— mahrattensis 13] ——— +~——-— simillimus ... 131 —-—-— ——-—-— spencei coo ISH ——-— unicolor ... 90, 131, 237, 280, 386 Turneraceae Ba ase 355 Turnix dussumieri 500 500 293 273, 276. ——_——_———— , (Rhinoceros) ... ole275 Susbarbatus bas ae noe PET Ps BeS2 | sylvestre, (B.) .«- a5 uit Lee Onai7g Sylvia curruca ... Bao ae dope he —-—— hortensis ... see cet 282 —— ———— ierdoni 500 ans 3) dlehs) ——- jerdoni .., . -». -369 Sylviparus modestus Shatasnets sna-iae elZd Sypna latifasciata 00 re etn rY/ Symbrenthia hypselis teens svt) 26 Syngramme fraxinea ... on sacle 280 yirhaptes tibetanus ... _ .., son Sells} accocua leschenaulti...6.:/2:2. slic) 1288 Tachardina lobata 50 00 baju, SPAS) | Tachornis parvus batasiensis ... soe 140 Sadorna tadorna. = --. oes) 2) 299; 307 ‘Tamaricaceae css ; 50m) eau). abs). tamilana (Papilio p io ins ae 201 Tanaorrhinus vittata_ ... Sc aes 39) | Tarsiger brunnea brunnea ... .... 13] — chrysaeus whistleri ... ae 235 Tchitrea paradisi ses - ole ae OL ——--— ——— leucogaster, ... 91, 245, 336 = —— > paladisi._.... : See ctal Se Temenuchus pagodarum ... ... 283 ————ee pagodarum. 136 tenuirostris, (G.) ar fe so, els) Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola. elo ee pondicerianus ... GOO eel _——- pallidus. 247 em ee pondiceri- anus 4. sate vas Ay os 133 Ba ES TD tephronotus, (L.) .... 586 126, 127 Tesia castaneocoronata War OE a ODS testtidineus, (A.) Sop REO toa i V7 Tetraogallus tibetanus centralis SUD Thereiceryx viridis Aislin tGic ono IS) Theretra alecto alecto ... Patan nat ao ANS) Thespesia poptlnea ... 4, 347 PaGE Thinopteryx crocoptera 43 Threskiornis melanocephalus ... 297 thunbergl, (M. f.) on 286 Thunnidae ay 72 Thyatira batis 900 5 36 Thymistada tripunctata a ay. AW/ | Tichodroma muraria ... aon 227, 279 tigrina, (R.) 173 Tockus birostris ... 200 O00 288 —_——_ —-—_-— birostris 140 ——— griseus griseus ... 140 Tovariaceae ; 355 Treron bicincta icine 141 ——w— phoenicopterus chlorigaster ... 141 Trichogramma evanescens minutum 114, 177 tricolor (E. a.) 27 tridentata, (M.) ... ee As 344, 345 Typha sf. Peiesiees 105, 106, 107 $a INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Typhlops .. ; 388 — braminus 388 Tyto alba ... ve we aco ete) unicornis, (R.) AM, 28, ARS, 22, 20S) Upupa epops ‘ age 66, 100 -——— _ —=— epops 289, 387 —_——. —-— saturata he eel —-— orientalis ... 289 Urocissa flavirostris cucullata 119 —-—-— melanocephala occipitalis .. 119 Uroloncha malabarica ... rae TOA | ———-——. punctulata 62, 234 Uropygia ... 360 Ursus isabeliinus 363 vagabunda, (D.) 120 Vanellus vanellus 295 Vallisneria spiralis 392 Varanus monitor aoe ae 176 variegatum (Trochalopteron v.) 221 varius, (H.) 222 Verruca stroemia 116 Viola oe aN Sa oie) Violaceae ... 500 SSE)7 CHI SH) XXXlil PAGE Violarieae... 355 Vipera russelli 388 vitattus, (B.) 5g OE Vitis ae 50d was 111, 214 Vivia innomivatus innominatus 139 viverrinus, (P.) 380 Vomer declivifrons 72 | Vulpes vulpes 379 Wallagonia 105, 106 —-—- attu ..109, 323 whiteheadi, (O. m.) 238 wightiana (Erycibe) 339 | Xenorhynchus 176 — —— asiaticus 50 297 Xantholaema haemacephala indica ... 139 yarrellii, (M. a.) 161 Zizyphus jujuba ... 329 .Zoothera monticola 239 Zosterops palpebrosa ae 287 -_— —— nilgirensis 138 ——-—— ——. palniensis 138 ——-—_—_ ——_—_—— _palpebrosa 138 ‘PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—28-11-1950. .C1736 Tea Ce kris a a ms — ies oe es nen por WHY ‘ LB , ats Rf 4th a sinh = va " e A y | 1 | \ ey | dit é. — ) \ 9 view Vol. 47, No. 1. AUGUST, 1947 Price Rs. 12 nett. $24,795. G é ) 4 } {# JOURNAL Fes : =< Nive le Ane OF THE ee ie Bombay Naturat History Sociery x EDITED BY Ss. Hi. PRATER, ©O.B.E., M.L.A.. C.M.Z.So, Cc. McCANN, F.L..S., AND sALIM ALI PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 114 Apollo Street,’ Bombay. LONDON AGENTS: DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY), 212 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE, LONDON, W.C, 2. NATURE CALENDAR FOR 1948 lt is illustrated with beautiful Nature photographs of Birds, Mammals, etc., by Dr. B. F. Ferreira, Mr. W. W. A. Phillips, Mr. O. C. Edwards and others. Indian Natural History Series, Vol. Il. THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS S. H. Prater, eee C.M.Z.S. This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds, forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series. To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value of the wild life of our forests, fields and scrubland is the purpose of this book. It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is profusely illustrated in colour and black and white. LIST OF CONTENTS : What is a; Mammal. Distribution of Mammals. How Mammals are classified. The various tribes of Mammals, their ways and habits. Descriptions of species. Pio Nr cn Bound in full cloth Price Rs. 16 (To Members of the Society Rs. 12-8.) Apply THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 114 Apollo Street, Bombay Price Rs, 2-4-0 to members, Rs. 3 to non-members CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 1. PaGr SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXVI. By N. L. Bor, C.1.8., M.A., D.Sc., |F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.Sc. (With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates and 16 text-figures) ... 1 THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XVIII. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. sh oO ce sa 26. ‘THE IsLET’—A BIRD SANCTUARY IN CEYLON. By W. W.A. Phillips. (With 6 plates) te, or ae ae Ses 43 SoME NEw SpEciEs oF SoutH INDIAN PLants, By K Cherian Jacob, L.Ag., F.L.S. (With 3 plates) ee se aa $ 48. NoTES ON A FLYING SQUIRREL (fetaurista sp.). By F. C. Minett, M.R.C.V.S. (With a plate) nee ae see se 52 BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA, NEAR COMILLA, TIPPERA, BENGAL. By S.J. K. Collins. (Withamap) ... Oe eee om 57 A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN (15th October to 10th Nov- ember 1946.) By A. St. J. Macdonald. (Wu7th 2 plates) ae 69: NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF MURREE Hii. By Abdul Hameed, M.Sc, (With 12 plates) ... ae on ap 75. A BIRD PHOTOGRAPHER’S MUSINGS FROM KASHMIR—BIRDS OF A SRI- NAGAR GARDEN. By Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips, 1a. (Retd.). (With 6 plates) Paes e@oo eee eco eee ee0 84 Fish SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE. PartIV. Fishes of the Nizama- bad District. By S. Mahmood, m.sc., and M. Rahimullah, D.sce, (With a map and two plates) Me, ae o on OZ ON THE BioLoGy oF Danaus chrysippus (LINNXUS) AND ITS PARA- srtEs. By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura bce ADL OBSERVATIONS ON SOME BALANIDAE FROM MAHABALIPURAM. By K. S. Srinivasan. (With a plate) hed os ee Seomiig LLS THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT Hitrs. PartlI. By A.E. Jones, M.B.O.U. Soe ook aes oes typ hade O7f ON THE ‘CORRECT NAME OF THE TIBETAN SHRIKE USUALLY CALLED Lanius tephronotus. By Ernst Mayr,’Ph.p. ae aoe Leo NoTES ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM MADRAS PRESIDENCY. By Walter Kee’z, Ph.D. aoe eo0 eee ooo Oee 128 Two NEw LOCAL RACES OF THE Asiatic WitD Ass. By R.I. Pocock... 143. ti . CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 1 PAGE ‘REVIEW :— An Insect Book for the Pocket. By Edmund Sandars, (M.A.w.-B.)... 145 An APPEAL :— Egg Enquiry. By Dr. Hugh B. Cott see oa .. 146 AN APPEAL TO BOTANISTS. By Lt.-Col. D. G. Lowndes ae see LAT MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. A Man-eating tiger of the Nelliampathy Hills. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, IA. (Retd.) (With a block) (p. 148). 2. A Tiger ‘Runs Amok’. By A. St. J. Macdonald (p.150). 3. The Returning Tigress. By A. F. Hutton ({p.151). 4. Weight of Bull Bison. By R.C. Morris (p. 153). 5. Notes on the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurva macrura L.). By C. R. Stonor (p. 154). 6. Natural Death of Elephants. By A. C. Tutein Nolthenius, F.z.s., ACL. (p. 154). 7. The Piscivorous habits of the Rorqual or Fin Whale (Balaenoptera sp.). By P. K. Jacob and M. Devidas Menon (p. 156). 8. Curious nesting site of the Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis). By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S. (p. 159). 9. An early nest of the Tailor Bird (Orthotomus sutorius) By S. N. Sen (p. 159). 10. Occurrence of the Waxwing [omby- cilla garrulus (Linn.)] in Baluchistan. By Major T. J. Phillips (p. 160). 11. Arrival dates of Wagtails in Upper Assam. By F. Wooley Smith (p. 160)- 12. Abnorma) egg clutches. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 161). 13. Night- jars on roads. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 162). 14. Occurrence of the Southern Green Pigeon (Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorigaster) in Ceylon. By W. W.A. Phillips (p. 163). 15. The Persian name for the Flamingo. By Hamid A. Ali, LC.S. (Retd.) (p.164). 16. Flamingoes in Kutch—A Com- ment. By C. McCann (p. 164). 17. Alpheraky’s Swan (Cygnus béwickii jankowskii Alph.) in Kutch. By Salim Ali (p. 167). 18. Periodic abund- ance of Bar-headed Goose [Axser indicus (liatham)] on Chilka Lakes. By E. C. Benthal (p. 168). 19. Sushkin’s Goose (Anser mneglectus Sushkin) in Assam. By J. Hurrell, Lt.-Col. (p. 168). 20. The Language of Birds. By Claude A. Claremont (p.169). 21. ‘Some further suggestions for field ornithologists in Post-War Burma’. B.E. Smythies (p. 171). 22. ‘Sham- ming death ’—Snakes. By A. St. J. Macdonald (p. 173). 23. An uncommon habit observed in Rana erythraea Schleg. By J. D. Romer, F.z.s. (p. 173). 24. Mating and the parental instinct of the Marsh Crocodile (C. palustris Lesson). By K. 8S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 174). 25. Indian Monitors in the United Provinces. By Lt.-Col. D. G. Lowndes (p.176). 26. Discovery of the hitherto unknown female of the Charana cepheis De Niceville. By M. E. St. John Perry (p. 177). 27. The enemies of Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus). By D. Mukerji and B. K. Behura (p. 177). 23. Note on the occurrence of Bipalium in Janagadh (Kathiawar). By G. A. Kapadia (p. 178). 29. Flowering of Bamboos. By D. G. Lowndes, Col. (p. 180). Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year ending 3lst December 1946 {p. 181). JOURN., BomBay Nat, Hise, Soc. Princess Charlotte’s Passion-flowe:. PASSIFLORA RACEMOSA Brot. ( about 4 natural size ) Plate XXVIII. JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. 1947. VOL. 47. ING a SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. BY INARI RB OR: VOMMED Meat. “DsSG., F.l:.Sks) 1sEuShs Forest Botanist, AND M. B. ‘RATZADA,, M.SC., Assistant Forest Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Part XXVI. | [Continued from Vol. 46 (1947), p. 567]. (With one coloured and 3 black and white plates and 16 text-figures). Passiflora Linn. This genus, one of twelve which go to form the Passifloraceae, is commonly cultivated in Indian gardens on account of its strange flowers and handsome foliage. Some species produce an edible fruit of very. delicate flavour. The name of the genus is derived from two Latin words, passio, suffering, and flos, a flower. The reason for this derivation will be seen later. With some unimportant exceptions the Passion-flowers are inhabitants of tropical South America where there is to be found a very large number of species. The characteristics of the genus are as follows :— Mostly climbers or scramblers with alternate usually lobed leaves and gland bearing petioles. Stipules are present, often foliaceous, sometimes cut into filamentous gland-tipped threads. The plants climb by means of lateral, simple spiral and elastic tendrils. The flowers, which are often large and showy, are axillary and may be solitary, 1n pairs or racemose, seated on a short pedicel which is joined to a 3-bracteate peduncle. The calyx. is 4-5-lobed with a very short tube to which is attached the same number of petals and a double or triple showy fringe or corona. The ovary is supported on a stalk which also bears the stamens, 3-5 in number. The anthers 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 are elliptic or oblong in shape and dehisce downwards. The ovary is globular or ellipsoid, one-celled with 3-5 parietal placentas, each bearing numerous ovules. The fruit is large or small, fleshy, con- taining many flat seeds, each surrounded by a fleshy envelope or arillus. The seeds are sculptured or pitted on both surfaces. L. H. Bailey’, quoting from Folkard’s Plant Lore, Legends and Lyrics, gives an excellent account of the reasons why these plants have been named Passiflora and we reproduce it verbatim. ‘The peculiar charm of these plants lies in the odd flowers, the parts of which were fancied by the early Spanish and Italian travellers to represent the implements of the crucifixion (whence both the technical and popular names). Legend and superstition have attached to these plants from the first. The ten coloured parts of the floral en- velope were thought to represent the ten apostles present at the crucifixion, Peter and Judas being absent. Inside the corolla is a showy crown or corona of coloured filaments or fringes, taken to present the crown of thorns, or by some thought to be emblematic of the halo. The stamens are five, to some suggestive of the five wounds, by others thought to be emblematic of the ham- mers which were used to drive the three nails, the latter being represented by the three styles with capitate stigmas. The long axilfary coiling tendrils represent the cords or the scourges. The digitate leaves suggest the hands of the persecu- tors. The following sketch of the passion-flower legend is from Folkard’s Plant Lore, Legends and Lyrics, and the illustration (Fig. 2769) is also pro- duced from that book: ‘The passion- flower (Passiflora caerulea) is a_ wild flower of the South American forests, and it is said that the Spaniards, when Fig. 1.—Old conception of they first saw the lovely bloom of this EADS eee sees plant, as it hung in rich festoons from fiat treet tm Rd ee the branches of the forest trees, regarded the magnificent blossoms as a_ token that the Indians should be converted to Christianity, as they saw in its several parts the emblems of the passion of our Lord. In the year 1610, Jacomo Bosio, the author of an exhaustive treatise on the Cross of Calvary, was busily engaged on this work when there arrived in Rome an Augustinian friar, named Emmanuel de Villagas, a Mexican by birth. He brought with him, and showed to Bosio, the drawing of a flower so ‘stupenduously marvelous’, that he —— ——_—— * L. H. Bailey, The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, p. 2480. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3 hesitated making any mention of it in his book. However, some other drawings and descriptions were sent to him by inhabitants of New Spain, and certain Mexican Jesuits, sojourning at Rome, confirmed all the astonishing reports of this floral marvel; moreover, some Dominicans at Bologna engraved and published a drawing of it, accompanied by poems and descriptive essays. Bosio therefore conceived it to be his duty to present the Flos passionis to the world as the most wondrous example of the Croce trionfante discovered in forest or field. The flower represents, he tells us, not so directly the Cross of our Lord, as the past mysteries of the Passion. It is a native of the Indies, of Peru, and of New Spain, where the Spaniards call it ‘the Flower of the Five Wounds’, and it had clearly been designed by the great Creator that it might, in due time, assist in the conversion of the heathen among whom it grows. Alluding to the bell-like shape assumed by the flower during the greater part of its existence (i.e. whilst it is expanding and fading), Bosio remarks: ‘And it may well be that, in His infinitive wisdom, it pleased Him to create it thus shut up and protected, as though to indicate that the wonderful mysteries of the Cross and of His Passion were to remain hidden from the heathen people of those countries until the time preordained by His Highest Majesty.’ The figure given to the Passion-flower in Bosio’s work shows the crown of thorns twisted and plaited, the three nails, and the column of the flagellation just as they appear on ecclesiastical banners, etc. ‘The upper petals,’ writes Bosio in his description, ‘are tawny in Peru, but in New Spain they are white, tinged with rose. The filaments above resemble a blood-coloured fringe, as though sug- gesting the scourge with which our blessed Lord was tormented. The column rises in the middle. The nails are above it; the crown of thorns encircles the column; and close in the centre of the flower from which the column rises is a portion of a yellow colour, about the size of a reale in which are five spots or stains of the hue of blood, evidently setting forth the five wounds received by our Lord on the Cross. The colour of the column, the crown, and the nails is a clear green. The crown itself is surrounded by a kind of veil, or very fine hair, of a violet colour, the filaments of which number seventy-two answering to the number of thorns with which, according to tradition, our Lord’s crown was set; and the leaves of the plant abundant and beautiful, are shaped like the head of a lance or pike, referring, no doubt, to that which pierced the side of our Saviour, whilst they are marked beneath with round spots, signifying the thirty pieces of silver.’ A comparison between the figures from Folkard’s book and ou: artist’s drawing of the same plant (Passiflora caerulea) will show to what length men, their minds obscured by religious fanaticism and superstition, were prepared to go in the seventeenth century in order to further their religious belief. The generic name _per- petuates this phantasy and remains as a monument to fanatical self-deception but there is no need to seek a supernatural explanation for the odd shape assumed by the flower. In Passiflora the tendency is towards cross-fertilisation and the flowers are adapted to this end an explanation which, no doubt, will be deemed prosaic when 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 compared with the flights of imagination of the early explorers of South America. Fig. 2.—Passiflora caerulea after Baillon. A. Styles and stigmas; B. Ovary or gynophore; C. Stamens; D..'Corona; E: Perianth lobes; F. ‘Gynophore; Gi Bracts: If a bud of a species of Passiflora is examined it will be found that the anthers, erect in the bud, face inwards. As the flower expands the filaments assume a horizontal position and the anthers face downwards. tested the squirrel with foot-and-mouth disease virus. BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA, NEAR COMILLA, TIPPERA, BENGAL. (Observed between December 1944 and end of July, 1945). BY Sale COLTINS (IVith a map) NATURE OF SURROUNDINGS. Mainly open cultivations (paddy) which, during the winter months, are used for cattle-grazing. The fields are ploughed from February onwards, paddy being planted out between March and April, in readiness for the monsoons which break round about this period. The whole of the area is sprinkled with villages or collections of habitations, usually each group having an earthen irrigation or water storage tank within its ‘boundary’. The ‘villages’, in the main, are completely enshrouded by trees. and bamboos, whilst a tangled undergrowth quickly envelopes the area during the monsoons. Behind, and to the west of Lalmai station lies a series of higher levels stretching from south-west of Lalmai to the west of Comilla, and known to the military as ‘The Ridge’. This area consists mainly of scrub-clad hillocks, with minor cultivations in the lower inter- vening levels or valleys. There is only one river of any size, known as the ‘Gungiajuri Chara’ to military authorities, which either rises in or flows through the ridge, passing eastwards under the railway about 5 miles from Comilla, then turning south to loop round under the railway again about a mile below Lalmai on the Chandpur side. For further details, see accompanying sketch-map of the area, although this is not drawn to scale and cannot be vouched for as accurate. FAMILY : CORVIDAE. Corvus macrorhynchos : Jungle Crow. Common and plentiful. Five nests found up to the middle of April, but only one considered to contain either young or eggs, judging by the reactions. of the crows to our attentions. The nest site was, unfortunately, not possible to investigate, being placed in the top of a ‘Palmyra’ palm some 25 feet above the ground. Nesting activities appeared to commence again in July, as most of the crows from the vicinity of our camp could be seen flying up into palms or other tall trees carrying what seemed to be pieces of coconut fibre and sticks. The jungle crows were always present with the mixed company of birds whenever the winged termites were on the wing during January. Their methods of catching the termites varied from clumsy attempts to catch the insects on the wing by using their bills like the drongos, etc., to the more certain method of assembling on the ground close to the place where the termites were emerging, and catching the insects before they took to the air. 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 I was never able to find the roosting places of these crows, although they could be seen flying eastwards every evening from 17-30 hrs. onwards. These birds were among the first abroad in the mornings. Corvus splendens : Common Indian House Crow. The house crows were confined to the area around Comilla township up to the first week in May, when they started to frequent the many military camps in the Lalmai area. The first time the house crows were noted in our camp was on g May, when ten were seen in the vicinity of the African cookhouses. Five were again seen on 16 May, and then from the beginning of June and all through July, the house crows were well established. Dendrocitta vagabunda : Jree-pie. Fairly common in our vicinity, but more often heard than seen. Immature birds were seen in June and July, but no nests were found. The tree-pies occasionally assembled with the ‘termite-hunters’ during January, on one occasion as many as 20 being seen. They also frequented the silk-cotton trees whilst these were in bloom, These birds were amazing for their variety of cails. Some of the notes were as follows :— (i) A repeated ‘Ki-cha-cha-cha’. (ii) A harsh chuckle, rather similar to some calls used by broody domestic hens. (iii) A very musical, soft ‘Toodle-li’, sounding rather like the limpid notes of a vibraphone. (iv) A harsh ‘Care’, similar to but not so guttural as those occasionally used by jungle crows. FAMILY : TIMALIIDAE. Turdoides somervillei : Jungle-Babbler. The jungle-babblers were confined more to the scrub-clad hills lying behind the camp in an area known to the military as ‘The Ridge’. In the small area of the ridge that I visited, one party was seen on two occasions. Each time the birds were moving around in the thicker bushes and on being alarmed flew off in single-file to other clumps. Later, in May, when that part of the Ridge was being used for military camp sites, I saw three babblers on a small knoll a short distance behind our camp, and although 1 frequented this area almost every day, I did not see them again. Aegithiaa tiphia : Common lora. Common and fairly plentiful from December to February. Mostly seen in parties of a dozen or more, feeding or hunting insects in bushes and bush- like trees in the camp area. From March onwards, the parties seemed split up, and the Ioras were more frequently seen in pairs or singly until July, when family parties were seen about. No occupied nests were found—the only indication of them having bred ‘were the family parties and one old nest found on the ground under a mango tree, this being cup-shaped, about 2 inches in diameter, composed of fine fibres and plastered externally with cobwebs, thus giving the nest a white appearance. FaMILy : PyYCNONOTIDAE. Molpastes cafer: Red-vented Bulbul. Common and plentiful. One of the party that assembled at the silk-cotton trees whilst they were in bloom, and also seen occasionally with the ‘termite- hunters’ during January. journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. N 5 b . Y ® IN . ei Lo Wx Sy ines On Vos oy Zak ROM ae €% NC NS. non NG ey 1) Leg X2, GP e Y c& =. Main Military Areas Te Hills L atmed | “WN. River fa om ‘Trees ae Roads Ri eu Railway . bi tases Main Area | Covered by Notes | | { {| Y To aoeneter $ Lakhamshi Rough sketch map of Lalmai Area, near Comilla, Tippera, OG @) 2% sev] % ) Saag a Bengal. BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 59 Four nests found, three containing clutches of three eggs, situated in forks of trees or preferably among the dense young shoots sprouting trom a sawn-ott branch of a tree, and varying in height from 6 ft. to 16 ft. above the ground. Nests were found in early April, and were of the normal cup-shaped fine twig construction, lined with grass or fibre. Otocompsa jocosa : Red-whiskered Bulbul. Seen once only on 29 July. Might have been overlooked, but only one specimen was seen for a few moments early in the morning, and this was very difficult to approach. FAMILY: TURDIDAE. Copsychus saularis : Magpie-Robin. Common. There were two or three pairs in our area, usually seen feeding on the ground under the line of mango trees. One nesting site was seen, the birds (on 15 April) were gathering nesting materials and carrying them to a natural hollow in a mango tree about 5 ft. from the ground. The site, un- fortunately, was wrecked by some Indian children before the nest was com- pleted. Young birds, capable of flight, were seen towards the end of May, June and early July. Two immature birds were the most seen at once with the adults. Magpie Robins were sometimes seen during January with the ‘termite- hunters’, taking the insects on the wing. Morning ‘song-posts’ were usually the tops of fairly tall trees, whence a clear vision was obtainable, FamILy : LANIIDAE. Lanius excubitor :} Grey Shrike. By no means common in the Lalmai area, although they move about so much that it is difficult to follow these birds. The usual haunts are tall, lightly foliaged trees, thorny trees and occasionally the low scrub bordering the paddy fields. Seldom seen in more than pairs and most frequently seen singly. There was no sign of breeding activities up to the first week in July, when the last record of the bird in our area was 4 July, but these may have been overlooked. Lanius vitatus :! Bay-backed Shrike. Fairly common from February to April, but disappeared from the area in May—last recorded date being 7 May. More than the other shrikes, the Bay-backed was seen mainly in the scrub bordering the paddy fields, usually a single bird dominating a paddy field. The most seen together was three. Tephrodornis pondicerianus : Common Wood-Shrike. Common in our area. One nest found on 14 April, situated on a horizontal branch of a tree between 15 to 20 ft. above the ground, in full view of the whole camp, but not noticed by me until one of the pair was seen entering the nest to brood the young. The nest contained three young, two of which, a month later, had left the nest and could be seen being fed by the parents during the evenings in the vicinity of a clump of mango trees. As far as I could discern, both birds fed the young, each adult under- taking to feed one chick. The chicks were just starting to fly (13 May), and were being ‘taught’ by the parents, who would make a short flight to a nearby branch, calling all the while, and in the event of the young not ‘ The sight record of these two species must be accepted with reserve. They are both birds of fairly dry—even semi-desert—biotopes. The former has only been recorded as a straggler as far east as Calcutta, and the latter not quite so far east.—Eps. 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 following, would return to them and repeat the performance until such time as the youngsters followed along. This particular evening a hawk of some sort perched in a nearby tree. One of the parents attacked the hawk immediately, swooping on it and uttering a harsh grating noise, the snap of its bill being audible as it passed over the hawk’s head, but it failed to move the birds The one parent was then joined by its mate, and the con- certed attack put the hawk to flight. When the adults brought food to the young, the young gave noise to an excited chatter, accompanied by much wing quivering. As the two young were a little distance apart, they were either led in rotation by a single aauic ov individually by one of the parents. The excitement of the young was only evident when an adult was approaching, the remainder of the time they stayed motionless. FamMiIty: DICRURIDAE. Dicrurus macrocercus : Black Drongo. Common. A total of ten nests were found between April and the beginning of June, all of them used, and varying in height from 12 to 25 feet above the ground, situated in a horizontal fork of a tree. Young birds, just able to fly, were seen from 26 May onwards. These birds were most pugnacious during the breeding season, attacking larger hawks, vultures and even human beings with equal ferocity, if they considered their nest was in danger. The drongos were by far the latest birds to roost at night, and among the earliest risers. When it was almost dark, drongos could be seen and heard having ‘mock battles’ over the tops of the mango trees. These birds were invariably present with the ‘termite-hunters’ during January. FaMu.y : SYLV1IDAE, Orthotomus sutorius : Tailor-Bird. Common but not plentiful. Seen in Comilla and Lalmai area but only recognised as such in April. A pair continually frequented a clump of mango trees near our quarters and were far more often heard than seen. One of the pair had a curious habit of roosting in the lowest branches of the mangoes under a leaf, at about 4 to 5 ft. from the ground, and this habit eventually enabled me to have it caught one night about 8 p.m. It was caught by hand, identified and released. On release it struggled so much that it lost several of its tail feathers, and although it never left that particular clump of trees, it could always be identified by its few remaining tail feathers. No nest was found, although I’ watched the bird carefully for a long time. FaMILy : ORIOLIDAE. Orlolus xanthornus: Black-headed Oriole. Present but not common. Two or three pairs in the area. Three nests were found in the vicinity of the camp, two of which I suspected as belonging to the same pair. The first nest found was situated in a bamboo clump, about 7 ft. from the ground and contained one egg on 24 March. ‘the egg hatched out. between 27-28 March end the chick was covered with spine-like feathers during the first week in April. On g April I found the nest torn to bits and the chick had vanished. The second nest was found on 8 April, situated about 10 feet from the ground in a shrub-like tree overhanging the edge of a paddy field, but appeared ta contain no eggs. The female was sitting on the morning of 9 April and by that evening there were two eggs in the nest. The nest was unattended on the morning (08.15 hours) of 15 April, and had been wrecked by the morning of 19 April (human efforts suspected). The third nest was built in our camp, about 8 ft. from the ground, but must have been destroyed by our men when they were ‘cleaning up’ the camp area, as it disappeared shortly after completion, although no eggs had been laid. BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 61 FAMILY: STURNIDAE. Sturnia malabarica : Grey-headed Myna. Most common in the camp area whilst the silk-cotton trees were in bloom (March to May). They were first seen in the camp area on 14 January, and during February were using the mango trees for roosting at night. From February until May large numbers of them would assemble from 18.00 hours onwards, and appeared to have some trouble in settling down for the night, as frequently a ‘cloud’ of them would suddenly leave the trees and fly round for several minutes, executing all sorts of manoeuvres prior to settling in some other tree nearby. During these months, the mynas were only seen in the daytime whilst there were silk-cotton trees in bloom, otherwise I first saw them at roosting time. No actual nests were found, although individual birds were seen investigat- ing barbet and woodpecker holes. The Grey-headed Mynas made up the bulk of the birds which regularly visited the flowering silk-cotton trees. Acridotheres tristis: Common Myna. Common and plentiful. Always present in the camp area, particularly near kitchens, stores and messes, These birds were very tame and would allow quite a close approach. They appeared to have a curious habit of standing around in little groups, fluffing up their feathers and nodding to each other. Eggs were found in one nest situated under the ridge of a roof on 21 April. ‘Other nesting sites were suspected in the leaves of palmyra palms, being situated at the base of the fronds close to the trunk. Mynas were seen carrying nesting materials to these sites and later also food, but no nests so situated were actually seen by me. On two occasions common mynas were seen feeding young koels, and due to the open nature of the paddy fields, it was possible to watch one pair feed one young koel continuously from 17.30 hours until darkness rendered further observations impossible. This particular young koel was larger than either of the mynas, and quite capable of fairly sustained flight. We hustled the young koel some distance away to see if the mynas would follow it, and they did. Not having seen the nest of this pair, with the koel in it, I am unable to state definitely that the koels do parasitize the mynas. Another example was seen about a fortnight later when a pair of young koels (one fairly Jarge and the other only just able to fly) were being fed by another pair of common mynas. Here, too, a prolonged watch revealed the same pair of mynas feeding the two for over a hour. Here, too, a pair of mynas had been suspected of nesting in the same date palm where the two young koels were found, although a search of the palm only revealed remnants of a nest situated close to the trunk of the palm, and constructed of grass. Another peculiarity about the common myna,_ noticed particularly from May to July, was that some of the birds appeared to have a yellow wattle- like streak running through the crown of the head. Whether this is some plumage phase of the immature birds, I do not know. AEthiopsar fuscus; Jungle Myna Not very common, although possibly overlooked. One nest site found, situated in a hole in the trunk of a tree about 10 ft. from the ground, but the hollow continued for some distance down inside the tree trunk, and it ‘was not possible to see whether there were any eggs in the nest or not. This was in the middle of April. During May, June and July, parties of between 6 and 20 were occasionally seen on the ripening paddy or in the trees growing on the banks of the paddy- fields. 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Sturnopastor contra; Pied Myna. Common and plentiful. Numerous nests were built in the trees in our camp during April and May, many being destroyed by the high winds and heavy rains. There was nothing of outstanding interest about the structure of the nests, although the sites chosen (on outer extremities of slender branches) were in many cases courting disaster and were duly destroyed by the elements later on in the season. One noticeable point was the number of broken eggs found under the nests, but whether these rolled out with the swaying of the trees or were knocked out by the mynas themselves, I never did learn. A lot of young, unable to fly, were also found on the ground, and my attempts to revive one chick found under a tree during a rainstorm was a failure. The Pied Mynas were well represented on the silk-cotton trees whilst they were in bloom, but for the main part were seldom seen so near to human habitations as were the comimon mynas, preferring the more open cultivations and neighbouring trees. One amusing little part of their behaviour is that of perching close to- gether and uttering their grating calls in each other’s ears, noticed especially when the birds are paired off for breeding. These birds seem almost ‘colonists’ during the breeding season, although the most nests seen in one tree were only a dozen. FAMILY : PLOCEIDAE. Ploceus philippinus: The Baya Weaver. Common. ‘The Bayas were first noticed as common when they started to don breeding ‘plumage. Nests were built in colonies mainly in palmyra palms, but some were seen in thorny trees. The materials used varied from grass to split streamers of date-palm leaves. ‘Cock’ nests appeared plentiful in every colony. Great amusement was derived from watching these birds un- ravelling and stealing materials from neighbouring nests in the colony. Uroloncha punctulata : Spotted Munia. The Spotted Munias were most in evidence from the end of May to July, when they were starting nesting activities. One bird was seen on 25 December, but it was not until the beginning of June that the birds were seen with any regularity. The nests were untidy grassdomed arrangements, built mainly in thickly foliaged small trees, some being seen in the few thorn trees in the camp area, and one in an Albizzia stipulata. From this period, small parties of 4 or more could be seen feeding on the seeds of grasses. FAMILY : FRINGILLIDAE. Passer domesticus : House-Sparrow. Common and plentiful, though more so from February onwards, when nesting operations were in progress. The chief sites used by the House Sparrows when building appeared to be under the ridge of the bamboo-shingle roofs. A certain amount of difficulty was experienced in identifying these birds in the field, as although large flocks of sparrow-like birds were often seen on the paddy fields, it is quite probable that these birds were mistaken as weavers, and vice-versa. Famity : HiIruNDINIDAE. Hirundo daurica: Striated Swallow. Red-rumped Swallows were seen on two occasions only. First on 12 April, a number were seen sporting about over the camp during the afternoon, ard disappeared towards evening. BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 6 Gn On the second cccasion, on 14 April, two were seen circling about over the camp, fairly high up, for a few minutes. On both occasions the weather was sultry. Famity : MoracILLIDAk, Motacilla alba; White Wagtail. One pair seen in the camp area on 16 December. Another pair seen on the Sonamuru side of Comilla on 20 March, on the edge of an irrigation tank. Motaciila cinerea: Grey Wagtail. One seen on 3 April and another on 23 April, feeding on the bank of an irrigation tank close to our camp. Anthus rufulus; Indian Pipit. Fairly common throughout my stay in this area, although more frequently seen during April than any other month, Main haunts appeared to be the paddy fields prior to final ploughing and planting. Was told that one nest had been found at the edge of a paddy field, but before I could get to see it, the torrential rain had washed it away. FamiLy : NECTARINIIDAE. Cionyris asiatica: Purple Sunbird. Fairly commen, although more noticeable from February onwards. No nests found, although adults seen with young towards the end of April. These birds moved about a lot, and were only in real evidence in our camp when the trees (including silk-cotton, mango and Albizzia stipulata and Indian laburnum) were flowering. Witnessed part of what might have been a courtship display on the after- noon of :6 March. I could not be certain whether the male was chasing the female, or vice-versa, because I was rounding a hut when I caught sight of their downward flight to earth. Stepping clear of the building, I saw the female on the ground, lying or leaning back with one wing held upwards into the air, whilst the male stood back, with extended head and neck, ‘pointing’ first one way and then the other (left to right movement). There was a flutter, and the pair were both in the same attitude as was the female originally, with their tails (apparently) touching or together. While this was going on both birds kept up a feeble chirping. The pose was held for a matter of seconds only, then the female flew off, closely followed by the male, who was in full song. The whole ‘performance’ was only of a few seconds’ duration, and due to being caught unawares and on the wrong side of a building, I was unable to see the preliminaries or finale of the act. Cinnyris zeylonicus: Purple-rumped Sunbird. Fairly common, though not plentiful, from March onwards. Seldom more than one pair seen during the course of a day. Have met with it both in Comilla, along the Gungiajuri Chara, and in the Lalmai area. Young -birds seen with the adults during April and May. Family : DIcAEIDAE. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos: Tickell’s Flowerpecker. Seen on several occasions in the vicinity of clumps of the parasitic loranthus. Possibly one pair of flower-peckers inhabited the area around our camp, but the numbers were difficult to gauge due to the scattered localities of the loranthus. One pair seen in Comilla township, and another seen in the vicinity of habitations along the banks of the Gungiajuri Chara, 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Family : Picipag. Dryobates mahrattensis : Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker. Fairly common, and certainly the most commen of the woodpeckers found in the area. Micropternus brachyurus : Rufous Woodpecker. Seen on three occasions only—first on 17 May in a bamboo clump, where two (adults ?) were seen close to an insect carton-nest which had a large opening in one side, whilst two (young ?) were clinging precariously to a nearby bamboo. The two birds near the insect nest were feeding on ants (Crematogaster ?). On 16 June, a pair of (adult ?) Rufous Woodpeckers were seen in the mango trees in camp, one bird having a crimson patch below the eyes, whilst this feature was lacking in the other. On 2 July, one bird was seen in the bamboo clump, but I could not see whether the eye-patch was present or not. Brachypternus benghalensis : = Golden-backed Woodpecker. About two pairs seen in the area. No nest actually found, although one bird was seen investigating a hollow-branch on a silk-cotton tree. lynx torquilla: Wryneck. Seen four times only, firstly on 4 March, when it was observed feeding at the base of a mango tree. On 11 March, a specimen was brought to me which had been shot in the camp area whilst on the trunk of a sapling. On 23 and 24 April, a pair were seen in the vicinity of the irrigation tank behind our camp, feeding on the ground under the trees. Family : CAPITONIDAE. y Megalaima lineatus : Jineated Barbet. Not very common. Heard continually through March and into April, when one pair was constructing a nesting site in a ‘silk cotton’ tree some 25 ft. above the ground. ‘This nesting site was disturbed, and although the birds had been working on it for nearly a fortnight, they deserted the site and moved over to a tree-enshrouded habitation about a quarter of a mile away. There was a definite difference in the call-notes of the pair during March and early April, one bird having a far more resonant call than the other, but as no specimen was obtained apart from one caught in a net and released again as soon as identification was certain, it is impossible to state which sex possessed the loudest, most continuous notes. ‘The other bird, when calling, seemed to utter a half-hearted version of the loud call. Whilst the nest mentioned above was under construction, one bird roosted at night on the site, whilst the other roosted in a small tree nearby. Megulaima haemacephala : 9 Crimson-breasted Barbet. Not very common. One pair was found with a nest in an old tree behind the camp area. Whether eggs were laid and young raised, I do not know, as the nest was never investigated. Barbets were seen entering, emerging or resting with only the head showing through the entrance to the site. Curiosity made me count the number of times the coppersmith ‘utters his monosyllabic note—204 continuously uttered notes was the highest, whilst three occasions of 121 (one minute duration) and two of 50 (half-minute duration) were noted during the course of one afternoon. Family : CucuLipae. Clamator jacobinus : Pied Crested Cuckoo. One bird each was seen on three occasions—on 24 May, when a solitary bird was seen feeding on a black, hairy caterpillar; on 4 June, when one bird was being BIRDS OF THE LALMAI ARLA 65 mobbed by common mynahs; and a brief glimpse of one on 16 June by the side of the Lalmai-Ccmilla road. The birds were silent and as these were the only occasions this species was noted during the period I was in the district, I feel safe in saying that it was «certainly not a resident; possibly a straggler or may have been passing through. Eudynamis scolopaceus ; Indian Koel. The koels were first seen on 18 February, but their calls had been heard on 16 February. On 18 February two males only were seen, whilst the first female noted was on 10 March. These birds were calling up till the end of July, when I left the area. The male appeared to have a deeper call than the female, and the character- istic call of Koel was being vioced by the male whenever I managed to locate the owner of the voice. The ‘water-bubbling’ call was heard several times, and although I was unable to see the bird responsible, the tone indicated a male. The main call uttered by the female, according to my notes, was the harsh, -querrulous key-key key. No actual eggs of koels were ever found, but the normal foster-parents, the ‘Common House Crow, was not breeding in the area where I was stationed. Men- tion has already been made of the young koels I saw being fed by the Common Mynahs. The status of these birds was rather difficult to gauge in this area, but I ‘doubt whether more than two pairs were present. Centropus sineasis or Centropus bengalensis ? Crow-Pheasant (or Lesser Coucal?). Heard continually from the end of April up till the end of July, when I left the area. One bird was seen on two oceasions only, and this was in a small clump of bamboos, after the bird was spotted calling from the tops of one of the trees. Other cuckoos were present in the district, but I was unable to satisfy my- self as to their identification. One might have been the Plaintive Cuckoo, a bird uttering a ‘one-two-three-four’ call from April to early June, and another was possibly the Common Hawk-cuckoo. Family : PsItTTaciDar. Small flights of paroquets were seen on several occasions, once in the area in question, and several times on the Sonamuru side of Comilla, but no firm ‘identifications were made. FAMILY : CORACIIDAE. Coracias benghalensis: Indian Roller. Not very common. One pair at the most were seen, and then mainly in ‘the mixed company assembled whenever the termites were abroad. There was one bird frequently seen haunting the lightly tree-clad hillocks and paddy fields near our camp area during the latter part of June and July. FaMILy : MEROPIDAE. Merops orientalis: Common Bee-eater. Common and fairly plentiful up to February. The numbers then diminished -around the camp area and the birds were to be found further afield until May, when family parties were in evidence. In April, six nests were found, one being opened on 22 April which contained six hard-set eggs. Some days later I found a fledging that had strayed from the nest, evidently prior to a shower of rain, as it was almost buried in loose sand some yards from the nest. It was still alive, so I returned it to the entrance, and was pleased to see it scamper away down the hole. 5 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 A lot of the bee-eaters were without the elongated central tail feathers both before and after the breeding season. Large numbers of green bee-eaters roosted in tall bamboos near Lalmai station, and were often seen out hawking insects in fairly large parties towards late evening, although the parties were considerably smaller during the day. They were also among the birds present when the termites were abroad, and were on several occasions seen to take butterflies on the wing, apparently swallowing wings as well as the insects. Merops superciliosus : Blue-tailed Bee-eater. - Four birds seen once, on the morning of 28 March at 07.15 hours, one hawk- ing insects and three others perched nearby. These were possibly stragglers or on passage, although it is difficult to say, as I neither saw from what direction they came or vanished. FAMILY : ALCEDINIDAE. Alcedo atthis: Common Kingfisher, More common during the rains but not plentiful. Immature birds noted during early June. Halcyon smyrnensis : White-breasted Kingfisher. More common than the above species but not plentiful. Most in evidence during the ploughing of the paddy fields and during the rains when the fields were flooded. Occasionally present with the termite-hunters. FamMILy : UPUPIDAE, Upupa epops: Hoopoe. Only seen from 23 February until last recorded date on 19 April. The greatest number seen were four pairs in a radius of a mile, on 18 March. There is every possibility that under normal conditions the hoopoe would be well represented in this area but intense military activities must have driven quite a ‘lot of birds further afield due to continual disturbances and the erection of numerous buildings in their normal habitats. Famity : MICROPIDAE. Cypsiurus batassiensis: Palm-Swift. Common and plentiful. Nests found on the underside of palmyra fronds during May, usually attached to the same fronds as were the Baya weaver nests. The birds were more noticeable during April and May, especially towards evening, when numbers could be seen circling the palmyras, uttering their faint calls. FAMILY : CAPRIMULGIDAE. Caprimulgus indicus : Jungle Nightjar. One specimen obtained on 24 July 1945. The only nightjar seen by me in this area, although possibly overlooked on other occasions. Two para- sitic flies of the family Hippoboscidae (identified by Dr. Chopra of the Zoolo- gical Survey of India as being Olfersia sp.) were found among the feathers of the bird a few minutes after it was killed. BIRDS OF THE LALMAI AREA 67 FamILy : ASIONIDAE. Athene brama ; Spotted Owlet. Two pairs (or one family?) resident in the area, and seen occasionally every month throughout the period I was stationed there. These owlets were quite often to be seen during the heat of the day, perched motionless among shady branches, but always betrayed their presence by bob- bing up and down when conscious of being observed. Owners of a weird assortment of catcalls and chuckles. FaMILyY : AEGYPIIDAE. Sarcogyps calyus: Black or Pondicherry Vulture. Fairly common throughout the period in question, but seldom seen in more than threes or fours, In spite of their size and pugnacious appearance, these were often success- fully put to flight by jungle crows, and frequently attacked by black drongos during the latter’s breeding season. Pseudogyps bengalensis : White-backed Vulture. Common and plentiful. Always seen in far greater numbers than the pre- ceding species. Seen on several occasions standing on the ground in groups with wings outstretched, in the manner of cormorants. FAMILY : FALCONIDAE. There were several birds of the genus Falco seen in the area, but as I am particularly weak as far as the identification of this family is concerned, no mention will be made of any particular type. These birds were by no means common, an occasional bird being seen at widely scattered intervals and only for a few moments, as it beat over the paddy fields. Haematornis cheela : Crested Serpent-Eagle. One pair seen on several occasions in flight over the area. At other times, one bird was seen perched in small trees, sometimes calling, but the call was mostly uttered whilst on the wing. Haliastur indus ; Brahminy Kite. Fairly common, though not seen in more than pairs. Confined mainly to stretches of country where there was water, and consequently more often seen when the paddy fields were flooded. Occasionally seen among the termite-hunters. Milvus migrans ; Pariah Kite. Common and plentiful up to the end of May, when most of the birds dis- appeared. Stragglers were seen into June, but by the beginning of July there were no kites to be seen in the area. One nest was located in the top of a palmyra, containing an almost fully- grown fledgling on 24 March. Towards the end of April and May, a lot of the kites were noticed with brown and white mottled plumage. The common pariahs were always in attendance when the termites took to the wing, catching the insect with their feet and carrying it straight to the bill in one continuous move. Family : COoLUMBIDAE. Columba livia: Blue Rock-Pigeon. Common and plentiful around the small villages or groups of. dwellings in the area. Whether the birds seen were all true blue rock-pigeons, I am in 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 doubt, as nearly all the birds led a semi-domesticated life, and the plumage indicated cross-breeding with other types. Streptopelia chinensis : Spotted Dove. Common and plentiful. Two nests, with eggs, were found in early Feb- ruary. Commonly seen on the paddy fields prior to ploughing, and during the rains parties would frequent the grassy patches, feeding on the grass-seeds. Streptopelia senegalensis : Little Brown Dove. Fairly common, but not nearly so plentiful as the previous species. Seen further afield, frequenting the paddy fields, but not often seen among the Huildings in the camp area, Family : CHARADRIIDAE. Lobivanellus indicus : Red-wattled Plover. Not very common. Seen occasionally on the dry paddy fields nearby during December and January, and later seen more frequently from May onwards. Two pairs were known te frequent a stretch of country along the banks of the Gungiajuri Chara. During June and July, the birds could be frequently heard calling at night. Family : SCOLOPACIDAE. Actitis hypoleucos : Common Sané¢piper. Not very common. First seen on 10 February, feeding on the bank of an irrigation tank nearby. On 18 March, a party of nine were seen feeding at the same tank, Last seen on 29 April, Family : PHALACROCORACIDAE. Phalacrocor ax niger : Little Cormorant. Seldom seen in the Lalmai area, but noticed several times on the larger irrigation tanks towards Comilla and on the Sonamuru side of the town. Family : ARDEIDAE. Egretta garzeita: Little Egret. Common and fairly plentiful. First seen in breeding plumage on 2g April. Seen more frequently from April onwards, when the paddy fields were becoming water-logged. ; Bubulcus ibis: Cattle Egret. Common and fairly plentiful. First noticed in breeding plumage on 10 April. Seen more frequently and in greater numbers than the previous species, as numerous cattle were grazing behind our camp area, and the herds were invariably attended by at least one cattle egret. Ardeola grayii: Pond-Heron. Fairly common throughout the period, but more noticeable from April on- wards, that is, at the break of the rains. These birds, during the drier months, were more common nearer Comilla, haunting the regions of borrow-pits and brick fields. The same applies to the Sonamuru side of the Comilla, where irrigation tanks appeared to be more numerous. After the rains started, the paddy fields around Lalmai rapidly became water-logged, and then the pond herons were seen more frequently, although seldom were more than two birds seen together. Their streaked brownish plumage proved most inconspicuous when the birds were standing motionless. a A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN 69: Ixobrychus cinnamomeus : Chestnut Bittern. First seen at the beginning of June, when the paddy was established, and the fields water-logged. These birds were mainly seen before 07.30 -hours in the morning and after 17.30 hours in the evening. Their call notes sounded the kood-kood-kood- kood, with low, penetrating qualities that proved most difficult to locate, especially when the birds were hidden in the growing paddy. I saw one bird uttering the above call, perched on an Indian Laburnum. The head of the bird was depressed, the neck having a ‘U’ kink in it, and the body appeared to be compressed. Between calls it kept alertly turning its head, as if on the look-out for possible danger. During the calls, it moved its head around slightly, lending a ventriloquistic affect to the notes. The ‘alarm-call’ is a shorter, clipped version of the ordinary call. Birds were also seen perched on fallen bamboos, but seldom far from the sheltering paddy. Family : ANaTIDAE. Nettapus coromandelianus : Cotton Teal. None actually seen in the Lalmai area, although possibly overlooked. On 21 June a male was shot by one of our officers just outside Comilla on the Comilla-Chittagong road, about 5 miles from the township. The officer stated that he saw the pair swimming in a flooded paddy field, but failed to obtain the female. A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN (15TH OCT. TO 10TH NOV. 1946.) BY A. St. J. MacDonaLp (With 2 plates) A glimpse at India’s west coast line south of Bombay, shews, some 240 miles south, the Portuguese port of Marmagoa. Ap- proximately 50 miles north and south respectively are the small coastal towns of Malvan and Karwar. Karwar. Already written up by various writers for its beauty, bathing beaches, and years ago for its sea-fishing also. It has an eight-room hotel, and is well connected by motorable roads. In fact it has come to be regarded as one of the beauty spots of Western India. That it has attracted attention was borne out while I was there; a couple had come from Kashmir, another from Delhi, one from Secunderabad, and our two selves from Bombay, all for fishing ! Eight weeks of continuous fishing from September roth to November roth produced only 13 fish between us, best 13 Ibs. It reads as almost incredible, that one could troll two baits 25 or 30 miles past all the best and reputed places, out as far as 16 miles to sea, day after day, and not connect with fish of some size at a time when the mackerel and sardines were in the bay by the hundred thousand. 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Our failure to connect with fish at a place with such a reputa- tion caused me to explore every means at my disposal for a reason : I visited the fish market, the curing yard, and talked to the net and shark fishermen, the lighthouse keeper—himself a keen fisher- man with 20 years experience of the rocks around the lighthouse, then got down to the visitors book kept in the hotel and dating back to 1922, where remarks on fishing trips were made by anglers, I also patiently went through packets of chits held by boatmen given by disappointed but cheerful anglers in the past. All of which told the same story,—‘Come too early or too late’, ‘winds not right’, ‘a bad year’, ‘not enough small fish in’; these remarks were spread over the period September to December!! Nothing larger than 5 pounds in Surmai were seen in the market or in the curing yard, and the lighthouse keeper had not bothered to fish. I took counsel with Dr. Suter, probably the best authority on off-shore fishing, and certainly the most experienced on Karwar fishing, who was on a visit to the place collecting butterflies ; he has noted a steady falling off yearly of the visits by the larger mackerels, and of recent years only found the fishing in August-September for Bahmin worthwhile. The one bright spot in this record kept by the hotel is Dr. Rishworth’s excellent note, helpful in the extreme with a sketch map of where he connected with fish, how to mount bait, etc. He records 12 days of his visit, which was, J understand, made on a telegram from the lighthouse keeper, Mr. Adam, when he saw the fish had arrived, and must be judged as the height of sport Karwar offers. Date. Fish and Weight. Total Weight. 22 Oct. 23 55 43- : 43 Oy aes O. oO hens 10. 10 AS). Se 25,8. 33 27 45 25,10,8,6. 49 285 ),; LO S125 ik, Toe 45 20- 5, Oo. fo) SOME BAT 2sT Osea 5125S: 58 Bilas 9,8,9,12,18,14. 70. 1 Nov. Oo. oO. Zane 8,12. 20. 12 days. 27 fish. 328 Ibs. Average weight of fish=12 pounds. " caught per day=23 fish. Best day 6 fish weighing 70 pounds. Against this very mediocre sport expenses may be judged. Hotel charges at Rs. 10 a day, boat hire at Rs. 8 a day, with other incidentals such as bait, journey to and from being left out. Dr. Rishworth works out at to annas—a very satisfactory figure—per pound. Our combined results of 13 fish of 81 pounds in 56 days, or Rs. 11-4-0 per pound. For those, whose sentiment carries them away for the love of the sea, there are compensations, but for the rest, like myself who visit Karwar for fishing, I can offer no encouragement. The hotel PratTeE f, RRR NN : Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. SAS . KKK sh (Dagol). Queen Fi ra) and 20 lb. oO f=) of Mackerel (Ban Bag Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 1 ER A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN qi is a very poor one with food below Dak bungalow standard, with war time charges, cheap tin butter, and the management unable to provide reliable information, in spite of years of experience and continued and consistent failures, little is known about the habits or conditions or prospects of fishing by either the fishermen them- selves or the management or anyone connected with the place. While I was there the bay was packed with fish, both mackerel and sardines and three square miles of water just rippled with shoals, we counted as many as 50 wolf herring in a minute feeding on these shoals, the boat literally ploughing its way through masses of fish, this state of affairs existed on three occasions while we were there, but there were always shoals present though in smal- ler numbers. At the lighthouse group of islands where we were most days, we would see shoals passing but unmolested, the same occurred at sea some 16 miles out. During all this time we never once saw a Surmai rise, and Dagol feeding only three times, of which we caught two. This is the picture of Karwar as seen by us, our total bag being as follows :— 2 Dagol. ase 13,11 pounds x Kokar oe 4 _ 2 Dog fish ae 5543 i T Perch ae II $5 1 Bahmin vee 10 ” 4. Wolf-herring 53, 4, 4, 3 = Total weight 76 pounds. In contrast to this, of conditions of a few years ago, read Dr. Suter’s excellent article in the B.N.H.S. Journal, No. 45, part 2y of April 1945. No records were available of the total weights of fish taken by years, months, or varieties at either Karwar or Malvan. Malvan.—Here, although we did no good, is a place full of possibility and undoubtably superior to Karwar, being geographi- cally, better situated and practically, more encouraging. We struck it in a cyclone and unsettled weather, but we saw in both the curing yard and cold storage depot, large stocks of surmat, dagol, and kokar or Caranx, of 20/40 pounds. I am sure anglers would connect with these fish in numbers under normal conditions. Statistics available also shew a predo- minance of the larger mackerel taken in nets, surmai ranking second in weight to the Bangra or Indian mackerel, besides which they are all taken within three miles of shore, just outside the submerged reefs of rock shewn in sketch. The fishermen are far better in- formed than at Karwar and are emphatic that Sail-fish of over roo pounds appear within five miles of the bay, a dozen or so being taken in a season in the nets. But the sea is a monster unto its self—winds, tides, currents, storms, are factors no organisation has yet unravelled, even the fishermen (Koknes) seem unable to define the cause or reason of the day to day variations. I found among the fishermen themselves complete agreement and a keen knowledge of the fishes that occur in their waters and S72 if JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 was able with the aid of that lovely publication ‘Marine Game fishes of the Pacific Coast’ by Lionel A. Walford, which quisitely arranged and illustrated in colour, to get the local iS ex- names of most of the Game fishes related, or the Indian forms of the Pacific varieties. I give below a list of these with such other data as I was able to the local fish in guide, and give collect. The scientific names may be incorrect in relation to some cases, as I only had Walford’s book as a the name of the fish appearing on the plate. English Name. Local Vernaculay Name, Scientific Name. 1. Sardine (non-oily) Pedwa Clupea fimbriata. 2 - (oily) Peri a longice ps. 3. Horse Mackerel Kherba Bangra Caranx crumenophthalmus 4. Indian ” Bangra Scomber microleoidotus. cs. Woltf-herring Karli Chirocentrus dorab. 6. Seer or Surmai Iswan (large) No differentiation between Surmai (small) Hadra (spotted) Cybium guttatum or Cybium commersonii. 7. Dagoli or Queen fish Dagol Chorinemus lysan. 8. Kokar or Kingfish Kokari Caranx. sp. 9. Black Kingfish Morousa Istiophorus guyi. 10. Dolphin Abnus Coryphaenidae. 11. Bluefin Bugerha Thunnidae. 12. Yellowfin Gader or Apunsa f 13. Albacore Gurmu > 14. Yellowtail L. Jacket Dayan Seriola, 15. Bigmouth L. ‘5 me Ms 16. Moonfish Gabah Vomey declivifrons, 17. Lookdown 5 Argyreiosus brevoorti. 18. Snappers or Bream Tombosa Lutianidae. 19. Gobra or Groupers Gobra Mycteroperca., 20. Red Rock Perch Kharki and Tombosa Lutianus roseus. 21. Blue spotted R. Perch Kadori L. argentimaculatus. 22. Gol or Tatuava Gol Sciaena sina. 23. Barracuda Bodarvi Sphyracnajello. 24. Garfish Tora Beloni annalata. 25. Eels Wam and Ratan Muraena. 26. Sharks Musi Elasmobranchs. 27. Sail-fish Tarousa Istiophorus, 1. Shoals arrive in late September Not so abundant as the Pedwa NOTES. and continue until December. appearing in smaller quantities during the Ze same period. 3. Arrive in large shoals from Oct. to Dec. and are followed by 4. the larger predatory fish. 5. These are resident all the year round, and can be a menace. 6. Arrive in second half of Sep. and remain until Nov. depending on the run -of small fish, when they may be taken half a mile from shore up to 30/40 pounds and as many as 200 in one net haul. We saw evidence of this in the store yards. 460 maunds were cured in 1945, besides which large quantities were shipped to Bombay, Ratnageri and inland of which. no records were available. 7. This is a deeper fish than the Wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) of the Pacific or Queen fish of America as illustrated by Walford, which in shape resembles the Surmai. They start to arrive in Oct. but are most numerous in Nov. and run to 40 pounds. They are not so abundant as Surmai, and taken within 5 miles of shore. The best specimen we saw was about 35 pounds. A FISHING TRIP TO KARWAR AND MALVAN 73 wo 8. The Kingfish of the Pacific (Scomberomorus scerra) is again built more on the lines of the Seer or Surmai. The Koker is a deep bodied fish more like Caranx caninus, known as Jack-Crevally in Walford’s book. There are a number of varieties found at Malvan all known as Koker. The best season is stated to be Oct. and early Nov. but owing to their love for reefs they are seldom caught in nets. They run up to 80 pounds, and 50 pounders not uncommon a couple of miles out at sea. g. The best season is given as Nov. to Jan. but a few are caught up to the end of March. Often taken up to 4o pounds with an occasional one of 7o pounds, 1o. Sometimes caught up to 2 feet. Il. 12. Fairly plentiful from Sep. to Nov. up to 3o0 inches. Tye ee \ Recognised from Walford’s book. fe I4. Occasionally caught. 15. i) A)S) . 18. This is a general name given to all or most of the smaller varieties of Sea Perches. 19: Known also as Rock Cod, appear in several forms and grow to great size. 20. Kharki means rocks. 21. Run large and take a spinning bait, I got one of 11 lbs. They are like Cock-up (Beigti) to eat. 22. Very similar in appearance to Totuava of Walford’s book. 23. These are claimed to run up to 4 feet in length, and fairly common. 24. Common throughout the year. 25. There are a variety of these, the largest I saw was 73 feet. 26. Caught mostly outside the 30 fathom mark. 27. A dozen or so are taken in a season in the large nets inside 5 miles, and claimed to exceed 100 pounds. Are stated to be most numerous in March- April. This list covers only a very small number of the many varieties caught at Malvan, we counted for instance in one haul of fish 33 species and of which we took a close-up photo, but were unable to identify them in the absence of a suitable book of reference. Let us hope that a publication on marine fishes will soon be pub- lished on the lines of Shaw and Shebbeare’s ‘Fishes of Northern Bengal’ by the Fisheries Department, and made available to the public. Accommodation and Travel.—There is a daily service run by the Bombay Steam Navigation Co. Ltd. to Malvan with cabin accom- modation, the charge being Rs. 24 for a single berth plus Rs. 6-8 a day feeding charges. No drinks or ice available. The boats leave ferry wharf at 10 a.m. arriving at Malvan in the early hours of the morning, and leave Malvan at 11 a.m. arriving at Bombay at 6 a.m. making five calls on the way. There are two rest houses, one a single-room block on the top of the ridge overlooking the sea, run by the P.W.D. and controlled by the Collector of Ratnagiri. The other is a small two-room bungalow near the jetty run by the District Board and controlled by the President, District Board, at Ratnagiri. Both bungalows have furniture, plates and cooking pots and cutlery but no cook. Nothing is available in the way of tin provisions, not even tin butter, but fowls, eggs, and of course fish and some vegetables and fruit. Bread may be had off the boat by special arrange- ment. There is a bazaar held daily on the seashore. Both Post 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 and Telegraph offices are near the jetty, but there is no Customs bungalow or rest house, as we were given to believe. Boats are Outriggers.—The boatmen demanded Rs. 15 a day for a 27-foot outrigger and a crew of 4 men. At Karwar where the price is considered high Rs. 8 will procure a boat and four men as crew. Information.—Mr. Sauba, Superintendent of the Fish Curing Yard, is a helpful and well-informed person, or Mr. D. D. Malanker, Fish Yard, Malvan, but perhaps the best plan would be to get the Customs Officer to help if a contact could be made in Bombay, especially for the hiring of boats at a reasonable rate. Jerson DeSousa, the Chowkidar of the District Board Bungalow, is a bright fellow and could be relied on for information in advance. Tackle.—Take plenty of spoon or spinning bait in case the small fish are difficult to obtain, or late in arriving back with the nets. I was kept waiting until lo a.m. one morning on this account. The shore wind blows out until about 11 a.m. when it turns from sea to shore so that the distance one can get out to sea depends very largely on the time of leaving in the morning. Method of Fishing.—These are set out in expert detail by Dr. Suter in his interesting article mentioned elsewhere. I cannot myself claim any results from the methods I employed as I only fished one day, owing to storms, and on this day we had no luck as the small fish had stopped running. With the sail up I trolled with a long line 50 yards from the boat, and 4o or less if near rocks, with oars I reduced by 10 yards in each case. I also mounted the dead bait to spin as little as possible as per diagram. The ideal trolling speed is held by Dr. Suter as 6 miles an hour, but these outriggers seldom go more than 3 to 5 miles with a sail or 2 to 3 with oars so that very little lead is necessary on the trace. The bait should not sink below 6 feet if fishing for surmai, kokar and the other large mackerel. 200 yards of 36 pound breaking strain is good enough for fish of 50 pounds. Time and Tide.—Here again I quote Dr. Suter who gives the best times as follows:—(1) From the end of the first quarter of the incoming tide to the beginning of the third quarter, and again {2) from the beginning of the second quarter of the outgoing tide to some time past the half tide. Drift lining or fishing from the rocks will give good fun with the many varieties of bream and perch using bits of fish as bait, when conditions are unsuitable for trolling. We caught an assortment of fish in this way though eels are a nuisance. Wolf-herring and small kokar may also be caught on fly-spoon which is good fun at times. General.—I have included three sketch-maps of the two places which may prove useful to future anglers to mark in good spots as and when found. Two main types of nets as used at Malvan; a 5-inch mesh called “Dhangad’ for the larger fish, and a half-to-one-inch mesh called “Rampan’ for the migratory shoals of mackerel and sardines. Ice is available from an obliging manager of the Indian Fisheries Cold Storage Depot at I anna a seer. NOTES ON FERNS AND FERN ALLIES 75 Conclusion.—I have dealt with Malvan in more detail than Kar- war, chiefly because I consider it a more promising and suitable place and because Karwar has already been dealt with by Dr. Suter. Sailfish.—Since returning from Malvan I have heard in reply from Dr. Suter in connection with the sailfish information contained in this note, which will be of interest to all anglers. This is what he writes :— ‘Glad to learn that your impressions of Malvan as a fishing place tallies with mine. As for sailfish I am greatly surprised at any having been taken so close in as 5 miles. When I was there the men mentioned 15 miles as the distance one would have to go out to meet them. This would tally with my experience of seeing them from steamers at 16 to 17 miles out from Malvan and Jaigarh. Perhaps the men are a little vague about distances, or it may have been an exceptional occurrence. Really it is not a matter of off-shore distance but of depth. In Ceylon we reckon 50 fathoms to be the depth of the waters where all these big fish habitually live, or rather 50 fathoms or more. This of course does not mean that you cannot meet with some in waters of 30 fathoms. As a matter of fact I hooked one off Barbryu island in 15 fathoms, but was told by all the senior members that this was quite exceptional. I have read a lot of American fishing books and they all favour the idea that these fish hardly ever venture into shallow coastal waters being fish of the deep and blue sea. Still something excep- tional does happen now and then. If I had a 25-30 foot seaworthy motor cruiser I would certainly take it to Malvan and Jaigarh for a spell and have some fun. You mention the Malvan men having caught sailfish in March. This coincides with my experience inasmuch as I saw sailfish and marlin from steamers off that part of the coast in February and March on two occasions.’ NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF VUE Eve BY ABDUL HAMEED, M.Sc. Lecturer in Biology, Lawrence®College, Ghora Gali, Punjab. (With 12 plates) The plants have been collected from a small area only. This area forms a small part of the uncultivated mountainous wedge of the outer Himalayas. Murree, the most important military hill station, and the summer resort of Northern India, is situated on top of this wedge. The three important European schools of the Punjab, namely, the Lawrence College, Ghora Gali, the Convent of Jesus and Mary, and St. Denys’ School, are situated on this 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 wedge. The area varies in height from 5,459 ft. (Murree Brewery) to 7,413 ft. (Kashmir Point) above sea-level. The study of previous records shows that no attempt at system- atic collecting and studying ferns from this important area has been made in the past. E. W. Trotter collected ferns from the’ neigh- bouring district of Hazara during 1887-1892. He also collected a few ferns from Murree, and the total recorded number is seven. The area is fairly rich in ferns, and the author has collected 17 ferns and 2 fern allies from this locality. The author is greatly indebted to Miss Watson and K-. Thyer for their kindness in illustrating the specimens and to Mr. P. N. Mehra, of the Botany Department, Government College, Lahore, for his generous help in identification. The area is two-faced as regards distribution of vegetation. The eastern face is dry, with scanty undergrowth, but the western face is shady, dampish, with dense undergrowth. The trees in this area show an altitudinal zonation in their distribution. From Mur- ree Brewery (5,459 ft.) to Pindi-Point of the Murree station, the commonest trees are ‘Chil’ pine (Pinus longifolia) and the blue pine (Pinus excelsa). In the Murree station area (7,237 {t. to 7,134 it.) one meets with typically English trees such as horse chestnuts, willows, maples, elms and hill poplars. Further on to Kashmir Point (7,413 ft.) the tall spruces (Picea morinda) form a distinguish- ing landmark. The ferns and fern allies also exhibit a similar altitudinal zonation in their distribution in this area. For example, though some of the species such as, Asplenium alternans, Adiantum venustum, Pteris cretica, Dryopteris odontoloma are generally met with all over this area, the other species are, as a rule, confined. to special altitudinal zones. The following species are commonly met with between the Murree Brewery and the Lawrence College area (5,000 to 6,000 ft.), namely, Adiantum caudatum, Pellaea nitidula, Cheilanthes farinosa, and Adiantum capillus-veneris- The following are met with between the Lawrence College and the Pind: Point (6,000 ft. to 7,000 ft.) namely, Cheilanthes albomarginala, Equisetum debile and Selaginella chrysornizos. Stray specimens of Asplenium varians, Asplenium irichomanes, Adiantum capillus-veneris and Onychium japonicum are also found. The following occur in the Murree station area, namely, Asplenium varians and Cystopteris fragilis. The following species are found in the area beyond this, namely, Polystichum angulare, Cheilanthes dalhousie, Athyrium Schimperi, Coniogramme fraxinea, Asplenitum varians, Asplenium trichomanes and Onychium japonicum. The ferns are generally known to a layman. They are shade loving plants and grow on shady slopes, or along the banks of ‘Nullas’. All the ferns in this area are terrestrial. No epiphytic species are found. The stem is generally underground, and is call- ed the rhizome (Plate 6, R.) The size of the rhizome and its position in the ground differs in different species. The visible part of a fern generally consists of leaves, of which a number unfold each year. Before unfolding the young leaves are coiled at the top like a watch spring. The stalk or the stipe (st) of a fully developed leaf bears scale-like leaves in some species. The shape NOTES ON FERNS AND-FERN ALLIES a} of the leaf blade or frond differs in different cases. During certain times of the year certain fronds bear on their under surface, certain structures called the Sori (S).. These sori are brownish in colour when mature, and generally possess a protective covering called the indusium (D). The shape, size and the position of the sori differ in different species. Each sorus consists of a number of stalked capsular bodies known as sporangia. Many small unicellular bodies called the spores are developed within each sporangium. When a sporangium matures, it bursts, and the spores fall to the ground, and germinate into a small, flat, greenish independent structure called the prothallus. The reproductive organs, namely, the archegonia or female organs, and the anthridia, the male organs are developed on this new structure. The egg in the archegonium is fertilised by the motile spermatozoid produced in an anthridium, and the egg then develops into a new fern plant. In the life-history of a fern, therefore, one meets with two distinct plants or generations, namely, the main plant bearing sori, and called the sporophyte, and the prothallus bearing the gametes or sex cells, and called the game- tophyte- The sporophyte produces the gametophyte, which in its turn gives rise to a new fern plant or sporophyte. This is known as ‘alternation of generation’. Genus: ASPLENIUM. L. (Deriv. A, Primitive; splen, spleen—referring to the medicinal properties of these ferns). KEY TO THE SPECIES. A. Fronds thick, and regularly cut into lobes. Sori linear. ... Asplenium alternans, B. Stipes black and needle-like. Fronds pinnate. Sori oblong to linear. ... Asplenium trichomanes. ‘C. Stipes grooved. Fronds pinnate. Pinnules deeply lobed. Sori oblong. ... Asplenium varians. il, Asplenium alternans Wall. (Plate 1, figure 1). It is very common, and can be collected throughout the year. The rhizome is short, and bears numerous long roots. The short stipes are covered over with dark brown, hair-pointed scales. The fronds are thick in texture, pale green, and deeply and regularly lobed. Each lobe is broad at the base. Practically all the fronds bear sori, which occur in two rows, and are linear. The veins are clearly seen, and end freely. Previously collected from Murree by Dr. Fleming. 2. Asplenium trichomanes Linn. The ‘Spleen Wort’. (Plate 1, figure 2). This is a very rare fern. It grows in sheltered spots among tree roots, or under projecting rocks. The short rhizome bears long and slender roots, and old stipes. The needle-like stipes are black and polished. The fronds are pinnate, and the pinnae occur 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 in nearly opposite pairs. Sori are oblong to linear, and are generally placed close together. Specimens can be collected from the forest road below St. Denys’ School. 3, Asplenium varians Hook and Grev. (Plate 2, jeune’ 2). This is a very common fern, and grows in rock crevices in shady places, or between stones of retaining walls. It persists throughout the year. The rhizome is short. The stipes are slightly grooved, and bear in some cases, a short brownish line along one side. The semi-erect fronds are delicate in texture, and pale green in colour, and pinnate. The pinnules are lobed. The sori are oblong. Speci- mens collected from exposed sunny spots are thicker in texture and greenish in colour. Previously recorded as under.—Hazara. From Black Mountains eastward to Murree, 7,000 ft- to 9,ooo ft. Duthie, Oertal, Trotter, Leaving, Hope and Duthie collector. Note.—Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L. has been recorded as col- lected from Murree by Leaving (7,000 ft.), but has not been seen by the author. Genus: CHEILANTHES Swartz. (Deriv: Greek cheilo, lip; anthos, flower—referring to the marginal position of the sori). Key TO THE SPECIES. A. Fronds bipinnatifid. Scales very narrow and pointed. Fertile fronds green above and white underneath. ... Cheilanthes albomarginata. B. Fronds bipinnatifid, and all alike. Under surface covered with yellowish powder. Scales narrow and pointed. ... Cheilanthes farinosa. C. Fronds bipinnatifid. Scales broad. Under- surface always without any powder. ... Cheilanthes Dalhousie. 4. Cheilanthes albomarginata Clarke. (Plate 2, figure 4). It generally grows in dry and exposed sunny places between rock crevices, and curls up when dry. The rhizome is compact, and bears many old stipes. The stipes are dark brown and stiff, and bear a few narrow and pointed scales. Fronds are bipinnatifid, and the basal pair of pinnae long and hanging. Young fronds are light green in colour, but the colour of the fertile fronds is deep green above, and whitish below owing to a coating of white powder. The sori are round and marginal. The indusium is formed by the changed and reflexed margin of the pinnule, and is not continuous. 5. Cheilanthes farinosa Kaulf. " Specimens of this fern have been collected from the exposed sunny side of the ridge below the Lawrence College Hospital (5000 ft. NOTES ON FERNS AND FERN ALLIES 70 to 6,000 ft.). It does not grow above this zone. The rhizome is stout. The stipes are reddish brown, stiff, and bear narrow, pointed scales. The fronds are light green in colour, bipinnatifid, and all alike. The basal pair of pinnae are longer and hanging. The undersurface in all the fronds is coated with a yellow powder. The sori are round, and lie under the uneven indusium formed by reflexed margins of the pinnules. 6. Cheilanthes Dalhousie Hook. Syn. Cheilanthes farinosa Kaulf. var. Dalhousie Hook. It grows in shady places between stones of retaining walls round Panch Pando Park near Kashmir Point. The rhizome is short and compact. The stipes are long, dark brown, and bear broad scales at the base- The fronds are bipinnatifid and are never covered with powder. The sori are marginal, and are protected by an almost even indusium. Note.—The following species has been recorded before, but has not been seen by the author :— Cheilanthes fragrans Webb and Berth. Between Murree and Kohala, Leving, 1875. Genus: PELLEAE. 7. Pelleae nitidula Wall. Specimens have been collected from the dry eastern face of the ridge below the College Hospital (5,000 ft. to 6,o00 ft.). It does not grow above this zone. It generally grows under projecting rocks. The rhizome is short and stout, and bears numerous old stipes. The stipes are dark brown in colour, and bear a few nar- row pointed scales and hair. The fronds are dark green, thick in texture, bipinnate below, and almost pinnate above. The sori are situated in a continuous line round the edge of the pinnules and are protected by a membraneous, and slightly wrinkled in- dusium. Genus: ADIANTUM L. (Deriv. Greek Adiontos, dry. Drops of water do not stay on the fronds), KEY TO THE SPECIES. A. Rhizome long and creeping. Fronds 3-4 pinnate. Stipes thin and polished. ... Adiantum venustum. B. Rhizome long and _ creeping. Fronds 2-3 pinnate. Stipes long and naked. ... Adiantum capillus-veneris. C. Rhizome short. Fronds pinnate, often rooting at the top. Stipes hairy. ~ . Adiantum caudatum. 8 Adiantum venustum Don. (Plate 4, figure 7). This is a common fern, and is often sold in pots by the villagers during summer. The plants die down during winter. The rhizome 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 is thin and creeping. The stipes are black, thin and polished. The fronds. are bluish green in colour, and 3-4 pinnate. Some pinnules bear one or two marginal sori, which are small and protected by an indusium formed by the reflexed margin of the pinnule. 9. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. The true Maiden-hair. (Plate 5, figure 8). This is a moisture-loving fern, and grows between stones in the bed of a stream or near in trickling water near a natural spring. The rhizome is long and creeping. The stipes are thick, polished and black in colour. The fronds are 2-3 pinnate, and each ends in a short terminal pinna. ‘The pinnules are fan shaped, and with deeply loped margin. The sori are many and marginal. The indusium is formed by the reflexed margin. 10. Adiantum caudatum L. (Plate 3, figure 6). Specimens of this fern have been collected from the dry eastern face of the range below the College Hospital (5,000 ft. to 6,000 ft.). It does not grow above this zone. The rhizome is small. The stipes are short and hairy, and brown in colour. The fronds are pinnate, and lie on the ground. The upper pinnae are reduced in size, and absent from the tip which generally roots in the ground. The oblong sori are developed along the upper edge. Genus : ATHYRIUM 11. Athyrium Schimperi Moug. Syn. Athyrium filix-foemina var. polyspora Clarke. (Plate 6, figure 9). This fern is not very common. Plants have been collected from the bank of the ‘nulla’ behind the Hill Lodge near Panch Pando Park. The rhizome is creeping and branched. The stipes are thick and grooved. The fronds are large, drooping, pale green in colour, and generally bipinnate. The pinnules have serrated margin, and are deeply lobed. The sori are curved, and the in- dusium is membraneous. The plants die down during winter. Genus : CONIOGRAMME 12. Coniogramme fraxinea (Don) Diels. Syn. Syngramme fraxinea (Don). (Plate 7, figure 10). This fern generally grows under bushes along the banks of “nullas’. Specimens can be collected from the forest road below St. Denys’ School. The plants grow to a fairly large size. The rhizome is long and creeping. The stipes are thick. The fronds are NOTES ON FERNS. AND FERN ALLIES 81 generally bipinnate. The basal pinna is bifid in many cases. The large pinnules are entire, with hairy undersurface and_ serrated margin. The sori are linear, branched, and look like thin dotted lines along the veins, but not reaching the margin. Genus: PTERIS 13. Pteris cretica (Plate 8, figure 11). This is a common fern and generally grows in beds. The rhizome is creeping and bears numerous old stipes. The stipes are long, stiff and naked. The fronds are of two kinds. ‘The sterile fronds are pinnate, with the basal pinna generally forked. The upper pinnae are broad and sessile. The fertile fronds, which stand erect, have narrow pinnules, and bear sori in a continuous line near the margin. The indusium is formed by reflexed margin of the pinnule. Genus: DRYOPTERIS 14. Dryopteris odontoloma (Moore). Syn. Nephrodium odontoloma (Moore) Hope. Eastrea filix-mas v. odontoloma (Moore) Bedd. (Plate 9, figure 12). This fern is found all over this area, and practically through- out the year. The rhizome is short and compact. ‘The stipes bear a few brown scales at the base. The fronds are bipinnate, and pale green in colour. The round sori are developed on the veins. Collected before by Trotter 1889, Hope 1882, 5,000 ft to 7,000 ft. Murree. . Genus: POLYSTICHUM 15. Polystichum angulare Willd. Syn. Aspidium angulare (Willd) Hope. (Plate 10, figure 13). This fern is not very common. Specimens can be collected from the forest road below St. Denys’ School. The rhizome is thick and compact. The stipes are short, stout and clothed with dark brown scales. The fronds are dark green in colour, scaly and bipinnate. The pinnules have short stalks and almost spinouS margins. The sori are rounded. Genus: CYSTOPTERIS 16. Cystopteris fragilis Beruh. The ‘Bladder fern’. (Plate 11, figure 14). This is a delicate fern, and grows between rock crevices. Specimens can be collected from near Panch Pando Park. The rhizome is short, and bears long, fibrous roots. The stipes are 6 $2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUKAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 grooved, delicate and flaccid. The fronds are pinnate, thin in texture and pale green in colour. Each pinna is deeply lobed, and bears many and almost marginal, rounded sort. Genus: ONYCHIUM 17. Onychium japonicum Kunze. (Plate 12, figure 15). This fern is quite rare. It grows in shady places between rock crevices or on shady slopes. The rhizome is slender and creeping. The stipes are wiry and naked. The fronds are thin in- texture and profusely divided into many acutely bifid segments. The veins are forked. The sori are linear and the indusium is membraneous. Note.—The following species have been recorded from Murree as locality before, but they have not been seen by the author in this area :— A. Asplenium polypodiodes Mett. Syn. Diplazium polypodio- des Mett. Beddome—Burree, 7,000 ft., Trotter. B. Nephrodium ramosum Hope. Syn. Dryopteris ramosum Hope. Between Abbotabad and Murree, 7,000 ft. to 8,500 ft. Fre- quent. Trotter 1888-1880. Genus: SELAGINELLA 18. Selaginella chrysorhizus. (Plate 12, figure 16). This is one of the fern allies met with in this area. The plants grow in beds and can be collected from the shady slope behind the Convent of Jesus and Mary. They are confined to that area. The plants are light green in colour. The roots are slender and bear tubers. They dry up before winter sets in, and the underground tubers grow into new plants each year. The stem is delicate and branched. It bears four rows of leaves.’ .The leaves in the outer row are bigger than the leaves in the inner row. Some branches bear sporangia in the axils of the upper leaves. Genus: EQUISETUM 19. Equisetum debile. The ‘Horse Tail’. This is the second fern ally found in’ this locality. Specimens can be collected from the banks of the ‘nulla’ below the Chelmsford Training College, Ghora Gali. The plants appear to be confined to that locality. That rhizome is thin and bears a number of shoots each year. The surface of these shoots is grooved. The leaves are reduced to scale-like structures and arise in the form of a more or less united whorl from each node. ‘Secondary ‘branches also arise in a whorl from some nodes. They grow out through the sheath of the scale leaves. The sporangia are developed at the tip of some branches, and are grouped together to form a cone-like structure. ; Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. \ Lfre a A A Geers on Ferns and Fern Allies of Murree Hill. Prare I. (For explanation see end of article). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate 11. iN es gi °° i0 9 199'T | eee soe ses OBO pung 6 T S26 ieee e me “" Sa0ayf soUeIUY °° | | JFUSPIAOIg PRIS 0} AOMngs1jUOD s,Aja190g ** ¢ ¥ Lg9'l2 ee his oe " smuoWdiiosqns Ag 0 eT $9o°Ts | (SOURMO]LY SSouIvIT BUIPNHIOUT) safivyEs oy, d ¥ sy qd ¥ sy | d ov $v |d V SY | } Samar eve eA) ‘9F6l “MAAWADAC BIE MTHUINA AVAA AHL YOM TNQOIIV HONAHAAY | 47 Vol. 47 1b, ~ Ly v7 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 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= 0 0 OOF | = 0 0 OIg'T 4 { Se = | = es an 2 so 0 0 S6LtIE = Ss d V¥ sy fe Se ee ee 5) 5 L¥6I — tO Je3png 192 Se 0 ZL 68F'IS 0 F S8e'l 0 6 ZI6'6 00 Sz 0 0 2st 0 0 0Sc 0 OL Zes - 1d 2 PLR 0 2I 68F 0 0 goEF'z € $ sse 0 9 I90‘L 0 0 ZEST 0 0 SLLty 0 et ul6'92 qv SY syuom Ae jenjoy oh OG od > Ge) IC d S68 ¥S 0 Ogt’s 000°0T G2 ost ose 00S 008 Ose OPP? 00F go9'T — a — a — a — a pel 403 poyjespng | 180], yanoo0y S,Je34 3X90 0} paldivo souRltg ie s[eulnor BuiQUuIsTg jo 4soD oINIUIN YY TO Bosgepooidacqy es ipa 224 wpny = eae KyBIQVT ae _ a -- 9Be}s0q sce Saljulig pue Aloa0TjN4S eas ae es ce 9 y eee ae pung yopypaoig PRIS 0} voINq!zUOD s, Aef00g eee eee woe "YRC U01}00S AJOWIFT [BINIVN OF snuog HIS 0} sHUOG SU}UOP 991i, L see eee ssousvoqd (9dUvMOILVY SUIpN[IaT) soalIeles SLNAWAVd sJe{Nd1 eg QouPRINSU] Ysty 3O1y pure o3z,q | sadieyg pvisuay | 0 0 ORgs'sr — a) a — — —— —) el FR TL ace 0 o0s 0 O00S‘F 0 000°S 000°¢ G02 0O0£ OSe 000° Sa SS 2S 0 000°T 0 000°6T eT Vv SU = L¥6T 403 yospng 0 OOr‘or vl £6R scu'e St LL¢°9 0 919°2 b Bez‘ 602 LLS'T GN IT 288°T $71d19990 4] penzoy £61 HVAA HHL YOM LAOANT ALADOS AYOLSIH TVHALVN AVANOE 0 cl €RPIS 0 — a) a) Se = 0 00F ons*e 000°T 000‘Z2 S6F ST ld v sy SPE 103 po3303pngq “SHOT SMPTE YZIT ‘AVAWOG SSOT “ONTBA BV POS SoTlpinoas % Fo *“SOION-O1 %2%¢ JO Sales Uo yYyoIg ty SHIOAA SPIS}NO UO UIA1e]Y S]UDSUIYSSAUT UO jsds0zU] spit WEI PUTO OO Giese: cscs oe “* SIBpUS[eD Jo Sales UO ULZIVIT ees s}1BeyQ eyeus SUOI}BOT [GN S$ ,A}B1900S “TTT *1OA ‘Yoog stave) eee sTeainor plo —: jo soles soa] soURs}UY SUOTIALIOSGHS asue[Rg surusd¢g SLdIAOAY SiBp Hose _ _ PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1946 193 ‘misfortune this ever happens there will be little chance of saving this fine collection of books which it will be almost impossible to replace. It is felt that one of the urgent needs of the Society is to find more suitable housing, in a more congenial and less cramped set- ting. It should be inviting enough for members, particularly up- country members, passing through the city, to spend an hour or two pleasantly browsing amongst natural history books and periodi- cals, and making contacts with other members with kindred inter- ests. This is a matter which deserves our earnest consideration. As soon as we are in a position to gauge what the Society’s future and financial position is likely to be, the necessary efforts will have to be launched. 4. The Committee would, at all times, welcome constructive suggestions for increasing the usefulness of the Society to its members and to the general public. It feels that in future we shall have to lay more and more stress on publications of a more or less popular nature, and particularly in the Indian languages. As a beginning, we have under preparation at the moment a couple of simply written booklets with coloured illustrations, one on Birds, the other on Poisonous Creatures (including scorpions, centipedes, certain spiders etc.). It is proposed to bring out small editions simultaneously in Hindustani (both scripts), Mahratti, Gujarati and Kannada. It is hoped that authoritatively written and well illus- trated primers of this sort will find favour with the educational departments of the various provincial governments as well as the general public, and prove a means not only of adding to the Society’s usefulness to the public but also incidentally to its own revenues, MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF ek BOMBAYS NATURAL “HISTORY SOCIETY, HELD IN Stee oh CrURE | ROOMS OF THE VBuE.S.T. COMPANY BEBECDRIC. HOUSE}: ORMISTON ROAD, BOMBAY,,. ON (ORS DAY Mibe2rst AUGUST 19647. AT. 6 P.M: 1. Managing Committee’s report for the year ended 31st December 1946, copies of which were placed in the hands of mem- bers, was considered as read. 2. The Honorary Secretary read out some additional notes dealing with the Society’s activities and membership position during the 8 months of 1947, and pointed out the urgency of an unceasing membership drive so as to insure the Society’s future under the new conditions created by the political change in India. See p. 187: Copies of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts had not been printed owing to shortness of time, paper restrictions and press labour difficulties. A copy was passed round to members present, and after necessary remarks and explanations by the Honorary Treasurer and Honorary Secretary, the accounts were passed. 3. The Executive and Advisory Committees for 1947, as pro- posed and circulated to members, were duly elected, there being no fresh nominations received. Mr. Salim Ali proposed the name 194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 of Lt.-Col. J. E. Clutterbuck to fill the 1oth vacancy on the Exe- cutive Committee (in accordance with Rule 31). The proposal was. duly seconded and Col. Clutterbuck was declared elected. 4. The Chairman reiterated the seriousness of the Society’s financial position in the future unless suitable means were devised. to maintain the membership strength and augment our revenues by popular publications and in other ways. Simple illustrated booklets on Natural History subjects were suggested as well as the bringing out of a popular nature magazine. One member sug- gested making natural history articles a regular feature in the weeklies such as the Illustrated Weekly of India in order to make the public natural history minded. Mr. T. E. Waterfield suggested conducted outings for members and a limited number of their friends interested in different branches. of natural history, the friends forming potential members. He also suggested sending out a simple questionnaire to members to ascertain their particular interests. The Honorary Secretary pointed out that curiously enough this last suggestion was already in the process of being acted upon. When answers are received from members it will be possible to tabulate the different interests and to: enable those of kindred interests to be brought closer together. The Chairman then referred to 3 points:— (1) He conveyed the sad news of the death in England of Mr. R. I. Pocock a distinguished mammalogist and a frequent and valued contributor to the Society’s Journal. The members ex- pressed their condolence by all standing up, and the Honorary Secretary was requested to convey the Society’s condolences to the deceased’s family. (2) The Chairman then announced the news just received of the appointment of Mr. N. B. Kinnear as Director of the British Museum (Natural History). This well deserved elevation of a former Curator reflected glory on the Society, and the announce-. ment was warmly applauded. (3) The Chairman apprised the members of the impending retirement of Mr. Prater who has been our efficient Curator for over 25 years, and of Mr. McCann, that fine naturalist whose con- tributions in so many fields of natural history are so well known. He pointed to the difficulty of replacing such devoted and efficient workers and the magnitude of the Society’s loss by their going away. On the conclusion of the formal meeting, a series of movie films of Indian wild life made in the U.P. jungles by Major Jim Corbett of ‘Kumaon Man-eaters’ fame and kindly lent by him for the occasion of the Annual General Meeting, were shown to mem- bers and a large gathering of their friends. The pictures were greatly appreciated and enjoyed, but there was general disappoint- ment at Major Corbett not being able, for reasons of health, to be present and give his commentary in person. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,. VEPERY, MADRAS (P.I.C. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)—17-11-1947—C5015. EDITORS : S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN AND SALIM ALI, 6 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY” > | Vol. 47, No. 2. DECEMBER, 1947 Price Rs. 12 nett. THE JOURNAL OF THE Bompay NaturaL History Soclety EDITED BY. S. H. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S.. AND SAL'IM ALI PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 114 Apollo Street, Eombay. LONDON AGENTS : DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY), 212 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE LONDON, W.C, 2. er Be w “We Ludian Natural History Sertes, Vol. II. THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS S. H. Prater, O.B.E., C.M.Z.S. This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds, forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series. To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value of the wild life of our forests, fields and scrubland is the purpose of this book. It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is profusely illustrated in colour and black and white. LIST OF CONTENTS : What is a Mammal ? Distribution of Mammals. How Mammals are classified. The various tribes of Mammals, their ways and habits. Descriptions of species. a9 0 ft Bound in full cloth Price Rs. 16 (To Members of the Society Rs. 13). Postage and packing extra. PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 114 Apollo Street, Bombay. WANTED 1. A Monograph of the Pheasants by Wm. Beebe. 2. Birds of Asia by Gould. 3. A Century of Birds of the Himalayan Mountains by Gould. Apply :— THE PRIVATE SECRETARY TO H. H. The Maharana Raj Saheb of Wankaner, Private Secretary’s Office, Wankaner. CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 2, PAGER SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXVII. By N. L. Bor, C.1.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., 1.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, Mm.sc. (With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plates) THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XIX. By _D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILis. PartII. By A. E. Jones, M.B.O.U. (deceased). (With a plate) A NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS. IN BURMA, By W. F. H. Ansell, (With a map and a plate) eat THE BIRDS OF DELHI AND DisTRICT. By N. F. Frome, C.1.E., D.F.c., M.Sc., M.B.0.U. (With a map and 4 sketches) NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE GYANTSE ROAD, SOUTHERN TIBET, MAY 1946, By P.I R. Maclaren. (With a map) AB-ISTADEH, A BREEDING PLACE OF THE FLAMINGO [Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (PALLAS) | IN AFGHANISTAN. By S. A. Akhtar. (With 2 maps and a plate) A NOTE ON THE COLLECTION, CONDITIONING AND TRANSPORT OF -FINGERLINGS OF Catla IN’ THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. By N, Jagannadham. aie ose NOTE ON FRESH-WATER FISHES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS. By Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, B.A. (Hons.) M.sc., Ph.p. (With a photo’ and 4 text figures) EXTENT OF DAMAGE) BY THE Motu Dichocrocis punctiferalis Fs. To THREE STRAINS OF THE CASTOR PLANT. By A.C. Basu. (With a graph) THE Lac INSECT OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA: By S, Mahdihassan oo 4 848) (With 2 plates) ok see 195 197 219 249 301 308 315 319 ~ 326 VARIATION IN THE FLOWERS OF Quisqualis indica LINN.'-(ORDER™ ~ Combretaceae.) By G. A. Kapadia NOTES ON THE Convolvulaceaé OF BoMBAY, By H. Santapau, S.J., F.L.S. THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE FAMILY Jorvingaceae BASED ON THE Stupy OF Moringa plerygosperma GAERTN. By Robindra Mohon Datta and Jatindra Nath Mitra, M.sc, (With 2 plates) ... 334 337 399 ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 2 PAGE OBITUARY NOTICES :— ‘Theodore Rathbone Hubback oe we ro sos SEDO Sir David Ezra qe Ss as Ye Aa wae BO Reginald Innes Pocock. (With a@ plate) 50 668 eee ORD Alexander Edward Jones Ss cos 363 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:-— + 1. Behaviour of Hyena and Panther at a ‘Kill.’ By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 366). 2. The Sense of Smellin Tigers. By C. J.T. Wrenicke (p. 367). 3. ‘Death Cry’ of Tiger. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 368). 4. Peculiar Re- -action of a Dog to the Hooting of a Siren. By M. L. Roonwal (p. 370). 5. On the Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). By E. P. Gee (With a photo) (p. 371), 6. Procession of Musk Shrews.. By R. N. De (p. 373). 7. The - Habits of the Brush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus). By C. R. Stonor (p. 373). 8 The Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius). By A. F. Hutton (p. 374). 9, The ‘ Watching’ Attitude of the Cheetal or Spotted Deer (Axis qxis Erxl.), By H. L. Hiteshi (With a plate) (p. 376). 10. Stranding of Whales on the Coasts of India. By S. T. Moses (p. 377). 11. Notes on Some Burmese Mammals, By W. F. H. Ansell (With a photo). (p. 379). 12. Display of a Male Minivet. By C. R. Stonor (p. 383). 13. Occurrence of the Laggar Falcon (Falco jugger Gray) at Mt. Abu. By Major R. K. M. Battye. (p. 383). 14. The Altitudinal Limit of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana [ Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli),]. By F. A. Betterton (p. 384). 15. Recovery of Ringed Duck in India. By Editors(p. 385). 16. The Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus cristatus Linn.) in Bhavnagar State. By K.S. Dharma- kumarsinhji. (p. 385). 17. Morning Song of Birds. By Samsar Chand Koul (p. 386). 18. The Late Stay of Migratory Birds in Bhavnagar, Kathiawar. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 387). 19. On the Common Blind Snake (Zyphlops braminus). By Warren P. Sights (p. 388). - 20. Aggressive Demonstration by Russell’s Viper (Vipera russelli). By A. A. A. Fyzee (p. 388). 21. Hamadryad at Bhim Tal, U. P. By A. St. J. Macdonald ‘(p. 389). 22, Notes on The Fauna of British India: Reptilia and Amphibia, by Malcolm A Smith. By Rev. C. Leigh (p. 390). 23. Note on the Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina) Everting Lung. By C. McCann (p. 391). 24. Culture _of Murral Fish (Ophicephalus marulius Hamilton) in Irrigation wells. By P. I. Chacko and G. K. Kuriyan (p. 392). 25. A Large Black Rock Scorpion, By S. G. Burgess (p. 393). 26. An Anomalous Antenna in A&hipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood from ‘Tambaram, South India. By T.N. Anantha Krishnan (With a text figure) (p. 393). 27. Migration of the Butterfly Appias albina danada. By R.E. Parsons (p. 394). 28. Observations on the Habits of the Conchostracan Caenestheria sp. recorded from Tambaram (S. India). By T,N. Anantha Krishnan (p, 396). 29. Aerial Roots in the Sponge Gourd Luffasp. By Surendra Nath Singh (With a photo) (p. 397). 30. Abnormal Palms of South Travancore.. By Trupapur A, Davis (With a plate) (p. 398). 7 il r 7 ni ey Res! oh * ‘mi ha SS hr iases) Gate Gao! ‘ an ‘Woes ’ 1 * bs i t 5 = ; i o ‘ + ‘ 2 c, ’ = F 2 ‘ ¢ i= . ‘ he 7 , a% |) St z me i A Poaelt? WP « i sat, 3 * - age hs rei ; » ° ve i A) P mt] ‘ 4 - x “ a h PNT A Ore) ar Cec er ea - . ae i hs ——_ ° p rl at |! i i as a . not, es “ ae 7 a en Sei hi 4 ’ Cee ek 7 a a4 . a 25 Cie} ang) et Se 2 ' ee ey = = PS, % “7 a CMs fata jes * em At ee ee . > - i : vin? ) wf 7 Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE X The Coral Creeper ANTIGONON LEPTOPUS Hook. & Arn. (nearly natural size) JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Naturai History Society. 1947. VOL. 47. No. 2 SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. BY INGge Ea ORE Cal Hee MaAr we DASC. mE LeSagl Fh aSe, Forest Botanist, AND M. B. RAIZADA, M.Sc., Assistant Forest Botanist, Foresi Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Part XXVII. (Continued from Vol. 47, (1947), p. 25). (With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plate). Antigonon Endl.. A genus of the family Polygonaceue. The name is derived from the Greek and probably refers to the kneed or angled character of the stem. Antigonon leptopus Hook. et Arn. The Coral Creeper; Sandwich-Island Creeper. (leptopus means ‘thin- or slender-stalked’). Description.—A herbaceous plant ascending from a_ tuberous root. Stems green, hairy, angled and grooved. Leaves alternate, 3-6 in. long, ovate or triangular in shape, cordate or sagittate at the base, tapering to the acuminate apex which ends in a short spine, entire or undulate on the margins. Nerves flat on the upper surface of the leaves but very prominent beneath, arching several times within the margins, covered with a short pubescence. Petioles 5-1-5 in. long, hairy; stipular sheaths inconspicuous. 190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Inflorescence racemose terminal or axillary. The rachis of the | inflorescence is slender, angled, clothed with a sparse pubescence and bears branched tendrils by which the plant is enabled to climb. The flowers, rosy-red in colour, are borne on pedicels either solitary or several at a node, each pedicel being subtended by a forked bract. The pedicels are up to 1/3 in. long, jointed about the middle, the upper portion more hairy than the lower. The flowers are herma- phrodite. The perianth segments are five in number, the three outer are broadly ovate in shape, rounded or cordate at the base, while the two inner are narrower and not cordate, about .5 in. long increasing to .g in. when in fruit. The stamens are 8-9 in number. The fila- ments are connate into a cup for about half their length, which is extended into teeth which alternate with the stamens. The filaments of the stamens are covered with shortly stipitate glands. The ovary is 1-celled and three-cornered. The ovule is solitary and hangs from a long funicle which is attached to the base of the ovary. Styles 3; stigmas Capitate, kidney-shaped. The ripe nut is enclosed within the enlarged, free, stiff, perianth segments. Flowers.—Throughout the rainy and cold season. Fruits cold season. Distribution.—Indigenous to South America. Largely grown in gardens throughout the country. Gerdening.—It is a lovely climber of moderate growth, best suited for arbours, verandahs, screening unsightly objects and the like. Propagated by division of the root, layers, cuttings and seeds during the rains. It grows 30 to 4o feet high in good soil. Too much manure or other fertilizer effects a vigorous growth at the cost of flowering. The plants form large tuberous roots and when killed down by heavy frost sprout readily again during the spring. Antigonon leptopus Hk. & Arn. var. albus Hort.—A variety with white flowers. It is not so luxuriant in growth as the type. An n m Meissn. A very hairy species with broader leaves, more numerous flowers and perianth segments twice as long as in A. leptopus Hook. et Arn. It is a native of Guatemala. ‘ung eiyod ‘ySelOqy MON ‘WIV 2 “OOH SAdOLdAT NONODIINV wpozwy “_{@ “IV Aq 0j04 THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. BY D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. PART. XIX: (Continued from Vol. 47, p. 43). RHOPALOCERA PAPILIONIDAE : Papilio polymnestor Cr., polymnestor. lose « Wloore, Cat. Lepe ins. Mus’ Hee Co., iy’ ror, pl.3y figs: eta LOS 7. Davidson & Aitken, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 366. 1890. MOOnem lc ParIndmevA 2OQ. Dir AG2 os. Ilarave Lp. '1QO2. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, il, 51. 1907. Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1 (2nd edit.), 126, pl. 1, HAS LON el LO20. 4th instar—Head green. Body glaucous green, minutely streaked and speckled with white. A white lateral stripe on the thoracic somites. 5th to 7th somites with a diffuse white lateral patch, the 7th to gth somites with very diffuse white sublateral markings. A white lateral band on the toth and trith somites, and a white sublateral line from the middle of the 5th somite backwards. 1st somite with a back-curved, whitish green, subdorsal spine. i2th somite with a greenish subdorsal spine, rith somite with a raised, white, subdorsal dot. 3rd and 4th somites somewhat turgid, this area with a transverse series of six raised green points anteriorly and four posteriorly. Legs and prolegs green. Osmeterium pale watery Orange. Final instar—Head green. Body velvety green. 1st somite with a transverse white line anteriorly. rst to 3rd somites with a whitish lateral line, the area above this suffused with yellow on the 2nd and 3rd somites. A transverse black line between the 2nd and 3rd somites. 3rd somite with a lateral ocellus, consisting of a large blackish-green spot, divided by a white line about a third from the bottom, and surrounded by brownish green anteriorly, yellowish green elsewhere, and with a white dot just above and behind. The ocelli joined by a series of conjoined black rings with diffused lilac spots among them. 4th somite with a transverse band composed of a series of conjoined, olive and whitish, rings and streaks, the whole more or less suffused with lilac. The skin between the 4th and 5th somites velvety black, but only shewn when the larva is extended. A white sublateral stripe from the 5th somite backwards. An oblique white stripe starting from the sublateral stripe on the 7th somite and extending to the subdorsal area of the 8th somite. 1oth somite 198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45 with a triangular white lateral patch conjoined to the sublateral stripe. A transverse white line running across the dorsum of the 12th somite and joining the sublateral stripe on the 1ith, behind this line the body greenish white. 8th somite with two lilac dots in the white area subdorsally, gth somite with a very small, sub- dorsal lilac dot. Osmeterium pouch with the sides rounded. Subdorsal tubercle on the 12th somite white and fairly large. Osmeterium pale orange. Legs, prolegs and venter paler green. Spiracles brown with a white central slit. 3rd and 4th somites considerably swollen. Apart from its very much greater size, the larva of the present species can be distinguished from that of P. polytes L. by the rounded versus the angled sides of the osmeterium pouch, by the pale orange versus the bright scarlet osmeterium, and by the much larger tubercles on the 12th somite. Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Head produced into two somewhat flattened processes, the inner edge toothed, the outer with a distinct ridge. Thorax with a slight dorsal keel in the form of a flattish, dorsal triangle. 3rd and 4th abdominal somites expanded slightly laterally, so that the abdomen is roughly diamond-shaped in outline. 4th and 5th abdominal’ somites with paired dorsal tubercles. Colour pinkish buff, slightly mottled with darker. The subdorsal area of the prothorax, and the dorsum of the metathorax and 1st abdominal somite suffused with blackish. A black subdorsal mark on the 3rd and 4th abdominal somites. 5th abdominal somite backwards with the dorsum whitish. Wing cases yellower buff, a dark, triangular discal patch, flecked with green, and a series of raised points at the ends of the veins. There is also a green form of pupa, but I have not encountered it. Food-plant—Citrus spp. Described from a larva found in Calcutta 6-xii-45, pupated 24-xii-45 and a female emerged 4-ili-46. Talbot quotes a key compiled by Fryer in rgi1t for distinguishing the larvae of mooreanus (the Ceylon form of helenus), parinda (the Ceylon form of polymnestor), romulus (polytes) and demoleus, which, strangely enough, ignores the colour of the osmeterium, which is pale orange in polymnestor and varies from crimson to vermilion in helenus, polytes and demoleus. Moore (Lep. Ceyl., i, 1880-81) figures and briefly describes the early stages of the Ceylon subspecies parinda Moore. Papilio rhetenor Westw., rhetenor. 4th instar—Head green. Body glaucous green, suffused with white laterally on the thoracic, the 5th-6th and 1oth-11th somites, a white sublateral stripe from the 5th somite backwards. 1st somite with a subdorsal yellowish tubercle. A slight transverse ridge on the 3rd somite with six polished green points on it, a similar ridge on the 4th somite but with four points only. 12th somite with a green subdorsal tubercle. The dorsum from the 5th somite backwards with indistinct whitish X-shaped marks. 8th and gth somites each with a subdorsal blue speck, 8th somite with a THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 199 lateral. blue speck in addition. s1oth and 11th somite with a slightly raised, subdorsal, green point. Osmeterium yellow. Legs and prolegs green. Final instar—Head green. Body deep velvety green. st somite with a transverse whitish line anteriorly. 1st to 4th somites with a whitish sublateral line. 3rd somite with a lateral black spot with a white speck in it, the spots joined by a series of black-ringed, yellow-green dots, with a series of conjoined black rings immediately in front of them. The posterior edge of the 4th somite with a transverse olive-green stripe, the front edge highly crenulate and with four lavender spots in the indentations, the stripe joined below to the sublateral line. The skin between the 4th and 5th somites velvety black, but invisible unless the larva is extended. 5th somite backwards with a white sublateral stripe. An oblique stripe run- ning from the sublateral stripe on the 7th somite to the subdorsal area of the 8th, this stripe whitish speckled with blackish and containing two lavender dots on the 8th somite. 12th somite with a white transverse line, joining the sublateral stripe on the 11th somite, behind this line the body is whitish spotted with black. 12th somite with very small whitish subdorsal tubercles. Legs green. Prolegs green with two horizontal black bands. Venter green, the abdominal somites with a broad whitish median stripe. Spiracles buff, the central slit white. Osmeterium yellow. Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of whitish silk. Head produced into two forward pointing processes, slightly dentate internally, the external edge with a distinct ridge. Thorax with a low, triangular keel. Abdomen widest across the 3rd _ somite. The 4th and 5th abdominal somites with paired dorsal tubercles. Colour pale buff, the head, pro-thorax and thoracic keel blackish brown. A blackish subdorsal mark on the 3rd and 4th abdominal somites. The 5th abdominal somite backwards with the dorsum whitish. Wing cases with a blackish, triangular, discal mark. There is, presumably, also a green form of pupa, but I have not encountered it. Food-plant—Various species of Rutaceae, including Citrus spp. Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling District) 2-xi-45, pupated 12-xi-45 and a male emerged 17-11-46, Papilio polyctor Bsd., ganesa Dbl. 3rd instar—Head green. Body green, the 5th and 6th somites suffused laterally with white. A white sublateral line from the 5th somite backwards. 1st somite with a green subdorsal spine, rith and r2th somites also with subdorsal spines, that on the 11th somite very small. 3rd and 4th somites somewhat swollen, the swollen part with a transverse series of six small green points anteriorly and four posteriorly. 8th, gth and 1oth somites each with a bright blue, subdorsal dot. Legs, prolegs and venter glaucous green. Osmeterium yellow. When alarmed, the larva raises and inflates the forepart of the body. 4th instar—Similar. The spines on the tst and 12th somites smaller, that on the 11th obsolete. 200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Final instar—Head green. Body green, heavily speckled with paler green. First four somites scutellated and suffused with blackish dorsally, the shield outlined in front and below by a blackish line. 2nd somite with two transverse black lines, the area above the lateral black line outlining the shield pale green. 3rd somite with a lateral ocellus consisting of a black spot with a white streak in the upper half. The skin between the 4th and 5th somites black, but only visible when the larva is extended. 5th somite backwards with a white sublateral stripe. An oblique stripe of darker green starting on the lateral area of the 7th somite, and joining the sublateral stripe, and continuing onto the subdorsal area of the 8th somite. Similar lateral stripes on the 9th, roth and rrth somites. goth and toth somites suffused dorsally with blackish. 7th to roth somites each with a bright blue, subdorsal dot. 12th somite with a frans-_ verse black line, behind which the ground colour is whitish green. r2th somite with minute yellowish subdorsal tubercles. Legs, | prolegs and venter pale green. Osmeterium yellow. Spiracles buff rimmed with black. | Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Head produced in front into two triangular points, the inner edge slightly | dentate. Outline of the thorax narrower in front, broader behind, the sides straight, but slightly inclined, in front, and slightly curved and almost parallel behind, slightly indented where the girdle passes. Abdomen widest across the 3rd somite, the outline slightly curved in front, then straight and inclined to the cremaster. A very slight thoracic keel. Colour pinkish brown, a purplish brown dorsal stripe and a purplish brown subdorsal and lateral stripe on the abdominal somites. Venter and wing cases rather yellower brown. Another example had the ground colour purplish brown, the markings similar to the first but in a darker purple brown. Food-plant—Citrus; spp. and other Rutaceae. . Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling District) 23-x-45, pupated 11-xi-45 and a male emerged 11-11-46. I can trace no description of the larva of this subspecies, but the following are references to descriptions of the larva of the nomino-typical one :— Mackinnon & de N:, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xi, 594, pl. W, figs. 24a—24c. 1808. Moore, Lep. Ind., vi, 51, pl. 485, figs. 1, ra, 1b. 1903. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 11, 83. 1907. Jordan, Seitz Indo-Austr. Rhop., 1x, 79. 1909. Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i (2nd edit.), 145. 1930. Bingham gives the following description, quoted from Moore :— ‘Larva dull green with some yellowish markings, thorax with a remarkable shield-like covering projecting a little over the head and marked with slender involute black lines; 7th to the rath seg- ments with lateral obliquely placed pale yellowish lines. Pupa pale ereen with yellow and white markings. Head cleft, back strongly arched; ‘‘sides flattened out with a hard sharp ridge running longitudinally round the whole insect’’.’ Talbot quotes Jordan as follows:—‘The young larva bears spines which disappear in the THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 20¢ later stages, and is very dark. In the half-grown and full-grown larvae, which are green, the thorax is thickened above like a shield; the margins of the shield and also four oblique stripes on the abdomen are yellowish-grey, a longitudinal line above the prolegs is white. Pupa bluish-green, usually with brown markings, the lateral keel very distinct, brown or white, the horns on the head almost as long as they are broad at the base, the thoracic horns broad, low, pointed.’ Papilio paris L., paris. 3rd _instar—Head green. Body green, frosted with white, particularly on the lateral area of the 5th and 6th somites. A white sublateral stripe from the 6th somite backwards. 1st somite with a subdorsal green spine. 2nd to 4th somites swollen and expanded into a shield, 2nd somite with a transverse series of four minute points, 3rd somite with six, and 4th with four. trith somite with a minute yellow subdorsal spine, 12th somite with a larger yellow subdorsal spine. Legs green. Prolegs whitish green. Venter green on first four somites, whitish thereafter. Osmeterium deep chrome. Usually rests with the forepart of the body raised. 4th instar—Similar, but the spine on the 11th somite still further reduced. lates Final instar—Head green. Body green, the ath somite back- wards speckled with yellow. First four somites forming a shield, outlined below by a yellow line and with four lilac spots on the posterior margin. The thoracic somites with a series of slightly oblique, longitudinal, wavy, fine, black lines, with occasional flecks of lilac among them. 3rd somite with a lateral ocellus consisting of a terra-cotta spot with a white streak in the upper half. The skin between the 4th and 5th somites velvety black, but only visible when the larva is extended. 5th to rrth somites with a sublateral yellow stripe. 12th somite with a transverse yellow line, behind which the ground colour is whitish green. Legs, prolegs and venter pale green. Spiracles white, the rims black. Osmeterium deep chrome yellow. Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Head produced in front into two triangular points, the inner edge slightly dentate. The thorax narrower in front than behind, the sides straight, but slightly indented by the girdle. Abdomen widest across the 3rd somite, the outline rounded to the 3rd somite and then straight, and tapering, to the cremaster. A very slight thoracic keel. In profile, the wing cases are slightly rounded ventrally. Colour pale yellow green, dotted indistinctly with darker. A dorsal stripe, purplish on the thorax and white on the abdomen. 4th abdominal somite with a purplish subdorsal speck. Venter and wing cases paler, rather chalky green. Food-plant—Citrus spp., and probably other Rutaceae. Described from a larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling District) 1to-x-45, pupated 7-xi-45 and a female emerged 17-11-46. Talbot (1939, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i (2nd edit.) 1409, pl. 1, figs. 14, 15) figures the early stages of ssp. tamilana Moore, and 202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 quotes the following description from Bell (1912, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist Soc., xxi, 538-44):—Larva—When young it is dark olive-green with ochreous and white markings. In the third instar there is a white subspiracular band from segments 7 to 10 which persists to the final instar. When full grown the larva is bright grass-green, plentifully speckled with yellow; the white lateral band runs from segments 5 and 6 to the anal end, and there is an indication of a yellow diagonal line. Pupa—The curve of the ventral line very strong. Thorax rather short and convex and without apical protuberance; head-points stout and not long, and slightly separated at the base. Wing cases dark glaucous-greean, dorsal area light greenish-yellow, ventral surface of abdomen light yellowish-green ; a broad yellow dorsal band from the cremaster to segments 4 and 5, continued by a pinky-brown line to segment 2; the dorso-ventral edge yellow; a dark dorso-lateral spot on the centre of segments Bie ks HalraVGl. (36, Papilio arcturus Westw., arcturus. Head green. Body green, the 4th somite backwards heavily speckled with yellow. First four somites forming a shield, outlined laterally by a yellow line and with four mauve spots on the posterior edge. The thoracic somites with a series of fine, wavy, slightly oblique, longitudinal, black lines, with occasional flecks of mauve on them. 3rd somite with a lateral ocellus consisting of a brick-red spot with a whitish streak in the upper half. The skin between the 4th and 5th somite blue-black, but not visible until the body is extended. 5th to 11th somites with a yellow sublateral stripe. 7th somite with an oblique, unspeckled, yellow-edged, green lateral stripe, which is continued onto the subdorsal area of the 8th somite. goth, roth and 11th somites each with a similar lateral stripe, de- creasing in size from front to rear. 12th somite with a transverse yellow line, the area behind it whitish green. Legs, prolegs and venter pale green. Spiracles white, rimmed with black. Osmeterium yellow. Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. The head square in front, very slightly expanded at either side. Meso- thorax with the sides ‘Almost parallel, prothorax with the sides sloping towards the head. Abdomen widest across the 3rd somite, the sides straight, not curved. Body flattened somewhat above, thorax with a slight keel. In profile, the ventral line of the wing cases slightly curved. Colour purple brown, a darker dorsal stripe. The thorax and ist to 4th abdominal somites subdorsally suffused with fiery orange. Venter and wing cases Seven brown, slightly mottled with darker. Food-plant—Rutaceae of various species. Described from a full fed larva found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling District) 17-x-45, pupated 22-x-45 and a female emerged T-111-46. Papilio helenus L., helenus. Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened, very pale yellow. Laid singly on either surface of a leaf of the food-plant, THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 203 Ist instar—Head black. Body yellowish olive along the dorsum, the lateral area olive. trith and rath somites white. A subdorsal series of minute branched spines similar in colour to the somites on which they are placed, the spine on the rst somite much larger than the others. 2nd instar—Head dark olive. Body olive, the lateral area darker. «1st somite tinged with yellow, a white V-shaped mark, the point on the dorsum of the 8th somite, the arms extending to the lateral area of the 5th. 11th and 12th somites whitish. Spines as in previous instar but smaller. 3rd instar—Very similar to the preceding, but the spines, except on the rst, 11th and 12th somites, reduced to small warts. ard and 4th somites considerably swollen. 4th instar—Similar to the preceding. The swollen portion of the 3rd and 4th somites more evident and with four small biue dots on the anterior and posterior margins. 8th somite with a subdorsal and a lateral, 9th somite with a subdorsal, small blue dot. Dorsum with a series of faintly white-outlined diamond-shaped marks. indistinct dark subdorsal stripe between the ocelli. The area below the subdorsal stripe rather more pink with a series of six dark brown oblique lateral stripes, the last one reaching the base of the horn and with a yellow bar edging it above on the 11th somite. A subdorsal series of ocelli from the 4th to roth somites, almost round, the -upper edge slightly more convex. That on the 4th somite consisting of a black ring enclosing a large black pupil, edged below by a crescent-shaped mark, yellow above, then white and finally very narrowly lavender; the other ocelli consisting of a black ring with a purple-brown spot in the upper portion, a yellowish trans- verse bar with a narrow lavender band below. Venter dark brown on the first four somites, coloured as the lateral area thereafter. Legs dark plum banded with paler. Prolegs, anal flap and claspers brown slightly tinged with olive. Spiracles grey blue. Horn short, stout, downcurved, deep plum colour. Pupated 22-x-45. No larvae remained green in the final instar. Pupa in a slight web among litter. Meso-thorax and abdomen pale chestnut, the sides of the thorax streaked and suffused with blackish, a dark dorsal stripe on the abdomen. Ventral surface of abdomen and lateral area pinkish streaked with black, the anterior portion of each somite chestnut. Wing cases blackish with some pale greenish-buff streaks on the disc, and with a broad greenish- buff stripe between them and encroaching onto the costa. Proboscis sheath projecting forward and ventrally, the projecting portion THE EARLY STAGES’ OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 211 - blackish and ridged. Eye greenish-buff with a black crescent anteriorly and a blackish spot posteriorly. Cremaster black, triangular, the tip bifid. Spiracles black. A male cued 10-11-46. Food-plant—Vine. Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft., Darjeeling District). _Hampson’s description is as follows:—‘Green, speckled with yellow; a dorsal green line; a subdorsal yellow stripe and a series of yellow ocelli with green centres on fourth to eleventh somites, decreasing in size posteriorly.” Seitz writes: ‘Larva varying from green to brown; on the sides of the rings 4 to 10 there are dark eye-spots surrounded by yellow; that on the 4th ring hardly differs in the somewhat deeper colouring, sometimes not at all, and it by no means represents such a deceptive snake’s eye as in latreilli; on vine, moreover on Paederia, Psychotria and Morinda; more rarely on Euphorbiacea Glochidion. Pupa slender, 6 to 8 cm. long, with a proboscis-case being raised like a beak, though not forming a nose, earth-grey with bone-coloured eyes.’ Bell & Scott give Dillenia indica, Saurauja nepalensis, Vitis, Leea, Psychotria and Rubia cordifolia as food-plants. Rhagastis aurifera Btlr., aurifera. Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 471. 1929. Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 471, pl. vi, figs. 15, L639 119371 Ovum—Bright jade green, a broad ovoid. Laid singly on the underside of a leaf of the food-plant. Ist instar—Head yellowish green. Body yellow green, becoming greener after feeding. Horn straight, black, of medium length, the tip bifid. 2nd instar—Head green. Body green dotted with white along the secondary segmental divisions. 4th somite with a subdorsal ocellus ‘consisting of a dark blue spot in a white ring. A dark dorsal line. Horn black, the base reddish. 3rd instar—Very similar. A white subdorsal stripe on the thoracic somites. Ocellus' with the pupil dark blue anteriorly — shading into green posteriorly and ringed broadly with white and narrowly with black. A series of indistinct white, oblique, lateral stripes from the 5th somite backwards. 4th somite—Head green. Body green, speckled with white along the secondary segmental divisions. A dark green dorsal line, broadly edged with whitish from the 6th somite backwards. Thoracic somites with a white subdorsal line, edged above with darker green. Ocellus on the 4th somite and posterior portion of — the 3rd, consisting of a sap green ring edged internally with yellow, enclosing the pupil, which is dark blue anteriorly, shading through paler blue to green posteriorly, the green portion with one or two large and a number of small white dots. The dorsum between the ocelli yellow. A series of indistinct oblique lateral stripes from the 5th somite backwards, consisting of large bluish white dots, the stripe from the 9th somite continuing to the base of the horn as a 2 212, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 solid, clear white stripe. 5th somite backwards with a subdorsal - series of lunules composed of white dots. Sublateral and ventral areas thickly speckled with bluish white dots. Legs pink, the joints yellow. Prolegs green. Horn pale purple brown above, — with a dorsal blackish line, shading into yellow below, the tip blackish blue. Spiracles white ringed with green. Thoracic somites tapered. Final instar—Green form—Head green. Body green. A dorsal line from the head to the base of the horn blackish on the thoracic somites and very dark green thereafter. Thoracic somites with a white subdorsal line. A subdorsal ocellus on the posterior portion of the 3rd and anterior portion of the 4th somites, consisting of a dark olive ring, edged internally with pale yellow and enclosing a pupil, the anterior portion very dark blue, shading into paler out- wardly and into blue green posteriorly, the blue green portion with a few large and small white dots in it. The dorsum between the ocelli bright yellow. 5th to 9th somites each with a subdorsal lunule composed of white dots and with two further white dots between | the lunule and the dorsal line, 1oth somite with the two dots but without the lunule. 5th somite backwards with the dorsal line broadly and diffusely bordered with whitish. 5th to 8th somite each with an oblique lateral stripe composed of white dots, 9th somite with a more solid stripe, which is continued to the base of the horn. The whole. of the lateral area from the 5th somite backwards minutely white-speckled, the dorsal area faintly white-speckled along the secondary segmental rings. Legs pink. Prolegs green. Horn brownish-purple, downcurved and minutely tuberculate, flattened slightly from side to side. Spiracles white with a blackish speck . at each end. Brown form—Head olive green. Body golden brown. A very dark olive dorsal line from head to base of horn. Thoracic somites. with a white subdorsal line, edged above with darker golden brown. The ocellus consisting of a white ring enclosing a pupil of which the anterior portion is black, the posterior olive with two large and a number of smaller white dots, the white ring edged below and anteriorly narrowly with blackish, above widely with olive. A yellow dorsal patch between the ocelli. Subdorsal lunules and lateral stripes similar to the green form, but the posterior stripe edged above with olive brown, the area behind it thickly speckled with pinkish white. Legs deep pink. Prolegs olive speckled with pinkish. Horn olive brown, with a black line and white speckling along the upper edge, the tip bluish. Anal flap and claspers pale olive brown. Spiracles white with a black speck at each end. Pupa in a slight web among litter. Head, thorax and wing. cases dark olive brown, almost black. Eye whitish, reticulated with purple brown. Leg sheaths and veins of the wing cases with raised black points. Abdomen with a broad -buff dorsal stripe with a-median. blackish line, and minutely speckled with white and’ blackish. | Subdorsal and lateral areas blackish with a series of. white, roughly X-shaped marks above .and below. the spiracles. Venter with a black interrupted median line, a broad whitish, median’ stripe minutely speckled with greyish, a narrow, dark chestnut, : THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA ~~ 214 submedian stripe and a broad blackish lateral stripe. Cremasfer black, triangular, terminating in a double bifid: spine and with three spines on either edge, below deeply and narrowly excavate. Proboscis sheath projecting. frontally and very ‘slightly ventrally. Very much more slender than the pupa of R. confusa Roths. & Jord. Food-plant—Virginia Creeper. Described from larvae found at Tukdah (5,000 ft. Darjeeling District), one of which pupated 20: XL. 45 and'a male emerged 20.xi1.45. _ Seitz describes the larva as ‘green’, in the sides the oblique stripes are so broad that their white colour predominates; the sham-eye on the 4th ring is large; horn graphite-grey, very thick; probably on Polygonum japonicum.’ Rhagastis confusa Roths. & Jord. Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind. » Moths, Vv, 474; PUaVinelione1 Oe. ple xv, figs. 9, 10. 1937. 2nd instar—Head bright green. Body bluish green, speckled with minute white dots along the secondary segmental divisions. A dark dorsal line. Thoracic somites with a yellowish subdorsal line. A subdorsal ocellus on the posterior portion of the 3rd and anterior portion of the 4th somite, consisting of a dark green ring, edged internally with yellow, enclosing a spot, dark blue anteriorly shading through bright blue into green posteriorly. Traces of oblique lateral white stripes. Horn long, black, the base deep red, the tip bifid. 4th . somite very swollen, the thoracic somites tapered. Moulted 15-X.45; 3rd instar—Similar. The lateral stripes more pronounced, that on the 9th somite most distinct and reaching the base of the horn. Moulted 21-x-45. | _ 4th instar—Similar. The legs pink. The horn stouter; pale purple with minute black tubercles. The dorsal line edged broadly and indistinctly with bluish white from the 8th somite backwards. Moulted 28-x-45. Final instar—Head) green. Body green, a darker green dorsal line from head- to base “of horn, thoracic somites with a yellowish subdorsal stripe edged above with darker green. The body, parti- cularly from the 5th somite backwards, heavily speckled along the secondary segmental rings with white. The dorsal line’ broadly bordered with bluish white from the 7th somite backwards. A subdorsal ocellus on the 4th and posterior edge of the 3rd somite, consisting of a cream ring, broad above and narrow elsewhere, out- lined with dark green and tinged above and below with dark blue, enclosing a- pupil, the anterior portion very dark blue, the posterior green containing a few white dots. .5th to 8th somites each witha subdorsal lunule composed of. bluish white dots, 6th to toth somites each with a bluish white’ lateral stripe, which joins the lunule on the somite behind, the stripe from the gth somite continued to the base of the horn and edged above with dark green. Legs pink. Venter and prolegs green, the former dotted with white. Horn ‘stoutish, slightly down-curved, evenly tapering, pale purple. Spiracles white with a central blackish-brown dot:: Pupated 7-xi-45. 214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Pupa in a slight web among litter. Head and thorax blackish brown. Wing cases brown, the inner margin darker, the veins. with raised black points. Legs sheaths with raised black. points. Abdomen pale fawn, a blackish dorsal and wide subdorsal stripe consisting of short, longitudinal streaks. A blackish spiracular stripe and a broad ventro-lateral stripe, also composed of short streaks, and a black median line. Spiracles set in black patches. Cremaster black, triangular and ending in two double spines, under- side excavate. Proboscis sheath projecting very slightly frontally and ventrally. Eye brown with a pale crescent. A male emerged 7-i11-46. Food-plant—Virginia Creeper. Described from larvae found at Tukdah {5,000 ft., Darjeeling District). Cechenena lineosa Wlk., ilineosa. Mell, Biol. u. System. der Sudchin. Sphing., 330, ok 19, figs. 34, 35, pl. 32, fig. 13. 1922. Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 570. 1929. Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 491, pl. vil, fig. 7. 1937. Head dark olive brown. Body pinkish brown, minutely speckled with paler along the secondary segmental divisions. First four somites with a blackish dorsal line and a darker brown subdorsal stripe, edged below with paler. 5th to 11th somites with a slightly zig-zag dark subdorsal stripe, edged below with paler and joining the base of the horn. 3rd to roth somites each with two whitish subdorsal dots with a black dot adjoining above. 4th to roth somites each with a dark oblique lateral stripe edged below with paler. 484 —_——- — indica 648. ans as thyodamas vee BES | cyrus . 503, 587; 646. Dactylethra cana 674 Daimio bhagava andamanica... 490. - — bhagava 651. Dalbergia sissoo ... 466. Danais aglea melanoides a 508, -- chrysippus 508, 647) ———~ limniace... 770. as | LIAR 508, 647. ——-- melaneus plateniston ... Pe) SIs) ———--- melissa septentrionis » 908) ———-- plexippus 508, 647, -- tytia tytia . 508. Danaus. 5 wes, OOM Danaus affinis aia taane Mae 473, 479 - aglea melanoleuca 478, 592 - agleoides... 478 - aspasia : 560. —-—- chrysippus. 479, 587, 590, 769, 786. - gautamoides 479. ——-- limniace ; wen AGO) ——_- ——_- —— miutina .. 479, 587) - melanippus camorta _ 479 ——- ——:——— nesippus ae 479 - melissa septentrionis .. 479 '~nesippus.. 475 —— hileinenste — 5E0 ———- plexippus 479, 590 —-~— similis nicobarica ... 478 danisepa ote 501 Daphnia ... 609 600 500 ss 768 Daphnids ... 765 daraxa aes 916 Dasychira bhana.. 592 Datura re 653 Datura alba 657, 659 ——--—arbore «. 659 Datura fastuosa alba ———-— innoxia...... ——-— Metel 500 000 ——-— Stramonium decaocto, (S.) Deilephila nerii Delias ‘ee Delias aglaia 500 500 —-— agostina 00 == belladona clan — ineeneae ———— berinda berinda ... ——— descombesi eee eS i -—— eucharis ... ; > -—— hyparete hierte ... — hypartete ——— sanaca aid _ —- thysbe pyramus... Delichon nipalensis -——_—— urbica urbica... _Delonis regia Delphis ... demoleus, (P.) Dendrocitta vagabunda deodara, (C.) Dercas lycorias... é - verhuli denbleday Desmodium pulchellum ... Desmodium sp. determinata wee Detonula sp. OD deudoryx » obo see Deudoryx epijarbas amatius a ancs —- -———~ epijarbas ... Diacrisia casigneta ee _—-—— leopardina ———— unifascia _Diagora persimilis persimilis ... Diaphorina truncata Diaptomus Dicaeum aayiinonnemnalliag Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Dichocrocis punctiferalis | _Dichorragia nesimachius Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus. ——--———— macrocercus Digama hearseyana Dillenia indica... leucacantha 506, 554, 557 albirictus INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE OS!) 658, 659 657, 658, 659 OS? 643 462, 588 oo BB | 506, 556 | 505, 556 | 556 | 505 | 506 956 | 990 505 556 foo Shel 506 430 430 677 | 313 ono Shu 638, 683 421 507 | one 507 673 673 587 667 | 484 489, 590 | 650 590, 592 590, 592 _.. ON) care Ola 673 763 «- 641 506 OB 497, 786 514 409 639, 679 409 588, 591 pe 4. 7, | Dysphania palmyra dilutata ... oo 0 900 Dindica polyphaenaria ... diphilus Diphtherocome aispibiianen Discophora continentalis andamanensis. -— tullia zal Dissemurus paradiseus .. dissimilis dissimillima Dityiium brig htwelli Ditylium sp. dixoni 600 Dodona adonira ademas - dipoea nostia - durga - egeon —-—— eugenes ... a — eulgenes henrici longicaudata ——— ouida ouida doleschallia Doleschallia bisaltitte SEEN - indiva ——— celinde continentalis domesticus, (P.) ... e002 dorippus ... 500 eos ee dphilus ... Dryobates Dryobates macei... 900 durga see 200 dulciae, (P. marina) Dyanopsylla grandis ——-———- prunicolor ... Earias fabia ebusa, (N.) Echis carinatus ... Egretta sae Si Eichorina speciosa eee Elaphe helena Eletteria cardamomi Elymnias cottonis cottonis ——--—— hyp ermnestra undularis ——-—— malelas malelas ——--—— nesoea timandra - panthera mimus ——-—— patna patna -——-—— penanga chelensls Elymnias vasudeva deva Emberiza cia stracheyi — fucata arcuata, 501, 593; X&V XXV1 PAGE Emberiza leucocephala oek 429 -— stewarti 422 Emegeraulis sp. 457 Enispe cycnus cycnus 512 euthymius 512 Enmonodia shiva 589 Eothrips annulicornis ... 673 ———— crassicornis semOS ‘Ephestia cahiritella 495 — cautella 495 epicles, (H.) 489 Epizygaena cashmirensis 590 Ercheia diversipennis ... 006 464 -Ercta ornatalis 591 Erebia annada orixa oO) hybrida we #580 kalinda kalinda .. OOO nirmala nirmala 575, 592 shallada shallada 582, 585 Eremopterix grisea wee OOL Eressa (Syntomis) conifis ... 588 Ergolis ariadne indica 648 — pallidior — 520 merione assama 520 Eriboea arja eae 50 es coo" GIS} - athamas anderanice Ase —- ———- athamas ae §13, 647 delphis ... co 313 dolon dolon Ba, 060 592 ——— magniplaga 513 schreiberi assamensis ... OLS ——-—— ftissamenus ... 482 Erionota thrax acroleuca eee 491 erota 600 485 Erythrina ... 497 Erythrina indica .:. 497 erythropygia ooo! 432 erythropygia, (H. daurica) 432 eryx 600 600 ese 600 coe 489 Eryx conicus eee 631 esperi 480 Estigene (Alpnaen) esse 592 (—— ——) quadriramosa 592 Eterusia pulchella 590 Etiella zinckenella wenn 1490 Etroplus 764, 765 Etroplus erratencie 457, 763, 765 Euaspa milionia 971 Eublepharis macularius 628 Fuchrysops cnejus pandava pandava 487, 649 a “487, 588, 649 INDEX OF SPECIES Eudorina eee O60 Eudynamis scolopaceus | Eugenia Eugenia Coben ———— jambolana ——— jambos Euglena Eulycianthes eumagos wie 606 500 Eumenes cee Eumenis mnizechii palaive Eumeris parisatis Eunetta falcata Eunotia Euonymus... Euphorbia Euphorbia neriifolia 642, 683 493, 671 763, 765 ...468, 493, 496 eee PAGE 765 671 493 655 500 7i2 50 580 531 765 493 ~ 495 495, 480 474 | 474 Euplesia semifascia cuprea_ ... eso OOS Euploea 472, 480, 509 Eurloea alcathoe Goupleday 508 ——- andamanensis ...° eee ~ 471, 473 | —__—- —_____-— andamanensis 1... 30m —-—-— ———— + bumila ... «oe ~=—- 480 —~-— ———— ferrari ... 480 | —-— climena camorta 479 —-—- —— scherzeri 479 | ——— — simulatrix 479 | ——-— core ae 505 O06 sco AO) eo core 5&7, 590 — ——-— — vermicuiata 508 ——-— corus phoebus ... zee 40M ——-— crameri esperi ... an Ae CY ——-— ——.— _ frauenfeldii.... we 480 | ——-— crassa crassa ... See 509 | —-~— deione deione ... aoe ~508 | —-— diocletiana diocletiana 508 | ——-—— harrisi harrisi E . ~ 480 | — hopei er ~ klugii macclellandi 509 | —leucostictos novarae ... « 480) ——-— midamus SeeeOSS —--- — splendens - 909 - mulciber mulciber 479, 508 | — roepstorffii - scherzeri wae es Euploeas ... Eupodotis SAUTEREES 531 Euproctis guttata 590 Hupterote fabia 593 —_-_——. undata 588 | Eurema “477, 522, 590 } EE a a ae INDEX OF SPECIES Eurema anderson andamana ... andersoni andamana ... ———- blanda moorei silhetana —- brigitta 500 doo ——- hecabe ... —_—- ———- hecabe... ——- ——- nicobariensis ——- (Terias) : ———- ( ) hecabe fimbriata - ( ) laeta laeta Euripus consimilis consimilis ——— halitherses Euthalia ——_—— cibaritis duda evelina derma franciae rajah ——— garuda acontius - anagama —_— ——-—- garuda ———— iva ———— jahnu jahnu Euthalia jama jama_a.. ———— julii adima —-—— — sedeva ... ——— — kesava kesava... ———— lepidea lepidea ——_—— lubentina indica ————nais... 900 ———— patala patala .. ——-—-— phemius sahadeva nadaka -— telchinia a -—_—— teuta teuta —— - teutoides Euxoa spinifera ... Euzophera cedrella —— perticella —— punicaeella ... evansii, (C.) o0 Everes parrhasius pila... exasperatua, (O. oceanicus) extricatus Falco jugger 50¢ peregrinus peregrinator . tinnunculus falconeri, (R.) _ Fascellina chromataria... . —- plagiata eee fastuosa, (D.) asT—S—T-— - eee oe eee 9@°0 eee PAGE 478 473 477 477 569 471 471 478 472 587 eo 482, 513 sey 4 499, 514 482 915 515 515 482 588, 647 514 515 514 514 914 514 514 514 515 647 592 514 515 514 ese 515 482 591 495 oo. GRE 495 sos 7/6 486 444 649 743 743 643 434 494 494 fastuosa, (D.metel) ... Faunis arcesilaus eumeus assama .., ferina, (N. ferina) ferox, (S.) ferrari Ficus : —- bengalensis —- benjamini ... —- dalhousiae ——- glomerata ... —-— oppositifolia ——- parasiticus... ——- religiosa -——- Spp. ... ——- talboti Filodes fulvidorsalis flaviventris, (O.)... flavalba flaviviridis florella formosa Fragilaria ... Franklinia gracilis frauenfeldi frauenfeldi, (A.)... Frazer, Mrs. (var.) Fregetta tropica hodgsoni ... 469, 497, 758 eco Fringilauda nemoricola altaica Fringilla montifringilla frontalis. (S.) Fulica atra Fulvetta vinipecta fulvus, (H.) fuscatus, (Ph.). ... -— (Ph, fuscatus) fuscus ath Ses COO Galleria mellonella Gallus gallus 500 oe. Gambusia affinis tee Gandaca harina andamana assamica nicobarica ganesa a O00 eee Gangara thyrsis yasodara Garrodia nereis ... 300 Garuga pinnata ... : garzetta, (E.) ... eee Gazalina chrysolopha ... 657, 658 | Gelasma dissimulata eee 493, 497 EXVii PAGE 659 512 DZ 691 652 475 683 488 670 670 497 494 670 670 496 639 477 628 646 484 765 640 411 480 773, 774 404 443, 446 428 426 734 693, 697 oo ky Os CBE 200 440 523 739 476 494 643 7163 477 507 477 502 491 448 497 644 493 493 EXVIli PAGE Geoemyda trijuga 764 Geranium 494 Gerres filamentosus 663 gigantea, (C.) 769, 774 giganteum, (S,) ... 652 gilgitica $75 ginginianus, (A) 640 glabra, (B.) 500 403, 404, “405, 408 glicia : irene) 8007) Gloecapsa : 7695 | Glycosmis Seemineninensts 671 sa cyanocarpus 671 —— --—— Pentaphylla... soo OYJ —__-—___ —____-- simplicifvlia. 671 —-sp.«. 671 glyphodes bivitralis 497 —_—-— —— caesalis . pot! ———— canthusalis... 469, 497 —-———— glauculalis... 497 ———_— indica 497 = flegatalis 497 es STE 497 —— —— unionalis 497 —— vertumnalis ... 497 Gobius spp. oe bad seem oo Gonepteryx mahaguru mahaguru (aspasia zaneka) ... .589 ——— -—— rhamni nepaiensis... DOO Oo 2s, ‘goniopeltis rt Or -Gourami 763 gracilis, (C.) 5525) -Grandala coelicolor 44] _ Graphium 521 Guinardia flaccida 666 —sp. i. orp 667 Gymnodinium sp.. 00 oo), ae OO7 - Gymnorhis pentHocolies “és 680 ——_— oe canthocollis 427 Gynaikothrips karnyii ... 669 —_-—_“-—— Sp. 669 Gypaétus. barbatus we 442 Gyps indicus 090 we «= 643 -Gyrosigma 765 Haematornis cheela 643 Haemorrhagia saundersi woe S93 Halcyon smyrnensis 651, 681 Haliastur indus ... 0 eeeo4d3 Hallomyia cardomonii... €68 Halosphaera 765 Halosphaera viridis _ 766 Halpe moorei moorei 491, “645, 651 INDEX OF SPECIES _ Hesperiidae _ Hestia lynceus cadelli | Hipposideros alee Harriet dubiosa fulva ... —-——-. nora dilata ERED ram Eyes —— nora Hasora alexis we ——-— badra badra: ... ——-— khoda minsona... ——-— leucospila parnia —~—-— salanga .. : ————- taminatus almea —— malayana ., —_———— vitta vitta Hebomoia elaucippe ala cip ne: —_—__-7) ———_ ——— Foepstoritiia se. hecabe, (E.) hecabe hecabe hector helenus Ree Heliophorous onli ocles _. epicles — indicus ———-— sena Heliothis armigera Heliozoa Hellula undalis Henidactylus brooki OTC LS ree leschenaulti —— maculatus —_— triedrus a Hemithea tritonaria ... ~— ... Herona marathus andamana ... -— marathus Herse convolvuli NeSPehAweerac see aia Hesperia alpina alpina Hestina nama in Heterodera radicicola Heterographis bengalella ed —— venuctesle Hibiscus esculenta 504, — sp. 50 wee 677, 679, hierax : Hipparchus Bapilonenia Hippocrepis hippoides ... 905 500 Hippolais 500 737, 738 hipponax ... INDEX OF SPECIES thecloides nicobarica ... 489 F PAGE Hippotion celerio 588, 591 Hirundo daurica ee ; 640 — Darihnopyelas 431 — ——-- - nipalensis ese —-—— fluyicola aap es: weeny A407 — javanica domicola 740 —— — rustica gutturalis 740 | — —— rustica 431 — smithii filifera - ~ 431 hodgsoni, 560 0 dci0 625, 626 hodgsoni, (A.) ... 50 wee 641 —, (A.h.) 600 BE 627 Holarrhena antidysenterica 496 Holigarna Arnottiana ... 600 See OVE Holosphaera viridis 665 Homochlamys be 416 Homochlamys pallidus 416 Horaga albimacula we 489 — onyx rana oo GY) hordonia = : 483 | Horeites DeUnirtene melon 416 Hoisfieldia anita dina 650 | —— ——- andamanica 488 Hubneri ... 600 50 aes foo LD Huphina Ve. 5225 -Huphina nadina TAREE 50 oo UD — nerissa evagete ss 646 — - phryne es 506 | hyale, (C.) 5/3 Hyarotis adrastus praba 491 hydaspes 575 Hydatina ... sat : 765 -Hydnocarpus Wien 674 Hydrilla er 606 690 Hydrilla verticillata ... OS Hydrobates pelagicus 443, 447 Hyelaphus poicinus _,., 600 732 | Hymenoptera... seh 774 Hypacanthis spinoides 442 -— spinoides 426 Hypericum sp. ... aus 493 Hyperythra lutea : 591 Hypolimnas antilode anomala 473, 480, 484 : —— bolina 471, 484, 518, 588, 648 -——-misippus ... 484, 518, 588, 591, 7 648 hypolimnas mysippus ... 479 hypolyceana 600 ee cee oe 484 Hypolycaena erylus andamana 489 Hyposidra talaca Hypsipyla robusta Hypsopygia mauritialis Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus icteroides, (P.) ictis wa are lmpatienssp.... sis 500 incana, (Q,) indicum, (8.) indicus, (C.) Indigofera gerardiana ... innoxia, (D.) inopinatus, (A.h.) insana, (L.)... insulana, (E.) ... 500 50C lodis argutaria ... ate dep Ipomoea aquatica Iraota timoleon timoleon Ismene amara 500 -—harisaharisa ... 300 — jaina astigmata Isocentris opheltesalis ... Issoria sinha sinha Ixias pyrene 50 - pears - pirenassa Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Ixops nipalensis Ixora Ixora spp. Ixulus Boe Us jacquemontii, (P. Sncquemonti jainadeva, (A, adippe) . —-—— Jambona Jamides oat Jamides alecto eurysaces —— —-~-—- fusca ———- —-— kondulana — bochus bochus wo -nicobaricus ... — celeno blairana — cele=o ————— ferrari : ——— kankena kankena aes Caen Iilgaelea) ——— — — ————— jnicevillei ... — pseudelpis Jasminum grandiflorum Jasminum sambac —— Sp. te — trichotomum... 493, 412, XXX PAGE Johnius carutta 456 jumbah amorosca eee S3 Jussiaea repens ops) ASD Kallima 474 Kallima alberaeciatn 484 alompra (knyvetti) ONS - inachus inachus wes 518, 648 kamala, (A.) AOC bs 73 Khasia khasia 606 509 khasianus 512 Kicksia 496 Kinkurka 487 Labeo gonius 60] rohita 449, Gi, 453, 594, 763, 704 ladakensis, (C.) 5c 580 Lady Hudson, (var.) ... ate 407 Laelia exclamationis 588 Lagerstroemia flos-reginae we | 493 indica .. 467, 493, 494 Lagomys roylei ~569 Laiscopus collaris 200 aoe 441 Lalage ... 506 oes tee 507 Lalage sykesii 734 lalang 472 Lamoria anella eae we. = 494 Lampides boeticus 500 487, 649 -— obsoleta 487 Lamprocorax panayensis 640 Lam proptera 506, OLD Lanius cristatus : OOS Lantana sellowiana _... 443 lanuginosa, (Q.) 433 Laringa horsfieldii andamanensis 486 Larus brunnicephalus ... 643 Lasiurus borealis 525 Lasioptera falcata A00 Te OOS lateritia 404, 407, 408 lateritia, (B. epectabilis) 404 lathonia, (A.) 573 Laurineae 494 — Laurineae sp. oa ed 92 Lawsonia inermis 678, 681 Lebadea martha ismene 515 Leea Sp. 669 | lehana, (P. pherees) 580 Leiognathus spp. 663 Lemna polyrrhiza 765 lepidotum, (R.) noo, folel leptalina co OR) Leptocircus O21) INDEX OF SPECIES 156 PAGE Leptocircus curius 499, 505 meges 505 Leptomiza calcesria 493 Leptoptilos ee 644 Leptosia nina aieobEnA, 200 55a YO — —— nina 476, 505, 590, 646 Lepyrodes geometralis 497 — neptis 497 Lerwa lerwa 443 leschenaulti 628 leschenaulti, (M.) O00 .. 642 Lethe ‘ 567, 570, 582 Lethe bhadra ate 600 so, ll —-- chandica flanona 210 | —- confusa ss 582 ae - vanbare 510 | ——~- europa niladana 509 | —- nudgara 481 —- — ragalva 647 | ee tamuna 481 ——- insana dinarbas 510 Lethe kansa ah 000 600 510 —-latiaris .. 0 510 | ——- pulaha pulamoraes 510 | ——- rohria nilgiriensis 647 en rohria me co) | ——- sidonis sidonis “s 509, $92 ——-~ sinorix s-, LOR ——- sura 509 | ~——- verma Sintica 510 | —— verma 592 | ——- yama yama es 592 | a yamoides 510 | Leucania irregularis .. 40cm Leucinodes orbonalis 497, 591 | _ leucocera, (C.) 585 levis, (L.) ae en eee 656 | Libisosa (Simplicia) robustalis es) | Libythea re 521. | Libythea lepita lepita 589 | -——-——— myrrha sanguinalis © 521 | | lichenosa 000 woe «= 476 ligyes 66 ces 0/0; 0925 DOOM Limenitis austenin austenia ) olG — —-— daraxa om 000 516) | ____.-—. duda .., 60 516 | —- procris anarta 600 .- 483] ae - procris 516, 647 Limenitis trivena .. 075, 582, 585 | ~ a ligyes 585 ——-—- zayla ————————— INDEX OF SPECIES Limenitis zulema Lissemys punctata Locusteila naevia straminea ... longicaudatus, (D.) lonyifolia, (P.) Loligo spp. 600 Lophomachia semialba : Lophophanes dichrous aes -— rubidiventris Lophophorus impejanus Loranthus Loranthus elasticus --—— lepidotus ——-——-- ligustrinus ... —--—— pentandrus ... Louis Wathen, (var.) ——= 492, 493, 554, 557 403, 407, 408 PAGE 516 627 410 639 421 457 492 440 440 443 673 673 954 6/3 Loxia curvirostra himalayana 442 Loxura atymnus continentalis 650 - — nicobarica 488 -_— prabha 488 Lucerne 600 497 Luxiaria ehliquata: 494 Lycaena kasyapa om 50¢ 573 — pavana 592 phlaeas indicus 589, 592 Lycaenesthes . 484 Lycaenesthes emolus enemanicds con, seu) || —- -— emolus ... wo. 649 ——- lycaenina lycaenina 649 —_—— lycambes 487 Lycaenidae 470, 472, 474, 484 Lycaenopsis huegelii huegelii 989 -— puspa cyanescens -. 486 ———_ —--— gisca 600 wo. 649 —-~-—— prominens 486 | —~ telis coe 486 | —- vardhana 589 Lycaon pictus bag 778 | Lycianthes 652, 655, 656 | Lycianthes biflora 656 | ——-— higeminata ... 653, 656 | —_—-—- Kaitisis 656 | — denticulata 656 | Lycianthes lysimachioides 656 | —_—— — macrodon 656 | ——— pachypetala . 656 Lycodon sp. (aulicus ?) 631 Lycopersicon ... 500. 659 Lycopersicon esculentum 660 _ lycopersicon ... co OOU “———-- - pomum-amoris oso O00 XXX1 PAGE Lycus 511 Lygropia neatennelia 497 Lymantria concolor superans .. 090 Lyngbia 763, 765 lysimachioides ... 656 Mabuya carinta a OSU - trivittata or 628, 630 Macalla carbonifera acs 500 . 468 Macaria fasciata 494 ——— fidoniata 494 maccei 641 macei, (D.) 641 machaon, (P.) 567 Macrocilix mysticata 590 Macroglossum bombylans 593 Macropisthodon plumbicolor ... 632 maculatus soot OS; maculipennis, (P.) cieeatlo Maesa chisia 492, 494 Maharaja of Mysore, ear. ) 434, mahraitensis 641 mahrattensis. (D.) 641 major : : 490 Malacocincla connie abbotti... We 548 Malvaceae mo CRY Mangifera indica 669, 670 — timorensis =) 020 Maniola davendra davendra 580 ~— lupinus cheena 578 Marasmia trapezalis 496 Mareca penelope 698 Marmax ‘ies 513 Maruca testulalis 497 Mastogloia roy nttoo Matapa aria 491, 651 ——--= druna 491 ~— shalgrama 491 Mauraena spp. a ey: mayo ae 475, 476 McCannii, (S.) 652 McLean, Mrs. (var.) 407 Meandrusa 92] Meandrusa evan apo GR) -——-- gyas gyas 499, 504 -—— payeni evan 504 Medasina albidaria 494 ——-——- strixaria .. 494 Megaderma lyra : 524, 526 Megalaima haemacephala 641 -—— lineatus es 641 Megaptera eo B06 at BY XXX1i Megaptera nodosa Megatrioza hirsuta Megisba inalaya presbyter - sikkima Mekara zuchara Melanitis ismene —_—— — leda ismene 481, 511, ———— phedima bela —_———— — galkissa — zitenius andamanica — —— — zitenius Melastoma normale Melitaea arcesis sindura Melophus lathami subcristata ... Melo.-ira Melosira sp. es Memecylon qmplexi@anis —_—_—--——- edule -—— Sp. memnon ae Merops orientalis ... ~- superciliosus javanicus Mesua ferrea Metaponia pusilla Metasia coniotalis metel, (D.) Metopidius indicus Microcichla scouleri Microcystis ait Microcystis aeruginosa ... Micronecta micropterus, (C} Microthrix inconspicuella Millingtonia hortens's Milvus migrans Mimosa conscinna Mimusops elengi minima, (P.) minor, (N.) Mirabilis x Mirabilis Jalapa ... Mirafra assamica Misenus mississipiensis, (A, ) Mixornis gularis rubricapilla ... Mocis (Remigia) frugalis undata O06 Moduca mollissima Molpastes cafer Momordica charantia 676, 682, INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE W312 673 486 486 510 471 647 511 572 48] 511 494 580 429 765 665 587, 5 oe 20, 763, 671 | 670 | 671 | 502 | 476, 642, 683 741 670 426 498 659 643 441 765 765 765 641 495 658, 763, 643, 683 wae 404 | noe COE 656, 402 641, 680 509 551 £48 465 591 497 441 638, 677 668 683 | 657 765 | 401 | Seeger PAGE Momordica dioecai 668 monorhis, (O, m.) we 447 Monticola cinchorhyncha 490 639 ————— erythrogastra 441 ——-—~— solitara 639 — moorei ae Wreate: ee So 478 Morinda citrifolia ; 652 Moringa pterygosperma 498, 786. Motacilla alba 640. — maculata 625 | ——-—— maderaspatensis 680 Mugil 000 : 0, 2608 Mugil buchanani 663, 664, 666 ——— dussumieri 663, 665. ——— oeur 663, 664, 665. ——— oligolepis 663, 666 ——— spleigeri . €63, 667 ——— spp. BAB S01 663 ——— .tade 663, 667 ——-— troschelli €63, 665 ——-~— waigiensis 663, 665 | Musa paradisiaca 667, 700 | ——-- sapientum 006 703 | —- —— flabellata 700 | mutina 606 479 — Mycalesis anaxias Seema 509 | a manii 480 es radza 480 — ——- francisca sanatana ... 509 a lepcha lepcha 575, | ——--—-— malsara 900 909 — a malsarida 509) | —-——---——. mestra mestra 509 —~—-——. mineus mineus S00 509 Mycalesis mineus nicobarica ... 480 -— polydecta 647 | ———-— perseus typhlus 647 — —_———-— persius blasius 509 | —_—_-_-— visala 471 ———-— —-— andantana 480 | Sp visala® <.. 509, 647 — Mycerobas melanoxanthus 421 Myelois pectinicornella 495 Myrtus 492 — Mytilus edulis 456 Nacaduba 472 Nacaduba ¢luta eoslestisl 488 ———.-— ancyra aberrans 487 Nacaduba berenice nicobarica 488 ———-—. ———-—-— plumbeomicans ... 488 ——-—--— beroe gythion 488 — | hide. PAGE | | Nacaduba dana «. : 645, 650 |-——-— dubiosa indica 650 ———-— helicon brunnea 487 {==——-— ——-— kondulana. ... 487 {—_—-— hermus major 487 /__—-—- kurava euplea 488 ee ___—_ nicobarica .:. 4838 == —-— nora nora 650 i. pavana 487 \—-—-— poctolus madameniece 487 = —______. macropthalma\ .....‘- [487 | \———-— vajuva varia ... 487 | Nacoleia diemenalis 497 | = ___. vulgalis 497 Naja naja 632 Najas indica 765 ‘nandina ‘ §17 gar, (N.) «.. 473 ‘nara cae eee 649 inasutus, (L.) «. 639 \Natrix piscator... 632. | ‘Nauplius 763, 765 | Navicula ne 763, 765 WNavicula sp. 666, 667 imefte, (P.) on 486 Nelumbium speciosum ... 708 ‘eophron , ae 521 \Neopithecops Zalmora 486 ‘Neorina patria west woodi oll Nephele didyma... G06 588, 591 ‘Nephelium lichi ... 492 | Nephopteryx divisella 495 | |—___-—_ eugraphella asia 5 ERS, | ee paurosema ces 495 —————— semirubella’ 495 Neptis 570, 645 | Neptis ananta oC 570 ——— antilope antilope 517 | ——— cartica cartica 517 columella kankena oto ——— ---——-—-. ophiana 517, 648 ——— ebusa ebusa Seon 3 ——— hordonia cnacalis a0 483 ——-=- —-—+-— hordonia 518, 648 ——— hylas ae “0 471, 475 — — ——— adara so SIG ——— ——— andamana 300 ow» 483 ——— — + astola ». 017, 589,592 Neptis hylas nicobarica 483 ——- —— — saimbilanga ctl iets me AOS os varmona oret 648 3 INDEX OF SPECIES -~ gexiii PAGE Neptis jumba ... dak eae merna7L ——— jumbah amorosea uae we 483 -—— binghami aK 473, 483 a jumbah vt .. 648 _ magadha khasiana_ _... bch | aly/ —~——~-—— mahendra wii ser Bo eV) ——-— miah miah sine 300 Oly ———mnandinaclinia ... is fqn4ss ——— ———-— susruta Hi a> > OL7 ———- narayana narayahna ... srr O0e ———-sankaranar... a: 483, 486 ——-— —~—--— quilta ... vat $32 OL7 ——— soma mananda a wee - 483 ——— —--— soma __... Be 517, 648 —-—~-~- vikasi pseudovikasi _... ROL? ——-— viraja viraja... ane ranhte Od, ——-— yerburyi sikkima rit ii LT ——— = yerburyi 56 Boe ONY Neptunus spp. wie as amp4oo nerii, (A.) x whe ss er S74 Nerium odorum 506 aos fie eZ 14 nesippus oe BUC cof sees) 4/9 Netta rufina ane ane add 692, 696 Nettion crecca ... ... 690, 692, 697, 698 Neurosigna doubledayi doubledayi ... 516 newara ae es a oe Prue copia Nicandra. ‘ ‘ins OSD Gao 0660 Nicandra payenloides 600 wine -. 660 nicevillei Bee sa S08 we 487 nicobarica re 900 we \e 483 NICOLA ars SOE ete aes .» 909 Nicotiana 3 ace eae .. 660 Nicotiana baer SS ess ces = 660 nigra COU 600 eee O06 «» 6489 nigrum, (S.) Soe 600 500 w. 652 nila 500 . 360 Rs ve «= 482 nilgiriensis, (D. 1 ou as seo. 900 nipalensis MT ose «ee cone 4S nirius, (P. epaphus) ... eee ese 090 Nitella sp. ace 500 Ci 665, 666 nitidus sie sus a: ween Wit ciofer nitidus, (Ph.) sa a wer Ccatin Le, Nitzschia ... Res ASG ae seo 61 1:700 Nitzschia closterium ... ate < sa) 97 006 a seriata ... Sas 665, 666, 667 Nomophila noctuella_ ... wie eset ogl Noorda blitealis “i 500 so» 498 Notocrypta curvifascia at «. 491 Notocrypta paralysos paralysos .. 491 Notonecta _—.... 080 | te a PANCSA ee ae 502 | ——-— polymnestor polymnestor .., -- 645 | ——-—— polytes vee eee)! | Papilio polytes nikobarus ... .... 476. —-—— romulus .., 458, 503, 587, 645 | ~=——- polytes stichioides 08 ; 476 -Penthema lisarda lisarda UNDEX Of SPECIES “ XKXY PAGE PAGE Papilio protenor 5/2 | Peratophyga aerata 493 EEE enprotenor 502 | Pergesa elpenor. rivularis 590 ——— rhetenor 502 | Pericallia (Areas) imperialis ... eo, Parallelia mirabilis 589 | Pericrocotus peregrinus ‘639; 733 ———-— (Ophiusa) algira wee PSO] | Perina nuda Seer era Gilt Paramoecium eS 763 | Perissospiza affinis eras: | Paranticopsis 521 | —— carneipes 44.2 Paranticopsis macareus Wonel 504 | ————--— carnipes carnipes..: 9° ~<.. © 421 ———- megarus megarus 504 5 ——- icteroides ec arsyiiat (44) - xenocles xenocles 504 | perseus ot oe 647 Perarge schakra .. 583, 589, 592 | peruviana, (B. iv Se 8 ws ~~ 408 Parasa lepida 591 | ———--——,, (P.) ... sah neue GOO*007, Pareba vesta vesta 521 | Pete.la medardaria 494 Parenonia valeria hippia 646 | Petrea volubilis ... 682; 683 Pareronia 4 522 | Petunia nyctaginiflora ... ig Glo Pareronia avatar avatar 508 | ———-— sp. ane OO ———--—- ceylanica naraka 478 | Phacus Be Sey 763,765 paris .. 502 | Phalacrocorax niger ~.«., 643 Parnassius 3H . +438 | Phaseolus re At ++ -495>-497 Parnassius hardwickei .~ 567 | Phaseolus mungo meet 97, —_——— simo ae . 580. -_—_— radiatus 497,673 — ——— stoliczkanus 580, 585 | ———-— sp. : 673 Parthenos sylvia 471, 473 | phidippus.... et 481 ——-— —--— cyanoides 482 | Philodina .. é & te a5 (ASS —- — —--— gambrisius ... 515 | philomela .. ee ...099, 960, 561 - ——-- nila 482 ' philoxenus, (P. Biilecends) : 589 --——- roepstorfhi 482 | Phlyctaenodes nudalis ... «. ave = 497 Parus major 638 | Phoenicopterus ruber roseus vex = 789 © ——- ——-- cinereus 733 | Phoenicurus ochruros .. 639 parvus 600 S00 550 | Phostria piasnsalis 60 498 parvus, (O. eeennicus) we «= 444 | Photoscotosia miniosata 493 Passer domesticua 640, 680 | Phryganodes analis. .., . ~ 496 ——— ————— indicus 427 | Phycita clientella - 495 ——— rutilans debilis. a, 427. | —-—— dentilinella ... 405 Pastor roseus 699, 739 [ -infusella ... « . AQS. ‘Pathysa 00 ae 6g OLE ~ jasminophaga ... ~ 495 Pathysa Hoamenmnon necorat te ve 476 Phyllanthus ACIGUS! Geass. “teem 681 ———— —— ———— pulo +» 476 -—— emblica ee eOZZ ———- agetes agetes wnt ek ; 503 Phylloscopi Sees eke aes 738, 739 ——— antiphates epaminondas .... 476 | Phylloscopus ... ees: 430, 737, 738; 739 —————— ——-—-— pompilius 503 | Phylloscopus afinis.... ees Hlieee i aCe = aristeus anticrates seer 503. | — C, tristis. 2.000 a. 137. ——-— eurous sikkimica - . 503 ——— collybita tristis 412, 736 ——-— nomius nomius oo. 646 | ————-— --— fuscatus .. 22.8.5 736,:739. Pauropsylla depressa “670, | —=—--——‘griseolus veo Ad: ———-—— tuberculata ~ see = 672 —————— inornatus humii een 7413; Pediastrum 65 > ——- maculipennis sO Tees Pedicularis ws - 433 | ————-——~ magnirostris 414° Pelagodroma marina wv 448 | ——— occipitalis 415; ‘Peltophorum inerme 683 | —————— —-— occipitalis ... 414: | 514 | ——-—_——— proregulus simlaensis ...- .--413. XEXVi PAGE Phylloscopus pulcher 442 rs kangrae 413 ee ee reguloides kashmiriensis. 415 —— sp. odo ae: re —— subviridis cos eall8i | ————-——- = trochiloides ludlowi 414 ———-—--—-— (trochiloides ?) nitidus. 414 ee ee trochiloides viridanus... 414 ————————-— tytleri ... es 412 | Physalis edulis 657 ——-—— minima... 657 ——-— parviflora 657 ———— pertviana 657 ———--— pubescens 657 | ——~——. pubesones 00 657 | ——-—somnifera . 657. | Phthonoloba decussata 493 Phytometra nigrisigna 589 ———-—-—~ orichalcea ... 539 Picea morinda hey Pieridae ... : 474, 477 Pieris brassicae %.. (— ... 500 «a 005 ——-= — nepalensis... 589 | ———callidice kalora ... sie 580 | Pieris canidia indica. 505, 587. 589, 592 -———- deota ise . 580 napi ajaka.....; As eleih sshdre Sr | ——= —— montana 505, 576 Pingasa chlora 492 | —-——= ruginaria 492 Pinus excelsa 980 ———= Gerardiana 580 —-— longifolia .. 971 Pionea ferrugalis ae eae 498 Piper miniatum ... Sh e669 ———= NIZTUM ae . 669, 674 Pistia stratiutes on aS Sea TOS Pithophora 500 PED SE ASARD ss- --765 Plagusia eae ae _ 456 Plagusia marmorata .. oe = 456 Planktionella sp. of 665, 667 Platalea leucorodia major 697 Plectrurus perottetti 553 Plegadis f. falcinellus ... 697 -—~ falcinellus aes 698 pleistoanax 550 eee ise Pia iH Pleurosigma a Srsrenn Ae Pleurosigma sp. coe 3 666, 667 Ploceus philippinus philippints 420 Plotosus arab... Py woe = 456 —~ Spp. oes 457 648 ae nicobariensis aw. 485) ——— atlites 485, 648 | | ---—— hierta hierta 591, 648) —_— -—— magna - 484,518 -—— —— iphita iphita “519, 648 Precis lemonias lemonias woe ORS) —--—- ——--— persicaria ee S88 —— vaisya $91, 648 ——-— orithya ocyale 485, 518 | ——-~ ——-—- swinhoei 588, 591, 648 Premna latifolia Jou oe 492 Primula denticulata 433, 435 INDEX OF SPECIES —--——- —— almana 485, 519, 588, 591, PAOE Plumbago capensis 493, - -— 10Sea 494 Podiceps ruficollis 644 Polistes hebraeus : Er 496 | Polyalthea longifolia... 500 soe» 493i Polydorus Rac se oe = 89. Polydorus dasarada ravana 592 --— hector od Ae ‘os O00 Polygonum E 363 es 434, 498 | Polygonum ( ? sphaerostachyum) 433. Polymeris 4 655 Polynemus rerrdac ine 663. Polyocha cinerella 495 ——-——— saccharella 495, Polyodontophis sagittarius 551, Polyommatus eros 585. — - pseuderos ... - §89. —— —-— galathea ; 569 —--———- ——- gigantea ar coe 000 See metallica metallica... 580 polytes 500 .. 476, 560, 646 polytes, (P.) a oe, 590 Polythlipta divaric ata ... 497 pomapadora, (D.). 549. || pomona, (C.).. 2 590. Pomum spinosum «Ga Pongamia glabra 495, 681- Pongo pygmaeus 623 Pontia chloridice 580. ——~— daplidice moorei 980 | Porana paniculata 683. ——-— volubilis 606 mt 679 Potentilla wos. BAlEMAgS ves 435 | Potomogeton pectinlatus .— .. J ~-7GoH Poydorus , 5ar) Pratapa deva lila 489 Precis See 472, 588- Precis almana 0. “471 INDEX OF SPECIES F PAGE Princess Margaret Rose, (var.) ao AAU Prinia sylvatica gangetica ae fee SALT, Prioneris clemanthe ... SOK soo US ———-— thestylis od os 500 lS) Pristipomspp. ... ane sis se 405 Procarduelis nipalensis ... ie end 25 procera, (C.) Ge sis = OO Procontarinia matteiana so OOM procris, (L.) S80 ae sls 485, 486 | Propasser puicherrimus a0 ie 84? sree thura — ~ 506 »- 442 Propyrrhula yet LSAT 500 » 942 Prunella rubeculoides igi en AAT". Psammophilus dorsalis nC jon OB | Pseudergolis wedah Fae din RSE oe Pseudeutropius garua ... is gan SS) Pseudogyps bengalensis doe soon. 0058) Psidium guajava Jo ste” doo RACY 4 Psilogramma menephron vates foo SEB Psittacula fasciatus ee abe Pe Gae —— krameri eo ane 757, €81 Psyra spurcataria me 300 chee os Pteromys albiventer... sis OO Pterygota alata O95 abo, CEO Ptochophyle togata Bee oo 468, 493 Ptyas mucosus 50 00 OS pubescens, (S.) ee ee OR ay pulchella, (M,) ... Bes ae Te O80 Punica granatum So0 oe os) EEIOOL: By cnarmon eribratay ser) sie seuss 496 Pyralis farinalis Bor an AQ G pyrauthe, (C.) bt sis aoc ON) Pyrausta bambucivora ae reat cq nd OS ———— coclesalis SR OO 48 ———— incoloralis ... soe ov. 2, 498 ee MACHOETALIS. sy. pieden’ 00. - 2498 ———— salentialis ... acto . 498 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ae wv. 440 Pyrrhospiza punicea ... va cree dol ——e ——— Tatbbaayh oc we 423 Pyrrhula aurantiaca ... ae boo 8 CY — — erythrocephala a reo eee? ———-——-—— nipalensis ........ ww» 442 ———— ——-—— nipalensis sine 422 Quercus semecarpifolia See joo Eos} ——--—= Sp. 600 i. So Querquedula qderquedals 694, 697, 698 Quisqualis tndica tee ss sou. (hae) Ragadia crisilda crisild@a ... ... S11 rama, (H.) wee sos 3465 aA 2I737. Ramphalcyon capensis Homie, BI642 EXXVIiI PAGE ramsayi ... es 508 rapala “ 484 Rapala dieneces erecta 489 —~——. melampus 650 —-—-— micansselira .,, Pp OM) ———- schistacea 489, 650 ——— suffusa rubicunda 489 ———— varuna lazuliua 650 ——— ne -— OFSEIS 489 ———— rogersi .. 489 Rasbora daniconius 765 Rastrelliger kanagurta 457 Rathinda amor ; 650 Regulus regulus maaan ensis 417 Remigia archesia 591 Rhagastis albomarginatus ae O93 Rhinecdon typus ose 762,763 Rhinoceros sondaicus 784 Rhinolophus rouxi AG Sto) era! Rhizosolenia sp. atte "665, 666, 667 | Rhododendron arboreum 433 Rhodophila ferrea 44] Rbomborista pannosa ... : 493 Rhopalopsyche nycteris ny ene 588 Rhyacornis fuliginosa 44] Rhynchium oe 772 Ribes wee aE Sc 493 Riopa guentheri 630 ——— punctata So) OY} Riparia paludicola Wewieanaets 430 ——-— riparia diluta 430 = rupestris ? 431 Rita rita ie He a 453 roepstor ffi 480, 482 romulus ea Fic 560, 587 ' Rosa Catalina, Gan) 404, 408 _ Rousettus se 523 | Rousettus leschenaulti ... 522 rouxi, (R.) 923 | rubra, (N.) 765 _ Rubus sp. vee a 493 rufa, (N.) 690 | Rusa unicolor unicolor see he rustica, (H.) 500 ess 431, 640 _ Saccharum cilare 495 | Salvadora persica 547 Samanea saman 678, 680 Sanderiana, (var.) ati oes Sapientum : i ~ 700 Sarangesa dasahara dasattat 490 Sarcogyps calvus Day 643 xxxviil INDEX OF SPECIES | PAGE Solanum denticulatum 656 — — diffusum 653 —-—-——. esculentum 655 ——-—-— ferox oe so0 2 GDS) ——-—-—- giganteum ... es 003 —-~-—— incertum sco OOS ——--—~+— indicum 653, 654 ———-—--- Jacquini 653 ——.—-—- Kaitisis 656 ——----— laeve an 656 —~—--—--— lycopersicum ... 660 —---—— lysimachioides 656: —-—--—--— macrodon 656 —-—-—--—~ McCannii 654 ———-- —- melongena 655 —-——-—- Neesianum spd (OSI) ——=-— nigrum 652, 653, 656 —-—--—--—- pubescens Go3 ———-— rubrum 653 —__- stramcnifolium sop OB ——-—- - torvum . 654 ———-— trilobatum 654 . ——--—— tuberosum 655 ———-———— verbascifolium 653 ————-— -_—————. exstipulatum 653 - ———— xanthocarpum 653, 654 sondaicus 604 Sonneratia apelin 734 sordida ... ee te a 513 Spalgis epius ne ee 600 486 —— nubilus 480, 486 Spatula clypeata vee 694, 696 spectabilis, (B.) _ se 403, 404, 405, 408 Speiredonia retorta oe 589 Spindasis elima elima s05 Sha") ——-—— ictis ictis ~ §54, 650 ——--— lohita zoilus ... 488 ——-— syama peguanus 650 ~— vulcanus vulcanus .., 554, 650 Spinifex squarrosa “494 Spirogyra 763, 765 Spirulina 763, 765 spitiensis (P. stoliezanus) en OSU splendens, (C.) neo OSS Stramonia a RATE 658 Stramonium, (D.) 600 658, 659- Staurastrum one MRT si A765 stellata, (N.) ... aes 765 stenosemus, (P. delphius) 585 Sterculia villosa 600 uae vee) 475 _ Sterna aurantia '... ee O98 » ° 643 PAGE Saroglossa spiloptera spiloptera on om sawi ae os ate a et ay Siz icoteides fulveata Ss i OVE Saxifragaceae sp. 500 50 ona scandina Ke ns ag oy OO Scatophagus areas a ee emeOOS Sceliphron a: re ce Renn / 2/12 scherzeri Bc Ae Bt ree.) Schizandra aR : Be fe edo 7ae| Schoenobius Bipunetics ye sob EEN) | Scirpophaga auriflua ... Bis oad 9 48S) | ——-— Monosticma Oe ae Ag —————— me gee eo OB | Scopula cleoraria - ... ae 49S OS0 ——---—— emissaria aa ne 493 Scylla serrata 5A we 456 Seicercus burkii eigen wth 415 | — xanthoschistos volt HOSeHigeO 415 | Selenophora 68 ac Ves Sapien od (5) semialba ee Gh eek Ae so OE). | semiflava a Be 42 en OAC Sephisa chandra as an te eros ——-— dichroa a iS. Oe Serranus pantherinus an soo eS Serrodes campana (inara) ... Seong ea) Sesamum 0% 550 of: soo a SY setosum, (R.) .. es oe Js M438 Sida rhombifolia as: ar ae NAOT, Sideridis unipuncta one Ane ROO sidonis Ae aeeiee sae nes sod) UN) silhetana ee Je am 477, 507 Sillage sihamma = sh doo Sillago sihama ... st, oe ase 400 simulatrix ... ; ; te 474, 479 Siphia parva elegy ant sect 2039 sipora, (A. pales) nt Ph eee S580 sita se pe sa sae 5. 008 Sitana ponticenane ee sah ve -629 Sitta castanea Se wed ee 733, 734 ~—— frontalis ea ee Sa at e733 Siva strigula 33 500 ae we 447 Skeletonema costatum ... es sce , 666 — — sp. i i! 666, 667 Smilax... Ste ws oh Boe a) Solanaceae 500 si 497, 652, 656 Solanum ... oe 495, 652, 655, 656, 659 Solanum biflorum 5 Sat OOO —-——— bigeminatum ie) ODS O56 ———— crassipetalum 00 Seer tOOO ———— decemdentatum ive OSG ——~w—_—-—=————= decemfidum ant noo (pie) * INDEX OF SPECIES XXX1X Bo A PAGE: || = PAGE Stibochiona nicea nicea ae .. - 514 ‘Lagiades litigiosa andamanica ~ 490 stichius ... es ee 503, 587,646 = a — litigiosa - 650 SUIGHEUSH Te. 08 ves) Hey evs oo. SO -—- obscurus alica 490 Sticopthalma camadeva miceyallel eos stagunia . As ped 84 : sparta tytleri... ee | Tajuria cippus Sonne Se 489, 650 streperus, (A.) ... a Vii soo OOH - jangala andamanica 489 Streptopelia chinensis ... = 643, 682 — - jehana oe: oy aon BLD) senegalensis a .. 682 Tamarindus indica a 679, 681, 683 Strix ocellata tas 500 oon .. 949 | ‘Tanaorrhinus vittata 492 Strychnos nuxvomica ... sts 573, 707 Taphozous longimanus .. 524 Sturnia malabarica — ... Ht see 640) | —— melanopogon : 524. _-——- malabarica.. ... 418 = Tarache lucida ES SO Sturnopastor contra... Bar so 2640 | Tarsiger chrysaeus 44] Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii ... eS | Tarucus callinara 649 Suastus gremius gremius _... .. 591 | ———— extricatus 649 -~ramaaditus ... & ..- 49] | ———— nara ee WS 588, 591, 649 superciliosus, (M.) .. SM oye se 642 | SH HN ve O49 Surendra quercetorum biplagiata’ ... 650 | praca ea theophrastus indica’ 649 ———— qurcetorum latimargo ¢ 48s Tecoma ; 681 Suriella ... ie 1: sa 763, os | Teinopalpus fanerians heperalis 504 Sus barbatus ne ne 632. 633, 634, 637. | Telchinia violae ... 521, 648 ——- =———— Oi... sce Rafe 634, 635 | Temenuchus pagodarum 418, 679 —- cristatus ae Seiretiie); woes: | Tephrodornis pondiceriana 683 P=IOAToantiai eee teens -OS2 || Lephrosia purpurea 674 esi a oo ae 632 | Werastia meticulosalis ves - 497 Suya criniger erinieen ee eee ee Gna betas iabisnig sh 507, 522 Syama_... es ae 500 . 650 | Terias blanda silhetana 507, 646 Sylepta aenaenten ese oe, . 497 | —--— hecabe hecabe 507, 646 -Junalis ... na oa soo. LF | —- - - simulata 646 Sylvia althoea ... 500 ee oan | laeta laeta 507, 646 curruca blythi ... AE cop) Gull libythea , 507, 646 sylvia, (P.) ae mtoe Tle terminalia aruda nf a xo? O08) Sylviparus modestus ... at ww. 440 | - —— catappa 493, 679 Symbrenthia hippoclus khasiana =... 519 ——_—---——. paniculata ... 673 oe hypselis tee ae S7Q) | ee spp. 4 673 — cotanda . ve S19 | —-— tomentosa .. 673 Sympocos sp. . o.° .-, - +, - 494 | Terpna ornataria 492 Synedra af Me ae 763, 765 | Tetradon Sp. 663 Syngamia abruptalis ... wee woe 496 | Thalassiosira -665, 666 ——-——— floridalis -... wee 468,496 | Thalassiosira sp. 666, 667 Syntarucus plinius ... ... 591, 649 | Lhalassiothrix sp. 665, €66 Syrichtus galba weit sees .f 651 | ‘Thalassodes ne 468 Tabanus sp. ds Cs ae .. 576 | Thalassodes dissita 493 Tabebuia rosea ... or in «6677.0 | —————-— quadraria 493 Tabernaemontana aes JO 1 497 | ——e — veraria 493 Tabernaemontana coronaria .. ...- 490 | Thamnophilus punctatus eee OS Tagiades atticus carnica - ... -...; 490 | Thaumantis diores 512 —-—— elferie sees + .., 490 | Therapon jarbua 457 ee ravina is 490 | ‘Theretra nessus 0 ee he BOO —~—-—— japetus (atticus nec) khasia- ———-—-—_—_— . oldenlandiae 593 na 608 900 606 500 ... 460 | Thespesia populnea 677 xl INDEX OF S! PECIES PAGE Thevetia neriifolia 678, 681 Thinopteryx crocoptera 493 Thunbergia alata 496 Thyrestis thyodamas ganesc¢ i 592 Timalia pileata 633 Tinospora cordifolia 669 —--—-—. crispa 669 tisamenus, (E. s Penrice) 473 Trachylepidia fructicassiella ... 494 transfuga 427 Trema orientalis 495 Trewia nudiflora 672 Trichoperrisia pipericola 669 triedrus, (H.) 628 Trifolicm 5G 495 trilobatum, (S.) .. 652 Tringa eenronucl 699 Trioza fletcheri ... 672 ———-—- minor... 673 Tristellatia australasia Soo ler tristis, (A.) . 419, 640 - 5 (eles) 736, 737, 738 trivena BA 575 trivialis, (A.) 626 Trochalopteron affine ... 440 ————-— cerythrocephalum 440 a lineatum : 440 trochiloides fe su'é oo. 414 Troglodytes troglodytes 441 Troides aeacus : 500 ~ helena cetera ap al) ————_—-—_—-—— ferrari oe ©=» «A785 ——— heliconoides 475 ‘Tros aristolochiae aristolochiae we 645 _—_— =-——— camorta Aho GS) —<—— ——_—-—-—— goniopeltis... 475 eee es kKONdUIANA... 475 — sawi 475,. (45 ——~camorta 500 aan) ho) -——= coon sambilanga ... Jess fe470 —--— hector 545 ws “a 475, 645 (Polydorus) philoxenus philoxenus 585 —— rhodifer | in 475, 476 Turdoides griseus cine AoC asen yl 10/0 wn on SOMMErVillei rp (OWIe) Turnix dussumieri 500 cp A Typha elephantina 000 nine 765 Typhlops braminus ... sist SOO tytia eee 390 ot a OS Udaspes fotus vay 9) son (OE PAGE unicolor see ie Boe igghse Upupa epops Ben ld, BAD SP Urapteryx sambucaria ... 493 Urocissa flavirostris 440 Uroloncha malabarica : 685 —~ punctulata .., BOD we 40 ——-—— ——-_--— lineoventer 420 Uropeltis phipsoni we 63 Urticaceae sp. oe 600 200 poo Sw) urticae, (V.) wate wee 580 Utetheisa (Deiopia) pulchella 588 ———-— pulchella io ehh Vaccinium 434, 438 | Waleriasaee: 069 522, 560 valeria aspasia ous OLN) Valeria valeria hippia OO ONE Vallisneria 00 900 7€3 Vallisneria spiralis 765 VanesSa canace canace 519 —___. —__-_ MMA, ono 589, 592 vote cardut 485, 519, 569, 588, | 589, 615 —- cashiniriensis 573 -= cashmirensis aesis 519 ee ee Cashmirensis .., 589 ———— epea ass 567 —— —— indica indica 519 — ladakensis ane 580 Varanus — aa oe 523, 631 Varanus monitor 631 | varmona 900 98) | vasuki 500 aie 600 verbascifolium, (S.) —... 500 652, 653 vermiculata RAP ake BGG 587 vicrama, (P. vicrama) tee OS0 Vipera russelii res OSS Virachola smilis maseas . ~ 489 viridanus i 414 viri:danus, (Ph. Erochiloides) cho C/ visala B80 506 on coon OSH Vivia innominatus 50 ae RbOSS \YOUNOES ng sae AOD 763, 765 Vulcanus se ae . 650 Wallagonia attu a er 601 webbiana, (A.) 500 jade | Wendlandia notoniana ae 729 wimberleyl 900 05 5 we = 488 Withania somnifera Ae waa. #692. xanthocarpum, (S.) CeO OZ Oo Xanthoxylum acanthopodium... © 502, 503 Xenorhynchus asiaticus ine ic) 484 644 PAGE | Yoma sabina vasuki 484 | ——-- sabrina vasuki 473 Ypthima baldus baldus 510, 572 — ceylonica 647 ———-— hubneri hubneri 510, 647 inica 587 | ———— lycus lycus oll | ———— methor methor Sis — nareda newara 510 — sakra austeni 510 Yuhina 440 yunnanensis 626 yunnanensis, (A.h.) 627 Zemeros flegyas indicus 521 Zesius chrysomallus 650 Zetides One ace ak mee woe Zetides agammemnon andamanicus... 476 agammemnon agammemnon 504, 646 bathycles chiron cco ———-— cJoanthus 504, 572 PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, INDEX OF SPECIES Zetides doson axion ——— ——- eleius ——— eurypylus cheronus ——-— —-——--— macronius ——— sarpedon sarpedon Zinckenia fascialis perspectalis . Zipoetis scylax Zizeeria Zizeeria gaika ——— lysimon maha maha ——— otis decreta 600 trochilus putli izera gaika ——— otis otis : Zizyphus eee S00 Zizyphus jujuba ... eoo Zographetus ogygia andamana Zosterops palpebrosa MADRAS—15-5-1951. C3029 xi PAGE 504 458, 646 wo. «=: 504 476 504 496 496 S11 580 591, 649 © 588, 591, 649 591, 649 991, 649 591, 649 486 486 sco) CRE} 467, 494 49] 641 “t) bd feo at bat id vv 7 ae ¥ 5 : ae a. ‘ vs , 3 ed me ly fe ‘4 ah é : i are ; q a a) . ‘ - he iia. os LAY J AA 20 * < a i, § aaah. AOA Lees ASE S nod ig ea ee ; ee ae ' rite ous RORY, Bees < yi cyt 2 ee SHiGAS er ae = Pee a nee Mat ces y bal aoe nae i. Se Ve ‘ Shere, a ee é fives ~ sath sa hee ae wa. co ES EUOTEEEO. EES EYCEY TSS we esis eee aa ies anhiad 2 isd, Aut Seabe IR EL ary PAA cs ss ictus ic, MORRO ERD a RUE bo ORC me a : : ate ; : ; ho OLS ones PIS Gis | reopetud ise aR OO cies apaeniene nice Ma aba es 11-1 52 Bik , : 3 eS eee ae esis ty me > AR Aye ; peel eater BO" bs enoy | ~ no eee oy tb bh chart sear ORO IDE fonts fie tore ; ‘ peace a pi EAs Neng tae ak Mawes sbetan tips ra i, Wie ay eee fried Bi yralae Lee haar arate (jdt ‘ | gate? ie eho [ee fer ORD Vie eee < + ~ ‘ fy , hi ‘oP ge : sae yo WORE: rere epee ioe es Gra, fhe iN EG cf ORs ie; , | ied ; Ley ‘ “yt ia ee as C } ike “7> cx ieee st. eae § poe ibe ca ‘ on ; renee ag “ x bo ASV) cag, BUCHER SER SENS (CTS Road ae baie Likes sos i ith BUG hee ee OTHLS golour ied ated 3 a oe ha tad ee Pee yas ae Ke Re ey SIRO \ ' iM ’ & ¥ if — ‘ ot 4 cal % \ ey ios i \ \ 4 ~ ) m ; / \ 4 / / ‘ \ I {a o a y ( 1 ' : i v \ \ , ( POL eae Lia parte a WAR SEN Meariley Oty VA Cet een t f , Ys Ors Vol. 47, No. 3. APRIL, 1948 3 Prive Re. 12 nell: THE JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Narurat History Socrery EDITED BY sALIM ALI & S. B. SETNA, PH.D; focT2 71948 =) , aris =) £ | ¥ © | WY \ ee BS f 4 4 ys af f sf MA a J a oth Pe + - wt ge ew Pied (pkg nena ater ise e me a SSS SS PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 114 Apollo Street, Bombay. LONDON AGENTS: DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY), 212 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE LONDON, W.C,'2. Indian Natural History Series, Vol. 11. THE BOOK OF INDIAN: SNIN ALS S. H. pane C.M.ZS. This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds, forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series. To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value of the wild life of our Potesise fields and scrubland, is the purpose of this book. are It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of | India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is profusely illustrated in colour and black and white. LIST OF CONTENTS : What is a Mammal P Distribution of Mammals. How Mammals are classified, The various tribes of Mammals, their ways and habits. oDescupeeye of Bees Roo ht 5. Bound in full loth Price Rs. 16 (To members of the Society Rs. 13) Postage and Packing extra. PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 114 APOLLO STREET, BOMBAY. Set of COLOURED PICTURE POSTCARDS OF COMMON INDIAN BIRDS Reproductions of selected paintings from those specially prepared by D. V. Cowen for the 4th edition of the Society’s ‘Book of Indian Birds ’. if packets of twelve assorted species. Price Rs, 2-4-0 per set. On sale at THE NATURAL HISTORY SECTION, ei) PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM, BOMBAY | and at the Office of THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, sl 114 Apollo Street, Bombay. 3 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 3. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXVIII. By N. L. Bor, C.1.8., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 1 coloured and 4 black and white plates) THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLs. Part III. By A. E. Jones, M.B.O.U. (deceased). SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED, INCLUDING THE PILGRIM TRAIL TO THE SACRED LAKE OF GOSAINKUND. By B. E. Smythies aoe BOR ae sa ‘THE STORM PETRELS OCCURRING IN THE NORTHERN INDIAN OCEAN, AND ADJACHNT SEAS. By C. A. Gibson-Hill, M.a.,M.B.0.U. (With a plate) eoo eoo eo0o eee EFFECT OF WEIRS AT THE CANAL HEAD-WORKS ON THE DISTRI- BUTION OF Cadla catla (HAMILTON) IN THE PUNJAB. By Ude Singh Rai, M.sc., Ph.D., P.A.S. (With a map) ; INCIDENCE OF FISH MORTALITY ON THE West Coast. By P. K. Jacob and M. Devidas Menon 50 eee THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XX. By D.G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. 606 S06 cO0 THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS. By Lt.-Col. M. L. Ferrar, C.S.1., C.1.E.,0.B.E. (With five plates) ... “he On THE Foop-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAE AND PYRALIDAE. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.s. Tur BUTTERFLIES OF THE KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM. By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S., IP. and Sir Keith Cantlie, ¢C.1.#.. I.C.s. Bat MIGRATION IN INDIA AND OTHER NOTES ON Bats. By Humayun Abdulali eco eee ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE III. By ‘Trupapur A. Davis. (With two plates) OBITUARY NOTICE :— H, H. Maharao Vijayarajji of Kutch (With a plate) es son REVIEWS :— Trees of Calcutta and its Neighbourhood x ~ The Book of Indian Animals Common Birds of India aoe AS Story of Migration O86 on Festschrift, Prof. Dr. Embrik Strand) Volume IV. Boe see EDITORIAL aa ae PAGE 401 409 432 443 ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 3 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. How far can a Tiger Swim? By D. P. Garga (p. 545). 2. An extension of the known range of Sandicota nemorivaga (Hodgson) in China. By J. D. Romer (p. 546). 3. Altitudinal limit of the Indian Elephant. By F. N. Betts (p. 546). 4. ‘The movements of the Rosy Pastor in India. By R. M. Simmons (p. 547). 5, Occurrence of the Speckled Piculet (Vivia inno- minatus (Burton) in Khulna, Bengal. By Satya Churn Law (p. 548). 6 The clicking noise made by owls. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 548). 7. Green Pigeons in aswamp. By G. V. R. Frend (p. 549). 8. Peculiar behaviour of the Darter (Anhinga melanogaster Pennant). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 549). 9. Wilson’s Petrel in India. By Jiumayun Abdulali (p. 550). 10. ‘he occurrence of the Snake Polyodoniophis sagittarius near Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 551). 11. Crocodiles bellowing. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 551). 12. Notes on a few reptiles from the Nilgiri Hills. By Garth Underwood (p. 552). 13. Acacia thorn in the stomach of a toad (Bufo melanostictus Schneid). By Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 553). 14. March Lepidoptera at Gopalpur (istrict Ganjam).—A Correction. By D.G. Sevastopulo (p. 554). 15. On the butterfly Delzas descombesi leucacentha Fruhstorfer. By R. E. Par- sons (p. 554). 16. Harly Stages of the butterfly Delzas aglaia Linn. By Rk. E. Farsous (p. 556). 17. Shamming death. By A. A. Dunbar Brander (p. 557). 18. Animals ‘shamming’ death. By D. P. Garga (p. 558). 19. The influence of migrant birds on butterfly mimicry. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 559). 20. Colour sense in Nature, By Brian Vesey-Fitzgerald (p. 561). Sie Coanienuy SS JouRN., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.. PEATE, NOs oxacxa ibd BOUGAINVILLEA GLABRA Choisy ( 2/3 natural size ) JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. 1948. VOL. 47. No. 3 SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. BY ING Ee DOR CAGE. MA. DSC. b.L.S., Ink Se, Forest Botanist AND M. B. RaizabaA, M.Sc., Asstt. Forest Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Part XXVIII. (Continued from Vol. 47, (1947), p. 196). (With one coloured and 4 black and white plates). Nyctaginaceae This family is important in Indian gardens because one of its genera is the far-famed Bougainvillea, so commonly cultivated now- adays. The family comprises herbs, shrubs and trees. The flowers may contain only the male sexual element or the female, or both may be combined in one flower. A brightly coloured involucre of bracts often surrounds the flower or group of flowers and is usually taken for the calyx. The actual calyx is tubular. This again is often taken for the petals which are, however, absent. The stamens are usually many but are sometimes reduced to one, inserted below the ovary, which is 1-celled and ends above in a slender style. The ovule is solitary within the ovary and inverted. Another common plant belonging to this family which is found in Indian gardens and also running wild is Mirabilis Jalapa more usually Ary iGAS 402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 known under its popular names Marvel of Peru or Four-o’clock Plant. This South American species is now cultivated everywhere in the tropics and its magenta coloured perianth makes a striking patch of colour. The flowers only open in the evening and this fact gives rise to the trivial name. The scientific name of this plant preserves the erroneous belief, at one time widely held, that. the tuberous roots were identical with those of the true jalap. The jalap is a renowned purgative, so drastic and powerful in its effects, that it has been suggested that ‘jalap’ and ‘faith’ are synonymous. Be that as it may, the purgative effect of the roots of Mirabilis are very mild, though a decoction of the roots is said to possess curative powers in a variety of diseases and disorders ranging from dy- sentery, cholera and diarrhoea on the one hand to constipation on the other! The genus, however, with which most Indian gardeners will be familiar is— Bougainvillea Commerson. This genus was published by Commerson, the French botanist in 1789, in honour of L.A. de Bougainville, the famous French navigator, based upon specimens collected in Brazil during de Bougainville’s voyage round the world in 1766-69. The name as published by Commerson was Buginvillea but the correct spelling as adopted in the Index Kewensis Suppl. 9, 1931-35 is Bougainvillea Comm. corr. Spach. In between these dates the name has been spelt in half a dozen different ways. The species of the genus, amounting in all to some fifteen, are climbing shrubs in their homes in South America. In horticultural practice they can be got to grow as standards and as pot plants and are extremely effective. It is well to remember that the colour of the bracts in some species at the base of the flower-group is very vivid and the magenta shades especially clash with everything else within range. Nothing can, however, be more effective than one of these giant climbers in its natural setting, that is, rambling and cascading over other vegetation in one of the wilder corners of the garden. The leaves of the species of the genus are simple and alternate. The stem is covered with spurs or spines which aid the plant to climb upon and ascend through other vegetation. An examination of the ‘flower’ of Bougainvillea will reveal that at the tip of the flowering shoot there are three (usually) brightly coloured leaves or bracts which are heart shaped when flattened. These bracts touch along their margins and give rise to the common belief that they constitute the floral envelope, Actually the true flowers will be found within the floral bracts. These flowers are rarely solitary and usually three of them are seated together within the bracts in an umbel-like structure. Each individual flower is erect upon a pedicel attached to the midrib of the subtending bract near its base. The true flowers are tubular in shape, greenish-white or cream-coloured, about 3/4 in. long and 1/3 in. in diameter, pedi- celled, glabrous or hairy. The tubular perianth is roughly penta- SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 403 gonal in section and terminates in five equal lobes which often present a frilled appearance from lateral outgrowth from the lobes. Within the perianth-tube will be found the stamens, seven or eight in number, the anthers being seated upon long flattened, capillary filaments which are unequal in length so that in a mature flower 2 or 3 anthers will be found emerging from the perianth-tube. Within the filaments is a solitary pistil surmounted by a solitary style terminating in a hairy stigma. The pistil contains a single ovule. Some of the bud sport varieties, e.g. var. Louis Wathen have imperfect flowers. All of the known varieties of Bougainvillea are derived from the four species B. spectabilis Willd., B. glabra Choisy, B. peruviana Humb. et Bonp. and B. Buttiana Holttum and Standley, but it must be remembered that there is also a host of hybrids. The flowers of Bougainvillea are self sterile and in the ordinary course of events seed is very rarely produced. A number of hybrids have been produced by Mr. Percy Lancaster in Calcutta by means of cross pollination. There is likely to be a great advance in the coming years and we may expect a large number of hybrids with tinted bracts of every imaginable colour. All who are interested in Bougainvilleas should read the works of Holttum (Malayan Agri- Horticultural Association Magazine) Parsons (Tropical Agriculturist) and Percy-Lancaster (Agri-Horticultural Society of India) from which most of the information in this article is compiled. It is quite impossible to describe all the cultivated varieties of the species of this genus. Not only are some of the species of later hybrids and sports given varietal rank based upon very subtle differences in colour of the bracts, but also the true name of the parent is not always known. It has happened more than once that a variety has been introduced into several gardens in India under different names. Hybrids have been produced from these and the result has been nomenclatural confusion. Again a name used to denote a colour does not always convey the same impression to the reader as it does to the writer and there is the additional dithculty that most of the varieties exhibit a change in colour in the bracts from youth to age. Hence keen gardeners are informed that while chaos has not yet come upon us in the naming of Bougainvillea varieties it cannot be long delayed. With the big gardens producing hybrids and the small nurseries following suit, there is bound to come a time when each valid variety has three or four names. We sym- pathise with our readers but cannot do anything about it. As has been said above four main species have given rise to the true varieties known in India at the present time. KEy TO THE SPECIES. Plant definitely hairy. ... B. spectabilis Plants glabrous or nearly so Tip of the floral bracts acute; Bracts magenta ... B. glabra Tip of the floral bracts obtuse Bracts crimson Bracts delicate mauve pink . Buttiana . peruviana ws 404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol,’ 47 Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. Description.—An arborescent shrub climbing over large trees and through other vegetation by means of the curved spines on the stem and branches. Bark pale and corky cracking into rectangular plates. Branches and shoots hairy ; very hairy when young. Spines woody, axillary, 1-2 inches long, more or less curved, tomentose or sometimes glabrous. Leaves petioled, ovate or even rotundate in Shape, obtuse or shortly acuminate, entire, somewhat wavy on the margins, membranous to somewhat leathery in texture, 2.5-3 in. long, 2 in. wide, sparsely hairy above, hairy to hirsute below. Flower-heads terminal or axillary, seated on peduncles and more or less gathered into branched panicled inflorescence; peduncles simple or sometimes divided. Each flower head consists of three bracts arranged as an involucre and carrying the flower. Bracts purple or rosy purple, ovate in shape, 1.5 in. long, 1.2 in. wide, obtuse at the tip, cordate at the base, membranous. in texture, reti- culately nerved. The flowers are adnate to the median nerves of the subtending bracts. Perianth tubular, corolla-like, hairy, 1 in. long, ending above in a 5-lobed narrow mouth. Fruit club-shaped, 5-ribbed, glabrous or pubescent. Distribution.—This species grows wild in the mountainous parts of eastern and central Brazil. This was the first species of Bougainvillea to be introduced to cultivation. A specimen was brought alive to Paris in the eighteen- twenties and flowered in a tropical greenhouse there. It was culti- vated in England in 1844 and the plant was well known in India as far back as 1860. The flowering of this species is always sea- sonal and depends upon the occurrence of dry weather. It is said that only very large plants, especially those grown over tall trees, flower well. Varieties of B. spectabilis Willd. Var. lateritia. ‘This very fine variety is difficult to propagate and is therefore not as common as it deserves to be. The colour of the bracts has been described as brick red or a very fine shade of jasper red, fading to brazil red as the bracts fade. The variety follows its parent in the seasonal flowering and it only bursts into full colour after periods of drought. Var, Maharaja of Mysore. It is not quite certain whether this is a hybrid between B. spectabilis var. lateritia X B. glabra or whether it is a chance variety of B. spectabilis. At all events the leaves and other parts of the plant are hairy. The bracts are des- cribed as being spinel red to rose dorée in hue, and to change to brick or brazil red with age. It is a fairly free flowering variety and can be propagated very easily. Var. Mrs. Frazer. This variety which is probably a hybrid has bracts which are spinel red in colour turning to eugenia red with age. It again exhibits seasonal flowering and does not do well unless it is placed in a hot and dry position. Var. Rosa Catalina. This distinct variety is known as the ‘Pink’ Bougainvillea in our Indian gardens. It was introduced into vp nz °F “Ww PI ‘ung eiysg ‘yse104 MON ‘asoshjy jo elereyeyy “eA TEM Saqeqnjaads valjioumsnog &q 07040 vpnzwy “g¢§ “W und eryod *4S910 J MON (Jang “SIN “a ) AsTpueys zw wIN}AOPY VUvnying payjiauwsnog Aq 01044 SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 405 England from the Canaries and first exhibited in London in 1910. The bracts are spinel red in colour or pale red or a bright rosy scarlet. One advantage of this plant is that the colour of the bracts is capable of harmonising with other flowers in the garden. It flowers more freely than some of the varieties of B. spectabilis and deserves to be more widely cultivated. Its propagation is rather difficult. ’ Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. Description.—A climbing shrub with leafy, glabrous, spreading, spiny branches. Spines short, scarcely curved. Leaves glabrous on both sides, oblong-lanceolate or ovate-oblong in shape, acuminate, entire, cuneate or cordate at the base, seated on a petiole .2-.3 in. jong, 1-2 in. broad, firmly membranous in texture. Flower-clusters arranged in axillary or terminal panicles which are many- or few- flowered. Bracts elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate in shape, cordate at the base, acute at the tip, reticulately nerved, magenta in colour. Perianth tubular, less than 1 in. long, slightly hairy. Fruit turbi- nate, 5-ribbed, glabrous, .5 in. long. : Distribution.—This plant is at home in evergreen woods on the mountainous parts of Rio de Janeiro and San Paulo. This climber differs from B. spectabilis in being less hairy in all its parts, and more particularly in habit. B. glabra flowers almost continuously throughout the year and therefore is of far more value horticulturally than the former species. B. glabra arrived and was exhibited in London in 1860, it having come from Brazil by way of Mauritius. This species has been known in India for the past 60 Or 70 years and is very common. Varieties of B. glabra Choisy. Var. Sanderiana. This variety has been exhibited over and over again in London and is commonly cultivated in Europe. It is very free flowering and can be grown as a small pot plant. One advantage in north India is that it is able to withstand slight frost. The colour of the bracts is described as phlox purple to magenta. Var. Cypheri. This variety appeared in 1897 and is quite com- mon in the East. The bracts are paler than those of var. Sanderiana, but larger, and the flower panicles are produced in large quantities. Bougainvillea Buttiana Holttum & Standley. Description.—A widely climbing spiny shrub of open growth. The stem and other parts are usually hairy when young but become almost glabrous with age. Leaves deep green in colour, ovate- rotundate or elliptic ovate in shape, 5-6 in. long by 4 in. wide, acuminate at the tip, truncate or rotundate at the base, usually with some hairs even when old. The inflorescence is lax and few-flowered. The flower clusters are seated on glabrous peduncles about 1/3 in. long. The bracts are rotundate-elliptic or ovate-orbicular in shape, crimson in colour, upto 1.5 in. long by 1.5 in. broad, rotundate or broadly obtuse at. 406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 the tip, broadly rotundate, or somewhat cordate at the base, glab- rous or occasionally minutely hairy on the veins, reticulately nerved. Perianth about 3/4 in. long very minutely hairy to almost glabrous. Distribution.—The species is supposed to be Brazilian in origin. This magnificent plant had an interesting history which has been so well summarised by Mr. Holttum in Malayan Agri- Horticultural Association Magazine April 1941 that it is reproduced here verbatim. | ‘How long this Bougainvillea has been cultivated in South America in unknown. The first recorded item of history is that Mrs. R. V. Butt, of Trinidad, visiting Colombia in 1910, found a plant in a garden near Cartagina, and brought cuttings to Trinidad. It was found easy to propagate and was soon distributed to the other West Indian islands.’ | ‘In October 1916 the U.S. Department of Agriculture recorded the introduction from British Guiana to Florida of a crimson flowered Bougainvillea of which sufficient information is given to make its identity with Mrs. Butt certain, though that name is not mentioned. But it seems that the species had been introduced into Florida at an even earlier date.’ ‘It seems that this Bougainvillea did not cross the Atlantic until after the 1914-18 war, and then it was introduced to Europe both as Mrs. Butt and as Crimson Lake.’ ‘The next item of history comes from India. Mr. Percy-Lancaster, Secretary of Royal Agri-Horticultural Society of India, informed us that a Bougainvillea resembling Mrs. Butt arrived in India direct from the West Indies in 1920. Mr. Percy-Lancaster gave the name ‘*Scarlet Queen’’ to this plant. He writes ‘‘The coloured bracts are slightly darker than in Mrs. Butt but the actual flower is malformed so that instead of there being three white or cream flowers in the bracts, there are merely little bunches of anthers. In growth and foliage these plants are identical. The original Scarlet Queen gave rise at Madras in 1932 to a bud sport with orange bracts which was called ‘Louis Wathen’. Mrs. Butt was soon distributed from Kew to the eastern tropics and to Africa. In 1931 in the garden of Mrs. McLean of Trinidad, a plant of Mrs. Butt produced a branch with apricot-orange instead of crimson bracts. This was shown to Mr. R. O. Williams, who propagated it and called it ‘Mrs. Mc Lean’. The next year the variety Scarlet Queen did the same thing in Madras, in the garden of Mrs. Wathen, and the orange variety so produced was called ‘Louis Wathen’ by Mr. B. S. Nirody, Honorary Secretary of the Madras Agri-Horticultural Society. Mr. Nirody actually said that Louis Wathen was derived from Mrs. Butt, but Mr. Percy-Lancaster in his letter on Scarlet Queen informed us that the latter variety was concerned. This statement is borne out by the fact the ‘Louis Wathen’ can be distinguished from ‘Mrs. McLean’ by its imperfect flowers. I know of no other distinction between the two. To be quite accurate, Louis Wathen does occa- sionally have a perfect flower, which one may see as a little cream coloured. star, among the orange bracts, but most of the flowers lack, the. white star-like end entirely, the remainder consisting of an inconspicuous group of stamens protruding from a short tube.”’ ’” “und e1iyoq ‘ rpvzwy °F °W ; ——— | te DIJIAID] * ICA LNA Saziqnjaads vaypiauwsnog % YU WY WY WIE Ye ip Yu 2 mma Lon OME Reber av i JourN., Bompay Nat, Hist, SOG: PLATE IV ] 4X1 Saw Photo by M. B. Raizada Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. New Forest, Dehra Dun. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 407 ‘Mrs. Butt, like Bougainvillea peruviana is evidently native of more tropical regions than the original purple Bougainvilleas which were found in the south of Brazil, on the borders of the tropics. It has also a quite distinct habit, with its stronger, more open growth, very broad leaves and close branches of flowers. It is needless to describe in detail its many well-known qualities, but will point out two facts which have not, so far as I know, appeared in print. The bracts of Mrs. Butt and its derivatives turn from crimson or orange when young to purple or mauve as they grow older but the bracts of the orange varieties (var. lateritia and hybrids) of the older Bougainvilleas start purple when they are young and pass through red to orange when they are old. The other feature of Mrs. Butt is one of which gardeners should beware. It will not stand hard pruning back so that no leafy shoots are left. The old purple Bougainvilleas can be cut back almost to the ground, and they rise again more vigorous than before, but Mrs. Butt will net stand rough treatment.’ The varieties, var. Mrs. McLean and var. Louis Wathen, are very common in Indian gardens and their history is given above. As stated, it is not certain that var. Louis Wathen is actually a variety of B. Buttiana since the origin of Scarlet Queen is not known, but if the only difference between the two, Louis Wathen and Mrs. McLean, is the presence of imperfect flowers in Louis Wathen, the two plants surely have a common origin. Bougainvillea peruviana Humb. et Bonp. Description.—A climbing, spreading, spiny shrub. The branches are covered with a greenish bark and bear spines which are straight when young but become curved when old. This species is said to lose its leaves entirely each year. The leaves are quite glabrous, alternate, ovate in shape, upto 4 in. long by 3 in. wide, entire, acute at the tip, cuneate at the base, thin in texture, seated on very slender petioles. Flower-clusters panicled in the axes of the leaves. Bracts ovate-obtuse, upto 1 in. long by 3/4 in. wide, delicate mauve pink in colour. Perianth tubular, much more slender than that in any other of the species, quite glabrous except for a few hairs on the subtend- ing bracts, ending above in a 1o-toothed limb, of which 5 teeth are longer, entire, while the 5 are broader, 2-fid, yellowish in colour. Stamens 7 shorter than the perianth. Fruit oblong. Distribution.—The home of this plant is said to be Peru, Colombia and Ecuador. Again Trinidad seems to have been the scene of the first intro- duction of this species, when a Mrs. Rover in 1920 brought back a specimen to the island. It was introduced into Florida about 12 years afterwards and is a recent acquisition in the East. There are two varieties. 1. var. Lady Hudson. 2. var. Princess Margaret Rose. The two varieties are very similar, the latter has longer bracts (upto 1; in. long as against 1 in, in Lady Hudson) of a decidedly deep shade of pink. Both varieties do well in pots. 408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 General Notes on Gardening. Bougainvilleas form one of the most prominent and prolific sources of colour in tropical gardening and are deservedly very popular. They flower a great part of the year and are invaluable in providing broad colour effects in the garden. But most of the magenta coloured varieties are apt to kill other colour effects when planted in a small garden. They, however, look very charming against a background of green and are consequently suitable for climbing any large tree on the borders of the compound. In large gardens and parks they are useful particularly for boundary hedges, arches, pergolas, up tall trees, and look spectacular rambling down a grassy slope. Grown as an isolated shrub on a lawn they are exceedingly decorative. They can also be grown as standards and for this purpose Mrs. Butt and Louis Wathen are very suitable. Almost all the varieties stand pruning with impunity and are used particularly in southern India as a hedge. 8B. glabra and B. spectabilis are types commonly used for this purpose. Bougainvilleas thrive in almost any kind of soil and will grow with ordinary care almost anywhere except at hill stations. They are, however, most luxuriant between 2,000-4,000 ft. above sea level. They essentially love full sunshine and thorough drainage. An occasional top dressing and periodic manuring is all that is necessary in later stages of growth. The majority of the varieties are propa- gated by cuttings or by layering or gootee, but certain varieties like lateritia, Rosa Catalina and Louis Wathen are nut easy to propagate and strike root with difficulty. The usual method is to select well ripened shoots of the previous season’s growth. Cuttings 9-10 inches long and a pencil thickness are selected and inserted in beds of sandy, well drained soil. Most of these take roots in 4-5 weeks from the time of insertion. Those varieties which fail by this method should be either layered or gooteed and when sufficiently rooted they are transplanted into larger containers and kept there for some time before finally planting out. | Though Bougainvilleas will grow in almost any kind of soil they require a certain amount of manure and humus in the early stages of growth. Later on periodic top dressing of manure and clean weeding immediately round the plant is all that is required in the way of after treatment. (To be continued) THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS BY A. E. JONES, M.B.O.U. (deceased). Part III (Continued from page 249 of this volume) 123. Dicrarus macrocercus albirictus Hcdgs. The Black Drongo or King Crow. LENGTH: 13 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike; entire plumage black glossed with blue; often with a white spot at the gape. DISTRIBUTION: This race is a summer visitor to the Simla Hills from 2,500 ft. to 6,000 ft. With other races spread all over the Plains. GENERAL Hapits: A bird of the open country near cultivation and the edge of light forest. Commonly seen on the telegraph wires or some other conspicuous coign of vantage. Bold and fearless, it doesn’t hesitate to attack crows, hawks and even eagles should they venture near its nest. It also quite frequently perches on the backs of cattle and goats, I even saw one seated on the back of a cultivator as he was planting out rice seedings (Gorakhpore). NipiricaTION: Most nests are found in May and June. They are shallow cups made of fine grass and spiders’ web bound to the bifurcation of a bough at varying heights from the ground from to feet to 4o feet. There is no attempt at lining and not much as regards concealment. The eggs number three or four; they vary in colour from white to pinkish cream, sparsely blotched with black or reddish-brown. 124. Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus Jerdon. The Indian Grey Drongo. LENGTH: 12 inches. FrELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Upper plumage black glossed dark blue, lower plumage dark grey. DISTRIBUTION: Also a summer visitor to the Hills arriving at the end of March, leaving these parts September and October. Ascending to a_height of 8,000 ft. GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird, it will be found also on the edges of cultivation where these offer small groves of suitable trees for its nest. It feeds mostly on winged insects but will also descend to the ground to capture its prey. Like the Black Drongo this is a very courageous bird and attacks all and every suspicious (avian) character. -NIDIFICATION: Similar to the foregoing species. The nests may be at any height from the ground from 10’ to 60. Four is the normal clutch but it is not uncommon to find three as the full complement. May and June are the principal laying months. The eggs are slightly smaller than those of the Black Drongo and more heavily marked. 125. Chibia hottentotta hottentotta (Linn.). The Indian Hair-crested Drongo. LENGTH: 12 inches. FieLD CHARACTERS: Entire plumage black with green reflections; comparatively long curved beak; the tips of the two outer tail-feathers curled upwards. Sexes alike, DISTRIBUTION: Found in the lower hills up to 3500 ft. GENERAL Hasits: To a great extent its distribution seems to be governed by the presence of the silk cotton tree (Bombax). This is a true forest species 410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 usually seen singly but frequently two or three may be observed feeding in the same cotton tree, where the nectar and insects are an irresistible attraction. Some of its notes are quite melodious. . NipiricaTION: This does not differ to any great extent from the other drongos except that the mest and eggs are a trifle larger. The breeding season is April-June. 126. Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed-Warbler. LENGTH: 5 inches. Fretp CuaracTers: Upper plumage olive brown; there is a pale buff streak over the eye. Lower plumage pale buff. DistrisuTIoN: This is a Spring and Autumn passage migrant passing leisurely through these hills from the end of April to the first ten days in June. On the return passage in September it hurries through to the Plains. GENERAL Hapsits: Bush-clad hillsides, hedgerows and gardens form its favourite haunts while it visits these Hills. It is of a skulking nature not venturing into the open more than it can help. Its song consists of a jumble of harsh notes uttered as it works through the cover. 127. Locustella neevia stramineaSeebohm. The Eastern Grasshopper-Warbler. LENGTH: 5% inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive brown; each feather centred dark brown; a narrow white supercilium. Below pale buff, chin and throat white; under tail coverts broadly centred with black. DISTRIBUTION: Spring and Autumn passage migrant, May being the month of upward movement and August of return. GENERAL Hapits: So secretive a bird that very few observers would suspect its presence. Its movements on the ground would lead one to believe it was a mouse. It has a reeling song when on its breeding ground but is silent while on migration. 128. Orthotomus sutorius guzerata (Latham). The Indian Tailor-Bird. LENGTH: 5 inches, FIELD CHARACTERS: Crown of head rufous; remainder of upper parts yellowish green; lower plumage sullied white. DIsTRIBUTION: Resident in the lower hills generally not ascending above 4,500 ft., rarely to 6,500 ft. GENERAL Hapits: Keeps low down in the harbage and evergreen under- growth where it is more often heard than seen. Its whereabouts are revealed by its comparatively loud call pitch-er, pitch-er, pitch-er. NipiFicaTion: May to July are the months in which most nests will be found. The true nest is made of grass-stems and fibres, lined with some soft substance and a few hairs. This is placed between two or three leaves which have been sewn together by the birds with white vegetable down. Three to five eggs normally constitute the clutch. In colour these are of two types; one pale blue, the other white in ground colour, marked with blotches of red-brown. 129. Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Frankl.) The Streaked Fantail-Warbler. LENGTH: 4 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage very dark brown each feather broadly edged fulvous; rump plain rufous; eye streak and lower plumage pale buff; most of the tail feathers with broad white tips. Sexes alike. DIsTRIBUTION: Found at the foot of the hills, i.e. the Grass Farm at Kalka, 2,500 ft. Outside our area practically the whole of India. GENERAL Hapits: Resident though it may have to shift its ground due to grazing or grass cutting for it must have ample cover. Its flight is low and unsustained. Silent for the most part except in the breeding season when the male may be seen performing his jerky nuptial flights which are accompanied by a clicking note. NIDIFICATION: July to. September are the principal months in which nests may be found. These are placed a few inches from the ground in tufts of THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 411 growing grass. Their structure is peculiar, i.e. the grass blades are drawn together and fastened with white vegetabie down with the opening at the top reminding one of. a huge chrysalis trom which the moth has emerged; the in- side is lined with vegetable down. The usual clutch is 4 or 5; these are pale blue or white with blotches and freckles of pale red-brown and lilac. 130. Franktinia gracilis hodgsoni (Blyth). Franklin’s Wren-Warbler. LENGTH: 4 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: In summer the whole upper plumage is dark ashy grey ; the wings and tail washed with rufescent brown. Under parts white with an ashy band across the breast. In the winter plumage the upper parts are brown; wings and tail coverts rufous; supercilium white; under parts white. The tail at this season is $ inch longer. Sexes alike. DisTRIBUTION: From the foot of the hills to 5,000 ft. A slight downward movement takes place in the cold weather. Outside our ‘area widely spread, in several races over most of India. GENERAL Hapits: Gregarious for most of the year when parties of 12 to 30 may be met with working their way through the bushes and undergrowth in their search for insects. They keep up an incessant call-note pfree-dee-dee as they move along. NIpDIFICATION: This takes place from June to September. The nest and method of enclosing it within 2 or more leaves resemble closely those of the Tailor-Bird. Three or four eggs are laid which are either pure white or pale blue speckled with reddish-brown. 130a. Sylvia althea Hume. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat. LENGTH: 6 inches. FrELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage greyish brown, slightly darker on the crown; tail dark brown tipped with white, the outermost feathers almost entirely white; lores, round the eyes and ear-coverts dark brown; the whole lower plumage pale cineraceous. Sexes alike. DistRIBuTION: Mr, H. W. Waite obtained two specimens in the Sutlej Valley in May, one at Urni, the other at Kanam. In winter it migrates to S.W. India and Ceylon. GENERAL Hapits: The same as the next species. NIDIFICATION: It is known to breed in Kashmir, otherwise the nesting habits re similar to those of the Indian Lesser Whitethroat. 131. Sylvia curruca blythi Ticeh. & Whist. The Lesser Whitethroat. LENGTH: 53% inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage earth-brown; crown of head greyer ; outer tail feathers broadly edged white ; the whole of the undersides sullied white. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: A winter visitor, common in the plains of Northern India. In our area I have observed it rarely at Kalka, 2,500 ft. Whistler found it scarce in the Kangra District. GENERAL Hapits: A quiet unobstrusive bird which moves through the bushes and tree tops in its hunt for insects uttering, from time to time, a loud tchak. Just before its departure in spring for its northern breeding grounds it occa- sionally utters a pretty little jumble of a song. 132. Phylioscopus affinis (Tickell). Tickell’s Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 4% inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive-brown; a broad yellow supercilium ; lower plumage deep dull yellow. Sexes alike. DisTRIBUTION: A Spring and Autumn passage migrant passing through on the upward migration in May and returning in October on its.way to its winter quarters. GENERAL Hapits: As with alt the Willow-Wafblers this is an active sprightly dittle bird, always hunting for the smail insects which constitute its food. It feeds mostly at some little height from the ground. The male has a curious dittle medley of a song. 412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 133. Phyl!ioscopus tytieri Brooks. Tytler’s Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 5 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage olive brown; wings and tail brown edged with brighter olive; a buff supercilium; lores and behind the eye dark brown; lower plumage sullied buff. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: Another passage migrant passing through Simla in April and early May, returning in October. GENERAL Hapits: This species haunts the lower bushes 2 or 3 feet above ground level. The usual call-note is a thin squeak. The song consists of 4 or 5 notes. Whistler (Birds of Kangra District ‘Ibis’ 1926 p. 543) found it difficult to distinguish from Ph. nitidus but the respective songs and habits are quite different. NIpIFICATION: Breeds from Kashmir to Kumaon at elevations from 8,ooo0 ft. to 12,000 ft. from the end of May to July. The nest is domed and placed from 10 ft. to 20 ft. or more from the ground. It makes a neat nest of grass mixed with feathers, birch bark and hair with a quantity of lichen; lined with feathers. The eggs are unmarked white and usually 4 in the clutch. 134. Phylloscopus collybita {ristis Blyth. The Brown Willow-Warbler or Chiff-Chaff. LENGTH: 5 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage brown (faintly tinged with green in fresh plumage) with a pale buff supercilium. Wings and tail dark brown, finely edged with olive-yellow. Lower plumage buff; wing lining primrose-yellow. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: This is a winter visitor to the Simla Hills arriving in October and leaving us again in early April. GENERAL Hapits: This is the only migratory Willow-Warbler that remains in the hills during the cold season; at this time of the year it frequents bush-clad open hillsides (Berberis sp.) flitting from bush to bush in its hunt for insects, and uttering from time to time a thin low squeaking note. Its well known cheery chiff-chaff song is freely uttered in the Spring when it often mounts to the tops of trees. During a bad spell of severe weather it descends to the lowest valleys but in fine weather is found up to 6,500 ft. or 7,000 ft. 135. Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. The Olivaceous Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 5 to 5% inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage earth brown; wings and tail brown with paler edges; supercilium bright yellow. Lower plumage buffy-yellow, dusky yellow on the breast and flanks. Axillaries and under-wing coverts brown. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: Spring passage migrant passing in a westerly direction along the foot of the hills in April. It is then common at 4,o00 feet. Not observed on its downward passage. ‘GENERAL Hapsits: A bird of the low herbage, even clambering over stones and boulders like a small babbler. Its call-note is a characteristic pluck. 136. Phylloscopus maculipennis (Blyth). The Grey-faced Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 4 inches. . FIELD CHARACTERS: A broad coronal strealk and supercilium very pale whitish buff; rest of head, nape and hind neck olive-brown, shading into yellowish green of the back. Rump bright sulphur yellow; 2 wing-bars, the upper one rather indistinct; tail with inner webs of outer feathers largely white; chin, throat and breast grey. Remainder of lower plumage dusky yellow. Sexes alike. DistRIBUTION: A winter visitor arriving in November and leaving again in March and April. GENERAL Hapits: During its stay in these hills it is mostly addicted to haunting the medium sized evergreen trees, Holly, rhododendron and the two oaks (Q. incana and dilutata). Usually inhabits the zone 5,000 feet to 7,500: feet. Whistler only observed it in the Kangra Valley from December to March. Its note is a sort zitt. THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 413, 137. Phylloscopus pulcher kangrae Ticehurst. The Orange-barred Willow- Warbler.. LENGTH: 4% inches. FiELD CHARACTERS: A faint coronal streak yellowish; supercilium greenish buff; crown and nape olive green; rump yellow; two well marked wing-bars orange; tail brown the edges of the feathers olive-yellow, 3 outer ones mostly white; lower plumage greenish yellow. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: This is another winter visitor to the Simla area. Said to occur from Afghanistan to Garhwal. Its winter habitat is mostly from 4,o00 ft. to 7,000 ft. November to March when it disappears entirely from these parts for its breeding quarters at higher elevations. Waite did not meet it along the Hindustan-Tibet Road. GENERAL Hasirs: Similar to the last species. NipIFIcaTION: Takes place in June and July. The nest is composed of green moss, grass, lichen and strips of birch-bark and warmly lined with feathers. It is domed with the entrance at the side and placed at varying heights, 8 ft. to 15 ft. from the ground. The clutch is usually four eggs, white with reddish-brown blotches and specks mostly at the large end and sometimes forming a zone here. 138. Phylloscopus proregulus simlaemsis Ticehurst. Ticehurst’s Willow-Warblet. LENGTH : 33 inches. Fretp CHARACTERS: Broad coronal band and supercilia to the nape yellow; head dark olive brown, lighter on the back; rump bright yellow; two yellow wing bars; tail brown edged with olive-yellow; under parts pale buff suffused with yellow on the abdomen. Sexes alike. This is our smallest Willow-Warbler, differing from P. maculipennis by the absence of white in the tail. DISTRIBUTION: Resident, only descending to lower elevations in the coldest weather. Found from 4000’ to 10,500’ and probably up to tree limit. GENERAL Hasits: Usually solitary but in winter often found attached to the mixed foraging parties composed of the various species of Tits, Tree- Creepers and other small birds. Its favourite haunts are the deodar (Cedrus deodara) forests. NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is May and June. The nest is a neat little ball of moss, lichen, a few strands of grass and. lined with feathers. A number of nests found were all placed in deodars, at heights of 6’ to 35’ from ground. One was against the main stem but most were some distance from the trunk, usually at the bifurcation of two branches. Eggs four, white with numerous blotches and dots, mostly at the large end. 13Y. Phylloscozus subviridis (Brooks). Brooks’s Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 3% inches. Fretp CuHaracTeRS: Whole upper plumage clear greenish yellow; faint coronal streak and supercilium yellow; two wing-bars yellowish white; tail brown each feather edged greenish yellow; lower plumage pale dusky yellow. Sexes alike. DistTRIBUTION: In winter I found it fairly common in the Kala Chitta hills below Attock. Rare passage migrant through the Simla area. GENERAL Hapits: In the plains its favourite haunts are the ‘Kikar’ and other thorny trees. The call-note is very. similar to those of the three fore- gcing species. NipiricaTIon: Major C. H. T. Whitehead found it breeding at elevations between 7,000 ft. and g,ooo ft. in the Kurram Valley in June and July. The nest was placed on the ground on a sloping bank; made of grass, lined with goats’ hair and domed. The. eggs are white with red spots and speckles. 140. Phylloscopus inornatus humii (Brooks). Hume’s Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 4 inches.-__ FIELD CHARACTERS: An_ obsolescent coronal streak; upper plumage dull olive green; a broad buffy white eye-streak; two wing-bars, the upper one rather obscure; tail brown each feather edged with olive green; under parts sullied white. Sexes alike. | DisTRIBUTION: Spring and Autumn passage migrant and common at these seasons from the foot-hilfs to 9ooo ft. 414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 GENERAL Hapits: Like all the other Willow-Warblers a restless bird frequenting alike forest and trees bordering cultivation, incessantly uttering its call-note tis-ip. : NIDIFICATION : Breeds commonly in Kashmir where its nest may be found in May and June. The situation is on a sloping bank; shape globular with the entrance at the side; materials, coarse grass, lined with finer grass and hair and fur. Four eggs are the normal clutch. They are white marked with red brown specks and spots. 141. Phyiloscopus trochiloides viridanus (Blyth). The Greenish Willow- Warbler. LENGTH: 5 inches. FiELD CHARACTERS: Upper plumage light olive-green, brighter on the rump ; supercilium bright yellow; lores and a line behind the eye dark yellow; wings with a single buff bar; tail brown each feather edged greenish ; lower parts dusky yellow, greyer on flanks. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: Passage migrant April and May. Outside our area practically the whole of India during the cold season. On the Autumn migration it is common from the end of August and throughout September. GENERAL Hasits: In some years this bird passes through Simla in great numbers with the next subspecies during April and early May. At this season they keep to the upper branches of the oak trees (2. incana) and keep up a continuous warbling. NipiFIcATION: Very few authentic records of its breeding in Indian territory can be relied on; perhaps a few breed high up in the Kashmir highlands and Baltistan. Waite found a nest of the race Phyll. trochiloides ludlowi above Nachar in the Sutlej Valley at c.a. 10000 on June 8 containing four eggs and obtained the female which Whistler identified as above. 142. Phylloscopus (trochiloides ?) nitidus Blyth. The Green Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 5 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Resembles virvidanus but the colours are _ brighter, specially the under parts which are bright yellow. Wing bar bright yellow, and in freshly moulted specimens a second bar is also indicated. DISTRIBUTION: Not uncommon on the upward migration which takes place in April and May but seems to follow quite a different route on its downward passage. GENERAL Hapits: Differs in no way from those of viridanus. N.B.—Dr. C. B. Ticehurst in his masterly work ‘A Systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus’ was somewhat of the opinion that nitidus was a species apart from the trochiloides group due to the lack of any intergrades. 143. Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth. The Large-billed Willow-Warbler. LENGTH: 5% inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Upper parts, edges to the wings and tail dark yellowish olive; a conspicuous supercilium yellowish white with a dark olive line below it; wings and tail brown with a faint white edge to the inner web of the outer tail-feather. A single wing-bar yellowish white; there is a faint indication of a second wing-bar on the median coverts. Underparts dusky yellowish white. DistriBuTION: In Simla and the immediate neighbourhood only occurs as. a passage migrant in May and September. Very few records for these hills. GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird. The few I have encountered in Spring were haunting the upper branches of tall trees. The Autumn bird was in my garden. The song is of four notes tsee-seesee-tseee and is diagnostic. 144. Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The Large Crowned Willow- Warbler. LENGTH: 54 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: A very distinct median coronal streak and two broad lateral coronal streaks dusky olive; Supercilium primrose yellow. Upper parts, edges of wing feathers and tail light yellowish-olive ; double wing-bars yellowish THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS 415 white; three outer tail-feathers narrowly edged white on the inner webs. Under parts dull white tinged with pale grey on breast and flanks, DisTRIBUTION: A very common breeding visitor to the Simla Hills arriving early in March and leaving again about the first week in July descending into the lower hills for a month or more before final departure to their winter quarters in S. India. GENERAL Hasits: Arboreal. Breeds between 6,000 ft. and g,o00 ft. A very restless bird continually flapping its wings and flirting the tail. It is the noisiest Willow-Warbler, the song being a rapidly repeated chi-zit. NipiIFIcaATION: Takes place in May and June. The nest is made of moss and lined with the fur of mammals (monkeys, squirrels, and deer). It is almost invariably placed well out of sight in a hole of some sort, a hole in a revetment wall being the most favoured site in these parts. Other sites are among the roots of a tree or a hole in a tree. The eggs are immaculate white and usually number four. 145. Phyllescopus reguloides kashmiriensis Ticehurst. Blyth’s Crowned Willow- Warbler. LENGTH: 5 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: A small edition of Phyll: occipitalis. : DISTRIBUTION: From Kashmir to Garhwal in summer. Probably winters in the foothills as I found it common at Berrik in the Tista Valley (1,200 ft.) during the cold weather of 1944. GENERAL Hapits: An uncommon species. Arboreal and met with singly; like all the Willow-Warblers a restless little bird constantly flirting its wings as it moves about. NipiricaTION: May, June and July are recorded as being the breeding season. I never came across it during the breeding time but Whistler recorded it as being common during summer at 9,500’ to 10,500’ in the Kharsu Oak Zone. The nest and eggs don’t differ from those of the preceding species except that they are a trifle smaller. 146. Seicercus barkii whistleri Ticehurst. Dharmsala Black-browed Flycatcher- Warbler. LENGTH: 43 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: A distinct green coronal streak; 2 broad _ blackish- brown lateral coronal stripes bordered distinctly with grey; a conspicuous yellow ring round the eye; upper parts, margins of wing and tail feathers olive green; outer two pairs of tail-feathers mostly white; under parts bright yellow. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: A_ resident between 2,500’ to 10,000’. Single birds are usually seen about Simla both on the upward and downward movements. GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird keeping much to the under storey uttering its subdued little call-note pillip, a faint edition of that of the Cinnamon Tree- Sparrow. It is not common but a few may be heard and seen each season, NipiFicaTIon: Breeds in June and July, making the usual domed nest of green moss placed on the ground. The eggs are white without markings. 147. Seicercus xanthoschistos xanthoschistes (Gray). The Kashmir Grey-headed Flycatcher-Warbler. LENGTH: 43 inches. i FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown and nape ashy grey, the centre of the crown paler; sides of head ashy brown; back, visible parts of wings and tail yellowish olive; the inner webs of the two outer tail-feathers white ; a white supercillum; lower parts bright primrose yellow. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION : Very common. Resident between 2,500’ to 9,000’, with some downward movement in the cold weather. GENERAL Hapits: A forest bird keeping mostly to the lower storey. Found alike in pine, oak and deodar forest, sometimes in the denser growth but usually in the more open parts. Tame and fearless, NIDIFICATION: Breeds from March to June. The nest is the usual domed structure made of green moss and grass lined with hair and fur. It is placed on the ground often protected by an overhanging bush. The eggs number four 416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 47 or five and are immaculate white. This species is often. victimised by the Himalayan Cuckoo (C. optatus), . 148. Homochlamys pallidus (Brooks). The Pale Bush-Warbler. LENGTH: 5 inches. FIELD CuaracTers: Dark earth brown above, the edges of wing and tail feathers tinged rufous; supercilium pale buff; lower plumage sullied white almost fulvous grey. Sexes alike. DisTRIBUTION: In summer found up to 10,000 ft. descending in winter to the foothills and rarely some miles out into the Plains. . GENERAL Hapits: It is an arrant skulker and rarely shows itself to the observer, keeping to dense cover in forest glades where the wonderful song of the male proclaims its presence. Apart from the breeding season it is a solitary bird uttering a single note tchuk. ; NipIFIcaTIoN: Breeds in June and July from 7,500 ft. to 10,000 ft. The nest is usually placed in a bush of Honeysuckle sp. or Syringa sp. within 6 feet of the ground; it is made of the broader leaved grasses and_ lined copiously with feather; sometimes it is domed or it may be a very deep cup- shaped structure. The eggs normally number four and are a deep chocolate. 149. Horeites brunnifrons whistleri Ticehurst. The Simla Rufous-capped Bush-Warbler. LENGTH: 4 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown and nape chestnut; upper plumage including edges of wing and tail-feathers rufous brown; supercilium pale buft ; ear-coverts ashy brown, chin, throat and breast grey; flanks fulvous brown; abdomen white. Sexes alike. DIsTRIBUTION: Resident from 4,000° to 19,500° the lower elevation being its winter habitat. It passes through these hills in April and October. GENERAL Hasits: A bird of the open bush-clad hillsides and an arrant skulker. Its song is very similar to that of the Greyheaded Flycatcher-Warbier. NipiricaTion : Hugh Whistler found it fairly common at 10,500 to 11,500’ on the Duala Dhar range above Dharmsala in June and recorded that it was clearly breeding though he found no nest. B. B. Osmaston however found the typical form breeding near Darjeeling; he records the nest as being very similar to that of Homochlamys, but the eggs are terra cotta with a darker cap at the larger end. They number three to five. 150. Suya criniger criniger Hodgson. The Brown Hill-Warbler. LENGTH: 7 inches. FIELD CuHaRAcTERS: Upper plumage dark brown; tail rufous brown obsoletely cross rayed; cheeks and ear-coverts dark brown; lower plumage fulvous-white. The female during the breeding season has a short buff supercilium and is 13 inch less than the male’s total length. In winter the sexes are alike, the plumage at this season being rufous brown each feather with a dark centre; below pale fulvous. DistrIBUTION: In summer it is found from 4,000’ to 7,500’ but occasionally up to 10,500’ (summit of -Mt. Huttoo!) which no doubt is exceptional. In winter down to the foothills 2400’. GENERAL Hapirs: A denizen of the grassy hillsides. The usual call-note is a tchak-tchak. The song of the male a repetition of chik-ra-chu uttered ad nauseum from some elevated point of vantage, or as it dive-bombs at the female or in the vicinity of the nest. NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is from June to August. The nest is almost always placed in grass within a foot or 18 inches of the ground; the materials used are mostly vegetable down strengthened with a few strands of green grass firmly attached to the supporting stems. .In shape it is oval with the entrance near the top. The eggs are white or cream with a zone of bright red closely set blotches; they normally number four. If they should. number more it would be advisable to examine them very carefully as Mr. W. H. Matthews finds that the Plaintive Cuckoo victimises this species and it takes a keen eye to differentiate the eggs. ‘ THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT HILLS ‘417 ‘151. Prinia sylvatica gangetica(Blyth). The Jungle Wren-Warbler. LENGTH: 7% inches, para FIELD CHARACTERS: Above dull earthy brown tinged rufous on the rump; tail brown all but the ‘central’ pair tipped white with. a black subterminaf patch, the outermost pair almost wholly white on the inner web; all the feathers faintly cross-rayed; a short supercilium buff; lower plumage buff. Winter ‘plumage warm rufous brown, the lower parts ochraceous. No white in the lateral tail feathers. Sexes alike. DISTRIBUTION: Resident between 2,000 ft. to 3,500 ft. from Kangra to ‘Assam. Common at Kalka just outside the forest. GENERAL Hapits: Frequents the low prickly bushes choked with coarse grass which so often clothe the margins of the small ravines in the foothills. It has a loud shrill song during the monsoon at which time it breeds, and indulges in the dive- -bombing display and beak-snapping much like the Brown Hill-Warbler. NipirIcaT1ion ; From June to September. The nest is domed or a deep cup. The materials employed are much the same as those used by the last species. The situations are mostly a small dense bush or a clump of coarse grass. The eggs are white, pinkish or pale-blue green marked with fine specks of red- brown. The usual clutch is four. 152. Regulus reguius himalayensis (Jerdon). The Himalayan Goldcrest. LENGTH: 33 inches, FIELD CHARACTERS: Adult male, centre of crown flame coloured edged with bright yellow, sides of crown black, upper parts olive-green, brighter on rump; tail feathers brown edged with olive yellow; a black ‘patch on the centre of the wing and two wing-bars; below pale dusky white tinged with olive green. Adult female lacks the flame coloured crown of the male, but is otherwise similar. DISTRIBUTION’: A common winter visitor to the coniferous forests about Simla between 6,000 ft. and 8,oo0 ft. GENERAL Hasits: Arrives here towards the end of October remaining with us till the end of March when it leaves for the higher elevations. A’ very hardy little mite. I have watched a small party of them bathing in a handful of melting snow, about a dozen taking their turn one by one while 1 was standing five or six feet away. The note is a high-pitched mouselike tse-tse- tse. NipiFicaTIon: May, June and July are said to be the-breeding séason in the Kashmir hills; the nest is a beautiful little hammock slung from the under- side of a bifurcation of a horizontal branch of a coniferous tree at from 12’ to 40° or more. It is made of green moss, lichen and spiders’ web and cocoons. The eggs are pinky buff with a zone of the same, but a shade darker, at the larger end. 153. Cephalopyrus flammiceps feammiceps (Burton). The Fire-capped Tit-Warbler. LENGTH: 4 inches. FreELD CnaracTERS: Male: forehead and crown flaming scarlet; upper parts bright olive yellow; wings and tail brown, each feather edged olive yellow; lores and. -supercilium washed with scarlet; chin and upper throat scarlet orange, lower parts golden yellow. Female: a dull edition of the male. A dumpy little bird. with a comparatively short tail. DiIsTRIBUTION: Occurs from Kalka (2,500 ft.) to 8,500 ft., the upper limit of its breeding range. In winter it wanders out into the . plains as far as the Central Provinces. GENERAL Hapsits: This bird is very . tit- like in its feeding habits clinging to. the extremity of the small twigs to’ examine the fresh foliage for insects which its strong feet and tarsi enable it to do. It has absolutely no affinities with any warbler that I know of. It is a forest bird, found in small scattered parties during the winter: months. Arrives in the hills in March, departing in October. The song of the male is a subdued edition of that of the Goldfinch. NipiricaTIon: April and May are the only months in which I have found the ‘nest which is always placed in a small hole in a tree from a foot to 20. feet above ground level. The material used is fine long strips of dry grass which the female alone: brings-though the male is always in close attendance. 2 418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 47 The female isa close’ sitter and hisses at thé?-intruder after thé’ manner of the tits. The eggs usually number four and are munmaneses) (RE green in peclour: 154, Oriolus orioltis kundoo (Sykes). 459 Indian Oriole, 2 LENGTH :. 93 inches. _ | “FIELD CHARACTERS + Male: ‘the ‘Sabolls feed and body ‘rich Sais ‘lores and space round the eye black; middle tail feathers black with narrow yellow tips, the others progressively less black till the outermost pair are almost entirely yellow; wings black, all the quills tipped and partially margined with yellow. The female differs from ane male in having the back and scapulars . tinged ‘with’ green. DistriputION: A common summer visitor to these hills from. 2,500 feet to 5,000 ft. or more. Arriving early in April and leaving for the plage in Seb témber. Found throughout India; not E. Bengal. — GENERAL Hasits: Partial to ‘the small groves of trees in ee vicinity of cultivation. Does not enter heavy forest. The food consists of rust and insects. The call-note is flute-like but it has no real song. ° NipiricaTIon: Most eggs.are laid in May and June. The nests are slung 10 to 40! from the ground from a bifurcation of a branch to. which they are strongly attached by stout strands of grasses and fine strips of bark. From below it looks like a yellow ball of grass. The eggs, which number two to four, are china white sparsely blotched with black or dark brown. 155. Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii (Finsch). The iStaclingm LENGTH: 8% inches. eet) FIELD CHARACTERS: The whole plumage is metallic black, the irridescence comprises green, purple, blue and red; each feather tipped with buff. At A distance it appears all black or dark grey. Sexes alike. DIsTRIBUTION : Occurs rarely at the foot of the hills, i.e, around °Kalka. The hosts of Starlings seen in India are winter visitors arriving in the North West in. October and leaving us again in March. But there. are two resident races, one in Sind, the other breeding in Kashmir. — GENERAL Habits : Highly gregarious feeding mostly on the eu, where it does untold good in destroying. noxious insects. 156. - Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gnietihy. at iflee Geheee ial LENGTH: 8 inches. © ae . ae _. FyeLtp CwaracTers: The whole upper plumage dark Geren the feathers on the head and neck long and pointed; wings blackish; the feathers edged» with silvery grey; lower plumage rufous paler. on the chin and throat. and: deeper on the abdomen and flanks. Sexes more or less alike.) | DISTRIBUTION : Widely distributed in the plains where I have seen it once at Nabha and once at Jagadhri, both localities in the Punjab where it is rare. But it is to my son Paul that the credit goes-for finding it, breeding in these Hills; this was at a village near Suni, 2,500 ft., Bhajji State, on June 6th, 1944. GENERAL Hasits: The Grey-headed Mynah is eR more arboreal than are most of the mynahs. Its main diet consists of fruit and nectar from flowering trées, it also feeds on insects and occasionally descends to the ground. After the breeding season’ the birds collect into small flocks. When feeding a continual chatter is kept up, the song is a pleasant warble. | NIDIFICATION: Takes place in April, May and June. The nest is in a hole in a tree, either a natural one or a disused woodpecker’s or barbet’s from ten to fifty feet from the ground. In the nest my son took there were four partially incubated eggs and he found a~second. one in which there were three young ones. In colour the eggs are a pale sea-green without markings. The material lining the holes was green leaves only. 157. ‘Temenuchus pagodaram (Gmelin). The Brahminy _Mynah. Lenctu: 8 ‘inches. , ghee iaiceit . Freep CHARACTERS: . From: forehead to nape a black crest; upper plumage pale grey; sides of the head and underparts rich buff; primaries and PY coverts black; tail. brown broadly tipped - white. Sexes alike.’ Found of * the Daula’ ‘Dhar, “ABOVE Dharamsala, to Sikkim! ooo: Pee! GENERAL’ HaBris * Arboreal’” Has °4 phore! mélodious catlinote’ Tet the Red- headd Bullfinch. Otherwise it reséfibles that’ bird’ in. habits one dood preys NIDIFICATION : Nothing recorded, « Avityisyeres? Vhaey h foDTQ. ° -hoxia! icurvirostra : himatayana Blyth. Rh) "Himalayan Crossbill, #4 “yeh! eae ‘Biches, 9 mot ies alfid tulveroa stony © Fig CHArAcrérs:! | Male : Sper Shishi wah forehead’ ted, “brighter: ‘on’ the rump; feathers of the wings and-tail dark Brown’ with ddges with’ narrow rufols “THE BIRDS- OF THE-SIMLA ‘AND ‘ADJACENT HILLS: 433 margins; lower” plumage réd; under: tail-coverts: ‘brown broadly eds ed with ‘dusky whites": Female > olive: green: ‘(alinost yellow-onthe rump) where the male is red. --DIsTRIBUTION::» From the 'Sutlej River and Lahoul to Sikkim. In October rox ‘on ‘two. cbnsectitina? week-ends I- observed ‘several small parties on’ Kufri Hill (8,800 ft.) ; they were frequenting ° ‘the: tops of spruce and were ‘very’ restless, ‘sO much so that I failed to’secure’ a specimen. GENERAL Hasits: ‘A bitd of the coniferous forests. The seeds of ‘these, especially: Spruce (A. webbiana),- constitute its ‘food,’ the bill being so formed as to. enable it .to extract the eee with ease. Its movements when feeding are: very Basen tals: Bh ON »NIDIFICATION : Nothiig on® eeceré: fais the Himalayan ‘race. but in ‘Europe March and April: are the breeding months. The nest is: placed in a conifer fairly high up.in the tree; it is constructed of fine twigs -and lined with fine -grass~ and rootlets. The eggs number 3 or 4 and are very pale stipe sparsely marked with dark red-brown ‘blotches. . _ DBC radegins BN! othe Pyrrhospiza puaicea humii Sharpe: The nia aul ‘Rosefinch, LENGTH: 7s inches; aug eee pa, MIELD ie: CHARACTERS + Male:. forehead anda short» supercilium:: crimson, each feather: tipped. black; crown to lower back edged with light brown’; rump rosy-red with dusky tips; cheeks, ear-coverts, chin, throat and breast crimson ; abdomen ‘ashy. brown faintly.'streaked. black; under tail-coverts ‘brown, margined with. pink... Female: - whole: upper «plumage. dark’ brown, smargined paler ; rump dull. greenish; lower plumage fulvous with narrow black streaks. DisTRIBUTION: From Kashmir to Sikkirh into Tibet and China at high ele- vations from g,ooo ft. in. winter to 17,000 ft. in ,summer.. GENERAL Hapits: Frequents the most desolate mountainous country ‘where it feeds on the precipitous: hillsides.. Except»for a fine male which Dr. van “der Sleen. obtained above Chini, and which he kindly presented to me, I know of no other record for. these parts... The food:consists mainly of! seéds and: other vegetation. Where found, the birds are not shy. NipiFicaTION: July is the only month recorded when a female collected. by Whistler in Lahoul was gathering goat’s hair for its nest. Many yeats ago Stoliczka found the nest in Spiti and Ladakh; it was made of coarse :grass and placed in a furze bush. ‘The eggs were dirty white or greenish with some dark brown spots’... . * reid ve io olpitt : fon ¢ « (172, Carpodacuis thura biythi (Biddulph). The ayes Senet Rees LENGTH : 62 ‘inched. Fretp. CuaracTers: Male: lores and front of. the face crimson; forehead, . supercilium, cheeks, ear-coverts, chin’ and throat pale shining (silky) ‘pink, with white © shaft-streaks ; the end of the: supercilium white; crown, mape and back brown, broadly streaked with black ; rump rosy pink ; wings and_ tail dark brown, all the feathers margined with dull pink; lower plumage from throat uniform rosy pink. Female’: “upper” ‘plumage dark brown, streaked’ with black ; rump and upper tail-coverts edgéd with golden yellow; forehead’ and‘ a ‘broad super- cilium buff; chin, throat, breast and sides of ‘body pale rufous, streaked with black: DisTRIBUTION: A bird of high elevations occasionally coming in ‘to Simla during the cold weather. It is found from ile to Sikkim. CEB ion 7 ie ft. to 12;000 ftv... %. - MEHEREAYTS CuSO’ é GENERAL Hasirs : Gregarious in winter, though Beer oneliy, ainminne are encountered, found both -in forest and on the more open hillsides. .,The flocks I have personally encountered . in these parts were composed of adult and immature, males only. They, feed on grass seeds and _fly into a neP TOY, tree when disturbed, though, they are ‘by no. means shy. “NIDIFICATION : Mandelli are: it breeding in Neral jin iueose The nest was found in a thorny bush ; it was composed. of fine grass and.moss and..lined with: white” fur. | The ees. number. 3 and are alt , Shen blue with: blotehes, ef brownish-grey. 123. Carpodacas pulcherrimus pulcherrimus Hodgsoii The Beautiful Rosefinch. “LEnetit : eb inches. Le “FYE | CHARACTERS : “Male: upper plumage. ashy | brown strealeed! erithh datle brown ; rump rasy red; quills and tail black margined with ruddy brown; 424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SQCIETY, Vol, 47 a very broad supercilium, cheeks, ear-coverts, chin, throat and forehead pale rosy breast and abdomen rosy-red with black streaks; sides of body brown streaked darker, Female: upper plumage fulvous; brown, streaked black; wings and tail dark brown edged with fulvous; ap indistinct supercilium fulvous; lower plumage pale fulvous profusely streaked. dark. brown. _ DistrisuTion: From Chini in Bashahr State 9,000 ft. (where Waite found it not uncommon) it extends to Sikkim and western China. GENERAL Habits: Gregarious until the approach of the breeding season. NipiricaTion: A, E. Osmaston found three nests at 13,000 to 13,500 ft. in Garhwal on the borders of Tibet in August, placed low down in. bushes. They were composed of strips of bark and grass and lined with fine roots and sheep’s wool and hair. The eggs numbered three in each nest and were green- ish-blue sparingly spotted and blotched with black round the large end. 174. Carpodacus rhodochlamys grandis Blyth. The Red-mantled Rosefinch. LENGTH: 7 inches. J FIELD CHARACTERS: Male: whole upper plumage, wings and ‘tail rosy- red; rump pure rosy; the feathers on the head and back with dark brown streaks ; supercilium ; sides of head, chin and throat pale shining rosy; lower plumage rosy- red. Female: upper plumage ashy-brown streaked with darker brown; lower plumage ashy-white, heavily streaked dark brown. DISTRIBUTION: Comes to the precincts of Simla in October when it is not un- common in certain years. Waite found it in summer as far as Namgia.at 9,750 ft. on the Tibet border. In winter it descends to the low hills in the Kala Chitta Reserve and the Salt Range, elevation 1,500 ft. GENERAL Hapits: Found, in small scattered parties on the barer bush-clad hillsides. Has: a low plaintive call-note. NIpIFICATION: Very little known. Hugh Whistler found it not uncommon at Jispar, Lahoul, in June and early July where it was frequenting the juniper forest; he opined that they were on their breeding grounds. 175. Carpodacus rhodochroa (Vigors). The Pink-browed Rosefinch. LENGTH: 6 inches. : a Fretp CHARACTERS: Sex for sex this species is a small edition of the Red- mantled Rosefinch ; the female being a warmer brown and having a. very distinct supercilium. Bi DISTRIBUTION: From Dharamsala to Nepal. Comes into Simla from October to March when it is quite common. Descends to 4,000 ft. in winter and breeds at elevations above 8,ooo ft. GenrraL Hapits: Gregarious in winter, small parties of 6 or 8 birds keeping — company. They feed mostly on the ground under bushes in the better forested parts and are tame and of a skulking disposition. The usual call-note is a canary-like sweet. F | . NIDIFICATION: Whistler records it as breeding fairly commonly in the high tree zone about 10,000 to 11,000 ft. and quotes Hingston who says down to 7,500 ft. Neither of these authorities, however, gives any particulars regarding the nest and eggs. 176. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus Hodgson. The Common Rosefinch, LENGTH: 6 inches. | mellow tone.. It feeds mostly on the ground; its diet consists: smainly of small ‘seeds’ and small insects. NipiricaTIon : - Takes place from Aacils to July. The nest is placed in:a hole in a tree or other cavity; I once found a pair in possession. of a inest of the Rufous-backed Sparrow at Lahore. The materials for the nest are grass, straw and feathers.:. The clutch consists of 3 or 4 eggs.,.which are whitish, heavily blotched with ashy-brown which almost obscures the eoounas cofour in some specimens. BE OMe 184, Passer duinesttcus indicus Janine & Selby: The. Hause ‘Sparrow. LENGTH: 6 inches. : ‘FIELD: CHARACTERS : Male : crown Behe grey ; a broad band, fans the eye chest which colour ‘extends to. the rump and is streaked with black; rump ashy-grey ; tail dark. brown, each feather edged with pale brown; wings chestnut. at. the shoulder followed by two white wing-bars; chin, throat and upper breast black forming a. bib; cheeks and lower plumage albescent. Female: Supercilium pale buff; upper plumage pales earthy-brown streaked with black ; whole lower plumage. ashy-white. — DisTRIBUTION:. The whole of India up to: 7,000 ft. or more. olin Se: every bazaar has its colony. SN Bae) Veet © /GENERAL Hasits: Too well- aoa to need any description. Their. food con- sists of the various grains which they pilfer from dealers’ shops, but in the br eeding season they make some amends by feeding their young ones on, insects of. various. kinds. Resident: in+ Simla. | ~NIpiricaTIonN :) The. breeding. season. is, from Meh to. June. The nest. is placed in any convenient hole in a building safely. out of sight of prying eyes; the holes are: lined with dry. ‘grass and straw and finished off, with a warm lining of feathers. The usual clutch is four, but I have known 3 and 5 incubated eggs The ground colour is very Pale greenish-white, prokane, and Ean vr brown and ashy-grey. DEVIN 83 is: ; “185. Basse ratilans debilis .Hartert. The Kashmir Cinnamon Sparrow. ~ Lenetir: | 5 inchés: ye-od) Divot al ; otitiw ersritest od) to send off FIELD, ‘CHARACTERS : Male: ‘upper. plumage: cinnamon,’ streaked ‘with black on’ the, ‘pack’; wings and tail black edged with! rufous; two wing-bars white: chin, ‘throat “And: upper breast black’; rémainder of lower plumage greyish- -yellow. | Female : upper, plumage” tuddy-browh,. ‘Stréakedon the back: with -blacki; rump: tinged | rufous ¥ a broad ‘buff supercilium ; lower’ plumage ashy-buff, tinged: yellow: Distrtpurion ¢ ~The’ ‘whole’ Himalayas from Chitral to China. ‘In the sum- merit ascends to 8,000' lft, “or more ; in winter it descends to. the foothills: and: at: times out into the plains (Chandigarh), | oar pep ty! 428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 ' GENERAL Hapits: After the breeding season it collects into flocks which, frequent the now bare, cultivated tracts where they feed on the ground pickin up the fallen grain and the seeds of wild plants. Their call-note is a ee edition of that of the House-Sparrow. In Simla it is found for the most part on the outskirts of the town. Its movements and general demeanour are more refined than those of the House-Sparrow. NipiFicaTION: More of a forest bird than P, domesticus and, in consequence, its nest is frequently placed. in a Woodpecker’s or Barbet’s hole. The materials are the same as those of the House-Sparrow. The eggs are usually 4 in number and resemble closely those of that species, but are smaller and generally more heavily marked. 186. Fringiflauda nemoriccla altaca (Eversmann). Stoliczka’s Mountain Finch. LENGTH: 63 inches. | FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Resembles in general appearance a dark slim female House-Sparrow, with a finer bill. DISTRIBUTION : Winter visitor to Simla where it first appears at the end of October to March, when it leaves for higher elevations. GENERAL Hasits : Highly gregarious and restless frequenting the more open hillsides. Shuns the more sunny sides of the hills and when disturbed flies right away or up into nearby trees. The note is a cheery twitter. Its breeding grounds are among the most desolate wastes, rock scree and desert. NIDIFICATION: The nesting economy of this bird is very abnormal in that the nest is placed inside a marmot’s burrow where bird and mammal live peace- fully together. The nest is made of dry grasses and lined with wool and hair. The eggs are pure white and. number 3 or 4 in a full clutch. The breeding season is July-August. 187. Emberiza fucata arcuata Sharpe. The Grey-headed Bunting. LENGTH: 6 inches. | FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown, nape and sides of the neck ashy, streaked with black; back reddish brown with broad black streaks; rump red- dish brown, faintly streaked brown; shoulder chestnut with black bases, the larger wing feathers brown, edged with rufous; ear-coverts chestnut; a mous- tachial streak black, which gradually widens to the lower throat where it joins the other streak forming a gorget on the lower throat; chin and throat fulvous: a band of chestnut across the upper breast; lower plumage fulvous streaked. with dark brown; tail dark brown edged with rufous, the bases of the feathers show a considerable amount of white when the bird is in flight. The female’s plumage is somewhat paler than that of the male: DISTRIBUTION: Waite observed a few between (9,000 ft. to 7,500 ft.) in June. I obtained one at Fagu. Simla Hills. It occurs from Kashmir to Assam, GENERAL Hapits: Frequents open bush-clad hillsides. Its food consists of grass-seeds and small insects. Apart from the breeding season it appears to be a sociable bird. NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is from May to July. The nest is placed on the ground sheltered under a bush or tuft of grass; it is the usual cup-shaped structure composed of dry grass and is lined with hair. The eggs, usually 4 in number, are pale greenish-grey speckled with dull reddish- and purplish-brown. Narkanda and Matiana It is uncommon in the 188. Emberiza leucocephala Gmelin. The Pine-Bunting. LENGTH: 7 inches. ; FiELD CuaracTErs: Male: forehead and crown ashy, streaked with brown, the base of the feathers white; lores, round the eye and a short but broad super- cilium, cheeks, chin, throat and sides of the neck chestnut; ear-coverts brown, divided down the middle. by a band which extends under the eye to the gape; back rufous streaked with black; rump and upper tail-coverts rufous; tail dark brown, narrowly margined pale rufous, with a considerable amount of white at the bases of the feathers; wings dark brown, the feathers margined with pale rufous; a large patch of white on the lower throat; breast chestnut; abdomen white; flanks white, streaked with chestnut. Female: Lacks the white bases to the white on the head which is ashy, streaked with brown; remaining upper - THE BIRDS OF THE SIMLA‘AND ADJACENT. HILLS 429 plumage, wings and tail as in the male; it also lacks the chestnut on the face, chin and -throat ; otherwise the undersides as in the male. ~DIsTRIBUTION : Winter visitor to India. In the Simla area it arrives in Novem- ber and passes on down. to the foothills and plains. Not observed on the spring migration. In summer it migrates to Northern Asia. wld GENERAL Hasits: Gregarious during the winter months. Its food consists. of grass seed and any grain, mostly rice, which has fallen on the ground at harvest time and the birds become very fat on this diet: The usual call-note is. itt. NipiricaTion:; I can find no record of. this. — 189. Emberiza stewarti. Blyth. The White-capped Bunting. LENGTH: 63 inches. é FIELD CHARACTERS: Forehead, crown, nape and ear-coverts grey; a broad blacix supercilium ; the whole upper plumage chestnut ; tail brown, margined with rufous, the two outer pairs almost entirely white ; chin and throat black ; lower throat and fore-neck white ; remaining lower plumage pale fulvous. Female: forehead, crown, nape, hind neck: back and scapulars ashy-brown, streaked with blackish ; rump and upper tail-coverts chestnut ; tail as in the male; wings brown, each feather margined with rufous ; lores and round the eye fulvous ; ear-coverts and sides of neck brown ; lower plumage - pale fulvous streaked with ‘brown. DISTRIBUTION: This is a spring and autumn passage migrant in the Simla area on its way from and to its breeding grounds which lie further in the interior as Waite saw it frequently from Nachar to Poo and again between Sarahan and Baghi. Stoliczka found young about the middle of June. : GENERAL Hapits: Gregarious in the cold season, the flocks frequenting the open bush-clad slopes where they feed on the ground. The flight is undulating and graceful like all the Buntings. NIDIFICATION: Breeds in June and July, making a cup-shaped nest of grass- bents and fibres lined with hair and wool. It is placed on the ground under the shelter of a bush or a clump of. overhanging grass. Eggs number from 3 to 5. They are white mottled and blotched with dark brown and ee purplish- -grey. 90: “Eniberiza lic ‘stracheyi Moore. The Eastern Meadow-Bunting. LENGTH: 63 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Head, throat and uppér breast bluish- grey marked with two broad black coronal stripes; a black line through the eye and encircling the ear-coverts; remainder of the body plumage chestnut brown, which on the back is streaked with black; wings dark brown, the feathers edged with rufous and chestnut; tail dark brown edged with “chestnut, the outermost feathers with conspicuous white tips. DISTRIBUTION: Resident, with some downward PaOverientel in the cold weather. Found from the foothills in winter to 10,000 ft. in the breeding season, from Gilgit to Kumaon. GENERAL HaBits: The Meadow-Bunting is a bird of the open grassy, bush-clad hillsides, rarely entering forested country. In the cold season it collects into flocks which feed on the ground in their search for seeds, grain and small insects. NipiricaTIoN: ‘The breeding season is from April to September. The nest is placed on the ground or, exceptionally, in a thick bush. One in my garden was in a honeysuckle bush 3 ft. from the ground and contained 4 eggs—the only time I have known this number—the usual clutch being 3, sometimes only 2. The nest is made of grass-bents and roots and lined with hair. The eggs are stone-colour marked with lines and scrawls of blackish-brown. 191, Melophus lathami subcristata (Sykes). “The Crested Fusing _ LENGTH: 6 inches. Fietp CuHaAracTERS: Male: entire plumage, tachidids the crest, black except the wing, tail and thighs which are chestnut. Female: Crest and upper plumage dark brown}; lower’ plumage dull buff, streaked and mottled on the throat with dark brown, getting.more rufous under. the tail. DistriBuTION: A summer visitor to the lower hills from 2,500 ft. to 5,000 ‘ft. Common at the lower SATE: It.extends from the Hazara country to Assam and China. i ay ibai fo ante i 437 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, V0l,:47 GENERAL. Hapits:: Much the same asthe other. buntings except that it seldom perches on a bush, preferring a rock :for its look-out. and song perch. After the breeding season the ‘birds band - together, ‘sometimes. forming: .considerable flocks. .NipiFicaTIon::’. The breeding: season is from June: to: August,:most nests being found in July. The materials. employed. are grass-bents and: fine rootlets, and for the lining. fibres and hair. The nest.is placed on the ground under a rock or ina hollow of some: ‘accommodating dimensions where itis well screened from view.°. The clutch consists. of..3 or 4 eggs’ which are white or stone-coloured, blotched with red, brown and purple. ROnt Sf 2 192. Delichon urbica ‘urbica (Linnh.). -The House-Martin. LENGTH: 6 inches. ag Tape FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. A black and white Swallow-like ‘bird Upper: parts from forehead. to rump black, glossed with metallic blue; rump pure white; upper tail-coverts, tail and wings black, glossed with blue; cheeks, ear-coverts and lower plumage white. Legs:and feet feathered) white to the toes. DISTRIBUTION : Passes through the Simla area in May in large. flocks, «return- ing in smaller numbers in September. and October on: the downward migration. In ;winter it is found as: far couth as the eee eae! in. summer ave to 12,500 ft. in the Himalayas. GENERAL. Hasits:.. Highly Prcuatious even in the breeding season the nests are. clustered closely together under over-hanging ledges of cliffs: Its food is flying insects which iare taken :on the: wing. NiIpIFICATION: The nest is constructed of: mud pellets and is lined with feathers and a little grass. The eggs number from 3 to 5 and are mybite very barely marked with pale red spots at the large end. [Mr. Jones’s collection has 2 skins also of - isd esor? s House- Martin’ (Delichon BR EESS Ses) collected at Ranibagh, Kumaon, on 13! and 28 Jan. “1942. | 93. Riparia paludicola brevicaudata (Horsf.). The Indian Sand-Martin. LENGTH: 44 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Upper plumage greyish-brown; wings and tail darker brown; chin, throat, breast, sides of head and’neck pale greys abdomen, vent and under tail- coverts white. DISTRIBUTION:: In our area only found in 1 or 2 ieealitice down on the Sutlej River, near Suni.’ Widely spread. over the whole of Northern India. GENERAL Hasits: This is ‘a bird mostly found near water at, low elevations. It flies tirelessly over the water where -it catches its food which consists of. flies, mosquitoes and other winged insects. NIDIFICATION: Breeds in colonies in the, sandy banks of. rivers, For the nest they first tunnel into the earth for 2 or 3 ft. at the end of which the -nest-chamber is made and here the nest is made of .a few whisps of dry grass with usually 2 or 3 white feathers. The eggs number from 3 to 4 and are white, without markings. 194. Riparia ‘riparia diluta (Sharpe & Wyatt). The ‘Sand-Martin. LENGTH :. .5 inches. | FIELD CHARACTERS : Distinguished from the Indian Sand-Martin. in having a well defined band across the upper breast and a tuft) of sae plumes at the back of the tarsus..— DISTRIBUTION: A passage migrant passing over these Hills in ‘May and return- ing in September on its way to the plains. GENERAL Hapits: Same as the foregoing species. NipiFIcATION: Differs in no way from the Indian Sand-Martin., It does,seem worth mentioning here that I have found this sub-species breeding at Attock and Sukkur on the Indus and as far east as Madhopur on the Ravi in, February and.-have, collected both birds and eggs at each of these localities. These have been..examined by, Whistler, Ticehurst and, Meinertzhagen. The problem. now is what becomes of the birds of these colonies after they have finished breeding? Are these the birds seen by Salim Ali'in) Tibet at 15,000 ft. and by myself here in Simla..on passage in. May, and»;September? Salim) Ali (J.B.N.HiS. pt. Vol... 46, page 301) ‘presumed, breeding}. | Could it) be that this bird breeds both in the plains of India and up in Tibet at 15,000 ft. ? seal : - THE BIRDS)OF THE SIMLA AND ADJACENT) HILLS, 431 195...Riparia .rupestris. (Scopoli). .The.Crag-Martin. b uboupili., eer LENGTH: 6 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS; Sexes alike. Upper plumage, sides of meets rice vand tail ashy-brown ; a large white spot on the inner web, of all tail feathers, except the middle and outermost pairs; chin, throat and breast white, tinged with pale rufous, the chin and upper throat spotted with -brown; abdomen and... flanks rufous-ashy ; under tail-coverts dark ashy-brown, DisTRIBUTION: A winter visitor to Simla from the middle. of. Sentence to March from 8,000 ft. down. to the. foothills. The whole Himalayas down to Tenasserim (? winter). Waite observed it in, the Sutlej Valley from Wangtu. to Namgia in May and Salim. Ali found it: breeding in Tibet in June. GENERAL Hapits: This Martin is usually seen beating backwards and forwards across the face of a cliff, feeding on such winged insects as it can catch. It roosts, on the ledges of cliffs. NIDIFICATION: Breeds from Aga to June or tee making a nest of mud pellets lined with dry grass and a few feathers.’ The nest is placed under a ledge of a cliff. The eggs usually number 4 and are white spotted with red and purple. 196. Hirundo rustica rustica (Linnaeus). The Swallow. LENGTH: 8 inches. FIELQ CHARACTERS : +; Forehead, chin and’ throat chestnut ; upper plumage, and wings black glossed sth metallic blue ; tail black suffused with glossy green, all the feathers, except-the middle pair, with a white patch on the inner web; sides of head, neck and a broad, pectoral band glossy black; lower plumage pale rufous. Sexes alike. DIstTRIBUTION: In Simla excessively rare. I found it breeding commonly in Suket State across the Sutlej River. In winter the whole of India. GENERAL Hapits: Highly migratory. Feeds mostly on winged insects which it takes on the wing but on the outskirts of Peshawar I once found a number feeding on black ants which they were taking on the ground. The flight is much swifter than that of the Red-rumped Swallow. NIDIFICATION: The breeding season is .from April to August.. The nest is made of mud pellets lined with dry grass and ‘a féw feathers. The clutch numbers from 3 to 5; in colour the EES: are white marked with dark red and purple blotches. and spots. pus 197. Hirundo smithii ‘filifera Steph. . The Wire- tailed Swallow. LENGTH : To tip of ordinary tail-feathers 5 ‘inches ; the wire- -like outer tail- feathers © Sy inches extra; rather’ shorter in’ the female. FIELD CHARACTERS: Top of the head bright chestnut ; sides of the heady neck and the.-whole upper plumage glossy steel-blue ; ‘all the tail-feathers except. the two central pairs with a white spot.on the inner web; lower plumage ,white. DISTRIBUTION : A summer visitor to the Simla Hills ‘breeding from the foot- ula up to: about 7,000 ft. (Tara Devi). ‘Resident and widely spread in the Plains. GENERAL Hapits: Do not’ differ from‘ those’ of the other swallows? 908°: _NiprricaTion:: The nest is a smaller edition of H. rustica and is Strallawers: The eggs also resemble those of. that species.. : felt. os 198. Hirundo daurica erythr opygia Linnaeus. ~The Red- rumped ‘Swallow. | LenétH+ 6 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS :’''Sexes alike. iUpser. phates glossy ‘steel-blue, except the rump which is aerate an indistinct white patch on the inner web ofthe outermost .tail-feathers;. ear-coyerts anda more or less distinct,.collar' round the neck chestnut ; the whole lower plumage pale rufous, finely- streaked with brown. DISTRIBUTION : ‘A° summer visitor, arriving in March ‘and leaving the Hills in September. Also breéds commonly on the plains. ‘GENERAL Hasits:: ‘Takes practically all its food, which consists of cig eeh insects,. on the wing. The flight is graceful-but,not fast. After the breeding: season it collects into large flocks, often seen on telegraph wires. , - Nipirication : The breeding season is from April to August. The nest is built of.mud pellets” brought, one by one; by the birds. After a certain portion has ;been put in place this is ‘allowed (toi.dry before» work is continued; the entrance. to the; nest,.is through: @ bottleneck ‘prolongation ofthe, mud’ work, uspally: _5 or 6 inches long.- The nest chamber. is lined_.with «dry. grass; and feathers. The: eggs number 3 or 4 and are unmarked white. 432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 199. Hirundo daurica nipalensis Hodgs. Hodgson’s.Red-rumped . Swallow. LENGTH: 63 inches. FIELD CHARACTERS: Sexes alike. Differs from the last-mentioned bird in having the rump a pale rufous and the striations on the lower plumage much coarser. DISTRIBUTION: In summer found from 6,000 ft. to 9,000 ft. Distributed all along the Himalayas. GENERAL Hapits: The Jangiatd of this swallow often arrives at their breeding Stations at the end of January if the weather is fine; if the weather changes these birds return to lower altitudes. They leave the Hills in September. NIDIFICATION: Same as for H. daurica erythropygia. [There is obviously some confusion in the breeding records. Surely it cannot be that both the races erythropygia and nipalensis breed in the same area !—Eps. } (To be continued) SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED, INCLUDING THE PILGRIM TRAIL TO THE SACRED LAKE OF GOSAINKUND ZBYy B. E. SMYTHIES, Burma Forest Service fi Two mountain passes guard the road to Katmandu. The visitor who is fortunate enough to cross the second of these, known as the Chandragiri pass, on a clear day will see one of the finest mountain views in the world, one that will live long in his memory. Spread out at his feet, 2,500 feet below, is the fair vale of Katmandu, a green expanse of rice and other crops with the towers and gorgeous palaces of the town. in the middle distance; on the north this fertile basin is bounded: by the forest-clad ridge of Sheopuri, whence the watershed of the Gandak and the Kosi—those two great tributaries of the Ganges that rise in Tibet and drainlarge areas of Nepal— leads the eye up to a dark and jagged. curtain of naked rock that runs up to the snow peaks of the Nepal-Tibet boundary, the main crystalline axis of the Himalayas. From the highest point of the Chandragiri ridge, some four miles east of the pass, can be seen no less than six peaks of over 26,000 feet :—Daulagiri (partly concealed), Ananpurna Himal, Himalchuli, and Manaslu i in the west § Gosainthan due north; Everest in the east. A collection of mountain tarns known as Gosainkund, sacred to the worshippers of Vishnu, lies high up (at about 14 ,000 ft.) on the western side of the Gandak-Kosi watershed; and every year in August, when the monsoon is in full force, large numbers of pilgrims undertake the arduous journey to these lonely lakes. From Katmandu the first 9 miles is by motor road to Sundari-jal (= Laughing-water, aname no doubt suggested by the stream that comes cascading down: to. the valley at this point), whence a rough track climbs steeply to. the Sheopuri ridge;* from here the trail follows the Gandak-Kosi watershed to a point marked Thare Pati‘on the map at SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED: 433 an elevation of about 12,000 ft., and then turns off left to traverse the tremendous cirque of precipices at the head of the Tadi Kola, even- tually climbing to a 15,000 ft. pass some 5 or 6 miles short of the lakes. What ornithologist, sweltering perhaps in the dusty plains of India or the steamy teak forests of Burma, has not pored over the descriptions of birds found only at high elevations in the Himalayas: such intriguing birds as the Great Parrotbill, the beautiful Blue Grandala, the Golden Bush Robin, the gorgeous Rosefinches, (and if he be shikari too) the Monal Pheasant, the Tragopan, the Snow Partridge, and the Snow Pigeon: and wondered whether he would ever be privileged to see them intheir mountain homes? He could scarcely have hoped to see them in this part of the world, for the Nepal Government very rarely allows outsiders to travel in the Nepal Himalaya and the visitor to Katmandu is not allowed outside the valley; there isa photograph of Gosainkund lake in Landon’s book on Nepal, taken by Oldfield many years ago, but I do not know of any other outsider who has ever followed the pilgrim trail. The writer was therefore very fortunate in obtaining sanction to accom- pany Lt. Tej Jung Thapa,an officer of the Nepal Forest Depart- ment, on a fortnight’s tour in this area; the stipulation was made that I should not go within 5 or 6 miles of the sacred lake. The tour started on the Ist September, and the area is covered by Survey of India 1”’ sheets 71. H and 72. E. The first three days took us from Sundari-jalto Thare Pati, a distance of about 22 miles. For the first two days the path keeps to the crest of the Gandak-Kosi watershed, rising and falling between 5,500 ft. and 8,300 ft., and tuns mostly through scrub or past terraced fieids of Indian corn ; high forest is seen only on the summits of the peaks traversed, and consists mainly of Quercus semecarpttolia, with some Q. lanuginosa, mutilated by lopping for buffalo fodder and therefore ugly to look upon, and harbouring few birds. The Himalayan Greenfinch is commonly seen all along this section. On the second evening we camped at a place known locally as Tarkol, but not named on the map. The camp site has, no doubt, a fine view, but the mists never revealed it to us; it swarms with leeches, and a mosquito net had to be put up to keep them off at night. From here the trail, still keeping to the watershed, rises steeply for 3,000 ft., first through oak forest, then through a dense closed canopy of Rhododendron arboreum, finally emerging near the top into a different world. : Nature’s garden: a world of Silver Fir, of high-level Rhodo- dendrons, of Juniper, of Berberis, and above all of flowers;:a world -of colour in great variety. ‘There were the young Silver Fir cones, a dark purple-blue; a Polygonum (? sphaerostachyum) with neat cylindrical heads of numerous small flowers in a compact cluster, of a beautiful carmine-pink set off by the black anthers of the stamens; a delicate mauve Pedicularis growing in groups with a corolla that turns over to form an umbrella in wet weather thus protecting the long curved style and stigma; a primrose-yellow Balsam;a large pale blue Aster (thompsoni?); a beautiful Corydalis (crithmifolia?) yellow with purple tips; Przmula denticulata, one of the loveliest flowers I have seen, rising on a 10” stalk from a rosette of leaves, 3 434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 the head a cluster of blue-mauve flowers with a yellow ring at the base of the corolla and above that a purple ring, exhaling a delicate perfume; and many other flowers. Then there were the shrubs; Berberis vulgaris with its coloured. leaves, pink fruits, and three-pronged spines; a Vaccinium with light blue berries, perhaps those referred to by Shipton (‘ Nanda Devi’, p. 220) as being considered a delicacy in Sola Kombu, though no- one seems to eat them in these parts; and finally the Rhododendrons covering the hill-sides (what a wonderful sight they must be when in flower); A. falconert with its thick leaves gone rusty beneath; R. barbatum with its green leaves and pink bark; R. campanulatum with thin papery bark and leaves a delicate cinnamon colour below. And so we came to Thare Pati, a collection of huts with stone walls and roofs of rough-hewn fir planks laid loosely on top of each other, maintained by the Government to shelter pilgrims. A more magnificent site it would be hard to conceive. Most of the huts are built on a grassy alp, sprinkled with the pink Polygonum, just below the crest of the ridge, at an altitude of about 12,000 ft. Facing the camp is the cirque of precipices round the headwaters of the Tadi Khola, already mentioned, terrific slopes of grass and threatening rock and foaming torrents dropping 8,000 ft. from the snow-capped heights above to .the slit-like valley floor far beneath; across these precipices runs the slender thread of the pilgrim trail. From the crest of the ridge behind the camp one sees, across the valley of the Malemchi Khola running 7,000 ft. below, the ridge called Dhukpu on the inap along which runs a path to the Ganja La, an 18,450 ft. pass across the Gandak-Kosi watershed ; to reach this pass was our ob- jective. Over the Dhukpu ridge appear the fine snow peaks of Jugal Himal, Gaurisanker, and others in the direction of Everest. Look- ing south the eye follows down the ridge by which we have come to familiar landmarks of Katmandu: Sheopuri, Nagarjun, Kakani bungalow, and the Chandragiri pass, and sweeping on over blue foothills sees the cloudless glare that marks the sweltering plains. It was on my return that I halted here a day (13th September) to explore the last section of the pilgrim trail; I planned to reach the 15,000 ft. pass 5 or 6 miles short of the lake (beyond which point I was not allowedto explore) at 8:00 a.m., at which hour if the day were fine the view would still be unobscured by clouds. Although the route was there in front of me, I under-estimated by 24 hours the time it would take to reach the pass, so deceptive is the scale of these mountains. After an early breakfast I set out at 2-30 a.m. with my Gurkha. orderly ; the stars were shining, giving false promise of fair weather, and in the absence of a moon we could proceed but slowly over the rough track by feeble lantern light; we crossed ‘a spur at 5:00 a. m: and rested for 10 minutes, after which the track being visible by the light of dawn we. hid the lantern under a convenient boulder. Dawn broke grey and cheerless with the pass and the higher peaks. before us swathed in mist, and a cold drizzle started soon after 6:00 a.m. to continue without respite through the day. .. By 7:00 a.m. we had reached the small bridge (three fir poles lashed side by side) crossing a side torrent that marks the end of the traverse and the start of the climb to the pass; for all the terrifying —s. SOME BIRDS OF. THE GANDAR-ROSI WATERSHED © 433. aspect of the traverse as seen from a distance, the path has been so aligned that nowhere does one have to look down dizzy heights, though the towering cliffs above are often. an imposing sight. Primula denticulata grows abundantly beside the path, being a lover of moist localities; above the bridge a Brown Dipper and a Little Forktail were working their way upstream, while a pair of White- capped Redstarts bobbed and fussed about the nearby rocks. ‘The bridge itself is lower than Thare Pati, and the pass would appear from the contours on the map to lie at 15,000 ft. so the final climb must be more than 3,000 ft. The pathleads up through a rocky terrain in its lower levels completely carpeted witha yellow Pofentilla, now mostly bearing fruit like small black berries but assuredly a fine sight in full bloom; here and there a short-stalked pale blue Gentian grew; and at one place from the rocks above came the shrill whistles ofa covey of Snow Partridges. At 9:00 a.m. we reached the top, unexpectedly ornamented with a vast pile of walking sticks heaped up here by the pilgrims a month ago; one can picture the relief and joy with which they attain this point, with nothing but a gentle descent of 5 or 6 miles between them and their goal, after the considerable hardships they must endure, ill-clad and ill-provided for mountain travel as they are, from the persistent driving rain and the cold and rarefied air of this elevation. Crouching in the lee of a large boulder we ate and rested ‘toe Half. an hour, looking down on the littlelonely mountain tarn of Surja Kund, or as much of it as we could see in the driving mist. As visibility never increased beyond 200 yards and there was no hope of the weather improving we reluctantly began the descent at 9°45. I was wearing locally-made rope-soled shoes. which proved about as tough as wet blotting paper on that path of granite chips and boulders, so that the return walk of 6 hours back to camp was done mainly on the bare soles of my feet. I spent some minutes. observing a marmot at the mouth of its burrow; it appeared to lack a tail, but otherwise in size and appearance was something between a large rat and a small rabbit; the front part was reddish, and the back and rump blackish- brown. These animals are common at this level, and we often saw them vanishing into holes in the ground. _ We had intended to halt a day on the 4th to do the above trip, but the weather being unfavourable we decided to postpone the attempt until our return, arguing that the iweather could not be worse (it was), and accordingly moved camp to Malemchigaon, a Sherpa village perched ona shelf of the hillside 4,000 ft. below. It had rained hard early in the night, and dawn disclosed heavy rain clouds blowing up from the south. We left at 7°15 and dropped steeply down, first through Juniper, Silver Fir and Rhododendron scrub, and then lower down through Silver Fir high forest with Rhododendron undergrowth. Brandis (‘Indian Trees’ p. 692) states that he has never seen Adzes pindrow and Abies webbiana growing together, soit was of interest to see them growing here side by side; some of the trees were fine specimens and had attained 18 ft. in girth. The Chini Lama of Boddnath (a famous Buddhist shrine near Katmandu) spends the summer in Malemchigaon, where he maintains a°monastery.. He is an interesting character and speaks many 436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, ¢y languages, including English, Nepali, Sherpa, Hindustani, and several Tibetan and Chinese dialects; he belongs tothe red-hat sect of Tibetan lamas, which permits marriage, and once went on pilgri- mage to Shigatse but was prevented by illness from going on to Lhasa as he had hoped to do. He invited us into his house, and we mounted to an upstairs room floored and roofed with short wide rough-hewn planks of Silver Fir, and ornamented chiefly with brass and iron cooking pots of various dimensions. A fire was burning in the back centre of the room, and over the hearth was suspended a platform on which numerous large packets of goats’ meat, neatly done tp, were being smoked. His kindly wife brewed us some Tibetan tea, complete with tsampa, which we found a pleasant warming drink; we drank countless cups while talking to the lama, who drank his tea from a beautiful jade cup in a silver and gold mounting. In the evening he arranged a village dance, in which half a dozen men and as many women performed; the dance consisted in tapping or stamping the feet while singing (1 found it an excellent method of warming the feet, which was perhaps how it originated!).. At first the performers were shy, but warmed up after several rounds of rice spirit had been served in bright brass bowls, and thesinging was robust and melodious, with an attractive rhythm. At intervalsa villager would come before the lama and receive a benedictory pat on his bared head. The Sherpas of these parts are of Tibetan appearance, and some of the women have fair complexions with pink cheeks. They keep buffaloes, chumries (a cross between a cow and a yak), sheep and goats, and for their staple food grow potatoes and Indian corn in terraced fields. ‘The herdsmen live a semi-nomadic life, construct- ing temporary huts with stone walls roofed over with long rolls of bamboo matting, and moving their animals from time to time according to the dictates of the grazing or the season. The men are powerfully built and wear long tight trousers like the Nepalese, and rough weather-proof homespun woollen jackets with or without short sleeves. ‘The women dress much like the Nepalese and wear ornaments of coral, turquoise, gold, silver, and onyx, this last ap- parently the stone most highly prized in Tibet. At times the men indulge too freely in rice spirit and fights ensue, sometimes with fatal results ; one elderly whiskered gentleman wno accompanied us to the Ganja La as a shikari was ‘ wanted’ for three murders, and I was told of a wealthy young man who wished to do away with a rival in another village and successfully liquidated him by means of hired assassins. The Sherpas seem to smoke mainly cigarettes, which they pass from hand to hand, or occasionally a hookah, in contrast to the pipe-smoking hill tribes of Burma. The odour of rancid butter is all-pervading, emanating most strongly ftom the women, who do most of the butter-making, and noticeable in all the houses. Wood carving is a hobby with the Sherpas, as with the Nepalese, and is the chief interior ornament of their houses. The work is well done, and the chief themes are: a conch shell; an elephant; and what appears to bea dragon surrounded by leaves, but is Meant to represent lightning and thunder inthe clouds. Early next morning the lama showed me round his monastery, a stone building with wooden floors and roof of about the same size, SOME BIRDS OF THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 437 as his house; prayer flags flutter outside, and on the left of the en- trance porch is a large prayer-wheel. The interior consists of one room containing images representing five manifestations of the Buddha, one of them identical with the seated Buddha to be seen all over Burma, and elaborate mural paintings, executed by an artist from Lhasa in 1935; the paintings represent Buddhas and their dis- ciples, and tookthree months to complete, the fee charged being Rs. 2 per day plus free board and lodging. ‘The lama explained the significance of the various images and paintings, but I was not suffi- ciently az fazt with Tibetan Buddhism to follow all he said. The room also contained a conch shell, blown at times of worship, a large drum, butter lamps, offerings of barley and maize, a pair of millstones, and several pieces of cloth; these last are apparently offered by the bereaved on the death of a near relation, whose name is written on a piece of white cloth at the top. We left at 9:00 a.m., descending over 2,000 ft. to the Malemchi Khola,a roaring torrent fortunately bridged, and climbed the same height up the far side along a leech-infested path through terraced fields. At 2:30 p.m. we reached Tarke Gyang,a larger and more prosperous village, the houses crowded together ona shelf of the steep hillside. While the tents were being put up we looked at the local monastery (apparently every village has its own lama and monastery). The chief feature was an enormous prayer wheel, about 10 ft. in height by 20 ft. in circumference, which is turned by hand and rings a gong at each revolution to mark the mounting toll of merit. The monastery was two-storied with mural paintings, old and rather tarnished, on both stories; some beautiful paintings on cloth, the work of a local artist, were hanging in the upper room. No white face had ever appeared in these Sherpa villages before, and that evening my tent was besieged by curious villagers, mainly women and children, while my servant’s cooking operations ona Primus stove proved an attractive side-show; only when darkness fell were we left in peace. The coolies had to prepare rations (mostly Indian corn crushed and roasted, in which form it can be eaten without further cooking) for the next few days, and this delayed our start the following morning till just before mid-day. The first two hours ofthe march were tip a vile and slippery track, crawling with leeches but bright- ened by a variety of fine balsams, pure yellow, deep purple, white, and pink, that flourish in wet forest; it took us up 3,000 ft. toa hut on the shoulder of Yangri (12,443 ft.) and was a short-cut, the main path reaching the hut by a more roundabout route. We continued on up the ridge for some distance and pitched camp at an altitude of about 12,000 ft. I was surprised to find the leeches troublesome even at this height, and put up the mosquito netto keep them off at night. After sunset the mists cleared fora few moments to show the snows of Jugal Himal in the north-east, but the weather made up for this momentary weakness by its ferocity on the following day. Dawn revealed an overcast sky and heavy clouds rolling up from the south, and as we started at 7.40 a.m. the rain commenced; we climbed steadily in the drizzle, the track at first following the crest of the ridge and then traversing well below it on the east side. At 11.40 a.m. we had lunch in the shelter of an overhanging boulder, 438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 and- thereafter the wéather became worse, a strong: wind driving: sheets of rain across the ridge from east to west. ‘The coolies had no clothes warmer than those they wear in Katmandu, and their cheerful endurance of the unpleasant conditions was remarkable; the camping ground was eventually reached at 4:30 p.m. and it was dark before we settled in, it being necessary to send back two of the Sherpas to carry the loads of coolies who had become exhausted.. Rain and mist interfere seriously with bird observation, but they do not obliterate the flowers, and of the sights seen this day a pink Vaccinium that covers patches of hillside and resembles heather ata distance, and a deep blue Gentian or Campanula scattered profusely on a hillside of Potentilla leaves were the most memorable. At dusk the mists cleared a little to reveal a hanging glacier across the valley high above the camp. The camp was pitched on easy grassy slopes sprinkled with yellow flowers below a small hill with a cairn on its summit, at an elevation of perhaps 15,000 ft. Our plan was to halt two days and to goup tothe Ganja La on whichever day might be the finer; as it turned out both days were equally wet, but the first day being un= promising Lt. Tej Jung went out after Tahr andI pottered round the camp in search of birds. We were above the Juniper zone and the only shrubs that grew weretwo species of dwarf Rhododendron: R. lepidotum which covers large areas of hillside and gives outa delicious fragrance underfoot; and A. sefosum, of more resinous scent, growing in mixture with the former; both species ascend to about 16,000 ft. Near the camp I saw a butterfly of the genus Parnassus (Snow-Apollo), the only interesting butterfly seen on the trip. I climbed up towards the crest of the ridge, and saw a small flock of. Snow Pigeons ; higher upa brace of cock Monal Pheasants, which got up out of apatch of boulder scree scarcely 10 yards from me and flew protesting down thehill, afforded a magnificent sight with their metallic purple plumage, white rumps, and cinnamon tails. - The rain continued all night and well into the next morning; however we left for the pass at 9:00 a.m. and the rain stopped for two hours, which enabled me to observe a flock of Hodgson’s Grandalas, those beautiful blue birds I had hoped to see up here; we also saw a dozen or more Monal Pheasants and a covey of Snow -Partridges, and I watched a Nepal Wren hopping in and out of the rocks in a patch of scree. After going about 2 miles from camp we rounded the base of a cliffand topping a small rise looked down into a wide flat valley. This would be the best camp site, sheltered to some extent from the wind and lying close up to the backbone of the ridge, for exploring the surrounding mountains, but firewood would have to be brought up from below. A Brown Dipper was observed on the stream. Crossing to the upper end we entered a side valley, the ‘entrance being marked by a rock the size of a large house, and started climbing in earnest ; passing'a prominent concave stone shute on our right we eventually reached the crest of a spur neara small but massive hanging glacier ; crossing some snow-covered rocks and then half a mile of snow-field in a soggy melting condition and ofa nasty bluish tinge like fohn snow in the Alps, we reached the foot of a steep but easy scramble of about 200 ft. that took us to the top of the pass (18,450 ft.). The path is not well marked in several -SOME BIRDS OF THE, GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED 439 places and the pass would not be easy to find without a guide. At this height the rain had changed to sleet, and visibility was limited to about half a mile. Descending a few steps on the far side we sat down out of the wind for arest. The path dropped down the rocks below us for 100 ft. and then crossed a small glacier to a scree-strewn valley, bearing north-east from where we sat, which disappeared from sight round a spur. East and west the ridge rose steeply in shat- tered cliffs and an attempt to advance far in either direction would have involved difficult rock climbing. From the pass itself the view iS very restricted by neighbouring spurs, and the fine snow pyramid of iangtang Lirung (23,771 ft.) which lies about 10 miles to the north-west, is probably not visible. The path leads down to the Langtang Khola (a tributary of the Gandak) and across the valley is the Tibet border, the nearest point being about 7 miles in an air Jine, but there is no pass across the main rangein this area. The Ganja La is a little used pass, and is open only for two or three months in the year. We started down at 2°45 and reached camp three hours later. We marched back the next day; I halted at the footof peak 14,934 ft., in the fond hope of obtaining a view from the summit either that evening or early the following morning, while Lt. Tej Jung carried onto Tarke Gyang, his coolies having run out of food. Golden Bush Robins were commonly seen this day. The following morning I left camp at 6°25 a.m. and reached the top of the peak at 7:25. The sun was actually shining and Gaurisan- kar and other snow peaks to the east were clear, but the nearby ones were veiled in cloud. It was very pleasant sitting up there, at the height of the summit of the Matterhorn, until the mists, rising all too quickly from the valleys, blotted out the view. Looking north the eye followed the Dhukpu ridge to its junction with the Gandak- Kosi watershed, but the Ganja La itself was not visible; to the left one looked down immense depths to the Malemchi I:these sites have never been confirmed. -The Black- bellied Storm-Petrel is plentiful in parts of the southern oceans, parti- eularly the South Atlantic, but it does not appear to make-a. feaivlar crossing of the tropical zone. Sperling (1872, p. 75) writes of about thirty of these birds playing round the wake of his ship in latitude 5° south, longitude 30° west, but I know of only one record from the ‘ North! Atlantic—the type specimen which was taken-in latitude 6" 33’ north, off the coast of Sierra Leone. ‘This species is included inthe fauna of the wortherd Indian Ocebii: on the strength of a ‘single specimen labelled. ‘ Bay. of Bengal’ in the Marquis of Tweeddale’s handwriting, which was ‘in his collection when it was acquired by the British Museum. Blanford (1898, p. 355) accepts the locality, and since then this region has been included in its range (Stuart Baker, 1929, p. 302)... There‘ do Hee appear-to be any reliable sight records from our. area. The interest of this bird here would seem to be lareely cunt it has several times been considered when a white-rumped storm- petrel was seen. The plumage differences are given above; under Wilson’s Petre]. In addition I would stress the very weak, fluttering) STORM-PETRELS IN THE NORTHERN INDIAN OCEAN 449° flight, which struck me most forcibly when I watched these birds in the South Atlantic. ; igdrabetes pelagicus (Linn. }. British Storm-Petrel. The nearest breeding grounds of this bird are on certain of the islands in the western Mediterranean. Its occurrence within out- area, even aS a very rare vagrant, is doubtful. Von Heuglin. (1873, quoted by Dr. Roberts, 1940, p. 186) records the presence. of. storm-petrels i in the neighbourhood of Bab-el-Mandeb and the Gulf. of Tajura, inthe Red Sea, in September and October. He did not: obtain any specimens, but thought that the birds belonged to this, species. In view of the extent to which Wilson’s Storm-Petrel is now known to occur in this area during these months, it would seem probable that his identification was erroneous, and that the Red Sea should be excised from the range of this. bird until. formal: evi- dence is forthcoming. The British Storm-Petrel, like Wilson’s, has a witite rump; bibs ap is smaller, with an irregular, whitish patch onthe middle of the undersurface of the wings and dark webs: to. its feet, which do «et project beyond the tail in fight. ‘The last two points are diagnos-. tic. It also has more rounded wings and a much weaker, and more fluttering flight, not unlike that of the Black- bellied | ‘Storm Petrel. 243 if Wain ate Wras Oceanodroma monorhis (Swinhoe) : Swinhoe’s Storm- Petrel. This is a Pacific Species, with races breeding on both. sides be fe Ocean. The typical form, O. m. monorhis (Swinhoe) nests omislands off Formosa, ranging north to Japan and south to the SQVINey ie end’ of the Straits of Malacca. j Swinhoe’s Petrel would seem to Be not uncommon in the Seis bourhood of Horsburgh Lighthouse, 374 miles east of Singapore, from September to May. ‘The Raffles Museum collection contains: specimens taken there in April, May, September, October and November. I visited Pedra Branca on 28th September, 1947. “No. petrels were seen in the vicinity of the lighthouse, but two, undoubt- edly of this species, were observed about ten miles east of Singapore harbour, on the return journey. Robinson and Chasen (1936, p. 86) quote a visual record by C. Boden Kloss of asmall flock seen inshore off Singapore Island in November, and a specimen was captured on a ship in the harbour in May, 1913. This species occasionally travels at least a short distance north- wards up the Straits of Malacca, and thus enters our area. . There is a specimen in the Raffles Museum collection from. the One Fathom Bank Lighthouse, between the Aroa Islands and'the coast of Selangor, taken in November, 1918. It is possible that it sotnetimes strays further west, though there is only a single record, unsupported by’a skin. H. M. Tomlinson (1924, p. 51) describes a petrel of a uniform dark chocolate colour which came aboard the ship-on which he was travelling, late at night on 10th June 1923, when they’ were about fourteen hours west of Colombo. It was liberated after he had examined it, but he was. of the opinion that he recognized the species immediately : when he was shown- specimens of Swirnhoe’s 448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, ¢7. Petrel on his arrival in Singapore. A bird so far west must, how- ever, be considered to be no more than avery rare vagrant, well ~ away from its normal range. It is significant that all the unidenti- fied petrels recorded from the Indian Ocean are said to have had white rumps. Swinhoe’s Petrel is about the same size as Wilson’s, with a similar, rather swallow-like flight, appreciably stronger than that of the two smaller species. It differs in having short, black, legs with black feet, and in appearing a fairly uniform, sooty brown, slightly greyer on the neck and underparts. The dark rump distinguishes it from all other storm-petrels so far recorded from the northern Indian Ocean. APPENDIX The following species also include islands to the south of the Indian Ocean within their breeding range, but have not yet been re- corded definitely from the northern Indian Ocean. Pelagodroma marina (Latham): White-faced Storm-Petrel, A race of this bird, P. marina dulciae Mathews, nests on the south-western and southern coasts of Australia: the type locality is Breaksea Island, in south-west Australia. The species is widely distributed as a breeding bird in the southern oceans, but there are few pelagicrecords. It can be distinguished from all other storm- petrels by its white face and entirely white under surface, including the under wing-coverts. The rump is light grey. The legs are long, and the webs of the fect yellow except attheir edges. On these latter points it might be confused with Wilson’s Petrel, but the wide area of white on the under parts is distinctive, and, in my experience, that on the face, throat and neck can be seen easily in flight. Garrodia nereis (Gould): Grey-backed Storm-Petrel. The breeding range of this bird includes the Kerguelen Islands. There are again very few pelagic records, and it does not appear to stray into the North Atlantic from the nesting grounds south of that area. It is smaller than the White-faced Storm-Petrel, from which itcan be distinguished readily by its shorter legs, and dark grey face, neck and chest. REFERENCES Bent, A. C.—1922. Life Histories of the North American Petrels and their Allies, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus,, No. 121. Blanfords W. T.—1898. Fauna of British India (first edition), Birds Vol. 4. Bromley, E. H.—1948. Notes on some Birds from parts of Kedah, Bull, Raff. Mus., No. 19 (in preparation). Butler, E. A.—1877. Astola, a summer cruise in the Gulf of Oman, Stray Feathers, Vol. 5. Butler, Ry A.—1878. My last notes on the Avifauna of Sind, Stray Featherst Vol. 7. Hume, A. O. and Davison, W.—1878. A revised list of the Birds of Tenasserim, Stvay Feathers, Vol. 6. Legge, V.--1880. A History of the Birds of Ceylon. EFFECT OF WEIRS ON DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA | 4469 Maclaren, P. I. R.—1946. Bird Notes of the Arabian and Red Seas, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vo}. 46, No. 3. Roberts, Dr. B.—1940. The Life Cycle of Wilson’s Petrel, British Grakam Land Expedition, 1934-37, Scientific Reports, Vol. 1, No. 2. Robinson, H. C. and Chasen, F. N.—1936. Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Vols3: sporing, B M.— 1872. Letter on Tristan da Cunha, etc. /67s, 1872, pt. 2, pp. 74 Stuart Baier H. C.—1929. The Fauna of ecalsis India (second edition), Birds, Vol. 6. Tomlinson, H. M.—1924. Tidemarks. Von Heuglin,—1873. Ornithologie Nordost Afrikas. Wait, W. “E.—1925. Manual of the Birds of Ceylon. EFFECT OF WEIRS AT THE CANAL HEAD-WORKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA (HAMILTON), IN THE PUNJAB BY Upre SINGH RAI, M.Sc. (Lucknow), ph.p. (Durham), P.A.S., Deputy Warden of Fisheries (Research), Lyallpur, (with a map). I. INTRODUCTION, Catla catla is a valuable food fish attaining to six feet or more in length, and is an inhabitant of fresh water. It was at one time found in great abundance in the rivers and streams of the plains of the Punjab. Its presence in the hill-streams has never been reported. Unlike Labeo rohita (Hamilton) and Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton), Catla catla (Hamilton) is now, however, not so widely distributed in the Punjab. Consequently, an investigation into the causes of the rarity of Caila cat/a in the Punjab was undertaken. Il. LOCATION OF WEIRS IN THE PUNJAB RIVERS. Apart from the Jamuna- and the Indus which form respectively the south-eastern and the north-western boundaries of the province, the Punjab is endowed with five big rivers and a network of canals. The five rivers, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum take their origin from the hills on the north-east and flow through the plains of the Puniab towards the south-west, falling ultimately into the Indus, beyond the boundary of the Punjab. The waters of ail the above-mentioned rivers except the Beas, are utilized for irrigation purposes by building weirs across the rivers for the canal head-works. The Beas joins river Sutlej at ‘ Hari-ke-pattan ’, about thirty miles on the east of Husainiwala (Ferozepore) weir. _ Two weirs have been built across river Jhelum, one at Mangla, where the river leaves the hills and enters the plains. The Upper Jhelum Canal takes its origin from Mangla Head-works, ‘The second weir for the Lower Jhelum Canal at Rasul is about eighty miles from Mangla weir. All the water of the Jhelum is diverted into these canals, and the river below the Rasul weir. remains dry for the 4 450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 greater part of the year. Except during a few months in the summer (monsoon), the Upper and the Lower Jhelum canals work alternately, as there is not enough water in the river for both the canals during winter. The Chenab has three weirs, one at Marala, the second at Khanki, and the third at Trimu. The Upper Chenab Canal takes its origin from the Marala Head-works, where the Chenab enters the plains. The Lower Chenab Canal takes its origin from Khanki Canal Head-works. The water in the Chenab below the Marala weir is not sufficient for the Lower Chenab Canal during the winter months. It is, therefore, supplemented by the supply from the Upper Jhelum Canal. During winter, no water is allowed to pass into the river below the Khanki weir, and one can easily walk across the river during these months when its bed is either dry or the water is hardly a few inches deep. ‘he author, himself, crossed the river during the month of January, 1929, about forty miles below the Khanki weir, where the water was only ankle-deep. The canal which takes its origin at Trimu weir gets its full supply of water during the period when there is excess of water in rivers Chenab and Jhelum which join a few miles above the Trimu weir, During winter the supply into the canai is hardly sufficient to meet the minimum demands of the people whose lands are irrigated by this water. Nota drop of water is allowed to pass at the Trimu weir into the river during the greater part of the year. Like Chenab, river Ravi has three weirs, one at Madhopur, gecoud at Balloki, and the third Sidhnai weir near Ram Chontra. From Madhopur toa distance of about hundred miles, river Ravi contains very little water during the winter months. ‘The supply of water is supplemented by the water from the Upper Chenab Canal which is diverted into the Lower Bari Doab Canal at Balloki weir. No water passes below Ballcki weir for the greater part of the year. River Ravi, like the Jnelum and the Chenab, remains almost dry for the greater part of the year, and whatever fish is left in the pools which are formed in the beds of these rivers, is caught by the fishermen during the winter months. The Sutlej enters the plains at Rupar, where the head-works for the Sirhind canal is built. The conditions of the Sutlej below the Rupar weir upto ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ where the Beas pours its supply of water into the Sutlej, are similar to those of the Ravi before the Upper Chenab Canal falls into it. During winter the water in river Sutlej above the Rupar weir is not sufficient even for the Sirhind Canal. Asin river Ravi, the pools in the bed of river Sutlej from Rupar to ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ are netted by the fishermen, and no fish is left in this tract of the river. Below ‘Hari-ke-pattan’, river Sutlej gets all the water from the Beas, and the three weirs of the Sutlej Valley Project, Husainiwala (Ferozepore), Suleimanki, and Islam at Palla, divert the water into the canals which take their origin from the above weirs. Below the Islam weir, the river is absolutely dry. Ill. SuRVEY OF THE WATERS. In order to trace the distribution of Ca¢/a catla, a sutvey of these waters was conducted, . Quite a large nutnber of fishing places along i or Orne a oon? ; SulaM 8 STVNVS SUZAIN ONIMOHS TARY Z — ‘ (O (eas ~emow JOAN | fUYPIG oY US r ver foil 512 WA 230092019 TAL Tans a e Co eweg Lol SV°q “yw svo® ‘7, dour™ mane ¢ ad LA STEIN a al ‘005 “751 “JUN Avqmog ‘Hainer i Mo i tt i Ths he wens he Nena [a eetates i ys Anfitiry vee bien eh ad 4) Vm aia Wn Liv ise ) sea Nk BE Pa Nf iF se9) 1 Wa erra Y WeiS Ry ret Gin ae i i : ie! ; * ne id H yi Perea : ; ; ; ny ‘ dag tditalvey 7 ; i f i ee Oa otal ae Vit “ "i Arey ‘ eG ure Leal ih uy wy BY a so kar; Re Aver ay un ” , . Mir tdey ‘ Hy ( ' Lenin mi | ‘ i é 7 L} ‘ ; ( ; r Yow ¥ t ‘ \ Y \ : ' ; ; nt ‘ : \ 1 } i l ( ; eee ‘ i} 4 } J ' eet) \ , ad «7 5 ‘| . ) : Ul \ \ h pee NV ; { 4 ) : ‘ : ; | ) | | | i 1} : i \ TON , i 1 r } \ Si ‘ ] i] # Lie } y ~ \ ties EFFECT OF WEIRS. ON DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA 481 the rivers were visited by the author during the course of the last few years. River Jhelum contains mahseer, Barbus (Lor) putitora, to a considerable extent, even during the journey to a great distance in the plains, and Catla catla is not reported to exist even upto the Rasul weir. Although river Jhelum is said to enter the plains at Mangla, still we find small hills running parallel to the river even beyond the Rasul weir in Jhelum District. Catla catla was at one time caught in considerable numbers by the fishermen from river Chenab and Palkhu, its important tributary. But for the past few years, neither adult Cadéla nor its fry have been found in Palkhu and the pools round about it, where it once spawned in large numbers. The deep pools and the important fishing places on Palkhu, which at one time gave shelter to adult Cala, have now been silted up. The big pools formed in the back-waters of river Ravi, were at one time the home of Catla catla. -But, during the course of the last few years, Catla catla seems to have become extinct in river Ravi. In a pool about ten miles from Lahore in river Ravi, several maunds of big adult Catla catla alone were netted, some years ago. But Caila catla has been caught in very small numbers for the last few years above Balloki weir. The author got certain pools netted below the Sidhnai weir near Katalpur, where a few specimens of Caéla catla were found. But these pools remain, cut off from the main stream due to the paucity of water below this weir. Cad/a catla lias not been able to get its hold for the last few years anywhere in river Ravi, due most probably, to scarcity of water ina great stretch of the river between the weirs, and due to lack of opportunity for spawning. Nikki Deg, a tributary of river Ravi, where fry of Catla catla was at one time caught in considerable numbers, now remains dry for the greater part of the year. Catla catla has not been traced for the last few years along with Labeo rvohita and Cirrhina mrigala fry in the pools where they are stranded during the monsoon floods. Catla fry is not found in Sakki, another important tributary of the Ravi in Amritsar District, where fry of Crrrhina mrigala and Labeo rohita are met with in great abundance. No weir has been built across river Beas, hence it is always full of water. Big adult Cava has been caught in this river throughout its length and breadth. Even above Naushera ferry, which is hardly ten to twelve miles from the place where the Beas enters the plains, Catla catla weighing about thirty seers was netted. River Beas merges its identity into the Sutlej at ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’. The distance from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ to Mirthal where river Beas enters the plains, upto which Caéla catla can survive, is about 120 miles. Abundance of Catla catla is found in river Sutlej from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ down- wards, although very little Cat/a is found in the pools of river Sutlej from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ to Rupar. Buddha Nala, a tributary of river Sutlej near Ludhiana, which at one time had not only deep pools but also good fishing places in its bed, has, like Palkhu, been deprived of the deep pools and fishing places where Catla catla could take shelter. There are certain big dhands, above ‘ Hari-ke-pattan ’ in Ludhiana and Ferozepore districts, cut off from river Sutlej, where big Cadla is caught in quite a large number, but they are few and far between, 452 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 They, no doubt, serve as sanctuaries for Catla cat/a, but they cannot supplement the supply of Catia catla into the river, unless very heavy floods which come after a decade or so, connect these dhands with the rivers. Below ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’, Catla catla is found in great abundance in river Sutiej, its tributaries and other pools, dhands and back-waters which are flooded when the river swells before the rains or during the monsoon floods. During the visit of the author to different places along river Sutlej from Islam weir to ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’, there was no place where Caé/a catla was not found in large numbers. There is a big dhand enclosed by the ‘ bunds’ of the head-works, on the right bank of river Sutlej, a little above the Islam weir, which serves as a pocket to store large quantity of water for the use of the head-works authorities. The reservoir contains big pools where Catla catla and other big fishes take shelter. The backwaters of river Sutlej at Tibbi Lal Begh and Machhisinghwala in Montgomery District, serve aS sanctuaries for the fry of Catla catla. The fields lying in between the Sutlej and these dhands serve as spawning grounds for Catla catla. At one time the dhands at Machhisinghwala contained large numbers of Ca/la caéla and its fry, but they are being filled up. During the course of the summer months (May and June), large numbers of adult Catla catla are seen in the pools just below the weirs at Suleimanki and Husainiwala (Ferozepore), but they are helpless and do not venture to pass through the fish-ladders to come into the lakes formed above the weirs. Khakhra, a tributary of river Sutlej] in Lahore District, has a big dhand containing large number of carp fry. Fry of Catla catla formed 60 per cent of the fish=population of this dhand when netting was tried in October, 1944, and it still dominates the fauna of this dhand. Khakhra is a small stream, and this dhand in Khakhra is said to be a part of the old bed of river Beas when rivers Beas and Sutlej flowed parallel for a considerable distance in Lahore and Montgomery districts. ‘The other dhands and pools on either side of river Sutlej below Khakhra also contain quite a large number of fry of Cadtla catla. IV. DISCUSSION. From the survey of the waters carried out, it is evident that Cadla catla is in abundance in the waters of river Sutlej and its tributaries, viz. Beas, Khakhra and other pools below ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’, connected with it during floods. The lakes above Husainiwala (Ferozepore), Suleimanki and Islam weirs serve as sanctuaries for Catla catla. 'The Sutlej, thus, always contains enough of water from ‘ Hari-ke-pattan’ to Islam weir, and Catla catla gets an opportunity to reach its spawning grounds in the Sutlej and the Beas above the Ferozepore weir, as the Beas contains enough water throughout the year. Catla catla and its fry is found in great abundance in the pools which are flooded during July and August above the Husainiwala (Ferozepore) weir. Fry of Cadla catla has also been found in large numbers in the areas which are flooded above Islam and Suleimanki weirs, Catla catla, on the other hand, has not been found in appreciable numbers at any place in rivers Ravi and Chenab and their tributaries EFFECT OF WEIRS ON DISTRIBUTION OF CATLA CATLA 453 like Palkhu, Deg and Sakki, where at one time they were found in large numbers. Weare, therefore, led to the conclusion that the weirs at the canal head-works in the Punjab rivers, enumerated above, seem to have interfered seriously with the distribution of fishes in general, and Catla catla in particular, due to the following reasons: 1, Most of the water at the weirs, e.g. Rupar, Madhopur, Balloki, Khanki, etc., is diverted into the canals, and large stretches of the rivers below the weirs either remain dry or contain very small -amount of water. Catla catla is a big fish as compared to other fishes, and requires deeper and larger volume of water for its abode and at the time of its spawning. It, therefore, cannot live in greater stretches of the rivers which contain very little amount of water, except in the pools formed in their beds here and there, from which ali the fish is netted out during the winter months. 2. ‘The migration of Catla catia is seriously interfered with by the weirs which obstruct its passage from the rivers to the spawning grounds higher up above the weirs. Hamid Khan (1924) mentions that most of the Cyprinidae, such as Rohu (Ladeo rohita), Morakha (Cirrhina mrigala), 'Theila (Catla catia), as well as some Siluroids, namely, Bachwa (Pseudeutropius garua), Khagga (Rita rita) and others, ascend the rivers during the monsoon rains in search of suitable spawning grounds. Hamid Khan (1940) says that for the propagation of all game and food fishes of the Punjab, proper facilities are needed to enable them to ascend the rivers so as toreach such waters as will suit them to lay their spawn. He has further stated that with the development of irrigation projects in the Punjab, dams or weirs have been constructed in the form of masonry works at the head-works of the canals for the purpose of deflecting water into the canals. The weirs run across the entire width of the river obstructing both the upward and the downward passage of fish. 3. Day (1873) recommended that every irrigation weir spanning a river should have a practicable fish-pass in it. Dunsford (1911) drew the attention of the Punjab Government to the erection of fish- passes and suggested certain principles for guidance. But although fish-ladders have been constructed across the weirs at the canal head- works, yet Catla catla does not seem to pass the weirs through the fish-ladders, due most probably to certain defects in the working of the fish-ladders. Bayer (1908) says that the underlying principle in the construction of fish-ways is the retardation of the current velocity of a waterfall so as to enable fish to surmount it. 4. In most cases the pools at the bottom of the fish-ladders, where the fish would naturally collect before ascending the river, are either too smail and are full of silt and other accumulations and deposits, or are not connected with the main current of the river below the weir. According to Dunsford (1911), the pass (fish-iadder) must be situated where it will be self-advertising, i.e. it must form a current impinging into a certain place below the obstacle so strongly that it becomes the chief or predominant current of the stream, where the fish will be led to that point for attempting the ascent. 5. Due to its timid and shy nature Cada catla does not seem to make use of the defective fish-ladders constructed across the weirs, 6. The fish, especially Catla catia, which enters the canals at the 454 | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47° canal head-works, is considered lost. In the absence of any - fish passages from the canals into the rivers, Catla catla cannot come back into the rivers in most cases due to the strong current and steep falls of water into the’ canals at their origin. In other countries, e.g. U.S.A., great care has been talcen to facilitate the migration of fish and to reduce the harmful effects of the weirs on their productivity. But although fish-passages have been constructed in the weirs at the canal head-works in-the Punjab, yet they either donot work properly and remain out of use, or they are not built suitably and are not wide enough to allow big. varieties: of fish, like Catla catla, to pass up and down the river. V. SUMMARY. The Punjab, as its name signifies, has five big rivers which irrigate the parched soil of the province. ‘There are twelve weirs in four out of the five rivers, the Beas being an exception, from where eighteen canals take their origin. ‘The weirs at the canal head-works divert, in almost all the cases, most of the water from the rivers into the canals. Due to the weirs built at different places, large stretches of the river-beds remain dry cr contain very little water during the major part of the year. Catla catla, which is a fresh-water fish and grows to a big size, was at one time found throughout the plains of the Punjab. Due to its build and size, it needs deeper water for its abode and spawning. Its movements before and during the spawning season are interfered with by the weirs built at the canal head-works. The fish-ladders, which have been built as passages for the fish to cross the weirs, are not suitably built, and do not work properly. Cadla catla does not seem to make use of the fish-ladders, due perhaps to its size and its shy and timid nature. The fish which enters the canals along with the water of the rivers at the weirs, is considered lost, there being no passages from the canals to the rivers, as the fish cannot go back into the rivers due to the absence of fish-passages at the heads of the canals. VI. REFERENCES. 1. Bayer, H. Von.—Fishways. Proceedings of Fourth International Fishery Congress. PartII. Washington, U.S.A., 1908. Pp. 1043-1057, 2. Day, F.—Report on the Freshwater Fish and Fisheries of India and Burma. Calcutta, 1873. 3. Dunsford, H.S.— Report on the Fisheries in the Punjab. Lahore, Fateh 4, Hamid Khan.—‘ Observations on the Breeding Habits of some Frésh- water Fishes in the Punjab.’ Jour., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., XXIX. 4, 1924. 5. Hamid Khan.—‘ Fish Ladders in the Punjab.’ Jour., Bom. Nat, Hist. Soc.; XI. 3, 1940, ; « INCIDENCE OF FISH MORTALITY ON THE WEST COAST! BY P, K. JAcoB AND M. DEVIDAS MENON Marine Biological Station, West Hill. ‘ Widespread fish-mortality is a well-known phenomenon on the Malabar and South Kanara coasts: its recurrence yearly along certain stretches of the coast line is regular, though its intensity varies within wide limits’ (Hornell, 1917), This unusual incidence of mortality has been attributed to the suffocative influence of certain forms of Marine Euglenoids that suddenly burst in particular regions. Since the initial report of Mr. Hornell on this subject was published in 1917, no attention was paid to this problem, although its importance is self-evident. A detailed investigation by us in 1944 and 1946 has thrown some more light on this subject. The present communication serves to add further to Mr. Hornell’s observations (1917). There is a regular uniformity in the incidence of fish mortality on the West Coast, since the phenomenon usually occurs during the North-East monsoon, On the 3rd of November 1944, a large number of Sz//age sthamma, Gobius spp.., Caranx spp., Ambassis dayi, prawns and Pristipom spp., were seen struggling for life in the water near the shore regions off Calicut. Asmbassis was found to be much affected. The fishermen of the locality made a big haul of these fishes struggling in the initial stages of death. As the day aged on, the phenomenon continued with greater intensity and shoals of these fishes died, decayed and were washed ashore in heaps, emitting a foul odour all around. The water in which the casualty occurred was muddy, and it was thought that the movement of mud banks had caused this whoiesale death in the inshore regions. Mr. C. F. Sims, Port Officer, Calicut, in a communication to the Biological Station, wrote on this question of mud banks: ‘The mud bank ‘appears to extend from the shore to nearly four cables seawards all along the ccast. The absence of the usual shore waves and swells over this particular area, indicates the presence of the mud deposit there, below the still waters. It is perhaps due to under currents shifting mud from the bed of the open sea towards the shore, or from subterranean rivers of mud forced to the surface, through the sea bed, due tothe action of the sea. This silt is gererally oily and alien to the sea sand and is not conducive to fish life. The formation of this mud bank usually occurs during tne North-East monsoon.’ No more intormation could perhaps be obtained at that time. The incident recurred next year, although not near the inshore regions but far out inthe open sea. Mr. Sidney Schofield, Master of S.S. Wing Sang, in a communication to the Station, wrote that some 10 miles off Cochin beyond Lat. 10°27’ N., Long. 76° East, the ship ran into a shoal of dead tunny ‘all handsome, fresh and healthy specimens’, obviously only recently dead perhaps within the previous two or three hours. The mortality extended to 10 miles. Each carcass'was separated by .0°27’ or 150 yards from its neighbour and on the assumption that they covered a circle of 10 miles in diameter, Mr. Schofield calculated their number to be between 20,000 and 40,000. Theship is said tohave steamed through this area for an hour at 124 knots speed. Eight days later and about 48 miles south of this area of catastrophe, Mr. Schofield again witnessed some hundreds of dead fish along atide-rip. ‘The head, guts and gills were all missing, but the fresh barbs of the dorsal fins still remained and manifested the fact that they were all tuany, all except a very large one at some considerable distance.-away which was probably a shark. Many birds were leisurely feeding on them and the smaller fish under the surface were having a good time. Pre- sumably the fish seen that day were remnants of those witnessed by Mr. Schofield eight days earlier and carried southwards byacurrent. The Port Officer, Cochin, writing on this incident commented that every year masses of dead fish float in the harbour area, producing a stench. ‘ Thece float in on the flood tide. The cause has always been attributed to the presence of mud banks along this coast which whenstirred up, probably as a result of the South-West monsoon, give off 1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Industries and Commerce, Madras, . 456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 47 gas Or iiquid, which poisons the fish over a period of two or three days annually in August.’ The cause was now also attributed to mud panks. Hornell (1917) also observed a series of similar incidents. There have been of course, differences and fluctuations in the periods of occurrence, sites in which casualty took place, and the species affected. But certain inferences can be drawn from these observations which may be summarised as follows :— (1) That the casualty is caused by localisation of poisonous water called Kedunir and Karanir (Shore water). (Sennir (Red water) that Hor- nell has Gans with this is not poisonous and is caused by Noctiluca swarms. (2) That this phenomenon occurs soon after the South-West monsoon, or just after the outbreak of North-East monsoon—more commonly the latter. (3) The phenomenon lasts for a short period only, since perhaps the effect of Kedunir and Karanir is soon counteracted by the flowing in of good water. The popular beliefs and English versions of this incidence of piscine morta- lity have been dealt with in detail by Hornell (1917). The phenomenon recur- red twice in the course of the last year. The first incident occurred in and around a rock (Pambankallu), half /a mile to the west of Pudiappa shore in the sea and two miles to the north 4 of West Hill Biological Station. On the 20th of September 1946, the staff of the Biolcgical Station in the course of collecting spat of Mytilus edulis, fell upon a big haul of a variety of fish in different stages of asphyxia- tion, coma and death. The species affected were Plotosus arab, Serranus pantherinus, Palinurus spp., Scylla serrata, Neptunus spp., Plagusia mar- moraia and Cynoglossus breviyostvis. Big specimens of Plagusia, Cynoglossus and Plotosus arab were swimming in a state of coma, struggling hard for their life, evidently due to lack of oxygen ; ‘many keeping their mouths above water were collected by mere hand’. As soon as the incident was reported to us, we repaired to the place immediately. But unfortunately, by this time the pheno- menon had been eclipsed by the flowing in of fresh sea water, and so we could collect no more data. The gills of the dead fish were red and blood-shot. The stomachs were empty in all cases. On the 31st of October 1946, a similar incident occurred near West Hill Biological Station. Heaps of fish were washed ashore by the mild swells of the sea, and many more were found floating dead in the mild breakers very near the shore. ‘he incident was noticed in the afternoon. ‘The fish were in a high state of putrefaction and the whole region stank in a nauseating manner. Evidently the creatures had died some 10 or 12 hours before, at some other place. This was conflrmed by local enquiries; fishermen told us that the incident had occurred just past midnight on the 30th, about a mile away from us. When we noticed the incident, there was a very slight drift to the south and the water had begun to flowin. The area affected was apout two miles long and about half a mile wide. The water in which the fish were found floating was brownish, resembling hay decoction in colour, The following physical conditions were noted :— Time. Surf. Temp. Sp. gravity, bH. 3 p.m. 337956; 1020°0 Si 4 p.m. 33 Ce 1020°3 9°] 5 p.m. 32°4°C. 1020°6 . 9:0 6 p.m. Sltor@e 1020°8 8°8 The oxygen content of the water at 3 p.m. was 3/100000, and at 6 p.m. 6/100000. ‘There was a slow but moderately big current lowing from north to south, andit was evidently carrying fresh sea water into this area. The pheno- menon passed off at about twilight. The catalogue of the species affected, which is a long one, consisted of the following :— Anodontostoma chacunda (Buch, and Ham.). Ololithes ruber (Schn.). Johnius cavutta (Bloch). Sillago sihama (Forskal), Cynoglossus semitasciatus (Day). Cynoglossus spp. (specific characters beyond recognition ), FISH MORTALITY ON THE WEST COAST 457 Muraena spp. (beyond recognition). Rastrelliger kanagurta. (Rupp.) (one specimen). Therapon jarbua (Forskal). Caranx melamphygus Cuv. and Val. Etroplus suratensis (Bloch). (one specimen). Loligo spp. Emgraulis spp. Amibassis dayt. Arius spp. Plotosus spp. The presence of Htvoflus suvatensis, a brackish-water form, in this list is interesting. ‘The only plausible explanation is, that this incident occurred first, perhaps, in the early hours of the 31st, at the mouth of one of the various brackish-water canals that enjoin the sea a few miles to the north of the West Hill Station. The plankton collected from this area and centrifuged showed myriads of Euglenoids which were brownish-yellow with plenty. of chloroplasts. The flage lam which Hornell (1917) described was not visible; nor could we find the red eye-spot. However, the rapid peculiar settling of these organisms to the bottom of the water to form a ‘ semi-quiescent’ light-yellowish jelly was witnessed by us also. | This flagellate was described in detail by Horneil and Naidu (1924) who observed also the existence of the jelly-like matrix with many of these organisms embedded init in the sea bottom of the West Coast. ‘The range of this organism seawards is great. It appears to assume its motile stage only so long as the water is in gentle agitation. In calm weather this is quite quiescent ready to throw off new swarms of the motile form when the preper excitation occurs’ (Hornell and Naidu). The outbreak of the monsoon is usually attended by an abundant supply of nutrient materials in the inshore waters of West Coast. The rough seas prevailing at this time of the year render observation of the phenomenon difficult. With the graduai return to normal weather, the sea becomes calm. Currents begin tochange and the mud banks to shift. This movement of mud- banks induces the slight agitation required to throw off the motile forms of the Euglenoid from the gelatinous matriz. The first indication of the movement of the mud-banks is the throwing ashore of a large number of Cavernularia and Hippa. This agitation of mud casts up a lot. of oily material and causes a mild, but efficient, mixing of the different strata of water. ‘The sun after the heavy rains becomes a power in the Malabar sky’. The Huglenoids thrown off by the gelatinous matrix are immersed in a medium surcharged with all the necessary nutrient material for their development and multiplication. Photo synthesis occurs and results in the production of myriads of active and motile Euglenoids. They use up the oxygen in the water medium at night, when the water is almost completely deoxygenated. Simultaneously, the mud suspension settles. Rapid decay of the multitudinous Huglenoids sets in creating and producing ‘nauseous and evil smelling’ decomposition products. The death of all living forms in the area is thus effected by two causes: asphyxiation due to lack of oxygen and tosic effects of dead and decaying Euglenoids. The course of events leading up to the mortality of ish may be summarised as follows :— 1. With the change in current very soon after the monsoons, the mud- banks begin to move and this gives the required agitation for the throwing off of the quiescent Euglenoids from the jelly-like matrix at the bottom. 2. Fine sunlight and sufficient nutrient materials in the sea water end in a sudden outburst of these Euglenoids, which at night use up almost all the oxygen in the surrounding medium, thereby causing she) pinhyacanetio to the fishes in the locality. 3. With the settling of the mud in the area, the sea becomes calm, and with the powerful sunlight acting on it, causes a rapid decay of the dead organisms, thus creating ‘deleterious and toxic effects to the piscine fauna. 4. Good sea water flowing into the region restores normal conditions. The authors are grateful to Professor Benicharan Mahendra and Dr. H. Srinivasa Rao, for kindly going through the manuscript of the present paper and for making suggestions for its improvements. THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA BY D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E,S. ParRT XX (Continued from Vol. 47 p. 219) RHOPALOCERA PAPILIONIDAE Papilio polytes L., vomulus Cr. Sevastopulo, Journz., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x\vi, 575. 1947. A rare form of pupa, which I have only seen formed in capti- vity, is green, the wing cases lightly mottled with fawn and witha darker green, triangular, central mark. The keel on the meso- thorax filled in with fawn, and with the subdorsal triangular mark on the anterior portion of the abdomen fawn instead of the usual yellow-green. The subdorsal tubercles and a ring round the spiracles fawn. ‘The cephalic horns, the sides of the thorax and the abdomen mottled lightly with fawn. Described from a pupa bred in Calcutta in November 1946, Zetides doson Fidt., eleius Fruhs. Sevastopulo, Journ., Bontb. Nat. Hist. Sec., xliv, 415. 1944. Ovum-—Very pale green, spherical, the base flattened. Fairly large. Laid singly on the underside of a young leaf of the food- plant. Ist instar—Head dark olive brown. Body jet black, the anal somite whitish. A double subdorsal anda lateral series of short tubercles from 2nd to 12th somite bearing long, forked, black bristles, 2nd and 3rd somites with an additional dorsal pair. Ist somite with a subdorsal, 2nd and 3rd somites with an additional tubercle between the subdorsal and lateral series, anal somite with an outspread pair of whitish dorsal tubercles, all the preceding rather larger than the others and armed with medium length bristles. The thoracic somites swollen, the body tapering towards the rear. 2nd instar—Similar, but only the large tubercles on the thoracic and anal somites present. Colour bronzy, clad with very short black pubescence, giving a velvety appearance. Described from a larva bred from ova found in Calcutta in June 1946. PIERIDAE Cepora (Huphina) nerissa F., phryne F. (evagete Cr.) Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x1, 394. 1938. Talbot, fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i (2nd edit.), 363, pl. 2, figs. 7, 8. 1939, THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA | 459 My above quoted description was a comparative one for publica- tion in a London magazine. The following is a more complete description. Ovum—Typical Pierid shape, the upper onal terminating ina ring of teeth, sides longitudinally ribbed. Colour white when first laid, later becoming orange. Laid singly on a leaf or shoot of the food-plant, above or below. Young larva—Head brownish green. Body yellowish green, rather oily-looking. Under .a lens clothed with brownish pubes: cence. Full grown larva—Head and body rich leaf green, densely sprinkled with minute white points, those on the body placed in transverse lines, and clad with short white pubescence. A fringe of slightly longer whitish far sublaterally. Venter greenish white with a green median stripe. Legs and prolegs greenish white, ~ Pupa typically Pierid in shape, the cephalic snout rugose and slightly down-curved, the thorax keeled, 3rd abdominal somite ‘ex- panded laterally and ending in a spine above the wing case. Suspend- ed by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Colour usually bluish green, but may be yellower green or, rarely, brownish, the wing cases and venter paler. The cephalic snout, a dorsal iis on the pro-thorax, the thoracic keel, a subdorsal patch on the 2nd and the whole of the dorsal area of the 3rd abdominal somite to the tip of the spine pale buff. The spine itself and the extreme edge of the thoracic keel black. Traces of a buff dorsal line on the abdomen and a yellow lateral line. A subdorsal series of black specks. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 11. vi, 46, pupated 13. vi. 46 and a male emerged 22. vi. 46. Talbot, quoting Bell, states that the head in the first two instars jis black. I did not observe this. Anapheis aurcia ¥., aurota (Belenors mesentina Cr.) Moore, Cat. Lep. Mus. E. I. Co., i, 72, pl. 12, figs. 9, 9a. 1857. Bell, Aitken and Davidson, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x, 575. 1897. Moore, Lep. /nd., Vi, 158, pl. 527, fig. 1. 1904. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 157. 1907. Bell, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, 1153. 1912. Talbot, Fauna Brit. I[nd., Butterflies, i(2nd edit.), 381, She 2, figs. Sy IMS). Ovum—Of typical Pierid shape, upright, longitudinally ribbed, the top surrounded by a ring of teeth. Laid in fairly large batches. Colour almost white when first laid, later becoming a bale creamy yellow. Istinstac—Head black. Body oily, yellowish-green. Clothed with forked, colourless hairs. Full grown larva—-Head black dotted with yellow, each dot emit- ting a white bristle, the clypeus filled in with greenish and outlined by a broad, green, inverted V. Body with a broad, shiny, yellow- green, dorsal stripe with the central portion rather bluer green, a grey-black lateral stripe and a yellow green sublateral. 1st somite with a yellow dorsal collar. 2nd and 3rd somites with four raised yellow points dorsally, 4th to llth somites with an anterior 460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCLEVY, Vol, 47 inner and a _ posterior outer pair of raised yellow _ points. The lateral stripe, which encroaches slightly onto the dorsal area on the 12th somite and which joins on the 13th leaving asmall V-shaped yellow-green dorsal spot, minutely yellow- speckled and with a median series of raised yellow points. A sub- lateral series of raised yellow points. Anal plate black. Venter, legs and prolegs yellow green, the legsand prolegs with black shanks, The dorsum of the lst somite anteriorly and the sublateral area clothed with short white hairs, the rest of the body pubescent, In the 2nd and 3rd instars the head is black and the larvae are gregarious. The yellow speckling of the head and the V mark develop inthe 4th instar, when the larvae scatter. Typical Pierid pupa in shape, head produced into a short central point, thorax slightly keeled, 3rd abdominal somite with a large spine over the edge of the wing case. Suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Colour pale whitish-, greenish», or pinkish- grey, the cephalic snout, the posterior slope of the thoracic keel and the abdominal spine outlined with black. The thorax streaked and spotted with blackish, abdominal somites with two dorsal and a subdorsal series of minute black specks. ‘Thoracic somites each with six, abdominal with four, raised yellow spots. A whitish lateral line, below which the abdomen is paler. Wing cases paler, streaked along the inner margin with blackishand with short blackish streaks along the veins starting from black specks on the outer margin. Food-plant— Capparis horrida. Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta, one of which pupated 20. v. 46 and a male emerged 25. v. 46. The pupa is described as being dimorphic, a green form being produced among leaves. Talbot’s figure shews a green pupa with yellow spots, although the text states that the green form has them black. I found the larvae very delicate in the pre-pupational stage, many of them bleeding profusely and dying after they had hung up. GRYPOCERA CELAENORRHINAE Tagiades japetus Cr. (atticus Swinh. nec F.), khasiana Moore. Ovum—Pale crimson. Almost spherical, the base flattened. Under a lens with a few, slightly raised ribs running from imicropyle to base, and covered with pale buff hairs, presumably from the anal tuft of the female. Laid singly on the upperside of a leaf of the food-plant. Newly hatched larva~-Head large, honey-coloured, slightly in- dented above. Body dull green, with a broad dorso-lateral crimson stripe. Half grown larva—Head black, heart-shaped, fairly large. Body ereenish yellow with a dorso-lateral crimson stripe. Full grown larva—Head dark mahogany, broadly heart-shaped, rather large. Body greyish green, minutely speckled with white, a — THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 401 dark, pulsating, dorsal stripe. Legs and prolegs pale grey-green. Anal flap fat and rounded, yellowish. Ist somite constricted forming a neck. The young larva lives in a cel] formed of a roughly circular piece cut from the edge of the leaf, turned over and secured by a few silken threads. The circular piece is not entirely severed, a small attachment being left. ‘The habit is lost in older larvae, at any rate in captivity. Pupa between two spun-together leaves, and supported by a girdle and tail pad. Unangled, head truncate, square, with a short, central, forward-pointing, tuberculate process. General ground colour pale bone, minutely speckled with brown so that there is a pale brown appearance. Head and pro-thorax suffused with brown, a diffused brown stripe on the meso-thorax and with the thoracic sutures brown. Paired blackish dorsal spots on the 2nd, 6th and 7th abdominal somites, which may be obsolescent. Underside of the head with a chalky-white diamond containing a dark brown M. Wing cases with two, roughly diamond-shaped chalky-white blotches, the anterior small, the posterior larger. The 3rd abdominal somite with a triangular, chalky-white, lateral mark just above the wing case. An interrupted subdorsal brown stripe on the abdominal somites, indistinctly edged below with chalky-white. 6th to 8th abdominal somites with indistinct chalky-white lateral patches. Two lateral black spots on the 4th abdominal somite against the wing case. 4th to 6th abdominal somites with a sublateral series of brown streaks. Cremaster down-curved. The chalky-white markings composed of an external waxy powder. Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta, one of which pupated 13. xi. 46 and a male emerged 22. xi. 46. HETEROCERA LYMANTRIIDAE Perina nuda FE. Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb, Nat. Hest. Soc., xi, 405. 1938. Ovum—Spherical, flattened above, the micropylar area depres- sed. Colour reddish purple,a silvery ring round the micropylar area. Laid in small, neat, regular batches. Laid 31. x. 46. Hatched 6. xi. 46. 1st instar—Head chestnut. Body yellowish, 4th and 5th somites With the dorsum black, 7th to LOth with adouble dorsal grey stripe, which joins on the 10th somite. Ist somite with subdorsal tubercles. Clothed with long, plumose, colourless hairs. 2nd instar—Head black. Body grey, the Ist, 4th and 5th somites black dorsally. A subdorsal black stripe on the 2nd and 3rd and on the 7th to 10th somites, where it is joined by a black transverse bar. Subdorsal tubercles onthe Ist somite and a transverse band on the llth orange. Clad with long, grey, simple hairs. 3rd instar—Similar but generally darker. The tubercles on the Ist somite black and the orange on the llth reduced and more crimson. 462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 4th instar—Body blackish, the dorsal area of the 2nd and 3rd somites blue-grey, a white dorsal line on the 7th to 9th somites. Otherwise similar to previous instar. 5th instar—similar. 6th (penultimate) instar—Similar to preceding, but the head dark brownish grey. The subdorsal area on the 7th to 9th somites with the hair-bearing warts ringed with blue. Described from larvae bred from ova obtained froma female caught in Calcutta. SPHINGIDAE Detlephila neriz L. Sevastopulo, Jowrn., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiv, 420. 1944. Re-reading Bell and Scott’s description of the larva of this species (Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, v, 270. 1937), I have noticed an error. The 3rd instar larva is said to have the horn particoloured, the basal half green, the apical half thin and translucent, the two parts separated by a black ring, whilst the 4th instar larva is described as being similar in all resyects to the full grown one. This is incorrect, it is the 4th instar larva that has the horn particoloured, the horn of the 3rd instar larva being piace With the extreme base yellow and of normal shape. Nectar Leucania trregularis Wk. Ovum—Very pale yellow with slight opalescen reHections. Al- most spherical, the base flattened, but usually flattened above as well through the pressure of the grass blade within which it is laid. Laid in small batches ina folded blade of grass and covered with a transparent cement. Unsculptured. Laid 22. xi. 46. Hatched 28. xi. 46. Ist instar—-Head dark honey colour. Body grey, turning green after feeding. A few short colourless hairs. Moves as a semi- looper. 2nd instar —Head dark honey colour. Body brown, turning green after feeding, with eight longitudinal purple lines. 3rd instar —Similar to preceding. 4th instar—Head pale brown, a darker line on each side of: the clypeus. Body with the dorsum olive green witha pale dorsal line and two more indistinct paie lines on either side, the olive green area bounded by a pale subdorsal line. Below the subdorsal line there is a brownish-green line, its edges darker, and bordered below by another pale line, below which is a narrow purple-brown lateral] line edged below in turn by a pale line, a yellow-green line anda pale line. 5th instar—Head pale brown, a darker line from outside the clypeus to the vertex. Body green, the colour and pattern formed by minute dots ona pale ground. A double dark green dorsal line, a narrow dark green subdorsal stripe with an indistinct dark line between it andthe dorsal line. A white line below the subdorsal line, followed bya pale olive stripe with darker edges, a very airow white line and a dark green stripe with a pale central line, A THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 403 white spiracular line, below which is a brown stripe and a second white line. Venter, legs and prolegs pale green. Final instar—Head pale brown with a darker honeycomb pattern laterally and a dark line outlining the clypeus and median suture. Body with the dorsal area blackish, a white median line and a white subdorsal line with a black line immediately above it. Below the subdorsal line, a narrow olive stripe with a rufous centre, below which is a narrow blackish stripe, very narrowly edged above and below with whitish, followed by a rufous stripe edged below with whitish. The sublateral area and venter greenish grey. Legs and prolegs greenish grey, the latter with an external blackish shield- shaped mark. ‘The above is a description of the newly moulted larva, as the instar progresses the colours become paler and duller. Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. Pale chestnut brown, the intersegmental areas darker. ‘The anterior edge of the 4th to 7th abdominal somites with a transverse dentate dorsal ridge. Cremaster a divergent double spine. Food-plant—Grasses. Described {from larvae bred from ova laid by a female caught in Calcutta, one of which pupated 21. xii. 496 and a male emerged 721-47, Corgatha zonalis W1k. Head dark grey, round and very small. Body mottled dark grey, Some examples with zig-zag transverse stripes of paler grey. Trans- versely wrinkled, the skin very rough. First two pairs of abdominal prolegs obsolete. The larva normally walks with a looping motion, but when alarmed it moves sideways with a peculiar jerking gait. It rests stretched out in chinks of bark, and is very difficult to detect. Cocoon of greyish silk covered with minute fragments of lichen. Slipper-shaped, one end much more pointed than the other, and the blunt (front) end attached to a short silken pedicel. Pupa slender, pale olive, the thorax and base of the wing cases deeper green. ‘he free segments of the abdomen with the intersegmental areas dark brown. Cremaster a twin point without any hooked spines. Food-plant—A grey lichen growing on the trunks of Palm trees. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 1. vii. 45, spun 3. vil. 45 and a male emerged 12. vii. 45. Beara dichromella WIk. Sevastopulo, Jourvn., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 289. 1941. Another form has the head orange brown. The body yellow- ish-olive. Thoracic somites with the dorsal area greyish and with large subdorsal black spots on the 2nd and 3rd somites. 4th somite with a transverse, chalky white bar. 5th somite orange brown dorsally with two orange brown dorsal tubercles. 6th to LOth somites with a broad, chalk-white, dorsal stripe. 11th somite orange brown dorsally, with a transverse white band posteriorly, slightly humped and with two dorsal tubercles and a black lateral speck. 12th and 13th somites tinged with orange. Clad with single, medium length, 464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 whitish hairs arising from white specks, the subdorsal ones, and also the lateral one on the 5th somite, black-ringed. Spiracles black. Venter, legs and prolegs pale green. Described from a full fed larva found in @aleutes 29, ix. 46, spun 1. x. 46 and a male emerged 7. x. 46. Ercheta diversipennits Wik. Forsaythe, Zvans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 412. 1884. Hampson, Cat. Lep. Phal., xii, 487, 1913. Gaede, Seztz Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 477. 1938. ~Ovum—Almost spherical, with numerous beaded ribs from micropyle to base. When first laid deep greenish-blue, afterwards becoming heavily blotched with purple-brown, finally ending up all purplish-brown with two whitish C-shaped marks joined by a curved line at top and bottom. In captivity, laid singly on blades of grass. Laid 6. xii. 46. Hatched 12. xii. 46. Newly hatched larva--Grey, long and-slender, the first two pairs of prolegs absent. Under a lens clothed with sparse black hairs. Rests erect like a Geometer and moves with a looping motion. Food-plant—Forsayeth gives Grass, but my larvae refused it and died without feeding. Described from material obtained in Calcutta. Hampson, quoting Forsayeth, gives the following description :— ‘Pale grey, ventral surface deep pink. Cocoon in a doubled-up leaf with a piece of grass attached.’ Seitz’ description is almost the same except that the venter is said to be dark red. Achaea serva F. Head dark reddish brown, the clypeus filled in with pale brown and outlined by a pale brown stripe, a yellow spot on either side of the vertex. Body with the ground colour pale grey, plentifully sprinkled with minute specks that compose the markings. These consist of a purple-brown dorsal stripe, expanding in the middle of each somite, a darker brown subdorsal stripe, the specks on the edge of which are still darker, a purple-brown lateral stripe anda darker brown sublateral stripe, all these stripes with the outline very irreguiar. llth somite slightly humped and with two orange red dorsal tubercles, a transverse black line just behind them, which continues obliquely to the lateral area. 12th somite with two blackish dorsal dots. Spiracles orange brown. Legs pink. Abdomin- al prolegs greyish with a yellowish shield-shaped mark edged with black externally, the first pair obsolescent. Anal claspers very long, grey speckled with purple brown. Venter almost without speckling a dark brown spot between each pair of legs, a larger spot on the 6th somite between the prolegs, on the 7th somite with the spot be- tween the prolegs pinkish-purple, shading into brown anteriorly, a pinkish-purple spot between the prolegs on the 8th and 9th somites, a median brown spot on the 10th somite and a median streak on the Lith. Pupa in a slight cocoon between two leaves. Pale chestnut brown in colour, but so thickly powdered with bloom that it appears _ / a THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 463 very pale lilac, except on the intersegmental areas. Extreme tip of the abdomen almost black, not covered with bloom, and long- itudinally wrinkled. Armed with a few short stout hooked spines, the central pair longer and entangled in the silk of the cocoon. Described from afull fed larva found in Calcutta 6. vi. 46, pupated 8. vi. 46 and a female emerged 18. vi. 46. Mocts (Remigia) trugalis F. Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliii, 45. 1942. Ovum—Darkish green when freshly laid, afterwards blotched with dull purple. Almost spherical, under a lens with numerous ribs from micropyle to base. Laid singly on blades ofgrass. Laid 28.x.46. Hatched 1.xi.46. Ist instar—Very long and slender; at first brown, becoming green after feeding, the head pale brown. Very like a Geometer, both in its resting attitude and mode of progress. 2nd instar—Greenish with a subdorsal, lateral and sublateral purple line, the subdorsal line slightly broader and continued onto the head. 3rd instar—Similar but the ground colour between the purple lines whitish. Traces of the black intersegmental colouring between the 4th-5th and 5th-6th somites. 4th instar—Very similar to the adult. Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a female caught in Calcutta. Ophideres fullonica L. Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 290. 1941. Ovum—Yellowish-green, translucent. Dome-shaped. Under a lens the chlorion dull. Laid singly on the under-side ofa leaf of the food-plant. Ist instar—-Head yellow brown. Body rather oily green, Ist somite with a brown dorsal plate. 4th to 7th and 11th somites with transverse brownish bands laterally. Under alens with fairly large black specks emitting short black bristles. Legs and prolegs black, first pair of the latter obsolete. Resting position gripping with the abdominal prolegs, the rear part of the body held erect, the fore part also erect and curved, the true legs not gripping, the whole forming a rather flattened S. A larva found in the 3rd instar had the head olive brown. The body olive green with a darker dorsal line. Ocelli on the 5th and 6th somites with the pupil dark olive green instead of black. The blotches in which the spiracles are set dull plum-colour, the spiracles themselves orange-brown rimmed with black, the whole ringed with olive-green. Legs olive brown, the terminal joint black. Other markings as in the usual black form,. but lacking the maroon subdorsal stripe. Assumed the normal black colour in the final instar, but stillslightly bronzy, and still lacked the maroon subdorsal stripes. 5 466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, a7 Another larva found in the final instar had the head olive brown. The body pale green, speckled laterally with white, the dorsal area of the abdominal somites glaucous. The blue dots very pale. Ocelli on the 5th and 6th somites consisting of a very pale bluish green pupil, with a pale blue spot in the lower quarter, rimmed with black, round which is a black-edged white ring, in the anterior ocellus this is wide in the anterior half and narrow posteriorly, in the posterior ,ocellus only the upper anterior quarter is wide, and that not so wide as in the anterior ocellus, the rest narrow. Spiracles terra-cotta, not set in terra-cotta blotches. No maroon subdorsal stripes. A bluish white line running from above the proleg on the 9th somite obliquely upward to the subdorsal area of the 10th. Legs honey colour, the terminal joint black. Prolegs and venter pale green, the latter with a darker median line. Described from material found in Calcutta in July 1946. Libisosa (Simplicia) robustalis Guen. Ovum—Bun-shaped, almost transparent pale grey. About twenty-four hours after being laid, they develop a few, irregular, criss-cross, purple-brown streaks. Under alens unsculptured. Laid singly. Laid 10.v.46. Hatched 13.v.46. 1st instar—Very long and thin, a semi-looper. When first hatched almost transparent greyish pink, after feeding very pale green, but stillalmost transparent. Under a lens with transverse series of minute black specks emitting fine black bristles, Ist and 2nd pairs of prolegs obsolete. ; 2nd instar—Head pale honey colour. Body pinkish grey, fairly transparent and taking its general colour from the contents of the intestines. Under a lens with minute black specks. Slightly stouter proportionately than previously. lst and 2nd pairs of prolegs rudimentary. 3rd instar—Head pale brown. Body dull green, minutely reticulated with purple-brown. Traces of a purple-brown dorsal, subdorsal and lateral line. The intersegmental areas tinged with brownish. A brown dorsal plate on the Ist somite. 4th instar—Very similar. To the naked eye it appears a dull dark grey. The head purple brown minutely speckled with yellowish. 5th instar—Similar. 6th instar—Similar. The dorsal line prominent, the subdorsal and lateral lines almost obliterated by the reticulations. 7th instar—Similar. Food-plant—The larvae refused Dalbergia szssoo, both fresh and dead, but nibbled Cassia fistula and appeared to prefer a species of Amarantus. The food-plant was evidently unsuitable, as the larvae grew very slowly and pepeures stunted, all dying by the 7th instar. Described from larvae obtained from ova laid by a female caught in Calcutta. Maxwell-Lefroy (dian Insect Life) describes this as a brown larva feeding on the fallen, dead, dry leaves of Dalbergia sissoo ? - THE EARLY STAGHS OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 4Oy GEOMETRIDAE Comtbaena cassidava Guen. Hamps., ///.'Het., ix, 145, pl. 176, fig. 18a.18, 1893. Hamps., fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, iii, 488. 1895, Prout, Seztz Lzdo-Austr. Geometridae, xii, 92. 1933. Ovum—Broadly ovoid, flattened above and below. Colour pale straw yellow, with a white line outlining an oval patch on the upper surface. Under a lens minutely punctate. Laid singly or in threes and fours. Laid 24. xii.46. Hatched 31. xii. 46. | lst instar—Head pale chestnut. Body greyish, with a subdorsal series of stout black bristles, to which the larva immediately on hatching attaches particles of leaf. Shape rather short and stout. 2nd instar—Pale buff, the subdorsal bristles replaced by short fleshy processes, to which the scraps of leat are attached. Process on the 8th somite lateral rather than subdorsal. Adult larva—Head brown, an indistinct pale stripe on either side of the clypeus, small. Body of varying shades of brown, some distinctly tinged with yellow or orange, others with olive. A dark dorsal stripe, interrupted intersegmentally and broader at the anterior margin of each somite, and a short subdorsal streak origin- ating from the intersegmental area, whichis darker. A dark undulate ventro-lateral stripe. ‘Thoracic somites each with a fleshy subdorsal scolus and a pair of minute, raised, dorsal points. 4th to 7th somites each with a fleshy subdorsal scolus and two lateral, the lateral. pair smaller than the subdorsal and the anterior lateral one slightly larger than the posterior. 8th somite with the subdorsal scolus minute, the lateral pair larger. 9th somite backwards with simall sublateral scoli, 12th somite with a subdorsal scolus. All the scoli termi- nating ina stout bristle. Spiracles large, dark brown. Resting attitude with the head and thoracic somites curled under the body. The larva attaches fairly large pieces of leaf and stick to the scoli with short strands of silk. Pupa in a domed net, covered with the pieces of leaf previously worn by the larva. Colour reddish brown, speckled with dark brown, some examples very much darker than others. The sides of the thorax suffused with dark brown, a dark brown dorsal, subdorsal and ventro-lateral stripe on the abdominal somites. Wing cases streaked with dark brown and covered with pale granules. Antenna cases with a brown streak. Spiracles black. Head and pro-thorax truncate. ‘Tip of the abdomen armed with hooked spines. Food-plant—Zzziphus jujuba, Lagerstroemia indica, [xora spp. Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta- caught female, one of which pupated 22.1. 47 and a male emerged 31. i. 47. . Hampson’s description is ‘ Uniform yellowish-drab. ‘The sides of each somite are produced into fleshy processes, upon which the. larva fastens small pieces of withered leaves and sticks as a disguise. It rests with the anterior somites doubled undeineath its body.’ The larva figured has the fleshy processes rather larger than mine, Seitz. merely records the food-plants. 468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 Ptochophyle togata F. Sevastopulo, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 87. 1946. Ovum—Cylindrical, the ends rounded. When first laid bright yellow, later a deep scarlet suffusion develops at the ends and centre and gradually spreads over almost the whole of the surface. Laid, 3. x. 46. Hatched 6. x. 46. Newly hatched larva—Very pale straw colour witha dark purple dorsal and ventral line. } Full grown larva—Head pale yellowish green, tinged with pink, bifid above and outlined with deep pink. Body dull pale green, slightly tinged with pinkish. 6th somite with a -purple, heart- shaped, dorsal spot anteriorly, a sublateral blackish-brown tubercle and a V-shaped mark composed of five blackish-brown spots ventrally. Legs purplish-pink. Prolegs pale yellowish green. Venter rather yellower green and more deeply tinged with pink. Under a lens with very minute black specks. Shape long and slender. Resting position with the body extended and slightly arched. As the instar advances the degree of pink suffusion lessens. Apart from the absence of the tooth on the anal claspers, the larva greatly resembles a Zhalassodes. Food—-plant—4ugenza jambolana. Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta- caught female. PYRALIDAE Macalla carbonifera Meyr. Head bright lemon yellow, minutely blotched with pale orange. Body yellow-green. A pale mauve dorsal line and subdorsal stripe, the latter edged below by a dark violet line, followed by a whitish line, a broader violet line and a narrow greenish-yellow stripe. The greenish-yellow stripe edged below with dark violet on the Ist and 2nd somites. Spiracles white rimmed with dark brown. A few longish single colourless hairs arising from minute black specks. Venter, legs and prolegs yellow green. The colours are brighter im- mediately after ecdysis, becoming paler and duller as the instar progresses. Becomes. suffused with brownish-purple before pupation. The iarva lives ina web of white silk. Pupa in a cocoon of parchment-like brown silk spun in a folded leaf. Dark mahogany, the thorax and anterior abdominal somites still darker dorsally. Wing cases slightly olive-tinged. Head square in front. Cremaster a bunch of fine spines. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 5. v. 46, spun 8. v. 46 and a male emerged 19. v. 46. Syngamia tloridalis Zell. Head whitish with a black lateral stripe. Body green, the colour due almost entirely to the contents of the intestines, and very much paler below the spiracular line. Ist somite with a green dorsal plate, the sides thereof black. 2nd and 3rd somites with a black subdorsal spot, two black lateral spots and a blackish streak be- tween the subdorsal and lateral spots. Abdominal somites with a THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 46g subdorsal, lateral and sublateral black spot, the sublateral spot smallest. A pulsating dark dorsal line and a very fine, white, spiraculat line. Legs honey colour. Prolegs and anal claspers al- most colourless. A few colourless hairs. Lives in a silk-lined fold of a leaf. Pupa in a slight cocoon of white silk in a turned-over leaf. Pale yellowish chestnut, the intersegmental lines on the abdomen darker. Cremaster a stout spike, slightly knobbed at the end and terminat- ing in a few hooked spines. Pro-thoracic spiracie rather large and black. Food—plant-Urticaceae sp, Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 2. xi. 45, pupat- ed 6. xi. 46 and. a male emerged 14. xi. 46. Gly phodes canthusalis W1k. Ovum—Scale-like ovals, laid in small batches. Colour yellowish ereen, tinged with grey. Laid 14. x. 46. Hatched 19. x. 46. Newly hatched larva—Pale green, the head black. Half grown larva-—Head black. Body green, the colour due mainly to the contents of the intestines. A black dorsal plate on the lst somite, 2nd and 3rd somites with a lateral and subdorsal block dot. The spiracle on the llth somite set in a black dot. 12th somite, anal flap and claspers blackish. A few colourless hairs. Legs black. Full grown larva—Head iarge, pale buff, the clypeus and lateral area suffused with fuscous. Body itself almost colourless,but appear- ing green due to the contents of the intestines, the thoracic somites tinged with amber. A dark green, pulsating, dorsal line. First somite with a pale brown dorsal plate, fuscous at the sides. Spiracle on the 11th somite large and black. 12th somite with a transverse series of four black idots. Legs: pale amber. Preolegs and anal claspers almost colourless, glassy. A few colourless hairs. Spiracles, except that on the llth somite, white. Segmental divi- sions rather deeply cut laterally. The larva lives in a web:of fine white silk between two leaves. Pupa in a slight cocoon in a turned-over leaf. Very pale, trans- lucent, grey-green, the abdominal somites, except for a dorsalstripe marbled with yellowish-chestnut, darker laterally. A double brown line on the thorax, the thoracic sutures all outlined with brown. Wing cases outlined with brown, and with a brown line running from the base to the inner margin just above the tornus. Antenna sheaths brown, faint brown lines along the sutures of the leg, antenna and proboscis sheaths. Abdominal somites with a very fine median and posterior transverse brown line. Head with two small forward. pointing tubercles. Antenna and leg sheaths extending to the 6th abdominal somite. Cremaster a stout brown spike, ending in a cluster of hooked spines. Spiracles white, slightly raised. Food-plant- /zcus veligiosa. Described from larvae bred from ova obtained from a Calcutta caught female, one of which pupated 5, xi, 46 and a female, emerged NE Xt 40 THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS BY LT.-COL. M. es FERRAR, C.S.I., C.1.E.; O.B.E. (Indian Army, retired list.) (With five plates) These notes were nearing completion when War broke out in 1939 and they were put to one side. With the return of opportunity in the winter of 1945-46, I was able to complete the rearrangement -of my collection, which is now the property of the British Museum and also to write up the Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae and thus finish my task. No general paper on the butterflies of the Andamans and Nicobars has appeared since the series of papers published by Woodmason and de Nicéville in various issues of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for the years 1880-82. The number of forms described therein is 133. The present paper deals with 268 forms and is based on a collection of 3,000 set and 1,000 unset specimens, the result of eight years collecting while I was Chief Commissioner of the Islands during the years 1923 to1931. Three months before I left Port Blair on retirement I had the great good fortune to receive a visit from Brigadier W. H. Evans, who worked several of the localities in the Great and Little Andaman and also accompanied me on a trip round the Nicobars. Asa result of work in the field and of examination of my collection Brigadier Evans was able to name one new Species and 22 new races and to restore the names of a few races which had latterly been sunk and to include this new information in the second edition of his Identification of Indian Butterflies, then in preparation for the press. Though progress has been made, much remains for other collectors in these islands to achieve, especially among the Hesperiidae, which through a foolish prejudice I neglected until my last year in Port Blair. Again certain areas remain completely or partially unworked, among the former Narkondam, Barren Island, the Brothers, the Sisters and in the Nicobars, Bompoka; among the latter, the Cocos, North Sentinel, the Little Andaman and, in the Nicobars, Tillanchong. No attempt was made by me to study the food plants or the life history of purely local forms, but the unusual length of my stay in the Islands was of material help in determining the comparative rarity of different butterflies and in deciding whether some should not be regarded as occasional migrants or even storm- driven refugees. The Andamans and Nicobars lie on a curve between Cape Negrais in Burma and the west end of Sumatra. The Great Anda- man may be considered as one large island though actually divided by narrow tidal creeks into five parts, the North, Middle and South Andamans, Baratang and Rutland. This mass is 170 miles long and has an average width of 15 miles. Round it lie numerous oad THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND’ NICOBARS 471 small islands of which only the Cocos, 20 miles to the north and North Sentinel, 25 miles to the west are sufficiently far away to merit special attention from the butterfly collector. The Gt. Andaman is deeply indented by bays and creeks and is almost every- where hilly. The highest point, Saddle Peak, 2,400 ft., is in the North Andaman, elsewhere ranges or isolated peaks rise to 1,000 or 1,500 ft. Except where cleared by man or where a rare extrusion of serpentine rock on the summit of Saddle Peak or in Rutland or the Cinque Islands forbids tree growth, the entire land surface is covered with tropical forest and open spaces are only to be met with along the banks of a few streams, as in the Betapur, Bomlungta and Rongat valleys of the Middle Andaman or the Social River running through the Karen village We Bi. The forests start with mangrove, then cane brakes and evergreen forest on alluvial land, then on the lower and more gentle slopes are found deciduous species, then on steeper slopes more evergreens occur with finally ringalls and scrub jungle clothing a few of the highest summits. Round Port Blair there are some 20,000 acres of cleared land comprising ricefields, coconut and other plantations and grazing land, mixed with scattered patches of secondary jungle crossed at the foot of the bigger hills by nullahs with small perennial streams holding the patches of moist sand dear to tropical butterflies and their collectors. Rain to an average total of 150 inches may be expected throughout the months May to December. During the dhup kala or sunny season of January to April the streams dry up and the land where cleared turns to iron, though sufficient humidity remains inside the forest to make forest fires un- known. ‘This short and incomplete dry period prevents most of the seasonal dimorphism common on the Indian continent. Dimorphism occurs mainly among prairie forms such as Melanttis itsmene, Mycalesis visala, Precis almana, Hypolimnas bolina, Eurema hecabe and the two Cedoras and toa less extent /xzas pyrene, Euploea anda- manensis, Neptis hylas and Neptis jumba in the Andamans. It is absent in the Nicobars. Narkondam and Barren Island lie some 60 miles to the east of the Gt. Andaman. The former with its unique hornbill may also possess some unique butterfly. Barren Island now well wooded was barren indeed when seen by Blair in1788(?) but nevertheless deserves a visit from an entomologist. A channel of 30 miles width separates the Great from the Little Andaman, a low flat island 350 square miles in extent. Several landings at Bumila Creek in the north and Hut Bay on the east produced numerous specimens of a very distinct local race of Euploea andamanensis and three pairs of alovely grey blue race of Parthenos sylvia and a more prolonged search might produce other exciting finds. The stream flowing into the S. end of Hut Bay should be worked. Extensive air photographs of the Little Andaman are now in exist- ence and will considerably aid any ground exploration of the island. Between Little Andaman and Car Nicobar lies the Ten Degree Channel, 75 miles wide. The Nicobar Islands are scattered and form three groups. Car Nicobar, area 50 square miles, lies isolated in the North. 45 miles to the southward begins the Central Group which includes Kamorta, Nankauri, Trinkat and Kachal fairly close to one 472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47 another with Teressa, Bompoka, Chaura and Tillanchong a little further away. These total some 250 to 300 square miles, After’30 miles of open sea we come to the Southern Group, Pulo Milo, L. Nicobar, Kondul and Gt. Nicobar. This group somewhat resembles the Gt. Andaman in physical features and vegetation but the mountains are grander and more abrupt, and the forest is more tropical, and the streams are real rivers. The dangerous reefs surrounding this group make landing often impossible even on the lee side, and proximity to the Equator brings almost daily rain. Many of my visits have been unhappy failures as far as butterflies were concerned owing to rough weather. To the forbidding Gt. Nicobar with its barrier of surf, its deserted shores and gloomy cloud capped mountains, Car Nicobar offers the greatest contrast. It is a vast coconut plantation with occasional patches of lightjungle,swamp or /alang grass. A comparatively dense population of 150 to the square mile lives happily without causing undue dis- turbance to plant life and the flora remains sufficiently varied to produce plenty of butterflies of numerous species. The Central Nicobars range from the high forest of Kachal to the bare lalang downs of Kamorta. Generally speaking wherever there is a little flat land behind the beach there is a rough plantation of coconut, pandanus and lesser fruit trees through which the collector can wander in search of some small stream descending from the hills that form the background. Such a stream exists at Kondul and the collector should make straight for its upper pools as soon as he sets foot ashore. A much larger and better stream I only found in my last year. It descends from Mt. Thuillier to the deserted bay of Laful on the east of Gt. Nicobar. Its valley is full of good things. Often the newcomer lands to find the shore is merely a narrow sand- bank with impassable mangrove swamp behind. This was particu- larly the case on the Little Andaman. The result was disappointment and wasted effort so far as butterfly collecting went, though the ex- tensive air survey of the Little Andaman made during the war will no doubt lessen the difficulties of the explorer in the future. Time is scheduled and programmes must be kept, so the collector has had to return to the shipto hope for better luck or a more seasonable landing hour at the next anchorage. All these islands should of course be worked by collectors as Boden Kloss worked them, in a privately owned craft. Butterfly collecting and a Government steamer programme are necessarily a bad fit. The fauna of the Andamans is held to be more closely allied to that of Burma than of India, while the fauna of the Nicobars has some affinities with that of Malaya. The butterflies follow these general lines, but with many vagaries of distribution for which one cannot account. Why are certain common species found in the islands while others equally common are absent although their food plant is availa- ble? Many large genera have no representative. Of the six species of Precis three occur in both groups. Why not any of the other three? Of the very large genus Amblypodia not one form occurs in the Nico- bars and only one commonly in the Andamans. On the other hand some genera are in great strength, eg. dppias, Eurema (Terias) and Euploea. Among Lycaenidae there are no less than 17 forms of Nacaduba and 10 of Jamides. Thenagain several butterflies extremely THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 473 common in India are extremely rare in the Andamans but do occur regularly, such are D. chrysippus, L. boeticus and Appias olferna. Again the Gt. Andaman had been industriously worked by Wimber- ley, de Roepstorff, Woodmason and others, 50 years and more ago and by several collectors since, but it was not till 1927 that the cons- picuous Yoma sabrina vasukt was observed. In that year it was ex- tremely numerous for several months in the Middle and South Anda- mans and must have bred there for it was repeatedly taken quite fresh. Since then it has not been seen. During my first four years I saw and took only one Appias albina darada. In 1927 this species was to be taken by the hundred. During the next four years I never saw it. Some seven or eight of the species recorded in this paper are almost certainly stragglers and indeed some of the individuals among them were captured after heavy gales. Some forms have only been taken in areas which are inexplicably small. Aelzophorus epicles is common at ‘Bomlungta in December and January but has been seen nowhere else. It is identical in appearance with the same species occurring in far off Kumaon. Avtife eryx,a rare form, also occurs only at Bomlungta. It is impossible to understand why these two butterflies are not found throughout the Gt. Andaman. Jamddes kankena pseudelpis and Eurema andersont andamana fly in great numbers at Bomlungta in December. They are extremely rare in the S. Andaman. One interesting Malayan form, Aypolimnas anttlope anomala is found only in one smali locality on Car Nicobar, the furthest of the Nicobars from Malaya. Danaus affinis malayana has been taken only in one small locality in the Central Nicobars where there are considerable areas suitable for it. Some of the insects recorded by previous collectors were never seen by me in eight years. Of these Ayasa sambilanga is not in the British museum. Neptis jumba binghami, N. ebusa and Artife eryx I never saw, nor the females of WV. mar and Doleschallia celinde continentalis. 'The female of Appias panda chrysea evaded me for 95 out of the 96 months I was in the Islands. During my last month I took three. A female specimen of 4. schreiberi tisamenus was brought me as a sort of visiting card by Bhagwan Din my local collector, when I first engaged him in 1923. It was damaged. I kept the wings of the right side. In the next seven and a half years neither he nor I caught or saw another. The study of the local sub-species and their territorial limits has proved very interesting. It has been said above that for some un- ascertained reason certain species in the Gt. Andaman are very severely localized. In spite of this there is no instance of jany species in this homogeneous area developing different races. For this argument I include with the Gt. Andaman all those appurtenances known as the Ritchie Archipelago, the Labyrinth Is- lands and the Cinques, each of these islands lying within six miles of some other or of the main Andaman. But when the sea barrier in- creases to 25 miles it is enough to produce ina few instances very marked races. Thus Hudloea andamanensis has an undoubted and most distinct race in the Little Andaman and another not so distinct but none the less constant race in the North Sentinel. These two islands are respectively 30 and 25 miles distant from the Gt. Andaman. Again in the Little Andaman Farthenos sylvia is not 474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 moss-green as in Port Blair but'a lovely powder blue. Both these islands have for various good reasons been very imperfectly worked and more races should be forthcoming. Iam inclined to think that one or two local races may occur in the Cocos Islands and there mdy also be more seasonal dimorphism there. I paidaone day visit to the Gt. Cocos in October 1930 and took or observed some 40 forms all normal. The /Pzeridae seemed specially numerous. Novelties may reasonably be expected from Narcondam and possibly Barren Island. Inthe Nicobars the greater distances and depths of water between islands have led to pronounced localization. Many species are fotind only in one island or one group, while other species common to several islands have developed as many as three races each. Previous writers such as Bingham were content to label an insect ‘“Andamans” or “ Nicobars”’, without further detail. Consequently Colonel Bingham in the belief that branded and un- branded males of Auploea scherzert were to be found flying together in the same locality treated them as one race whereas in fact un- branded males are only found in the Southern Nicobars and belong without dcubt to a constant and well defined race—simulatrix, so named by. Woodmason and de Nicéville. A little should be said about hunting seasons and hunting srounds in the Gt. Andaman. July and August are very poor months with often not a single butterfly on the wing. By December things have brightened up and several Lycaenidae have their only or at least their larger brood then. Bomlungta should without fail receive attention during December. For the rest March to early June is, as elsewhere, the great catching time. All the lesser used roads well away from the cleared settlement should be worked, especially those to Rangachang, Maimyo, and between Austinabad and Birchganj. Where these roads cross streams much may be done. At Mt. Harrietin April a walk round the flowering hedges near the bungalows once an hour will each time produce afew good Lycaenidae. The walk to Black Rock has its own special Wymphalidae and the paths from that walk down to Wimberleyganj should be worked. Hill tops other than Mt. Harriet I found disappointing, neither Saddle Peak nor Mt. Ford produced anything. A collector should be sent occa- sionally to a forest extraction camp with orders to watch elephant droppings and sap from newly felled trees. allima are attracted by a whiskey and soda or a glass of claret at a picnic. To conclude this introduction it should be said that care is necessary to avoid damage from the prevailing damp of the region. Papered speci- mens should be dried out before being put away. Store boxes need watching for psocids. I avoided general damp by an electric light bulb in the cabinet. Set butterflies are apt to spring, this is specially the case with the Zuploeas. I must not conclude without expressing my cordial thanks to Dr. Corbett and his staff at the British Museum for their kindness and courtesy, and to Brigadier Evans for his unstinted help and advice. Note—The paper is accompanied by five uncoloured plates designed mainly to exemplify the constancy of localraces, especi- ally among the 4uplocas. Coloured plates would bring out the differences more clearly. Several other species exhibiting distinct PLATE I Journ., BomBay Nat. His. Soc. a) ’ ferrari Tyt. 2) a») 3 >? a) g a? >? a? THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 475 localized races have been omitted, such as JVefits hylas and Curetzs ‘sayonts, each with three races. ‘The order and nomenclature in the following list is that of Evans’s Indian Butterflies, second edition.) A. PAPILIONIDAE Wil, TROIDES. *1 (§) helena heliconoides 8 and 2 v. aphnea Jord, and Andaman. N. R. March to May and September. Flies high most of the day near the broad leafed Sterculia villosa but may be taken early and late near the ground. Good places are the roads to Rangachang and Maimyo and the path to Black Rock on Mt. Harriet. aripabaee * () helena ferrari Tyt. Gt. & L. Nicobar and Kondul. Females typically with whitish stripes upf. It is strange that this well-marked race was never recorded by de Roepstorff, Man and other entomologists in the nineteenth cen- tury and was first taken at Kondul in 1926. There are only eight specimens in collections. On landing at the usual beach at Kondul the collector should turn left along the shore for three hundred yards, over asmall rocky promontory and on reaching a small stream just beyond turn right handed and he should soon see one, possibly two ferrari high above his head. He will be lucky to get one and luckier stillif that isa male. At perhaps my fifth visit to Kondul I took two males. The little valley of four or five acres extent watered by this stream contains many interesting blues and skippers especially at the very top. In the course of a dozen landings and explorations of the G. and L. Nicobars | only saw two other individual ferrarz. A2. TRoS. 6. (Y): coon sambilanga Doh. I searched the B. M. and Tring and Calcutta museums and found only one at the last named. It bore a Gt. Nicobar label. In spite of a diligent look out I never saw one in the Southern Nicobars. ; 7. wvhodifey But. Gt. Andaman, N. R. female much scarcer than male, Good series in B. M. and Calcutta. Flies slowly along jungle paths in contrast to the female of szayo, its mimic. 9, hector, 1. A pair were taken by McMillan, very fresh, on 24-6-22, possi- bly blown to Pt. Blair from Madras. V. R. * 10. (Y) aristolochiae gontopeltis Roth.—Gt. Andaman especially Pt. Blair, a prairie flier and very common. Seasonal dimorphism mentioned by Bingham not apparent. ! { * (§) aristolochiae sawi Ev.—Car Nicobar, very common, especially at Sawi Bay, the N. E. monsoon landing place. The race is constant for Car Nicobar. # (4) aristolochiae ¢amorta. Very common on Camorta and Nankauri but not found on Kachal only some half dozen miles across the sea. * (3) aristolochiae kondulana By. Another constant race, N. R. Taken on Kondul and probably to be found on the rest of the Southern group. In ampli- fication of Evans’s description I should say that the ends of the post cellular white spots uph are not convex, and clearly defined asin gomopeltis and sawi but concave and obscured by a sprinkling of black scales, A3. CHILASA. 5. (8) clytia tlavolimbatus Ob. g N.R Q much scarcer than 2 March to May in Gt. Andaman males on flowers or sand. A4, PAPILIO. 2, memnon agenor L.—R. Two males and two females taken in S. Nicobars where the butterfly is frequently seen on the open banks of the Galathea and other big rivers in company with Danaus nesippus. Difficult to obtain. The female mimics Zyros coon sambilanga. One male straggler taken on Car Nicobar and one female on Ross Island, Port Blair. The latter was typically alcanor in form, and both stragglers were probably blown over from Tenssserim. The two 476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47° females from Gt. Nicobar have the white markings uph much reduced and the body almost black in contrast to the yellow body with black stripe of alcanor, 3. mayo, Atk. Gt. and L. Andaman, males N. R. females scarce but should be got in December. Best locality is the Black Rock path, Mt. Harriet, but any road through jungle has a few males hurrying up and down it. The females on the other hand only leave the jungle on one side to dart across the road and be lost in the jungle on the far side. A mimic of Zyros rhodifer. Possibly a sub-species of s#ennon. 23. fuscus andamanicus Roth. Gt. Andaman, rather local. The best place is the Rongat stream East of Bomlungtain the M. Andaman. Males N.R. females scarce. March and April. 25. B polytes stichioides Ev. Common in open places in the South Andaman, The two forms of female in equal numbers. Y polytes nikobarus Fd. Common on Car Nicobar and Camoria, and taken on Kachal. Females of folytes form at Camorta, as one might expect, incline to mimic Z7vos camorta. A5. PATHYSA. 6. 8 antiphates epaminondas Ob.—Males common iocally in Andamans, females lessso. Found with fuscus at sand and on flowers. A rapid flier through dense jungle, yet I have never taken a specimen with damaged tails. A6. ZETIDES. 5. B eurybylus macronius Jord. R. taken locally with fuscus at sand. 8. Y agammemnon andamanicus Lathy. Gt. Andaman, N. R. males fond of flowers inthe open. More often seen than caught—a remark which applies to many butterflies. 8S agamemnon decoratus Roth. Very common in Car Nicobar, less so in Centrai Nicobars. n agammemnon pulo Ev. S. Nicobars. INot common and in fact only taken by me after several visits on which I had never seen it, The race has been separated on three males and one female but seems a good one. B. PIERIDAE B 1. LEptTOSIA Hub. Lnina nina F. N.C. Extremely local in Port Blair, in fact in the 100 square miles of settlement my collector and I took it only in the neighbourhood of Tusonabad and Cadellganj, to the west of the harbour. Not on the wing for long in the year; my specimens all taken in June except for one in December when there is presumably another brood. No seasonal difference apparent. Mr. Field with four years’ experience only took it at Tusonabad and calls it rare. B nina nicobarica Doh. N. R. very local in the Southern Nicobars. My specimens were all taken in March with the exception of one 2 in September. ~ B8. BELENOIS Hub. B mesentina mesentina Cr. Bingham reports that a dsf specimen was taken in 1903 on the Gt. Nicobar. A straggler. B9. CrEporRA Billberg. 2y nerissa dapha M. On a brief visitto Tillanchong, Nicobars, in March 1924 I took two dsfQ@Q2. They may have been stragglers from Burma. 28 nerissa lichenosa M. Common throughout the year, Gt. andL. Anda- mans and Gt. Cocos. A distinct dsf occurs for both sexes and also inearly wsf 2 before the full wsf comes in. Sexes equally common. 38 nadina andamana Swin. Andamans, N.R. like dichenosa flies through- out the year. Bingham says there appears tobe nodsf. This is true for males but 1 have a female taken on February 8th with black markings on the upper side very much restricted. Females of this species are not easily come by. PLATE II JourN., BomBay Nat. His. Soc, ) Tros aristolochie goniopeltis Roth. 4 ) i a sawi Evans <6 ) 2, 5 camorta M. 4 ) kondulana Evans 6 9? a? THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 4y7 B10. Appras Hub. 48 libythea olferna Swin. My collectors took 2ggand 399 dsf and 24¢ and 12 wsf on Car Nicobar. The fact that both dry and wet forms occur may mean that the butterfly is an occasional migrant from the mainland. It is extremely rare in Car Nicobar. No dry season. forms occur in the Nicobars normally. 58 lyncida nicobarica M. Car and Central Nicobars. Common. This females vary considerably in size and in the amount of black on the upper side. 5») lyncida galbana Fruh. Southern Nicobars, N.R. 68 albina darada Fda. The British Museum contained no specimens of this race from the Andamans. I have earlier in this paper described how in 1927 it suddenly appeared in the Andamans in great numbers, at least as regards males. I obtained only seven females of which two were v. flavalba Fruh. If it ever reappears in Port Blair, there will probably be no one there interes- ted in butterflies and able to appreciate the rareness of the visit. Thespecimens taken are exactly similar to those marked Rangoon in the B. M. I took a pair on the Gt. Cocos in April 1930 similar to Port Blair specimens of 1927. A female obtained in Car Nicobar resembles Tenasserim specimens. 79 paulina galathea Fd. Common throughout the Nicobars. There appear to be six forms of 2 1. upf and uph white 2. upf and uph yellow 3. upf white uph yellow These forms are found flying together and are not peculiar to any island or locality 2). z panda chrysea Fruh. Gt. Nicobar is the chief habitat of this most aristocratic of all the local Pzeridae, and I only once took one on any other of the South Nicobars. The males may be taken on wet-sand on the banks of big rivers like the Galathea, in company with males of cyrestis tabula, or if you land in one of the sandy bays look for any little stream whose outlet to the sea is headed up by the sand and you should come across a few of the males of these two species, but not the females which are very rare. At the last of some 12 or 15 landings on different parts of the Gt. Nicobar, whichI was able to visit only three times in eight years, I took 399 of chrysea in undergrowth inside the jungle. ; The Calcutta Museum has a good series of chrysea, males but no females. The B.M. has also had no females. Each of these three forms may have white or orange below. Bll. Catopsir1A Hub. 1 crocale Cr. This is the only Catopsilia which approaches being common at Port Blair. I have someS5¢¢ and 10 9° from there and one or two. from -Nankauri. It may beclassed N. R. 2 Pomona F. Andamans R.I have 2 ¢éand 499 taken in October and April, | have none from the Nicobars. 4 pyvanthe minna Herbst. N.C.6 gd and 2 29 taken in South Andamans and Gt. Cocos between December and May. 5 florella gnoma F. Andamans, R. 4 taken between December and March. B12. GANDACA M. Y havina andamana M. Common everywhere in the Andamans and for the most of the year, but tnere seem to be two main broods. No _ seasonal difference. 6 harina nicobarica Ev.—R. taken at Car Nicobar, Nankauri, Gt. and L. Nicobars, in all 7 ¢¢ and 3 99. B15. EUREMA, Hub. 4 < blanda silhetana Wall. Andamans, common January to July. B dlanda moorei M.—Northern and Central Nicobars, N. R.6 ¢¢ from Car Nicobar and 8 from Nankauri, 229 from Nankauri. The males mostly resemble Bingham’s figure( Vol. 11, p. 259), but 5 out of 14 have the black border upf. broader at the apex and show the typical Awrema projection of black in- wards at V.4. The females much resemble in marking males of sz/hetana from 478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 49 the Andamans and do nct resemble their own males as Bingham states they do, except that their ground colour is not paler than that of the males. ¥ a2 Y blanda grisea Ev. S. Nicobars, N. R. 14 gg and2@2. One or two of the males have the apical markings upf dark enough to make them difficult to separate from szoorez found at Nankauri but the rest have merely a powdering of dark scales which gives them a grey appearance in decided contrast to moorez. The females here again do not resemble their males, except in having minute dots at the ends of the veins uph. The forewing markings are similar to those of moorez 2, but the ground colour is distinctly paler than that of the males. 5 ¥ hecabe hecabe L.. Andamans V. C. dry season forms occur Nevember to March, upf shows little variation, especially among males. 5.0 hecabe nicobariensis Fd. Nicobars, V. C. only wet season forms found.. They vary considerably, those from the Southern islands being for the most part difficult to separate from Andaman examples of hecabe hecabe. The res- triction of the border upf is greatest at Chaura and Car Nicobar but not always constant even there. he females especially those from Chaura and Car Nicobar are paler than females of Andaman hacabe hecabe. 7 Y anderson andamana Swin. Andamans N,R. I found the males common in the M. and S. Andaman in January and took a fair series of females in the S, Andaman in July to October but, it so happened not both sexes at the same time. B17. Ixras Hub. 25 pyrene andamana M. Andamans C, Gt. Coco V. C. The males have distinct dry season markings in January and February, but I can find no seasonal differences among a series of twelve females. Two pairs from the Gt. Coco, April, are smaller than Andaman specimens. ; B19 HEBomor1A Hub. 8 glaucippe roepstorffii WM. Andamans and Gt. Coco. The males are not rare, one sees one or more on most days, but capturing them is another matter. The females are not common. My collector in spite of encouragement brought me only four in some five years. ‘The males are certainly lighter underneath in the dry season but that is the limit of their dimorphism and the females appear to make no change. B20 PARERONIA DEN. 28 ceylanica navaka M. Andamans and Gt. Coco, C. On the wing through- out the year with a specially large November brood. A pair taken on the Ct. Coco show no difference. No seasonal dimorphism. | C. DANAIDAE Cl HestiA Hub. 1s lynceus cadelli WM. & de N. Andamans, N. R. Named after Colonel Tom Cadell, V.C., for 13 years Chief Commissioner at Port Blair. To be ‘taken most days from December to May indark jungle where it flops slowly about. A sure place was where the path to Black Rock entered well grown secondary jungle five hundred yards or so from Mt. Harriet House. C2 DANAUS Lat. 1 ¥ aglea melanoleuca M. Andamans: Common throughout the year, flies weakly in glades and near the ground. Does not, face Bingham, occur in the Nicobars. 2 agleoides Fd. Nicobars, V.C. at Nankauri, not quite so common in the S. Nicobars and I have only two ¢¢ from Car Nicobar. | 8y similis nicobarica WM.®& de N. Southern Nicobars, N.R.° 1 took iton Pulo Milo and L, Nicobar, but chiefly on the Galathea river and the Laful mountain stream in Gt. Nicobar. Sexes taken in equal numbers. I. obtained a good series. 9 limniace mutina Fruh. Car and Central Nicobars V.C. ‘To be seen in: very large numbers on the top of the bank at Sawi Bay, Car Nicobar and is-as: Journ., BomBay Nat, His. Soc. PLATE IIE BSE (1) Euploea climena scherzeri Fd. ¢ (2) >”? >”) ”» a>, 2 (3) ”» camorta M. gd (4) >”) ” +e) a” 2 (5) Op », simulatrix WM. & deN. ¢ (6) ” ” a? oe) ”? 2 JOURN., BomBay Nat. His. Soc, PLATE IV (1) Euploea crameri esperi Fd. 6 (2) a” 2) 2) AY 2 (3) 3) 9? biseriata M. ‘ei (4) a? 2?) 2) BO 2 (5) 3 frauenfeldi Fd. ¢ (6) »? a” ” 392 2 JOuRN., BomBay Nat. His. Soc. PLATE V (1) Euploea andamanensis andamanensis Atk. ¢ (4) ” , ”» 2? 2 (2) i . ferrari o (3) ” 5 bumila Evans 3 (5) ”? ”? ” ”? 2 (6) s roepstorfii M. o (7) >? ”» +) 2 THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 446 common at Nankauri. Never seen in the South Nicobars, Isawa number of specimens on Gt. Coco in April and took a male. Two stragglers seen at Port Blair in September 1929. 10Y melissa septentrionis But. 4¢¢ taken, one at Port Blair in November and three at Nankauri in December, January and February respectively. I know of two or three more individuals being taken at Port Blair and the butterfly must be considered a regular if rare visitor. 118 gautama gautamoides Doh. Seems to take the place of mutina in the South Nicobars where it is decidedly rare. I took 8¢¢ and 322 in my 15 or so landings in March and September. No really fresh specimens obtained in these months. 12 plexippus L. Port Blair, NR. Nankauri, C. I have one specimen from Kachal and none from the remaining Nicobars. WM anddeWN record it from Car Nicobar. Taken at Port Blair December to April and in September. 138 melanippus camorta Ev. Nankauri and probably Kachal, common on the former. ‘The difference between this race and weszppits is noticeable and constant. Y melanippus nesippus Fd. Common along the river banks of the Gt. Nicobar - but not seen by me on any other island of the Southern group. As conditions now are, and they will hardly improve, this butterfly must continue with Appzas chrysea and a few others peculiar to Gt. Nicobar to be common or at least not rare in its own habitat but very uncommon in butterfly collections. I myself only secured five pairs. 14. affinismalayana Fruh, I received some 20 specimens of this butterfly from the Tahsildar of Nankauri in 1927 and 1929. 1 was at first under the im- pression that his man took them on the east side of Kachal, but he later told me they were obtained on the west side of Camorta. No more were forthcoming and their exact habitat remains unknown. I never saw one onthe wing on any - of the Central group of the Nicobars at any of my numeroue visits. I can accord- ingly not agree with Brigadier Evans in calling it NR. While the visits of European collectors or their agents remain so unfrequent and so fleeting this must remain a rare Insect in the Nicobars. The Port Blair administration sends its only ship but two or three times a year to Nankauri and its stay there isa matter of five or six hours. 15. chrysippus L. Itook two ¢¢ and four 2° of this elsewhere common- est of butterflies at Port Blair. Should be taken on the slopes above Brookesa- bad where a few bushes of its food plant, Cilotropfis, have somehow established themselves. One ¢ at Car Nicobar and two 9292 at Nankauri. Its mimic, hypolimnas mysippus is found in these same localities equally seldom. The Nicobar examples all have the row of white terminal dots on the upper side of the hind wing complete. Also the Port Blair examples without exception have these spots only in interspaces 1 to 4. C3. EupLta@a F. 1. 8 mulciber mulciber Cr. One 2 straggler was taken on 6th of May 1930 on Mt. Harriet, a fresh specimen presumably blown over from Madras. Bingham gives the Nicobars as a locality. He may have received a straggler or two from Mr. Rodgers. *31 climena scherzeri Fda. Car Nicobar, V.C. Evans’s key says of climena generally ‘ Above normally unmarked dark velvet brown, outwardly cinnamon.’ ‘his description can only be applied to the males of the three races. On Car Nicobar about one in every five males of scherzerz has a white spot on the costa ; at Nankauri only one camorta male out of fifteen is so marked and in the Southern islands szmmulatrix males if spotted have one or two spots at the apex of the wing and neveron the costa, The females of all three races invariably have a spot on the costa and generally another near the apex of the cell either inside or ii interspace 3. Afew females have both these spots present Szmu- latrix females also frequently have one or two apical spots upi similar to those carried by the male. ‘They also may have unh, a terminal row of small white spots in the interspaces, *B climena camorta M. Central Nicobars, VC. *y climena simulatrix WM & de N. South Nicobars VC. *6Y cramert esperi Fd. VC. From examination of along series of forms from Car Nicobar and Mankauri I consider that there is a prime facie case for separation of Nankauri specimens as *crameri biseriata M. ‘Their general 480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, ay appearance is invariably much whiter than esperyz from Car Nicobar or frauen- feldi from the Southern Nicobars. One might confuse the two latter with each other so far as the upper sides go, but not the Nankauri form with either. *9 cvameri trauenfeldii Fd. Southern Nicobars. Common but less so than in the other groups. S89 andamanensis andamanensis Atk. VC throughout the Gt. Andaman and seen on the Gt. Coco where they appeared normal. On the wing throughout the year. Individuals vary in size and in intensity of ground colour and amount of white marking, but I am unable to couple these variations with the seasons. *8 andamanensts bumilaTyt. L. Andaman, VC. Called after Bumila creek on the north of the Little Andaman. Bumila (flies and sand) was the contemptuous name given to the creek by Portman’s Andamanese when he explored the island some 60 years ago. ‘The flies remain and pester the visitor and hasten his return to his launch anchored beyond their reach. The beach has behind it a great fresh water lagoon which carries at times quite large numbers of Andaman teal, a fact discovered by me when in search of butter- flies. Quantities of andamanensis bumila are to be had round the lagoon, also Spalgis epius nubilis which is difficult to get in the Gt. Andaman. Bing- | ham mentions the Little Andaman form but as usual refuses it status as a race. *y andamanensis ferrart Tyt On avisit to North Sentinel, I took a few males of andamanensis which have differences from the forms of the Gt. and Little Anandaman and to which General Tytler has given a separate name. One of the plates accompanying this paper shows a male from each of the three localities. ll. 6 harrisi harrisi Fd. One male straggler at Port Blair in March, taken after a gale. 13Y covrus phoebus But. Nicobars, V.R. A male taken on Kachal in March and a male and a female taken in January and March respectively at Nankauri. 168 Jleucostictos novavae Fd. N.R. at Car Nicobar and a few taken at Nankauri. On the former island its mimic Hypolimnas antilope anomala Wall. is found locally. *17 voepstorffii M. Andamans, V.R. [ have seen this butterfly moving rapidly, in contrast to axdamanensis of which it is presumably a mimic, but I never myself took one. My collector who was always on the look out for this Euploea only took for me some 15 or 16 in six years. ‘They were mostly got on the Rangachang road four or five miles from headquarters at Port Blair. Andamanensis is to be seen everywhere on flowers or hovering near them and I never passed by a single one without a good look to be sure it was not roepstort fai, but I never met with the latter except when it was in rapid flight. D. SATYRIDAE D2. Mvycarrsis Hub. 3Y. anaxias radza M. R. A rare and local species in-the Gt. Andaman. 1 think it should be found in bamboo jungle for I saw two or three in the bamboo thickets on the east side near the top of Saddle Peak in the North Andaman in April. Mr. Macmullen assured me that it was to be had in the nullahs on the Rangachang road a mile or two north of the plantation, but my collector could never get it there. In eight years he and I took 8¢¢ and 729. Of these two males alone were fresh, taken in January and April respectively. Most of the 13 other specimens were taken in December and January. Three males taken in April in the North and Middle Andamans though fresh have a distinct dry season appearance underneath, the ocelli being reduced in size, The remaining five males are from the South Andaman. They were all taken in December or January, but four of the five have the full wet season appear- ance. Of the seven females, all from the South Andaman, one only, a worm specimen taken in May, has the reduced ocelli of a dry season form. The rest taken chiefly in December, have a wet season appearance. 0 anaxtas manit Doh. V.R. Ihave one male and three females from Gt. Nicobar and one female from L. Nicobar. They were taken in, rough grass in the coconut groves. April or September. lOY mineus nicobarica M. Nicobars, C. l2y visala andantana M. Andamans C. dsf. December to April, wsf. April to November. THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 481 D3. LETHE HUB. 21y europa nudgava Fruh, Andamans. N.R. in shady jungle, Taken throughout the year. 218 europa tamuna deN. Described by de Niceville in 1887 from a female taken on the L. Nicobar. I do not know of any other specimens having been taken. ‘There were none in the Calcutta museum in 1930. I saw a female at Pulo Babi on the Gt. Nicobar. D, ORSOTRIG@NA Wallen, B medus medus F. Andamans C. dsf as usual December to March. Y medus nicobarica Ey. Nicobars, V.C. especially on Camorta. D22. MELANITIS Fab. 1 ledaismene Cr. Andamans V.C. in both wet and. dry season forms on rice land. Nicobars V.R. The wet season form appears in very great numbers in September. Before long the dry season form is found flying with it and then continues alone until February. As the rice land dries off the butterflyseems to take to the jungle. I took one male wsf. on Gt. Nicobar in February. 39) zitentus andamanica Evans. Andamans V.R. I have only four males and one female, all dsf. The males were taken, one in October, one in December, two in April of which the last one is very fresh. The female was taken in June, very worn. In the cane thickets at Casuarina Bay in the North Andaman I saw a dozen or more on the wing one day in January, but they were very worn and I let them be. No such opportunity occurred again. D25. ELyMNIAsS Hub. 28 cottonis cottonis Hew. Andamans. C. On the wing throughout the year. ; 3. panthera minus WM. & de N. Nicobars. C, especially on Car Nicobar and at Nankaurti. E. AMATHUSIIDAE £7. AmarHusia Fruh. Y phidipbpus andamanica Fruh. Middle and South Andamans. R. In eight years only six males and five females taken. ‘These were mostly found at rest in bungalow verandahs where they take cover when the morning daylight gets too strong for them. ‘The 11 individuals caught bear dates from April lst to May 15th. On Mt. Harriet at 1,200 ft. during the latter half of April this butterfly gets on the wing every evening at ten past six. Any I managed to take with a net were caught at this precise time at the spring 150 ft. below Bungalow No. 3 on the western slope where in my time there was dense shade. A good spot too for skippers. ‘The food plant of phidippus else- where is the coconut palm, but in the Andamans it must be something else for the coconut is not indigenous. The extensive planting of coconuts during the past 80 years does not appear to have increased the numbers of this butterfly. Only two females and none of the males taken by me have four ccelli unh, the remainder have three, of which the middle one is often minute. E10. DiscopHora Bdv. 48 continentalis andamanensis Stg. N., M. and South Andamans. V.R, five males taken in eight years. Onein Aprilon the east side of Saddle Peak, two in the South Andaman in April and one in August and lastly one in the Middle Andaman in October. Mr. Field took two females at Aberdeen, South Andaman in May. ‘There is one female with one male in the Caleutta museum, none in South Kensington. The males should be found on damp sand in dark jungle according to de Nicéville. F. NYMPHALIDAE Fi. CuHaraxs Ochs. ; 2n polyxena agnaM. A female taken in a battered condition at Namuiia- ghar July 1925 almost certainly a straggler from Burma. 6 482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 F2. ERrBora Hub. ly schreiberi tissamenus Fruh. Andamans, V.R. a rather battered female was brought me in 1923. In the succeeding eight years Inever saw another of either sex. 27 athamas andamanicus Fruh. Andamans, VR. Three males taken in June of 1925 and 1930. Mr. Field took four males in May 1923 after the first heavy rain. E8. HERONA Db. Y marathus andamana M. Andamans, R. 4 ¢% and5 Q& taken in eight years. Mainly on jungle paths west of Port Blair harbour. Flies in May and June and a stray one or two round Christmas. F1Q. Euripus Wd. 1 B consimilis consimilis Wd, A _ straggler was taken by Mr. McMullen 20 years ago. F18. EoTHaALia Hub. 5 cibaritis Hew. Andamans, C. On the wing for most of the year but especially from July to October. There come days in July and August when one meets with nothing all day in the jungle but a few czbarztis. Specimens vary considerably, but I have failed to find any fixed seasonal feature. The white discal band varies in breadth, and the conical black spots vary in size. In the female only the tornal spot asa rule has any blue associated with it. in the males the blue irroration is often found not only surmounting the majority of spots but also forming a well marked marginal band. 14 & garuda acontius Hew. Andamans, R. A dozen foé and 4 2° taken the latter are rare, and I was lucky to have so many. They were got in April, September, December and January. The males mostly in May. 30 0 deuta teutoides M. Andamans R. Both sexes fly from late in May to end of July and may sometimes be found on the rotting fruit of one of the smaller figs in darkish jungle. F20.. PARTHENOS Hub. 6 sylvia voepstorffii M. NR. Thougha few males may be seen in April and May this is really a July butterfly. I haveno females earlier than that month. There is another big brood, chiefly of males, in December. This dry season brood is larger and paler than the July one and it should be added that the white tips upf are generally only found in the males of the December brood. The July males have just a suspicion of whiteness. No female taken by me shows it at all. July specimens have the dark post-discal band upf confluent, December one have it macular. ) sylvia nila Evans. Gt. Nicobar, VR. Two males taken by me on 27-9-30, in the stream descending from Mt. Thuillier to Laful in the Gt. Nicobar. Visits to the Southern Nicobars by Government vessels are usually made in March, a time of year when P. sylvia is not often seen. This must account for this form not having been taken since Doherty’s time (see de Nicéville, Vol. II, p. 149). I have visited Gt. Nicobar in September in other years but never left the flat coast land until my visit to Laful. Brigadier Evans’s remark about’ the confluent post discal band must be discounted. ‘The specimens he examined are wet season ones and follow the rule of voepstorf fit. E sylvia cyanoides Tyt. Little Andaman. R. The Little Andaman is most easily visited in April when vessels may safely anchor and landings be effected. P. sylvia not being then on the wing the fact that the Little Andaman form was quite a different colour to roepstorffit was never noticed till September 1926 when I took three pairs which were found to have an area of blue on the upper wings similar to but more extensive than that of mda, the blue being more a pow ‘der blue than the bright cyaneous blue of wzla. General Tytler has described the form in December 1938 under the name of P. sylvia cyanoides. Specimers should be obtainable on the stream that enters Hut Bay at its southern end. Hut Bay is generally a safe anchorage in September before the North-East begins to blow. THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 483 F24, LimmMeEnitis F. 8 procris anarta M. Andamans, NR. Iwo main broods, May and December. I have tried to find seasonal differences but there is nothing definite. The spot in the cell upf is occasionally quite large. In halt the number of specimens I set it is absent. Males and females in equalnumbers. The males are found with the males of the next species, each on his special leaf, 10, 20, or 50 ft. above the ground and darting out every now and then in a fury and then back again for a breather. ‘The road to Black Rock on Mount Harriet always holds a few. F25. PANTOPORIA Hub. 2 8 nefte rufula de .N.» Andamans, NR. Two broods, May and October, a few on the wing most of the year, males and females in equal numbers, but the latter commoner in May. Found with L. procris avd possesses the same traits, F26. Neptis F. 1¥ columella kankena Evans. S. Nicobars VR. Two females taken in March, one male in September ; these are the only two months in the year when the Andaman station ship visits the Southern Nicobars. 2 Y jumbah amorosca Fruh. Andamans, NR. Easily taken when seen but by no means seen every day or every week. I only took some 25 in all. The dry and wet forms are clearly differentiated. Dry season specimens have the white bands much wider and the dark discal spots unh paler and smaller. ‘The females are scarce in the dry season. 2 8 jumbah binghami Fruh. Described from the Nicobars, VR. and never seen by me. 6 § Aylas andamana. M. Cocos and Andamans, C. Dry and wet season forms differ though not in so marked a degree as in jumbah amorosca. Tyhe white discal band uph is narrower and the black edging to this band unh far more pronounced in the wet season forms. Here again the dry season female is scarce and the wet season one very common. 6 hylas nicobarica M. Car Nicobar and Central Nicobars, VC. 6 % hylas sambilanga Ev. Southern Nicobars C, This is a very well marked race. Its whole appearance is different to nicobarica. It is decidedly a dark insect while in the other white predominates Both sexes are constantly smaller than uzcobarica. : 7] soma mananda M, Andamans NR. ‘The males seem commoner in June and the females in January to March. No seasonal variation. 8 y nandina climia M. Andamans, C. ‘Two strong broods of both sexes. in the dry and wet seasons but no seasonal variation noticeable. The males are often very smail. ae 10 ¥ sankara nar deN. I took one male on 1-4-23 in a valley runni ) from Saddle Peak in the North Andaman to the east coast. Nests Redaeeeanes here are two faded females and a fresh male in the Dehra Dun Forest Museum, and one female in the British Museum. [ 17 ebusa ebusa Fd. 32 y hordonia cnacalis Hew. Andamans, NR. Very faithiul to localities. There was a point on the Black Rock road where i never failed to see a solitary hordonia on the wing. If it was fresh and I took it I would find another next day at the same place. I have separated my speci- mens according to the dry and wet seasons but cannot refer them to one or other by their appearance. Dry season males are usually much yellower on the upper side. ; 27, CyRestis Bdv. - 26 cocles formosa Fd. Andamans C, Brigadier Evans has called this butter- fly rare, but my collector Bhagwan Din always had it in considerable numbers in May and June at his favourite hunting ground. This is the road to Birchganj where at the foot of the steep hill it enters secondary jungle. Some 50 yards or so from the road is a rare tree, the only one of its kind I ever found at Port Blair, of the size and appearance of an ordinary English holm oak, which in May produces a small white flower as sweet asthe English lime and a sure draw 484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 47 for all flower loving butterflies. Cyrestis, doleschallia, and many lycaenidae especially Lycaenesthes, amblypodtia, tajuria, hypolyceana, deudoryx and rapala all are to be had on it; some, such as vapa/a, in very great numbers.” In the bed of the stream, a perennial, that descends from the Birchganj Pass are more skippers than anywhere else in Port Blair. The Forest Department at Dehra Dun identified this tree but I have lost the record. In the jungle near by are to be had most of the rarer Vymphalidae of Port blair. ve andamanica WM. & deN. Andamans, notcommon. Flies alongside of formosa but in very much fewer numbers, not really rare. 45 thyodamas andamanica WM. Andamans NR, found with formosa. The females are uncommon. 5 tabula deN. R. Gt. Nicobar and sparingly on Little Nicobar. Not taken on Pulo Milo or Kondul. The males are found in company with males of Appias panda chrysea on the sandy edges of fresh water pools above HW mark and on the banks of rivers in the Gt. Nicobar. Only one female and some twenty males taken in some 8 visits to the island. I rank the males as rare owing to the inaccessibility of their habitat. The Gt. Nicobar has, 1 believe, not been visited by a Government vessel for eight years. Visits when paid are for a very few hours. F30. HypoLtimnas Hub, 1 misipfpus L. Andamans and Car Nicobar. VR. Probably migratory. Of six individuals taken in the Andamans 5 wore caught on 19-10-29 at Mitha Khari. All were worn. The sixtha fresh ¢ was taken on the Little Andaman in September. I took three on Car Nicobar in March, June and August, none fresh. 2 dotina L. Andamans VC and Nicobars VR. In the Andamans the dsf begins in September, is very common in October, odd ones to be had in March. The wsf is abundant in June and July. In the Nicobars only the wsf is found, five only taken by me in Car Nicobar, Nankauri and Kondul. 3 antilope anomala Wall. Car Nicobar, C. It is very strange that this Malayan species should be found only in Car Nicobar, the most distant of the Nicobars from Malaya and there in one small locality only. 1 never saw it on the wing, but my collector often brought me some, and Brigadier Evans took a large series at his visit. Most numerous in December and January, a few to be had up to June and July. F31. Yoma Doh. Sabina vasuki Doh. Andamans VR. The first record of this species was July 2nd 1926, when my coliector and I took a dozen or more at We Bi near Stewart Sound in the Middle Andaman. One or two were taken a few weeks later at Port Blair. For the next 43 years of my time in the Andamans I never saw itagain, The specimens were fresh and could hardly have crossed from Burma in the height of the south-west monsoon. It would be interesting to know whether vasuwki was common in Burma in 1926. I understand it appears only at intervals there. i F33. DoLESCHALLIA Fd. » btsaltide andamana Fruh. Andamans NR. Car and Central Nico- bars VR. Taken on flowers on the Birchganj road in June. The Nicobars yielded only 3 9Y, of which two irom Car Nicobar in January and February and one from Nankauri in August. There is one specimen only in the B.M. from the Nicobars. K34. Kartitima Bde V. 3 albofasciata M. Andamans R. Only some four or five pairs taken, mainly on the Birchganj road and in the Middle Andaman, June and July; one X in October. F35. PRECIS Hub, 1 B hierta magna Evans. Andamans C. — Found in the cleared parts of the Port Blair settlement. Specimens vary considerably but there seems to be no seasonal dimorphism, THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 485 2 B orithya ocyale Hub. A straggler taken on Car Nicobar. 4 < almana, almana L. Andamans C, Seasonal dimorphism occurs. B almana nicobariensis Fa. Car Nicobar. C. My specimens all taken in te wsf only. I cannot find any striking difference in size between ~ wsf and B. 9 atlites L. S. Andamans. NR. April to June, wsf only taken, Nicobars, Nankauri only January to April, NR. The Nankauri specimens are washed out looking and paler than those from Port Blair and the markings on underside are obsolescent. F36. VANESSA Fd. 1 carduiL. Two stragglers taken at Port Blair and two at Nankauti, all in the South-west monsoon, F41. Cupya Hub. & evymanthis andamanica M. Andamans, NR. To be taken sparingly in secondary jungle such as on the Birchganj and Maimyo roads, March to August. ” erymanthis nicobarica Fd. Central and South Nicobars. NR. February and March. ‘This race is very distinct from the Andaman one and its general appearance is very much paler. There is no mistaking the two. F42. ATELLA Db. 1 phalanta Drury. ‘Two pairs taken in the Central Nicobars three indi- viduals in January—March 1929 and onein February 1930, presumably stragglers from Burma. 2% alcippe andamana Fruh, Andamans, Gt. Coco VC. I have seen this butterfly in clouds in April and there is another big brood in October. About April 20th, 1924, the perennial streams running down from Mt. Harriet to Bamboo Flat and Stewartganj contained hundreds of thousands of males in patches on the sand. For several days after there was a thin migratory stream of females flying from north to south past the Chief Com- missioners house on Mt. Harriet, at the rate of 200 a minute for several hours at atime, In April of another year Ross Island which lies to the south of Mt. Harriet was flooded with this butterfly. I also noticed it 6n an occasion at We B in the Middle Andaman in a similar flight, again from North to South. 2& alcippe traterna M. Central and South Nicobars R. Of nine individuals one 2 was taken in September, the rest January to March. F44. CyntTuia F, 6 évota paslida Stg. Andamans, C. deNiceville says that 29 of evota are rare in Continental India, but they are to be taken in fair numbers in the Andamans. The Black Rock roaion Mt. Harriet is a good locality and so is any other jungle road in the islands. F45. CrRROCHROA Db. 1 fasciata Fd. I took one individual on 13th April 1923 on Mt. Harriet. Mr. Field during the same week and at the same place took eight. The butterfly was not noticed again during the next eight years. Presumably stragglers from Burma, 3 B tyche anjira M. Andamans, C. Both sexes to be had March to September, Q2 commoner than ¢¢ in April. 7 nicobariea NM, & deN. Gt. Nicobar C. Considerabie numbers of this butterfly in the Mt. Thuillier streams taken in March and September. F47, CETHOSIA F. 1 B 6iblis andamana Stich. Andamans C, Not taken on Mt. Harriet but common at the foot of the range in the Wimberleyganj forest plantations ; both sexes May to July, 2° in December, Y biblis nicobarica Fd. All the Nicobars. C, 486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 I have examined large series of these two races and found the post discal linee as described by Brigadier Evans, that is in the Andaman form the line is broken and in the Nicobar one it is continuous, otherwise the races appear identical. F50. LAaRINGA M, 2 8 horsfieldi andamanensis deN. Andamans. é¢ NR. 9° R. I took 12 of the former and seven of the latter in eight years. A very local butterfly. Certain spots on the Black Rock Road usually had one 4 sitting 20 ft. orso up on a leaf in rivalry with males of Z. procris, P. nefte, etc. If this one were caught there would usually be’ another on duty at the next visit. G. ERYCINIDAE G4. ABISARA, Fd. 5 1) echerius bifasciata M. Andamans NR. An uninteresting creature. . ¢¢ July—September. Qe April—December. H. LYCAENIDAE H8. SPALGIS. < epius epius Wd. 2 gg and3 99 from Gt. Nicobar taken in February and March. B epins nubilus, M. Ross Island, Port Blair. Found in great numbers in mangrove behind Bumila Beach, Little Andaman. One 2 from Gt. Nicobar. Hil. CaSTALIUS 18. vosimon alarbus Fr. V.C.in Andamans in December to April. Also common in Central but rare in S. Nicobars. 3 <. ethion ethion Dh. & Hew. All Andamans most of the year, C. 8 ethion airvavati Doh. Common on Kondul and Gt. Nicobar, not taken elsewhere. 4. elna noliteia Fruh. Andamans, December to May. N.R. 5B. voxus roxus God. All Andamans February to September. N.R., Y. voxus manluena Fd. Flies with aivavati on Kondul and Gt. Nicobar. R. H17. NEoprrHEcorps ZALMORA But. December to June in Andamans C, H18. EvERES. 57. parrhasius pila Evans. Common on Car Nicobar. One 2 each from Nankauri and Gt. Nicobar. H20. MEGISBA B. malaya sikkima M. Andamans C. yY. malaya presbyter Fruh. Central and South Nicobars. 2 ¢% and 399 taken, R. H21. LyYycaAENoPSIS 26. puspa telis Fruh. On Mt. Harriet ridges, March to April, when it is not rare. A few in December. ). puspacyanescens deN. One @ from Car Nicobar, V.R. de Roepstorft took only five individuals in Camorta, Central Nicobars, where he lived some years, €. puspa prominens deN. Also extremely rare. Mr, Man took one 2 on Little Nicobar 4nd I took another 2 on Gt, Nicobar. 24, ZIZERA 5. gaitka Trimen. S. Andamans C. § B. otis otis P. Andamans, Car and Central Nicobars V.C, THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 487 H25. EucuRyYSsops 1. cnejusF. Andamans. C. Central and South Nicobars C. 3B. pandava pfandava Hors. All Andamans and Nicobars, V.C. owing to the prevalence of a wild Cycas which the larvae damage very severely. One tree in Government Howse garden was killed outright. Also taken in Great Coco. H26. LYyCAENESTHES 1 8 emolus andamanicus Fruh. Mt. Harriet hedges October to April N.R. . 2 B lycaenina lycambes Hew, As above but taken chiefly in April and May ahs H27. CATACHRYSOPS 1. strabo F. Andamans and Nicobars V.C. 2. lithargyria M. Andamans, especially Little Andaman. Nicobars especially Car, V.C. H28. LAMPIDES. boeticus, L.. Andamans, chiefly in Jail Garden. Nicobars generally but rare, possibly a migrant only. v. obsoleta Evans. Sent to Brigadier Evans by Jailor Macmullen. Never taken by me, H29. JAMIDES. 1 < bochus bochus Cr. Andamans, Gt. Coco. V.C. B bochus nicobaricus WM & deN. All Nicobars. V.C. Both races mainly in March. 5 celeno blairana Evans. V. Common throughout the Andamans, through- out the year. § celeno kinkurka, Fd. V.C. Car and Central Nicobars. » celeno nicevillei Evans. Common in South Nicobars, Evans says ‘entirely overlaid fuscous scales.’ de Nicéville says ‘ leaden (sooty) instead of opalescent whitish.’ This hits off the difference between kinkurka and nicé- villei rather better. 7 ferrari Evans. This new species was detected by Evans who found a pair in my collection. One from Camorta and one from the South Nicobars. One more was found in the General Collection in the British Museum. They are the only three known specimens. One of mine was taken on the little stream on Kondul and more should be forthcoming there. 8 < kankena pseudelpis But. Common at Bomlungta but less common in the South Andaman. December to April. 8 kankena kankena, Fd. All Nicobars. January to July. R. 9 y alecto fusca Evans. Common on all Andamans especially on Black Rock road, Mt. Harriet, where the food plant, wild cardamum, is common. § alecto kondulana Fd. Central and South Nicobars. Rare, especially the female. H32, NAcADUBA’ De Nicéville states that the females of all the species appear to be very rare in all localities. This does not apply in the Andamans or Nicobars where both sexes are equally obtained. 28 pactolus andamanicus Fruh. All Andamans mainly June and July C. pactolus macrobthalma, Fd. ‘Throughout the Nicobars, C. excepting in Car Nicobar. . 3 hermus major Evans. South Nicobars, February and March. R, 4 vajuva varia Evans. Three taken in Kachal and Gt. Nicobar. R, 5 pavana Hors. Andamans, Januray—May C. 6 ancyra aberrans El. One male taken on Car Nicobar and one on ‘Tillanchone. R. 7 Y helicon brunnea Evans. Andamans, April, on Mt. Harriet hedges. C, 8 6 helicon kondulana “vans. Camorta and Kondu!. Only four taken, R, 488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 8 Y kurava euplea Fruh. Andamans C. 6 kurava nicobavica Toxopeus. South Nicobars. R. 9 B beroe gythion Fruh. Andamans. April to June C. 12 & bevenice blumbeomnicans, WM & deN. Andamans C. Y berenice nicobarica WM & deN. All Nicobars C, 13 aluta coelestis deN. Andamans, April to July. Chiefly taken on Mt. Harriet. R. 15 nora nora, Fd. As for 13 but V.C. nora dilata Evans. All Nicobars NR. 16 dubiosa fulva Evans. I took two females on Ross Island, May and August. R. : 19 dana deN. Andamans, January—May. R. H35. HELIOPHORUS 2 epicles indicus Fruh. Only at Bomlungta, M. Andaman, where it is common. Two broods, June and December. H44. CuRETIS 2 saronis savonis M. Andamans and Gt. Coco. NR. saronis obscura, Evans. Always some white uph. Car and Central Nicobars. C. sarvonis nicobarica Swin. No white on uph. S. Nicobars. NR. The females of all three forms are more commonly taken than males. H45, IRAOTA 1 ¥ timoleon timoleon Stoll. Sé¢ and 3 QQ all taken in December 1930 and April 1931 on Mt. Harriet, mainly on frews benjamini. R. H46. HORSFIELDIA n anita andamaniea Ril. Some 20 taken between April and August 1929 and 1930. Not otherwise seen. Mt. Harriet only. R. H49. AMBLYPODIA 31 B alea constanceae deN. Only two ¢¢ taken. One when I took my only Neptis sankara nar below Saddle Peak, North Andaman in April 1924, another on Mt. Harriet in May 1930. V.R. 36 6 centaurus coruscans WM & deN. Andamans and Gt. Coco. C. 49 alesia Fd. described under wimberleyi by de Nicéville from two females received from Port Blair. Not taken by me. VR. 56 asopia asopia Hew. recorded from Andamans by de Nicéville under tounguva from ee males sent by Wimberley. Never seen by me. 57 zeta M. 4¢¢ and 2 99 taken, two in each of the years 1926, 1929, and 1931. 80 fulla andamanica WM & deN. A dozen of each sex taken in five days from the same fig tree (7. benjamini?) near Government House Mt. Harriet, mid December 1930, otherwise not seen. R. H50. SURENDRA 1 gurcetorum latimargo M. All Andamans, May to July, and Gt. Coco, October. N.R. ; H53. LoxXUuRA 6 atymnus prabha M. Andamans C. n atymnus mnicobarica Kvans, All Nicobars N.R. All specimens from Car Nicobar are the palest, the colour increasing as one goes south. The two races remain, however, unmistakable, H57. SPINDASIS 13 § lohita zotlus M. Andamans December to June. 7 ¢¢and6@Q in all taken in two out of my eight seasons, R. THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 489 H59, PRATAPA 5 6 deva lila, 3 #4 and 2 QQ taken during two successive Aprils on Mt. Harriet VR, H60 Tasuria. 1¥ jangala andamanita WM. Some 25 including 9 29 taken on hedges on Mt. Harriet and also on cashew trees on open spurs of the hill leading down to Wimberleyganj, allin April 1924, a very notable year for strong blues. R. 1S Bp Cees cippus KF. Some 18 taken on Mt. Harriet hedges, February to April. H61. CHARANA 1 < jalindra tarpina Hew. Eight males March to July, three females April, all from Mt. Harriet. R. : 2 mandarinus Hew. recorded trom the Andamans. Not by me. H77. HorRaca l onyx rvana deN. de Niceville records three males and four females, I too six males, one or twoa year on the South Andaman, between March and Auetst. V.R. 3 albimacula WM &deN. de Niceville records seven males only. My collector took 3 pairs off one small bush near WeBi, Middle Andaman on 8-6-27. Noothers. V.R. H 79. CHLIARIA 1. othona Hews. Two males and one female taken on Mt. Harriet, May to July. VR. H 80 HvyvPpoLyvCAENA 28 thecloides nicobarica Evans. Central and Southern Nicobars. A pair from Camorta have a distinct triangular fulvous patch upf. The rest are all uniformly dark brown. ‘Taken in opei! coconut groves near beaches. R. 38 erylus andamana, All Andamans and Gt. Coco, September to Febru- WAY on INL AIRS, H 82. ARTIPE eryx L. Recorded only from Bomlungta in the Middle Andaman, As this station was closed during my time I only paid’ it two flying visits and never took or saw eryx. Even at Bomlungta it is rare. Curious that this species and H{, epicles should be confined to this one small locality. H 83, DEUDORYX 1. Y epijarbas amatius Fruh. Andamans, Apriland May, C. Nicobars. VR, One worn female taken in March on Kondul. H 84. VIRACHOLA 368 smilis maseas Fruh. Three pairs in all taken on the South Anda- man. October to March. VR. H85. RAFALA. 78 sutfusa rubicunda Evans. Birch Ganj and Mt. Harriet, South Anda- man. Males emerge in January, females in March, both on the wing till June. VC. lly varunaorseis Hew. As forlast. VC. Y varunavogersi Swin. Two fresh males from Camorta in January, no others taken. VR. 12 schistacea M. Andamans, found with orse7s. VC. 15 dieneces inteymedia Stz. As above. VC. The blue rapalas have a shorter season than the red. All four are very plentiful, 490. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 H 87. BINDAHARA 8 phocides phogides ¥. All Andamans, mainly in April, but a few males in October and December. R. Y phocides areca Fd. All Nicobars, most of the year. C. Both forms very variable in size, sexes equally obtainable. I. HESPERIIDAE 1. Hasora 1p. bdadra badva M. Two males from Andamans, one female from Gt. Nicobar. N.R. 9. leucospila parnia Fruh. Recorded from Nicobars, not taken, V.R. 10. salanga Pi. Recorded from Nicobars, not taken. 13 B. vitta vitta But. Andamans. A big flush emerges in April. again in September. N.R. 14. khoda minsona Swin. One female taken in April in the South Anda- man. VR. 15 Y. taminatus almea Swin. ‘Two females from South Nicobars. R. 6 taminatus malayana Fd. Six males, two females from South Anda- man in April. C. Recorded from Car and Central Nicobars. 16. alexis F. One male from Kondul in April. 1 should have taken more, both in the Nicobars and the Andamans, I 2. ISMENE Mm Jaina astigmata Evans. Two males from South Andamans in May. VR. 13. harisaharisa M. Recorded from Andamans. 16 amara™M. Three worn specimens from South Andaman taken in May, July and November. V.R. I 3. BIBASIS sena sena M. One male from from South Andaman. 15, BADAMIA exclamationis Fab. One male and three females from South Andaman and Gt, Coco, April and May. R. I 11. CELHZNORRHINUS 168 leucocera leucocera Koll. One male and four females from South Andaman. j 0. andamanica WM & deN. One female taken at the mouth of Bumila Creek, Little Andamanin April. V.R. : I 14. ‘TAGIADES —@ 8. obscurus alicaM. Andamans. N.R. 5y. atticus ravina Fruh, Andamans. N.R, y. atticus carnica Evans. Car Nicobar. Four males named by Evans since publication of his book. N.R. 5. atticus helfeyi Fa. Centraland South Nicobars. N.R. 10. Jitigiosa andamanica vans. Andamans. N.R. Also a pair of seasonal form major Evans, I 19. Darmro 6. bhagava andamanica WM & deN. Three pairs from South Andaman, Recorded from Nicobars. R. I 21. , SARANGESA 37. dasahara dasahara M. Andamans. C, [ 39. ASTICTOPTERUS jama permagnus ruh, Recorded from Andamans, THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE ANDAMANS AND NICOBARS 4g1 147. Suastrus 3. vamaaditus M. Andamans and Gt. Coco. N.R. 158. NovrocrRypta 4 ¥Y paralysos paralysos WM & deN. Only three by me in Andamans. Recorded from Nicobars, R. 6 curvifuscia Fd. Andamans. C, I 59. GANGARA 1 ¥. thyrsis yasodara Fruh. Andamans and 8. Nicobars, N.R. I 60. ERIONOTA 1 thrax acroleuca WM & deN. Eight taken. Andamans and Nicobars Np rill: sek 3 I 61. PADUKA 1 ¥. lebadea andamanica WM. Six taken. Andamans. R. I 64. MATAPA avia M. Fourtaken. Andamans. C. drvuma M. ‘Three pairs. Andamans. N.R. shalgrama M. Recorded from Andamans. wn We I 66. HYAROTIS 1 adrastus braba M. Adozentaken. Andamans. N.R. I 68. ZOGRAPHETUS 3 ogygiaandamana Evans. ‘Three males. Andamans. R. I 83. HALpE 31 <. mooret mooret Watson. Five taken. Andamans. N.R. I 87. CuUPiITHA purreca purreea M. Eleven taken. Andamans. N.R. I 89. ORIENS 3 8. golagolaM. Eight taken. Andamans. N.R. I 90. PADRAONA 6 Y maesoides ottalina Evans. Described from Andamans. Not taken. 14 ¥ tropica nina Evans. Seven taken. Andamans. C. 16 ~ serina serina Plotz. Six taken. Andamans. R. 191. Astyvcus augias augias L. and pythias bambusaeé M. Both recorded from Andamans Not taken, I 92. CEPHRENES 3 palmarum nicobarica Evans. Car Nicobar C. and Gt. Nicobar N R., 1 97, Baoris 1 oceia scopulifera M. Eight taken. Andamans. N,R. 7 cahiva cahiva M. Nine taken. Andamans. R. 3lagnaagnaM. (Mathias). Andamans. C. 33 zelleri cinnara Wallace. Andamans and Nicobars. C, This list of Hesperiidae is noticeably bald and incomplete, and should be capable of very considerable improvement, ON THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAE AND PYRALIDAE By D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. This paper is the third of the series started by that Ox the Food-plants of Indian Bombyces (Heterocera), (1940, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 817-27) and followed by one On the Food-plants of Indian Agaristidae and Noctuidae, (1941, 267d, xlii, 421-30). The two families treated in the present paper appear to have been even more neglected than the Bombycidae and Noctuidae, they are probably less impor- tant from the economic point of view, and recorded food-plants are very few. I have been able to obtain a number of records from Lefroy’s Judian Insect Life, but unfortunately the copy I have been able to consult is incomplete, the pages dealing with the Geometridae being missing. I have used the same abbreviations as in the two previous papers, the only fresh one being ‘ Lefroy’ for Zudian Insect Life. GEOMETRIDAE OENOCHROMINAE Ozola Wik. O. microniarta Wik.—Premna latifolia (Lep. Ceyl., Seitz). Some Australian species feed on Eucalyptus. HEMITHEINAE Pingasa Moore P. ruginaria Guen.—Nephelium lichi (mihi). P. chlora Cr.—Coffee (Lep. Ceyl., Seitz). Terpna H.—Sch. T. ornataria Moore—Laurineae sp. (mihi). Dindica Moore _ L. polyphaenavyia Guen.—Laurineae sp. (mihi), Dysphania Prout D. prunicolor Moore—Carallia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz). D. palmyra Stoll.—Carallia integerrima (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz). Agathia Guen, A. lycaenaria Koll.—Oleander (mihi). A. laetata F.—Oleander (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz, mihi), Carissa carandas (mihi). Hipparchus Leach A. papitionaria L1.— Birch (non-Indian). Tanaorrhinus Btlr. T. vittata Moore—A pupa was found in a curled leaf of Quercus sp. (mihi) Anisozyga Prout An Australian species feeds on ferns. Chloromachia Warr. C. divapala Wik.—Myrtus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Lophomachia Prout L. semialba Wik.—Loranthus (Lep. Ceyl,), Myrtus (Seitz). Osteosema Warr, O. sanguilineata Moore-—Maesa chisia (mihi), FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAK AND PYRALIDAE 493 Rhomborista Warr. Rk. pannosa Moore—Loranthus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Seitz). Comibzena Hbn. C. cassidava Guen,—Zizyphus, I[xora (Seitz mihi), Lagerstroemia indica (mihi). Gelasma Warr. G. dissimulata W\k.--Terminalia catappa (Seitz). ‘Thalassodes Guen. T. quadraria Guen,—Polyalthea longifolia (mihi). T. veravia Guen.—Rose, Chrysanthemum flowers, Lagerstroemia flos- reginee (mihi). T. dissita Wik.—Barringtonia (Lep. Ceyl.). Oenospila Swinh. O. flavitusata Wik —Barringtonia (Lep. Ceyl.), Eugenia jambos (Aiyar, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 673). Hemithea Dup. Hi. tritonaria W\ik.—Ficus (Fauna). Iodis Hbn. l. argutaria Wik. Se bus Sp. (mihi). STERRHINAE (ACIDALIINAE) Ptochophyle Warr. P. togata F.— Eugenia jambolana (mihi). Chrysocraspeda Hamps. C. abhadraca Wik.—Kugenia (Lep. Ceyl.). Scepula Schrank. S. emissarvria W\k.—Aeschynomene indica (mihi). S. cleoraria Wik.—Lantana sellowiana, Plumbago capensis (mihi), LARENTIINAE Cidaria Treit. C. silaceata Schiff.—Impatiens sp. (mihi). C. delecta Btlr.—Virginia Creeper (mihi). C. auvigena Btlr _—Impatiens sp. (mihi). C. obfuscata Warr.—Impatiens sp. (mihi). Photoscotosia Warr. P. miniosata Wik.—Rubus sp. (mihi) Callabrasas Btlr. C. amanda Btlr.—Saxifragaceee sp (mihi). Phthonoloba Warr. P. decussata Moore—Rose, Apple, Citrus spp. (mihi). BOARMIINAE Abraxas Leach. A. grossulaviata L.—Ribes, Euonymus, Calluna ad many others (non Indian). A. sylvata Scop.—In Europe on Elm. Peratophyga Warr. P. aerata Moore—Hypericum sp. (mihi). Urapteryx Leach U. sambucaria L.—Ivy (non-Indian). Thinopteryx Btlr. T. crocoptera Koll.—Vine, Virginia Creeper (mihi). Osicerda Wlk. (Prionia Hbn ) O. sgualidaria Hbn.—Ixora (Lep. Ceyl.). Leptomiza Warr. L. calceayia W\k.—Rubus sp. (mihi). 464; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Macaria Curt. M. fasciata F.—Mimosa concinna (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). M. fidoniata Guen.—Acacia catechu (lac Research Institute Bulletin). Orsonoba W1k. O. clelia Cr.—Convolvulaceae (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). Hyposidra Guen. ff. talaca Wik—Jambona, Combretum, Ficus parasiticus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Castor (mihi). Luxiaria Wlk. L. obliquata Moore—Melastoma normale (mihi). Petelia Herr.—Sch. P. medardaria Herr.—Sch.—Zizyphus. jujuba (mihi). Fascellina W1k. F. chromataria W\k—Cinnamomea (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). F. plagiata W\k.—Laurineae (mihi). Biston Leach. B. suppressaria Guen.—Cassia auriculata (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Cassia sp., Lagerstroemia indica, Carissa carandas (mihi). B. bengaliaria Guen.—I suspect Pine trees. Medasina Moore. M. strixaria Guen.—Acanthads (Lep. Ceyl.). M. albidaria W\k.—Rose, Cherry (mihi.). Boarmia Treit : B. bhurmitra Wik.—Rose, Geranium, Maesa chisia, Sympocos sp., Mela- stoma normale (mihi.). B. boarmiaria. Guen,—Plumbago rosea (Lep. Ceyl.). B. selenarvia Abn.—Apple (mihi). B. acaciavia Bsd.—Cinnamomea (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Rose, Apple, Pansy (mihi). Psyra WIk. P. spurcataria W\k.—Rose, Maesa chisia (mihi). PYRALIDAE . GALLERIINAE On wax in bee hives and nests of wild bees (Lep. Ceyl.). Trachylepidia Rag. T. fructicassiella Rag.—Pods of Cassia fistula (Fauna, mihi). Achroia Hbn. ; A, grisella F.—Wax in bee-hives (Fauna). Lamoria WIk. L. anella Schitt,—Fallen indigo leaves (Lefroy). ’ Galleria F. G. mellonella L.—Parasitic in bee-hives (Fauna), bee comb (mihi), CRAMBINAE Usually grass ot reed feeders (Fauna), amongst moss in grassy places or in the stems of aquatic plants (Lep. Ceyl.). Chilo Zinck. C. simplex Btlr.—Cultivated cane, Juar, Bajra, Maize (Lefroy). C. zonellus Swinh.—Jowar, Wheat, Maize, Bajra (Trehan and Pingle Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xivi, 141). Bere, Ancylolomia Hbn. A. chrysographella Zell.—Grass, Rice (Lefroy). A, locupletella Koll.—Spinitex squarrosa (Fauna, Lefroy), FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN GEOMETRIDAE AND PYRALIDAE 468 SCHOENOBIINAE In the interior of reeds (Fauna). Scirpophaga Treit. S. aurvitlua Zell.—Sugarcane, Saccharum cilare (Lefroy). S. nivella F,—Sugarcane (Trehan and Pingle, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xlvi, 141). Ss monostigma Zell.—Sugarcane, Saccharum cilare (Lefroy). schoenobius Dup. S. dipunctifer Wik.—Rice, probably grasses (Lefroy), Paddy (Trehan and Pingle, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xivi, 144)- ANERASTIINAE Anerastia Hbn. A. ablutella Zell.—-Sugarcane (Lefroy). Polyocha Zell. P. saccharella Dudg.—Sugarcane (Lefroy). P. cinerella AHamps.—Euphorbia neriifolia (Lefroy). PHYCITINAE On leaves or in the stems of plants, some in dried animal or vegetable sub* stances (Lep. Ceyl.). E phestia Guen. £. cautella W\k.-——Rice and wheat flour, tamarind seeds (Lefroy). £, cahiritella Zell.—Rice and wheat flour (Lefroy). Heterographis kag. FH, verrucicola Hamps,—In wart-like excresences on ‘Trema orientalis, tunnelling in the diseased wood (Fauna). . H. bengalella Rag.—In Custard Apple fruits (Fauna). Euzophera Zell. E. perticella Rag. erin (Lefroy, Trehan and Pingie, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.. xivi, 147). Ve punicacella Moore.—Jn Pomegranate fruits (Fauna). £. cedvella Hamps.—Deodar cones (Lefroy). Microthrix Rag. MW. inconspicuella Rag.—Sugarcane (Lefroy). Nephopteryx Hon. N. eugraphella Rag.—Cured Tobacco, Mimusops elengi (Fauna). N. divisella Dup.—Euphorbia (Fauna), N. paurosema Meyr.—Pods of Cassia tora (Lefroy). N. semirubella Scop.—Lotus, Hippocrepis, Trifolium, etc. (Fauna), Maize (Lefroy), Myelois Hbn. M. pectinicornella Hamps.—Seeds of Pongamia glabra (mi hi). Hypsipyla Rag. A. robusta Moore.—{n the small branches of mahogany (aaunay, in shoots of Cedrela toona (Lefroy). Phycita Curt. P. dentilinella Hamps.—Chitin (Lefroy). P. clientella Ze\l.—Solanum (Lefroy). P. infusella Meyr.—Cotton (Lefroy, Trehan and Pingle, Journ, Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc. x\vi, 145). P} jasiminophaga Hamps.—Flower buds and young leaves of Jasminum sambac (Fauna). Etiella Zeil. AS E. zinckenella Yreit.—In pods of Colutea, Crotalaria juncea, Phaseolus, etc, (Fauna). a 496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ay E PIPASCHIINAE Coenodomus WIsm. C. hockingti Wism.—Eugenie jambolana (Fauna). C. rotundinidus Hamps.—A tree of the Laurel tribe (Fauna). Orthaga WIk. O. exvinacea Hamps.—Mango (Trehan and Pingle, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 150). O. vitialis Wik.—Cinnamomium (Lep. Ceyl). CHRYVSAUGINAE ENDOTRICHINAE Nothing recorded concerning the Indian species, PYRALINAE Hypsopygia Hbn. AH. mauritialis Bsd.—Wax, larvae, etc. in nests of Polistes hebraeus — (Lefroy). Pyralis L. P. favinalis 1..—Oatmeal, Potato, etc. (Lefroy). HYDROCAMPINAE The larvae of some epecies of Vympfhula feed on water-plants and are fitted for a life below the surface of the water (Fauna). Nymphula Schrank. N. affinialis Guen.—Water plants (Lefroy) N. tluctuosalis Zell.—Rice (Fauna). N. depunctalis Guen.—Rice (Lefroy), Paddy (Trehan and Pingle, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., xlvi, 144). SCOPARIINAE The larvae feed on mosses and lichens, except in a few ancestral forms in New Zealand, which are grass feeders (Fauna). PYRAUSTINAE Pycnarmon Led. P. cribrata F.—Coleus parviflora (Aiyar, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xi, 336). - Zinckenia Zell. Z. perspectalis Hbn.—Amaranthus, Beetroot, Maize, Garden ae (Lefroy). Z. tascialis Cr.—Impatiens sp. (mihi). Cnaphalocrocis Led. C. medinalis Guen.—Rice, grasses (Lefroy). Marasmia Led. M. trapezalis Guen.—Maize, Juar, Bajra (Lefroy). Syngamia Guen. S. abruptalis Wik.—Ocinum sanctum (Lefroy). S. floridalis Zell.—Urticaceae sp. (mihi). Caprinia Wlk. C. conchylalis Guen,—Kicksia, Holarrhena antidysenterica (Lefroy). Filodes Guen. F. fulvidorsalis Hbnu.—Thunbergia alata (Fauna, Lep. Ceyl.). Phryganodes Guen. P. analis Snell.—Cassia fistula (mihi). ff oo 5 FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIA GEOMETRIDAE AND PYRALIDAE 497 Dichocrocis Led. ; Dd, punctiferalis (guen.—Mango flowers, Castor, Garuga pinnata fruits, ” Cacao (Lefroy), unripe seeds of Castor (mihi) Guava, Castor, Mango (Trehan and Pingle, fourn., Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., xlvi, 149). Nacoleia Wlk. _ NV. vulgatis Guen.—Lucerne, Soya, Phaseolus radiatus (Lefroy)... N. diemenalis Guen. —~Phaseolus mungo (Lefroy). Botyodes, Guen, ~ B, asialis Guen.—Ficus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). _Sylepta. Hbn. -S. aerogata F.—Cotton (Trenan and Pingle, Jowrn., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xlvi, 144), Hollyhock and other Malvaceae (mihi). S. Son Guen.—Grape vine (Lefroy). Lygropia Led. L. guaternalis Zell.—Sida rhombifolia (Lefroy): Agathodes Guen. 2. ostentalis Hbn —Erythrina indica (Lefroy). Glyphodes Guen. . negatalis W\k.—Ficus religiosa, Dillenia indica fruits (Lefroy). vertumnalis Guen,—Tabernaemonians coronaria (Lefroy, mihi). glauculalis Guen.—Tabernaemontana (Lep, Ceyl.) untonalis Abn.—Jasmine (mihi). étvitralis Guen.—Ficus oppositifolia (Lep. Ceyl. ), Ficus religiosa (unt) . caesalis W\k.—Ficus religiosa (mihi). canthusalis Wik.—Ficus religiosa (mihi). . Sinuata F.—Moduca (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). . indica Saund.—Cotton (Fauna), Cucurbitaceous plants (Lefroy). Polythlipta Led. af Givaricata Moore.—Phaseolus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). ee -Lepyrodes Guen. L. neptis Cr.—Jasminum sambac (Lefroy, mihi). ‘os L, geometralis Guen.—Jasminum sambac (Lefroy). ~ “Leucinodes Guen. “L. erbonalis Guen. —In brinjal fruits (Fauna, Trehan & Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat.’ Hist. Soc., xivis 147), in fruits of various Solanacez (mihi). Crocidolomia Zell. C. binotalis Zeil. —Crucifers (Lefroy). i Hellula Guen. H1, undalis F.—Cabbage, Cauliflower (oy). “Terastia.Guen.. . .-- T. meticulosalis Gien. BS ii young ‘stems of Baythrins (Fauna). Isocentris Meyr. if I. opheltesalis W\k.—Sunflower (Lefroy). Crocidophora Led. C. ptyophora Hamps.—Bamboo (mihi). Maruca WIE. MM. testulalis Geyer—Pulses ( Lefroy). Pachyzancla Meyr. P. phoepteralis Wik.—Anisomeles ovata (Lefroy), grasses (Cherian & George, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxi, 530). P. aegrotalis Zell, —-Croton, Schizandra, Alternanthera (Lefroy). Phlyctaenodes Guen. P. nudalis Hbr.—Croton, Fenugreek (Lefroy). Antigastra Led. A. catalaunalis Dup. —Sesamum (Lefroy, Trehan & Pingle, Journ., Bomb. Nat, Hist. Soc., xlvi, 149). 7 SA ne Me RSA Meengewawl whigeane ei 498. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST...SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Noorda W1k. _) LV. blitealis W1k.—Moringa plerygosperny, (Lefroy). “ Metasia Guen. M. coniotalis Hamps. —Sweet potato tibere (Lefroy). Pionea Guen. P. ferrugalis Abn.—Cabbage, Se balsamifera, (Lettoy). Pyrausta Schrank. P. machoeralis W\ik.—Teak (Fauna). P. incoloralis Guen.—Calotropis gigantea’ (mihi): P. coclesalis W\k.—Bamboo (Fauna), occasionally on M aize (Lefroy). _P. bambucivora Moore—Bamboo (Fauna). P. salentialis Snell.—Boring in stems of Polygonum (Lefroy). I have, in addition, the following record, but the species does not appear in the Fauna and lam not sure of its actual affinities, Phostria piasnsalis Wik.—Ccleus parviflora (Aiyar, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Fiust. Soc., x1, 336). THE BUTTERFLIES OF. THE: KHASIA AND JAINTIA HILLS, ASSAM: sil) aivsholeedqa. auth ats 2 R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S., Indian Police. _ AND epra SIR KEITH CANTLIE, C. I. ElaCsSr Since the publication of Swinhoe’ S sha: in Neca we hase: not been able to trace any detailed list: of butterflies: from the Khasia_and Jaintia Hills in Assam and the present list is intended. to assist collectors in giving as precise information as possible ; with regard to localities. The high plateau of the head and faite: Hills is almost! bare of trees save scattered pines. The forests are on ‘the lower ‘hills. They commence at Umran, 21 miles ffom Shillong, called the 42nd Mile since miles are reckoned from Gauhati on the Gauhati Road (G; S. Road). Good localities are Mile 40 near the Margaret Falls ; Mile 36 near Umsaw Nongkharai Village; the path into the: forests at Mile 33; another such path at Mile 36; Nongpoh Inspection Bunga- low at Mile 30; Umling forest path at Mile 23; Burnihat Inspection Bungalow and the path leading up the river from it at Mile 16. Shillong 5,000 ft., Umran 2, 30°. fe 2 meteven I oe ft., Burnihat plains level. rh, No advantage has been found fein amnion into ‘he apes elsewhere. The villages are few. and: the: whole region «is. very malarious in the monsoon. The other wooded area is to: thé :south:.on. the: ‘slopes. towards Sylhet District, extending from the Garo: “Hills border on the west to the North Cachat Hills on the east.: There are many villages growing oranges, areca nuts, bag leaf trees and ‘pan vines; but travel is difficult except for the district"officers, as there ‘are ho "rest houses and porters are needed. The only areas accessible*aré’ those beside the’ Shillong-Sylhet motor road’ arid’ that: below: . PAPILIONIDAE. Poydorus, Swainson ese % ~~" “replaces Byasa Moore > Graphium Scopoli , |. ss replaces. // Zetides Hubner ; ped Ne: « algae tle | Pathysa Moore nO < GS TOL 28 ap | Paranticopsis deN. and ot itis TRIN Sew fine Meandrusa Moore -Lamproptera. Fab. civ Qo, oereplaces. . -Leptocircus. Swainscii Part 522 JOURNAL,;YBOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 PIERIDAE. Cepora Billberg oo) %: replaces Huphina Moore Valeria Horsfield © | replaces Pareronia Bingham Eurema Hubner replaces Terias Swainson Appias lyncida eleonora’ Boisduval replaces Appias lyncida hippoides M. BAT MIGRATION IN INDIA AND OTHER NOTES ON BATS. BY HuMAYUN ABDULALI Some years ago (1940) my attention was drawn to a book Jez Years Under the Earih by Norbert Castaret in which there was a re- ference to bats migrating from France to Japan. This was very unexpected and an inquiry put to Prof. Lands- borough Thomson failed to elicit a confirmation. In his reply he stated that ‘‘ there was at one time supposed to be evidence that bats crossed the Atlantic, but this was shown to be ill-founded’. He also referred to some notes on the subject in the Journal of Mammology, and some interesting information on the movements of Fruit Bats in Australia by Ratcliffe in the Journal of Animal Ecology, 1926, Vol. 1, p. 32. These papers, however, are not accessible to us. In spite of the fact that there was no obvious evidence of bat migration similar to bird migration, all observers in India must have noticed that the smaller bats appear to come and go during different seasons. In 1942-43 when travelling was very restricted, we thought it would be a good idea to keep notes on the bat populatioa in the caves of Elephanta Island in Bombay Harbour, and the writer with Messrs. Salim Ali and Charles McCann made an attempt to do so. It was unfortunately impossible to keep notes over any length of time and no concrete evidence of migration is claimed, though they certainly indicate that extensive notes kept over a longer period would bring in valuable information. As in birds, it was evident that the only method of individual identification was to ring them and we used a small aluminium bird- ring on the bat’s forearm, the membrane being slit and the ring turned over the bone. All the males were ringed on the left wing; females on the right in order to facilitate observations. Our attention was necessarily restricted to the bats inhabiting the several caves and dungeons and no tree-inhabiting bats were collected. The fragmentary notes are summarised under each species. The Fulvous Fruit Bat—Rousettaus leschenaulti (Desm.) This was the most numerous species, and was seen at some time or the other in all the caves, though the larger number was usually in the ** Dungeon Cave” at the western end of the cave-hill. The entrance has fallen in and the floor has also silted up to some extent. The average visitor does not approach or enter this cave, On 11 April, 19+2, the fruit-bats were plentiful and roughly esti- mated at about a thousand. Many had young clinging tothem. When 4 BAT MIGRATION IN INDIA AND OTHER NOTES ON BATS $523 4 first approached they squealed in chorus, with intervals of complete silence. On further molestation, they flew out of the cave and hung on the rocks and trees outside. This was at about 6 p. m., but Pariah Kites were attracted and two bats were seen to be captured on the wing. In the excitement, several young fell off their mothers in the cave. On 10 May most of the young were independent, and we made our first attempt at ringing. Of 43 bats captured (with a large butter- fly net) 26 were males and 17 females (as against 9 males and 21 females on 14 June). Thesex ratio over the total number examined was 35 males to “8 females (52 percent). Of 16 juveniles included, 11 were females (69 per cent). On 26 July, they were still abundant, but on 29 November this Dungeon Cave was deserted except for 5 or 10 individuals, There is definite indication that they had left the iocality in Jate November. On 10 January, 1943, their numbers had increased to some ‘extent. On 28 March 150-200 bats were back, the females being pregnant or with new-born young. Hundreds were back again on 8 October, 1944. At Kihim, across the Harbour, about 16 miles from the caves, on 13 May, 1943, my brother Shaman picked up one.of the bats ringed by us on 28 March, struggling on the ground, covered by ants and with a festering wound near the ring. In the cave harbouring these fruit bats, there was in the right- hand corner a hole running into the earth at an angle of 45 degrees or mere. A quill outside suggested a porcupine and an attempt to investigate the hole further was discouraged by a rumbling noise from within. Small numbers of two small bats, H. fulvus and R. vouxt, were occasionally noted in this cave, but in separate corners and far from Rouwsetfus. Tenebrionid beetles were abundant on the walls and on the floor under the bats, presumably being associeted with.the bats’ droppings. A Chrysomelid beetle, Azlacophora sp., formed small clusters on the walls, in this and other caves. The large gecko (/lemidactylus maculatus) was seen in this cave as also a monitor lizard (Varanus) at the entrance. Mr. McCann has more detailed notes on the biology of this bat on Salsette Island, /.B.N.H.S. 41, pp. 805-816. Brother Novarro of St. Xavier’s High School informs me that there are several large colonies of this species in the tunnels on the disused railway line just below Khandala. These tunnels are deserted about the end of June (depending upon the incidence of the monsoon) and the pas return early in December. . The Bicolored Leaf-nosed Bat—Aipposideros fulvus (Gray.) On 11 April, this and the next form were thinly scattered all through the series of caves, but formed largish colonies in the two small caves on either side of the main cave. (These will be re- ferred to as the Right and Left cave.) Here also they appeared to form independent colonies, this species being more numerous in the Left cave though a few were captured in the Right. The next species appeared to be more restricted to the Right cave. 39 were ringed of 524 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 47. which. 28. (71 per cent) were females, many being heavily, pregnant. Six secured in the Dungeon Cave were all females. . On:14 June, many females were carrying new- born young. On 25-26 June, both this and the next species were scarcer and on 29 November, as in the fruit bat, their numbers had. dwindled to a few individuals. : ‘The Horse-shoe Bat—Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.) As stated above, this was common in the Right cave’ on 11 April ‘and was not seen on the 10 May when both the small caves were in the possession’ of the previous species: On13 and’ 14 June, they -had regained their numbers in the Right cave, several juveniles and newly-born young being noted. Later, their numbers | decreased in the same way as for other species. ; . Of11 ringed on 14th eae, 9 were sexed sav included Six : females (66 per cca) ) ee ae The Indian Vampire Bat—JZegaderma lyra (Geofi.) This was first noted on 25 July when 5 or six were seen in the Left cave with a greater diminuation in the numbers of both the small bats. Had the monsoon driven it in and was its présence responsible for the departure of the smaller bats? Below their per- ches, we picked up the wings of two species of Noctuid moths, Ophiderus fullonica L. and Ophiusa coronata F. which had been taken by this bat in some numbers. Both these moths have the hind-wings. brightly colored (black and yellow). No remains of plain coloured moths were seen. iid Solos of this bat were noted on 25 October and 29 November, though none were seen'on 10 January. The Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat— 7aphozous longimanus (Hardw. ) _ This.can immediately be identified in the field as it clings to the vertical wall rather than the ceiling as do the other bats. Three or four were seen on almost every trip, but were solitary and seemed to live happiest apart. They were more frequently in the.small lingam eave adjoining the. rock-pool from which water 1s. drawn. > Curiously, the five individuals ringed on 9 May and 13 June were all. males, and in spite of the scarcity of their numbers,-none seen, there again on the 10 January carried a ring. The Bearded. Bat—Zaphozous eae Ce the of aiicll there: is a large colony at the Kaneri Caves in Salsette Island was not ‘observed at Elephanta. Hi id After the above notes were compiled, I noticed a very interesting article in the July 1946 issue of'the National Geographic Magazine entitled ‘ Mystery Mammals of the Twilight’ by Donald-R. Griffin of Harvard University. In view of the very limited information in India and the. unavailability. of literature, I have been tempted to pick, out. the highlights of this,article,as it: may be a very.long time before we, are able to bring together similar: information concerning Indian species. The ufollprine is almost a verbatim. extract from the BAT MIGRATLON IN. INDIA AND. OTHER NOTES ON BATS 5828 Most of the bats.in the United States belong to the family Vespertilionidae which feed exclusively on insects. Those living in the Northern States therefore find themselves without food in winter. This difficulty is overcome by one of two methods—Hibernation or Migration. Asa general rule, cave bats hibernate while those that live outside migrate. The North American Red Bat, Laszurus borealis, is reported to appear in Bermuda in autumn and disappear again at other seasons. If this ts true, it must make a sustained flight ol more than 600 miles over the open ocean. In Germany, Dr. M. Eisentraut, banded several thousand bats and recaptured many of them later. One, Wyctalus noctula, was ree captured nearly 500 miles from where it was banded and several others were recorded after they had travelled more thar 100 miles. Mr. Griffin banded the bats on the hind legs with an aluminium bird band of the smallest size and some ofhis bats have been recovered 150 to 170 miles from the caves where they were banded in winter. There is reference to a very positive homing instinct in bats, 30-40 percent of those banded in a given cave being retaken in the same place the following winter. Bats transported over distances upto 150 miles also found their way back with comparative ease. 24 were released out at sea 12 miles from the nearest island and 35 miles from their home roost. Six of these or 25 per cent were later. retaken at the building where they were banded. It is also noted that bats from large caveless areas have to mieratel to limestone areas to enable them to hibernate. Another very interesting part of the article explains the remark-’ able and inexplicable manner in which the bats have always been known to avoid obstacles in the dark. As far back as the 18th century, the Italian scientist, Lazaro Spallanzani wrote that bats which had been blinded flew about the room avoiding walls, furniture and silk threads stretched in their path. His friend, Louis Jurine, repeated these experiments and made the additional discovery that bats lost their ability to avoid obstacles when their hearing was impaired. This observation was again confirmed by Spallanzani, but the cele- brated anatomist, Georges Cuvier expressed his incredulity in the quip «Since bats see with their ears, do they hear with their eyes?’ So convincing were a great man’s words that Jurine’s discovery was completely forgotten until the present century, when Dr. Robert “Galambos and Mr. Griffin, by holding a bat before an electronic apparatus for detecting supersonic sounds (sounds of.a pitch higher than what the human ear can hear) found it actually making loud supersonic cries. Their later experiments showed that the echoes of these cries enabled the bats to detect obstacles in their flight and dodge in time to avoid collision. This has been established as the chief mode of perception available to bats. and isso distinct from other types of perceptions that a new word ‘ echolocation’ has been coined to represent its meaning. This can beso exact,that even when blind-folded they can fly between vertical 16-gauge ‘wires spaced 12” apart, brushing the wires only once in 6to10 passages. They do this while flying at full speed, ‘echo-locating’ the wites when a foot or two away, and banking or pulling in their wings to pass between them. The process of ‘ echo-location’ is not confined to bats, and many totally blind persons acquire an uncanny ability to muve about with-. 526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 out striking furniture, wails or other obstacles. Most of them have no clear idea how they do this. Three psychologists at Cornell Uni- versity have shown that they lose this ability if their ears are stopped. In foggy, coastal waters fishing and steamboat captains can detect the presence of cliffs or rocks by blowing a short blast with the ship’s whistle and listening for echoes. Another example is the sonic depth-finder or the fathometer which sends down sound waves through the water and measures its depth by the time interval bet- ween each sound and its echo. The modern miracle of Radar is analogous to this process, but different in so far as Radar employs radio waves while bats use sound waves.! While talking of bats, it might be interesting to record that E. C. Humphries and T. S. Jones in an interesting article on bat-hunting in Trinidad published in the /ve/d dated 19 January, 1946, state that the Vampire Bat is ‘the carrier of paralytic rabies—a dread human disease’. ‘This bat is also known to transmit Murrina, a try- panosome disease of cattle, a factor of some economic importance in many parts of South America. F They also say, ‘ One of the most interesting Trinidad bats is the Fisherman Bat observed and described as long agoas 1871 by Charles Kingsley in “ At. Last’”’. It may be seen at dusk, skimming over the sea, occasionally darting to the surface to pick up a fish. Owing to the difficulty of observing this bat.at close quarters, together with the poor light at the time they were active, there is still some contro- versy about the exact method of catching their prey. The current opinion is that the interfemoral membrane (the membrane between the hind legs) scoops downwards as the bat approaches the water and acts as a brake to its motion. It was formerly thought that the interfemoral membrane acts as a scoop to pick up the fish, but the prey is probably lifted out of the water by the claws of the hind feet which are large and apparently well adapted to this purpose. These bats live in colonies, usually in sea caves but they have also been found in hollow trees and under houses. Their presence is usually quickly detected by the unforgettable stench which is a mixture of bat odour and decaying fish!’ It might be interesting to recall that there has been some discus- sion in India regarding the fishing propensities of the Flying Fox which is known to skim over water. McCann in his notes on the Flying Fox, (/.B.NV.4.S. 37, pp. 146) discredits this habit, and though we have seen bats do this on both fresh and salt water we agree with him. Dr. E. W. Gudger in Fish-eating Bats of India and Burma (J.B.N.F.S. 43, pp. 635-40) has gone into the question in detai! and it appears that in our area, only the Vampire Bat, Wagaderma lyra, has been known to eat fish, small pieces being found under their roosts. How the fish are caught is unknown, but a considerable number of frogs are also said to be taken by this species. Bats are abundant.in India and of many kinds, but so little is known of their habits that any information which members may be able to offer from their own experience would be of considerable value. 1 For more details see ‘Bat Radar’ by Richard H. Knight (The New Biology, 1947—Pelican Books). ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE III: A BULBULLIFEROUS COCONUT PALM (COCOS NUCIFERA L.) TRUPAPUR A. Davis Research Student Depariment of Botany, Madras Agricultural College and Research institute, Coimbatore. (With two plates) INTRODUCTION The coconut tree is one of the most common plants along the coastal plains of Travancore. The palm is so familiar and so remarkably uniform in its out- ward characteristics, that. one hardly has any opportunity of observing variations in them. Many freaks in coconut palms undoubtedly do occur, some of which have been recorded by eminent scientists from time to time. The palm under discussion is the one growing at Manguzhi near Eraniel, South Travancore with an abnormality in flowering. Regarding floral abnor- malities in Cocos nucifera, Shortt (1) Has seen at a horticultural show in Travancore that from the flowers of the spadix a shoot of spring leaves was thrown out with a slight tendency to fructification from the flower and then converted into spring leaves apparently forming a young shoot. ‘The same author has seen a forked tree which never puts forth well developed fruits ; on the contrary the flowers terminate in vernal leaves. On an average each spadix or branch bears about thirty or forty such shoots ata time. Venkata- raman (2) observed an instance of bulbulliferous spadix (which he called parthenogenesis) occurring in a coconut palm. The buttons or the young nuts in the spathe did not develop into normal fruits, but some of them grew into bulbils somewhat resembling ordinary seedlings. The abnormality could be traced to a very early stage before the spathe actually opened. The seedlings when planted in the soil failed to get established. From the above facts it is clear that a flower or a button is capable of giving rise to a small seedling without becoming a normal fruit. . But in the interesting palm under study we see the entire inflorescence or the spadix being converted into a seedling. Unlike the above instances where many seedlings are produced from a single spadix, this plant gives rise to only one seedling in the place of one whole spadix. Hence the seedlings of this plant are healthier, bigger in size and less in number. Ridley (3) Burkill and Sands.(4) have recorded similar instances where the spadices instead of normally developing in the flowers and fruits have grown into branches four to five feet long in the axils of the leaves. Dr. M.O.P. Ayengar has also described a coconut palm giving rise to bulbils. Ridley (3) and Sands (4) report a palm which gives unbranched bulbils. But the palm under discussion gives rise to bulbils which remain simple in the early stage and which grow bigger and bigger giving rise to branches even upto fifteen in each (Plate Il, 3. h and i). Thus one well developed and branched bulbil of this palm will appear four or five times bigger and weigh proportion- ately heavier than the bulbils reported by the above authors. ‘Thus instead of a single bulbil from the axil of a leaf, here we get nearly a dozen bulbils due to the further development of the original ones. DESCRIPTION OF THE PALM The bulbulliferous palm growing at Manguzhi is now nearly forty years old. It was planted as a small seedling along with hundreds of others in the same field. ‘The early growth of the palm was so normal that nobody noticed any peculiarity in it till it began ‘flowering’ at the fifteenth year. The floral peculiarity was noticed by many including the owner. Apart from the spadix abnormality the palm is quite normal, having a fairly thick crown. 528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 ‘THE INFLORESCENCE The inflorescence of a normal coconut palm is a spadix about four feet long, ‘stout about the middle, and tapering towards the apex. It stands at first erect ‘and finally droops down. ‘The spadix is enclosed in a tough pointed longitudi- nally grooved bract called the spathe (inner) which is elongated, boat-shaped, about the same length as the spadix and covered by a brown tomentum with- out. At the base of this inner spathe and extending nearly a third of its length is the outer spathe. In addition to these two, there are two more inconspicuous ones. ‘The one at the base of the outer spathe is about an inch long, scale like and may. be called the. first or the outermost bract. . The scaly bract at the base of the spadix may be called the fourth or the in :ermost or the primary bract in relation to the spadix. The branches or the rachillae are subtended by small ‘inconspicuous secondary bracts and each branch is a long androzynous spike with a few female flowers towards the base and the numerous males above. In this abnormal palm also the bulbulliferous ‘inflorescence’ is about four to five feet long in the young stage which uniformly tapers above; and has no bulged region in the middle. At first it is erect and isin a line with the main stem. As it matures it gradualiy turns side-ways and makes an angie of about sixty degrees to the growing apex. It does not droop down furtheras the normal spadices doeven in the later stages. Unlike the normal spadix which has got four -spathes (including the bracts) this bulbil has got an indefiaite number of them. This can be seen clearly from plate I,2 where a dissected bubil is shown along with a normal spadix. The smail inconspicuous secondary bracts in a normal ’ spadix subtending the branches or the rachillae are highly developed at the expense of the rachillae which are reduced to rudimentary buds. The rudimentary secondary bracts subtending the rachillae of a normal spadix can be very clearly seen in the case of uabraiched spadix reported by Sands, where the bracts which are fairly developed are seen to subtend few flowers in their axils. Specimens of such interesting unbranched spikes -collected and reported by Jacob (5) can be seen in the Madras Herbarium, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore. ‘The unbranciaed spadix can be said to be an intermediate stage of bulbil formation. In the unbranched spike, the lateral branches or the rachillae with numerous Mowers are highly reduced to the state of only three or four Mowers. Again the incons- picuous rudimentary bracts subtending the rachillae have developed considera- bly and are conspicuous and big enough to cover and protect the flowers in their axils. The last stage of the transformation of the spadix is the bulbil formation, where the rachillae are extremely reduced to small buds (which after .a long period of rest in this particular palm develop into branches each forming a small bulbil) and the bracts are developed to their maximum which gradually become true pinnate leaves. The gradual conversion of the spathes which are nothing but the developed bracts into pinnate leaves can be seen from plate II, 3. a-g. Hence a bulbil in the young stage possesses a compact series of spathes of different developmental stages arranged in an acropetal condition. As the bulbil grows its basal rezion swells up like aa onion bulb (vide plate II, 4). As it advances in age the bu!bil produces more and more narrow spathes whose tips become coiled in the early stages. As more and more new spathes emerge their coiled tips gradually develop into leaflets Thus pinnate leaves are ‘developed from the spathes. After the formation of the many leaves the butbil looks like a small branch which produces secondary branches after a certain ‘period of growth. The secondary bulbils are homologous with the rachillae of the normal spadix. ‘The author has counted eight to fifteen branches in many bulbils. Hundreds of such bulbils give the crowded appearance of the -erown (vide plate I, 1). N.B.—The leaflets of the bulbils even in the young stage are quite free and separated from each other like those of adult palms as against the fused leaflets of a normal young seedling. It is interesting to note that the buibil formation is just the reverse of the formation of an inflorescence. In an inflorescence the normal leaves are reduced to bracts and the buds in their axils modify themselves into flowers or inflorescence-lets. In this case the bracts expand themsel\es to form spathes which develop into true leaves, ‘I'he buds in their axils which rep-esent rachil- lea (branches of spadix) develop into vegetative branches (bulbils). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. (AY . Dav A 46 Photo by . alm iferous p n of the bulbull CrOW up of the se Clo I It, (On) eral The dissected inflorescences of both the abnormal and normal palms. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II Photo by ToC. Paul 3. (a—g) The conversion of the spathes into pinnate leaves. (h & i) Development of compound bulbil from a simple one. Photo by T. A. Davis 4. Normal and abnormal coconut seedlings Note the gradual development of the abnormal seedling from a closed spadix ‘inflorescence ’ BULBULLIFEROUS COCONUT PALM (CVCVS NUCIFERA L) 529 CYTOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL STUDIES To see if the abnormality is accompanied by ‘chromosomal differences, root materials were taken from the same palm. Fresh roots (only the vigorously erowing tips), both from: the abnormal and a normal palm growing in the same field were fixed in different fixatives—Chromium Acetic Formalin and Uraniam— at about 2 p.m. to study the variations in them. ‘The cytology of the palms is being studied. Comparative anatomical work’ of the palms is also in progress. Specimens of only the leaves and roots of the abnormal palm were available. However, striking differences in ‘the structure of leaves were not noticed.” | GROWTH TRIALS WITH THE BULBILS The first question that will occur to one on seeing the bulbils is whether they will ‘strike roots and establish themselves if planted in ideal conditions? . Many bulbils from the particular palm‘are grown after treatment with auxins such as Indole’ acétie acid, Thiourea, Dimethyl tetrachloro phenoxyl acetic acid, Ethylene Chlorhydrin etc. The first chemical that. is being tried is B Indole acetic acid. Different concentrations of the acid solution are treated separ- ately with different sets of bulbils. After careful planting .water is: given at regular intervals... Some of the bulbils are expected to give very encouraging results since they appear to get established.. Further observations are in progress. A detailed study—cytological, anatomical, growth trials ete.—of this highly interesting coconut palm in progress is expected to be of great importance due to the novelty of the freak. The results will be presented as a separate paper. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The writer wishes to express his deep gratitude to the Government Lectur- ing and Systematic Botanist,: Sri’ S:N. Chandrasekhara Iyer, M.a., for his kindly guidance and poset oats help in the preparation: of this paper. Also his thanks are due to Mr. C. M: John, B.a., the Oil Seeds Specialist, for his keen interest and valuable suggestions: made in bringing out this' piece of “work. Literature cited. 1. John Shortt. 1885. A Monograph on the Coconut Palm or Cocos nucifera Le 2. Venkataraman. 1928, Madr. Agric. Dept. Year Book, 29-31. 3. Ridley, H.'N. 1907...‘ Branching’in palms ’,-Anaals:of Botany, 21; 415. 4, W.N. Sands. ‘Abnormalities in the coconut palm’, Malayan Agricul - tural Journal.’ 15 : 290-3. 5, Cherian Jacob, K. ‘ A new variety of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L. var. spicata K. C. Jacob).’ Journal: of Bombay ‘Natural. History Society, August-1940. . yor Sig. OBITUARY H. H. SHRI VISAYARAJJI MAHARAO OF CUTCH (With a plate) By the death of His Highness Shri Vijayarajji, Maharao of Kutch,. on 28 February 1948 the Society has lost one of its most sympathetic friends and benefactors. His Highness assumed the reins of government in 1942 at the age of 57. During the short span that was vouchsafed him as ruler, he introduced a number of measures for the betterment of the lot of his. subjects, and for liberalizing the State administration. However, it is perhaps not so much as a ruler, but as a man that his memory will best abide. His naturalist and sporting friends will remember him not only for his genial personality and his genuine love of nature but for his unfailing readiness to assist in all schemes for the advancement of biological knowledge, especially concerning his own territories. In his younger days as Maharajkumar and even uptil recently, before some knee trouble forced him to give up strenuous physical exercise, he was reputed to be an excellent rider and an outstanding all round sportsman. As a tennis player he figured regularly and prominently in many all-India championships. His prowess with the shot gun had become a by-word amongst his confréres, and though unable to indulge his love for small game shooting as vigorously as before, he nevertheless retained his expertness aS a bird shot to the end. Inability to participate in field sports threw into relief a facet of his nature that was perhaps somewhat over- shadowed in more active days. This was his intense love of wild life and solicitude for its conservation. His particular interest seemed to Jie in the domain of birds and it was mainly as a lover of birds that the writer had the privilege of his friendship. It was at Maharao Vijayarajji’s invitation that a proper survey of the birds of Kutch was undertaken, and later it was he again who sponsored the publication of the ‘ Birds of Kutch’, a work which has so clearly demonstrated the desirability and usefulness of regional faunal publications of this kind. I shall long remember the great personal, almost boyish, interest Maharao Vijayarajji evinced in the breeding colony of flamingoes in the Great Rann in 1945 (an account of which is published in Vol. 45 of the Journal); it was completely characteristic of him. Owing to administrative pre-occupations and the poor health he was keeping he was unable to accompany the expedition in person, but short of this. he spared no pains to see that the arrangements were perfect in every detail so that the investigation should lack nothing in the way of facilities. The obvious interest and enjoyment with which he followed the answers to his minute cross questioning and the detailed information which the party had brought back were positively refreshing. His Highness’s interest in bird migration was no less, Last autumn he had sponsored a scheme for establishing a chain of experi- mental self-contained observation posts along the edge of the Great grOI—9gelI younyy jo-tifereAvliA ys oereyes{ ssouysipy stH ‘20S ‘ISIFT ‘IVN Avawog “Nunof OBITUARY 531 Rann to be manned by competent observers. He was greatly taken with the idea of establishing permanent observation posts at suitable spots, should the experiment prove promising, with facilities for trapping and ringing migratory birds, rather on the lines of Heligo- land and other well known stations. Owing to unseasonable and very heavy rains, however, which submerged large tracts of the area where the proposed work was to be carried out, the project had to be abandoned to be taken up, it was hoped, in the present year. | On his return from the U.S. of America at the end of 1947 after medical treatment, feeling considerably improved in health, he wrote with his usual cordiality and much enthusiasm that he was expecting me to visit Kutch and how greatly he looked forward this time to be able to share a month’s birding with me and make up for the opportunities he had missed before. Unfortunately soon after this he went down with an attack of influenza, seemingly mild at first, which confined him to bed for about 10 days and finally took the tragic turn. The naturalist tradition of the ruling family of Kutch of which Maharao Vijayarajji was such a shining example can be traced back for at least 3 generations. His father Maharao Khengarji whose obituary we recorded in 1942 was a great nature lover, and so was his father Maharao Pragmuijee before him. Maharao Madansinhji who has now succeeded to the gadi with all the best wishes of the Society, can be fully depended on to see that the tradition is upheld. The late Maharao joined the Bombay Natural History Society as an ordinary member in 1920 and was elected a Vice-Patron in 1943. During this long connection with the Society he took the keenest interest in its affairs and welfare, never denying any help that was asked of him, whether in the way of information, facilities or funds. He possessed a vast store of authentic information, particularly concerning game birds in Kutch, gathered during a life-time of discriminating shooting and of careful and intelligent observation. Unfortunately he wrote little, and on looking through old files of the Journal we find only the following contributions from his pen :— Goose-shooting in Cutch,—Vol. XXI, 678. Gray Quail (Colurnix communis) in Cutch,—Vol. XXIJ, 630. An Albino Bustard (Eupodotis edwardst),—V ol. XXX], 526. Occurrence of the Bronze-capped or Falcated Teal (Aunetta falcata) in Kutch,—Vol. XXXV, 899. It was well for Kutch ornithology therefore that a great deal of the information accumulated by him has found permanent record in the Birds of Kutch. That publication will stand as a fitting memorial to his zeal as a lover of birds. 8. A. REVIEWS 1, THE TREES OF-CALCUTTA AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By A.P. Benthall Pp. cii+513 (82” x5”) with 274 text illustrations. Calcutta: Thacker Spink & Co. (1933) Ld. 1946. Price Rs. 25. India has numbers of beautiful and interesting trees which the lover of. nature wishes to know about. His efforts to acquire the knowledge are not always successful; people able to satisfy his curiosity are few, and the books on the subject are generally too technical for the ordinary man. For years Ihave believed some roadside trees near the office in which | work to have been specially imported from Australia, and my children have spoken of them.as “horse-teeth trees’, from. the appearance of the winged seeds .when seen through the crack in the opening seed-case... Now I discover them to be_speci- mens of Pterygota alata, known in English as Buddha’s Coconut, a native of South-Western India, Sikkim, Assam and some other places, the seeds of which are said to be used in parts of India and Burma as a cheap substitute for opium. In the same way, my children gave their own name, Chiki, to a slender tree with peculiar sickie-shaped ‘leaves’, ard curly seed-pods from which in due time there hung flat black seeds at the end of curly orange threads. No one could tell them anything about it. Now, I discover that this is the Acacia montiliformis, a native of tropical Australia, recently imported into India, and that the sickle-shaped ‘leaves’ are not really leaves, but, merely flattened leaf- stalks...'The source of my information is Mr. A..P, Benthall’s ‘ The Trees of Calcutta and its Neighbourhood’. The book is intended for persons not acquainted with botany, and in the compass of about 500 pages describes and illustrates over 250 trees. Though confined to-trees to be foundin or near Calcutta, the book is of much wider application and I have found it useful at Patna in Bihar and Cuttack in Orissa. ‘The descriptions are short, clear and non-technical, and each one is accompanied by carefully-made drawings, a study of which alone is often suffi- cient to identify the tree. Wherever available, the vernacular (Hindi or Bengali) name and the. popular English name are given. These are collected together in the form of,an index.at the. end,.of the book, and furnish another means of identification. Athird means of identificationis a key of about sixty pages, based.,on characteristics, within the powers of observation of the ordinary layman. So,if the possessor of the book is unable to identify any particular tree, if will not be. for want of effort on.the part. of the author. For the use of persons acquainted with botany, short descriptions in botanical language have ,been added in the text... The book is of convenient. and handy size, and pleasing in, its get-up. Considering the present-day cost of materials and printing, the price is not unreasonable, and I have not the slightest hesitation in recommending it as well worth the money. CO. D. R. 2... THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS... By.S. H. Prater, 0.B.5., ¢.M.z.S. With a map, 73 plates in colour, 17.in line and 86 in half tone. Pp: xxxii+ 263 (74” x 5”) Bombay : The Bombay Natural History Society, 1948. Price Rs. 16. This is Vol. Il of the Indian Natural History Series designed and published by the Bombay Natural History Society, and a companion volume to The Book of Indian Birds which has now attained a 4th edition. It can be anticipated that this volume will be in similar demand. . ‘Itis a book which helps one to know the wild animals seen in the forest, ‘scrubland and fields or about towns and villages in India ; which tells of their ways and habits in simple language : in short a book for Nature lovers young and old. Thus the short notice on the dust cover; to which may be added that the arrangement of the book readily lends itself to preparation of longer or shorter talks or lectures for instruction in schools and colleges. By themselves these would be interesting and informative, but the more so were they accompanied by lantern slide pictures arranged from the illustrations in the book or others sot together for the purpose. REVIE WS. OSG This. is of great importance, for there is much need in this country for stimulating the interest of the present generation’ of young people in the wild life that, is their national asset, and the urgent necessity for preserving it from destruction. ‘In most western countries Nature Study teaching is a Serious part of the earlier stages of the school curriculum.——It is true that in India Nature Study forms part of the curriculum in our primary and secondary schools. But _teachers are often handicapped by want of suitable books which they can consult. This book is therefore written with the purposé of providing a popular and well illustrated account which will give people general information about the Mammals of India.’ The book is admirably arranged and is throughout iastructive, informative and interesting. The preface (v to xi) and other preliminary and descriptive pages hold the attention of the reader. What is a Mammal? (xii to xxii); How Mammals are classified (xxi-xxii); The Distribution of Mammals (xxiii to xxxii), The pages previous toeach of the 19 families comprising the Animals of India are equally interesting. Apes, Monkeys and Lemurs—The Cats—Civets—Mangooses—Hyaenas— The Dog Tribe—etc., etc., Each of these _ preliminary pages to the species, is followed by ‘ Descriptions of Species ’ which give the Local names ; Size ; Distinctive characters; Distribution ; Habits of all the wild animals which inhabit this sub-continent. ‘ There are more than 500 different species of Mammals found within the Indian Region.’ Notwithstanding the many years of field work by trained naturalists, and the recorded observations of generations of sportsmen, there is even yet some- thing that remains to be known concerning some of the commonest of the Mammals of India. The Common Monkeys of the country: ‘ We know little of- their social life and breeding habits’. The Common Langur: ‘Common and easily observable as these animals are we know little of their social lives’. The Common Indian Hare: ‘Its particular breeding season is not recorded’; and there are other gaps in our knowledge of a number of the animais dealt with in this comprehensive work ; so there is still work for the field naturalist. On the other hand how much has been discovered ; how many of the secrets of Nature have been laid bare through the patient research and trained observation of naturalists. Perhaps it isin regard to Bats that we are particu- larly brought to realize this. Reading about these creatures we see on most evenings of our lives, we find how little we really know about them. And so it is with many parts of this valuable work. The issue of this book from the Press has been much delayed, but its appearance now (April 1948) is opportune as greatly aiding the All-India movement being launched by the Society for the preservation of wild life. Regarding the need for this the author has much to say (pages v to Xxxil and other parts of the book), much that is well expressed and authoritative. ‘For many years the Bombay Natural History Society, through the medium of its Journal and other attractive publications, has endeavoured to create and stimulate in India an interest in the wild life of the country. The necessity for this interest, particularly among our educated classes, is becoming more and more evident with the passing of time. During the past, extensive undisturbed areas of primeval forest, jungle and desert gave safe harbourage to wild creatures, and provided guarantee of their survival, But changing conditions in the country, the gradual’ conquest of forests and waste lands; above all the building of new roads and great improvements in methods and rapidity of transport have left few areas in the Peninsula of India which are free from intrusion by Man. These factors have had, and are continuing to have, a disastrous effect on the wild life of the country. The danger to it has been accentuated in recent years by the enormous increase of firearms in use, and by the inability of many of the Provincia! Governments to enforce such laws as exist for the protection of wild animals.’ And again :— ‘ Various factors, as a result of human activity, are threatening the wild creatures of India with extermination. There is, as we have shown, great need in this country for adequate measures to preserve wild life from the destruction which threatens it.’ It is a common saying that in this world Man has become The Great Destroyer: and in no country is this more marked than in this subcontinent at 534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 the present time (1948). Somewhere it has been said, ‘Where can a poor animal go these days and nut see mankind ?’. a A number of the coloured plates are from the author’s own drawings. These, and pictures by other artists, some photographs of scenery and of animals in their natural surroundings and some of Museum exhibits, attract- ively illustrate the book. ‘The photograph (Zoo enclosure ?) of the slinking wolf is a libel on the fine appearance of the animal in the wild state as many times seen by the reviewer in earlier days. ‘The author’s coloured plate at page 96 perhaps depicts the desert colouration. ‘That of the wolf of the central areas of the Peninsula is different, more grey, like some Alsatian dogs. On the whole the printing is good ; that of pages 234, 238, 239, and 257 some- -what faulty. There are very few printers’ errors. ‘The stitching of the pages does not appear up to required s:andard for a work which will be much handled in use. It can be safely anticipated that this Bcok of Indian Animals will be as popular as has been the companion volume on birds. It will be much in demand by educational institutions throughout the country; will be welcomed by all lovers of wild life, sportsmen and tourists. In has great value as a book of reference, and should be possessed by all libraries. ; R.W.B. 3. THE COMMON BIRDS OF INDIA. By Eha. 3rd edition, pp. xxii+ 193 (8% x51”), illustrated with the author’s original pen and ink drawings. ~ Bombay : Thacker & Co. Ltd., 1947. Price Rs. 9/8. Here is good news. EHA’S Common Birds of Bombay, that fastinating book so long out of print, has at last been re-published by Thacker’s under the title ‘The Common Birds of India’. The new edition contains some expla- natory notes by Salim Ali and a well-written biographical sketch by W. T. Loke. It is gratifying to note that besides the title nothing else has been changed in the new edition. EHA’s original text is intact and even his quaint pen-and- ink sketches have been retained. The present editor is right when he states that to have attempted to replace these original drawings by more finished photographs would have amounted to the desecration of a much-loved person- ality ; Th this book EHA coes not baffle the lay reader by scientific terminology, on tbe rare occasions when he is obliged to make use of it, he hastens to explain that those ‘solemn words were not invented oniy to bamboozle the unlearned’. The book contains patient and acute observation recorded in the most vivid and sparkling language. ‘The author’s irrepressible sense of humour seems to manifest itself all the time, no matter what he is talking about. Here is his description of Vultures closing in on a dying animal ; ‘They descendin decreasing spirals and settle at various distances and wait for the end like American reporters.’ Discussing the classification of the Owl, he says, ‘Is the Owl only a weak-eyed hawk that cannot bear the light of day, or isita bold and bad parrot which has taken to night walking and murder?’ How telling is his phrase about the Sparrow: ‘a vulgar little body which tries to be a gentleman and attains to being a gent’. No one who reads this description of sparrows building a nest will doubt EHA’s powers of observation; ‘A sparrow comes in and makes up its mind that it will have its nest in the corner of your ceiling. And whena sparrow makes up its mind nothing will unmake it except the annihilation of that sparrow. Its faithful spouse,is always and very strongly of the same mind as itself. Sothey set to work to makea hole in the corner of the ceiling-cloth, and they tear and tug with an erergy which leaves no room for failure. ‘Then they begin to fetch hay. The quantity of hay that a couple of sparrows will carry in aday is almost miraculous. Most of it tumbles down in their efforts tostuff it into the hole, for they always bring larger loads than they can manage. J remember a pair which made a hole directly over one of the pictures cn my drawing-room wall, and I declare solemnly that you might have fed a horse on the hay which I removed daily and hourly from behind that picture. This savours of exaggeration, perhaps, but I mean a hack-victoria horse.’ EHA has the same facility of style when he is describing other natural objects: ‘When a fig tree fruits, it fruits all over and all at once, offer- REVIEWS 535 Jng a feast to the whole country such.as a Raja gives when an heir is born to his throne; and as mendicant Brahmins gather from distant provinces to the Raja’s feast so the fruit pigeons from afar flock together to the tree while it lasts ana gorge themselves twice a day.’ But his gift for accurate, humorous description is not EHA’s only recom- mendation. He is a scientific observer with a poet’s soul, for in this book he has distilled for us snatches of picturesque folk-lore and poeticai superstitions associated with various Indian birds. — He gives us a Mahomedan legend that explains how the Paradise Flycatcher came to have its streaming tail feathers, Again, after he has descrited the ghostly hooting of the Owl, he adds in a whisper: ‘ When it sits on the top of a native house, uttering this dismal sound, the Devil is walking about inside, marking somebody for death. I know this because the Hamal told me.’ But perhaps the quaintest and most poetical of local theories that he has preserved for us is that the little lumps of clay in a Baya’s nest are wall-brackets in which fire-flies are stuck for the illumination of the nest. The price of this book is Rs. 9 8-0 a very modest investment considering the perennial dividend it will pay. The book makes an ideal gift for childrea: It will help them te grow up with their eyes focussed on the beauty of Nature and their ears attuned to the harmony of life. Its value to ornithologists is of course, inestimable. And next time you are foraging for a birthday present for your gout-stricken but wealthy uncle do give him a copy, for the book is guaranteed to smooth out the creases in the mental make-up of the most -crotchety-‘individual and give him many sunny hours. Rane: 4. THE STORY OF MIGRATION. By E. A. R. Ennion, pp. 97 10” x 73”), illustrated with drawings. London: George Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1947. Price 10sh. In the preface, the author says that the story is as told to Sheila, who is 17, Hugh 12 and Juliet in between. It is really the kind of book which should he read by all between 12 and 70 and who will all profit thereby—the young because it forms an evolutionary background for the fragments of information which they will be given in schools and the old because many of them will see something which they have missed entirely or seen in such academic terms that they haye failed to grasp the charm and simplicity of the story. It opens with the cooling of the molten earth and the relatively rapid changes in the earth’s surface. The first migration is the story of the drift and dispersal of land masses dependent ‘on the spinning of the globe, the hammering of the tides, by the pull of the moon and the magnetic poles’. The world at one stage is a singleland mass surrounded by water. This then splits into a northern (Laurasia) and a southern (Gondwana) continent separated by the Tethys sea which ‘crept in over Central America, ran between Spain and Mexico, crossed North Africa, Arabia, Persia, Northern India (this was long before the rising of the Himalayas), and wandered out again through China. The continents might possibly arrive at an uneasy truce, if they all lay the same distance from each other, spaced round the globe, “and all were of equal weight and make and shape and all equally influenced by outside forces.’ The theory of continental drift is still working itself out. The migration of continents is intrinsically linked with the migration of animals and their present distribution. Australia and Antarctica broke away from Gondwana at a very early time when true mammals had not evolved and in the absence of their competition, Monotremes (egg-laying mammals) and the pouched Marsupials have survived in Australia. There is evidence of this continental drift in innumerable places—the Marsupials in South America and the concentration of Lemurs in Madagascar. The history of manis also tied up with the changes in the earth’s surface. In the first place he was a hunter, mostly of small game—of mice, frogs, shellfish, birds’ eggs and wild honey, of roots and berries. His spears and flint axes were no weapons against the mastodons and rhinoceri which then roamed the earth, , When large areas of the earth were covered by ice and deserts came into existence, the larger animals were driven into the areas of the heavier forests and replaced on the open spaces by large herds of sheep, antelopes and camels-~ 536 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 a class‘of animals which it:was easier for. man to hunt... These large herds, had also to move very considerable distances with the changes in, the season, , and man, who had now become a seasoned hunter, followed them periodically with the seasons. While civilised man was building churches and. workshops, ‘man’ the: nomad, still existed and it was only with the coming.of the rifle that the uncounted herds of bison in. North America and the antelopes, zebras and other herbivorous animals of Africa were reduced to countable numbers and even threatened with exinction. In India, we have a close parallel.in, the story of the blackbuck which, within living memory, existed in vast numbers an has now been almost exterminated except in a few private preserves. thi There are references and details of the more, interesting migrations as. of the Lemurs and the Reindeer, the gigantic mammals of.the.sea, the whales and the seals, and the curious life cycles of the eel and the salmon... Then we have a chapter on: the birds of the sea dealing mainly with the curious family of penguins followed by interesting details of the evolution of flight in the different group of animals. The last part of the book is devoted. to the migration of birds with a summary of the present information available. ‘Though they form the most important group of living migrants, the evidence of the origin and formation of this instinct is missing from the book of rocks. Their bones were too smali and brittle to survive and most of the fossil remains are of the larger extinct birds which had become flightless through disuse of their wings. Their descen- dants are the ostriches, the rheas and the cassowaries as well as a. few other flightless forms of pigeons (dodos) and rails. With the progress of civilisation, most of them have been killed out and it is said that one man alone, a settler on one of the Australian islands, wiped out a whole species of emu. The Moas of New Zealand, twice the height of the Maoris who hunted them, were not killed out until relatively recent times, as also the dodo. With the beginning of the Ice Age, the territories occupied by the innumer- able species of birds were restricted and the pressure on population increased. During a few months however, large parts of the snow-covered territories were free from snow and ice and brought forth a large quantity and variety of insect and otheranimal and plant life which had survived the severity of winter by various methods. The timeinterval wastoo short to enable mammals to enter and leave this area but birds could travel much faster and they came here relieving the population pressure in the warmer countries, building theirnests and bringing up their young. ‘The whole process of reaching the breeding place, staking out territory, building a nest, rearing young, and flying back is governed by an instinct which works with clock-like precision. In spite of periodic press reports, the actual basis of bird migration, i.e. the manner in which birds find their way from one place to another, is still unknown, nor do we know the mechanism by which this very ‘mechanical’ process of migration, breeding and return is stimulated and controlled. There is no doubt that with more facts and figures at their disposal, scientists will be able to take us nearer to the solution of this problem. ‘There is a tremendous amount of work to be done in this direction in India about birds, bats and other migrant animals and it is hoped that many people—both young and old—will read books of this kind so that they may appreciate the value of their every-day observations and take the trouble of placing them on. record. Leta nan 5. FESTSCHRIFT ZUM 60. GEBURTSTAGE VON PROF. DR. EM- BRIK STRAND. (60th birthday commemoration volumes of Prof. Dr. E. Strand)—Vol. iv, Riga (Latvia, U.S.S.R.) 28-5-1938. Prof. E. Strand, a scientist of international fame and Director of Systema- tic Zoology, Riga, Lettland, reached his 60th birthday on 28th May 1938;% His numerous admirers and friends have communicated many articles which have been compiled and dedicated to him. These communications have been published in 4 volumes and a fifth is expected to follow which would give the recister of allthe names. Vol. 4 of this Festschrift or Jubilee-Book has been contributed entirely by foreign zoologists and paleantologists. It covers nearly 800 pages with 16 additional plates and 203 figures in the text; the contents are given on page 783 showing a list of 27 contributors, The writers belong REVIEWS ou mostly to Hungary ; next comes Tschechoslovakia; Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Russia and even Turkey are represented. The language used is almost entirely erman. The names of celebrities who have undertaken to edit the five volumes of Strand-Festschrift are not given but of these editors four expired and their lives .appear as brief sketches with photographs; one of them was a lady, the late Prof. Rina Monti of Italy. Another editor, a Russian professor of entomolgy, is reported missing since 1936 and his colleagues in Russia are unable to ‘tell any thing moreabout him. _ It has been said that if the animals on land be divided into insects on one side and the rest on the other, the number of insects would far outweigh the others. It is certain that insect systematists have far more work than ‘others. ‘This is well borne out-by the fourth volume of Strand-Festschrift. The largest contribution is by Breuning, being a monographic study of 587 new species of Cerambycid beetles. Of them 7 are dedicated to Prof. Strand, 5 have been dedicated to Mr. Gardner of Dehra Dun and one to Dr. Beeson also from there. Avew genus and a new species has been created for an insect discovered-at Chikkaballapur which lies in Mysore. Many other new species have been described from India. | ~ Roubal covers a study of 30 pages to thermophilic beetles of Slovakia. A warm country like India offers ample opportunities for such a study and those interested in the problem can well take Roubal’s monograph as a model. In about the same number of pages Balogh describes his biosociological studies on Hungarian spiders found in the vicinity of Budapest. Liefke of Hamburg has a monographic study on Collzurini (Carabidae) covering over 100 pages with 115 figures. Many new species and several new genera have also been mentioned. The most popular study of animals belongs to that of birds. Their beautiful colours and their fascinating songs have always exerted an irrepressible charm. Others have been fascinated by birds as obiects of game. Thus ornithologists usually dominate zoological societies. Auber of Vienna devotes over 100 pages to parrots of the genus Hos. Formerly systematists were faced with distin- guishing species. Now these have to be subdivided into geographical and biological races, a problem which requires a subtle handling of the material of study. With 35 illustrations on 4 plates and 43 in the text added to the long text the monograph may wel! be taken as a model study by any one faced with asimilar problem. Molitor of Vienna has a. long and interesting paper on colour sense amongst hymenoptera. Moczar of Budapest has a long study of wasps of the genus Odynerus covering 37 pages. Kleiner of Budapest contributes to the importance of biotopes in bird migration. For such ecolo- gical observations on bird life in India there are ample opportunities but from the literature published in this country it appears badly in need of expansion, Prof. Terpovsky of Brunn has a small article to widen our knowledge of Molluscs and Dr. Kormos of Budapest on the rodents of Southern Hungary, otherwise the rest of the volume is devoted to birds, insects and spiders. We wish Prof. Strand a long life! We sincerely believe that there are already in this country several admirers of his but who were unfortunately not in touch with the honorary editors of the Festschrift. For the absence of an Indian name amongst those who have thus paid a tribute to Prof. Strand we beg to apologise. Poot S. MAHDIHASSAN EDITORIAL The chief purpose of editorials in our Journal has been to keep its readers informed of the general activities, plans and policies of the Society as directed by its Executive Committee, and other matters of current interest germain to its aims and objects. Owing to the severity of the paper restrictions imposed by the war this feature had perforce to be suspended. Paper restrictions still con- tinue, now as an aftermath of war, but happily in a less aggravated form. We are thus able in some measure to resume contact with members. Members’ suggestions. It will be recalled that after the Annual General Meeting in August 1947, a questionnaire was sent round to all members to ascertain their particular interests and obtain suggestions for popu- larizing the Society and enhancing its public usefvlness. Of the 1,000 individuals addressed only 349 members took the trouble to reply ; and of these only 135 had any suggestions to offer. We hope to publish soon an up-to-date list of our members with their addresses. The subjects in which the individuals are particularly interested will be indicated against their names. This will enable members with kindred interests to contact one another, particularly if they happen to be residing in the same district or locality. All suggestions received were tabulated, and their analysis has provided some useful cues to the management. The principal heads under which the suggestions fall are given below, together with the number of members from whom they come. 1. Publish non-technicai, popularly written and _ well- illustrated books and booklets on various natural history subjects (also in Indian languages) 37 2. Publish more non-technical and well-illustrated articles it in the Journal, such as would appeal to the amateur... 36 3. Encourage actively wild life conservation and formation of sanctuaries and National Parks oe: 9 4, Arrange popwiar lectures illustrated by movie films 2G lantern slides asi sas flO 5. Arrange conducted nature rambles and excursions ieee 9 6. Bring together members with kindred interests ree 4 7. Form sub-societies (entomological and others) and mofussil branches; also branches for juniors ik 4 The suggestions include award of prizes for natural history essays, teaching of nature study in schools, instruction of nature study teachers in proper methods, guided museum tours for school children, commercial and economic application of zoology, regular popular nature articles in magazines and newspapers, establishment of local museums and travelling museums, preparation of lantern slides and cine films for sale or loan, and many others some practical, others not so practical. Members will now naturally ask us ‘What are you going to do about it?’ We cannot of course hope to satisfy everybody, neither EDITORIAL 539 is the Society in a position to undertake too much and all at the same time. But these suggestions have definitely helped to crystallize our plans several of which have already been in some measure of oper- ation. To take item No. 1 which tops the list in popularity Publications. Anglers and Fishermen will be glad to learn that Major A. St. J. Macdonald’s long awaited ‘ Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and Burma’ is in the last stages of printing and should be available by the end of July. This handy volume, containing as it does much of the inform- ation to be found in Thomas’s Rod ix /ndia and other works of that kind, plus much that has not been dealt with before should prove of considerable interest and usefulness to anglers. It is profusely illustrated with black and white plates and four in colour depicting various mahseers. The price of the book is expected to be Rs. 1? to members and Rs. 15 to the public. Picture Postcards. We hope soon to have on sale at the Prince of Wales’s Museum a set of 12 coloured picture postcards of Indian birds. ‘These are reproductions of selected paintings from those specially prepared by D. V. Cowen for the 4th edition of the Society’s ‘ Book of Indian Birds’. At the price of Rs. 2/4 per set they seem very good value, and it is hoped that the public will appreciate the publication. If this venture proves successful we hope to publish further sets of birds, as well as of other groups of animals. Members may obtain sets by writing to the Honorary Secretary. We have plans for expanding as early as may be the Society’s Indian Natural History Series to include volumes on Butterflies, Reptiles, Fishes and other groups of animals. The first volume of this series ‘The Book of Indian Birds’ is already familiar to members, and so is, or soon should be, the recently published Vol. II «The Book of Indian Animals’ by S. H. Prater. Volume III of this series will be ‘The Book of Indian Butterflies’ by M. A. Wynter- Blyth who is well-known to butterfly collectors and students through his interesting articles published in our Journal from time to time. The manuscript of this book is ready and so are most of the 65 odd coloured and the numerous black and white plates. What we now need are the funds, and to obtain these we have to wait until we can recoup ourselves on the large outlay on Vol. II. ‘The sooner this can be done, the sooner is there a chance of the butterfly book seeing the light. Conditions have changed considerably since the war ended. British and American military personnel then in India were our best customers for natural history publications. With their withdrawal sales have dwindled appreciably, and until we can make our own countrymen nature-minded, the demand for such publications must remain weak and tardy. ‘Therefore we are faced with the important question, How are we to finance our other pro- jected publications?. The answer is obviously that we must obtain an adequate grant-in-aid from the Government of India and the local government. There is no doubt—it has been demonstrated clearly enough in the countries of Europe, and in the United States 540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 of America—that nature -education-and a living .imterest in, and appreciation of, the natural objects: that:surround us play a vital role in the: cuituralswell-being of:a people. {It-cannot,also.be, denied that lack ofunature education in our schools leaves.a void in the life of the Indian child which is hard to fill at a later age. He has.not been taught: to ;extract: enjoyment and-satisfaction from. the birds and animals and trees he sees:around:him. ‘Sooner.or later he. realizes. that Man does not live by bread alone, and it.is then often too late to make amends. ‘Therefore: there is-every reason why the. Society must. count on Government to come tovits assistance in the further- ance. of its nature educational programme. An application has. been made to the Government of India through: the National Institute. of Sciences of India, whose good offices .we gratefully acknowledge, for a grant for carrying out the Society’s publication programme, during the next 2 years. This programme includes not only the ‘ Book of Indian Butterflies’, but the first two of a series of attractive colour illustrated booklets on various natural history subjects written in simple English and translated into several Indian languages such as Hindustani (Devanagri and Persian scripts), Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada and Bengali decided on by the Society’s Executive Com- mittee at one of its recent meetings. The grant applied for covers in addition a much more ambitious publication, namely, a compre- hensive work in 5. volumes on the birds of India under the joint authorship of Salim Ali and S. Dillon..Ripley (of the U.S.A.) fully illustrated in colour and more or less on. the lines of Witherby’s. ‘ Handbook of British: Birds’. In effect this work will.be a new edition of Stuart Baker’s bird volumes in the ‘ Fauna of British India’ series which was meant largely for the museum, worker and which is not only iargely outmoded by. subsequent taxonomical and field work in India and abroad, but is now also out of print. It is obvious that with the scant interest so far taken-in bird study in India an expensive publication of this kind is not likely to prove a commercial] proposition, and would only be possible if helped by a subsidy from Government. Apart from its general interest, such a book collating all the data so far recorded on the food.and feeding habits of Indian birds is bound to prove of inestimable value in the study of Agricul- tural and Forest ornithology, comprehensive schemes for . which, prepared by the relevant departments are now under the consider- ation of Government. 2, Regarding item: 2:it is fully realized by the: Society’s Committee.and the editors of the Journal that the majority. of our membership’ consists of non-technical. or amateur nature’ lovers. widely distributed over the country and outside, with whom the only medium of contact the Society has. is its Journal. °Therefore, we are for ever striving to find the golden mean. between: making the Journal too technical or ‘highbrow’ (as. some have dubbed it) for the average reader, and allowing it to descend to the level of an elementary primer or a story-telling magazine. During the 65 years. of its existence, the Journal has built up an. international reputation and is recognised as the premier scientific natural history publication of the East; it is encumbent on us to.see that this reputation,.as a scientific publication is not only not allowed to suffer in any way, but to do‘everything possible to enhance it. But while keeping. this. - EDITORIAL L ARARUOL cine goal in‘ view, we’ fully’ appreciate’ that’ there is’ a typeof scientific writer who revels in’ employing abstruse’ and pedantic phraseology: and names when he’ might’ just as well’ use others’ which: the not-so-learned' reader can readily follow, without! in the least bit detracting from’ the scientific value of his contribution. Thisiis what the editors have constantly to be’ on the guard’ against. | Addition of more plates, particularly coloured ones, would cert- ainly add’ greatly to the Journal’s popularity with members and also to its usefulness and attractiveness: But coloured plates. mean money, and unless we can: improve our revenues appreciably there is slender hope of being able to improve in this direction. Costs of printing and paper have already mounted considerably, and it is as much as we can do'to keep within our budget. Perhaps a solution to this difficulty can be found if such members‘as can afford it will volunteer to donate from time to time one coloured plate (or more) for each issue of the Journal. Each coloured plate inserted in the Journal costs us something like Rs. 350, exclusive of the painting. Another difficulty experienced in making the Journal ‘popular’ is that of getting suitable contributions. Many people who could write on various subjects with experience and authority do not do so either because they feel that they do not possess the necessary literary talent or that what they have to tell is not worth telling, or has already been told before or, as is unfortunately most often the case, because they are too lazy to do so. This is definitely what we would call anti-social inactivity. We have stressed the point again and again with would-be contributors that no lofty literary attain- ments are necéssaty for wiiting for the Journal. It is essentially a scientific publication and expects only facts to be simply and clearly told. It sets more value on what is told than on the manner of telling it, not that it does not appreciate good writing. We can meet much of the criticism that the Journal does not carry a sufficiéncy of readable natural history articles if only members willtake the trouble to send uS notes of anything that has excited their interest or curiosity on holiday treks or shooting and fishing trips, or may be even on their way to office. The Miscellaneous Notes section of the Journal has always beén very populat with readers. It will be patent to many that it includes notes varying steeply in their scientific worth, yet all of them are interesting and some even refreshingly controversial. We could expand this section considerably, and with members’ co-operation this can be done without difficulty. 4&5. What with the day to day administration of the Society’s affairs, the work connected with the editing and piloting of the Journal through the press and our other publications, and the manage- ment of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, the Curator has his hands completely full. The Honorary Secretary cannot be expected to devote more than a part of his time to the affairs of the Society. ‘Therefore it was realized that if the important and very necessary publicity and educational work was to be done efficiently and effectively it was essential to engage a competent person whose chief business it would be to prepare and carry out schemes for ctéating public interest in natural history. The Society’s Committee considered this question at one of its meetings and decided, as an experimental measure, to appoint a man to take 542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 charge of the proposed activities. As it happened there was a suitable candidate available, and by.a happy coincidence we were able to obtain his services without any additional financial burden on the Society. This, however, is only a temporary arrangement and it is hoped that the Government of Bombay, who have been approached in the matter, will appreciate the need of such an appointment and the steps we have taken, and sanction the special grant asked for in order to put the scheme on a permanent footing. It has long been felt that the fullest benefit of our excellent Natural History Museum was not being made available to the public and to schools by our inability to provide proper facilities for instructing nature study teachers from local schools in the correct approach for arousing an interest in natural history among their pupils. Some will perhaps remember the Nature Study Scheme we conducted at the Museum with such marked success from 1926 to 1929 and which had to be discontinued as a measure of economy by the Government of Bombay. A note on this is published in Vol. XXXIII of the Journal (pp. 163-165). In addition to lecturing and conducting parties through the Natural History galleries, the preparation of simple guide books and the translation of the labels on the exhibits into simple Hindustani (in the Devanagiri script) will be amongst the duties of the Nature Education Organiser. Apart from the immediate benefits the scheme is expected to confer on the public, the Society will thus be doing a bit of long term planning on its own account. In an appendix to the Annual Report for 1946, the Honorary Secretary pointed out what a small proportion of our total individual membership comprised of Indians. Unfortunately it is only too true that the number of Indians who are interested in natural history is infinitesi- mal. That with suitable opportunities and encouragement Indian children can become just as enthusiastic naturalists as their counter- parts in Europe and America was amply demonstrated during the operation of the old guide lecturing scheme referred to. In the plans now proposed, we hope to provide the required opportunities to school children and incidentally to build up a potential membership of the Society in the years to come, thereby insuring its future existence. | 3. Col. R. W. Burton’s indefatigable zeal and energy and drive might well be the envy of a much younger man. He has written a comprehensive article on Wild Life Conservation and its urgent need in India which we hope to publish in the next issue of the Journal. At the rate our press has lately been turning out the Journal it may be some mouths after it is due that the August number is published. In the meantime slaughter continues apace and the matter needs urgent attention from the authorities. Therefore Col. Burton had 400 copies of the article printed in pamphlet form for judicious distribution, he sharing the cost with the Society. Copies of this with suitable covering letters from the Society have been sent to the Governors-General of India and Pakistan and to the Prime Ministers and members of the Cabinets of the two dominions. The pamphlet and similar letters have also been addressed to the Governors and Ministers of all the provinces and also to Secretaries, departmental heads, Chief Conservators and Conservators of Forests, Presidents EDITORIAL 543 and various members of the Constituent Assemblies of India and Pakistan and the heads of all provincial legislatures. A special Appeal relating to Reserved Forests, also prepared by Col. Burton, has been distributed among a wide circle of Divisional and other forest offcers throughout the country. A precis of the pamphlet prepared by its author has also been widely circulated among news- papers and press services all over the country, and it is confidently hoped that they will attach sufficient importance to the question to give it the widest publicity. ; We earnestly hope that the Society’s efforts will bear fruit. Indeed it is imperative that adequate measures both legislative and practical, be taken before it is too late. In many instances we fear it is already none too early. The existing legislation for wild life protection is adequate enough on the whole, but some machinery for enforcing the laws is absolutely essential. Therefore Col. Burton’s stress on the need for early formation of a competent Department of Wild Life Conservation, whose chief responsibility it will be to see that the law is effectively administered, deserves serious considera- tion by the authorities. This separate department could work in close co-operation with or even under the existing Forest Department. Mr. R. C. Morris, another expert on wild life on the Society’s Advisory Committee, writes :— ‘I am strongly of the opinion that all efforts will be unavailing, as in the past, unless the Education Department, together with the Department of Information, Broadcasting and Propaganda, concen. trate onan intensive educative and propaganda drive through the medium of all Schools, Colleges, and Universities; as well as the Cinemas and the Press. If we could get Pandit Jawaharjal Nehru and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad really interested in this I think much can be effected; otherwise very little. Iam sure well illust- rated pamphlets specially written for the young in simple language, and yet absorbingly interesting even for those of maturer years, such as are published by the American Museum of Natural History and by the London Zoological Society, would go a long way in educating public opinion—especially if supplied to schools, libraries ‘and bookstalls. I wonder how many of the touring cinemas that tour the villages in the rural areas, show the Ministry of Information and Propaganda’s excellent films? TZhese are the cinemas the countryfolk chiefly see. Just as Village Congress Committees conducted propaganda efforts in grain procurement and weaving so their services could be enlisted in propaganda work in respect of conservation of Wild Life. What should be hammered into the minds of ryots and villagers is that if the deer are all slaughtered the carnivores will turn to man-eating; and that if bird life is decimated the crops and grain stocks will be increasingly destroyed by insect pests, rats. mice, etc.; now preyed on by birds. Propaganda will be of no avail without emphasis on the veasons for the measures suggested. ‘= I consider it is essential that (@) magistrates should inflict deterrent sentences on poachers and those convicted of offences 544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 under, the game. laws; (@).Forest, Guards, Watchers, and. eyen Foresters, should; be. made to understand: that.their, jobs depend upon. their eliminating. poaching in. their. beats; and. the reporting of un- licensed) guns; the. existence of, which in. his area,every F.G. very quickly learns. Finally, in areas. adjoining Reserve Forests the plea i is bound. to be advancedithat the. game damage crops, so must be kept down. Early last year I gave a, successful demonstration ata Forest Guards’ School, of the use of kamboo rocket-guns, with ordinary bazaar- made rockets of the type bursting at the end of flight, fired horizontally. -If such rockets were made available to ryots of forest bordering, cultivated areas I think there would, be less. excuse for killing the deer.’ The Honorary Secretary of the Zoological Society of India sends us the following announcement :— | Zoological Society of India. The following Members of. the Executive Council were elected at the annual meeting held at Patna in January 1948 :— President: Dr. S. L. Hora, Vice- President: Prof. D. R. Bhattacharya, Secretary: Hony. Major Dr. M. L. Roonwal, fiditor: Prof. K. N. Bahl, Zveasurer: Dr. B, S. Chauhan, JZenzbers : Dr. K. Panikkar, Prof. M. A. Moghe, Dr. B. N. Chopra, Dr. Bhatta- charya, Dr. G.D. Bhalerao, Dr. D. V. Bal, Dr. T. J. Job. - It is intended to bring out the first volume of the Journal of the Zoological Society of Judia this year. Papers intended for publication, which should either be original contributions or critical reviews of current researches, not published elsewhere, should be sent either to the Editor (at the Zoology Department, Lucknow University, Lucknow, or to the Secretary (at the Zoological Survey of India, Benares Cantonment). Persons intending to become members should contact the Secretary. ‘MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1—HOW FAR CAN A TIGER SWIM? I shall be much obliged to know what is the maximum distance a tiger has been known to swim. . None of the books on the subject enlighten me on the matter. A few of them only refer to the fact that tigers inhabiting the Sunderbans in Southern Bengal have been known to swim pretty long distances. Let me refer to certain facts which give some idea as to their capacity to swim long distances. I would be very grateful to. have your remarks on this incident and shall be pleased to know your surmise as to what could have forced the tigers to swim such great distances. If any of the readers of your Journal have any information on the subject I shall be happy to learn. The facts are as follows :— The nearest to Sunderbans one could reach from within the ‘district of Midnapur (my home) was at Khedgeree in Contai Subdivision 18 miles across the river Hooghly, to what is now known as Frasergunj, which is at present devoid of any jungle. But even uptil 1922, while the deforestation was in progress but not complete, tigers crossed this 18-mile wide river with currents and were killed by the villagers at Khedgeree. From 19U7 deforestation started at Frasergunj and the Revenue Department started to lease out lands to cultivators. The plan originated from the brains of the late Sir Andrew Fraser, after whom the place is now called. Before 1907 the place was densely wooded and a favourite haunt of tigers. This part of Sunderbans was then known as Mahis Khela Khas-Mahal forests. In the year 1900 a tiger crossed this river and came on to the shore at a place called Horkhali in Tamluk Subdivision in the District of Midnapur and was killed at a village called Deulpata about 14 miles from Horkhali. Now, if the tiger started swimming from Mahis Khola, where the jungle finished, then it would have swam as many as 35 miles, before it reached Horkhali. But there was another possibility. The tiger might have walked through thickly populated villages under cover of darkness for 31 miles just on to the opposite bank of Horkhali and then swum across the Hooghly, which is about ‘6 miles wide at this point. Having achieved this it might again have walked 14 miles to Deulpata, where it was found early in the morning and killed by one of the nephews of late Hon’ble Mr. Nilmoni Mandal, the local Zamindar. Either of the above feats would seem, at the outset, to be impossible for a tiger, but I have related the bare truth. HAMPTON CourRT, D. P. GARGA, HAZARIBAGH (BIHAR), Kumar of Mahishadal, 19¢h October, 1947. {Tigers have been shot on Bombay and Salsette Islands, which they must have reached by swimming across the Lhana.Creek or 10 546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Bombay Harbour. A list of records ending with one at the Vihar Lake in 1929 is published in J.B.NV.Z.S., Vol. xxxiii, p. 973. This reads in part ‘On March 2, 1858 the crew of the steamer Aden killed a large tiger which was swimming across to Mazagaon from the opposite shore.’ The Bombay Courier also records the sudden appearance of a tiger at Mazagaon ‘the animal apparently swam across the harbour and landed near the ruined Mazagaon fort’. This is roughly seven miles from the nearest point on the mainland.—Ebs. ] 2.—AN EXTENSION OF THE KNOWN RANGE OF BANDICOTA NEMORIVAGA (HODGSON) IN CHINA The only record of the Smaller Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota nemori- vaga in China appears to be from Tengyueh, in extreme south western Yunnan (vide The Natural History of Central Asia, Vol. XI, The Mammals of China and Mongolia, Part 2). I record here a very interesting extension to the known distri- bution of this species in China, namely, from the Colony of Hong Kong. During the months of April to July, 1946, about one dozen specimens were trapped in the fields at Un Long in the New Territories, Hong Kong. A single specimen was also trapped at Taipo inthe New Territories. After my departure from Hong Kong in July, 1946, I received the skull of a specimen obtained by the Rodent Control Inspector from the Aberdeen district of Hong Kong Island itself. The identification of this skull has now been confirmed by Sir John Ellerman at the British Museum (Natural History) in London. Since it is unlikely that the distribution of this species has been extended via the medium of shipping routes, these records of its. occurrence in China from two such widely separated localities cause me to doubt very much that it does not occur over a much. wider range in southern China. I publish this record by kind permission of the Hon. Director of Medical Services, Hong Kong. MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, | J. DRO MERA. EezaSs Hone Kone, Rodent Control Officer. 23rd September, 1947. 3.—ALTITUDINAL LIMIT OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT While crossing the Bompu La (9,600’) in early September I was surprised to find fresh traces of anumber of elephants on the very summit, and to learn that one had actually been encountered on the path a few days before. The Bompu La is in the Se-La Subagency MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 547 of the North-East Frontier of India lying some 30 miles east of the eastern boundary of Bhutan. The range whose highest peaks are over 10,000’ rises straight from the plains and the southern base is covered in evergreen forest. Above 9,000’ this becomes a dense growth of Ringal Bamboo under a cover of Rhododendrons and other evergreens and it is apparently this bamboo which attracts the elephants during the summer months only, since from December to February the Pass is regulariy under snow. I should be very interested to learn the record altitude at which the Indian elephant has been found. N. Laxrmevr, | F. N. BETTS, ASSAM, Political Ofticer, 23rd October 1947, Subansirt Area. [Prater in Zhe Book of Indian Animals (p. 186) says, ‘In Burma they wander at all seasons of the year into bamboo forests at a height of 10,000 ft., while in Sikkim their tracks pave been seen in the snow 12,000 ft. above sea-level. ’— EES. | 4. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE ROSY PASTOR IN INDIA With reference to the paper by Mr. Humayun Abdulali published in Vol. 46, No. 4 of the Journal, I am writing in the possibility of being able to fill a small gap in the records collected from Rajputana. The area covered by my observations was the line of the B. B. and C.I. Railway from Abu Road to Ajmer and the period was 1929-1933. Normally large flocks of immature birds wouid be observed about the middle of July, but in 1933 when there was unusually early rain, the first flocks were noted at the end of June. I was not able to observe any particular directional trend in the movement of these flocks and their wheelings seemed to be quite aimless. The birds were present throughout the cold weather, but in smaller numbers (apparently) than during July-September. In March flocks of birds in mature plumage were busy feeding and sunning themselves in Butea frondosa, wild caper and a shrubby tree locally known as ‘ pilu’ (Salvadora persica) of which the fruit- bunches of small purplish black berries—were then ripening. During this period their cheerful murmuration was to be heard almost everywhere that these trees and shrubs were to be found. By the end of April they had all gone. 1 B, IMPERIAL MANSIONS, CuFFE PARADE, COLABA, BoMBAy, 5. R. M. SIMMONS 7th November, 1947. 548; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 5..__OCCURRENCE OF THE SPECKLED PICULET [VIVIA INNOMINATUS. (BURTON)] IN UE BENGAL , Having secured on 28th September! 1947, fom a local bird- catcher a live specimen of Vivia zxnominatus (Burton) it will be at this stage out of place to record anything more than that the locality where it was spotted and captured lies in Khulna on the eastern bank of the river Bhairab opposite Daulatpur. A considerable patch of bamboo clumps abounding there seems to be the favourite resort of the bird, where in fact it was caught with bird-lime. Any further details regarding its occurrence and habitat in Central and South Bengal must await my opportunity of a personal visit to the area and first hand encounter with the bird. I am inclined to mention, however, that this birdcatcher, having seen in my aviary some live examples of the Speckled Piculet (captured from the forests of Buxa Duars), told me several times that he had sighted it more than once during his periodical birdcatching trips to Khulna. The specimen being devoid of tail feathers has to be kept under special care. J/easurements: Wing 52 mm. +5 tarsus 12 mm. ; culmen ll mm. Sex: Apparently female as it has the whole crown olive. Incidentally it may be noteworthy that some Himalayan species, e.g. Mixornis gularis rubricapilla (Tickell) and Malacocincla Sepiarta abbotti (Blyth) do occur in the jungles of Khulna and Jessore (/bis, 1945, pp. 405-408). SATYA CHURN LAW, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.I. 50, KAILAS BOSE STREET, CALCUTTA, 20th November, 1947. s 6.—THE CLICKING NOISE MADE BY OWLS On page 542 of the Isis, 1939, Pakenham states that a series of clicks—* tac-tac-tac ’"—produced by Otus pembaensis (Pemba is near Zanzibar) was not with the mandibles but from inside the mouth. In Vol. 40 of the Journal (page 368) we have recorded the Striated Scops Owl, Otus brucez (Hume) as making a sharp noise by clicking its mandibles when annoyed, and I have another note on Strix ocellata making a loud clicking noise when handled. This appears to be fairly common among owls, and it would be interesting to obtain more opinions as to how this noise is produced. 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BOMBAY, 3. HUMAYUN ABDULALI October 30th, 1947. | + - -MESCELLANEOUS NOTES. IRVSLU OL sa5p 7.—_GREEN PIGEONS IN A SWAMP Reference Major E. G. Phythian-Adam’s note in Volume xliv, No. 1, August 1943. For the last two seasons in the hot weather (March-May) I have noted the Grey-fronted Green Pigeon (D. poma- padora) visiting the lower end of some paddy-fields near‘here, where they were still moist. They had been cultivated but there were also one or two uncultivated patches. Which of these the birds visited I could not ascertain. I shot one bird that came out of a tree nearby and it undoubtedly contained mud in its crop. KuRADY KHAN ESTATE, SANGAMESWARPET P.O., Kapur DIstTricr, . | G. V. R. FREND (MYSORE STATE). October 20th, 1947. [That, contrary to the old belief, Green Pigeons do descend to the ground to drink is now sufficiently well known to need comment, Observations are invited as to whether they and other birds eat the earth at salt Jicks in the same way as deer and most mammals do. | We have frequently observed jungle mynahs flying out to little rock pools on the seashore left by the receding tide, and drinking salt water (presumably as an aperient ?), and it is probable that when salt water is unavailable, the damp earth of salt licks may be swallowed as a substitute.—EDs. | ; 8-—-PECULIAR BEHAVIOUR OF THE DARTER (ANHINGA MELANOGASTER PENNANT) In October, 1939, I was fortunate enough to visit the famous Keoladeo Ghana in Bharatpur and among many other curious and wonderful sights, we noticed that Darters which were fairly common on the babool trees overhanging water, would, when approached, let themselves drop plumb into the water with closed wings, as if shot dead, knocking against the branches as they fell. They would also fly out of the trees and then suddenly flop into the water and disappear below without any preliminary hovering in the air or alighting on surface as is usual among other such birds. I was reminded of this note when I recently saw a pair of Darters perched on a Jamun overhanging water at the Powai Lake. near Bombay, drop in similar fashion. ‘This therefore appears to be a widespread habit though I cannot recollect having seen it published before. Messrs. Faiz & Co., 75, ABDULREHMAN S?., BomBay, 3. - *HUMAYUN ABDULALI October 30th, 1947. ~ [This habit is recorded on p. 387 of Lhe Book ot Indian Birds (4th edition).—EDs. | } sso JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 9.—WILSON’S PETREL IN INDIA James Fisher in his delightful Penguin Book ‘ WarcHING BIRDS’ (page 107) mentions Wilson’s Stormy Petrel, Oceanites oceanicus, as ‘one of the most numerous species of birds in the world, huge flocks passing into the Atlantic, Pacific and the Indian Oceans during the off season’. In the Inrs for 1929, page 41, H. G. Alexander records seeing this bird on 10 September, ‘about 150 miles out from Bombay and also common in the Gulf of Aden’. There is however no record from India, except for one collected by Butler off the Mekran Coast, and as ‘a visitor to the coasts of Ceylon chiefly during the S.W. Monsoon’ (Whistler, Spolia Zeylonica, 23, page 289). On the 21 October, through the courtesy of the Fisheries Department, I had the opportunity of going out on a short shark- fishing trip on the Government trawler ‘TapPaskE’. We left Bombay near midnight and anchored about 6 miles off the Janjira shore, where several! hundred hooks were cast overboard. ‘These were drawn back at sunrise with no result, but during the return to Bombay during daylight, we continually saw one or two small dark petrels with square tails and white rumps. Though many shots were fired, we failed to get one, until just as we were entering Bombay harbour, a flock of 8 or ten birds (the only flock seen) permitted us to approach within range, and one was secured and identified as this species. Witherby in a footnote on page 39, vol. 4 of Handbook of British Birds, admits the four races described by B. B. Roberts (British Graham's Land Expedition of 1934-1937, Scientific Reports, Vol. 1, No. 2, page 141/194, British Museum, 1940), but states that due to the large overlapping in measurements and in the absence of any plumage differences it would not be practicable to assign the birds obtained in England to any particular race. I am therefore recording the measurements and leaving the name binomial. Wing 145 mm., bill 18°5 mm., tail 59 mm., tarsus 35 mm. The frequency with which this bird was noticed only six miles out at sea raises an interesting question. Was this exceptional or are they always present at this season in such numbers? It would be extraordinary indeed if it should have been so near us all these years and never recorded. This petrel is a small black bird, reminiscent of a swallow, only slightly larger, with a square tail and a white rump. The feet have yellow webs and extend beyond the tail in flight. We also saw these birds pattering over the surface, i.e. practically walking on water, in a series of hops, and it might be interesting to recall that the word Petrel is derived from St. Peter (Matthew 14: 29), BoMBAY, HOMAYUN ABDULALI December 20, 1947. : [Dr. C. Gibson-Hill of Raffles Museum, Singapore, to whom the specimen was sent for examination, writes; ‘It is very probably the race farvus Falla, from Kerguelen, but one cannot be a hundred per cent sure with a bird taken at sea. The differences between the subspecies are very slight, and to some extent they overlap in their measurements.’ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 51 Sinclair in ‘Waters of Western India’ says that Mother Carey’s Chicken ‘is known but rare’ off the Konkan Coast (/.8.N.H.5S., Vol. I, p. 167) and also mentions it as occurring off the Sind Coast (J.B.N.A1.S., Vol. 3, p. 7). Phillips records it frequently on a trip from Aden to Karachi (1st to 7th July) and he last saw it within sight of Karachi (7.B.NV.47.S., Vol. 46, p. 613).—Ebs. | 10.—OCCURRENCE OF THE SNAKE POLYODONTOPHIS SAGITTARIUS (CANTOR) NEAR BOMBAY On the 13th November, when I was shooting with Messrs. H. B. Hayes and F. Sharpe around Ambernath (Kalyan District), we picked up a small snake which has been identified at the Society as Polyodontophis sagittarius (Cantor's Polyodont) (length 114”; 205 ventrals, 8 supra-labials). This is not mentioned in Prater’s list of the Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette (1923), though older specimens from Poona (G, W. Vidal), Salsette, Lonavla (J. P. Mullan), Nagpur, Jhansi and Cannanore (F. Wall) are listed on the card catalogue of the Society’s collection. The Mew Fauna restricts the distribution to ‘ North Eastern India from the Central and United Provinces to Eastern Bengal. Wall records it from the Western Himalayas’. (‘As far west as Chamba’, Wall, /.6.N.A.S. xxix, p. 599.) c/o Mzssrs. Faiz & Co., HUMAYUN ABDULALI 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BomMBAy, 3. November 19, 1947. 11.—CROCODILES BELLOWING With reference to the two notes on the abovein Vol. 45, one by Major R. K. M. Battye (pp. 93/94) and the other by Lt.-Col. H. G. Rossel (pp. 428/29), the following extract from ‘The Reptiles of North America’ by Raymond L. Ditmars (Doubleday & Co., Incorporated, New York—1946) relating to the Alligator [A. mississtpiensis (Dauden)] may be of interest. ‘Among reptiles the alligator is unique in giving voice to a loud noise or ‘bellow’. Inthe southern swamps the night air carries the call of a large individual for a mile or more. The ‘ bellowing’ of an alligator is hard to describe, as it varies greatly in cadence according to the size of the reptile, from a sound like the gentle “mooing’ of a cow from a small alligator of about five feet, ranges to the thundering and tremulous blast of a big male—ten feet or 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 more in length. As the patriarch gives voice to his roars the scent: glands on the undersurface of the chin, are opened, and fine steamy jets of a powerful, musky-smelling fluid float off into the heavy miasmatic atmosphere of the bayou. The odour may be carried for miles and to the negroes it always signifies ‘a big ol’gator’. | BomBay, : HUMAYUN ABDULALI 15th November, 1947. [Hamilton in ‘Wild Life in South Africa’ p. 315, says that crocodiles ‘when angry, hiss like most other reptiles. At other times they utter a fairly loud throaty noise ’-—Ebs.] 12.—_NOTES ON A FEW REPTILES FROM THE NILGIRI HILLS During a leave I collected a few reptiles in the Nilgiri Hills and: some points of interest are here noted. ‘The notes are written with reference to the account by Malcolm Smith in Fauna of British Lndia, 2nd edition. SAURIA Cnemaspis gracilis Beddome. 1 9 in a cairn of stones, Kotagiri-Mettupalayam road mile- stone XI, 6-12-45, contained two eggs. Cnemaspis jerdont.? Theobald. J juvenile, Elk Falls, body 18 mm., under log, 8-12-45. About the same time a number of gecko eggs were found below large boulders at Catherine Falls. Calotes versicolor Daudin. 1 specimen, Kotagiri, the dorsal row of scales ran straight down onto the middorsal line of the tail. Psammophilus dorsalts Gray. 6 specimens were collected on Windy Gap Hill, Kotagiri, 3g'¥, 3 juveniles. The general appearance was blackish. ‘Top of head nearly black; back olive grey; 5 black ringed white spots on sides of largest 3’; from lips down side olive band changing some- times to brick red ;, belly slightly golden; tail black and white bands. The colour was changeable quite markedly. Riopa punctata Gmelin. 1 specimen caught with C. graczlis, 25 scale rows at midbody. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 553 SERPENTES Plectrurus perottettt Dum. & Bib. 1 specimen Windy Gap Hill, Kotagiri, 5-12-45. V. 162, C. 7. Ground colour purplish brown, slight brick red spot at each corner of the mouth, briek red under tail, narrow brick red line on dorsal surface of tail, Elaphe helena Daudin. 1 specimen, 14-12-45, near Kotagiri, V. 235, C. 91. Light olive ground colour, 9 black bands with white ocelii, expanding ventrolaterally, linked by black loops on belly, no longitudinal stripes on belly. 12 GIRDLER’S ROAD, ' GARTH UNDERWOOD Brook GREEN, Lonpon, W. 14. — 13. ACACIA THORN IN THE STOMACH OF A TOAD (BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEID.) Among a number of toads supplied for dissection in the class, a fully grown female toad (Bufo melanostictus Schneid.) measuring about 95 mm., distended with ripe eggs was found to have swallowed a biradiate Babul thorn (4cacza aratica Willd.) The two arms of the thorn were at right angles to each other within the stomach and measured 22 mm., and 20 mm. One of the pointed ends of the thorn rested freely against the middle region of the muscles over- lying the parasphenoid in the buccal cavity and the other arm of the thorn had penetrated through the oesophagus right into the lett urinary bladder. Due to this, the oesophagus had become greatly dilated so as to present little difference between the oesophagus and the stomach in size. The wound caused by the penetration of this thorn appeared to be completeiy healed up. On opening the stomach, I noticed bits of food such as cuticles and muscles of insects. This indicated that the toad was apparently without any discomfort and probably was leading a normal life. The swallowing of the thorn by the toad seems to be purely accidental. I am indebted to my student Mr. Suresh Chandra Das for first drawing my attention to the above and to Dr. J. L. Bhaduri, D. Sc. (Edin.) of the Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, for his valuable suggestions and criticisms, MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE, PARLAKIMEDI, } , ont fe GANJAM, ORISSA. BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA 182 November, 1947. | 7 : i 10A 554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 14. MARCH LEPIDOPTERA AT GOPALPUR (DIST. GANJAM)—A CORRECTION In a short note in this Journal (1940, vol. xlii, 211) I published a list of the Lepidoptera observed at Gopalpur during a short holiday in March 1940. Setting the specimens then collecte d recently has revealed an error. The list included SAzzdaszs zctis Hew., ictés, this is incorrect—the actual species being SAzndasis vulca nus F., vulcanus. LONDON, D. G. SEVASTOPULO, £.R.z.s. Novenler 10th, 1947. 15—ON THE BUTTERFLY DE&LIAS DESCOMBESI LEUCACANTHA FRUHSTORFER I do not remember having seen any detailed description of the larva and pupa of the butterfly Delias descombest Jleucacantha Fruhstorfer. I have recently been lucky enough to obtain two broods of larvae which I have successfully observed. Both broods were found on a Loranthus, which has been provisionally identified by the Forest Department herbarium at Shillong as Loranthus ligustrinus Wall. at a height of some 20 feet from the ground. Both broods were gregarious in that the larvae remained together on one large growth of Loranthus, although there were other growths of the same species very close by. ‘The larvae were usually scattered in groups of 3to 10 amongst the leaves but occasionally a single larva was noted feeding by itself. It was usual for each group to feed or rest all at the same time. While resting the larvae usually did so at the end of a twig in a large bunch overlapping and entwined together with their heads towards the main stem. The larva is lemon yellow in colour with very sparse fine short yellow hairs. ‘The head is black and the spiracles are also black. It tapers very slightly towards the head and tail giving it a somewhat hump-backed appearance when resting. The first brood was found on 15-9-47 and the second a day later. Alli the larvae were almost full fed and had all pupated by the 20th. They fed voraciously while under observation. When ready for pupation the larvae usually craw] down the trunk of the tree and set for pupation in large groups on the under surface of large leaves either belonging to the parent tree of the Loranthus on which they have fed or on nearby bushes. It was also however noticed that some larvae let themselves down on long silk threads and pupated singly under leaves in nearby undergrowth. 64 pupae were obtained from the first brood and 79 from the second brood. ‘The ground colour of the pupa is a dark pinkish yellow with ‘short black spines along the dorsal ridge. These spines number six on each pupa. ‘There are three further spines at the tornal angle of the wing cases on either side, the central spine being longer than the other two. ‘The cremaster is black with a few black marksand spots at the anal end of the pupa. There are some diffuse brownish marks on MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555. the dorsal surface of the head which has a pronounced keel which is brownish. The head terminates in a projecting black spine. The wing cases are of the ground colour with the veins broadly outlined with short dark brown stripes, while there is a thick very dark brown stripe at the base of each wing case. The legs and eyes are outlined in brown and the antennae are outlined with a line of fine brown dots but the clubs of the antennae are not indicated. The silk girdle of the pupa is very fine and rather loose so that the pupa often attains a curious misshapen angular attitude when in an upright position. The silk is white and very tough indeed and there is some indication that it is also occasionally used to fasten the leaf to the stalk when the larva is about to pupate. This was done by the larvae of the first brood which were brought indoors to. pupate; but there was no indication of this procedure having been adopted by the second brood which were allowed to pupate under natural conditions. Mortality in the larval stage seems to be low since I only lost three from the first brood which were kept in captivity. Mortality in the pupal stage and after the larvae have set for pupation on the other hand is very high. It was noticed that in a number of cases after the larva had set for pupation that they became discoloured after about 36 hours, then began to sag badly in their girdles and finaliy putrified. The healthy larvae on the other hand remained a clear yellow colour; a period of up to three days elapsing from.the time the larva set to the time of the formation of the pupa. This pre-pupal mortality was noticed equally in the captive brood and in the brood which was left in a natural condition. - _ Mortality in the pupal stage was also very high but only in the brood which was left in its natural surroundings. Only two pupae were lost in the brood kept in captivity but at least 35% of the brood kept out of doors died in this stage. The unhealthy pupae turned dark brown all over and sagged at an angle in their girdles inertly, finally going almost black and putrifying. Several of the dead pupae were closely examined at intervals but no trace of any parasites was ever found, The cause of this mortality was therefore unexplained but may possibly be a natural method of limiting the numbers of the species to the available food supply, since | have, on two occasions previously, Come across two very large broods of pupae of this species all of which were dead with the perfect insect fully formed inside, not a single specimen having emerged alive. It was further noticed that some of the pupae were much darker in general appearance than the others, and when they began to emerge these proved to be the females. The second brood was also brought indoors after they had pupated. The species appears to have no natural enemies since I have never seen the perfect insect being attacked by birds or other enemies and although the larvae are conspicuous they do not appear to suffer. This apparent immunity may, however, be due to the fact that the food plant makes both larva and perfect insect poisonous.—[? Eps. | The perfect insects began to emerge on 29/9/47 and all had emerged from both broods by the Ist of October. The usual time of emergence was in the early morning before 8 a.m. 550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 All the specimens obtained from the first brood were of the typical form and no individual variation was noticed either among the males or the females, With regard to the second brood however, while the males were all of the typical form the females showed considerable variation from the typical form. Two specimens are referable to form auriga, Seitz and several others appear to be intermediate between this form and the typical form, the under surface of the hind wing of aurzga being a much darker yellow and much more heavily dusted with black than the typical or intermediate forms. ‘The remainder of the females from the second brood showed very great differences from des- criptions I have so far come across or specimens so far seen by me. The upper surface is intermediate between the typical form and the form auriga, the veins of the fore wing being slightly more broadly white-grey than typical auwviga while the hind wing is less yellow. The under surface of the hind wing, however, is quite different from either the typical form or auviga. The ground colour is white with a scarcely noticeable basal yellow tinge and the black discal dusting is very greatly reduced. These specimens appear to represent an undescribed form of the female for which I propose the name semzalba, nom. nov. The almost complete absence of the usual dark yellow discal colouring on the underside of the hind wing in these specimens gives them a curious pallid appearance. It is noteworthy that the larva of this species very closely resembles that of Delias hypartete the only difference, according to the description in Seitz, being that the larva of the latter species has black legs and anus. It is necessary also to note that while Delzas descombesz appears to pupate in groups, sometimes as large as 25-30, I have never noticed this habit in respect of either Delzas belladona ithiela Butler in the Himalayas or Delias agostina Hewitson in the Khasi Hills, pupae of which I have always found singly on the under surface of leaves and bushes at the foot of the trees on which the larvae have been feeding. HAFLONG, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E.S., NortTH CACHAR HILLS, Indian Police. ASSAM, October 22nd, 1947. 16. -EARLY STAGES OF THE BUTTERFLY DZEZL/AS AGLAIA LINN. I have recently obtained two broods of the butterfly Delias aglaia, Linnaeus and a short note on the larva and pupa of this species may be of interest, more particularly as it involves a correction to the description of the larva published by Seitz in Vol. 1X, page 133 of his ‘Macrolepidoptera of the World’. Seitz mentions that the Jarva is MISCELLANEOUS ‘NOTES , 557 red, each segment with long hairs of which the lateral ones are black and the dorsal yellow. This description does not tally with the larva found by me, which was dark red with bright yellow bands approxi- mately one millimetre in width which gives the larva a banded appearance, in which the red bands are approximately 24 times as wide as the yellow bands. The long hairs mentioned by Sietz are present but are very sparse indeed. ‘The head is black. One of the broods found was in the pupal stage and the other was in the larval stage, all the larvae being in the last instar. The food plant in each case was a smallnarrow leaved Loranthus growing low down. It was noted that ag/aza, unlike some of the other species. of Delias, forms its pupa on the leaves of the food plant in twos-and threes which is quite different from the habits of Delzas descombesit leucacantha Fruhstorfer, for instance, which pupates in large groups on the undersides of large leaves at the foot of the tree on which the food plant is growing. Unfortunately almost all the pupae of aglaia found in this state were parisitised by a small wasp-like fly, black in colour, as yet unidentified. The brood found in the larval stage was, however, successfully reared. The pupa is about % the size of that of Delias descombest leucacantha and is very dark brown indeed so as to appear almost black. The coloring is however somewhat lighter towards the anal end. There are five blackish dorsal spines on the back gradually decreasing in length towards the analend. In addi- tion there are five small spines at the tornal angle of each wing case, the central spine being much larger and thicker than the others. These tornal spines are whitish. The head of the pupa is not so prominently keeled as that of Delzas descombest leucacantha and the spine (which is black) which terminates the pupa at the head end is also much shorter. The pupal stage lasts for 17-18 days, at this time of the year. All the perfect insects obtained from these two broods were of the typical form except one which was aberrant. In this specimen the white discal patch between veins two and three on the underside of the right fore wing is entirely missing while the tornal white patch immediately below is greatly reduced in size and thickly dusted with black scales. The white patch in the cell on the underside of the same wing is also reduced in size. ‘The underside of the left fore wing is quite normal and the uppersides of all four wings are normal. The specimen is a female of normal size, es HAFLONG, R. E. PARSONS, F.R:E.s., NORTHERN CACHAR HILLS, Indian Police. ASSAM. 3 10th December 1947. 17._SHAMMING DEATH Col.. Burton’s experience with jackal is precisely the same as my own, when hunting these animals with dogs. Nor did I ever hear the jackal give a death cry: but this was not to be expected, as the animal was not on the point of death. I have always ascribed the 558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 behaviour of insects to be one of pure instinct: to ‘freeze’ and remain motionless often on the slightest disturbance, without the insect actually being touched. These are very different conditions from the jackal who is having a horrible time of it, and hopes to avoid further punishment by pretence of death. There is certainly no previous record of anyone having heard the tiger’s death cry and I doubt if it has ever previously been heard by anyone having the necessary qualifications to interpret what was happening and the significance of the noise. When one considers the enormous strength and vitality of the tiger, with his tremendous tenacity of life, merely to contemplate on his death cry, his protest against his departing spirit, is in itself awe- inspiring, and Col. Burton is to be envied over his experience. SCOTLAND, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER October 6, 1947. [Hamilton in ‘Wild Life in South Africa’, p. 286, refers to a slightly wounded Giant Owl (Budo lacteus) which shammed dead for two days, being carried about and freely handled. It walked away one night, and when found 50 yards away it resumed dead !—Eps. | 18.—ANIMALS ‘SHAMMING’ DEATH In Vol. 46, No. 2, Mr. Dunbar Brander, the well-known naturalist, says in his letter entitled, ‘Shamming Death’, that animals have no knowledge of death. Question of time is infinity to them. But my idea is not that. If they do not realise what death is, they certainly preconceive a danger. I do not mind if you term it ‘ Instinct’. But how can instinct tell goats that one is going to be slaughtered and the other is not when both are led along in the same fashion ? The one which is not going to be slaughtered will in all probability follow without any sign of resistance, but the other requires to be hauled. He gives out successive cries and shows resentment. I know cases and also I say from my experience that when chickens are tamed they can ordinarily be caught without any difficulty, but before slaughter the same will invariably fly and run about and refuse to be caught. 2. With regard to death-cry of animals Mr, Dunbar Brander rules out excessive fear being the cause of it and questions whether it is instinctive. I] would rather rule out both and am inclined to suggest —it isthe outcry of agony and excessive pain that precedes a violent death. If some one saysthat whenan animal gets a sudden shock all its nerves are benumbed and it doesnot feel the death-agony, I would then attribute this cry to unexpectedness of the stroke or hit rather than call it instinctive. The hit startles the animal to such an extent that MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 559 it gives vent to a succession of cries which are never uttered under ordinary circumstances. PHUL-BAG PALACE, | D. P. GARGA, MAHISHADAL, Kumar of Mahishadal. MIDNAPUR DT. June 6, 1947. [Mr. A. A. Dunbar Brander, to whom the above note was submitted, comments as follows:—‘ Animals possess very strong instincts and very acute perceptions with regard to danger and unless special precautions are taken, it would be apparent to the animal that some design with respect to itself was contemplated. But can this consciousness of danger be extended so as to include consciousness of death itself? Personally I believe not, and all my experience of animals is that they are not conscious of death, in other words of time; to them their life appears infinite. Be it fully understood that I merely express an opinion, I have no certain knowledge on the Subject, and my original letter was.written with the object of inducing a correspondence which might throw more light on the subject. That the death cry is due to fear, or excessive pain or agony Iam ina position to deny factually. Much more painful wounds than an actual death wound, are frequently endured by animals in silence, The death cry is never uttered save immediately on the point of dissolution: it is intimately connected with death itself. I recollect smiting a noble stag through the heart with a °577 bullet. He was quite unware of my presence, had no fear, anticipated no danger. He stood up on his hind legs extending himself to his fullest extent, pawed the air with his fore legs and letting outa heart-rending death cry, fell dead. As most of your readers are probably aware, the usual procedure under such circumstances, is for the stag to gallop blindly forward for 50 yards or so and then fall dead. But what I have related above happens now and again. Does the desire to preserve its life necessarily imply that the animal is conscious of its ultimate death? ‘The discussion on this point is in the realm of philosophy rather than that of natural history.’—Eps. | 19.—THE INFLUENCE OF MIGRANT BIRDS ON BUTTERFLY | MIMICRY I was pleased to see from Mr. Wynter-Blyth’s note on Valeria valeria hippia(Fabr.) & form philomela (1947, Journ., Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., 46: 736) that, at any rate as far as this species is concerned, both he and Mr. Salim Ali share my doubts regarding the correctness of Rosa’s theory that the two members of a pair of Batesian mimics need not necessarily fly together but may be found at the opposite ends of the range of a migrant species of insectivorous bird. 560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 ' It is unfortunate that my two short, papers criticising this theory (1939, Extomologist, 72 :222 and 1940, zbzd, 73: 191) were published after Talbot’s Aauna volume had gone to press, and the impression was therefore given that the theory had not been disputed. As all these papers were published in the Avtomologist and, although they concern Indian insects, may not be generally available to entomolo- gists working in India, it may be worth while giving a brief summary of them here. In the Extomologist (1937, 70: 32), possibly as a result of his’ collecting trip to India a few years earlier, Rosa published, under the title ‘The Influence of Bird Migration upon the Distribution of Mimetic Species of Lepidoptera’, a hypothesis that the two members of a Batesian pair need not necessarily fly together but might be found at the opposite ends of the range of a migrant insectivorous bird. Three pairs were cited as examples—the vomulus Cr. form of female of Papilio polytes L. and Polydorus hector L., Aporia agathon Gray and Danaus nilgiriensts Moore, and the 2 form philomela F. of Valeria valeria Cr. and Danaus aspasia F. In my first reply I pointed out that it would generally be conced- ed that, provided a mutant was not actually harmful, once it had occurred and established itself in one part of a species’s range, it would gradually diffuse throughout the species’s entire contiguous habitat. This is what had obviously taken place in the case of polytes and valeria. In the third example, A. agathon and D. nilgiriensis, I considered the true model to be Delzas sanaca Moore, or possibly another of the black and yellow belladonna F. group, which occur in the same district as the mimic. Rosa in his reply (1940, Avtomologist, 73:66) drew attention EG minor points that I had not touched on, admitted the spread of a mutant through diffusion, and migration but entirely ignored my criticism of his agathon-nilgiriensis pair. In my final reply, I suggested that any selection exercised by the migrant bird would be entirely nullified by the indiscriminate feeding of the resident species, which would not be acquainted with the model; and there the dicenssion ended. The spread of a mutant through diffusion depends on its genetic constitution, many mutants being weaker than the type, and on whether it is at a disadvantage to the type form in the struggle for existence. Ifitis at no disadvantage and if itis a vigorous form it. will spread, and this is undoubtedly what has happened in the case of the vomulus form of folytes and the phzlomela form of valerita. The fact that both these are sex-linked forms, being carried by, but not appearing in, the male would also tend to reduce any tendency to delay diffusion through slight unfavourableness. In polyfes we have a powerful and conspicuous insect, which is hardly likely to suffer severe losses from the preying of insectivorous birds, whatever its form, and the habit of the female of flying in and out of ‘bushes is ‘likely to be an added protection, as birds large enough to eat it are unlikely to be able to follow and catch it, so that it is safe to say that the spread of the vomulus form in areas» where fecfor does not occur could not be harmfulto the species in any way. In the valeria -aspasta pair, I think that, concentrating on the close mimicry be- tween Philomela and aspasia, sight has been lost of the general Danaid MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES. 56r appearance. Of recent years the emphasis in the mimicry theory seems to have shifted away from the very. perfect and exact mimics towards the species which exhibit a more general type of mimicry, sufficient it is thought to make a predator hesitate for an instant in its attack and thus allow the mimic to escape. Even to a bird un- acquainted with aspasia, philomela must appear sufficiently like one of the small black and pale blue, or white, Danaids to produce this momentary hesitation, and the presence of the yellow on the hind wing cannot be harmful to the species. Richmond Wheeler (1944 Entomologist’s Record, 56: 90) denies that the females of this genus are mimics of Davaus at all, but-this question is outside the scope of this present note, and I do not think many entomologists in India will be found to agree with him. LONDON, 9. x. 47 D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. 20.—COLOUR SENSE IN NATURE (Reprinted, with acknowledgments, trom ‘The Field’ of « 6th September, 1947.) ‘Are many animals colour-blind?’ The difficulty of questions like that is that man has a natural tendency to read himself into the creature under discussion. If a butterfly visits a flower of lovely colour, surely it must be appreciative of colour? That sort of thing. But as a matter of fact it need not be. Experimentation has shown that the possession of sense organs analogous to our own by an animal does not necessarily imply that the creature sees or hears, or whatever it may be, as we do. Plateau showed that certain insects continued their visits to brightly coloured flowers after the petals had been removed or concealed. Experiments of that nature led to a great reversal of opinion, and a school of thought sprang up that suggested that all backboneless animals were colour-biind. And that, as a matter of fact, can be disproved as easily. What do we mean by colour-blind? In the first place it has 2 variable meaning for man, according to the number and nature of the colours that he can distinguish. Many people can distinguish only between red, green and violet; but that is not the only form of colour blindness. And then again, of course, one must discriminate between colour as colour and its brilliance asa reflector of light in general and ultra-violet rays in particular. When we think of colour, it is the colour of objects and not coloured light that comes to mind. | Daylight is the source of all colour, but we do not think of it as a colour at all. Probably we think of it as invisible, we certainly think of it as colourless. Yet it is this complex white light of day 462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 striking objects and being split up and reflected by them in a variety of ways that makes colour. A leaf is not green because it is green, but because it is full of a material that absorts all the light-rays except the green and yellow ones which it reflects. Colours, in other words, result from the action of light on material objects. That, of course, does not mean that there is actually such a thing as red or blue or green. You cannot prove the reality of red or green or blue or any other colour by reasoning. All that we can say for certain is that our eyes and our minds working through our nervous systems give us the experience of colour. A very slight difference in make-up (in the nervous system, that is) will result in what we term a colour-blind person, and it also results in animals, which are not so very different in structure (of the eye, etc.), being without a colour sense at all, (Butin this connexion, I should like to point out that there is some evidence that our coJour sense has changed a great deal within historic times. The ancient Greeks spoke of the human face as green: Homer speaks habitually of the sea ‘ wine-dark.’) Every group of animals has its own pattern of eyes, of course, just as it has its own pattern of life. And we must remember that the less like ourselves the animal is—and this also applies to its way of life—the less can we understand how it sees the world. Each animal must live in a world of its own to a very large degree. We must remember that the appearance of a thing exists only in our own minds: beauty lies in the eye of the beholder! But we can tell a good deal by experiment and a good deal by deduction. Let us take the second first. So far as we can tell there are many animals that do not see colours (as we understand colours) at all. They live entirely in a black-and-white world. That is a perfectly possible and realistic world (the cinema has only recently taken to technicolour, and most photography is still black-and-white) and need not be in the least strange to us. Most four-footed mammals are thought to see their world in this way,asa world made up of blacks and whites and greys. Most of them are nocturnal or crepuscular. During these hours the world itself is a world of black and white and grey, a world of shadows. So far as we can tell dogs and cats are quite unable to distinguish a colour from atone of grey of the same brightness. ‘There is no colour sense as such. (Bulls are not particularly sensitive to red. If they want to charge, they charge, red or not. They cannot distinguish red as red so far as experiment has shown, and a great many experiments have been made on this in Spain). The only mammals, other than man, that have a colour sense are the apes and the monkeys, and these are the only mammals that have bright colours such as reds and greens and blues. The colours of other mammals are blacks and whites and greys and browns, and the richest colours—e.g., the red squirrel—are chestnuts. Birds, of course, can distinguish colours. ‘They are themselves often brightly coloured, and that deduction would in any, case be pretty safe. But there is also proof. Experiment has shown that birds distinguished red, orange, green and yellow colours clearly. They do not see blue very clearly (except the Lyre Bird of Australia) and they do not see violet at all. In this relation again it is interest- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563 ing to note that violet is not found in the colouring of birds, and that blue is not common. Moreover, when it does occur—as in the macaws and the kingfishers—it is a very bright and metallic blue. There can be no doubt that some fish can distinguish colours. It has been proved that the shanny can distinguish between a wide range of colours, and the same appears to be true of the minnow. There seems to be little doubt that the perch has also an acute colour sense, and anglers have claimed wonderful things for the trout! It may also be deduced that shrimps and prawns have a colour sense, and this would be true too for ail those fish that have the ability to change their colour to suit the background against which they are resting. But all these animals, excluding the prawns, have eyes very similar to our own. The eyes of bees and butterflies are very different from our own. More experiments have been conducted on the colour sense of bees than on any other animal. Their importance as pollinators and as honey gatherers has resulted in the most intensive study of their habits—and the bee literature is perhaps the best, as it is certainly the most extensive, in this particular field. The visits of bees to flowers (bees, of course, are not the only pollinators) suggests strongly that they do see colours. But it must be remembered that some flowers at least do not attract bees by their colour but by their scent—holly, ivy, lime and willow for examples. But if you look at a list of the flowers most often visited by bees (Plants and Beekeeping by F. N. Howes, is the most complete that I know) you will find that a large number of them are blue or purple in colour. The fact is that bees do not see red as a colour. They are quite unable to distinguish red from black. This does not stop them visiting red flowers though, and they will even visit flowers that are pure red. We must remember that some flowers that appear red or pink to our eyes will not appear the same to the bee, but will look blue-pink. Foxgloves are a good example, for they have a blue component as you can see if you look at one through a green glass. Indeed, bees may be said to live ina world of blue and yellow, a very, very different world from our own. ‘They can see in ultra- violet light, and many white surfaces (white to our eyes) will not look white to them, for some will reflect or absorb ultra-violet light and so will appear blue-green to the bee, and thus will be most attractive. : _ Owls, of course, use part of the infra-red rays as light. (The green pigment of plants reflects a good deal of infra-red). ‘This is something that is quite beyond the imagination of humans, since the infra-red is invisible to us, but if you consider the wonderful effect obtained by infra-red photography you wiil get close to realising the powers of the owl’s eye. We talk about ‘Seeing in the dark’, but that is, of course, not what happens in the sense we mean. Mice are exceptionally warm-blooded animals and they emit infra-red rays and so are visible to the eyes of such birds as owls. Yet the eye of the owl is also sensitive to the violet end of the spectrum. ‘This is so because there is much more violet light in the spectrum in the early hours of the morning. It is in these early hours that owls do most of their hunting. £64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Animals move about at the times when they can best see. If we had no artificial light we would have no night life. It is the age-old custom of peasants and of natives to get up at sunrise and go to bed at sunset. The human eye is a ‘ daylight’ eye first and foremost. It can adjust itself to twilight (which is the daylight of crepuscular animals), but it never gets really good, not even with very long training, at seeing in the dark. Ours is by no means the only world. BRIAN VESEY-FITZGERALD WANTED A copy of The Fauna of British India series— Mammalia: 1st edition By W. T. BLANFORD Apply :—W. F. H. ANSELL, Game Ranger, Kasempa, Northern Rhodesia. fRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V, M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS 22-6-1948—C6367, , EDITORS: S. H. PRATER AND SALIM ALI, 114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY “Vol, 47, No. 4. AUGUST, 1948 | Price Rs. 15 net- THE JOURNAL Bomsay Natura History Sociery EDITED BY. sALIM ALI & S. B. SETNA, PH.D. i PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 114 Apollo Street, Bombay. LONDON AGENTS: DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY), 212 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE, LONDON, W.C, 2. Indian Natural Liistory Sevtes, Vol. Ll. THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS S. H. Prater, Bee. C.M.Z.S. This is a companion volume to the Book of Indian Birds, » forming Volume II of the Indian Natural History Series. To tell something of the beauty, the interest and the value - of the wild life of our forests, fields and scrubland is the purpose of this book. It contains simple descriptions of the commoner mammals of India, and readable accounts of their ways and habits. It is profusely illustrated in colour and black and white. 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Rs. 525 When you buy a Johnson Sea Horse, you know that your motor is manufactured to the most advanced engineering specifications——is given the most rigid inspection before leaving the plant—is constructed of the finest available materials— and in short, represents the best in quality that money can buy. For pleasure and commercial boats in salt or fresh water. Army & Navy Stores Lid. (INCORPORATED IN ENGLAND) Fort Bombay | LAT 8-3 &) mesic go og li roy tadd Word uae Gaon ae et Yue BOY. cl ctivaol srOlgeh monroe ak bighs jeoun gel ls et _-enoisesioag ab iioingg aldgliavetasmit, dit to, halaiutignoy. et ters nislg 9 A/ECl ED canton $8 (ity ilsup ‘ttiteod orld eins a is] f + ‘ 4 ese ed a 7 et te a Sa E i a = _ ‘i a £13 m ° a 2 = 4 % Sie jis : aah dc. TcHy eee se See age 8 ie stBmttire Pea wo | =o EE 230900 tet Slatin” 4 ay jase vy ta Spr Ao Seth coe es oe to baoge-e aot ie SELOt OT LI0 Seley ih ant lar gate ‘| ee Y eg tod aioli 2D aepi igi ae yen. CL dame 4a aia tion tee Lee soba fi esa ai ps woes 4 | Ae a 7a H —— _————-~ —— eet 3 or sage ert Ug lo aon Tb as dagrt Eat On: baappelugem ep “atom #4 ie tk 3 ey ee ‘ AT * te i+ ‘ Stes deat 10 a6 A. ih 59p 3 peasggetee . 5, is eee bdass a ee “O41 ort, AND (ack Da, Ar Os CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 4 PAGE AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR. By M.A. Vas seme: M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.E.S. (With amap and db plates) .. 565 Locat Lists oF LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE PUNJAB AND U.P. By D.G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. oe dos bas oe bo 6586 METHODS OF COLLECTION AND HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG WITH SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT. By Nazir Ahmed, M.sc. (Hons.), ph.D., F.R.S. (With 5 text figures) ee, O93 WiLtp LIFE PRESERVATION: India’s Vanishing Asset. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton we oft Ste oy: eae one OZ Notes ON INDIAN Brirps, I. By S. Dillon Ripley, ph.p. tent O22 Nores ON POONA Reeriies. By Garth Underwood i om £627. A FurtHER NOTE ON THE BEARDED PIG IN MALAYA. By C. A, Gibson-HILL, M.A. (With a text map) 53 ode $60 R032 A List oF BIRDS OBSERVED IN CHITTAGONG, E. BENGAL, DURING 1944 AND 1945, By R. M. Simmons. (With a map) A Oh BUTTERFLIES OF SouTH BrHArR. By Major P. W. Morrison-Godfrey, A.M.1.C.E. (With a map) bd ae see vo» 644 NoTES ON THE SOLANACEAE OF BomBAy. By H. Santapau, S.J., F,L.S. eee eco eco eee ooo eee 652 BREEDING AND FEEDING HABiTS OF MULLETS (MUGIL) IN ENNORE CREEK. By P. K. Jacob, B.a., M.sc. and B. Krishnamurthi, B.Sc. ( Hons.) <5 ves as eae set pp O09 DESCRIPTIONS OF PLANT GALLS FROM TRAVANCORE. By Karuna- karan Nayar, M.A., Ph.D. (With a plate) ... nee ee OOS A. CENSUS OF NESTS IN A PRIVATE BIRD-SANCTUARY. By C. G. Webb- Peploe. (With a text figure) Ba} ah ae 210676 SPORTSMANSHIP AND ETIQUETTE IN SHOOTING. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.E., F.Z.S., IA. (Retired). 600 «ssi Ook BiRD MIGRATION IN INDIA: A complete list of ringed birds recovered up todate. By Editors. wae yes se soees O40 ABNORMAL BANANAS OF TRAVANCORE. By occa A. Davis. (With 2 plates) Joo bob ae 00 ABNORMAL PALMS OF TRAVANCORE. By Trupapur A. Davis. (With 2 plates) ats a ‘es MSs oe ws 404 THe USE OF THE BARK OF Strychnos Nuxvomica, LINN., IN POISONING A CrocoDILE. By A.R. K. Zobairi. 600 eee ao WU REVIEWS :— The Man-eating Leopard of Radhuohiyan: GRSWiabrs)) css ceo ZAK) Trees of India. (J.I.A.) Sy on wath o7'12 List of additions to the Society’s Library 600 one fo, Cy MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1, A Man-eating tiger of the Kollegal District, South India. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 713). 2. Abnormal clavicle bones in tigers. (With text figures.) By R. C. Morris (p. 715). 3. On the ‘Thorn’ or ‘Claw’ in panthers’ tails, ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 47, No. 4 (With a photo.) By K. Boswell (p. 716). 4. Interesting shikar trophies. “(With a photo.) By Van Ingen & Van Ingen (p. 718).5. Reactions of dogs to noises. By R. N. Champion-Jones (p. 720). 6. Jackals. By C. H. Donald (p. 721). 7. More about Jackals. By C. H. Donald (p. 726). 8. Sambar gnawing bark of Wend- landia notoniana, By R. C. Morris (p. 729). 9. Sambar neck sore. By R.C. Morris (p. 729). 10. Wild deer in Mauritius. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 730). 11. Stranding of a whale (Wegaptera nodosa) on the Travancore Coast in 1943, By A. P. Mathew (p. 732). 12. Oa the occurrence of Sz/ta frontalis Swains. & Sitta castanea Less. in Khulna Sunderbans. By Satya Churn Law (p. 733). 13. On the occurrence of the Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike (Lalage sykesii) at Ahmedabad, Abu Road and Ajmer. By R.M. Simmons (p. 334). 14. The status of. Phylloscopus fuscatus in India. By H.G. Alexander (p. 736). 15. he Rosy Pastor [Pastor roseus (Linn.)] in Ceylon. By W. W. A. Phillips (p. 739). 16. Occurrence of the Indian Cliff-Swallow (Mirundo fluvicola) in Ceylon. By W. W. A. Phillips (p. 740). 17. Arrival of Wagtails in Assam. By H. P. O. Robey (p. 741). 18. Onthe breeding of the Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops superciliosus javanicus) in Rajahmundry, East Godavari District. By K. K, Neelakantan (p. 741). 19. Nightjars on Roads. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 742). 20. ‘ Occurrence of the Laggar Falcon (falco jugger Gray) at Mt. Abu’—A Correction—and Nesting of the Shahin Falcon (Falco peregrinus pere- grinator Sundevall) a Mt. Abu. By Editors (p. 743). 21. Snipe on the Nilgiris. By Lt.-Col. G. Phythian-Adams (p. 744). 22. Snipe in South India. By Lt.-Col. i. G@ Phythian-Adams (p. 745). 23. Fishing with the Indian Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) in Assam. (With a photo.) By C.R. Stonor (p. 746). 24. The Dwarf or Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser ery- thropus L.) in India. (With 2 text figures.) By Editors (p. 747). 25. The White-fronted Goose (Azser albifrons Scop.) in Manipur Assam. By J.C. Higgins (p. 748). 26. White-winged Wood-Duck on the Padma River, East Bengal. By H. G. Alexander (p. 749). 27. Bronze-capped Teal Eunetta falcata, Georgi) in Assam. By H. P, O. Robey (p. 749). 28. Geese, Duck and Teal in South India, By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- oA (p. 749).% 29. ‘The Birds of Delhi and District’. By N.F. Frome (p. 751). 30. Mortality within nests of tropical birds. By Charles W. Quaintance (p. 753). 31. My experience with pheasant breeding in Dharmsala Cantonment. By C. H. Donald (p. 753). 32. Parakeets attacking a Snake. By Capt. A. G.L. Fraser (p. 757). 33. A King Cobra’sspeed. By S. K. Ghosh (p. 769). 34. Mirror Carp. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 761). 35. Outsize Whale-Shark in Bombay Waters. By C. V. Kulkarni (p. 762). 36. Utilisation of Fire Service tanks for Fish rearing. By P. I. Chacko (p. 763). 37. Fish production in religious institutional waters, By P. I. Chacko (p. 764). 38. Purse-seiner operating in Bombay: A new experiment to catch fish. (With a text-figure.) By Dr.S.B. Setna (p. 766). 39. The Biology of Danaus chrysippus lu. By D. G. Seva- stopulo (p. 769). 40. A Honey-Bee in the nest of a Mason-Wasp. By Capt. K. Boswell (p. 771). 41. Ona variety of Acantholepis frauenfeldi Mayr., new to India. By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 773). 42, Remarks on Aphids on Nerium odorum Sol., and Calotrop’s gigantea Br. By Durgadas Mukerji and Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 774). 43. The genus Ceropegia—Further Comments. By H. Santapau (p. 775). 44. Cave Fauna. By Brig. E. A. Glennie (p. 777). 45. ‘Shamming Death’: Snakes. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 778). 46. ‘Shamming Death’. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 778). 47. Wild Life Preservation: Birds. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 778). 48. Wild Life Preservation: Animals. By Lt.-Col. Rk. W. Burton (p. 780). PAGE Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History pace! for the year ending 3lst December 1947 ait /82 The Honorary Secretary’s Report for the year 1947 a core Cask) Appendix to Honorary Secretary’s eo: covering the period January to July 1948 ... ace aD AL ee soso 790 Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society oo. ZN} Minutes of the Annual General Meeting rae an) o> ot 200 Catalogue of Books in the Society’s Library, Part I. MAMMALS nw” vp Fueg 3) ews wosy pros >} je OP EE J AoW Er) AN Cartoy 7U CMe * & treobong. yd "ay "S 0 ay ‘s 0] 295% coos: \Y AS A * yusnaned, V we —N eiwanwauw \i torn PUREE PE 1th aN bay 7y LUM EP eI ee oF Ansty, “> Vs eos RS & osha 4 NU, oH Cha ae 5 ° 4 ats a wu 9 enh S x a a's i) a et shyt \ fees ee a $ é - twis (iG ra a , ati ‘ wis IZ WK eo? = ‘Ng 0p == 1a, Be wee We Pee Spry Sop BRT ESRY wr 5y7052 = Sy7I7 INU S3YyZ0 TEE EI A a oy, ay fo d VW "205 ‘“ISIH sv Avs, “JUN Avqmog ‘‘uinor JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society 1948 VOL. 47 No. 4 AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR* BY M. A. Wynter-BiytH, M.A. (CANTAB.), F.R.E-S. (With a map and two plates) Ever since my first view of the Himalayan snows twelve years ago I had planned to make a trip into the inner hills. In particular I wanted to visit the Baspa Valley as it is wel! off the beaten track and I knew it was good butterfly country. Although I had made a number of shorter trips in the Simla Hills it was not until May 1947 that J eventually had an opportunity to carry out my ambition. Except that the Baspa River joined the Sutle] scmewhere near Chini I had only the vaguest idea of the valley’s where- abouts, nor could I obtain the information I wanted in Simla. No maps were available, apart from a route map showing distances only (and these were inaccurate off the main Tibet road). I knew of no one who had been there and neither the P.W.D. nor the Forest Office could help me. Apparently nobody had visited the Baspa Valley for years. Consequently I made all arrangements for a trip to Chini hoping to pick up information en route which would enable me to reach my first objective. For the journey to Chini I had the cross section map that is reproduced in part here. It will be seen that this was a popular trip in days gone by and one that was fraught with considerable danger to both man and horse, though a more foolhardy means of transport over this road is difficult to imagine. Still, we were a hardier breed in those days, or can it have been that it was bad form to walk? ar * As it is difficult to get information about routes and conditions in the Simla Hills, I feel that this account of my journey to the Baspa Valley may prove of value to naturalists and others who wish to visit that attractive meighbenrhood. M.A.W-B JAN 31 qQag 566 fOURNAE, BOMBAY, (NA GUtRATE SSS Wines. S OGRE levees VsOl mez, I once read a graphic description in some mid- Victorian memoirs of a journey to “‘Cheenee in Koonawur’. Such a trip was in the nature of a royal progress. The whole family travelled (and in Victorian times that in itself was often no small number), the women and children being carried in dodlies and the men riding, followed: by a veritable army of menials . . . cooks, bearers, syces, sweepers, bhistis, shikaris, and baggage coolies carrying all the paraphernalia of a complicated camp ... the whole caravan numbering, one imagines well over one hundred souls.’ My expedition could not compete with such as this. In fact it was almost as small as it possibly could be. There was myself, Sheba (my labrador and a very. important person), two amiable mules and a pony, one muleteer and his chokra, and a servant. To take the last first. His name (as far as I remember) was Koofy or something equally unsuitable. Although I was. travelling as lioht as possible I felt that a servant was essential and this person was the only applicant. He was long and lanky, had drooping moustaches and was of a sour demeanour. He sagged ominously at the knees. Still, as he was undoubtedly a hillman I felt that he would at least be able to walk. He also said that he could cook. In actual fact he could do neither. He went sick the-first day out and. for the next three days arrived at our halting place so late that he had no time to cook my meal. Thereafter I mounted him on the pony and by dint of arriving at the day’s destination in the early afternoon he just had time to heat some ‘tinned food and prepare chapatis and boil rice or potatoes ready for my supper. He could also make tea and porridge, and boil eges. This was the’ sum of his accomplishments. Even having reduced his exercise to. these (to my mind) reasonable limits there were nasty moments when J expected him to leave me for a better land: -I was much put to it to decide whether to deposit him somewhere en route on my outward journey and pick him (or his corpse) up on the return, or to carry him with me. . In the end I left him at Kilba and picked him up three days later, ‘He only smiled once and that was when he rode into Narkanda at the end of the last stage of all . . : looking’ as’ usual” very like; Don Quixote; .. and ‘asked me to find him another iob. So I told him I knew ‘a very important sahib’ in the Posts and Telegraphs who would doubtless be delighted to find him employ- ment as a dak runner. Poor man! he hated every minute of our journey. We finally parted on the best. of terms. I subsequently learnt from the muleteer that’I had been wasting my sympathy ‘and that Don Quixote had really been’ quite well after the ‘first Ulanee days.” He was just slow. and disagreeable by nature: The muleteer was a very natty, dapper little’ “man who had the misfortune to have a cleft palate. ~ Nevertheless in spite of this disability ‘he. was. efficient, always helpful, and cheerful, even’ at the end of a twenty mile stage. His chokra, aged possibly twelve, knew all the answers and was likewise helpful and happy. vi AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR © 567° ‘The pony. was; I think, a retired children’s:pony. “She showed no: desire to come out. of her retirement, ‘and’ nothing ‘could »make her move faster than a slow walk. This held up progress -consider- ably but suited -Don Quixote. However, she’ was a pleasant creature and very fond of biscuits. 4 fh ere To Nolé teers bk the Wisner Link A On May 21st I set out from Wildflower. Hall for Neaemin by bus. Had Cherry. Garrard ever undertaken this journey he would have changed the title of his book to ‘The Second Worst Journey in the World’. I have driven across the.Andes in a LOVE oy ns 1 journey that involved a climb of. four thousand feet to a sixteen thousand foot -pass,.a drop of. twelve thousand feet and a final climb of two thousand five hundred feet, all in the space of sixty miles on a road of the most terrifying nature, but for sheer terror that journey was as nothing compared with the trip to Narkanda in a ramshackle bus driven” by a maniac driver. - Still we got there. All was ready when I arrived and we completed the ten miles to Bagi through the lovely Bagi forests long before nightfall. These forests, which are mainly composed of Spruce (Picea morinda). and Narkanda Pine (Abies pindrow) with a _ liberal admixture .of oaks, planes, horse-chestnuts and walnut trees, are a fine place for butterflies (especially Lethe) and birds. I am afraid my comments on the bird life of the country I passed through on this trip are almost negligible. This does not mean that I was disinterested but is due to the fact I am unable to concentrate successtully on two branches of natural history at the same time. - There is a second route to Bagi over the top of Mount Hatu (10,450') which is even more attractive than the lower road through the forest and, if somewhat more exhausting, is about one mile shorter. ‘The summit gives a fine view.over the country to be passed through during the next few days and is also the home cf many kinds of butterfly . . . in particular the very local Comma (Vanessa egea), the beautiful Blue Peacock (Papilio arcturus), the Common Yellow Swallowtail (P. machaon), the Common Blue Apollo (Parnassius hardwickei) and other species that haunt hill- tops. . Why do so many butterflies love the tops of hills ? ‘Surely such cold and draughty spots should be particularly gene oe for these. fragile ‘creatures ? But such is not the case, and in the Himalayas hilltops rank second only to sunny forest niiltahé as happy hunting grounds for the collector. To. my mind Bagi in its quiet unobtrusive way is one of the most beautiful places in these hills. Here are no broad vistas or stupendous views of snowy peaks but pleasing forest elades anc wooded hillsides. The: village and “the bungalow are set in a clearing and all around are trees. The bungalow is small and clean and in front is a lawn kept close cropped by the tiny pu cattle. 568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Good food too is provided here (and also at Narkanda), but from now on the traveller must rely almost entirely on provisions carried with him. In some places it is possible to buy eggs, fruit (if it is the season), potatoes, chickens and atta but such supplies are chancy and uncertain. At Bagi the water was brown and cloudy so J doctored it with some vivid yellow pills I had brought for the purpose. The result was unfortunate for it made the water taste nasty as well as upsetting me so violently that I was extremely unwell for the next two days. After this my rule was to drink freely of spring water, and from any clear streams running down the hillsides un- less they had obviously passed near a village. At the rest houses I always had the water boiled. This seemed a satisfactory plan .. . at least I suffered no il effects. It is supposed to be a bad thing to drink much water when on the march. Why I do not know. I always drink a lot when walk- ing and find frequent draughts of water most invigorating, The stage from Bagi to Sungri though long is not tiring. There are no steep hills and the way, lying as it does between 8,500! and 9,600’, is cool. After the first four miles, at which point the road to Jubbal turns off on to the fine ridge known as Ganasi Dhar (a good place for the beautiful little Blue Sapphire butterfly, Heliophorus oda, in early June), most of the way gives extensive views over the valleys of the Tons river and its tributaries. At 7 miles hes Khadrala (9,600! and the highest point on the whole trip) near which place I met Bazalgette, the Political Agent for the Simla Hill States, returning from Rampur, where he chad been installing the council of regency. From him I got valuable information about the route to the Baspa Valley, and from now on this was my objective. I have an acquaintance who once .had a dog taken by a panther close to Khadrala at 10.00 in the morning. As the same man also lost a dog at 3.00 in the afternoon in Kulu it would seein that it is quite wrong to suppose a dog safe from attack between dawn and dusk as one is so often told. I kept my dog on the lead almost the whole of the trip, not because she is likely to wander, for she has a keen eye to her own security and does not like me far out of her sight, but because monkeys prove an irresis- tible attraction to her. Furthermore, if the wind is favourable she can scent them at a distance of several hundred yards and is then off like the wind. This is not a good thing in panther infested country. It was not until I reached Nachar that the monkey menace ceased but panthers are bad all along the road as far into the hills as the Baspa Valley itself. The shepherds whom I imet beyond Sarahan driving their sheep and goats up the Tibet road all keep one or two dogs to guard their flocks, These dogs, which are all much of a type, are large creatures with fine heads and bushy curling tails. Jn colour they are usually black with tan markings and in spite of their fierce appearance are singularly docile animals. To protect them against the attacks of leopards, which always seize their prey by the throat, they wear around their necks broad iron plates with their edges deeply toothed and AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 569 upturned. These will protect the dog, at least till the owner has time to come up and drive the beast away. ‘The hill people have little fear of the leopard and there are many tales of men pulling ‘sheep and goats away from them. Later on I met one of these shepherds whose dog had been attacked by a leopard the previous night. This dog, though a very sick dog with a torn throat, was far from dead, but as the shepherd was on the move up the road I fear that it cannot have survived long. And so on to the squalid bungalow at Sungri with its dirty village and swarms of flies. Here in an exhausted state I waited a miserable two hours for my transport to turn up, followed considerably later by Don Quixote in such a state of collapse that I had to cook my own food. Hereafter I always took the essentials for a midday meal with me. ‘To avoid the heat of the day I started soon after sun up with the inevitable result that I reached my destination far ahead of my transport. It was nine years since [ had visited Sungri but httle had changed in that time. The bungalow was perhaps a shade more dirty, it was certainly more dil apidated, but there were still the same difficulties of obtaining water and firewood, and the staff was just as slovenly. In short it is perhaps the least attractive place on the whole of this route. Sunegri is situated on the southern slopes of Maralkanda (12,250, a fine hill, and itself an outlier of that magnificent mountain Hansbeshan. JI had made the ascent of Maralkanda in the past. It is an easy though long climb and is well worth doing if only for the magnificent view from the top. My main memory of that ascent is that our guide (a hillman who climbed so rapidly that we felt that the laws of gravity must have been relaxed in his ease), armed with a very nasty looking axe, went well ahead of us through the forest and every now “and then signed to us to stop as he went ahead to prospect round some blind corner. Though the hill folk think little of leopards they have a very healthy respect for the Himalayan black bear which is common round here. The route goes straight up the forested spur by the side ot Suneri and at about 10,500’ turns left along a ridge and thence up to the grassy summit of the mountain. “No trees grow above about 11,000’. The summit is peopled with Himalayan Pikas (Lagomys roylei), guinea pig-like little creatures that have their homes among the scattered stones and rocks. It was amusing to see them poking out their heads to look at us and scuttling about when they thought they were not observed. I remember, too, that there were many Red-billed Choughs living among the crags below the summit, and at 12,000! I saw a Small Grate Mellow: (Hurema brigitta). This is, of course, a common plains bubtertly and its discovery at this altitude must give it a climatic range ereater than that of any other Indian species except the Painted Lady (Vanessa cardui), which may be found everywhere up to 15,000! (and probably much higher). Lower down I caught a female of the Large Green Underwing (Polyommatus galathea), 570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,, Vol. 47 the nearest point to Simla at which this lovely little butterfly has been found. However, this was nine years ago and I had no time to repeat the ascent. | It is an easy, pleasing walk to Bahli. First incre is a fairly steep descent through forest for five or six miles followed by a very gentle climb for the remaining five along the sunny side of the long ridge running from Maralkanda to the Sutle}. The forest is a fine hur nting sround for ‘Treebrowns (Lethe), the Common Forester (lL. save’ in particular being quite an abundant species, and in one of the nullahs I saw the Himalayan Jester (Symbrenthia hypselis) sailmg about in the chequered sunshine. Although I had sought in vain for this butterfly during the five years I collected in the Simla Hills it was not the last tune I saw it on this trip. Indeed it proved to be quite common about forest streams between this spot and Sarahan, though it was too late to catch good specimens as I fancy they had emerged from their chrys alids some two or three -we eks earlier. In flicht and habits it is very like a yellow Neptis and indeed, when I first saw it, I mistook it for Neptis ananta, that ereat rarity in these hills. Here also was Heliophorous androcles which is like a flash of ereen heht on the wing. The last six miles lie through pleasant fields of wheat, potatoes and poppies, and the roadside is made beautiful by masses of white roses and a purple broom-like plant (Indigofera gerardiana?), Bahli, with its attractive whitewashed bungalow, hes on the top of the ridge with the land sloping down very steeply both to the north and the south. On the other two sides is forest of Blue Pine. Visibility was very poor and there was no view except of the dim outline of the large rounded peak of Shikar over the valley to the north and a Slimapse of the Sutlej distant a mile or two down to the left. ; Towards evening the sky darkened and a violent storm broke upon us. For half an hour there was torrential rain and incessant thunder. Then the sun broke through again and within a very short time the clouds had cleared away leaving the air cool and crystal clear to reveal a magnificent panorama of the mountains, from che Kulu Hills on the left, to the Great Himalayan Range straight ahead and Hansbeshan close to the right. It is the most extensive view to be had on this journey and one of the loveliest I have ever seen, Night fell and the singularly attractive night noises of the middle Himalayas eae to. make themselves heard . . . the pink- pink of the Himalayan Scops Owl (exactly the sound of a smith beating iron on his anvil), the moan of the flying squirrel, the sneezing bark of the hill fox and the invamensolel other sounds most of whose owners I have never been able to trace. But if the noises of the night are attractive it is of the day sounds that I have the most pleasant memories ... the shrill wail of the Himalayan Barbet from a treetop, the curious calls of the various cuckoos, the grating and ubiquitous cry of the nutcracker, the melodious songs of the rockthrushes, the tuneless whistle of the (AN EXPEDITION:TO:SANGLA IN: KUNAWAR +: 571 Kastura’? and the ever present background of twitterings and tiny noises of titmice, tree creepers and other such small fry. The stage from Babli to Taklech is another easy one. / . 11 miles and all downhill. The first nve miles are through the forest aleng the northern side of the ridge that was traversed the day before. One of the most characteristic features of the Simla Hills is that the southern sunny slopes are bare whilst the northern slopes are more often than not completely forested. Consequently from a southern aspect many of the hills appear as grassy slopes curiously topped with a fringe of trees. From Bahli to Deo, near Sarahan, where the main trade route is joined, the road is very lonely and I have often wondered for what purpose it was built because it is used hardly at all. All the. trade between Tibet and India takes the direct and shorter road along by the Sutlej and up to Narkanda. This upper road is only of use for local. traffic, which would be served just as well by the ordinary hill track, and for such as myself who wish for a cool journey in the summer, for the bed of the Sutle] between Narkanda and Sarahan lies at about 3,000’ and is terribly hot at this time of the year.. This, I think, is :the solution of the problem. I suspect that in days gone by some Viceroy or Governor- General wished to visit Chini and, wanting a cool journey, gave the order for the road to be built. Shortly after leaving Bahli IJ made a great catch Celaenorrhinus munda (or more simply the Himalayan Spotted Flat), a singularly, dull-looking Skipper of whose existence in the Simla Hills I had grave doubts. Subsequently I caught three more and saw others between Bahli and Sungri so that it seems that this insect is not uncommon here. After five miles the road descends abruptly, first through cak forest and then through a rich growth of deciduous trees with a thick bamboo underwood. Lower down this gives way at 6,000! to an open forest of Pinus longifolia. Half way down the hill begins a very prolific butterfly area. This was heralded by the appearance of a solitary specimen of the pretty little blue and white Water Hairstreak (Huaspa milionta), a rarity in these hills. Lower down I saw one or two more and presently, where the road crosses over a well-shaded stream, I came upon their home. Here they were in their dozens, resting on. mossy banks, on ferns and on the leaves of trees and bushes. They are sluggish little creatures and shun the sunlight; if they are disturbed they flutter about slowly but soon come to rest again. So averse are they to flight that it is almost possible eatch them in the fingers. With them, but in smaller numbers, was the little purple Walnut Blue (Chaetoprocta odata), an equally lazy ereature and also a lover of the shade, though this butterfly flies about in the open rather more briskly towards evening. It was more common lower down by the stream just above the Taklech bungalow. Indeed on my return it was to be found there in its thousands, being more * The Himalayan Whistling Thrush. 572. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 common than I would have believed any butterfly could be. Both here ard at many other places along the road the walnut trees had been half stripped of their foliage by the larvae of this butterfly. This did not seem to have harmed the trees as they were healthy enough. Doubtless they are stimulated to put out a second growth of leaves and httle damage results. From the large numbers that were about it seems probable that the Walnut Blue is very favourably placed in the struggle for existence. This may be due to the domestic arrangements of the female who lays her eggs in batches and thatches them with a protective layer of scales, a proceeding unknown in any other Indian butterfly. These scales may be seen at the end of her abdomen grouped together in a bunch that looks very lke the business end of a tiny shaving brush. As each egg is laid several of the scales attach themselves to it fanwise, covering most of the egg itself and the exposed part of the next egg laid, and so on. The batches are so arranged that all the eggs are covered except tor a small portion of the last ege laid, and the whole mass, except for the last egg, is thus admirably protected from the minute parasites and other insect enemies that prey on butterflies’ eggs. Close to the bridge near the Taklech bungalow many kinds. of butterflies may be caught, and there, in particular, I took the Marbled Flat (Achalarus bifasciatus casyapa), the Veined Scrub Hopper (Aeromachus stigmata) and the Dark Evening Brown (Melanitis phedima galkissa), as well as numbers of the more attractive local species such as the Map Butterfly (Cyrestis thyodamas), the Spangle (Papilio protenor) and the Glassy Blue- bottle (Zetides cloanthus), which, with many others, were drinking ereedily from a small moist patch of ground. Further up the hill I caught the Common Five-ring (Ypthima baldus baldus), an abundant butterfly in many parts of India but a rarity in the Simla Hills. This specimen was remarkable in that it was a fully marked wet season form. Taklech lies in a narrow valley, thickly wooded on the protected side, down which a little river runs steeply to join the Nogli Khud some 800! lower and a mile away. Its waters ran crystal clear until the late afternoon when they became cloudy, due, I believe, to the melting of snow high up near their source. The inhabitants here are some of the poorest that I have ever seen and are clad in the meanest rags. It must be a very hard task to wrest a livelihood from these steep hillsides, but nevertheless, like most hill people, they seemed contented and cheerful. Taklech, and the hillside before Dharangati, is a home of the ‘jaldi aru’, the tree that provides the little round apricots that ripen early. They were not yet ready but I made of them an admirable addition to my diet by boiling them with honey. They were ripe on my return and as the tree is very common I could have as many as I wished, but after all they are a somewhat tasteless fruit and a poor substitute for the true apricot. That evening, just as it was becoming dusk, a Spinetail swooped down towards the bungalow and was gone in a flash. These are the fastest of all birds and with their robust bodies and pointed AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 573 wings, shorter than in other swifts, are easily recognised and curiously resemble some of the more modern fighter planes. Two and a half miles away from Taklech and at a height of only 4,309’, the lowest point reached on the expedition, the road crosses the Nogli Khud, a turbulent little river that here runs through a considerable gorge. The Upper Link Road, however, soon atones for this fall from grace by climbing 5,121’ in the next seven miles to attain an altitude of 9,430! at Dharangati. For five tedious, tiring, interminable miles the track twists up a shadeless hillside towards a ridge that looks deceptively like the end of the climb, but when I reached it I was horrified to see that Dharangati was a further two miles away at the top of a sort of pass over another and higher ridge. Half way up the hillside (which is locally famed for its Chukor, though I only saw one covey) I came across an encampment of gujars with their herds of horses and buffaloes grazing round about. Though tall, dark and handsome, they are a wild-looking race of nomadic Muslims from towards the Kashmir border. They drive their animals down to the plains at the foot of the hills in the winter and return to these summer pastures in the spring. The view from Dharangati compensates for the endless climb. Dharangati looks across the deep valley of Mangalad Khud to. Hansbeshan (17,500/), a magnificent mountain whose sharp peak rises above precipices. As it is usual to hken such mountains to the Matterhorn I shall perhaps be original when I say that Hansbeshan bears no resemblance to it at all but is nevertheless the finest peak in this part of the Himalayas. ‘To the right is a long ridge, which runs in a wooded semi-circle to join a spur of the great mountain itself, and to the left is a fine view of snow- capped peaks. Around the bungalow is forest, the home of Monal, Koklas and Kahj pheasants, all of which may be seen close by. It proved a disappointing place for butterflies as I had hoped to catch the Green Copper (Lycaena kasyapa) and the Large Green Underwing here, but all that there was about were als species usually found at this altitude nearer Simla . .. the Large Silver- stripe (Argynnis childreni), the Common Silversiripe (A. kamala), the ubiquitous Queen of Spain Fritillary (A. lathonia), Indian Tortoiseshell (Vanessa cashmiriensis) and Dark Clouded Yellow (Colias croceus), as well as an occasional Pale Clouded Yellow (C. hyale), Common Yellow Swallowtail and Common Blue Apollo. On our arrival there was no rest-house keeper to be found, so we sat ourselves down on the hard boards of the verandah and shivered, for there was a cold wind blowing. After half an hour the chowkidar turned up, opened the place and boiled me some water. As I sat in peace, drinking coffee and admiring the view, the belated arrival of Don Quixote inspired me to poetry. The limerick that I composed pleased me immensely at the time, though subsequently I have had doubts as to its perfection. Here it is:—'I took an old cook to Bashahr! where he found out that life was unfahr, for although he was sickly, he was made to walk quickly, until he was put on a mahr.’ * Pronounced to rhyme with ‘stair’. 874 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY 'NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 This day the transport. turned up even later than Don Quixote, having had: trouble with the second mule, the less pric of the two, which had hurled one of my boxes of supplies far down a khudside. The only damage was to a packet of Lux which. had burst all over the other contents of the box with the result that henceforward much of my food was flavoured with soap. Mules, by the way, in my experience, are much maligned animals and not the vicious creatures that they are supposed 60, be. I have always found them fairly amiable and very long suffering. Perhaps once in a trip they will throw the baggage down the hillside and they must be carefully watched at the end of a day’s stage to see that they le down to have the roll they so much love to have after their loads have been removed. On the whole they are very reliable and will, if pressed, willingly do their 30 miles. The rest of the afternoon was not peaceful. Sheba discover- ed a remarkable triple echo and spent two happy hours barking at three imaginary dogs which invariably hurled back her abuse word for word from the forest over the way. Don Quixote distinguished himself by breaking the only bunga- low teapot. As he had already broken a lamp at Babli and a water jug at Taklech I began to have fears that I should not stand the pace financially. “How ever, this was his last lapse and he broke nothing more. It is an easy descent of 38,000’ through forest to the bridge over the Mangalad Khud. After crossing it the track runs across precipices and steep sunny slopes to join the main Hindustan- Tibet road at ‘Deo. It was a hot and thirsty walk. Sarahan is in two parts. Below the road is old Sarahan, a typical hill village: above the road is Durbar Sarahan, the summer capital of Bashahr State. The bungalow is situated between the two. The Sutlej] Valley is wide here and gives a fine view of snowy peaks, Just after leaving Sarahan I overtook the first of many flocks of sheep and goats being driven up the road to Tibet. Most of the animals were carrying little packs containing salt or grain and the herds were always escorted by one or two bie dogs wearing the iron collars inentioned earlier on. Their return journey is made in the autumn when borax and wool are brought down to the markets in India. Whether, like the Marchas of the Kumaon, these shepherds have villages high up on the Tibetan border which they inhabit during tae brief summer I do not know, nor did I enquire, as at that time I had never heard of the Marchas. Having left the Upper Link Road I was now on the main trade route to Tibet and there was plenty of traffic passing up it, for the Shipki Pass usually opens at the beginning of June. As well as the flocks of sheep and goats there were ‘strings of donkeys and pack ponies and numerous foot passengers. Bevodd Sarahan the road enters the Sutle; Gorge and. runs fairly level at about 8,000! above the river bed. The scenery 1s impressive but the vs ulley is so narrow and the sides are so high that views of the snowy peaks are limited and remain so amis Sangla ig reached, « AN -EXPEDITION. T.O SANGLA IN .KUNAWAR J, 575 _ 1 saw few butterflies. The Himalayan Sailer (Neptis mahendra) Was very common and I caught a number of Common Argus (Erebia. nirmala nirmala) in the hopes of catching the race scandina which has the under hindwing overlaid with pale grey scales, and is listed from Bashahr and Kunawar. I did not see it and I imagine it is a dry zone form. The only other butterflies ft remember catching were the Marbled Flat, the Lepcha Bushbrown (Mycalesis lepcha lepcha), the Common Forester and the Green Sapphire, as well as a most interesting form of the Indian White Admiral (Limenitis trivena). This species is remarkable because it displays racial variation more clearly than any other Indian butterfly. Indeed if the two extreme races are seen without the intermediate forms they can hardly be recognised as the sanie species. The races mainly differ in the width of the white band that crosses both wings, this being very broad (7 mm.) and con- fiuent on the hindwing in the Simla form (pallida), but very narrow (2 mm.) and broken into separate spots in that from Chitral (gilgitica). Of the intermediate races hydaspes (from the Sind and Liddar Valleys, Kashmir) grades into gilgitica, the discal band being broader (8 mm.); ligyes (Pir Panjal, Kashmir), with the discal band broader still, grades into hydaspes, but as trivena (Murree to Kangra) is almost the same as pailida (and in particular has the white band of the same width), there is a very considerable difference between this form and ligyes. Evans only gives the distribution of the races as mentioned above, but as I already possessed hydaspes from Chini, I assumed that I should find the same sequence of races in a_ northerly direction. As I expected, I caught ligyes in the Baspa Vailey, and very likely gilgitica is to be found round about Jangi, but trivena was not to be seen anywhere. However, the specimen I caught close to Chaura is perfectly intermediate between ligyes and pallida and in all probability replaces the trivena race in the Simla Hills, but although palaeontologists may reconstruct an extinct species from the fraction of a fossil skull, and tell us all about the habits of the creature it belonged to, such latitude is not allowed to the entomologist, and, because I only caught this one specimen (which possibly may have been an aberration), I am, quite rightly, not allowed to assume that it is a typical example of a new local race. The bungalow at Chaura, although, like all these forest rest houses, situated in a place of great natural beauty, is rendered almost uninhabitable by the swarms of flies that infest it. With the notable exceptions of Narkanda, Bagi and Sangla, all the bungalows along my route were swarming with flies. and they are the one great drawback to this trip. But of all of them Chaura is the worst. The flies settle in countless hundreds on food, on tables, on the shiny leather backs of chairs, on the floor and on one’s face, making life almost unbearable. The repeated use of Flit inside the rooms undoubtedly keeps the numbers down but as there are invariably tears in the fly-proof netting on doors and windows it does not stop a constant influx of new arrivals, nor is it of any use on the verandah. A large supply of netting or muslin covers could be used to protect food and drink . . . but this would 576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 mean removing and replacing the covers between each mouthful. IL decided that the problem was insoluble and did nothing about it. The addition of flies to my diet did me no harm, but it is a wise man who takes with him a cure for dysentery. But these flies, which were house flies or their near relatives, are not the only members of the order sent to torment the traveller. There are also the large brown horse-flies (Yabanus sp.) which are common everywhere between Wildflower Hall and Dharangati (beyond which place they cease to be a trouble). These inflict very painful bites and tear chunks of flesh (or so it seems) out of one’s knees and ankles, but as they fly with a loud buzzing noise, they give warning of their approach and so may be avoided, especially if long trousers and not shorts are worn, In addition Chaura is a bad place for panthers and a reference to the bungalow register will show that owners of dogs should beware. Finally there are good apricots to be had here and having at last found something ood to say about the place let us hasten to leave it. Four miles from Chaura there is a fine view down the Sutle} Gorge and from there for a couple of miles the road is bad al erosses some uncomfortable precipices which are especially un- pleasant as the road has no parapet. After this there is a steady descent to Soldanga Nullah with its squalid serai, close to which is the first sign of Tibetan influence, a prayer wall. These are long structures built down the middle of a road, especially at a pass or at some point of importance. The stones on the top of the wall, and often at its sides, are inscribed with Tibetan characters representing ‘Om mani padme hum (I am in the pericarp of the Lotus')’, the prayer that the lama mutters as he turns his prayer wheel. The correct procedure is always to pass them on the left-hand side. Although, working on the principle of when in Rome do as Rome does, I conscientiously observed this rule, truth compels me to relate that the local inhabitants do not. That the Tibetan influence was once strong in these eee may be seen from the number of prayer walls further on and also from the style of some of the buildings, especially the temple a mile and a half beyond Paunda and the monastery at Nachar. After a long two miles climb Paunda was reached at the end of a most exhausting day's walk. The transport was miles behind and did not arrive until dusk, as it had been badly held up by the flocks of sheep and goats, and it had been a hard task to manage the mules over some of the difficult stretches of road. However, their late arrival did not matter as the bungalow was already occupied by Dr. Crookshank, Geological Adviser to the States, who fed and entertained me. Before I left the next morning the chowkidar tried to sell me the skin of a Red Flying Squirrel (Pteromys albiventer). It is a shame to kill these pretty little creatures for although their fur is soft and fine the pelts are too fragile to be of any use. ‘ More usually, but loosely, translated ‘Hail to Thee, Jewel of the Totus.’ AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR D4 I wonder how many people know that flying squirrels make the most engaging pets. They are very easily tamed, although wild and frightened when first caught. I knew one that was quite at home within twenty-four hours. For the first day or two it was kept shut in the house, given a dark cage in which to spend the daytime, and fruit and nuts to eat. When it had grown quite accustomed to its new quarters it was not confined at all and was allowed to leave the house at dusk, returning to its cage at dawn. This mode of life continued for some time, but after a while it would every now and then be absent during the day as well, and ultimately it stayed away altogether, though it was seen near the house on more than one occasion. It was quite tame and did not mind being handled, even by strangers. When picked up in the daytime it would crawl up the person’s sleeve to lodge between the coat and shoulder, presumably an ideally warm, dark place. In a wild state they spend the daytime in a hollow in a tree, or in some similar place, and only come out at dusk to look for their food. Their method of progression is interesting. Having come out from their hiding place, they climb high up the tree and then hurl themselves into space to glide down towards the trunk of another tree, which may be as much as 80 yards away if the flight is down a steep hillside. Just before reaching’ it they suddenly flatten out to land on all four feet. They then climb that tree and the process is repeated until they reach their destination. Up hill, of course, their progress is laborious. As the transport was still tired from the previous day’s exertions I decided to have an easy day on the 28th and to make for Nachar, only 43 miles up the road. It was a pleasant early morning’s walk and by ten o’clock I was sitting on the verandah of the Nachar forest bungalow eating luscious white cherries from the garden. The bungalow is an attractive two- storied building and struck me as being palatial . . . subsequently I was surprised to learn that it had been condemned as unsafe some years ago! The garden is a delightful spot with a hawthorn bush and apple and cherry trees. All sorts of vegetables were growing but un- fortunately none were yet ready. IO The Dry Zone As the 8. W. monsoon proceeds up the Sutlej Valley its in- fluence decreases so that it is possible to divide the adjacent regions into three climatic zones;—a wet zone which extends to Paunda, a dry zone (where the influence of the monsoon is slight) which begins there and extends to within 30 miles of the Tibetan frontier, and an arid zone (where the monsoon disappears) beyond that. Annual rainfall figures are about 60” at Simla, 44” at Kotgarh and 32” at Kilba, but in the dry zone much of the precipitation takes place in winter in the form of snow’. * Precipitation figures for Kilba are as follows:—June to September 10.5”. October to May 21.5”. 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. \SOCIETY,*-Vol. 47 ‘AS a consequence of this change of climate the vegetition and butterfly fauna’of the dry zone is very different Frenne that of the: wetter regions nearer’ Simla. The rich forests’ of Spruce and Narkanda “Pine® are now replaced by Cedars (Deodars), and. lower down the characteristic tree is the Chilka Pine, of which more anon: In particular there were two dry zone butterflies that I was anxious to catch which I knew could be found at’ Nachar ..°. the’ Branded’ Meadow Brown (Maniola’ lupinus cheena) and the davk form of the Green-veined White (Pieris napi montana).- But I was. unlucky and did not see them. Of course it was us I had feared. I was much too early for butterflies in the dry zone where they are only abundant during the short summer fron: the end of June until mid- August. ‘There’ ig thick cedar forest round the bungalow anda’ pretty view over the treetops to the mountains on the other side of the valley. Close by is the local school, doubtless an admirably conducted, institution but apparently run on non- repression lines; a little beyond is a picturesque building which I tock to be ‘a monastery, for it bore a clerical air and, unlike the school, was wrapped in monastic calm. _ Nachar is the forest headquarters of the Upper Bashahr division and the D.F.O. is stationed here during the summer months: in the winter when snow closes the road he moves down to ene on the plains., I doubt if any government official is stationed } a more remote spot than this. The forests are leased from Bashahr State and the main business of the department is the extraction of cedar timber. Except near the Sutlej this has to be manhandled as it is a difficult country for forestry, but down the sides of the gorge there are wire ropeways to transport the wood to the river bank, where it is stacked and cast into the water when it is near its highest flood. A month or two later it reaches the plains and is ‘collected ‘at (I think) Bilaspur. The losses amount ‘to 10%. In addition to its other amenities Nachar possesses a sub- “post office and a dispensary. The building did not collapse during the night and shortly after dawn we set off into the ereat unknown. Being by this time in good training I trotted down the steep road to Wanetu AacehearanuKe al to the astonishment of Sheba, who is unaccustomed to such levity on my part. However, there was method in my madness as i rightly suspected that the 5 or 6 miles along the Sutlej gorge would be unpleasantly hot later in the day. Té must be admitted that I did not trot up this stretch on my return’ journey for. a more unpleasant climb during the middle of the day it has noe been my lot to experience. The hillside radiates the heat like the outsidé of a furnace, the road is steep, so’ steep that most of it is stepped, the steps being placed just so’ far ° apart that ‘1t is impossible to climb with any rhythm, the surface: is loose and rough and I was tired at the end of a long walk. How I should have loved a quart of beer when TI arrived “at’ the top. AMT had was Nescafé and that was as nectar! i Jf I were to write a murder story without any doubt at ‘all I should make its setting the Wangtu bungalow, for a more forbiddiig 7. . AN. EXPEDITION TO\SANGEA IN’ KUNAWAR.* * 575" spot I have never seen. Jt stands stark and lonely on ‘thésbare craggy ‘hillside above the Wangtu bridge, where the Sutle} rashes with incredible fury: through the gorge, penned into a width: of: a: mere 25: yards betw een the cliffs. » I made\no stop: here but lrurried past. The Sutlej is a Juniohtenine ahve ts fury sind pow er smndst be: seen to be believed. “Looking down upon it ‘from near Taranda I had wondered how it had out. this terrific gorge straight across the Himalayan ranges. On seeing the-river at close quarters it was: no longer hard to understand. : | The road runs along the gorge and file seven miles keeps alee to *the Sutle] except for one stretch where it climbs steeply over a bluff. The scenery is bare and grim and the noise of the river is deafening. At the seventh mile the track turns ‘left up the hill to: Urni’ and almost immediately the forest road to Kilba branches off to the right, descends for a mile and, after crossing the river, begins the stiff ascent of four miles to Kilba. ~The main Tibet road continues on, ultimately to reach Gartck. Shipki, the first village in Tibet, is 82 miles away and, after Urn, which is four miles from the junction with the Kilba road, the stages are as follows:— Urni to Rogi 10 miles, Regi to Chini 4 miles, Chini to Pangi 44 miles, _Pangi to Jangi 14 miles, Jangi to Kanam 114 miles, Kanam to Poo 16 miles, Poo to Namgia 8 miles, Namegia, to Shipki 94 miles. _ There are rest houses at all these places except Shipki, which, of course, is over the border in Tibet.. There is no particular difficulty about the journey except that the traveller must have a eood head for heights as the road cuts across very high cliffs in several places. The Shipki Pass, w hich lies between iN eanete and Shipki, is more that 15,000’ and is normally open in early June. Whether any serious attempt is, made to stop the Buropean traveller from crossing the border I doubt, but I do know that he is supposed to get permission to.do so. An tore auinte point about this road, is that by the time Paes has been reached the traveller has passed right through the main. Himalayan range, this being the only easy w ay by, w vhich this is possible. | For some years Mr. Alec Jones and myself employed a asaya W ho pliéd between Gartok and Simla, to catch. butterflies for us along this route... Good butterflies are to, be caught at Chini but we received little of interest between. that place and the Shipki. P ass, the country probably being too barren and, dry for them. Buf. the ; northern slopes of the pass and the country around Shipki itself abound in butterflies during July, as may be seen- from .the- list that follows of -the more ‘interesting species” we received :from.there- 580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Papilionids: the short tailed form of Papilic machaon (ladaikensis), Parnassius simo, P. charltonius, P. stoliczanus spitiensis, P. epaphus nirius(C)' and P. jacquemontii jacquemontit. Pierids—Baltia butleri butleri, Pontia daplidice meorei (C), Pieris callidice kalora, Colias eogene eogene. C. ladakensis (C), and also Pontia chloridice from Puri close by. Satyrids—Maniola davendra davendra (C), M. pulchella (C), Aulocera brahminus brahminus (C), Erebia kalinda kalinda (C) and Eumenis mnizechu baldiva (C). Nymphalids—Argynnis eugenia mackinnoni, A. adippe jainadeva (C), A. pales sipora, Melitaea arcesis sindura (C), Vanessa ladakensis and V. urticae. ° Lycaenids—Polyommatus metallica metallica, P, pheretes lehana, P. eros ariana (C), and P. vicrama vicrama from Puri. Skippers—Hesperia alpina alpina and Pamplhila comma indi- cofusca. From the Shirang La (18,000'), ten miles beyond Shipki, we also obtained a long series of a hitherto undescribed race of Parnassius stoliczkanus, the characteristic features of which are given in the Appendix at the end of this article. From Gartok (ninety miles further on as the crow flies) we have also received Polyommatus gigantea and Pieris deota. There were few butterflies between Wangtu and Kilba and such as there were were those that are common at this height in the foothills. The Pioneer (Anaphacis aurota) and the Common Gull (Cepora nerissa) were abundant, the Yellow Orange-tip (Ixus pyrene) and the Hybrid Argus (Erebia hybrida) were common, and an occasional Common Peacock (Papilio polyctor) supplied a much needed dash of colour to the scene. A few tiny Grass Blues (Zizeeria) fluttered about, and once or twice I saw a White-edged Rockbrown (Eumeris parisatis) dash rapidly past. This handsome butterfly, which has always been a favourite of mine, flies faster than any other Satyrid that I know of. It is very much a lover of open and rocky places and is particularly difficult to catch as it is both very shy and has the exasperating habit of settling in . inaccessible spots. To my mind it is one of the finest of the Browns, only surpassed in the Simla Hills by the Great Satyr (Aulocera padma) whose sober dress of velvet-black and white and graceful flight can be matched by very few Indian butterflies. A little beyond the Choltu bridge the road climbs steeply to Kilba. Here for the first time I saw the Chilghoza Pine (Pinus Gerardiana), the tree that produces the oily edible nuts? known as chilghosas. ‘The tree looks very like the Blue Pine (Pinus excelsa) of Simla but the bark is smooth and the needles are in clusters of three. The wood is soft and only of use as firewood, but is admirable for this purpose as it is very oily. The rest house at Kilba is about 800! above the river and some 800! above the village which is the range headquarters and like Nachar has a dispensary and a sub-post office. Urni is to the left across the valley and behind it is the high snow peak of ee a * (C)=Common * Mere correctly ‘seeds’. Q Shore Aye OSe[IIA e[sUeS IeyoeN ‘A1oySseuOoyL iP SLU ‘90S “LSIE] “IVN Avawog “nanof Journ.; BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. is Pas? SEAS LSS ‘S BF OMNI RO Fad ERNE ORE RSE NS ECS The confluence of the Sutlej and Baspa Rivers PLATE TI ~ AN EXPEDITION TO SANGLA IN KUNAWAR 581 Pandusar (19,000/). Straight up the Sutlej Valley to the right is a fine view of the Kailas Peaks. In front of the bungalow, on a lower terrace, are walnut and Spanish Chestnut trees, the latter an importation that does well in these parts. Having left the main road with its slight but pernicious taint of civilisation I was now in unspoilt country among a primitive and courteous people. Certainly the atmosphere at Kilba was friendly for not only did the resthouse keeper refuse his legitimate dues for supplying me with a hot bath and firewood, but the range officer was most helpful and the compounder’s gon insisted on feeding me, giving me eges for breakfast and a monal for dinner (let us forget that it was the close season for the latter), and generally entertaining me. This remarkable youth was busily learning Russian, contemplating walking to Rampur in one day, and training a body of guerilla troops to deal with goondas in the event of civil war. Although there was no trouble here when the disturbances broke out this activity was not as far fetched as I thought at that time. Close to the bungalow there is the grave of a very young Huropean child and I was much puzzled to know how it came to be there, as this is hardly the country into which to travel with a child in arms. However, I discovered that in days gone by, before the forests were leased by the Indian government, they were privately worked and that it was the grave of the small son of one of the local managers. Grapes grow well here and a potent spirit is made from them. Although it is very fiery, it is not unpleasant and has a distinct taste of the grapes from which it is distilled. IV, The Baspa Valley Early on the morning of the 80th we set off for Sangla, leaving Don Quixote behind to recover. The road descends steeply to the Sutlej and then runs for two miles close beside the river, a compara- tively tranquil stream here. Not far from its junction with the Baspa River is one of the celebrated ‘jhula’ bridges, a form of structure which fortunately I had no occasion to use. A. strong wire is stretched tightly from one bank to the other and along it runs a wheel from which is suspended a wooded seat. The traveller, having commended his soul to providence, sits on this and, hanging on for his life, is pulled across the river. Sometimes rope is used instead of wire and this is even more alarming as the rope sags badly in the middle and sways violently from side to side. The road turns up the Baspa Valley close to the point where the two rivers meet, a sombre but beautiful spot. The contrast between the waters of the two rivers is interesting: those of the Sutle] are dirty brown but those of the Baspa River are milky erey (a sign that they have their origin in a glacier), and after their confluence the two streams continue to run separately for a hundred yards or so before mingling. The lower part of the Baspa Valley is very like other tributary valleys that I had seen. It is narrow and steep and the river 2 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 rushes down it in a series of cascades and rapids. For the first thousand feet the track climbs through a sparse growth of Chilghoza pines but above that cedar forest is entered and it continues to run through this until the middle valley is reached. Of butterfly life there was little (I repeat I was a month too early) but I caught two specimens of the ligyes race of the Indian White Admiral (Limenitis trivena) and a good series of the Mountain Argus (Hrebia shallada shallada), neither of which had previously been recorded from this neighbourhood. The latter catch interested me especially, as I had always believed this to be a high elevation butterfly that flew about on the grassy mountain sides above 12,000!. Yet here it was between 6,500° and 8,300° (I saw none after leaving the lower valley) flying alnount in ihe shade of the forest just like the Common Argus . . . but unlike the Hybrid Argus, mentioned above, which keeps to open and preferably rocky oui. Lower down than this on my return I saw a Lethe which I, failed to catch as it dived into some bamboo undergrowth. This was in all probability the Banded Treebrown (Lethe confusa) of which I have specimens from Nachar. Although common in many parts of the hills it is a rarity in the Simla region. The track is bad and only just passable for mules, especially in one place where it has been overrun by a fine scree. Shortly before I reached this spot I had a surprise. As I turned a sharp corner in a particularly gloomy piece of forest I saw in front of me what I took to be a bison! As I was preparing to move off in the opposite direction as unobtrusively as possible J realised that I was no longer in the South Indian jungies. I had another look and decided that it must be a yak... but I was again wrong for on closer inspection it proved to be a dazo! doubtless an animal of many admirable domestic qualities but a nasty looking customer when blocking a very narrow path. How- ever, having given us each a very dirty look, it hastened past, probably being even more startled to see us than we were to see him. I had hoped to meet a few yaks at Sangla but they were up on the high pastures, even the moderate summer temperature of the valley. being too warm for them. After seven miles the river rushes down between two cliffs in a series of waterfalls and the track zig-zags steeply over the hill- side close to the right. At the top is a small tree-covered plateau and beyond and a little below me lay the beautiful valley I had come to see. Without a doubt the valley was once a chain of lakes, probably formed by the moraines of glaciers flowing down from the south. T do not think that anything else can account for its topography which is so different from that of any other valley in this part of the Himalayas, for its floor is w ide, perhaps a mile across in places, and is fairly level and set at a gentle slope. It is well cultivated and dotted with fruit and walnut trees. The northerii side is dominated by two great peaks, the first (19,500/) above Sangla, and the second (21,150/), a very graceful mountain, some SD SERS SSeS 2S S$ SS 2S 3S RRLIROYS rere? . S 2S ROSS : Steerer ere”. POSS Text-fig. 1. two poles are held by two spawn collectors sitting at the opposite ends of the boat, to the sides of which the poles are fixed by the help of wooden hooks for additional support. The net is then lowered into the water in such a way that it remains behind the boat and does not get entangled. As soon as the net is lowered, by the force of the current, it forms a: bag-like hollow in which ova collect. The net is lfted when sufficient ova gather. This process is repeated till a sufficient quantity of eggs are obtained. SPAWNING GROUNDS AND COLLECTION AREAS The major carps of the rivers breed at suitable places ‘in freshwater and in the Halda at select places free from the influence of salinity. The favourite localities (Text-fig. 2), where the fish are said to breed are Napitarghat, Khalipharghona. Malingar tek and Bariaghonar tek. Mostly, the people of Paschim Guvara, Urkirchar and Uttar Madarsa, living on and near the banks of the Halda, collect the spawn. This area covers a distance of about 10 miles, extending from Napitarghat to Ramdas Munshirhat. The spawn collectors fix their nets during the spawning season at suitable spots in the river and examine them after short intervals. As soon as some ova are spotted, it becomes clear that the fish are breeding or have alreadv bred. The spawn is collected upto about 14 hours after spawning, after which the quantity of spawn decreases and further attempt at collection is nof made. SPAWNING SEASON ‘The spawning day generally falls within three days prior to or after full-moon or new-moon during the months of April to July, but the time for spawning is not fixed’ (Majumdar, 1940 p. 735). There may be as many as four spawnings in the year, as for example, fish spawned on the 12th April, 10th and 26th May and 10th June in the year 1945, on the Ist and 30th April, 17th May and from the 10th to 12th June in the year 1946 and on the 28rd April and 23rd May during this year. The belief that fish spawn only during night is not borne out by facts. The spawning in the bund at Bankura took place at 7 a.m. on the 14th cf July, 1946, in the Halda about 5 p.m. on the 30th April, 1946. Further, Labeo gonius was seen spawning at 7.10 a.m. on the 20th July, 1933 (Ahmad, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 47 arduara | GQ Uttam Cuztra eae ALttarhadirsa Nehitarghat geist Va CS <— ww bo =) Seale 1”=2 Miles a | Text-fig. 2 COLLECTION & HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG 507 1944, p. 344), and Khan (1945, pp. 816-18) and several other workers have also made similar observations. It is clear, therefore, that it is immaterial whether' it is night or day, for fish shed ova as and when conditions become favourable. It seems to be true, however, that bright sunlight does not favour spawning, probably because it raises the temperature of the water and therefore the eggs are not laid during bright sunny days. It has also been noticed that the fish settle at the bottom and do not show much sexual activity, when there is a heavy shower of rain. This may be due to the fact that heavy rain greatly agitates the water, making it unsuitable for the time being for shedding ova. After heavy rain, which brings about flood and is responsible for inundating low lying areas ‘near the banks, the fish finding these and other favourable conditions migrate to the proper places to spawn. ARTIFICIAL BEDS (Hapas), THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND DESCRIPTION Hapa (text-fig. 8) is the familiar vernacular term for beds scooped out on the banks of a river. The hapas: referred to in this article are situated on the banks of the river Halda and its tributaries. A number of hapas are prepared at a place and are arranged according to the supply of water. Text-fig. 8 In some places there are single rows of hapas, while im others there are double rows, one row lying on the river side and the other away from it. The front row of hapas is directly connected with the river either by a simple cutting in the earth or by bamboo pipes or by other types of wooden drains 3 598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. 4% while the second row gets water through the front row of hapas (text-fig. 3). The drains are used to fill water into the hapas when the level of water in the river is higher than in the hapas and for draining them, when the level of water is lower in the stream. That is how occasionally aeration of water in the hapas is maintained. Drainage system varies greatly in different cases but mostly the arrangement of hapas and the drainage system places is as shown in the figure. The hapas can be used for one or more years depending upon the consis- tency of the soil in which these are formed. In loose soil the hapas are excavated annually but hapas in firm earth last several years. The hapas are properly plastered with mud and dried before they are used. Proper operation of the drainage is also ensured. Measurement of several hundred hapas established that their average dimensions were 16x8 x14 feet. METHODS OF COLLECTION In the boat, the collectors crect two mud walls, enclosing a small area, making something like a small hapa. This enclosure is filled with water. In the enclosure thus formed eggs collected from the stream are transferred for development, which is accompanied, however, by a great loss of eggs owing to congestion and the want of proper aeration. ‘The number of eggs so lost depends on the time factor. If eggs are collected in a short time and they are transferred to proper hapas, the mortality will be less but if collection takes a long time the result will be disastrous. CONDITION OF SPAWN AT COLLECTION TIME The ova at the time of collection are found to be in various stages of develop- ment. Each looks like a bead with a big balloon-like covering, formed as the result of suction of water into the space between the egg and its membrane. As the egg is slightly heavier than water, it settles down when shed in comparatively still water. The water absorbed serves as a medium for the protection of the developing embryo from external injuries as well as respiration before the larva hatches. After the embryo is almost fully formed this water serves yet another important function. The embryo here takes to swimming for the first time and there is no chance of its drowning. This is an important provision for the safety of the little ones before they come in direct touch with the external world. ‘Thus, Nature has furnished a lesson to the fish farmers not to introduce the tiny, imexperienced and feeble larvae and fry straight- away into the deep water and endanger their very existence. METHODS OF HATCHING After sufficient quantity of eggs are collected from the river, these are transferred to the mud-enclosures in the boats and from the latter to the nets covering hapas, which are previously filled with water. Ifor want of nets the same curtains are used for the collection as well as for hatching ova. The net on each hapa is allowed to sag about 6 inches below the surface of water while the rope lacing its margins is fixed to pegs on the banks at short distances, so that a bag-like hollow or depression is formed in the hapa. Below the bag a few strong bamboos are placed parallel to each other, along the breadth of the hapa. ‘These bamboos are carefully rolled from time to time with a view to disturbing the eggs so that the ova may come to the surface. One hapa accommodates from 4 to 10 buckets (a bucket=15 seers) of eggs, numbering 9,00,000 to 22,00,000. These eggs lie in several layers so that the lower layers are pressed hard. These ova are carefully and constantly moved by twigs so that the ova may get equal chance of development. The spawn when collected is a mixture of prawns, insect larvae, small fishes, ete. These useless creatures are not separated from the fish ova before transferring the latter to hapas. ‘These animals move about actively in this confinement and injure the ova and some of them even devour them. Some of these also die in captivity and by their decomposition fungus makes its appearance and attacks the ova. ‘here is no regular aeration of water in the hapa. The oya remain on the nets and the water of the hapas is not changed till the larvae hatch out and pass through the meshes of the nets into the water of COLLECTION & HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG — é0b the hapas below as free individuals. This may take about 24 hours or more for all the larvae to come out of the egg-membranes. When, however, most of the larvae hatch out, ‘the nets with egg-shells; dead and decomposed eggs, dead and alive insect larvae, prawns and fish are removed and washed in the river. The fish larvae on the other hand remain in the water of the hapa till the second day, when these are collected with the help of closely woven sheet of cloth and introduced into another hapa containing fresh water. 'This procedure is repeated for a week or so. If instead of transferring larvae from one hapa to another a continuous current of water can be set up, the hatching percentage can be increased manifold. At some of the places there was no difficulty whatsoever in preparing such hapas. During bright sunny days, the ova in the hapas are protected from the sun by placing on the hapas bamboo, covered by matting. There is another method, which is used for the embryonic development only. Big bamboo baskets of various sizes and shapes are used for this purpose. These are lined internally with fine cloth and in the containers thus formed GOT, bel PY) oN a4 ‘ moet a ee eWUoreCrelge Cen (eee Co Ca] (ee WG 4 Text-fig. 4 the ova collected from the stream are transferred. These baskets are locally known as ‘Chang’ (text-fig. 4). These are moored in the stream. The embryos are allowed to develop here for some hours but are transferred to hapas before hatching takes place. The fry obtained by this process are supposed to be more healthy than those obtained as a result of entire develop- ment taking place in the hapas. In the case of persons, who cannot afford to hire boats, ova are collected in another way. One of the shorter ends of the net in this case is tied to a pole fixed in the river while the opposite margin is held by a person standing near the bank. Thus sufficient quantity of ova are collected by these persons. RESULTS OF SOME EXPERIMENTS Some experiments were conducted on a small scale to determine the best method to get larger percentage of hatching. These experiments were not conclusive but at least it has become clear that careless handling of ova, crowding them on mosquito net, ete. and want of proper aeration are harmful and destructive to the proper development of eggs and larvae. The experiments are in progress, and the details will be published as soon as conclusive results are obtained. 600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4% CoMPARISONS WITH METHODS EMPLOYED IN OTHER PLACES From the river Halda (sce map, text-fig. 2), and the bunds at Midnapore (Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta 1944) the ova are collected with the help of mosquito curtain, which is bigger in Chittagong (from 36-39x9 feet) than in Midnapore (74X38 feet). In the case of Bankura (Jamda Bundh), which was in- spected in the month of July 1947, fine cloth 6x3 feet was used instead. The mosquito net cloth, however, gives better results because only the ova remain in the net while the water finds its way out, whereas in the case of fine cloth, it is often difficult to get rid of water and even at the time of collection the cloth interferes with the normal working. In a bundh at Chittagong (Majumdar, 1940 p. 787), the ova are not at all collected but are allowed to develop in the bundh itself. Like the collecting nets, the hapas also differ in dimensions. In Chittagong the average dimensions were 16X8x1} feet, in Midnapore, these were 41x3x14 feet while the dimensions were found to be only 3x2}x1 feet in Bankura. In none of these instances, however, there was any arrangement for setting up current of water in the hapas. In Chittageng th hapas are covered by the mosquito curtains, which sag in water, and on this the ova are transferred. On the other hand, the ova are transferred directly into the hapas in the districts of Midnapore and Bankura. The first arrangement has some advantages over the second. Jirstly, the ova can be orientated in such a way that most of them come to the surface. Secondly, after hatching, the larvae pass through the meshes of the curtain while the egg-membranes, dead eggs and other animals remain on the curtain and can be removed. The number of ova put in one hapa greatly differs in the three localities. In Chittagong about 9 to 22 lakhs ova are put in one hapa whereas in Midnapore about. 12,000 and in Bankura about 55,000 are treated in one hapa. If we take 5 mm. as the average diameter of an egg, about 4} lakh ova can easily be spread in a single layer in a hapa at Chittagong, about fifty thousand in Midnapore and about twenty-seven thousand in Bankura. Majumdar (1940) and Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta (1944) have stressed the necessity of aerating hapas for better results. The results of the experiments conducted at Chittagong and Bankura support this view. ‘The observations of Majumdar that ova are overcrowded in hapas in Chittagong were mostly found to be correct but the suggestion of Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta that to avoid overcrowding only a cupful of eggs (about 1500) should be kept in each hapa, does not seem practicable in view of the large number of ova to be treated. Fifteen hundred ova will occupy only about 1/83 part of the space, if ova arp arranged in one layer and so if their recommendation is followed the rest of the space will remain unused. In trout hatcheries at Katrain (Punjab), Harwan and Achhabal (Kashmir) and Avalanche (Madras), the ova are arranged in a single layer and all the space in the trays is properly utilised. The same practice can be followed in the present case with success. Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta have recommended the use of two sheets of cloth to keep the eggs in the pits, one piece to be spread on the top of the other, with a space in between the two. In order to keep the sheet of cloth in place, they have recommended the use of weights in the centre. This is a useful suggestion but can further be improved. In the present case due to the weight in the centre, all ova will gather together in the bag-like structure formed in the centre and this overcrowding is harmful for the develop- ment of ova. The net can be made into a rectangular tank (text-fig. 5) like an inverted mosquito curtain, and all the four corners of the inner tank can be tied to the corresponding corners of the outer tank and the corners of the latter can be fastened to four upright poles of bamboo fixed for the purpose, so that both the tanks remain properly stretched and no bag-like structure is formed. When the ova are transferred to such improvised tanks, these will mostly remain in their proper positions and there will be no overcrowding at any one spot. Mookerjee, Mazumdar and Dasgupta have recommended the use of plants such as Ceratophyllum and Ilydrilla for promoting natural aeration in hapas. These plants will not be useful for two reasons :— (1) In netting iarvae they cause obstruction; and (2) At night and on cloudy days these will reduce oxygen through respiration. COLLECTION & HATCHING OF CARP OVA IN CHITTAGONG 601 The principle followed in the case of trout hatcheries after suitable modifications will probably be the best course to follow in the present case. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENTS (1) Handis or pucca earthen vessels should be used in place of mnd-enclosures in the boats for usually a lot of mud dissolves in water, rendering the water muddy and injurious for the development of ova and larvae. (2) Ova collected from the stream should be transferred to hapas after short intervals instead of piling them for a long time in mud-enclosures in the boats. By this procedure more oxygenated water and space can be provided for the development of the ova. (3) The ova should be separated as far as possible, from debris and animals before transferring them to hapas. (4) The ova in the net should not be piled in heaps but should be arranged in a layer. It was seen that in one of the hapas, where about 60 lakh ova were placed, the owner could get only about 2 lakh larvae while from a hapa of the same dimensions and under similar conditions containing about 8 lakh ova, the larvae obtained were more than two lakhs. (5) Continuous current of water from the river should be set up in the hapa, wherever possible. (6) Below the mosquito netting a sheet of fine cloth should be placed in the hapa, as shown in figuye 5. By this method all the larvae can be collected in the lower sheet and labour of collecting them from the hapa will be saved. Moreover, the larvae which cannot ke gathered from the hapa and are lost to the collector, will also be saved. (7) After the collection of ova is over, attempts should be made to collect larvae and fry from the stream. Tor the collection of larvae and fry the net known at Rajshahi and Murshidabad as ‘Benchijal’ can be used. For the figure of this net refeyence may be made to Rahman (1946). REFERENCES Ahmad, Nazir, 1944—'The spawning habits and early stages in the develop- ment of the carp, Labeo gonius (Hamilton), with hints for distinguishing eggs, embryos and larvae of Labeo gonius, Cirrhina mrigala and Wallagonia attu. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, X, pp. 343-54. Khan, Hamid, 1945—‘Symposium on the factors influencing the spawning of Indian carps. Observations on the spawning behaviour of carp in the Punjab’. Majumdar, C.H., 1940—‘Spawning grounds and hatcheries in the district Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, XI, pp. 315-820. 7 of Chittagong, Bengal’. Science and Culture, pp. 735-789, 602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 47 Mookerjee, H.K., Mazumdar, §8.R. and Dasgupta, B.N., 1944-~Observations on the breeding ground and spawning habits of certain Indian Carps in the Midnapore district, Bengal, with suggestions for their breeding, collection of eggs and the rearing of fry’. Journ. Dept. Sci., Calcutta University, pp. 81-91. Rahman, Q.M., 1946—A note on the fish fry trade in Bengal. Government of Bengal, Calcutta, pp. 1-85. EXPLANATION OF TEXT-FIGURES Text-fig. 1. Mosquito-curtain used in the river Halda, Chittagong, for collection of eggs. Text-fig. 2. Sketch map of a portion of the Halda showing spawn collection area. Text-fig. 8. 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