i ¥ Via tyes eth pit dy Fy ‘ Wy? LARA BIR Mester yi eae eh ey yi a Hide ie Vier ant en poe Bi WR ae iv ASL AR ad Pn ee Aor Wa a anie re Bs Wind ea \ it Vom shit ‘ a) Py) piece thea cnt (at We TCR ce BY iat ae ‘i iy Wis : nanan oath “Gg j NAH) A ihe Us; iV? tt a ae gasiee Hi ne y Nyhalen ne i vibst, i i mah lat res uh Cis Hed iia ty ithe nT) i hat a ae e phn an nity : ’ AY he ‘ Aad i phe AN inlay ati Vek eo a Mt V4 ia averted as Oh Othe ; git Ua pa aies oye ia 7 nahh riety ue . Fai (Tapia pst My “il Pian Late vite ae oe} Aes Hoi otek ‘ ii vee a Aine ay t? Ste ‘ Gait Ay te ‘ae lottaatye st eet q a ah aa a ute 7) at nt a a a i yt te ee nua he a ‘ Gok nie vaaak Ml io * | sien? fi ayes pushes | ehh ae ue i . Me ey ath hee ate A We , vient» int MY? a ean sab Hl ie Wi Wendy Hitt Sage peepee 2 Pega. a ~ nee or iL Se Bias adize Rgds: rons Ac Pais { ira 3 ‘pak Fas cue Aes. Prensa Verda tu inh? Las ae ula v peat ana: ge a Minne isle See Rear}, # fhe Seas a : farce RA eee . MAS Saet pee a Per Breed eas ary aS apne ea ee ae poe reretes SS rh acs cevine re cet aes ret SAShe Pi 7 Ciba aa 5 ak, Meh “ Hee: fi i Rata ae ea 3 rf A gt } af : ah Bev eatte Ue ; wey ie at wow ing et Cau sige: ated fea : ae ‘ we ¥e ’ hy ‘ ihe oe TA Bry ene ke On ty nas hy aus ae Breas bake re st aye eybicked ob 18 Lista 4! ae it He Care RE RENT eee : if is nate oe Bete shat oi i te a byt Riera be canniis Buuatiie ciaa poe a itd ote i Lee bh the: we fe ee aa idl ‘ , ! il - "y : a . ; I Ms a a. 7 : 7 7 Po ong oe 7 r i 5 : 7 : : bs ! vy i 7 fT { t " qe 10 1 1 4 , i 1 - Daw a oe i J 7 £ F ; an t 7 1 Hi t 7 ‘ ip : 7 ay 2 : ; ay ‘ ¢ ' 1 ‘ ae _ tT at : re 7 oe . 4 - ra , ate 40 ae 7 “i ‘ : : . - : : o? oo : f - _ ; 7 . = 7 t I I , A t 7 0 7 an oe 1 - iu , : : oat a Be ee _ Be _ Oe ivi i 4 7 ie 4 in ey, a i" : Bi {fj , ‘ ‘a i fe | ten i 7 Ay i ‘a ; : t 1 ia oe ie a _ 4 ray il fy) a) : ay ty en: THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND TITLE PAGE VOL. 52 Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4 Price Rs. 5-0-0 MADRAS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 1958 o — Va WAIT HSO Ny ha ‘ty \ f | DEC 291958 eee wy INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these four parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound: Title page ae Errata Contents of Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4 of Vol. 52 List of contributors a List of plates ree Index to illustrations Index to species To follow frontis- piece in this order. To go at the end of the four numbers. iia PH JOURNAL OF THE BomMBAY NATURAL HisTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY SALIM ALI, and H. SANTAPAU, s.J, VOL, 52 Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4 Containing 1 coloured, 59 black-and-white plates, 5 photographs in text, 5 maps, and 111 text figures ; Dates of Publication Part 1 (Pages 1 to 232) ... April 1954 Parts 2&3 (Pages 233 te 686) — .., August-December 1954 Part 4 (Pages 687 to 962) ... April 1955 AGENTS IN ENGLAND WHELDON & WESLEY LTD., Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin, Herts, England PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1958 ERRATA Vol. 52, Nos. 2 & 3, page 519, in the fifteenth line from top in place of types fallen off, please read ‘70, Nerium indicum,’ Vol. 52, No. 4, Plate I (coloured) facing page 687, please read ‘The Chestnut Bittern (Lrobrychus cinnamomeus)’ in place of the printed caption ‘ The Yellow Bittern (/xobrychus sinensis)’. CONTENTS OF VOLUME 5? e+ No. 1 2 a We gee sii wives PAGE “WILD LirE PRESERVATION—KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, AN EXAMPLE, By A. St. J. Macdonald.. (With six plates)... 1 CaN ae ON THE DiET OF FLAMINGOES. By M. W. Ridley... Bee ee ene cs hater seperate odes sates 5 A New Bae ec FROM Pees. pea (Saonasures). By C. Vaurie and K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji... 8 ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Ephedra 1% THE INprAN. eee By M. M. Bhandari. (With one photograph)... cs Ses 10 SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE. PART Ill. “By W. T. Loke. (With tive plates)... er eventos cuclesayestarnieess ve 14 A CONTRIBUTION TO THE opEpAe OF THE DARJEELING ArBA. By M.D. Lister.. St A CAC Ayer 20 BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE Wurst Bee OF anne INDIA. --e By Sri.C. Rajasekhara. Mudaliar, m.A., and H. Sunanda Kamath, B.sc. (With a text Ee te Go A NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF Burma (1953). By U Tun Yin... ae 83 PoIsONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA. Part I. By s. ibe Sesmle 88 A ConTRIBUTION TO THE -Frora OF Mussoortz. By IN Ae Watts... Pie os cu ery osesiscd cac nce cmaz eta ee aor: 106 ee OF THE PLANKTON Driatoms OF THE se LAKE FOR THE YEARS 1950 AND 1951. By J.C. Roy. (With two maps and two text figures)iiicreorrieseeeree 112 GROWTH-RATE OF THE Peart Oyster, Pinctada pinctada in THE GuLF OF KUTCH WITH A NOTRE ON THE PEARL FISHERY OF 1953. By S. V. Gokhale, Car: Haswaran and R. Narsimhan. (With five text figures)... 124 CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND nea eee OF soME Bompay Pcrants. IIL. Murdannia scaptitlorune _ (Roxb.) Royle. By R. Fernandes, B.sc.,and H. Santapau, BEE CLIZZOEEC ON DULCE aON ccm ceac yet GuRuhekiecisdteeissvecssy-as, ) LOZ THE DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’s FISHING INDUSTRY. By Hi Tee ENCE GYAN Mera sincviae sas sed y15 cag rssicts «oo ves veo 142 SMITHSON AN ANSTAT UTION DES ie St iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 THE GENUS Cymbopogon SPRENG. IN INDIA; BURMA AND CEYLON. ParTII. By N. L. Bor. (With 27 text figures). NATURAL History OF THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE Jatlera indica cuvierti (WATERHOUSE). By M.R.N. Prasad...... NEw SPECIES OF INDIAN PLANTS. au R. Seenee Rao: REVIEWS :— 1. Animal Wonderland—Essays in Natural History. By Frank W.° Lane. (DE. Ri) i.) co. 0s. see oe ete 2. Leopard of the Hills. By James Temple. (P.AG s2\5) 3. The Birds of Burma. By B. E. Smythies. (C.E.H.) 4. Hoofed Mammals of the World. By Ugo Mochi and T. Donald Carter. (S. Thomas Satyamurti). 5. The Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs. Series], No;..2. (H: ‘Santapatt, S.J.) saa seat een carers 6. The Indian Pharmaceutical Codex. Volume I. (Hi. Santapatl, \S:d2) on ssese ease seteteneec a eceee 7. The Birds of the British Isles. By David A. Ban- nerman and George b. Lodge. Volume I and II. (H. G. A.):.. een Ae, Sty & The Birds of West. aa qdatorial “Abies, 2 volumes. By David A. Bannerman. (H.G.A.) ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY ....5..0. cee tiitcersce sees see MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— Js Man-eating Heer in South India. By R. C. MOrris. cece De Bee Panther killed ie domestic Bawalece. By J. M. POWCE cee eee coe Mote notes on peed Tadian: ‘Buffalo. ait R. P, Noronha... noO0 Bao 686 JO8BHbhO 506 06. Hotontoks.o& Gaur ces “Han By R. C. Morris... e Thamin or Eld’s Deer Panolia eldt thamin (Thomas. By Tun Yin.. nf oa . Stride of ee a crossing trench. ne R. c. Motris.. ean Sun cetiae tae weet s cone Death of wild ieenaie yes suspected ae poisoning, in Travancore-Cochin State. By Birds eating the poisonous fruit of the Yellow Oleander (7 hevetia nerizfolia). By S. M. Krishnan, PaGr 149 184 190 192 192 193 195 196 197 198 199 199 201 201 202 204 205 206 206 207 10. 18. 19; 20. 21. a2. (seh 24. (go % 26. raf CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 Migration of insectivorous Birds in Madhya Pradesh in 1953. By C. E. Hewetson............. Strange behaviour of a House Crow. By C. H. Biddulph... ee sae HR ona Possible association between the dan Yellow- naped Woodpecker and the Large Racket-tailed Drongor. By C,H. Biddullphiecii5 4.25. 30085. .00- 00 Cuculus canorus bakert in Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali .. ar eee das des Occurrence of ea: Crested Onde (Cla- mator coromandus) in Madras. By §. M. Krishnan. Goshawk (Astur genttlis) in Bhavnagar (Saurashtra). By Os DharmakiwimarSinbjis: .5..0.4-e6 <6. 00s Occurrence of the Banded Crake [Rallus eurtzon- oides amuroptera a. in Travancore. By M. C. A. Jackson.. Sel eee aoe aera de Food of the Bull Frog. Be a Gay Sete eg eee The record Indian Crocodile. By Humayun PCa aE ce Ghceata os Rice Secanaeas See Race roere An addition to the list of Snakes of Bombay and Salsette— Uvropeltzs macrolepis Coe ei we tidae. By V. K. Chari.. Be aes ne Further comment on the “Maniial of the Chilka Lake—A special Net for Beloniform fishes. By S. Jones and K. H. Sujansinghani...........0seces. Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By IDG: SevastOpulo, FsR.EiS..-ascccesucedoreek coo sectes Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By Cree MCC a ihe cee arcana na Meawaaneacrad dees doses see deercanes “Occurrence of Danais chrysippus var. dorippus at Dum Dum air port. By A. E.G. Best............ Punters’ ‘Sugar: iBy WwW. S) Thom... 066 eis. sch dc Occurrence of Corymorpha (fydrozoa) in Indian Waters. By M. R. Ranade, M.sc. ane (With a text figure)... Be cietatot Stor loetione A six-locular Cpaus on the eation Plant. By G. W. Deodhar.. Lea RNA cent yet ade 6 30 Occurrence of a retin Leaf i in Gina: aurantium L. By S. Kalyanasundaram. (With a sketch)...... Proliferation in Grass, By R. B, Majumdar......... 213 213 214 215 216 218 218 219 221 221 222 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 i PAGE 28. The flowering of Strobilanthes auriculatus Nees. By -Mrs, Jamal: Atia.c3.- cMee seston tacedqe-os5+0- eee 29. Abnormalities in the fruit of Aveca calechu ia - By. T. S. Ramakrishnan. (With a text figure)...... 224 30. Effect of Margosa (Azadirachta indica) leaves on- the rotting of Potato tubers during storage. By 5.20. Sandon. Bo uddliva chin Mech oEe a: ween poe eS 31. Variation in the floral parts of Solanum melongena L. By G. P. Argikar and M. S. Solanki Sa a text figure)... Fe iddwak. eal geake el na ne, eee oe ' 32, Chapters on the eee of Botany in India, e EE, Burkill, in this Journal 51: 846-878. A Correc- tion.: By°S.'P*Aghatkar, Phin, FN. ee ee Gleanings 7 Eons coe dete ees ee eee ene elie AS =) Notes-and N6wWsie. es acd eo vcoced dae dace eee an eee ere eee eee Zo Gorrigenda, Viol. Sk; INO: 4..:..20..: ae eee 236 Nos. 2 & 3 WiLp Lirez PRESERVATION IN INDIA. Annual Report for — 1953 on ‘the Eek Region. By ©. ©. Gee us, COMMENTS ON THR BIOGEOGRAPHY OF ARABIA WITH PARTI- — CULAR REFERENCE TO Birps. By S. Dillon Ripley. CW 2th 2200, 21 GDS) on nics smapiins cusiens «ocho nets ose cnet sass ec lice aes ae OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF TWO SPIDER Mimics OF THE RED ANT, Oecophylla smaragdina (FABR.). By A. P. Mathew, M.A., Ph.D. (With five text FLL UTES) soe eee sar ceeses 249 WILD LifE PRESERVATION AND SANCTUARIES INTHE UNION — or Burma. By U Tun Yin, B.A.,B.C.s. (Witha map)... 264 ABORIGINAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN KILLING AND CAPTUR- ING GAmE. By K. M. Kirkpatrick. (With six text Li QUres)... sop eSee otieiauee ne ds suaiee sites ssceseBaeuee ir cces | Oe A ee ae 3 NOTE ON THE STATUS OF RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN (Panolia eldi thamin) IN THE UNION OF . Burma, 1953. By U- Tum Van; wiciss Geet eit On REPORT ON THE FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE, NORTH BuRMA. By F. Kingdon-Ward, B.A, (Cantab,), O.8.58., PeL.Sl, Wall. Has, sceaes-geouteetey).gue, S04 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52: Roan OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE TZalera indica cuvieri We eee ee By M. R. N. Prasad. OE one histo- BS UMA) Mensa s Sit es earls Site Nematnentlastiea sons slehiiegédaSi eset asace ule sodses THE WHALE SHARK, &hincodon he (Sum. Bee Charles McCann, F.L.s. (With two plates)... PETRELS, SHEARWATERS AND OTHER OCEANIc BIRDS IN THE NORTH INDIAN OcEAN. By W. W. A. Phillips........0+0. OBSERVATIONS ON Zilapia mossambica PETERS IN MADRAS. By P. I. Chacko and B. Krishnamurthi. (With six text LIE IAS oir Bee eA SE Sa CEE EE ae en ON THE STRUCTURE AND POPULATION OF THE NEST OF THE COMMON INDIAN TREE ANT, Cvematogaster dohrni vogenhoferi MAYR (HYMENOPTERA, FORMICIDAE). By M. L. Roonwal. m.sc., Php. (Cantab.), F.N.L, F.Z.S.1 (With one table, one text tigure and three plates).......00.. NOTES ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILLS, _ EASTERN GHATS. By A, E. G. Best... ...cce censor seesceeeeees THE Birps oF GUJARAT. Part I. By Sdlim Ali. (With a MAP ANA L1VE PLALES) 0. can seececsersae verses snscences san sessonseraee BioLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES (ISOPTERA). No. 1.—Odontotermes parvidens Holmg. & Holmg. severely damaging the bark and contributing to the death of standing Teak trees in Uttar Pradesh, India. By M. L. Roonwal, m.sc., ph.p. (Cantab.), F.N.I., ¥F.Z.S.1. MVE CERRO LADIES! 200A PIDTE\siomeis ea scat esaidec socecdsdssa0'ese.ese BroLoGy AND EcoLoGy oF INDIAN TERMITES (ISOPTERA). No. 2.—On Ecological Adjustment in Nature between two species of Termites Coplotermes heimi (Wasm.) and Odontotermes vedemannz (Wasm.) in Madhya Pradesh, India. By M. L. Roonwal, m.sc., Ph.D. (Cantab), F.N.1., F.Z.S.1. (With a plate and 1 text-figure). Notes on LAND LEncHss. By J. L. Harrison..........cic...s.. A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES UF THE GENUS Ozobranchus (DE QUATREFAGES 1852) HtRuDINEA-ANNELIDA. By P. J. SMe vice lNati Mp Ale- Gaal wtb coeen doeecd has Cisiee Reseesvdetevetiens A NEW SPECIES OF Arvthraxon FROM PURANDHAR (BOMBAY STATE). By F. R. Bharucha and Y. Satyanarayan. FIDL SUN TITS ees she tern Es i Se - Tur VEGETATION OF PILANI AND 1TS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By. T.S. Bakshi. (With a MUAP) ue raregesarcee sense 100 seeeenseeees vii PAGER 321 326 334 one 354 365 374 459 463 468 473 481 484 viii "CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 Porsonous SEEDS OF INDIA. Part II. By S. L. Nayar...... THe GENUus Cyathula Lour. IN INpDIA, By T.S. Bakshi...... Tur EcoLoGy AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SCORPION Palam- | naeus bengalensis C. Koca. By M. S. Kanungo, M.Sc. (Wath two text fig Ures).orcecsarceccenssetercnevee cos vestecsescenens CHECKLIST OF THE ‘TRIDACTYLIDAE AND GRYLLIDAE (INSECTA, ORTHOPTERA) OF CEYLON, WITH RECORDS OF DISTRIBUTION. By T. R. Sandrasagar, F.R.E.S....---s0: ++ OBITUARIES :— Sir Peter Clutterburele gy, ce. «1 at seticeiebaate eh ve ae este citieae! vache Charles M. Inglis (Wthia photo)... .:).2 oe apices REVIEWS :— l... Jungle Gore; By Jim'Corbett(@iRS'C.).) on 2. The Snakes of India and Pakistan. By Lieut-Col. K.0G,, Gharpurey, 1.M-S, (Gs yees aceon ceases 3. A Field Guide to the Birds of Britainand Europe. By Roger Peterson, Guy Mountfort and P.A.D. Flollom: (S.A. )icv. ate vsckeegr gue nte wince ee eee eneees 4. Poisonous Plants of India. By Sir Ram Nath Chopra, Rattan Lall Badhwar and Sudhamoy Ghosh. (H.Santapat,sS.3.)..aeeah sees ee eee 5. The Birds of Travancore and Cochin. By Salim Alt. (Be Biswas).< 2.) .c.deusenen do antes tas omekeeennas ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY «coovevneeeeceeasecesee res cee vee MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. Swimming and locomotion of captive Hedgehogs. By Ishwar Prakash.. Effect of a ae on > Bibenahee = Frank Nicholls.. 3. Rorqual Whale near pee aan ‘ont By P. I; Chacko and M. 3.7 Mathewsaes.. facden.catee A large Tiger... By PT Be awikins renee 5. Habits of the Asiatic Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus thibetanus G. Cuvier). By U Tun Yin. 6. Longevity of the Ceylon Ruddy Mongoose (/er- pestes smitht zeylanicus) in captivity. By W, W. A. Phillips La) Ceo ceeegseeeseserse tae eestor sere eBeeee 280 536 540 563 565 569 569 570 19, CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51 Record Sambar for the Nilgiris. By Lt.-Col. E.G. Phy thian= AGatSeccte. sat cesscesccs ons sccsses cecesenee vss Malformation in antlers of the Malayan Sambar. By H.J. Kitchener. (With a photo)............. Shikar in India. By K. M. Kirkpatrick............... Intelligence of the Indian JBlephant. By KORACI AMIN Es avsc sek w-ckcen eh seaaee sock ce sebles-sietet ss The Abominable Snowman. Pa Editors. (Wit a photo)... Sika ubndectcsadasesatectaten sasenecevelees The occurrence of the Crested ephntide aeons lathamz) in Saurashtra. By Y. 8S. Shivrajkumar. An intelligent Myna. By Mrs. Syamala Murthy...... Bayas and Fireflies. By P. G. S. Hall... More notes on Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus). Bye Elumaay lin: AUDOUIAll 020.2 c0t.s 0c: se. see ees ccsemsee Sparrows nesting in colonies in Trees. By Humaytn Abdulali.. ai A Display of the Rouemeea ‘Bush. an (Miratra erythroptera Blyth). By K. M. Kirkpatrick...... The courtship display of the Large Pied Wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin). By K. M. ASHE KAD AERC Kites tenn cctaceise ate eee nel sac va selec sia cba amare: The occurrence of Franklin’s Nightjar (Caprimulgus monticolus monticolus) in Travancore-Cochin. By INTIS? PA ACK SONG ease eek ee cece detec censdtreueee Occurrence of spurs in the temale Junglefowl (Gallus sonneratz). “By “SGditors.-...3 02:02, 26. cn The Great Indian Bustard. By Editors............ Occurrence of the Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigri- collzs) in Indian limits. By F. N. Betts............ The status of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydro- pbhasianus chirurgus) in South India. By C. H. Byrclal wip eeeecrecice ce ce cosas s: cancae cpakecece Occurrence of Bronzecapped or Falcated Teal (Zunetta falcata) near Calcutta. By J. N. Taylor. Birds associating Natural Phenomena with Food Supply. By Charles McCann, F.L.S...........00. Some bird notes from Chingleput District, Madras. By-Rev: BO} Shaw) 022 i.cec0c. vee eeoeege eee ix PAGE 588 588 589 590 594 598 598 599 Sug 601 601 602 603 603 604 605 606 607 607 609 27: 28, oo: 34. 35. . 536. 37, 38. 39), 40. 41. 42. CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 Birds seen above the tree-line in Tehri-Garhwal, in the Central Himalayas. By H. F. Lamprey. (With two plates)... The secondary song of pa By & K. K. Mecia: » Kantan,:.sc.ccaes « adotd anv tae aetemmeeiee Pythons, By “Frank Reet, Reels Notes on the Frog Rana ee Schneider. By J.L. Bhaduri and Mira Kirpalani. ey sketch)... uatieeetcass aes seals pea Neaieeniocs waise ner A record of the Whale Suet ee typus Smith) from the Malabar Coast. By P. I. Chacko and’M..J. Mathew... cdees--.ceae. sec. eee Food Organisms of Gadusia chafra (Ham.) from certain ponds with thick Auglena blooms. By Ps" Migha patra cc. avccssacuatecn se ceerenie Catena The relations of total length to furcal length for five eee By P. arcane Res five graphs... we dane seolos s cawiteniasteiies Genesis sep enees ced Effect of jaggery on Fish Life. Be P. I. Chacko and R,. Srinivasan 2: ...cdasesceancs es esctmoneadesceneee Spawning of Rohu at Powai Lake. By F. R. pole Distribution ane Rana letthit Bouleng.—A Correc- tion. By Humayun Abdulali and J.C. Daniel... Extension of range of Rana temporalis Giinth. By Humayun Abdulali.. un ala ease oes aes Extension of range of the ee Uetiee ‘oon ie sum Giinth. By Humayun Abdulali and J. C. Danttel sec secssea ten Gye scene cos te tecleme Game cent ae settee Food of the Bull-Frog e ang elias): i ee Aruna Banerji... 4 otis oalefue cies omen mentee ne Distribution and habits of the Beene Tee phis glutinosus Linn. By Humayun Abdulali... A note on the courtship in the Sand Crab [Phzlyra scabriuscula ap ic bie By ae K.. 4G. Raja Bai Naidu.. Retains ie axtue tite Gon ratio and Bh hes of Sere segments in Apus (Phyllopoda: Crustacea). By Krishna Want Await.) cescese0= sessepkes Aeecddscepnar neh voctee PAGE 610 615 620 620 - 623 624 626 629 634 635 636 637 639 639 640 641 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 X1 PAGE 644 645 647 647, 650 652 652 655 656 657 658 658 659 660 — 661 663 _ 665 43, Occurrence of the Mantis Gongylus gongyloides Linn. in Junagadh (Saurashtra). By I, H. Kachhi. 44, On some unrecorded Host Plants of the Lac Insect, - Laccifer lacca (Kerr), (Homoptera: Lacci- feridae), ..By A. P: Kaptur, M.se.j; Ph.p. ) (CWonds) SDE Crreeeera act eaeaals deter Cc cens vskawe mites’ 45, gee ae fatal sting of the common House Wasp, Polistes hebraeus. yin J. N. Onial, P.F.s. - CRetdh).acccs En teen PT ocd copia ttt tae’ fal 46. Some Insects attracted to Light, a S. Usman... 47. _Leeches. By R. N, Champion-Jones...............s0 48. Land Leeches.. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey............ 49. Land Leeches. By J. L. H. Williams... seu 50,. Land Leeches. By R.S. Mathews...... sesscscessaceee 51, ‘Nwe-Shin’ or ‘ Live Creeper’. By H. G. Hundley. 32. Identity and taxonomical status of Sesamum ckhambaramtt Naidu, By S. a and A. B. Joshi.. blarics. tee ee Seeene. | 53. The Genus Mirdannie in Bombe: “Stata. By H. Santapau, s.J.. Ey acct oiee caewer dou me cescees 54, The Genus ea in te Sa gee Correc- tions. By H. Santapau, s.J.. 55. Some recently introduced or Sah ace iat from Patna District and its neighbourhood, By | Vs Ge) SEVASLAVA. comes (ce 3Seskes paeesat 56. A note on Ventilego eae Merrill By M. 3B, Raizada... oe a 57. New plant aaa for es By I R. ae andes: B.sc., A. Randeria, B.sc., and H. Santapau, s.J. VRC LICOe D1 G1 ES) estate Meee stresses siyecs) 12) vieeese 58, E, J. Woodhouse—His contribution to our know- . ledge of the Flora of Bihar. By J. G. Srivastava. GLEANINGS.. | NoTES AND Noes. BGs we se Annual Report of the Banna Naiveal Bate ie teh the year ending 3lst December 1953.. Rar clara Minutes of the Annual Genera! Magen a ae cee Natural History Society held inthe Conference Hall of the B.E.S. and T. Undertaking, Electric House, Ormiston Road, Bombay, on Monday the 231d August 1954, at 6 p.m. 668 669 684 xii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 No. 4 Two BITTERNS IN A PENANG Mars. PART I. By Loke Wan Tho. (With one coloured and three black and white plates). Tectonic History oF INDIA AND ITS BEARING ON FISH GrocGrapHy. By S. L. Hora, psc, FN. (With 7 text LIZULES) an caw necissocascadied coer eae vse see bade memento Sete maen teen SOME STUDIES ON TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS, Uca marionis nitidus (Dana) and U. annulipes (Latr.). By R. Altevogt. (With 13 figures and one table)... ....00 + THE MANAGEMENT OF InpIA’s WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS. PART II. By E. P. Gee, M.A., c.M.z.s. (With tour plates)... THs BIRDS OF GUJARAT. Part II. By Salim a (wan one plate)...cccececes aerraeaene BPE Te Ais te Phir Sinlosl Mitomycin MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. By D. F; SanGensisssctas tesco a seiediesshaiseencc ae eee Adee Pe COMPARATIVE OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLACENTA AND FOETAL NUTRITION IN ELASMOBRANCHS AND MAMMALS. By P. N.Sarangdhar, m.sc., Ph.p. (With two plates)...... GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS. By Bernhard Rensch and K. W. Harde. (Wath eleven figures)...0....0.0 Nyctibatrachus humayuniz, A NEW FROG FROM THE WESTERN GHATS, BomBAy. By J. L. Bhaduri, D.Sc., F.N.I., F.A.S., F.z.S.I.. and Miss M. B. Kripalani, m.sc. With Field Notes by Humayun Abdulali. (W7th @ platé)...cccccccecseeues Ixodes kerri, A NEW SPECIES OF TICK FROM A FLYING SQUIRREL FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (ACARINA: IXODIDAE). By T. Ramachandra Rao, p.sc. (With two plates)......... WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA. Annual Report for 1953 on the Western Region. ek kK. S. Dharmakumar- Si] isc aeeracteetoes eee eee Pap At yest pd oa ea weaaee oe HABITS AND HABITAT OF SOME COMMON SPIDERS FOUND IN WESTERN InprA. By T. V. Subrahmaniam. (With SEx16602 tél EG UHES) cette se SN AL ae ES SARE ONE PEO SoME BIRDS COLLECTEDIN LANGTANG KHOLA, RASUA GARHI DIsTRICT, CENTRAL NEPAL, By O. Polunin, M.A., F.L.S. A NEW SPECIES OF Chlorophytum from SALSETTE ISLAND. By H. Santapau, sJ., F.N.L, and R. R. Fernandes, s.sc. CWE DP RTIO) GE cece vines eee esc eEe Cee eNeeeee Ae ak PAGE 687 692 702 717 735 803 831 841 852 860 874 886 897 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53 xiii PaGE A NEW FORM OF THE. BURROWING SNAKE, Urofeltis macrolepis (PETERS) FROM MAHABLESHWAR. oie V. K. Chavtivcn.o2.04.. SEAN LR Ri are R WS ean Ree ees von 5 901 REVIEWS :— 1. Indian Journal of Fisheries....... Be en ness ivicdeere.:- 902 2. Common Indian Herbs. By N. A. Watts 3. Flora of Agra District. A descriptive\| (H. Santapau, Key to the Flora of Agra District. By{ SJ.) .. 903 N. A. Watts. 4. A Coloured Atlas of some Vertebrates from Ceylon, Vol. II. Tetrapod Reptilia. By Ee: Werantyagalastci( VKGC2). cs vetlstassccens:dercssseres 904 5. Bird Life. By Niko Tinbergen. (S.A.) esate 905 6. The Waterfowl of the World. By Jean Delacour. Vole tL. (.A.) .. 906 7. The Temple ‘Tiger and more Man-eaters of Kumaon. By Jim Corbett. (L.F.) rat 907 8. Birds of Arabia. By Col. R. Meinertzhagen, D.s.o. (S.A.) | «- 908 9, The Birds of the British Isles. Vol. II]. By David A. Bannerman and George E. Lodge. (S.A.)... 910 10, A Wanderer in the Wind: The Odyssey of an Animal Collector. By CeciiS. Webb. (H.A.)... 911 ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY....seces cesses cee 20 cos sieess 912 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :=— 1. Strange behaviour of Monkeys in the presence of a Panther. By Sirdar Bhupendra Kumatr......... 913 2, Unrecorded sounds made by the Tiger. By Bi-Col: Re Wa burton, 1A. (Retd®):c,.23;..5..2680s 915 34 (Gat and Mongoose, By Ts Gay ciccesasicce cas sciscsses 916 4, Extraordinary behaviour of a solitary Bull Bison (Garr) aby ke Com Monts: <. ciecses sees nerisonesen ss 916 5. The Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldt MacClelland). By ee GCC. CIEL GUPIAI6)nascsssccssceste. O17 6. Thamin or Brow-antlered Deer in the Zoological Gardens, Rangoon. By Tun Yin. (With a plate). 919 7. Abnormal horns of a Blackbuck (Antzlope cervt- capra) By C. H. Biddulph. (With a photo)... 920 xiv CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 ace 8. Notes onthe Desert Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auri- a / tus collaris Gray). By Ishwar Prakash... ™ O21 9. Cannibalism in Hedgehogs. By Ishwar Prakash: 922 10. Wild Life Preservation in India. The Area of the -. former Gilgit Agency. By Lt.-Col. R. W. -Bur- ton, LA. CREE) 52.5 ler cocuees nerenenes tee tei Coser ees 11. New light upon the Natural History of BA hs c By C. H. Biddutph...... Se ncsisadeens eine meet 12, A Bird answering its own ais By 1 T. ‘Ga es tia bitele = 925 13. Another bird-watching pilgrimage to SW. Tibet. , By K.S. Lavkumar. (With amap).ciaerocseees 925 14. ries the Cucxoo a protrusible Ovipositor? By | Charles. McCann, F.L.S.. bo MR ARES ain ee)! 1S. Mating of Partridges. By Edis. ee. = aoe 16, The bone-dropping habit of the aa 2% Robert L. 2B leming, php tercee? Re ee oo 17. Heron-keeping on the Indus River. By | Ps As ee Maclaren. (With a photo)... Sie ines cas 935 18. Trapping Birds for ringing. a Zafar Fétehally, (With ai PROUT esi ses Gel tote ee ee 19... The record Indian Crocodile. By | Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton; tas CREM] 47. 002 Gla tessee ee. Aine eee Oe 20. Some notes on Rava beddomii Gunther with an ex- tension of its range. By Humayun Abdulali,. -«, and J. C: Daniel eect oeccersetaesersseceoaroee bVebsebscobenecce 938 21 Presamplze eating of a Krait by- Scorpions. Bye . 202 Ishwar-Prakash and‘K.C. Daves. ssi .si devises Bdees ge 1989 22, A grateful Skink. By T. Gay....clesoe WEL ce 940 23, Hunting the Land Crab [Paratelphusa . guerini (Mo < . Edw.)]. By Jabir A. Ali, B.A. (Cantab.), C.D., Ag. (With a textfigure)ece ecco Gitectacie eu dees 941 24. Apus (Crustacea : Phyllopoda), ' a new host for parasitic Nematodes. By Reo ike Tiwati...... Rota aheeS 25. An unusual Crab Fishery in the sea off. Ennut, ; near Madras. By P. I. Chacko and E Palani. (With a text a7 Ca breretic ce pncerey madd icant nee 2 tag 40 26, A new species of Antrocephalus Kirby. | By BR, Subba Rao, B.Sc. (Hons.), assoc. LA. RI. (With a text-L gure) he ea aor MEENA Rod 6 » 948 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 eit ; PAGE 27. Some Insects attracted to Light—II. By S. Usman. 950 28. Notes on Thrips palmi Karny, attacking Sesamum — indicum. By T.N. Ananthakrishnan, B.sc. (Hons.), F.Z.S., F.R.E.S. (With a plate and a text-figure),.. 951 29. Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By DiiGeSevastOmumlO- FR BiG ciiccatsssmsdresis cis clivese ces 953 .. 80, A four-leaved Oleander. By G. W. Deodhar, Ns M. SCiews OOTCO RAH OT HDOTHE OO FAEL HDHD F HHH DO FOROS ses tneveeeee’ @neee aM 954 31. On the occurrence of Marstlea aegy pliaca Willd. in | Jodhpur, Rajasthan (India). By K.M.Gupta, . , (With @ plate)escivcrcscssersseseses ih a er 954 32. Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br., var. erecta Mart. — _—A new record for Bombay State. By G. P, Shrivastava, M.sc., and H. Santapau,. s.3,. (With a plate). Meticteutesncr ces Serer wes niooe comes: besccte O57 33, Abnormalities in the ‘Ear’ of Zea mays si By 4 | Sle andon: CIV 72h. a PIA) tas oe .sssaseacsosace 958 34, The introduction of 72lapia mossambica into India — A Correction. By cditOrs: ee seo 959 GePAN INGER isl cas0h ve eelsctls doves reseeds Nie fess ee 959 NotTEs AND NEWS oo a s.c a Ge cane, en a si eat aed - 961 PBRRATAs.56c1ic.c0thho0es 0 Siecasbvcuttparesesersrovectécetseses¥iuisssctsiastesse OG2 AN pk eee Phe a eh es SoG meena aie % 962 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS VOLUME 52 Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4 AspuLaLi, Humayun, Cuculus canorus bakeri in Bombay .. —+-—__—__-—--, The re- cord Indian Crocodile ‘ More Notes on Finn's Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus) , Sparrows nesting in colonies in Trees, —- —, Exten- sion of range of Rana tempo- valis Gtinth,. ... ev cae ——— , Distribu- tion anid habits of the Batra- chian, chihyophis glutinosus Linn: . 2c: eee ny wae , and DAn- IEL, J. C.,.Distributian of Rana ee SS PAGE 210 213 599 601 636 639 leithia Bouleng.—A Correction. 635 —— >— —, Exten- sion of range of the Frog Uperodon globulosum Gunth. -—- : Some notes on Rana beddomit Giinther, with an extension of its range ace eee coe , SEE BHA- DURT, Joule § ce re AGHARKAR;S. P., Ph.D., F.N.L, Chapters on the preren of Botany in India, by I. H. Burkill, in this Journal 51: 846-878. B. ZiSh F WR. BS), Notes on Thrips palmi Karny, attacking Sesamum imnii- cum i. af 506 ue) ak ArA, Mrs, JAMAL, The flower- ing of Strobilanthes auricu- latus Nees ate — 223 ARGIKAR, G.P., and Suan M. 8; Wabiation in the floral parts of Solanum melon- gena La aan 226 BAILEY, F. M., Lt Poon and Leeches ars 6 P5652 BaxksHI, T. S.,; The Vesetation of Pilani and its Neighbour- hood ane ee 484 — +-—--——.,, The Genus Cya- thula Lour. in India 2z, 533 BaNERJI, (Mrs.) Aruna, Food of the Bull-Frog (ana tigirina) 639 Brest, A. E. G., Occurrence of Danats chrysippus var. dorip- pus at Dum Dum air port ... 218 —, Notes on the Butterflies of the Nagala- puram Hills, Eastern Ghats... 365 Betts, F. N., Occurrence of the Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigvicollis) in Indian limits. 605 BuapurI, J.L., and KIRPALANI, Mira, Notes on the Frog kana breviceps Schneider ... 620 ~—- ————, and KiRPALANI, Miss M. B. With Field Notes by Abdulali, Humayun. Vycfi- batrachus humayuni, a new Frog from the Western Ghats, Bombay aaa sas jie uO’ LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS BHANDARI, M. M., On the Occurrence of Fphedra in the Indian Desert “ae ByHarucHa, F.R., and Satyva- NARAYAN, Y., A new Species of Arthraxon from Purandhar (Bombay State) ace aus BIDDULPH, C. H., Strange be- haviour of a House Crow , Possible as- sociation between the Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker and the Large Racket-tailed Drongo iy oes ae as , The status of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) in South India ae onG , Abnormal horns of a Blackbuck (dAnti- lope cervicapra) » New light upon the Natural History of Malabar “os Bor, N. L., The Gans Ges pogon Serene: in India, Burmaand Ceylon. Part II. Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., 1.4 (Retd.), Unrecorded sounds made by the Tiger —_— , Wild Life Preservation in radia) The Area of the former Gilgit Agency ... aes cae oe record Indian Crocodile CHacko, P. I., and KrisHna- MURTHI, B., Observations on Tilapia mossambica Peters in Madras ——_ —, aaa MizuEws: M.J:; econ of the Whale Shark (Rhineodon typus Smith) from the Malabar Coast eee —,and Pabanl, E., An unusual Crab Fishery in the sea off Ennur, near Madras ee Se » and SRINIVA- SAN, R., Effect of aoe i on Fish Life 2 PAGE 10 481 208 209 606 920 924 149 915 923 349 623 946 269 CHAMPION-JONES, R, N., Lee- ches eee sae CuHari, V. K., Ba addition to the list of Shute of Bombay and Salsette—Uvopeltis mac- volepis (Peters) —Uropeltidae. ———, A new form of the Burrowing Snake, Uropei- tis macrolepis is from Mahableshwar .. DANIEL, J. C., see emery . HUMAYUN Davgz, K. C.,, ISHWAR DEODHAR, G. W., A six-locular Capsule on the Cotton Plant... —-—-, A four-leaved Oleander ene Srna sana, kK, S., Goshawk (Astur gentilis) in Bhavnagar (Saurashtra) ... a meee Se — Wild Life Preservation in India. Annual report for 1953 on the Western Region sas see PRAKASH, seé VAURIE, C. DE Zytva, E. R. A., The Development of Ceylon’s Fishing Industry aise EASWARAN, C. R., see Gort HALE, S. V. Epitors, The Abominable Snowman sets oe ~————————, Occurrence of spurs in the female Jungle- fowl (Gallus sonneratt) —--, The Great Indian Bustard ... -, eee —_—————-——, Mating of Partridges 50 es ————__——--, The Intro- duction of 7ilapia mossambica into India—A Correction FERNANDES, R., B.Sc., RAN- DERIA, A., B.SC.. AND SAN- TAPAU, H., S.s.. New plant Records for Bombay , and SANTAPAU, H.,S.J., Critical Notes on the Identity and Nomenclature of some Bombay Plants III. Murdanniascapttlorum (Roxb.) Royle one caer XVil PAGE 650 73 901 221 954 211 865 142 959 661 137 xviii FERNANDES, R., B.Sc., RAN- DERIA, A., B.SC., Seé SANTA- PAU, H,, S.J., F.N.I. FLEMING, ROBERT L., Ph.D., The bone-dropping habit of -the Lammergeier as PuTEaeET. ZAFAR, Trapping Birds for ringing eae Gay, T., Food of the Bull Frog. te -—, Cat and Mongoose ——-~—, A Bird answering its: own Echo re ae oh GEE, 2° P53 > M.A.; “SC.MiZ.Sa Wild Life Preservation in India ¢ Auoual Report for 1953 ~ on the Eastern Region — The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctu- aries and National Parks. Part II —, The Brow ander ed Deer (Cervus Clelland) ae -GOKHALE, S. V., EASWARAN, C. R., and N&RSIEAN, R., Growth-rate of the Pearl Oyster, Pinctada pinctada in the Gulf of Kutch with a _note on the Pearl Fishery of 1953 GOLDSCHMIDT, F.R., Spawiing of Rohu at Powai Lake Gupta, K. M,, pD.Ssc., On the occurrence of Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. in Jodhpur, Rajasthan (India) HALL, P.G.S. ae and Fines flies HARDE, K, W., seé Range, BERNHARD Harrison, J. L., Notes on Land Leeches ... iirc fic Hawkins, T. B., A large Tiger occ HEWETSON, C. E,, Putiorstion of insectivorous Birds in Madhya Pradesh in 1953 ee eee Hora, ©. L.,;° D.Sc, FN, Tectonic History of India and its bearing on Fish Geogra- phy. obs ode eldi Mac- | 917 PAGE | 77, 124 634 954 599 468 586 -207 692 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS PAGE HuNDLEy, H. G.; or ‘Live Creeper’ “ JACKson, M.C. A,, Ossuiranees ‘“Nwe-Shin’ ~ of the Banded Crake. [Rallus eurizonoiles amuroptera (Jer- don)] in Travancore .. * —— The occur- rence of Franklin? s Nightjar (Caprimulgus monticolus mon- - ticolus) in Travancore-Cochin JONES, S., and SUJANSINGHANI, K. H., Further comment on. the Mani-jal of the Chilka - Lake—A special Net for Bel- loniform fishes Josut, A. B., see RAMANUJAM,; ‘Ss. Kacuul, I, H., Occurrence of - the Mantis Gorgylus gon- gyloides Linn. in Junagadh (Saurashtra) _Kapampsi, K., Intelligence of the Indian Elephant - 5 KALYANASUNDARAM, S., Occur- rence of .a bi-foliate leaf in Citrus aurantium L. : KamaAtTH, H. SUNANDA, B.Sc., seé MUDALIAR, Sri C. RAJASE- KHARA, M.A. KaNnuNnco, M. S., m.sc., The Ecology and Behaviour of the Scorpion Palamnaeus benga- leusis C. Koch aes Kapur, A, P., -M.SC,,. Ph.D., D.1.C., On some unrecorded Host Plants of the Lac Insect, Lacctfer lacca (Kerr), (Homo- petera: Lacciferidae) see KINGDON-WARD, F., B.A, (Can- tab;), 0,3.2.)).F.1.S., wv.veE* Report on the Forests of the North Triangle, ~ Kachin State, North Burma .., aes KIRKPATRICK, K. M., Abori- ginal methods employed in killing and capturing Game... — —— —————, Shikai in India ane ————-—~—-~, A Dis. play of the Redwinged Bush- __ 211 603 214 64-4 590 - 221 936: . 645 304 Lark (Miratra erythroplera “a ; Blyth)... aR rer .. 601 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS KIRKPATRICK K. M,, The court- ship Display of the Large Pied Wagtail (Motacilla ma- deraspatensis Gmelin) KIRPALANI, MIRA, seé BHADU- Ris Le KITCHENER, H. J., Malforma- tion in antlers of the cae Sambar KRIPALANI, MISS MSB., see BHADURI, J. L. KRISHNAMURTHI, B., see CHA- CKO E. i; KRISHNAN, S. M., Birds eating the poisonous fruit of the M.SC., Yellow Oleander ( Thevetia nerittolia) ros dee sas —=- , Occurrence of Redwinged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) in ' Madras coe ee KUMAR, SIRDAR Eoneenoes Strange behaviour of Monkeys in the presence of a Panther. LampREY, H. F., Birds seen ~ above the tree-line in Tehri- Garhwal, in the Central Himalayas “9 ae se LavkKumMaR, K. S., Another bird-watching pilgrimage to SW. Tibet ais oes ate Lister, M. D., A contribution to the Ornithology of the Dar- jeeling area .., = des |,0KE, WAN THO, Some roca: ing Birds of. Singapore. Part III. —_——-———, Two Bitterns in a Penang Marsh, Part I. MACDONALD, AW ted... Wald _ Life Proseryation = Kraeer - National Park, An example. Mac LAREN, P.I.R., Heron-keep- ing on the Indus River ~ MajumMpaR, R. B., Proliferation in Grasde eo sac Fest) thaws MatHew, A. P., M.A., Ph. D., Observations on the Habits of two Spider Mimics of the Red Ant, Ocecophylla smaragdina : (Fabri) ~ eee eco ooo PAGE 602 588 207 210 925 E720 14 687 MaTHEWw, M. J., ids ) MATHEWS, R.S., Land Leeches, McCann, CHARLES, Apose- matic Insects and their Food- plants seéé CHACKO, ; The Whale Shark Rhineodon typus (Smith) oaela Ter ce so oe es ciating Natural Bhevenans with Food Suply ~—-—————-——, Has the Cuckoo a ea Oviposi- tor? MoHAPATRA, P,, Roa ‘Oren isms of Gadusia chapra (Ham.) from certain ponds with thick Euglena blooms vee , The Relauion! ships of otal length to furcal length for five Cyprinids Morris, R. C.,, Gaur attack- ee ee ee eS —, Stride — of Elephant crossing trench... Bull Bison (Gaur) MUDALIAR, SRI KHARA, M.A., and KAMATH, H. SUNANDA, - B.Sc., Back- water Flora of the West Coast of South India ... Mourtuy, MRs. SYAMALA, ne - intelligent Myna Naipu, (Miss) K. G. RAJA BAL, A note on the courtship in the Sand Crab [Philyva- scab- riuscula (Fabricius)] NARSIMHAN, R., Seé GOKHALE, S. V. NAVAR,\S. of India. L., Poisonous Seeds Part I. ae aa = Bees Part IT, NEELAKANTAN, K. K.,, secondary song of Birds NicHOLLS, FRANK, Effect of Earthquake on Elephants .. he Man-eating _ Tiger in, South Indiat...., , c<... : Extraordi- nary behaviour of a solitary C. RAJASE- . xix PAGE 665 607 931 624 916 69 598 640 NICHCOLS FRANK, Pythons Noronua, 'R. P., More notes on the Indian Buffalo OnIAL, J. N., v.F.s. (Retd.), Presumptive fatal sting of the common House Wasp, /olistes hebraeus ; PALANI, E., Seé Onis, P. it. PHILLIPS, W. W. A., Petrels, Shearwaters and other Oce- anic Birds in the north Indian Ocean ——— ————,, Longe- vity of the Ceylon Ruddy Mongoose (Herpestes smitht zeylanicus) in captivity PHYTHIAN-AD AMS, Lt.-Col., E.G., Record Sambar for the Nilgiris ae Pitvar, N: G.; Death: a: wild Elephants, from suspected food-poisoning in Travan- core-Cochin State .. os PoLUNIN, O., M.A., F.L.S., SOme Birds collected in Langtang Khola, Rasua Garhi District, Central Nepal aes Power, J. M., Panther killed oF domestic Butalees PRAKASH, ISHWAR, Swimming and locomotion of captive Hedgehogs —_——, Notes on the Desert Hedgehog ( Hemiechi- nus auritus collaris Gray) ... ——-———, Cannibalism in Hedgehogs : ore ~—, and DAvE, K. C., Presumptive eating of a Krait’ by Scorpions Prasap, M. R. N., Natural History of the South Indian Gerbille Zatera indica cuvieri (Waterhouse) ; Food of the Indian Gerbille TZatera indica curtert (Waterhouse). Rarzapa, M. B., .A Note on Ventilago gamblei Merrill ... Raj, P. Je SANJEEVA, A Synop- Sis of the Species of the Gen- PAGE | 620 647 334 587 588 206 886 201 584 921 922 939 184 321 660 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS us Ozobranchus (De Quatre- fages, 1852) Hirudinea—Anne- lida ore a aed eee TOT, 7. S., Abnor- malities in the fruit of Areca catechu L. . ae RAMANUJAM, S., and JoSHI, A. B., Identity and taxono- mical Status « ehambaramiu Naidu . RANADE, M.R., M.Sc. (Hons.), Occurrence of Corymorpha (Hydrozoa) in Indian Waters. RANDERIA, A., B.Sc., seé FER- NANDES, R., B.Sc. Rao, B. R. SuBBA, B.SC. (Hons.), A new species of Antrocephalus Kirby ae Rao, R. SEsHAGrIRI, New Spe- cies of Indian Plants a Rao, T. RAMACHANDRA, Jxo- des kerri, a new species of Tick from a Flying Squirrel from Southern India (Aca- rina; Ixodidae) aa RENSCH, BERNHARD, and HARDE, K. W., Growth-gradi- ents of Indian Elephants ... RIDLEY, M. W., Observations on the Diet of Flamingoes ... RIPLEY, S. DILLON, Comments on the Biogeography of Ara- bia with particular reference to Birds RoonwaL, M.L., On te Siri - ture and Population of the Nest of the common Indian Tree Ant, Cvrematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr (Hy- menoptera, Formicidae) » Biology and Ecology of Oriental Termites (Isoptera). No. 1. Odonto- termes parvidens Holmg. & Holmg. severely damaging the bark and contributing — to the death of standing Teak trees in Uttar Pradesh, India... Ane 0 aT of Sesamum PAGE 473 224 657 219 948 190 860 241 354 458 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. RoonwatL, M.L., No. 2. On Ecological Adjustment in Nature between two species of Termites, Coptotermes hein (Wasm.) and Odontoter- mes vedemanni (Wasm.)—in Madhya Pradesh, India Roy, J. C., Periodicity of the Plankton Diatoms of the Chil- ka Lake for the years 1950 and 1951 SANDERS, D. F., Migceltuiedas Notes on Indian Butterflies ... SANDRASAGARA, T.B., F.R.E.S., Checklist of the Tridac- tylidae andGryllidae (Insecta, Orthoptera) of Ceylon, with records of Distribution wee ANTAPAU, H., 8.J., The Genus Murdannia in Bombay State — —, The Genus Murdannia in Borne sate ther Corrections _-_—) eo e and FERNANDES, R. R., B.Sc., A new Species of Chlorophytum from Salsette Island - —, See FERNANDES, R., B.Sc. —, See SHRIVASTAVA, G. P., M.Sc. SARANGDHAR, P. N., M.ScC., ph.D., Comparative Observa- tions on the Placenta and Foe- tal Nutrition in Elasmobranchs and Mammals see sae SATYANARAYAN, Y., Seé BHA- RucHA, F.R. SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R. oe Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants.... aoe ——_—--———,_ Apose- matic Insects and their Food- plants... eos eee SHAw, Rev. E, O., Some bird notes from eiinsiceit District, Madras ... oe SHIVRAJKUMAR, Y.5., The Oe: currence of the Crested Bunt- ing (Melophus lathami) in Saurashtra eae Ae cae PAGE 463 112 803 540 658 658 897 831 219 953 609 598 SHRIVASTAVA, G. P., M.Sc., and SANTAPAU, H., s.J., Alternan- thera polygonoides R, Br. var. erecta Mart.—a new record for Bombay State SOLANKI, M.§., G. P, SRINIVASAN, Pele SRIVASTAVA, J. G., Some recent- ly introduced or newly recorded Plants from Patna District and its neighbourhood =< —— — ——— Fe Ape I Wood. house— His Senrapeen to our knowledge of the Flora of Bihar % SUBRAHMANIAM, T. v., “Habits and Habitat of some common See ARGIKAR, R., seé alas Se Spiders found in Western India. SUJANSINGHANI, See JONEs, S. TANDON, S. L., Effect of Mar- gosa (Azadirachta indica) leaves on the rotting of Pota- to tubers during storage — — —- —__ — , Abnormalities in the ‘ Ear’ of Zea mays L. Tavtior, J. N., Occurrence of Bronzecapped or Falcated Teal (Zunetta ace near Calcutta Tuo, W. S., unter Sue TIWARI, fnawe Kant, Sex ratio and variability of apo- dous segments in 4 pus (Phyl- lopoda: Crustacea) —-—-—, Apus (Crus- tacea: Phyllopoda), a new host for parasitic Nematodes. USMAN, S., Some Insects attrac- ted to Light=1 3 —~_——-—, Some Insects attiae: K, H., ted to Light—II f VAURIE, C., and DHARMA- KUMARSINHJI, K. S., A new Sand Lark from Western India (Saurashtra) Watts, N. A, A Conioation to the Flora of Mussoorie ... Xxi ¢ PAGE 957 629 663 874 225 958 607 218 641 106 ’ xxil LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS PAGE tiie PAGE Witiiams, J. L. H., Land Lee- | Yin, U Tun, A Supplementary . - CHES “ig eulgncee abs aoe, 7 52 Note. on the status. of = .: Yin, U-Tun, A Note on the Rhinoceros and Thamin,( Pano- Position of Rhinoceros in the lia eldi thamin) in the Union ‘Union of Burma (1953) .. 83 of Burma, 1953 ot? Wes. WOOL —— —, Thamin or Eld’s —————, Habits of the Deer [Panolia eldi thamin _ Asiatic Black Bear (Selenarc- (Thomas)] in Burma .. 205| tos thibetanus thibetanus - , Wild Life Preser- G. Cuvier) pivaiate ERI topo B6. vation and Sanctuariesin the = | ——————, Thamin or Brow- Union jof .Byrma.» -.;-- sgerend antlered Deer in the Zoolo-— gical Gsrdens, Rangoon ., ... 917. _ LIST OF PLATES VOLUME 52 Nos. 1,2 & 3, and 4 ; 235 See Senet te +E PAGH Wild Life Preservation — Kruger National Park. An Example Plate I. Lion and Lioness in road cee 2 “Plate IG - Lions and Cars «2° °° a ; between ... 2/3 Plate III.” Elephant crossing read) 2 2 5 amen io Plate lV. Buffalo - | aes § Plate V. Kudu Bull pi pies He pie ag) ae Plate VI... Giratie crossing road - | See Sempra ~ Some Breeding eae of Singapore. Part III : Plate I. Longtailed Tailor-bird (Orthotomus - sutorius maculir m4 coulis). | S09 14 Plate II. Malay Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae malayensis) Bice gui ae iG: Plate III. Yellowbreasted Sunbird (Leptocoma 7, microleuca) on new-* —- YY, ~sly completed nest Ss. EG Plate IV, -Yellowbredsted. Sunbird : (Leptocoma jugularis micro- so leuca)* me 17 Plate -V. ° Yellowbreasted Suibird- ( Leptocoma 7. ipoleLen): Lower nest, partly completed, was abandoned when bird was frightened by flash. Another nest at once started above it _ ees eae Oe Critical Notes on the Identity and Nomenclature of some Bombay Plants IIES Murdannia scapitlorum (Roxb. ) Royle at a Plate I. Murdannia scapiflorum Royle 4. 138: Plate Il, Murdannia scapiflorum Royle | hee cece oO) The Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus (Smith) Plate I. The Basking Shark (Cetorhinus maximus) ee urOOO Plate Il. A. Showing gill arches and reduced tongue es B. Gill arch with gill and gill rakers \ 331 On the Structure and Population of the Nest of the common Indian Tree Ant, Crematogaster dohrn AS Mayr (Hymenoptera, oun cidae) ~ Plate’ I. Photographs of Crematogaster dohrni rogenhotert Mayr B collected in New Forest, Dehra Dun, U.P. sce + 956" Plate II. Photographs of young nest of Cyvrematogaster dohrni | rogenhotert Mayr, from the Kankramari char (Island), | Muriganga R., the Sunderbans, Lower Bengal sen) COU Plate III. Photographs of nest of Cees eae Sp. -- . sas ty JOM The Birds of Gujarat, Part I. Plate? Ie 1s Moist deciduous forest, REMipie, Ss, Gujarat a) 2. Deciduous biotope, Surat Dangs, March oa \ 374 RX1V LIST OF PLATES PAGE Plate II. 1. Moist deciduous secondary jungle, Surat Dangs 2. Looking towards- Salher Fort, Navsari Dist. } 37a Ss. Gujarat Plate III, 1. Country about Balaram, Palanpur, N. Gujarat. Abu) hills in the distance sc oe 2. Lesser Flamingos at Banas River mouth, Little Rana | oe of Kutch eae Plate IV. 1. The Bannicountry, N. Kutch ae . 2. ‘Typical coastal sand-dunes, Mandvi, Kutch BE a Plate V. 1. Portion of ‘ Flamingo City ’ — Great Rann of Kuteh, April 1945 1 2, Exhausted immigrating Grey Quail sheltering qadeet eke old flamingo nest-mound, Great Rann of Kutch ... J Biology and Ecology of Oriental Termites (lsoptera), No. 1. Plate I, Portions of teak trees (Zectona grandis Linn. f,) from the West Lehra Block, Pharenda Range, Gorakhpur Forest Division, Uttar Pradesh, damaged by the ter- mite Odontotermes parvidens Holmg. & Holmg., during 1951-52 os OO Biology and Ecology of Oriental Termites (Isoptera), No. 2. Plate I. Photographs of the lower portions of the trunk and of the rvot-stock of a recently dead, standing tree of salai, Boswellia serrata Roxb., showing damage by two species of termites, viz. Coptolermes heimi (Wasmann) and Odontotermes redemannit (Wasmann) .. 464 A new Species of Arthraxon from Purandhar (Bombay State). Plate. Arthraxon purandharensts sp. nov. a aD Charles M, Inglis. Plate. 566 Birds seen above the tree-line in Tehri-Garhwal, in the Central Hima- layas. Plate I. A view of the Alpine Meadow io enol? Plate II. A view of the meadow showing typical rock outcrops .. 613 New Plant Records for Bombay. Plate I. Jpomoea triloba Linn. ee - 662 Plate II. Commelina suffruticosa Blume .. 663 Two Bitterns in a Penang Marsh. Plate I. (Coloured). The Yellow Bittern (Jxobrychus sinensis). Female o- 687 [For the above caption, printed erroneously under the plate, read, ‘The Chestnut Bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus)]. Plate II. The Swamp area of Ginting, Penang ‘ poe eee like a bandit with a Bren-gun stand ’. «- 688 Plate III. The Yellow Bittern, Male. Female ‘... raised her crest in threat’. ene ;- 689 Plate IV. The Yellow Bittern. ‘...kept butting father in his belly.....’. Emptying the Larder cenngge LIST OF PLATES XXV PAGE Some Studies on two Species of Indian Fiddler Crabs, Uca marionis nitidus (Dana) and U. annulipes (Latr.). Plate I. Figs. 2and3, Major cheliped of a small (upper) and large (lower) specimen of Uca annu- lipes 702 Plate II. Figs. 4-6. Major cheliped of a small, medium and ieee specimen of Uca marionis nitidus vere hO3 Plate III, Fig. 7. Uca marionis nitidus, habitat and hole | Fig. 8. Refused mud-pellets of Uca iu linear arrange- } 704 ment radiating from entrance of crab’s hole. J Plate IV. Spoontipped hairs of merus of second mazsilliped in Uca marionis nitidus (Fig. 91) and U. annulipes (Fig.10) ... 705 Plate V. Fig,11. Spoontipped hairs in natural arrangement | Uca annulipes Fig, 13, Male of Uca marionts nitidus in display eqieure| 710 ation waving at (feeding) female (from a | 16 mm. motion-picture) deel) The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks, Part II. Plate i. Wild elephant (#aknua). Kaziranga Sanctuary 7 Wild buffalo bull, Kaziranga Sanctuary ay 718 Plate II. Barasingha (Aucervus duvaucelli) Kanha Wild Lie Sanctuary, Madhya l’radesh 719 Plate III. One ofthe mazdans in Kanha Sanctuary, Madhya Pa desh y Chita! stag (Axis axis) in sal forest, Kanha Sane Le tuary Plate IV. Barasinga or Swamp Deer. Master stag and hinds. Kanha Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh Barasinga Stags. Kanha Sanctuary Plate V. A herd of Gaur (Bzdos gaurus), Bandipur Wild Life Sanctuary, Mysore Young bull Gaur, Bandipur Sanctuary, Mysore See Plate VI. Forest Rest House, Dhikala. Hailey National Park Uttar Pradesh as View across Ramganga River from above rest house, Himalayan foothills in distance 727 e e e Lp] rn The Birds of Gujarat. Part II. 7 Plate I. Deciduous forest, Dediapada, Rajpipla (late March). } Favourite haunt of the Spotted Tree Creeper Bee | nis Spilonotus) . 785 Whitewinged Black Tit (Parus nuchalis) at nest-hole in| babultrunk. Chaduva, Kutch ofr Comparative Observations on the Placenta and Foetal Nutrition in Elas- mobranchs and Mammals. Plate I. Foetal placentae in Bombay elasmobranchs Wal Soe Plate Il. Appendicula in Bombay elasmobranchs .. 833 Nyctibatrachus humayuni, a new Frog from the Western Ghats, Bom- bay. Plate. Nyctibatrachus humayuni, new species neo OOS xEVi LIST OF PLATES PAGE lxodes kerri, anew Species of Tick from a Flying Squirrel from south- ern India (Acarina : Ixodidae). Plate’ I. S%xodes kervi, new species. Female ve > 860 Plate II. Jwvodes kerri, new species. Male ee A new Species of Chlorophytum from Salsette Island. Plate. Chlorophytum borivilianum sp. nov. es UE ‘The Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldi MacClelland). - Plate I. Brow-antlered Deer stag. Vincennes Zoo, Paris Stag with four of the five hinds, in Vincennes Zoo, Patis- I - Plate Il. Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldithamin) in Rangoon Zoo, 919 Notes on Zhrips palmi Karny, attacking Sesamum indicum. Plate. Fig. 1. A. — Attacked sesamum plant showing fruits with ré ; . dark pigment, ‘ os) iy -a.— Thrips palmar, female 4 | On the Occurence of Marsilea aegypliaca Willd, in Jodhpur, Rajasthan (India). Plate. “Marsilee acgyptiaca Willd. from Jodhpur, Rajasthan so, So Alternanthera poly sonodtes R. Br., var. evecta Mart. — A new record for Bombay State. _ | Plate, | , ee. 2057 Abnormalities in the ‘Ear’ of Zea mays L, Plate. 2088 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS .~ VOLUME 52 Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 PAGE Achnanthes sp. Plate II. Fig. 10 117 Alternanthera polygonoides var. — erecta : Plate © A 957 Amyciaea forticeps pea So eae Figs. land2 ... - 251 Fig. 3 22, Fig. 4 253 Fig. 5 3 258 Anthus novaeseelandiae malayensis Plate II ee aS Eo Antilope cervicapra Photo oe 920 Antrocephalus galleriae Text-fig. eee 948 Arabia, Comments on Biogeo- graphy with particular re- ference to Birds : Map... ee on 242 Map ... ae 243 Araneus bilunifer Text-fig. 883 Ardea cinerea IPHOEO 935 Areca catechu Fig. Abnormal Fruit 224 Argiope pulchella Fig. 9 a 880 Arthraxon mecboldii, cl Plate be 482 ——_—— purandharensis : Plate 482 Axis axis Plate III ree Barbus stigma Graph "G27 Bibos gaurus Plate V 726 Biddulphia sp. = Plate IE, Figs. 13-15 .. ws PAGE Birds of Cian The BID Map» %.. ean Secerron OS4 Plate I uae between 374/5 Plate ea aw svers Vokes 375 - Plate III ia = 376 Plate IV Rag PROS eK, —~ Plate V eae ~ 338 Birds seen above the een ne - in Tehri-Garhwal, in Central Himalayas webs Rudugaira Valley . 2° _.610 -- Diagram of altitude zones, 611 Plate I ee sits 612 Plate IL ere Fit EOS Bird Trap : E >| “Photo: i 937 Bitterns in a Penang Are Two ai Plate I Sh fa noe 687 Plate II sae eee 688 Plate III ee See 689 Plate IV ieee avs -§90 Boswellia. serrata- Showing attacks by Coftotermes hermt and Odontotermes rede- manne - ae é SEH oc ace St 464 Plate I ears ae 464 Buffalo bull Wild Plate I one ae 718 Cervus eldi oe Plate I ee ta 918 Plate II oeah es S19 —— —-unicolor Photo Meee BES 588 Cetorhinus maximus Plate I pee Ae dee 330 - Plate Il ee es 331 Chaetoceros laevis . Plate I, Fig. 5. Ne 116 Chela bacaila a Graph ase es =. Oes XXViii PAGE Chela gora Graph -——- mer otheca Fig. 14 158 ———— nardus 152 Fig. 2 nae INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Cymbopogon nardus var. con- fertiflorus Fig. 1 Cymbopogon nervatus Fig. 10 ——— osmastonit Fig. 8 —_—_ par keri Fig. 27 —_ —-pendulus Fig. 17 ————-polyneuros Fig, 7 —— schoenanthus Fig. 26 -—-—— stvacheyt Fig. 15 ——— —thwaitesii Fig. 22 —_— —tibeticus Fig. 12 ——— tyavancorensis Fig. 24 oe —vir gatus Fig.19 —_——— winterianus Fig. 3 Cyrtophara ciecatrosa Fig. 10 Diatoms: of the Chilka Pete for the years 1950 and 1951, Periodicity of the Plankton Map Be Map Elasmobranchs Plate I Plate II , Elephant (makna), Wild Plate I FOB Elephants, Growin erimentes of Indian Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Figs. 3 and 4 Fig. 5 Figs. 6 and 7 Figs. 8 and 9 Figs. 10 and ia Ephedra Photo Eutta javana Fig. 2 PAGE 158 166 152 881 112 120 832 833 718 843 845 846 847 848 849 850 10 877 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Fish Geography, Tectonic History of India and its bearing on Text-fig. Text-fig. Text-fig. Text-fig. Text-fig. Text: fig. Text-fig. 7 Flora of the West Coast of South India, Back-water Map Gasteracantha avout Fig. 15 — —-— br evispina Fig, 16 Fig. 14 Grammatophora sp. Plate Il, lig. 9 oo Gyrosigma sp. Plate II, Figs. 11-12 Hailey National Park, Uttar Pradesh SO nee vemitera Plate VI as Hare, Oriyas hunting Sketch § oie oe Hemiaulus sp. Plate II, Figs. 7=8 nes Ho trap for wild pig Sketch 6 eae wae Inglis, Charles M, Plate Ipomoea triloba Plate I Ixodes kervi Plate I sare ves Plate II Po 600 Kanha Sanctuary ° Plate III Br Kruger National Park, South Africa PAGE 693 695 696 698 699 699 700 70 Plate I ee ee 2 Plate II «.- between 2 & 3 Plate III ap 2&3 Plate 1V Ay 7404, Plate V set 4 Plate VI Be 5 Leptocoma jugularis microleuca Plate III 16 Leprocoma jugularis microleuca Plate IV Plate V Leucauge bengalensis Fig. 5 (b) —culta Fig. 5 (a) decorata Fig. 3 & 4 Marsilea aegyptiaca Plate ... Melosira sp. (?) Plate I, Fig. 6 .. Murdannia scapitlorum Plate I Plate II Nephila maculata Figs.6 & 7 — malabarensis Fig. 8 a on Nyctibatrachus humayuni Plate ... see Odontotermes parvidens Plate I avs “se Orthotomus sutorius micalcoles Plate I sae Palamnaeus bengalensis Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Panther Trap Sketch 2 Paratelphusa guerint Text-fig. Parus nuchahis Plate I Pilani and its Neighbourhood, Vegetation of Map ya. Pinctada pinciada Fig. I aa bp Fig, ll sai iss Fig. II 453 ace Fig. LV Fig. V Rana breviceps Fig. 1. Right foot Rhizosolenia ber gontt Plate I, Figs. 2-3 delicatula Plate I, Fig. 4... any &Xix PAGE XEX INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. Rohtee cotio _ Graph Rohtee vigorsii Graph : Rucervus duvancrllt Plate II Plate 1V Salbornis spilonotus Plate 1. Favourite haunt. --—-~ Sesamum. indicum Plate. Fig. JA Text-fig, 2. Snow man’s Scalp, Abominable Photo aah LOS Slee Solanum melongena . Lior. Senne Trap seo) cer aia cats, foxes, hares and pea- fowl . Sketeh 3 Siuis Tatera indica cuviert Histogram showing sea- — sonal Food Constituents of : sae Tetvagnatha Prats Fig. 1 Thrips palmt Plate, Fig. tear; ate PAGE 697 290 PAGE Tiger Trap | Sketch 1 Rae oan 287 Tilapia mossambica / | Fig. 1 i cof 350 Figs. 2, 3 and 4 enon Migs. p andio |... hs 352 Uca annulipes Plate 1, Bigs, 2 3 see 702 Plate IV, Fig. 10 ne 705 Plate V, Fig. 11 soe cael ——iarionis nitidus Plate II, Figs. 4-6 Bae 703 Plate Ill, Fig. 7 ee 704 Plate IV, Fig. 9 a 705 Plate V, Fig. 13 a 710 Fig. 12 nee or 710 Ucasp. _ aa Plate III, Fig. 8 sas 704 Urang Rat Trap Sketch 4 uss 291 Wild Life Preservation a Sanctuaries in the Union of Burma Map eoo ece ece 264 Yungipicus nanus semicoronatus ‘Text-figure Am a: 60 Zea mays Plate «.: Wee tee 958 {INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE PAGE Abies ey! tee, bak » 31, 315, 317 | Acridotheres ginginianus tristis 796, 797 ——-fargesii ... aes aes ws 315 | Acrocephalus agricola agricola nese Oe me webbiana ..° ... © -. © ««. -- 886 - Gumetorum: “4. 1, 762 Abisara echerius prunosa be, Dee OOO trees —‘stentoreus a eae a5) - ———— suffusa eae eee CLO - ——-——brunnescens 762 Abrus precatorius pase se JOy cea Actinastriim 9 Pua) Want en 840 Abutilon Selgin ge eal . 488 | Actitis hypoleucos cic aad eae OG Acacia eae ves 875, 487, 754 | Adina cordifolia Sega eee ti MOTO - arabica ... beh ... 185, 375, 497 | Aecanthus ee Ses ee 557 - auriculiformis ... fre 645, 646 | Aegiceras ae P ace see 69, 78 - catechu... eat so 376, 743 | ————- corniculatum vas oa 69, 78 - concinna var. fulva ... .. 664 | Aegithaliscus concinnus eee 26 - farnesiana bs ae we = 497 | ———— -——— —_-—_. itedater ia OOS ——-—v-leucocephalia ... fas .. 185 | Aegithina nigrolutea ... Late ULE C43 ——- modesta oa 360 a 407) — tiphia humei ele 742, 743 -senegal ... +) oes 488, 497 | Aegle marmelos Set asd shee SHO Acalypha brachystachya .. ... 110! Aegypius monachus ... ... .. 399 Acanthias ae aes see .. 833 | Aeromachus dubius... ae See RES: Acanthocephalus kadamba (?) eon SHOU me Neruanjavanicay cn cts i sen) aso UL Acantholipes circumdata eae op RRL) oo ES rereyes ieane ae ee cee OF ——_——_——. circumflueta eee jer | Goll, | a LOMentOSaA iat mie enc OUT. _ + Acanthus Gee aoe ont ase 80 | Aesculus assamica fe Pe ee ee O07 ———- ilicifolius ae .. 69, 80, 664 — punduana (?) .. a ee OUs, ——-——- maderaspatanus .. me. 905 Accipiter badius dussumieri ... ea ood ——-—— nisusnisosimilis ... -... 394 —_——_-- Sp. as oae wee ve. 900 ——-——- virgatus ssf.... ae tea OOE Acer ace wide ese ice OL G, O14, 316 ——- campbelli (?) see a Saipan) <0)! ——- sikkimensis Sie ict «. 31d ——- wardii nae aes oat woe Ole Acheata “oe ‘as aes pene) Acheta aoe afr ae ee O40 ——— bimaculata sis see . 544 Achnanthes en das yes Ree OE LG Achyranthes des =, ve .. 488 ———-—— aspera... aa Ss nenerns U Aconitum Toi dee ist ou 90 ——-—— napellus ae ae nat 99 -Acraeaviolae... ie ise SZ I Acridotheres ginginianus ... ... 796 ——_ — —_—- tristis a ean JO), 207,019 Aethopyga ignicauda iGnicauda «. 894 ————— nepalensis nepalensis .., 894 ——_——-— nipalensis ... oe aa 57 ———saturata .. es jay 8 ———-— siparaja vigorsi «> 377, 788 Aetobatus aa Wes sae ae 4500S Agapetes sae one oe Aegan) is: Agave verarcruz ... 00d ane oe SOLU Ageratum conyzoides 5 aus 108, 499 Agrobates AA Ses ew /Gts —--——. galactodes farpiliatis ee eae Agyneia bacciformis ... .. «. 659 Alaemon alaudipes dofiae .. ae 400 Alangiumlamarckli .. «. .. 789 Alauda gulgula 505 as ww. 458 —— _— — gulgula was so 408 —— ——-—jnconspicua ... ws 458 ——._- —— = — punjaubi vee Sty ele: Albizzia .. ie wus is a2 — — indicum nae ee .. 492 | Adhatoda vasica Yee seh ea 5¢5 ae vs lebbeck 200 spe eee 497, 646 Xxxil Albizzia procera... —-— stipulata Albunea Alcedo atthis beneienets ——-— — - taprobana Alcemerops athertoni Alcimandra cathcartii Alcippe ene ——-— nepalensis poioicephala brucei ... Alcurus striatus | Alectoris — graeca —-—— melanocephala Alhagi camelorum maurorum Allium cepa rubellum sativum Alnus nepalensis Alstonia venenatum «. Alternanthera Alternanthera echinata ——— - pungens sessilis Althea rosea es Alticola roylei ae aoe Altinga excelJsa Alysicarpus monilifer ... ons Amarantus blitum ase -—— paniculatus oO polygamous sis --———«-—— spinosus viridis Ape Amaurornis akool akool ens +—— phoenicurus spp. Ambassis ranga cae eae Amblypodia ees adriana .. SS -————-——- ? agesilaus ane ——- ———. amantes amantes -—-: areste arestina nn ae floribunda e000 ————~ rotala Ammomanes curtis Bur aiaes polygonoides war. erecta -—— adatha ae aes centaurus pirithous Ammania dentelloides ... nc INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 213576 21 947 444 444 377 307 747 30 750 35 246 G15); 246 496 772 510 111 510 312 664 957 uw. 665 957 507 659 507, 957 ee a eee G15 307, 312 496 pees O7 507 664 mee Sy 507 410 411 ey ise 803, 826 fae S26 826 a 9835 372, 826 e827 826 «664 938 665 JO46 496, we —- 456 PAGE Amorphophallus sylvaticus ae 90 Amphilophis odorata €59 Ampittia diascorides poKorS Amphora 349, 625 Amsacta lineola 649 Amusurgus Jo3 -—— fulvus 553 —- oedemeroides B09 -—— speculifer 553 Amyciaea « 252,203 1259) 258, "259, 260, 261, 262, 263 Amyciaea forticeps 249, 250, 251, 253, 262 Anabaena ; 349, 629 —- flosaque 629 Anagallis arvensis vay. coerulea 500 Anamirta cocculus 91 -— paniculata 91 Anapheis mesentina 3638 Anaptygus sp. 615 Anas acuta acuta 399 —- angustirostris 389 ——- crecca crecca 390 ——- falcata 390 ——- penelope 390 —-—- platyrhyncha 390 ——.- poecilorhyncha poeciloriymenn 390 ——- querquedula 390) — strepera 390 ——-- streperus 931 Anastomus oscitans 3&5 Anaxipha : 504 ——--—— henryi Se 2s 555 —-—- longipennis .. 554 —— -—— pubescens 554 Ancylolomia sf, 649 Andropogon ah 512 annulatus Si — carocpsis ees til ae clandestinus ss 149, 150 — coloratus 172, 173 —— contortus 311 ——_——_-=+= (Cymb.) caesius elatior bonus a distans 169, 177 ———_——- flexuosus 161, 162 —~- ——- gidarba 156, 157, 160 —_——. himalayensis 178 -_— - hookeri 153 _—_—— jwarancusa 178, 179 S aEEEEEEEEREEnEeneeeime SUOSp. laniger «we - 189 INDEX OF SPECIES i PAGE Andropogon laniger 180, 182, 183 —-—__——- microtheca 175, 159 —— — nardus 166, 174 —_— —_— — —— mr. coloratus 172 — ———— — ——— subsp. flexuosus 161 — subsp. glomeratus 172 —_— —_—_ —. —_ — wr khasianus 168, 169 + subsp. marginatus var. exsertus 165 — var. microstachys 162, 163 ee var. stracheyi 159, 160 ——— pendulus scandens ... eas aes Soe | Epeira re hee. Ephedra 10, ‘UL, 12, 13, 488 Ephedra foliata dO; Lipi2 - var. Ciliata 487, 512 - peduncularis dee oe 10 - vulgaris ... A aise ae 11 Epimuta ... wes Bac 825 Epimys (= Rattus) pureeees mee 860 Epipagis cancellalis ... ces oo ©6049 Epistylis ... soe ee Ps «» 629 Equus hemionus ... vet ces 798 ———— khur 871 Eragrostis... aaet RAGS Eragrostis bifaria 185, 322 ——-——- nutans ol” — -—— plumosa cee vee sell oa stenophylla ... coe 511 ——-—— viscosa Spel Eremopterix grisea eee 560 455 -_—— siccata 455 Ergolis ariadne 370 - - merione Eieronann 370 Erebia hyagriva ... 815 Eriboea athamas... 369 Erinaceus oe go BENGE Eriobotrya ae O12, Ito Eriophorum comosum 159 Erithacus rubecula 45 -— sveCicus abbotti aco Od ee - pallidowularis 767 -— ——- saturatior 767 Erythrina of 448, 788 Erythrina erythrina enya wie ae ON re ates INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Erythrina erythrina roseatus ... 791 ——-— indica ... oe 312 ——— —- stricta 451, 755 Erythropygia galactotes 768 Ervatamia dichotoma 101 Esacus recurvirostris see 423 Estrilda amandava amandava... 794 ——-— formosa ; “pn ee) Etroplus suratensis cee see 350, 629 Euastrum ee ase 625, 629 Eublemma anachoresis sess . 649 Eubranchella as 473, 475 Eubranchella branchiata 473 Euchloe ausonia daphalis 810 Euchrysops cnejus aa 3/1 —_——_— contracta contracta 823 —_—__—__-—-—- pandava pandava 823 Eucosmetus sp. . 648 Eucta 874, 876 Eucta javana 876 Eudynamis nce eee as 575 Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus ... 434 Eudynamys ia 575 Eugenia ses 308, 312, 347 Eugenia Perarolana 497, 789 Euglena 624, 629 Euglena acus 625 ——-— oxyrius ... 625 —-——— Spirogyra 625 ——-— viridis 625 Eulophia bicarinata 661 Eumyias thalassina 42 Eunetta falcata 607 Euonymus 308, 315, 316, 320 Eupagurus prideauxii + 714 Euphorbia 450, 452, 488 Euphorbia clarkeana 509 ————— geniculata 110 | —-— helioscopia ... 659 ——_——— hirta 509 ————-— hypericifolia 665 ————-— microphylla 509 _——_— neriifolia 509 ——-——— pilosa 665 | —_—— prostrata 665 =—-———froyleana ... 508 _————— royleiana 11 _-—_—_— splendens 509 ————-—. thymifolia ... 509 Euploea core core 369 ———-coretacoreta ... 396 Sliii PAGE Euploea mulciber kalinga 812 Eurema blanda silhetana a see BULL — hecabe simulata

see wee 665 ———— strigosum a ee O02 — zeylanicum 502 Hemerocallis soe) 09 Hemiaulus sas ae sor 1G Hemichelidon ferruginea 41 —— —— sibirica ... ose 4i —— cacabata 891 Hemicircus a: Ale ane 451 xlvi INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Hemicircus canente 877,453 ———_—_— ——-— cordatus ... atime: ot) Hemiechinus auritus collaris ... 584, 921, 922 —_——_—-—-— collaris 971 Hemigaleus balfouri 832, 839 Hemigraphis hirta woe =: 664 Hemilandreva ons ee V8) ——_———--— lamellipennis .. 549 Hemipristis elongatus ... 832, 839 Hemiprocne longipennis coronata 442 Hemipus sn eS ———— picatus . 46, 377, 741 — ——— picatus niet 738 Hemitragus Fee dG) Heptagenia sf. Ae ets) Herennia 874, 883 — ornatissima 883 Heritiera baen 5; 361 Herodias alba ase ee ok EIS Herpestes on ese 187, 188 Herpestes smithi zeylanicus 587, 860 vitticollis ro csv Heterogamus SA. 649 — — — ar. percurrens 951 Heteropogon contortus eee L Heterotrypus elegans 960 —— ——vicinus .. aa 559 Heteroxenicus cruralis ... ay 36 Hibiscus 4h Ese 72 — esculentus 492 —_ gibsoni 492 ———— hirtus eae Sh 664 rosa-sinensis ... 5 492 ———— tiliaceus ee 72 ———— Vitifolius ore dae R004 Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus ... 395 ———— ———— grandis 396 — pennatus eer 092, 390,07 —_——— — milvoides ... 396 —-—— —— pennatus ... 396 Hierococcyx sparverioides 63 ———-——_-— varius des eee 64 Himantopus himantopus himantopus 422 Hippa sat aie sett nd? Hipparchia actaea magna 814 va boloricus : 815 ————-—— —— chitralica 815 ————— moorei : ee) —-—-—— — ——— gilgitica ... 815 -— ——— moorei : 815 Hipparchia persephone enervata regeli Hippolais caligata caligata rama ——— ——<<2 ns Hirudo branchiata Hirundapus caudacutus Hirundinaria manillensis Hirundo concolor — concolor daurica ene ——_——_ ——_--—- erythropygia — —— -—— — hyperythra ... —_—_- ——_-— nipalensis ——— fluvicola Sup AAG rupestris rustica ; ——_— ——-— ambigua —_—__—_-—- ———- gutturalis ... rustica smithii filifera a eee PAGE 814 815 756 756 473, 474 473, 475 56, 442 66 470 736 736 737 607 737 737 736 96, 737 736 345, 736 Hodgsonius phoenicuroides phoeni- curoides Holcus sorghum spicatus Homaloblemmus aoe i Homaloblemmus cavifrons ... Homalocenchrus hexandrus ... —— Homalogryllus ats 49 -— depressus 505 Homo ane Homochlamys fortipes Homoeoxipha — histrio —_ lycoides Homoeoxiphus Homonoia riparia Hoplopterus indicus indicus —— malabarica Horaga amethystus —= —-—-— moulmeina -— onyx Hordeum Horeites brunnifrons Horsfielcia anita dina Hura crepitans ANG Hyboella latifrons se Hydnocarpus kurzii ———-—-—-—- laurifolia == Wightiana purpurascens. 736 737 890 184, 324 184, 324 347 O47 659 507 557 4 598 | 33 554 554 594 552 308 414 414 828 803, 828 828 828 oll 53 372 102 950 | 102 | 103 103 INDEX OF SPECIES slvii . PAGE | PAGE Mite yerticillata. ...... 349,509) Iriss®, tee ee cs ae 809 Hydrillodes morosa__.... He ... 649 | —- wattii Soe re be fey Ue. Hydrophasianus chirurgus... 413, 606 | Itaropsis parviceps aa, Bid Se Das Hydroprogne tschegrava tsche- — fenellusy..: ace oa se One grava ee oi ... 425 | Ixias marianne ... aes ae ce eal ots) Hylobates hoolock te ee .. 269 | —— pyrene frequens ... one Bie Siete: Hymenia recurvalis ... Eo .. 649 | Ixobrychus cinnamomeus eee 687, 689 Hyoscyamus muticus ... ant 103, 665 | —-—-—-— sinensis sie aaa Ar (oto, 7/ —-— niger 366 aa gome OS -—— —--—-— sinensis] ... eo Oe: Hypacanthis spincides ... es Ae oo)|| Lxodes:) .... ais eae ee O61, 863, 864 ee — spinoides ... 893 | Ixodes acutitarsus sie swe 860, 861 Hypena strigata wes vas .. 649 | —--— ceylonensis Dae ae 860, 861 Hypolimnas missipus ... isle .. 370 | —--— gigas nie “ee she oy aol! Hypoprion macloti sie’ 6ue .. 832 | —--— granulatus ane ... 860, S61, 864 Hypothymis oe a 747,800 | —--— holocyclus Be ye 860, 861 Hypothymisazurea ... wep .. 706 | —+-— japonensis er er 860, 851 — ——-———styani .. . (/49 | —--—kempi ... wes oa ves OOS Hystrix leucura ee Pee we « «292 | —-— kerri me ae .. 861, 862, 863 Ianthia cyanura rufilata ee .. oOgl | —--—radfordi ... ae o 860, 861 Ianthocincla ¢cellata ocellata ... ». 088; —--—ricinus ... sae sit S60, 861 Ibidorhyncha struthersii a8 ... 896 | Ixora parviflora var. zeylanica ». 665 Ibis leucocephalus ee. +, 399 | Ixulus favicollis . aos ues oo: 31 ——- acsecpialus Bio 385 === cS Hay eoliis 550 aos 889 Ichthyobdella ... .. we eee = «474 | Lynx torquilla chinensis er teh cen Lodo Ichthyophaga cent neactue [ichthyaetus] 399 | —— ———— S50. ove coe we 449 Ichthyophis glutinosus w= awe-~—«639 | Jacaranda mimosifolia a 646, 647 ——-—— monochrous ... 649 | Jamides celeno celeno ... as on On Ictinaétus malayensis [perniger] ... 399 | Jasminum wre tee tee wee S12 Ilex as .. 313, 314, 316 Jasminum humile Br ae UU Ilex crenata we wwe 814 | Jatropha curcas se vos ve 108 = pethofagifolia Ae ae 314 SS glandulifera ... ooo 200 104 —-sikkimense ... sar ae) ge eee OUay Ni verry gossypifolia .... .. .. 104 Illicium sf. Be tM es ieee eesk O14) Mee ey ote? cee Ci gee "205 Hlysanthes i. a P , 79 en ten ov see as ive secre Ilysanthes tenuifolia ... sie as 79 eters we we sie ve 285 Impatiens re ee pe 0G) DOSHCla gs ate a) ste ecenhyy ee 488 Indigofera argentea... a2 ... 495 | Justicia adhatoda ie te ct O09 —articulata... ae see 405) Sara e Giftusa... vee ae 2» 505 ) —cordifolia .. .. 4. 495 | ——-— Quinqueangularis .., ..., 505 Ipomea pilosa... bes Seat) 2 ste 1p) O04 sr. a es Oy Cniana see aes ww» 659 ae — Wightii ... nee wae »» 665 | ——-— simplex tee aes Ane wea) a) | ———— batatas ... ocr cP 503, 661 | Kachuga donghoka zee oe 474, 476 | —— biloba ... ace wee ov. 003 | — — intermedia... bes scam 270 ——- blancoi ae ies .. €61 | ———— smithi ana see ees 470 | ——_—— hederacea sie als 104,503) == — tectum : aes 474, 477 ——-—leari... et ee .. 503 | Kallima inachus huegelii aes oe OLS ———pes-tigridis ... BAe 503, 664 | Kandelia ... a an see ae 79 | pileata a oe .. 661 | Kandelia rheedi ... oan oe can 79 | — pulchella A ae .. 503 | Katelysia apima ... See aN 125, 129 1 ___ triloba ve ou ... 661 | Kirchneriella ane aes Ks Ty es) Traota timoleon timoleon " .. 825 | Kleinhovia hospita fF ‘ae ca S28 xlvili PAGE Kochia indica... aes ane 508 Labeo aoe best cee 629 Labeo fimbriatus . 300, 629, 634 ——— rohita 350, 635 Laccifer (= eras sea communis 646 ——-— (= Tachardia) lacca ... 645 Lacerta sh. 615 Laelia litura 649 Lagascea mollis 659 Lagenaria siceraria 105 ————— vulgaris 105, 498 Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 105 wee speciosa ae eo 0S Laiscopus collaris 928 Lalage melaschista 48 ——— sykesi 975 Lammna . sae ae Oe Lampides Loeticus 371, 807 Landreva ... 9 a. eee 549 Landreva anegustiformis 949 ——-—— clara ... 949 ——-—-— insignis ¥ 949 -—-— subaptera 049 Lanius cae Bris 608 Lanius caniceps caniceps ane 782 collurio 781, 783 —_—_ —-—_-— bogdanowi 782 —— cristatus ... 618 — cristatus 783 ——— erythronotus erythronotus 782 —— excubitor lahtora ——— jsabellinus .. 779, 780, 782 .. 768, 780, 782 ——— lahtora 782 ——-— nigriceps 32, 45 a nigticeps e 892 ——— phoenicuroides 768, 780, 781, 782, 783 —_—_—__ ——___—__——_ isabellinus 782 schach 46, 6.8, 782 Lanius schach caniceps 781, 782 —-— -— erythronotus 781, 782 SS kathiawarensis ... 782 —-— ——-— hnepalensis Se OOe vittatus 780, 781, 782, 783 Lantana camara var. aculeata 185 ——— crenulata 665 -— indica 505 Laphygma exigua 322, 324 Laponicum otis 310 Larix Me ve Splat Larvivora penned ase ae 36, 890 Larus argentatus cachinnans 425 INDEX OF SPECIES Larus brunnicephalus ... —-+— fuscus 930 a Putenets 425 —-— ridibundus 424, 425 Lasioderma sericorne ase wi $649 Lathyrus aphaca ...496, 515, 664 ———— sativus 515 ——-—-— sphericus 664 Launaea nudicaulis 590 lLawsonia alba 497 Leea woe “5 73 Leea sambucina ... ees 73 Leioptila capistrata Jas wee? (AO —-—_ - -— capistrata 889 Leiothrix lutea % sf) Leonotis nepetaefolia ... 506 Lepidagathis trinervis 505 Lepidium sativum 490 Lepidogathis sp. woe! Lepocinclis oe OSS Leptadenia 765 Leptadenia spartium 412, 487, "502, 788, 775 Leptocoma jugularis 16 | —— —-— microleuca .. 16 Leptoptilos dubius 386 a javanicus ... 386 Leptosia nina nina an 367 | Lepus ruficaudatus oat «- 29a Lethe ae Ole Lethe dura Site 813 —-— margaritae ane os > Ole -—— rohria nilgiriensis vate 369 —-— rorhia neilgheriensis 813 —-— sinorix aaa ° 813 —-— yama yama . Sloe Leucas aspera 506 | Leucauge bce 500 874 | Leucauge (Argyroepeira) ae 877 | Leucauge bengalensis ... 877 | ——- celebesiana ... 877 | june Culta |<. 2 Ome | ——-—— decorata . S7ml —— fastigata see 2 877 | a tesscllata 877 | y= ventralis 877 | Leu cocerca albicollis 45 Libythea myrhha myrhha | Licocoris Sp. re : 648 | Ligustrum Ors ae 308 Limenitis procris procris 369 | Limicola falcinellus : 421 Liminitis procris procris 424,425, 930 PAGE Linninitis procris undifragus 818 Limnanthemum 2 79 Limnanthemum parvifolium 79 Limnophila oe oat 79 Limnophila gratissima 79 Limosa limosa limosa ... 417 —- lapponica lapponica ... 417 Lindenbergia macrostachya 665 —-—— urticaefolia .. 664 Linum usitatissimum 493, 515 Liogryllus ee 544 Liorhyssus rubicundus ... 648 Liphoplus 556 Liphoplus ceylonicus 556 Litsaea polyantha 459 Lloydia a ee 310 Lobelia nicotianaefolia . 516 Locustella naevia eerie = 761 Lolium perenne ... a 659 ——— temulentum ee 659 Lonchura malabarica ... 794 ——-—— punctulata feeoventer 795 ee striata striata : .. 494 Lonicera 310, 312, 315, 881 Lophobdella : ww. = 474 Lophophorus apenas 615, 895 Loranthus an be .. 187, 788, 789 Loranthus ampullaceous ue 605 --—-— spp. 743, 744 Loxoblemmus ie 5 848 Loxoblemmus equestris 548 — longipalpis 548 Loxura Benes atymnus S02, Luffa acutangula 498, 516 cylindrica 516 Lumnitzera oe 69, 76 Lumnitzera racemosa ... 76 Luzara 559 Luzaropsis ve 559 Luzaropsis ferruginea ... 559 — -— cutee 559 Luzula : : 315 Lycaena Eee aera var. Paraepa 824 Lycaenesthes dubiosa indica 824 -—_—__ —-—--—. sivoka 824 ———-+—- emolus emolus an 823 —— — lycaenina lycaenina 371, 824 Lycaenopsis Ae SaeetOa Lycaenopsis argiolus jynteana 803, 822 — sikkima .. 803, 822 ———_-——. ceyx cerima 803, 821 4 ES eR ES SS a INDEX OF SPECIES SHS PAGE Lycaenopsis ceyx ceyx 821 i a — — tanarata 821 ——- lavendularis limbatus 821 ———_-——- lilacea : 822 —_—-— musina ean 822 Sess ee PeSpa 822 —— gisca 371,822 Lycium ae 11 Lycium europaeum 11 Lycopersicum esculentum 504 Mabuya sf. 940 Macaca nemestrina 269 Macropygia unchall 68 Madasumma ee 560 Madasumma albonetatay 560 —————— egreeni 560 ———_—_—-— incerta : 561 ~—-——_-—-—-—- marginipennis ... 560 —_——__—_-—-—_ praecipua 960 ———-—-—-— valida 561 ———— varipennis 561 Madhuca indica 517 -——_—— longifolia 517 Maerua arenaria on, te eo0 Magnolia 9 oe 312, 314, 316 Magnolia eareppellti (diolltesmatay. 314 ——_—— rostrata 314 Malachra capitata Rae 664 Malus sylvestris 517 Malva verticillata 106, 491 Malvastrum spicatum Secu) OO Mangifera indica eee 399, 3/3 Manglietia ee — caveana eer Maniola ee » 814 Maniola davendra aiitralica 814 —- hilaris 807, 814 ——-——- tenuistigma 814 —-——- laspura 814 Marsilea bee 954, 956 ———.- aegyptiaca 954, 955 ———- brachycarpa ... 955 ———-— brachypus 955 ———- condensata 955, 956 ———-~ coromandelica ... 955 -- gracilenta et eee lake ——_—~ minuta 955, 956 ————- poonensis 955 ———- quadrifolia 955, 950 Martynia diandra 504 Mastogloia a eke 629 ] INDEX OF SPECIES Mesocyclops _ 349, 629, 632. Mesua ferrea REP pase} Metasequoia _ : 311, 312. Metioche fee wae Se 5 Metiochodes ian 552 _ Metiochodes greeti _... 552, —— - trilineatus — fe 253! . Metochus uniguttatus see 648) -Metopidius indicus 413, 423 - Michelia 307, 312, 314, 316 Michelia bailloni 307 _ Microbracon hebetor 649 » Microcichla scouleri aes 37 ee eS CORIET . 890 PAGE | Meconopsis : 310 Megalaima Hacmneconete eaten 449 —_————__—__— ——_—_——- indica | 449 ——-—-——-—- virens 61 ——-————— viridis 449 wee zeylanicus ... 575 Megalestes irma ... és 566 Megisba malaya sikkima | 820 ———- ——— thwaitesi 820 Melanitis ledaismene ... 369, 816 Melanochlora sultanea 26 Melanocorypha maxima 929 Melanorrhoea glabra ae w. 4099 Melia azadirachta ... 93, 375, 494 azedarach 494, 517 Melilotus alba 495 -_— — indica 495 — officinalis 518 — parvinlora 495 Melochia Bee 72 Melochia corchorifolia ... Ae Melophts lathami 598 — melanicterus -~ Aho sac OG4 Melosira ? «. -L16, 117,629 Melursus ursinus ; an 869 Mentha aes sa ee 506 Mergus albellus aes eee basta OOL Meriones hurrianae ane Om 504 . Merismopedia 349, 625 Merops oae 565 608 Merops orientalis Pe odk , 208 —- —- biludschicus 446 ——- ——__-——- orientalis 446 ——-—- superciliosus persicus 445 Merremia hastata 503 Mesia argentauris 34. SSS ee ey 34 67 FI 29. | 561 | “3501 PacEg Microcystis ee cee 349, 629 Microcystis aeruginosa ... 629 Microhyla ornata 637, 638 Micropternus brachyurus jerdoni 450 Micropus affinis sano eee 66, 208 Microscelis flavala — macclellandi 34 —— psaroides 34, 889 Milvus migrans . . 297 —-—— govinda ———. —_______ lineatus 67 — milvus sie 392 —— govinda ... 393 Mimosa ~ dd 78 Mimosa hamata van QO —- pudica 71, 96 ———- rubicaulis a gut Mimusops elengi 301 Minla ignotincta 32 Mirabilis jalapa ee — §06 Mirafra erythroptera ... sa0 601 erythroptera 455 ——-— —————- sindiana . 445 —-—~ javanica cantillans 454, 458 Mixornis gularis one ans «Se ote Mnesibulus oar 561 Mnesibulus pallipes_ Mobula 833 | Mocis frugalis ae “ 649 Moghania macrophylla var. viridis .... 665 | Moina Be ace . . 349% Mola mola ae ain AM «. 323mm Mollugo iy 488 Mollugo cerviana .. 487, 499, 664 } ——- hirta 499 | == Nudicanlis 499 Molpastes cafer me | ————- leucogenys : ; —- —-———— leucogenys ... 889 Momordica charantia 4935) - Monotheca es .... 24am Monsonia senegalensis ... ae 493 | Monticola cinclorhyncha 40, 771, 891 | —- rufiventris 40 -solitaria -.. : AT | ————- solitarius fon apescne wre | -— pandoo ... 771m —- —— transcaspica 771 Montifringilla nivalis 928 —— ruficollis ore 928 | Montifringilla taczanowski Moringa 368 Moringa pterigosperma Morus alba —-— laevigata Moschiola memina Motacilla alba pee alboides —— baicalensis —_—_———- —— dukhunensis leucopsis personata cinerea aes — caspica ———— melanope —_—_——_— citreola ————. citreola — —— werae ——_—— flava beema melanogriseus thunbergi ———— jndica — maderaspatensis Mougeotia anc Mundulea sericea ————-- suberosa Muntiacus muntjac ove - muntjak aureus —— — —__—-——— — ———— _ —— ~~ et — ee — a Murdannia aa eee Murdannia dimorphum ————— elatum ———_—— giganteum — lanuginosum malabaricum ——_—_——. nudiflorum ochraceum pauciflorum scapiflorum semiteres ——_—_——- sinicum — spiratum — vaginatum ——_—_—— versicolor _Murraya exotica ; koenigii Musca vomitoria Muscicapa latirostris i — parva parva ... —___—_- striata neumanni —— — - vaginalis ... was 3 137138; INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 614, . 56, 614, ceo —_—_—__—— thalassina thalassina 894, 138, 614 488 494 509 312 294 | 614 614 894 779 614 614 619 929 779 929 778 778 778 778 778 779 779 349 518 518 870 860 860 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 658 493 493 382 746 746 377 747 ou PAGE Muscicapa tickelliae 756 ———_—__- ———— tickelliae 747 Muscicapula hodgsoni 43 ee eaves cae hyperythra 43 ——__—____—_- magnirostris 43 —___—__—_- melanoleuca 42 —_—____—_—-- rubeculoides 43 SS sapphira 43 ——_—_—_—_-. superciliaris ws 43 —-____-——-- tickelliae ... 43 Muscisylvia leucura ss... be ic 38 Mussaenda . 308 Mustelus antarcticus 834 —_ — laevis 843 —— vulgaris 834 Mycalesis igilia igilia 812 —— malsara 813 — perseus ees ee 369 ——-—-—. suavolens suavolens... 812, 813 eee ty tient 812, 813 — — visala visala ... 812 Myiophoneus coeruleus 41 ee eaeruleus temminckii ... 891 = horshieldi STA Teo Myliobatis 833 Myllocerus cardoni 951 Myrica nagi vie bead Sede 6307 Myristica fragrans 518 —___—-—. malabarica : sie ong Myrmarachne , 251, 254, 255 Myrmarachne manducator 260 __.—.—-— plataleoides ..249, 250,:253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, _————— ramunni - 260 ———— spissus - 260 Myrmecophila 595 Myrmecophila dubia 559 = Eschernicht ae wees sy) Myrmecophilus “$55 Myrmegryllus ee ooo Myroinophilellus sve 909 _ — pilipes 555 Nabis capsiformis See 648 Nacaduba noreia noreia 824 Navicula 7, 116, 349, 625 Nectarinia es 247 Nectarinia asiatica Paice 787, 788 ee 2S brevirostris 787 —-— lotenia " 788 ES ZF EVIOMICAD sche watts! a ner 787 iii INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Nemachilus rupicola var. inglisi 567 Nemobiodes a 546 Nemobiodes ceylonicus 546 -—— laeviceps ... 546 ——_- —— nigrocephalus 546 Nemobius 551 Nemobius ceylonicus 550 —~— histrio 551 = infemalis 551 ——_—-— javanus 551 —- nigrosignatus 551 Neodiaptomus ica te 349 Neotermes assmuthi ... Phe 648 Neophron percnopterus ssp... ve 7 A400 Nephila aes Ac 874, 8738, 879 Nephila maculata 874, 879 -- malabarensis 879 Nephopteryx 5p. 649 Nephotettix apicalis 648 -—— bipunctatus 648 Neptis columella 369 - = ~ nilgirica 818 hylas varmona ... 370 yerburii sikkima 818 Neptunia oleracea 659 Neptunus pelagicus 946 -— sanguinolentus 946 Nerium odorum : 501, 954 Netelia sf. ise eae ae 649 Netrium is8 ii 349 Netta rufina a: Ae 391 Nettapus coromandelianus 391 Nicofia trijuga 474 Nicotiana ciamibaeumieatia wa 664 Nigella sativa .e ‘ 519 Niltava grandis et ae ue 44 ——-— macerigoriae ... ke be 45 ——-— sundara Ana sare sae 44 Ninox scutulata ssp.? Sy ps Nitzschia 349, 629 Nitzschia closterium 116, 117, 118, 119, 22023 ——-=—— longissima 116, 119, 123 —— -——. pugens ; 118, 119 =—-—— ——~— - war. atlantica 116 Nodaria cornhicalis PB 7 we. 1649 Nomocharis 310, 315, 316 - Notholirion : 310 Notocrypta paralysos algaia an 373 Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila ... 887 PaGE Numenius arquata orientalis ... ies ALG -— phaeopus : 707 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 501 Nyctibatrachus 855, 856, 857, Nyctibatrachus humayuni 853, 855, 857, 939 —_——-— major 852, 855 ———___-—_——. pygmaeus 855, 856 ——_——____——- sanctipalustris ... 855, 857 Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax 384 Nyctiornis athertoni athertoni w. 446 Nymphaea ee an oe a8 71 Nymphaea stellata ae PA a ie Nymphula diminutalis 649 —— --- —~ stagnalis 649 Oceanites oceanicus 334, 338, 343, 347 ——-—— ———--— exasperatus .. 348 ———-— ——-—— magellanicus 347 ———-— —-——— oceanicus 348 ——_—__—— —-—_-— Parvus s- 347, 348 Ocimum ns 487 Ocimum sanctum 506 Ocypode arenaria 715 Odontotermes 465, 466 Odontotermes obesus Bs 459, 951 aa parvidens ... 459, 460, 461 - redemanni .. 463, 465, 466 Oecanthus 557, 562, 939 Oecanthus henryi 558 —— — AGicus 957 ———---— rufescens she 558 Oecophylla 251, 292253, 254, 255, 256, 262 Oecophylla smaragdina.,., 249, 262 Oedogonium one an es vase COO Oenanthe capistrata hone iS ————- deserti 772, 927 ———-— ——— atrogularis ... Pike 6 ———— isabellina 716; 771 ——-—— opistholetica Vi2,d13 ——-—— picata UPR 773 ——-—— xanthoprymna chrysopygia 772 Ohiopogon ee 45 Se ey) Oldenlandia es 85 ee ve Vd, -——pruinosa ... ter a 77 Oligotoma saundersi 951 Omphallogramma 310 Ophiocytium 625 Opuntia dillenii a5 - 498 Ordgarius ic sa 874, 884 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Ordgarius hobsoni 884 ——»—-— sexspinosus 884 Oreicola ferrea ferrea 870 Oreocincla mollissima ase wae 40 Oreocorys sylvanus ... 57, 894 Oreosolen ae 310 Oriolus oriolus kundoo 797 —-——traillii ... ine Jos mae 54 ——-— xanthornus ; S4 — —_—— COA ERTS 797 —-———— — xanthornus 798 Ornebius Re a a Geo O00 Ornebius guerini SoG — varipennis 556 Orobanche cernua 664 Orsinome i 874, 876 Orsinome marmorea 876 Orthomiella pontis pontis 824 Orthotomus 761 Orthotomus sutorius a2 —_— —~- ———-- guzurata 763 ——-—- —-— maculicollis ... 14 Oryctes rhinoceros 649 Oryzias melastigma 350 , 631 Oscillatoria 7, 349, 625, 629 Oscillatoria tenuis 629 Osphronemus goramy ... 350 —_——-———. gourami ~ 146 Otocoris alpestris elwesi 929 Otus bakkamoena ssp. 66, 436 Ougeinia dalbergiodes 376 Ovis ammon poli 923 Oxalis corniculata 493 ——— latifolia 659 Ozarba hemiphaea 649 Sp. oe 649 — ar. lepida # se rooL Ozobranchus 473, 474, 475, | . 479 Ozobranchus branchiata hat AT5 —-—--—— — branchiatus 473, 474, 475, 477, 478, 479 ———-—-—-— jantseanus 474, 476, 477, 478, 479 —————-— margoi ... 474, 476, 477, 478, 479 ———-—-—— menziesi 473 ———\——— papillatus 473, 474, 776, 477, 478, 479 =<--=c—-— polybranchus ... 474, 477, LB? 478, 479 liii PAGE Ozobranchus shipleyi 474, 476, 477, 478, 479 Paeonia emodi 520 —-—— officinalis one 520 Palamnaeus bengalensis .. 536, 537, $38 Pandion haliaétus haliaétus seenit AUB Pandorina 349, 629 Panicum - ae 82 | Panicum crus-galli 511 ———— repens 82 ———— trypheron 222 Panolia eldi thamin 264, 278, 302 Panthera leo persica 867 ———~— pardus 288, 870 ———— tigris 286, 870 Papaver rhoeas ... 489, 520 Papilio : ose oS Papilio arcturus arcturus 804 ——— aristolochiae set 365 ——— crino Ste woe str 366, 805 ——— demoleus 366 ——— ——-—— demoleus .., 366 ——— dravidarum sce OUD ——— hector oe 365, 366 ——— krishna eroniiel 804, 805 ——— memnon agenor 804 —— — polyctor stockleyi 803, 804 —— — polymnestor 366 ——— polytes 365 ——_— ——— cyrus 805 —S polytes ... 366 ee romulus 805 es form stichius 365, 366 Paraechinus micropus micropus 584, 921 Paragrewia poilanei 190 Paranaxipha nee 553 pe eileen ornatipes ... 553 Paratelphusa guerini 94] Parnassia... 310 Parnassius : sae ate 806 —_—_—_—-— charltonius ° deckerti 806 ONS ee eee ——— ducalis. 807, 808 a delphius ; 807 wah OS -— enitrelicn: 807 —--—-—-— —---—-— hunza 807 ——_-_——-— epaphus im O06 SS shinduchicieas 806, 807 ——____—_— hardwickei hardwickei ... 806 —__—_—-— jacquemontii chitralensis, 807 Ae ee ——— jacquemontii, 806 ee STG ae nee -- 806 liv - PaGE Parnassius stoliczkanus nicevillei 806 —__ —-—_-- —-—- Saserensis 806 — — thianschanica 807 —— tianschanica binghami -806 Paranemobius pictus 550 Parkinsonia aculeata 495 Parsonia spiralis 79 Parus ater aemodius 888 —~-— dichrous dichrous 888 —~— major 446 25 —-— —-— stupae 785, 786 —-— monticolus a sis 26 —-— ——— monticolus ... hee isistel —-— nuchalis 784, 786 —-— rubidiventris 888 —-— xanthogenys aplonotus 786 Pasania 312 Paspalum aeons shal ———-— scrobiculatum 207 — vaginatum 659 Passer domesticus 56, 403, 601 pete biblicus 601 —_—_—_. ——-——— indicus 792 montanus : 500 56 —— —— malaccensis... dea OO: Pastor roseus dds OTT Patiscus 562 Patiscus aceanpanerine 562 Pavetta ... aes Ac6 77 Pavettaindica ... eee tis 77 Pavo cristatus ... ‘ne 297, 408 Pecten sp. Bs 125 Pedicularis a due eas 319 Pediastrum aes 349, 625, 629 Peganum harmala 493, 520 Pelargopsis capensis gurial] 444 Pelecanus onocrotalus 380 —— ——- philippensis crispus 380 —.-—_ ——_——-—— philippenis 380, 381 Pellorneum ruficeps : 29 ee — mandelli... 889 -—— —-——ruficeps ... 5) AY Pelochelys bibroni 400 474, 477 Peltophorum ferrugineum 646 Pennisetum Bo Es AO 512 Pennisetum cenchroides ital -—— ciliar 659 ——-——— typhoideum 375 Pentacentrus aise 557 Pentacentrus pulchellus 557 Pentaneura sp, ... ee vee dOO0 em ee EERE INDEX OF SPECIES. PAGE Pentapterygium... 3130 Perdicula 398 Perdicula argoondah 406 -— asiatica asiatica 406 —-—— ——- meinertzhageni 407 Pericrocotus brevirostris st 47 a -———- previnaie 892 =—_- cinnamomeus cinnamo- meus oe ~~ GAL: —_—-——- -_—— — pallleeee ws 741 ——-——--—. erythropygius 785 ———-—__-— ——-—__ -_——- erythro- pygius... 741 —_—-—--—-— flammeus 47, 377 ee flammeus 740 —_————-— —— semiruber 741 ————-—- —-———-_ speciosus 741 — -—— peregrinus dharmakumari 741 Peridinum... 349, 625 Perigeaserva... we zee 649 Perigrinus maidis 951 Periopthalmus 384 Perkinsiella fascialis 648 -—— insignis 648 Pernis orientalis ; ase loge ptilorhynchus ruficollis 392, 393 Perotis indica 311 - latifolia ... : és BO Petaurista petaurista philippensis 861, 863 Petinia nyctaginiflora ... 504 Petronia xanthocollis transfuga 792 — -—— xanthocollis 792 Phacus cos . 349, 625, 629 Phaeneilema foe nee Br ioe D7, Phaethon indicus 335, 336, 337, 339 -— Sp. oe and 335 Phalacrocorax carbo [sinensis] co ood -- fuscicollis 381 -- niger 381 Phalaris minor ... fe ease, OOo Phalaropus aa aes “08 336, 347 Phalaropus fulicarius 337 -—— lobatus iver pune Or: Phaseolus mungo 185, 323 -— radiatus dee 323 Philautus ane 939.5 Philautus bombayensis ace 852, 939 —- (Ixalus) variabilis ... £56 Philodina 629 Philomachus pugnax ... 421 Philyra scabriuscula 640, 641 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Phlogacanthus aes enn ces 3903 Phoeniconaias minor 5,7, 388 Phoenicurus frontalis ... 38, 613, 891 i= grandis en 92H = - ochrurus ... a 38 --—— ——-- ochruros winocmennaties — 768, 769 —_— - -—— - -——— rufiventris 768, 891, O27, Phoenicopterus ruber 376, 388 — —--- antiquorum ... 871 ——— — ——- — -—— roseus fe Once — —-ruber ... si 6 Phragamaticola ... $75 Phragmaticola 575 Phycita sp. ase 95] Phyllanthus 308 Phyllanthus Padercontension 509 —-— niruri 509 a reticulatus 759 Phyllognathus dionysius .. 649 Phylloscopus .. 004, 756, £92 Phylloscopus affinis ose 928 a — collybita tristis ... 759 —_—_—_—— — griseolus... 759 ————— — inornatus humei 759, 761 -——-— — --= maculipennis 892 —————— occipitalis occipitalis ... 760 -———— — pulcher pulcher 892 ——— reguloides 892 ————— — trochiloides nitidis 760 ——_———— — ——viridanus... 760 | ————-—— trochilus acredula 760 ——_ = tytleri 761 Physalis minima... 503 -— peruviana 503 Physis carbonariella 262 Phytobdella aes 469 Phytobdella cantenifera 469 Picea ue Sit Picoides auriceps 246 ——— dorae 246 — mahrattensis 246 ——-— —————— aurocristatus... 452 ——-— —————— mahrattensis ... 45? ——-— nanus 783 ——-— —- hardwickil 452 Picus canus gyldenstolpei tes 58 —-chloropus ... he “0 as 59 chlorolophus chlorigaster 450 ——- Squamatus squamatus eee ene 895 | lv PAGE Pieris ae aee 312; 313 Pieris aqupermard? chara biensis 809 —-- krueperi devta ... 809 —- napi melaena 810 Piestoxiphus ; 552 Pilea microphylla aes 664 ——- peploides ‘ s 665 Pinctada martensii au eee 125; 130 — pinctada ee 124, 129, 130, 135 — vulgaris ake 125 Pinnularia eae ae 349 Pinusinsularis ... oa Se 169 ——- longifolia ... = 459 —-— wallichianum 886 Piprisoma agile agile .., 895 Piscicola ... See see : 474 Pisum sativum ... nee owe 496 Pithecellobium bigeminum 520 Pithecolobium saman oi 292 Pitta brachyura [brachyura] ... 454 Pittosporum eriocarpum 665 Planktonema ose : 349 Platalea leucorodia [major] ses ase POOF, Platydactylus ... aoe 561 Plectranthus rugosus 110 Plegadis falcinellus [falcinelius? 387 Plesmonium margaritiferum ... 521 Pleurococcus 625 Pleurogyne : 310, 349 Pleurosigma cee ses see 625 Ploceus benghalensis Tome) ~— megarhynchus ... 599, 600 ee rutledgii 600 ——-— philippinus philippinus 793 ——-— sardarpateli 793 Pluchea lanceolata son) 000 Pluvialis dominica fulva 415 — squatarola 414 Pnoepyga albiventer aIbiventer 890 Poa me vs 222 Podiceps ee hicas caspicus oe 380 —_—— cristatus cristatus 380 ———— nigricollis 380 ———v— ruficollis capensis 380 Podoces humilis 927 Poecilocerus 216 Polistes hebraeus 647 Polyalthia longifolia ... 489 Polycarpae corymbosa... 491 Polydora ae hc 474 Polydora testudinum 473, 479 lvi INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Polydorus aristolochiae aristolochiae 366 Polygala 488 Polygala erioptera Polygonum .. 315, 488, 291 Polygonum aviculare ... 521 SEE hydropiper 521 ———-—— nepalense ... cose etO ————— plebejum 487, 508, 512 Polyommatus icarus chitralensis 823 | —————— loewiisanoga ... oe 244 ——_———— orbitulus ie 822 ne ellisi 4. ‘ey, eee —_-——— jaloka 822 —_— —— —— wa lli -)-O0n — albifrons ae .. 426 | Swertia angustifolia... iB toe ——— = SAUNGETS! « ) nelne wai eet ZO —— lurida. 2.) _«..:oaege eee | anaethetus “iit ... 335, 338, 344 | Sylvia althoea... es be .. 758mm aurantia ie sa . 426 | —--— borin tan ae as sea 3198 beroraae re. act ae .. 338 | —— communis icterops eae 377, 737 le fuiseata,. st. ome ae .. 844 | ———curruca blythii ... me . 7S hirundo ... as ae .. 390 | ————-—minpula ..,. te i OS | i INDEX OF SPECIES \x1 PAGE | PAGE Sylvia hortensis jerdoni 757 | Tephrosia candida ale 52S —-—— nana nana eas 757 | Tephrosia purpurea 495 Symplocos 313, 314, 315, 316 | ———-—- tenuis 495, 664 Synantherias sylvatica 90 | ——-——- villosa 495 Synciera traducalis 649 | Yerminalia ae ately Synedra ... ae 349, 625 | Terminalia arjuna 375, 497 Synedrella nodiflora 660 | ————— glabra 497 Syntarucus plinius : 371 | ———\—- myriocarpa 3u7, 312 Syntomis passalis ase 649 | —-—_—--— tomentosa 376 Sypheotides indica 412 | Teramnus libialis var. mollis 665 Syrichtus galba 373 | Terpsiphone paradisi leucogaster 750 Syrrhaptes tibetanus ... 930 | ———-—— ———-- paradisi 750 Tabellaria seh vie ee 349, 625 | ‘Lesia castaneocoronata castaneo- Tabernaemontana dichotoma 101 coronata 890 Taccocua .. 435 | Tetracentron sp. ab 314 ‘Taccocua ceched aeiti eeeienaelii 435 | Tetraceros quadricornis i 870 — -—— sirkee ... 435 | Tetragnatha i) 874, 875, 877 _ Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa 373 ) Tetragnatha cochinensis 875, 876 Tagetes erecta ... om S004| ea gracilis tag aS ——-— patula LC a ga mackenzieii 875, 876 Taiwania SI ol8s | == = mandibulata 875, 876 eeonla Pe piemenordes 318 | —————__—. viridorufa 875 Tajuria cippus cippus 372 | ‘Petraogallus 896 Talicada nyseus 371 | Tetraogallus efnetPeysat sis 615 Tamarindus indica 375, 496 | ——______—_ tibetanus... ye 98) Tamarix ... 503 55 nie 487 | Tetrapedia 349, 625 Tamarix aphylla woe ate 491 Tetrastichus sp. ... 649 —-—-—— articulata ok ad 491 | Teucrinum sp. 185 Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni ... 373 | Thalasseus bergii spp. ... arene 148) Taractocera ceramus ceramus 373. Thalassionema nitzschioides PES e119). 123 Taraktogenos kurzii 102 Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii 116, 118, 119, 125 Tadorna ferruginea 389 | ——__—____ longissima 116,123 Tadorna tadorna "6 389 | Thalassochelys corticata 474, 476 ‘Tarsiger chrysaeus chrysaeus... 891 | Thalictrum rostellatum 106 Tatera indica cuvieri ... 184, 189, 321 | Thauria aliris intermedia 817 Taxus aes bee ae ASE Stl, oLS | Thelca duma duma 825 Taxus baccata ... 927 |, ——— vittata 825 Tecomella undulata 504 | Thevetia neriifolia 501, 528 Tectona grandis ... eee 2@ 499, 461 | ———_— peruviana 528 Teinopalpus imperialis imperialis 805 | Threskiornis melanocephalus 386 Teichinia violae ane 370 | Thrips gossypicola 951 Telmatoscopus albipunctatus.. 649 | ——— palmi 951, 952 Temenuchus pagodarum 618 | Thuja orientalis ue ie DL Tephrodornis gularis .., 47, 377 | Tichodroma muraria ... 613, 890, 927 — pondicerianus pallidus 739 | Tilapia 7 147 a pondi- Tilapia OSeeennica 146, 349, 959 cerianus ... 739.| Tinospora cordifolia 489, 528 —— — virgatus... 743 | Tockus birostris 207, 399, 448, 868 or — pelvica 739 | Toddalia aculeata 312 ——__—_— -———— sylvicola 738, 739 | ‘Lofieldia 310 Mephrosia... ... sxe 487,483 | Trachelobdella 474 {xii PAGE Trachypithecus phayrei phayrei 269 "= = pileatus shortsidgen... 3. 269 Tradesc tia malabarica 658 Treron curvirostra nepalensis ... 895 ——— phoenicoptera chlorigaster 428 Trianthema “the 488, 498 Trianthema crystallina 487, 498 | ——-—-—— monogyna 487, 498 ————-— pentandra vane 408 Tribulus terrestris 437, 493, S12 4 Trichodesma amplexicaule 660 ——— -~-—-- indicum 502 Trichogaster pectoralis 147 Trichosanthes anguina... 493 | —— ——-——. cucumerina 498 Tridactylus Se 540 Tridactylus ceylonicus ... 542 —— — curtus 541 | ————— flavimaculatus 541 | —_—_——_—— japonicus ... “541 —_——_——— nigripennis 541 ——__——-—. nigroaenus 541 —_———_—— nitobae 542 ——_—_—— opacus 947 ——_—_—— quadrimaculata 941 a pAaLbus 541 —_—_—_——— thoracius ... 942 ————— variegatus ... 541 Tridax procumbens 487, 500 Trifolium pratense 107 Trigonella corniculata ... 495, 664 Trigonidium . 551, wae, 004 Trigonidium cicindeloides ‘ Set SEY —_—__—-—-——- humbertianum ... 552, 950 Trigonidomorpha 554 Tigonidomorpha fuscifrons 504 Trigonotylus dohertyi ... 648 Trilocha fieicola 951 ———— varians 649 Tringa cinerea [cinerea] 419 erythropus 417, 931 ——— glareola 418 ——— hypoleucos 419 ——— nebularia vega OS -——— ochropus 418, 931 stagnatilis eae 418 totanus eurhinus 417 _ Triticum Sol Tritetrabdeila 469 -ens scand 469 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Triumfetta rotundifolia 492 Trochalopteron affine affine ... 883 —_—_—_—— erythrocephalum 28 ———= phoeniceum ... —_—_—_—__ — —- setifer 885 —_-—_— = yaticsatuin evanie- gatum 888 Troglodytes troglodytes nipeleeee 890 Tropaeolum majus 493 Tropidonatus stolatus ... 395 Trygon 833 Tryphactothrips pguero: di 951 Tsuga ae 500 311 Tubiflora acaulis 505 Turdoides Cees 7 246 ——_——-- caudata re a 7954, 761 —_——_- - caudata 794 = malcolm 794, 755 = — somerville 433 —_—_—_- —— orientalis a SA Behe i oie! aioe wee = > sindianus 753 —-—— - ———-—- sindianus 754 ae ——- somervillei Turdus atrogularis 40 ——— boulboul — ? ——— citrina cyanotus 770 ——— ericetorum 46, 51 ——— merula © 40 ——_— ——— albocinctus ——— ruficollis oe 40 ——— simillimus ercens 770 Turnix maculatus tanki 409 sylvatica dussumier 409 ——— ———— taigoor ~ 408 Tylophora 2 19 Tylophora tenuis Tyto alba stertens Uca 702, 703, 705, 706 707, 708, 710, 711, 714, 715, 716 | Uca annulipes 703, 704, 705, 708, 710, 712, 713, 714, 7159] —— beebei ioe ee eet | ——— consobrinus 711, 7125) —— manii | feet icc we ©6945 —_-— marionis 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 711, 712, 713, 718 —_—- ——__——. nitidus 705, ‘711, 715, 716 —— pugillator 706, 713 | ——>+ pugnax 707, 712) 29 753 | | Uca signatus —— stenodactyla —— stylifera —— tangeri Udaspes folus Udea martialis Uperodon aoe Uperodon globulosum ... Upupa epops ——_— ——- eeylonencis: ep Ops ——— ——- orientalis Urena lebata Urochloa sacs Urochloa mosambicensis aa Le ptans Urocissa flavirostris ———— ————- flavirostris Uroloncha malabarica ... mata Dunctata. ~ <<, ———— striata ———— ——— acuticauda Uromastix Ursus Ursus arctos Uropeltis macrolepis ——— mabeblesh: warensis Utethesia pulchella Vaccinium a Vaccinium glauco- tliyeise -——-—— modestum Valeiia ceylonica ——— valeria hippia Valeriana hardwickij Vanessa antiopa yendanula ———— cardui bee Vangueria spinosa var. mollis Ventilago gamblei ———— lanceolata Veratrum ? Verbascum thapsus Verbena officinalis Vernonia a “6a Vernonia anthelmintica ———— cinerea Veronica agrestis Rao ——=—=— anagallis Viburnum xe ae Vicia sativa var. angustifolia .... INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 65, 447, 185, 109, 660, 314, 529, .../06, 711, 712 713 712 712 373 649 638 637 614 447 895 447 492 153 153 322 25 887 399 55 55 893 397 598 598 , 901 901 649 312 315 310 368 368 108 810 370 665 660 660 310 529 109 312 96 499 660 664 315 660 Vigna catiang Vinca rosea Viola Viola biflora ——- cinerea Vipera russelli Viscum album Vitadenia australis Vitis Vitis heyneana —— lanceolaria ... Vivia innominata Volvox Vulpes beneaicakia Waltheria Waltheria indica Withania somnifera Woodfordia = W oodfordia fruticosa Xanthium strumarium .. Xenorhynchus asiaticus asiaticus “.iphirhynchus ... Xya japonica --— obscura Ypthima baldus madvasd _—-—-— hubneri Yuhina gularis occipitalis Yungipicus nanus semicoronatus Zamenis mucosus Zanthoxylum —— Sp, Zea Ae Zea mays .. zeylanicus (Megalaima) eylonicus (—— Zephyranthes carinata Zesius chrysomallus Zizeeria lysimon —— otis decreta Zizyphus Zizyphus jujuba ———-— oenoplia — rotundifolia ——-—-—- rugosa — xylopyrus gularis ... trochilus putli ... nummularia ... Lxiti PAGE 185, 323 501 309, 310 106 490 397 665 108 312 w. «494 wo. 664 661 fe. 349 290 wes 72 72, 492 503, 529 pee aihste) 743, 789 108, 500 386 788 541 541 815 369 30 w. 809 30, 889 bao 59 187, 189 312 314 511 222, 958 575 979 110 827 376 371 : 371 375, 428, 487, 743, 754, 765, 792 11, 375, 494, 761 .. 494 cet ae | RE oes . 494 494 494 lxiv Zoothera marginata Zosterops palpebrosa ... eee —-— —— occidentis —_—-—- ————— salimalii PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS— 1958: C10000 Wee's. (57 PAGE 40 789 789 INDEX OF SPECIES PaGE Zygaena blochii ies a a” ASBD Zyras bicolor spp. ihe Ae «. 649 —-— indorum Bae ae .. 649 -@ SOCIETY . HISTORY tors Edit SANTAPAU . ' . ALIM AL s APRIL aa 54 - ‘The Birds of | = Tra vanco re|| and Cochin By SALIM ALI. With 101 species illustrated in. eaiber and | 32 in black-and-white by D. V. COWEN. Rs 25 sik? eae eal ‘The descriptions of the various species are accurate and lucid.’ Planters’ Chronicle f ‘Excellently printed colour plates ... the Index is clear and concise.’ Loris | i OXFORD UNI VERSITY PRESS” 15 09CoorCotsceecooee00car econ <—SS wee ecocg JOURNAL OF THE er ‘ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA Published Bi-Annually, containing Original Papers and Reviews in All Branches of Pure and Applied Zeploas: Annual Subscription for Volume of Two Issues : Rs, 22/- for Foreign Countries; Rs. 20/- for Inland States * . ¥ 4 eit ) he Dis : « pe ee Ae ae ee LS eae i - - — es oe Ce0ean0c——ap0cae0c30 roe F ge es aS tae Ne es et as a i se tae my , “2 ’ ? “4 2 y A 5 : : Se a ee ; é * = aang © . . 1 PR 7g} in. = a P a ea ar ' 5 * bd = as ae é« 2 L ee - Orders and remittances to be sent to the Honorary Treasurer. A few back numbers are also available. A few pages are reserved for advertisements at rates available from the Honorary Treasurer. — meat Firms, individuals and book-sellers who procure orders and advertisements for the journal will be epee a rebate of 10 per cent of the prevailing rates. Papers for publication should be addressed to the Editor. , y Dr. B. S. CHAUHAN os De ML. BHATIA = Ti —TT) Pars i ee ooo oe < *'. % IE 00C 000 T—— i — itt: fini scorcsticos = j Honorary Treasurer : | Editor ee 0 é Zoological Society of India 7 _Headof the Departmen of Zoology 0 . 34, Chittaranjan Avenue “Vet eli University | =e ; CALCUTTA-12. Bu oD es oO 4 + tSNNNESNENE—NCNENCNENCNENESHCINENCe vi Foote eh: pe Na | CONTENTS OF VOLUME 32, NO. 1 WILD LIFE PRESERVATION—KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, AN EXAMPLE. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With six plates) SOE sah OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIET OF FLAMINGOES. By M, W. RIDLEY we A NEw SANDLARK FROM WESTERN INDIA (SAURASHTRA). By C. Vaurie and K. 8. Dharmakumarsinhji as BA id ON THE OcCURRENCE OF EPHEDRA IN THE INDIAN DESERT. By M. M. Bhandari. (With one photograph) at ae SomME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE, PART III, By W. T. Loke. (With five plates) us os ee 256 aa A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARIEELING ARBA, By M. D. Lister. (With a text figure) a tee BACKWATER FLORA OF THE WEST COAST OF SoutTH INDIA. By C. Raja- sekhara Mudaliar, M.A., and H. Sunanda Kamath. (With a text figure) A Notes on THE PosITION OF RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION oF BURMA. By U. Tun Yin eco cece eon 2e0e eae eao Poisonous SEEDS OF INDIA, PART I. ByS. L. Nayar A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF Mussooriz. By N. A. Watts PERIODICITY OF THE PLANKTON DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA LAKE FOR THE YEARS 1950 AND cnet By J. C. Roy. (With two maps and two text figures) ase as aH =a Lo GROWTH-RATE OF THE PEARL OvSTER (FPinctada pinctada) IN THE GULF OF CUTCH WITH A NOTE ON THE PEARL FISHERY OF 1953. By S. V. Gokhale, C. R. Easwaran and R. Narsimhan. (With five text figures)... CRITICAL Nores ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BoMBAY PrLants. By R. Fernandes, B.Sc. and H. Santapau, S.J. (With two plates) fs ne ae A ‘4 ‘THe DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING INDUSTRY. By E. R. A. de Zylva, THE GENUS Cymbopogon Setens IN INDIA, BURMA AND aaa ParTII. By N. L. Bor. (Wath 27 text figures) NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE (Zalera indica cuviert WATERHOUSE). By M.R.N. Prasad .. Bee OE NEw SPECIES OF INDIAN PLANTS. By R. Seshagiri Rao REVIEWS :— 1, Animal Wonderland—Essays in Natural ares ae Frank W. Lane. (D.E.R.)... 2. Leopard of the Hills. By James ‘Recaps. (P, A.G.E. he 3. The Birds of Burma. By B. E. Smythies. (C.E.H.) . 4, Hoofed Mammals of the World. By Ugo Mochi a 7, Donald Carter. (S. Thomas Satyamurti) bee ee PAGE 106 112 124 137 142 149 184 190 192 192 193 195 ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 42, NOW 5. The Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs. Series 1, No. 2. Published by the Central Research Institute, University of Travancore, Trivandrum, (H. Santapau, S.J.) ete : 6. The Indian Pharmaceutical Codex, Vol. 1. By Dr. B. Mukerji. (H. Santapau, S.J.) «. ; 7. The Birds of the British Isles, Vols. 1&2. By David A. Banner- man and George E. Lodge. (H.G.A.) ... : 8. The Birds of West and Equatorial Africa, 2 volumes. By David A. Bannerman. (H.G.A.) a se ac oe ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. Man-eating Tiger in South India. By R. C. Morris (p. 201). 2. Pan- ther killed by Domestic Buffaloes. By J. M. Power (p. 201). 3. More notes on the Indian Buffalo. By R. P. Noronha (p. 202). 4. Gaur attacking man. By R. C. Morris (p. 204). 5. Thamin or Eld’s Deer (Panolia eldi thamin, Thomas) in Burma. By Tun Yin. (p. 205). 6. Stride of Elephant crossing trench. By R.C. Morris (p. 206). 7. Death of Wild Elephants from suspected food-poisoning in Travancore-Cochin State. By N. G. Pillai (p. 206). 8. Birds eating the poisonous fruit of the Yellow Oleander (Zhevetia neriifolia). By S. M. Krishnan (p, 207). 9. Migration of Insectivorous Birds in Madhya Pradesh in 1953. By C. E. Hewetson (p. 207). 10. Strange behaviour of a House Crow. By C. H. Biddulph (p 208). 11. Possible association between the Large Yellow-naped Wood- pecker and the Large Racket-tailed Drongo. By C. H. Biddulph (p. 209). 12. Cuculus canorus bakeri in Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 210). 13. Occurrence of Redwinged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) in Madras. By S. M. Krishnan (p. 210). 14. Goshawk (Astur gentilis) in Bhavnagar (Saurashtra). By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 211). 15. Occur- rence of the Banded Crake (Aallus eurizonoides amuroptera, Jerdon) in Travancore. By M. C. A. Jackson (p. 211). 16. Food of the Bull frog. By T. Gay (p. 212), 17. The Record Indian Crocodile. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 213). 18. Au addition to the list of snakes of Bombay and Salsette— Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters)—Uropeltidae. By V. K. Chari (p. 213), 19. Further comments on the Mani-jal of the Chilka Lake—A special net for Beloniform Fishes. By S. Jones and K. H, Sujansinghani (p. 214). 20. Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. (p. 215). 21. Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By C. McCann (p. 216). 22. Occurrence of Danais chrysippus var. dorippus at Dum Dum Airport. By A. E. G. Best (p. 218). 23. Hunters’ Sugar. By W. S. Thom (p. 218). 24. Occurrence of Corymorpha (A/ydrozoa) in Indian waters, (With a text figure). By M. R. Ranade, (p. 219). 25. A Six- locular Capsule on the Cotton Plant. By G. W. Deodhar (p. 221). 26. Occurrence of a Bi-foliate Leaf in Citrus aurantium L. (With a sketch). By S. Kalyanasundaram (p. 221). 27. Proliferation in grass. By R. B. Majumdar (p. 222). 28. The flowering of Strobilanthes auriculatus Nees. By Mrs. Jamal Ara (p. 223). 29. Abnormalities in the fruit of Areca catechu lL. (With a text figure). By T. S. Ramakrishnan (p. 224). 30. Effect of margosa (Azadirachta indica) leaves on the rotting of potato tubers during storage. By S. L. Tandon (p. 225). 31. Variation in the floral parts of Solanum melongena L. (With a text figure). By G. P. Argikar and M. S. Solanki (p. 226). 32. Chapters on the History of Botany in India, by CH. Burkill, in this Journal 51: 846-878. A correction. By S. P. Agharkar, (p. 228). 33. Gleanings (p. 228). NotTES AND NEWS aS. oe Ae: Teer CoRRIGENDA PAGE 196 197 198 199 199 231 232 ea JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1954 VoL, 52 No. l WILD LIFE PRESERVATION— KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, AN EXAMPLE BY A. St. J. MACDONALD (With six plates) With wild life preservation gaining more attention by both Government and public opinion in India, I feel that my observations on a recent visit to the KRUGER NATIONAL PaRK in South Africa may be of interest to those sponsors who have strived so hard in the past, and present, to improve our own Game Sanctuaries. The Park owes its existence to the foresight of President Kruger, who as far back as 1884 foresaw the destruction that would take place in the Transvaal and other parts of South Africa. It was not, however, until 1898 that part of the present park (the Sabie Game Reserve) received full protection, and in fact the present boundaries covering nearly 8,000 sq. miles from the Limpopo River in the North, to the Crocodile River in the South, and bordering Portuguese territory in the East, extending some 200 miles long with an average width of go miles, only emerged with the passing of an Act in 1926, which may be assumed to be the birthday of this great, and now, world popular enterprise and sanctuary of wild life. I toured nearly 4,500 miles by road through the Union, and it is no small wonder Kruger saw the necessity of this venture. You can travel 500 miles from Durban to Pretoria, or 800 miles from Johannesburg to Cape Town and not see a wild creature of any kind. The few natural trees, and the occasional bird stress the destruction in the march of man’s needs, and impel us in this country to take timely warning. The Reserve.—This is the world’s largest wild life sanctuary and is intersected with 1,000 miles of motor roads, and has 14 rest camps varying in size from SKUKUZA with 750 beds, to the smaller camps of GORGE and OLIFANTSRIVIER of only 20 beds, but the average accom- modation is 200 beds. Camps are a collection of thatched rondavals ac 23 1994 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCGl ERY Vols 52 surrounded by a stockade with gates which are shut after dark, and visitors must all be in half an hour before sun-set and gates do- not reopen until half an hour after daylight. Every car entering the Reserve (no one is allowed to enter on foot, bicycle, or horse-. back), 1s stopped and briefed in the simple rules to be followed. These are: ‘You must not carry firearms or shoot animals; you. must not leave the roads; and you must not get out of your car’. Game Wardens are there to see these rules are kept, and the public themselves adhere strictly to the conditions. It is a credit both to. the public and the officials, inasmuch as some 14 million visitors have been through the Park since 1926 and there has not been a single accident or attack by wild animals. Some 30,000 visitors from all parts of the world, come vearly to visit the place and it is now run. on the takings, without any Government subsidy. Accommodation.—Besides the indigenous rondavals, the larger camps have small huts and cottages to take families for long periods. Spring mattresses and comfortable beds are provided with camp furniture in all places. Hot and cold water is provided, day and night, bathrooms and showers, and boys to wash up and clean out the huts, with cooking places for the traditional meal in the open of a dry grill, termed braaivleis. The larger camps have Post and Telegraph Offices, Stores, well-provided with provisions, fresh meat, eges and vegetables, etc., Restaurants, Garages with petrol pumps. and Tourist Bureaus. Communications.—The main roads serving the Park are all of excellent quality, and distances of 4co miles are covered in 8 to 10 hours. In the Reserve itself some 1,000 miles of dirt track form a network of communications, traversing all the natural haunts of game, along rivers, swamps, water holes, etc. The maximum speed allowed is 25 miles per hour, but all roads are signed with caution and speed restrictions, where elephants are likely to be encountered and in fact have ridges across the road to stop speed-racing. Any infringement of the law is punishable by fine, and the offender is. black-listed and escorted out of the reserve immediately; but this is very, rarely necessary, and I was informed by a Game Warden that hardly a case occurred in a season. Tourist Bureau.—Excellent maps are available, giving the distances between camps, the accommodation available, and illustrating the game likely to be seen. A handbook is also issued with illustrations of the animal on one page and its description, colour, habits, and size on the opposite. Wild Life.—I have myself done a good deal of big game shooting in my thirty odd years in India and Burma, but this watchful expectancy from a car, compares with any thrill I experienced— awaiting a driven tiger, a rogue elephant, or closing in with a tracked bison or tsine. Should you think that the feeling of peril and risk is absent, I can only assure ‘you that the analysis of feeling is the same, but even more beautiful and thrilling, to see at close quarters, the immutable and blood-red law of nature prevailing, and man is in his car but a spectator, and regarded as no more than some other form of life in the Reserve by the denizens in their count- less thousands. =) “BOLIFY YyNOS ‘yIeg [eUOTJeN JoSNIyY ‘peol UT SsouOoT’yT pure UuOolT shvaywoy uvoiefy Ynos | _ | ee — 3 Asapnog SAS J aLVIg ‘00S ‘ISI “LVN Avawog ‘Nunof "eOLIJY YINOS ‘yIeq [CUOIJEN JosNAy]{ ; ‘sIeyQ pure suOrTT NS stomwy uvaiafy yinos saj4no oe II aLVvV1g ‘90S ‘LSIF] “LVN AvawWwog ‘Nunof *eOLIpY YyNOS ‘yIeg [euOoTzeN sJ9sNIyY *peol sutsso19 yueydoly stomiwy uvnafpy yinos Asaq4noy BORE: Ilf aLv1g SE "LSIH “LVN AVaWOosT *‘NYNO : . i eka u y " eS SSS STE SSS SS = ————-— = = = — = PLATE IV Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. ie: fp: ey ‘ge South African Railways Courtesy Buffalo. WILD*~ LIFE PRESERVATION IN K. N. PARK 3 It appeared to me fantastic, that a pride of lions sprawled over the dirt track, accepted conditions as their own, and only moved because they wished, and not because they, were disturbed, to let 30 odd cars through. I spent four days in the Reserve touring the southern portion, and saw countless thousands of Impala, so like our beautiful spotted deer in habit and numbers, in the Hailey Park, and South Mandla, but they are antelope, and like black buck in appearance and size. Stately giraffe look down upon the car from 30 ft. away with the same unconcern and confidence, as kudu, eland, wildebeest, zebra, water- buck, and the beautiful sable antelope; besides, are many of the smaller species, duiker, stein-buck, and those comedians of the Reserve, wart-hog, who trot alongside the moving car with tail erect and the head held high, or dig up roots by the roadside and do not as much as look up at passing cars, so much have animals become accustomed to visitors. 5 Lions.—To all intents and purposes, lions strike one as domesticated ;. they will lie on the roads; walk in and out of standing cars; will lie asleep 5 it. from a car pulled up besides them; feed on a kill and show no resentment to a car alongside packed with chattering women and children; lionesses with young cubs tolerate the same treatment and show no alarm; it is almost unbelievable unless witnessed. Of the 17 lions I saw on one day, one came_ up through some 30 cars and smelt the boot of the car, then walked by the window of the car from where I could have extended my arm and touched her. At another place we saw two lionesses with very young cubs enjoy a meal off a freshly killed Impala with no concern at the 4o odd cars drawn up three deep on the road beside them. Elephant.—I saw 88 in two hours, but here one is advised to show caution; and one is left with no doubt in mind, as signs appear everywhere, warning the visitor to drive slowly and carefully because of elephants, and not to approach too close to them. I saw herds -of 44; single bulis; and mothers with calves, at distances up to Be Sine Buffalo.—Huge herds will cross in ‘follow the leader’ fashion foadse with cars packed on either side of the. gap, with the same confidence of right of way. Rhino.—In the Hluhluwe Reserve in Zululand, Rhino behave in the same way, and accept motorcars as something new in their world, though one is warned not to approach too close to them. Water-hole.—Here I saw the code of nature at its best, and communication of thought transmitted from one species to the next, of danger. Some 30 cars were parked in line, facing a jungle tank as we would know it, but in.Africa water is very scarce, and special tubewells have been installed in parts of the Reserve to provide water by windmill pumps feeding into depressions. Puna. Kan: Honna. Grows wild in the back+waters of Nileshwar and Kasaragod in South Kanara and also along sand. banks (C.R.M.?). A moderate-sized very ornamental tree with a reddish-brown very useful wood. The fruits yield an oil and are often collected and sold for the extraction of oil. | ) rith March 1916. (M.H.? 3106 & 3107) Wondse back-waters (South anaes) Fruits. ag, Rajasekhara Mudaliar. * Madras Herbarium. * 72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 - MALVACEAE Hisiscus Medik. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. Tam: Malaipuvarsu. Mal: Nirparathi. Tel: Erragogu. Gamble :—West Coast districts forests from South Kanara southwards. In both districts of Malabar and South Kanara from Eanpoilg (S. Kanara, southwards usually near the Coast (C.R.M.). A ae branched tree with handsome flowers and soft wood. 4. along back-waters and tidat STERCULIACEAE Mevocnuia Linn, 5. Melochia corchorifolia Linn. Tam: Pinnak Kuppundu. Mal: Ceruvuram. Tel: Ganuga Pindikura. Kasaragod sand banks of back-waters (C.R.M.). A weed of waste places. A herk with stellate pubescence. WaALTHERIA Linn, 6. Waltheria indica Linn. Tel: Nalla Benda. Kasaragod in South Kanara on sand banks on the sides of back- waters (C.R.M.). An undershrub with soft pubescence, ovate leaves and small yellow flowers in globose axillary clusters. SIMARUBACEAE SAMADERA Gaertn. >, Samadera indica Gaertn. Mal: Karingotta. Gamble :--West Coast along back-waters in Malabar. A small tree with elliptic oblong shining leaves reaching ro in by 3-4 in. and large smooth red fruit. 1850 Cleghorn (M.H. 8628) Ponnani and Karingota Back-waters Fr. (M.H. 8629) Ponnani Back-waters (Malabar) Fr. _ oh A i a) i. BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE W..COAST OF S. INDIA 73: VITACEAE . Leea Linn. 8. Leea sambucina Willd. Tam: Nyekki. Mal: Maniporandi. Tel: Ankadosa. Kan: Andilu. This plant is found growing in back-waters at Kasaragod (S. Kanara) though Gamble records this plant only on the Hills (C.R.M.). Usually a large shrub but occasionally growing into a small tree up to 30 ft. high, producing thick foliage suitable for green manure. 11th March, 1916 (M.H. 11350 & 11351) Wondse Back-waters. (S. Kanara) Fr. | LEGUMINOSAE CROTALARIA Linn. 9. Crotalaria verrucosa L. Tam: Vutlei Khillo. Tel: Ghele Gherumta. Occurs right near the edge of the sea-shore. Found mixed with Clerodendron inerme. Also in back-waters of Nileshwar (C.R.M.). This is found growing very near the tidal waves also. Grows to a height of 2 to 3 ft. A much _ branched, herbaceous, usually Labial plant with blue or white flowers. It is a plant recommended as a green manure for saline rice fields. 10. Crotalaria striata DC. Tel: Munga. Occurs in low lying areas and sandy tracts. It was also observed in the back-waters of Nileshwar (S.K.) and under extreme saline conditions on the sea-sand near the junction of the back-waters and sea in Nileshwar (C.R.M.). An erect herbaceous shrub reaching 4 ft. in height. This is recommended as green manure for saline tracts.’ DavsBercia Lin. f. 11. Dalbergia candenatensis Prain. Gamble:—Coast of Malabar, in mangrove swamps. A stout climbing shrub with twigs often twisted into spiral Rogie: with white flowers. 74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 PONGAMIA Vent. 12. Pongamia glabra Vent. Tam: Ponga. Mal: Punna. fi Tel: Kanuga. Kan: Huligili, Honge. Gamble :—Coastal forests and on tidal river. banks. | This has been noticed on the sand banks a little distance away from back-waters. (C.R.M.) A moderate-sized ‘nearly ever-green tree, wood moderately hard used for cart wheels and other purposes. Plant is useful as’ green manure for saline rice fields. The seeds give an oil used for burning and‘ in medicine. tr, his | 28th July, 1887. (M.H. 7263) Beypoor back-waters. © (Malabar) Veg... « da Sisneet oC) Derris Lour. 13. Derris uliginosa Benth. Tel: Nallatiga. Gamble :—Jn sea coast forests and tidal river banks on the sides of the Peninsula. It occurs in the sea coast forest and tidal river banks of Niechoen Coondapur and Udipi (C.R.M. & H.S.K.*). It is found climbing over trees growing along muddy salt water creeks. A large evergreen climbing shrub with rose-coloured flowers and rather large leaflets. The leaves are poisonous and not relished by cattle. Recommended as‘a green manure plant for planung along the sides of the back-waters. : August, 1887. (M.H. 17341) Calicut Back-waters. (Malabar) Fr: rith March, 1916 (M.H. 7349, 7351 & 7358). Wondse_back- waters (S.K.) Fr. : 14. Dervis canarensis Baker. eg Gamble :—In evergreen forests and along back-waters of West Coast. A large climbing shrub with pink flowers. Mimosa Linn. 1k, Mimosa pudica Linn. Tam: Total nadi Kan: Nachigai mullu. _ | This plant is found as an neRe OWA in large masses at the junction of Kasaragod River and sea and also in the back-waters of Nileshwar (C.R.M.) ‘A diffuse undershrub with very. sensitive leaves, pink flowers and bristly pods. It spreads very fast and. is most troublesome and difficult to eradicate. 1H. Sunanda Kamath. ‘BACK- WATER FLORA OF THE W. COAST OF S. INDIA | 75 RHIZOPHORACEAE RHIZOPHORA Linn. 16. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Tam: Kandal. Mal: Venkatal. Tel: Uppo-pooma. i+: Kan::: Kandali. : Gamble :—Tidal forests on both East and West Coasts. | The Mangrove: A very common tree of both the Districts found in the back-waters of Chetwayi, Udyavar, Malpe, Coondapur, Basrur and Nileshwar (C.R.M. & H.S.K.). A very glabrous tree often appearing buttressed by the mud being washed away from the branching aerial roots, the lower part of the stem dying off. The bark is a valuable tanning material. Wood is dark red, very hard and excellent fuel. The fruits are viviparous and as soon as they fall from the trees on the miry soil, strike root. 27th October, 1900. C. A. Barber (M.H. 19787 & 19784) Bada- gara (Malabar) Veg. | 17. Rhizophora candelaria DC. Tam: Kandal. Gamble:—Tidal forests on both Coasts; more scarce than the preceding. A glabrous: small evergreen tree similar to the above. CERIOPS Arn. 18. Ceriops candolleana Arn. Tam: Pavrikutti. Mal: Ann Kandal. Tel: Gedera. Gamble:—Tidal forests of the West Coast. A small evergreen tree with many buttresses at the base one root excrescences as in Rhizophora. Bark dark red giving a good tanning material. Wood orange-red, hard and excellent fuel. oa - 4 KANDELIA W. & A. 19. Kandelia rheedi W. & A. Tam: Pukkandal. Mal: Cerukandal. Fel: Thuvar kandal. Kan: Kandale. Gamble:—Tidal forests of the West Gost. Back-waters of Coondapur (C.R.M.). <7 A small tree with reddish-brown bark; wood soft, reddish-brown, used only for firewood. Also recommended for planting along the side of back-waters for green manure purposes. (M.H. 19812) Coondapur B.W. (S.K.) Flowers. 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol -52 BRUGUIERA Lam. 20. Bruguiera conjugata Merr. Tam: Cigappukkandal. Mal: Kandal. Tel: Thudder poona. Gamble:-—Tidal Forests of both coasts. A rather large evergreen tree; wood red extremely hard used for building and fuel. Recommended for planting along the sides of. the back-waters for green manure. ; 21. Bruguiera cylindrica W. & A. Tel: Veerada. Gamble :—Tidal forests of West Coast. oa A small tree with dark brown bark and red, close-grained wood. | COMBRETACEAE LUMNITZERA Willd. 22. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Tam: Tipparathi. Mal: Katakantal. Tel: Kadivi. Gamble :—In Mangrove swamps of East and West Coast. An evergreen tree of shrubby growth with rather small leaves- Wood used for posts and fuel. | LECYTHIDACEAE BARRINGTONIA Forst. 23. Barringtonia racemosa Roxb. Tam: Samuthram. Mal: Samuthraccham. Gamble :—West Coast in Malabar, along back-waters oftef planted for ornament. A medium-sized ornamental tree with large flowers and large brownish-red fruits. SONNERATIACEAE SONNERATIA Linn. 24. Sonneratia caseolaris Engl. Tam: Kinnai. Mal: Blatti, Thirata. “Kan: Kandale. “Gamble: —West Coast along pace were ae ‘South Kanara southwards. Oe 3 ae SAL ce BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE W. COAST OF S. INDIA 77 Few trees were observed in the interior of back-waters of Kasaragod. The trees reached a height of 20-30 ft. Also observed at Malpe and Coondapur (C.R.M. and H.S.K.). A small evergreen tree with large showy flowers and large depressed-globose fruit. rith March, 1916 (M.H. oe Wondse (S.K.) Fl. (M.H. 22044) Hey) S. Kanara Back-waters, FL UMBELLIFERAE CENTELLA Linn. 25. Centella asiatica Urban. Common in rice fields in wet places and along pada banks of back-waters in Kasaragod (C.R.M.). A common trailing and rooting weed. RUBIACEAE ' OLDENLANDIA PLUM (26. Oldenlandia pruinosa O.Kze. Gamble :—West Coast, in Malabar along paneawatee A shrub with thin leaves and spreading flower panicles. PaveETtTa Linn. 27. Pavetta indica Linn. Tam: Karanai Pavattai. Mal: Pavatta. Tel: Nunepatala. ‘Kan; Pavate. Growing along the junction of the sea and os water in Nileshwar and Kasaragod (C.R.M.). A small tree or large shrub and very variable leaves. T he roots | and leaves are used as medicine by ayurvedic doctors. ‘The fruits are sometimes eaten. Borreria G.F.W. Mey. 28. Borreria hispida K. Sch. Tam: Nutti choori. Tel: Madana. On sand banks of back-waters in Kasaragod (C.R.M.). A hispid procumbent herb with long branches, pale mauve usually long tubular flowers and hard fruits. COMPOSITAE GRANGEA Forsk | 29. aie, maderaspatana Poir. A herb usually growing prostrate on mney soils of backew. aters in Kasaragod and Udipi (C.R.M. and H.S.K.). 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 MYRSINACEAE - Arpisia Swartz. 30. Ardisia littoralis Andr. Repos. Gamble :—West Coast along back-waters. ere A somewhat succulent shrub reaching about 3. ft. in height. AEGICERAS Gaertn. 31. Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco. Tam: Narikandal. Tel: Dudumara. Gamble :—Sea Coasts East and West. In Mangrove forests especially and along tidal creeks. | Along tidal creeks of Coondapur, Basrur, Nileshwar and Kasaragod (C.R.M. & H.S.K.). A small tree growing to 5-6 ft. high; wood mostly used for fuel. (M.H. 29595) Salt swamps of South Kanara FI. 7th December, 1919. {(M.H. 29601 to 29604) Nileshwar Back- waters (S.K.) Veg. FI. : EBENACEAE Diospyros L. 32. Diospyros peregrina Gurke. Tam: Tumbika. Mal: Paniccha. Tel: Tunika. Gamble :—West Coast; on river banks and aN often cultivated. -A- branching evergreen tree with large coriaceous leaves wane are bright red when young; wood red with darker streaks. APOCYNACEAE CERBERA Linn. 33. Cerbera manghas Linn. ‘Tam: Kadama. Mal: Othalam. Gamble:—East and West Coast, in salt swamps and back-waters. A large area of the back-waters was found covered with these trees in Kasaragod (C.R.M.). | A A moderate-sized or small tree with fReeaiNte or ob-lanceolate bright green fleshy leaves and large green fruit with fibrous pericarp. _>..21st February, os on H- eee, See Cs Aad oe Ee (S.K.) FL. : BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE .W. COAST OF S, INDIA 79 Parsonia R. Br. 34. Parsonia spiralis Wall. Gamble:—West Coast, mostly along tee arr es in Travancore. A glabrous twining shen, with large leaves up to 6 in. long 3 in. broad, the flowers white. ASCLEPIADACEAE TyYLOPHORA R. Br. 35. Tylophora tenuis Blume. ‘ . Gamble :—West Coast along back-waters in Travancore. _ A slender twining undershrub, the follicles linear lanceolate, 2-3 inches long. GENTIANACEAE LIMNANTHEMUM Gmel. 36. Limnanthemum parvifolium Griseb. Gamble:—West Coast, back-waters of Travancore. A delicate plant with many radical leaves and very long slender stems with small floating leaves under 1 in. diameter. CONVOLVULACEAE ANISEIA Choisy. 37. Antseia uniflora Choisy. Gamble:—West Coast, in Travancore, margins of oe and back-waters. A prostrate herb with many fibrous roots from the stems copie in mud. Leaves long-petioled, elliptic oblong, flowers white. SCROPHULARIACEAE Limnopuita R,. Br. 38. Limnophila gratissima Bl. Gamble:—West Coast, margins of Bottle and Bactearer! A tall glabrous plant, decumbent at base and rooting at the lower nodes and then erect, flowers purple. Usually in terminal panicles of racemes with small bracts. ILYSANTHES Raf. 39. Ilysanthes tenuifolia Urb. .. Gamble: West Coast, Malabar and Travancore. _ Has. been observed in back-waters of Kasaragod (C.R.M.). “(A small’ very slender tufted weak marsh herb with pale blue flowers. ‘80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 BIGNONIACEAE DOLICHANDRONE Fenzl. 40. Dolichandrone spathacea K. Schum. Tam: Vilpadri. Mal: Nipongilium. Gamble:—West Coast, South Kanara to Travancore on the banks of rivers and back-waters. A fairly big tree rather scarce. Found on the edge of the back- waters at Kasaragod. Solitary tree also found along back-waters of Nileshwar (C.R.M.). A big-sized deciduous tree producing abundant leaves and with white flowers which open at night and then fall off. A tree recom- mended to be grown along back-waters for green manure purposes. ACANTH ACEAE ACANTHUS i. 41. Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. Tel: Alisi, Alchi. _ Gamble :—East and West ca in tidal freee: The Sea Holly. Large formations on the edge of the back-waters at Ponnani, Chirakkal, Tellichery (Malabar) and Nileswar, Kasara- god, Udipi, Basrur to Coondopur (S.K.), (C.R.M. & H.S.K.). A gregarious shrub reaching 5 ft. in height with large blue flowers- and spinous holly-like leaves, sharp spines also at the bases of the petioles. AsystTasiA Blume 42. Asystasia gangetica T. And. Observed growing in the back-waters of Kasaragod (C.R.M.). A straggling often somewhat climbing perennial herb with smallish leaves and variable flowers white, blue, purple or yellow. VERBENACEAE CLERODENDRON Linn. 43. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn. Fam: Pinchil. Mal: Nirnocci. Ter: Pisune. Kan: Kundali. Gamble :—Sea Coast on both sides in tidal forests often planted in gardens and so perhaps run wild in land. At the junction of the back-waters and sea at Kasaragod. Covers a large area on the shore of the river at Nileshwar. Also on the edges of back-waters at Udyavar, Malpe and, Uliaragoli near Udipi. Often, Derris ‘uliginosa is found climbing on, these shrubs (C. R, M. & H.S. K. ). mn A straggling shrub with a brown drupe. BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE W. COAST OF S. INDIA Sl AVICENNIA Linn. 44. Avicennia officinalis Linn. Tam: Upatham. Mal: Orei. Tel: Mada. Kan: Uppoti. Gamble :—West Coast, in South Kanara, Malabar, Cochin and Travancore along the Coast in Creeks and tidal marshes. The White Mangrove. Back-waters of, Malpe, Udyavar and Coondapur (C.R.M. & H.S.K.). A smail tree, wood grey, hard used only for fuel when others and better kinds are not available. 27th July, 1887 (M.H. 40314) Beypore (Malabar) FI. 20th October, 1938 A.D. Calicut (M.H. 83620) Calicut (Malabar) Root. ARISTOLOCHIACEAE ARISTOLOCHIA L. 45. Aristolochia indica L. Tam: Icuraver. Mal: Iswaramalli. Bel=isara. Kan: Iswarballi. On the sand banks of back-waters at Kasaragod (C.R.M. & EL bey. z A perennial twiner with greenish white stem; a bitter plant said to be an antidote for snakerbite. EKUPHORBIACEAE EXCOECARIA L. 46. Excoecaria agallocha Linn. @am-s — ila. Mal: Komatti. Mele: “Eillae Gamble :—Tidal forests and swamps of both coasts. Tidal shores of Kasaragod, Udyavar, Nileshwar and Coondapur (CURSE. & F.SiK,). An evergreen tree with poisonous milky juice. Wood, white very soft but apparently little used. POTAMOGE TONACEAE POTAMOGETON L. 47. Potamogeton javanicus Hassk. Gamble :—In back-waters, Travancore. Floating herbs with a few submerged leaves. 6 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY 'NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 : CYPERACEAE BuLBostytis Kunth 48. Bulbostylis puberula Kunth. On the edges of back-waters at Kasaragod (C.R.M.). An annual herb, leaves very narrow. Stems very slender; puberulous leaves sometimes longer than the stems. RYNCHOSPORA Vahl. 49. Rynchospora wallichiana Kunth. Gamble:—In back-waters; at Travancore. Erect herb without rhizome. GRAMINEAE PANICcUM L. 50. Panicum repens L. Tam: Tine: Pillu. Tel: Ladda gaddi. Kan: Santi hullu. In sandy soils of back-waters at Udipi and at the edge of waters at Kasaragod (C.R.M. & H.S.K.). Culms creeping at the base with distichous leaves. SUMMARY OF RESULTS (1) The back-waters of Malabar and South Kanara districts from Chetwayi to Baindur were surveyed up to a distance of about 4 to 5 miles from the sea-coast. (2) The flora has been compiled, taking into account those plants already recorded by other workers. (3) The vernacular names of plants are also given with their economic importance wherever possible. REFERENCES 1. Blatter, E. (1905): The Mangrove of the Bombay Presidency and its Biology. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 16: 644-656. 2. Chandrasekharan, S. N. & C. Rajasekhara Mudaliar (1949): Some useful plants for green manure purposes for the saline tracts of the Presidency. Madras Agric. Journ., 36: 568-572. 3. Gamble, J. S. (1915-1931): Flora of the Presidency of Madras. London. 4. Hooker, J. D. (1875-1897): The Flora of British India. London. 5. Venkateswaralu, J. (1944): The Estuarine Flora of the Godavari. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44: 481-435. — A NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF BURMA (1953) BY US Tun: YIN In the course of official duties in the Kachin State from March 1951 to February 1952, the writer had occasion to visit Putao (Fort Hertz), Lonkhin and Hapkan in the Uyu drainage, Bhamo, Sinlum, Sadon and Lauk Naung, and collected information about the position of Rhino in the Kachin State. The writer also received information in respect of the Rhino in the Shwe-U-Daung Sanctuary. In August 1953, Mr. E. P. Gee inquired about the Rhino population and the places where they existed. The Chief Conservator of Forests very kindly permitted the writer to go through the Annual Reports on Forest Administration 1945-46 to 1950-51, received in his office from the Conservators of Forests of the various Circles and Principal Forest Officer, Shan States.. The present note is an attempt to supplement the note prepared bynes Week. He Ansell in 1947 (/.B.N..83, Volz 47— No. 2; page 258 et seq.) and to bring it up to date. The writer would like to express gratitude to the Chief Conservator of Forests (U Kyaw Kine), Silviculturist (U Aung Din), all the Forest Officers and Members of Parliament who have helped him in the compilation of this note. The following is a summary of information: Rhinoceros sondaicus The Smaller One-Horned or Javan Rhinoceros. In 1939-40 the Game Warden (F. J, Mustell) received information ‘that a Rhinoceros with calf was seen by Karen villagers in their taungyas at the foot of the Kyaiktiyo Hill which is situated on the border of Thaton and Pegu Districts. The villagers’ description of the animal closely corresponds to that of the Javan Rhinoceros.’ These two animals were reported to be frequenting the environs of Kyaiktiyo Pogoda up to the end of the year ending the 3oth September, 1949. The area has since been under occupation by the Karen insurgents, and no attempt could therefore be made to identify the species and no further information is available. Dicerorhinus sumatrensis The Sumatran Two-Horned Rhinoceros. (a) The Shwe-U-Daung Sanctuary. The Divisional Forest Officer, Mong Mit Division, visited the Sanctuary in April 1948. He did not actually see one, but came across fresh tracks of rhinoceros and also a month-old spoor of a cow rhinoceros with a calf at heel. The Range Officer saw a rhinoceros in a mud wallow in May 1948. The Divisional Forest Officer, after sifting available evidence, came to the conclusion ‘that despite poaching 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SAIST SOCIETY V olsun there are approximately 4-5 rhinoceros in the Mong Mit sector of the Sanctuary.’ The Range Officer, Thabeitkyin, reported (1950-51) one male, one cow and one calf rhinoceros in Katha East (Burma) sector. But in 1952 the writer learnt that three of these rare animals had been shot in the Sanctuary, one under a special licence issued to the Mahadevi of Mong Mit, for medicinal purposes, and two illicitly by the Shan hunters. If any D. sumatrensis still exist in the Sanctuary, there cannot be more than two to three individuals. | The report of the Divisional Forest Officers; Mong Mit Division, and the case of the two D. sumatrensis referred to above should dispel the doubts of all people who are inclined to believe in the legend that the mountain spirits of Shwe-U-Daung do not like poaching. (b) Avakan Yoma. Thiri Pyanchi U Son Nein, M.P. Chin Hills, informed the writer (September 1953) that he saw fresh tracks of a rhino on Lontin Hill between Matupi and Kanpetlet, and that a villager from Paletwa also saw a rhino in Bigon forests between Matupi and Paletwa in May 1953. If not idertical, this area probably adjoins the areas where during the Arakan campaign, the special patrols saw a rhino about 15 miles north-east of Paletwa in January 1944 and a second rhino about 25 miles east of Paletwa in April 1944. See the areas marked by Gen. Christison on his map. (Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 45 (2) 1945). The writer crossed over the Arakan Yoma from Padaung to Taungup and back to Padaung in February 1946, when he was informed of an area where rhino then existed. It may be the area marked almost midway between Sandoway and =~Prome by Gen. Christison on his map. {c)) Pegu Yoma, In paragraph 55. of the Annual Report on Game Preservation in Burma for the year ending 31st March 1940, it is stated that the Divisional Forest Officer, Tharrawaddy Division, found fresh rhinoceros tracks on Sanwingan Hill. The Divisional Forest Officer, Tharrawaddy, referred to is U Aung Din, who is now Silviculturist, Burma. A Karen forester who was down in Rangoon recently informed me that there are two rhinoceros surviving in the Zamayi Reserve, Pegu Forest Division. The animals were seen in 1952. Zamayi Forest Reserve is in the upper reaches of the Pegu River. U Aung Din informed the writer (September 1953) that he found tracks of two rhino at the source of Thounze chaung on the Pegu Yoma. U Aung Din on his revisit to the same area in 1945, took pains to enquire about the two rhino and was informed that one of the two rhino had been shot by the Karens. Shwelaung chaung, referred to by Mr. Ansell, is a feeder of the Pegu River. The source is in the Pegu Yoma. So is Saing chaung where Messrs. Vernay and Percy Smith shot a specimen for the South Asiatic Hall of the American Museum of Natural History. RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF BURMA 85 Between 1922 and 1926, the writer made several trips after bison and tsaing up Shwelaung chaung, Kawliya chaung and Baingda chaungs. The writer met a Karen hunter (Nauk To) who had shot four rhino, and was irformed of a pocket on the Pegu Yoma where there were at least 4 to 6 rhino. The area is somewhere west. of Penwegon on the Rargoon Mandalay line. It is possible that the area referred by Mr. Ansell ‘exact locality not stated but probably north-west of Pegu’, is the same area of which the writer received information in 1926. There may still be few specimens surviving in this area. (d) Uyu River Drainage Area. The Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, estimated that there were about 5 rhinoceros in Nan-Ka-Za and Nan-Yoke-Chaungs, unclaimed forests, Uyu drainage, Katha West Forest Division in 1950-51. The writer visited Lonkhin and Hpakan, in the Jade Mines in August 1951. Both the villages are on the bank of the Uyu River. At Hpakan the writer met the headman of Lassai Tract and learnt that a rhino was shot in the dense jungles near Kungsai in November 1949, that a few rhinoceros had been shot in the past and that some 3 or 4 specimens still exist in the area. As the centre for jade mining, the population of Hpakan is predominantly Chinese. The Laisai Chins often visit Hpakan to sell rhino horn and blood to the Chinese. In December 1949 when the Deputy Commissioner, Myitkyina, was camping at Haungpa on the Chindwin River, the Laisai Duwa presented the Deputy Commissioner with a rhino horn. It is possible that this horn is from the rhino shot in November 1949. The rhino in the Uyu drainage area would eventually be shot out. (e) Kahilu Sanctuary. In 1948 ‘Rhinoceros sumatrensis were reported seen occasionally’. The area has been under occupation of Karen insurgents and no report has been received since. (f) Tenasserim Peninsula. Annual Report on Forest Administration for the year ending 31st September 1951 from the Conservator of Forests, Marinetine Circle, merely mentions that rhinoceros are reported to exist in the unclassed forests, Victoria Point Range. The writer has not been able to obtain any information from the area. It is doubtful whether any rhino now exist in Tavoy-Mergui Forest Division. Some of the wolfram mines are situated in the areas which were once the habitat of both Rhinoceros sondaicus and Dicerorhinus sumatrensis. There has also been extensive poaching by Thais. The areas in Tavoy-Mergui Forest Division are at present under occupation by underground communists and Karen insurgents. In the Yechaung Reserves of Ataran Division mentioned in para- graph 55 of the Annual! Report on Game Preservation for the year ending 31st March 1940, there may still be an isolated specimen or two if they have not already been poached by the Thais. 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 The writer was at the source of Yechaung when he was urgently recalled on 2nd December 1941. The writer was then informed of a large rhino on the Tenasserim Yoma. . A statement in Mr. Ansell’s note may be corrected: Mt. Mulayit is in Ataran Forest Division, Amherst District, and not in Mergui District which is in Tavoy-Mergui Forest Division. (g) Bhamo Area. Rhino shot in early 1946. Duwa Zau Lun, Head of the Kachin State, very kindly furnished the writer with a sketch map showing the track of the rhino. The rhino first seen in the Kauk-Nwa valley, crossed the Irrawaddy River, Wilatha Hills, the Taping River, a feeder of the Irrawaddy, and was eventually shot in the Maubin tract by the Shans. U Hla Pe, Lecturer, Faculty of Forests, University College, was assistant to the Divisional Forest Officer, Bhamo Division (Mr. Maxwell) in 1945-46. U Hla Pe informed the writer that the case was burked by the villagers and that he began to hear whispers long after the rhino had been shot, and was informed that the villagers did not know that the strange animal which charged the village buffaloes was a rhino, and that the rhino was shot only when the villagers came to know that the strange animal was the rare and valuable animal. From Duwa Zau Lun’s account, two facts are disclosed :— (1) The rhino was not a wanderer from the Shwe-U-Daung Sanctuary. (2) A rhino could swim across a river as wide asi the Irrawaddy. U Gyi Htein Nan, Finance Minister, Kachin State, was in charge of the range before his retirement from Service in the Forest Depart- ment of the Union Government. He informed the writer that a rhino had previously been shot in the Sadon Area in 1927. This area is on the east bank of the Irrawaddy and adjoins the Bhamo area. In 1931 a rhinoceros crossed the Uyu drainage, came within five miles of the railway line near Nansiaung in the Katha West Forest Division. and was shot by a Kachin. In 1932, another rhinoceros came over from the Uyu drainage into the Nami and Ledan valleys, Mansi- Katha Division, during the cold weather, crossed the Indaw Banmauk road in the south and headed for the Meza chaung. In 1936 an assistant of Messrs. The Bombay Burma Trading Corporation Limited saw a rhinoceros on the left bank of the Uyu stream in Katha West Forest Division. In the same year a rhinoceros was shot by Kachins in Nanyin Kha Reserves, Myitkina Forest Division. During December 1939 a rhinoceros was reported in the lower Uyu valley, Katha West Forest Division. U Gyi Htein Nan is definite that all these animals came from Taungthonlon, an extinct volcano North of Mansi, Katha West Forest Division. Very little is known of this region and its fauna. RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF BURMA 37 (h) Myitkyina Area. ‘Peacock mentions parts of Myitkyina as locations (or former locations) of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis’ (fourn., Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., Wole 47 (2)-p. 260, 1947). The nite: has no idea of the locations eiencubed by Peacock. When the writer visited Putao in December 1951, he was informed of a Dicerorhinus sumatrensis shot by a Lishu hunter on Mansi Likun Hills in 1943. The Manse Sawbwa received the posterior horn and some dried blood. Mr. Sanhta Seng, Parliamentary Secretary, informed the writer (September 1953) that the Kachins believe the posterior horn alone to be efficacious, the anterior horn is only a protection to the posterior horn and is of no value to Kachins. Mr. Sanhta Seng estimated from 4 to 6 species of D. sumatrensis still surviving in the Nam Lang Valley. REFERENCES Annual Report on Game Preservation in Burma, (1928-29 to 1940-41). Report on Forest Administration in Burma, (1945-46 to 1950-51). Report on Forest Administration in the Shan State, (1948-49 and 1950-51). Christison, Lt.-Gen. Philip (1945): The present distribution of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis in Arakan. Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 45 (4) A: 603. 5. Ansell, W. F. H. (1947): A Note on the Position of Rhinoceros in Burma. Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., ¥T (2) A: 249. Ss Nice POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA BY S. L. Nayar (Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow) ParT I INTRODUCTION India possesses a _ variety of soils, climatic conditions and altitudes and these have naturally made the country a _ veritable nursery for medicinal, poisonous and food plants of ali descriptions. Many of these are native to India, while others are exotics, which have been introduced and got naturalized in course of time. More than 2,000 such plants have been enumerated in the literature of indigenous medicine which are alleged to have medicinal properties of some description or other and many of these are still in use in some form or other. The majority of these plants have not yet been fully investigated. By the metabolic activity of plants are produced not only the food materials so essential for life, but also certain other substances, such as alkaloids, glucosides, toxalbumins, essential oils, resins, bitter principles etc. Some of these principles are so powerful and toxic that death may ensue when these enter the human or animal system in sufficient strength. Whatever be the significance of toxic substances found in the vegetable kingdom, the fact must be remembered that they are associated with plants which manufacture food for man and animals, without which it would be impossible to live. It should be borne in mind that they are at once our friends and our enemies. Most of the plants which are harmful to man and livestock in large quantities, produce remarkably beneficial effects in small and re- gulated doses. The potent properties of these poisonous plants or their parts are utilized in the treatment of diseases to alleviate the sufferings of man and animals. From the economic point of view, therefore, this group of plants is of very great importance in as much as it provides .us with medicinal agents of every description. The destruction of insects, those great enemies of social and economic progress, by means of vegetable resources is becoming increasingly important in the economy of the civilized world. The poisonous plants have also been used by man for fighting his enemies and for procuring. his food by killing animals by their use. To catch fish as an article of diet, man has from time immemorial utilized poisonous plants. Of great use as the poisonous plants are to mankind, their presence in our midst is also a menace to man and livestock, pro- ducing death or illness through accident, ignorance or intention. The study of poisonous plants of any country with a view to assessing POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 82 their harmful properties is, therefore, of prime importance, and increased knowledge in this direction and judicious utilization of the same is bound to be of immense benefit both from the scientific, toxicological, and economic points of view. Our knowledge of the chemical constituents of plants or their parts has advanced rapidly in recent years, and the constituents res- ponsible for the specific physiological action of the plant or its parts have in many cases been isolated, purified, and identified as definite chemical compounds. The pharmacological action of many of these has been studied by modern methods and we are now in possession of more exact knowledge of the action of the drugs containing these constituents. A good deal of work, however, has yet to be done in connection with the isolation and elucidation of the chemical nature of many other toxic or physiologically active constituents known to be present in various plants. Quite a large number of plants known or suspected to be toxic remain uninvestigated and this is particularly the case with the Indian flora. It is well known that different parts of a plant vary considerably in the amount of toxic principles contained in them. Thus the toxicity of the seeds, fruits, flowers, leaves, stems and roots varies considerably in almost every plant, even at the same stage of its growth. All parts of the plants are not necessarily poisonous. One Or more parts of a plant may be poisonous, while the remaining ones may be quite harmless and may even form a part of the human or animal diet. The seeds of several members of the family Rosaceae contain dangerous amounts of prussic acid, while the outer fleshy portion of the fruit is commonly eaten. As an example may be cited the common instances of peach, plum, and some forms of apricots, the kernels of which may contain dangerous quantities of hydrocyanic acid but the outer portions of their fruits are quite safe and edible. In this paper it is intended to discuss the poisonous seeds of India, and in the following pages are dealt with the names of such seed-bearing plants i.e. the source plants, their families, their English and some important Indian names, their distribution in India; the chemical constituents of the seeds, their poisonous properties and other general information so far as these are known are also indicated in each case. In addition to very careful and up-to-date library work, effort has been made to supplement already available data by additional data collected personally by the author during field work and in the course.of botanical explorations in different parts of India extending over a period of several years. The information contained herein is primarily of scientific interest and will serve as a basis for future work, and it is believed will be useful as a reference work and guide for all those interested and engaged in research work on the Indian indigenous drugs, particularly the poisonous seed drugs. The following are the abbreviations used for the vernacular names :— 5 Be. Bengali; Bo. Bombay; Hi. Hindi; Kash. Kashmir ; Kum. Kumaon; Lep. Lepcha; Mal. Malayalam; Mar. Marathi; Nep. Nepali; Pers. Persian; Pun. Punjabi; Sans. Sanskrit; Tam. Tamil; Tel. Telugu. | 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY GNATURAL WAIST SOCIETY “Viol ms2 1. Abrus precatorius Linn. (Leguminosae), English names.—Crabs Eyes, Jequirity, Prayer Beads. Indian names.—Be. Gunch; Bo. Gungchi; Hi. Rati; Sans. Gunja; Tam. Gunduman; Tel. Guriginja. Distribution.—A beautiful climbing shrub found throughout the greater part of India ascending the outer Himalayas to an altitude of 3,500 ft., and is sometimes planted in gardens. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain the toxalbumin, ‘abrin’ consisting of a globulin and a proteose (1). Seeds also contain a crystalline nitrogenous compound called abrine and an amorphous glucosidic substance abraline with a mild bitter taste (2, 3, 4). Remarks.—The seeds are intensely poisonous, their toxicity depending on the manner in which they are administered. The whole seed may be swallowed with impunity, because the outer covering is so hard that the seeds escape disintegration and the toxin is not freed. If chewed before it is swallowed half a seed may cause poisoning in man (5). Simpson and ‘Bannerji (123) fed the seeds. to horses, goats, cattle and dogs in the form of a bolus. The horses showed symptoms of poisoning after having received 4 oz. of the seed, while 2 oz. sufficed to produce death within 18 hours. If eaten uncooked, they have purgative and emetic properties and, in large doses, give rise to symptoms resembling those of cholera (7). When taken internally by women they are said to disturb the uterine functions, and to prevent conception. The seeds ground into a paste and the mass made into sharp pointed needles are used to procure criminal abortion. When powdered and introduced into the system by subcutaneous route the seeds produce fatal results. In India they are especially employed for poisoning cattle, for procuring criminal abortion and occasionally also for homicidal purposes. Abrin is highly toxic, the lethal dose for animals being claimed to be 0.01 mg. per kilo of weight. 2. Aconitum (Ranunculaceae). English names.—Aconite, Monkshood. Distribution.—Biennial, perennial, rarely annual herbs confined to the subalpine and alpine zones of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal, and extending to the hills of Assam. Constituents.—Aconites contain a number of alkaloids of which the most important are aconitine, indaconitine, pseudaconitine, bikha- conitine, etc., besides atisine and palmatisine which are considered nonpoisonous. ‘ Remarks.—All parts of the aconite plant are poisonous. In the case of A. napellus Linn. which is a foreign plant, roots, seeds and leaves are poisonous in a descending order (8). It is possible that a number of Indian aconites also behave in the same way, but this has not been definitely ascertained. 3. Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth syn. Synantherias sylvatica Schott (Araceae). Indian names.—Mar. Wajramuta; Sans. Vanja, Vanakanda. Distribution.—A tuberous herb found in the Madras State in the Circars, Nilgiris and Coorg. Its occurrence in the Bombay State as POISONGUS SERDS OF INDIA 91 reported by the Flora of British India and some other works has been doubted by Cooke (9). Remarks.—The crushed seeds when applied locally produce numbness. When swallowed it instantaneously produces a most painful irritation of the tongue and lips which lasts for a long time and causes much salivation and subsequent numbness (10). 4. Anamirta cocculus (Linn.) Wight & Arn. syn. 4. paniculata Colebr. (Menispermaceae). English names.—Crow Killer, Poison Berry. Indian names.—Be., Hi., Sans. & Tel. Kakamari; Bo. Kakaphala; Mal. Pola. Distribution.—A large climbing shrub found in Assam, Eastern Bengal, Oudh, Orissa, and Konkan southwards to Ceylon. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain picrotoxin, a crystallizable nonalkaloidal compound of definite chemical composition, to the extent Of about 1.5 per cent (11, 12). Remarks.—The fruits which are highly poisonous owe _ their activity to the presence of picrotoxin which is contained in the seeds but not in the pericarp. In fact the pericarp is non-poisonous and an entire drupe might, therefore, pass through the body without producing untoward symptoms (14). The fruits are used in India to poison fish and crows, and. rarely for poisoning cattle. Picrotoxin is a stimulant to apparently all the emissive centers of the cerebro- spinal axis affecting the cerebrum, the medulla and spinal cord. It causes in all vertebrates, when given in sufficient dose, violent convul- sions which are sometimes cerebral, sometimes spinal and sometimes medullary, according to the species of the animal. 5. Anemone obtusiloba D. Don (Ranunculaceae). Indian names.—Kum. Kakriva, Ratanjota; Pun. Padar, Ratan- jota. Distribution.—A densely tufted perennial herb found in the tem- perate and alpine Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 7,000 to 15,000 ft. above sea level. Remarks.—The seeds, if given internally, produce vomiting and purging. 6. Annona reticulata Linn. (Annonaceae). English names.—Bullocks Heart, Common Custardapple. Indian names.—Be. Nona; Bo. & Hi. Ramphal; Sans. Ramphala ; Tam. Ramachita; Tel. Ramphalamu. Disiribution.—A small tree naturalized in Bengal and elsewhere. It is cultivated but not so extensively as A. squamosa Linn. _ Remarks.—Most of the information given under A. squamosa also holds good in the case of this plant. 7, Annona squamosa Linn. (Annonaceae). English names.—Custard Apple, Sugar-Apple, Sweet Sop. Indian names.—Be. Luna; Hi. Shariphal, Sitaphal; Sans. Sitaphala, Suda; Tam. Sitapalam; Tel. Sitaphalamu. 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Distribution.—A tree about 20 ft. high naturalized in several parts of India. It is met with under cultivation and also as an escape. ; Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds yield an oil and a resin which contains an acrid principle (7). Seeds also contain an amorphous alkaloid but no glucoside (15). Remarks.—Subramaniam (16) has studied the plant and has con- cluded that the powdered seeds are fatal to insects. The powdered seeds are also powerfully irritant to the conjunctiva; a case has been reported of a life convict who, in order to escape from being sent to the Andamans, put the seed powder into his eyes and destroyed both his cornea, resulting in total blindness (17). When applied to osuter: the powdered seeds are irritant and said to produce abortion. The seeds are also used to kill lice. 8. Areca catechu Linn. (Palmae). English names.—Areca Nut, Betel Nut. Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Supari; Sans. Akota, Ghonta; Tam. Kugagam; Tel. Kolapoka. Distribution.—A slender graceful palm extensively cultivated within the moist tropical tracts that fringe the coast of India, and practically within the belt of land that, with a few exceptions, does not extend inland for more than 200 miles and generally not above 3,000 ft. in altitude. There are large scale cultivations in southern and western India, Assam and Bengal and it flourishes well in Malabar, Kanara and Mysore. Often found in gardens where it is grown for orna- mental purposes. Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain the alkaloid arecoline to the extent of about 0.1 per cent which is a highly toxic subr stance. Other alkaloids present are guvacine, guvacoline, arecaidine and arecolidine. ; Remarks.—There are various kinds of the seeds. When chewed in excess the young and undried seeds of some give rise to temporary giddiness and large doses produce griping and irritation followed by loose motions. The symptoms of poisoning resemble those of fungus poisoning (muscarine). 9. Argemone mexicana Linn. (Papaveraceae). English names.—Mexican Poppy, Yellow Mexican Poppy. Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Shialkanta; Sans. Rukmini, Srigala- Rana; Tam. Kurukkum; Tel. Brahmadandi. Distribution.—A robust prickly herbaceous annual of American origin which has become completely naturalized in India and grows wild all over the country in waste lands and along road sides. Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds as well as the herb contain two alkaloids, herbetine and protopine. Dragendroff found the seeds to contain an alkaloid which gave reactions closely resembling those given by morphine (14), but this plant has been shown to contain no morphine. The presence of traces of alkaloids in the expressed oil reported by earlier workers was confirmed some years back by investigations carried out at the School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta. POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 93 Remarks.—The seeds which bear a superficial resemblance to ihe black mustard seeds are stated by many authors to possess narcotic properties. Moodeen Sheriff, however, claims that even in doses of two drachms and a half they are not narcotic (7). On expression the seeds yield a pale-yellow clear limpid oil to the extent of about ' 36 per cent which is known as ‘Katakar oil’ or the Argemone oil and is occasionally found as an adulterant of mustard oil in India. The adulterated oil produces a condition which is clinically indistinguish- able from the disease called Epidemic Dropsy. During the course of work on the aetiology of epidemic dropsy at the School of Tropical Medicine and All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health at Calcutta, it was found that Argemone oil was present in mustard oils incriminated in the outbreaks of this disease in many places (18). 10. Aruncus sylvester Kostel. syn. Spiraea’ auruncus Linn. (Rosaceae). Distribution.—A_ shrub-like dioecious herb found in the Western and Central Temperate Himalayas. Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds are stated to contain a saponin (10). Remarks.—The seeds are stated to be poisonous. 11. Atropa acuminata Royle (Solanaceae). English names.—Indian Atropa, Indian belladonna. Indian names.—Be. Yebruj; Hi. Angur shefa; Kash. Mait brand. Distribution.—A tall straight herb growing wild in the Western Himalayas from Kagan and Kashmir to Simla at altitudes of 6,000 to 11,000 ft. above sea level. Gonstiients of the seeds.—Seeds contain enone and hyoscya- mine, chiefly hyoscyamine. Remarks.—Same as for next species. 12. Atropa belladonna Linn. (Solanaceae). English names.—Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade. Indian names.—Kash. Mait brand. Distribution.—An erect herb cultivated to a small extent in Kashmir. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain atropine and hyoscya- mine, the total alkaloidal content being about 0.8 per cent chiefly hyoscyamine (11). In the fresh condition, the seeds, ripe fruits and leaves contain the largest amount of alkal oids (72). Remarks.—The whole fruit including the seeds are _ intensely poisonous and cases of poisoning are reported from all parts of the world where the belladonna plant grows and are usually accidental, due to eating the berries through ignorance. Ingestion of a few berries is sufficient to cause death. 13. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. syn. Melia azadirachta Linn. (Meliaceae). English names.—Margosa Tree, Neem Tree. Indian names.—Be., Hi. & Bo. Nim; Sans. Nimba; Tam. Vembu; Tel. Vemu. 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Distribution.—A medium-sized evergreen tree planted all over India; grows wild in the dry forests of the Deccan. Constituents of the seeds.—Amorphous bitter principle and a crystalline substance, margosopicrin. Seeds also contain a _ bitter fixed oil with objectionable odour due to the presence of sulphur compounds and some fatty acids (20). The oil from seeds contain two bitter substances (21). Seeds are reported to contain up to 45 per cent of oil. Remarks.—Seeds are poisonous in large doses to man and some animals, producing gastro-intestinal irritation and~ severe purgation. 14, Baliospermum montanum Muell. Arg. syn. B avxillare Blume (Euphourbiaceae). Indian names.—Be., Hi. & Sans. Danti; Bo. Dantimul; Tam. Nivadimutta; Tel. Nelajidi. Distribution.—A stout leafy undershrub found in the outer ranges of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan up to an altitude of 3,000 ft., also in Assam, Khasia hills, Northern and Eastern Bengal, Bihar and from Central and Western India to Travancore. Remarks.—The seeds are used as a drastic purgative, but in large doses are an acronarcotic poison. They are sometimes used as a substitute for croton seeds (Croton tiglium Linn.) and are often sold in the bazaars under the vernacular name of ‘Jamalgota’. The oil expressed from the seeds is also a powerful hydragogue cathartic (7). 15. Barringtonia acutangula (Linn.) Gaertn. (Lecythidaceae). English names.—Indian Oak; Small Indian Oak. : Indian names.—Be. Hijal; Bo. Ijal; Hi. Hijgal; Sans. Hijjala; Tam. Aram; Tel. Kadamu. Distribution.—A small or medium-sized tree most plentiful in Bengal, especially near the coast beyond the tidal range. Also fre- quently found in Kanara and Bombay along the banks of streams. It is fairly common in the Sub-Himalayan tracts, east of the Jumna, in Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Assam, the Madhya Pradesh and South India. Remarks.—The seeds are said to be used to stupefy fish in many parts of India {10). _ Pw 16, Barringtonia asiatica (Linn.) Kurz syn. B. speciosa Forst. (Lecythidaceae). Indian names.—Tam. Semmuli; Tel. Suvaponna. Distribution.—A rather small or moderate-sized tree, native of the Andaman Islands, Singapore and Ceylon. Also occurs~-on the southern Deccan Peninsula, but not in a wild state. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain 3.27 per cent of a elucosidic saponin, barringtonin, and 1 per cent of a substance de- signated as barringtogenetin (22). Seeds contain HCN in high concentration (23). Remarks.—The seeds are said to be a fish poison. Kernel is used as a fish poison and for homicide and suicide (23), POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 95 17. Barringtonia racemosa (Linn.) Roxb. (Lecythidaceae). English names.—Indian Oak. : Indian names.—Be. Kunda; Hi. Ijjul; Mar. Nivar; Sans. Nipa; Tam. Isudaru; Tel. Kanapa. Distribution.—An evergreen ornamental tree common along the Western Coast from Konkan to Travancore and from the Sunderbans. eastwards. Remarks.—The seed is used as a _ household vermifuge in Madagascar and is stated to be a fish poison (24). 18. Butea monosperma ({Lam.) Kuntze syn. B. frondosa Koen. ex Roxb. (Leguminosae). English names.—Bengal Kino, Butea Gum. Indian names.—Be. Palas; Bo. Palasa; Hi. Dhak, Palas; Sans. Palasha; Tam. Puppalasu; Tel. Palasomu. Distribution._-A small or medium-sized tree common throughout ihe greater part of India up to 3,000 ft., sometimes up to 4,000 ft. Constituents of the seeds.—Fixed oil, a small quantity of a resin and a large quantity of a water-soluble albuminoid in the seeds (25). The seeds contain 18 per cent of a yellow, tasteless oil (26). Fresh seeds contain proteolytic and lypolytic enzymes (27). Remarks.—Magegots are killed by sprinkling the powdered seeds over them (17). The native practitioners in India use the seeds as. a vermifuge against both the tapeworm and round worm. ‘The seeds when pounded with lemon juice and applied to the skin, act as a rubefacient; when made into a paste, they are used as a remedy against ring worm (7). 19, Canavalia ensiformis (Linn.) DC. (Leguminosae). English names.—Broad Bean, Sword Bean. Indian names.—Be. Mekhun; Bo. Gaivara; Hi. Kadsambu, Sema; sans. Shimbi; Tam. Kattuttambattan; Tel. Karutamina. Distribution.—A perennial or biennial herb cultivated throughout India for its young tender pods and seeds which are used as vegetables. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain three globulins, con- canavalin A, concanavalin B and concanavalin (28, 29), of which con- canavalin A has been shown to be toxic to rabbits when a sufficiently large dose is injected (30). Remarks.—According to Haines (31) the plant is usually grown as. an annual as ‘the natives say that subsequent crops of seeds are more or less poisonous.’ . 20. Canavalia virosa Wight & Arn. syn. C. ensiformis (Linn.) DC., var. virosa Baker. (Leguminosae). English names.—Wild Sword Bean. Indian names.—Be. Kathshim; Bo. Assambal; Hi. Sem; Mal. Kattuvalamara; Sans. Shimbi; Tel. Karutamma. Distribution.—A climbing perennial found wild in Bundelkhand, Purnea, Puri, Angul and the other parts of India. 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST SOCIETY. Vol. 52 Remarks.—According to Haines (31) the seeds are reputed poisonous, but the young pods are sometimes eaten, the former are said to havea bitter taste. 21. Carica papaya Linn. (Caricaceae). English names.—-Papaya, Papeta. Indian names.—Be. Papeyva; Bo. Papar; Wi.-. Papaya,” Papiia ; Sans. Ciirbiuia; Tam. Pappayi;> Vel Boppanz. Distribution.—An almost branchless, soft-wooded, small tree cultivated and more or less naturalized throughout India. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain only traces of carpaine (32,33). The seeds contain 0.35 per cent alkaloid carpasemine (34). The seeds are stated to contain a glucoside and a ferment.. The glucoside resembles sinigrin, and on hydrolysis yields a_ volatile pungent body in the same way as mustard (13}. The seeds are also stated to yield an essential oil containing sulphur and nitrogenous compounds (IT). Remarks.—Seeds anthelmintic and emmenagogue. A_ belief in their powerful emmenagogue properties prevails among all classes of women in southern India, who assert that if a pregnant woman partakes of them even in moderate quantities, abortion will result (10). 22. Centratherum anthelminticum Willd.) Kuntze syn. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. (Compositae). English name.—Purple Fleabane. Indian names.—Be. Babchi; Bo. Kalenjin; Hi. Somrajz; Kum. Kaliivi; Sans. Somraji; Tam. Sittilat; Tel. Nelavavilt. Distribuiion.—A tali annual met with throughout India up to 5,coo ft. on the Himalayas and Khasia hills. Constituents of the seeds.—Bitter principle in the seeds (35). The seeds contain the bitter resin (36). Remarks.—In Travancore, the bruised seeds ground up into a paste with lime juice are largely employed for destroying pediculi in the head and body. 60 and go per cent alcoholic extracts of the seed resin have good anthelmintic action against thread worms (36). 23. Cerbera manghas Linn. syn. C. odollam Gaertn. (Apocynaceae) Indian names.—Be. Dhakur; Mal. Utalam; Mar. Sukanu; Tam. Udalat. Distribution.—A small tree or a large shrub found throughout India in the salt swamps or on the sea coast. Abundant on the Malabar Coast but not very common in the Bombay State and else- where. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a glucoside named cerberin. Kernels contain cerberin and cerberoside (37). Remarks.—Cerberin has a digitalis-like action and is very poison- ous. In dogs, cats and rabbits subcutaneous injection produces vomiting, diarrhoea, paralysis of the heart and rise of blood pressure. Lethal dose for dog is 1.8 mg., for cats 3.1 mg. and for rabbits 50 mg. per kgm. (38). Cerberin and cerberoside both have a digitalis-like action, the former several times more potent in cats and frogs (37). POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA — 97 24. Cheiranthus cheiri Linn. (Cruciferae). English names.—Banwort, Gilli-flower. Indian names.—Be. Khueri; Hi. Todrisurkh. Distribution.—A foreign shrub-like herb, cultivated in gardens all over India. Constituents of the seeds.—Contains the glucoside cheiranthin which is present in the largest amount in the seeds. The seeds ‘contain a highly active cardiac glycoside, called cheiro-toxin, which yielded strophanthidin as the aglycone (124). | Remarks.—The glucoside is a violent cardiac poison. 25. Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. (Chenopodiaceae). English name.—American Wormseed. Indian name.—Mal. Katuayamodakam. Distribution.—An erect aromatic herb found in Kashmir, the Central Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Sylhet, Bombay State, the Deccan and in the Western Ghats of the Madras State up to 7,000 ft. above sea level. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain an essential oil and saponins. The yield of oil is 0.24 per cent (39), and is found in the largest quantity in the seeds. Remarks.—Poisoning from the plant is not likely as it is not eaten by animals under ordinary circumstances. Cases of poisoning have, however, been recorded due to the use of the oil in medicine or by accident. 26. Chrozophora rottleri A. Juss ex. Spreng. syn. C. _ plicata Hook. {5 nonvA. jJuss., in Fl. Brit. Ind., in part; C.-tinctona Hook. f. non'A. Juss., in Fl, Brit. Ind., in part (Euphorbiaceae). “English name.—Turnsole. Indian names.—Hi. Sonballi; Mar. Suravarta; Pun. Nilan; Sans. Suryavarta. Distribution.—An erect annual or sometimes perennial found in avaste places, fields and by the roadside in northern, central, southern and western India. In the plains of the Punjab it is somewhat rare, but is common from Sind and the Upper Gangetic Plain southwards to Coromandel; it is not found in Malabar. From the Upper Gangetic Plain it extends to the Lower Gangetic Plain, thence into the valleys of the Brahamaputra and the Surma. Remarks.—The seeds possess cathartic properties. 27. Cleome felina Linn. f. (Capparidaceae). Indian name.—Mal. Ariavila. Distribution.—An erect much branched annual found in the dry districts of the Deccan and Carnatic, especially on black cotton soil. Constituents of the seeds.—It is probable that the seeds contain a sharp essential oil which is present in other members of this genus, Remarks.—The seeds are rubifacient and vesicant. a. 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 28. Cleome icosandra Linn. syn. C. viscosa Linn. (Capparidaceae). Indian names.—Be. Hurhuria; Hi. Hurhureh; Mar. Harhuria; Sans. Suryalata; Tam. Nayikkadugu; Tel. Kukhavominta. Distribution.—An erect annual herb commonly met with as a weed throughout the greater part of India. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a sharp essential oil (11) and 0.1 per cent viscosic acid and 0.04 per cent viscosin (40). Remarks.—The seeds which are often used to adulterate mustard seeds in India are rubifacient and vesicant and according to Moodeen Sheriff (7) are much superior to mustard seeds in these respects. — 29. Colchicum luteum Baker (Liliaceae). Indian names.—Hi. Hirantutiya; Sans. Hiranyatutha. Distribution.—A small plant ‘found in the Western Temperate Himalayas from Kagan and Kashmir to Chamba at altitudes of 3,000 to 8,o00 ft., usually in open grassy places. Grows abundantly near Srinagar and on roadsides from Garhi to Baramulla. Constituents of the seeds.—Chopra and his collaborators obtained 0.41 to 0.43 per cent of an alkaloid from the seeds which has the same properties as colchicine obtained from the foreign plant C. autumnale Linn. and could be used thereapeutically for the same purpose (41, 42). dkemarks.—The seeds are intensely poisonous and several cases of poisoning have been reported. A few children were reported to have been poisoned at Kuldana in Rawalpindi through eating the seeds. The seeds on analysis yielded colchicine of which the hundredth part of a grain proved fatal to cats (43). 30. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. {Coriariaceae). English name.—Mussoorie Berry. Indian names.—Hi. Masuri; Kum. Ayar; Nep. Bhojinsi; Simla. Archarru. Distribution.—A large shrub found in the outer Himalayas from the Indus to Bhutan, ascending to an altitude of 8,000 ft: in the North-West and to 11,000 ft. in Sikkim. It is also found in Manipore. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds of the foreign species C. myrtifolia Linn. contain the glucoside, coriamyrtin, which is a tetanic poison (11). It is possible that the Indian species also contains the identical glucoside. Remarks.—Seeds stated to produce, sometimes, symptoms re- sembling tetanus (7). 31. Croton oblongifolius Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae). Indian names.—Be. Baragach; Mar. Gunsur; Nep. Ach; Sans. Bhutankusa; Tam. Milgunari; Tel. Bhutankusumu. Distribution.—A small deciduous tree found in the Sub-Himalayan tract from Oudh eastwards, also in Bengal, Sylhet, Chota Nagpur and in Central, Westera and Southern India. It is also sometimes employed for making fences. Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain the same drastic purgative oil as is found in Croton tiglium Linn, (11). POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 99 Remarks.—The seeds act as a strong purgative and in large quantities are poisonous. They resemble in properties those of Croton tiglium Linn. for which they are frequently substituted. 32. Datura metel Linn. (Solanaceae). English name.—Downy Datura. Indian names.—Mal. Ummam; Sans. Dhustura; Tam. Vellum- nattt; Tel. Tellavummetta. Distribution.—A coarse herb found in the North-Western Himalayas of the Punjab and about Madras, but is not common. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain hyoscine (average 0.5. per cent) and very small amounts of hyoscyamine and atropine (44) besides. minute quantities of nor-hyoscyamine (45). Seeds contain 0.462 per cent of alkaloids, mainly hyoscyamine (46). Remarks.—The poisonous properties and uses are the same as those of the next species. 33. Datura metel Linn. var. fastuosa (Linn.) Narayanaswami & Badhwar, syn. D. fastuwosa Linn. (Solanaceae). English names.—Black Datura, Purple Datura. Indian names.—Be., Bo. & Hi. Kaladhutura; Sans. Dhurta; Tam. Madumattai; Tel. Dutturamu. Distribution.—The variety fastwosa is the common datura of the Indian plains often met with on waste lands and roadsides and in gardens. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain 0.24 per -cent of hyoscine (l-scopolamine) and small quantities of hyoscyamine and atropine (47). The seeds from China contain the highest amount (0.561 per cent) of the alkaloids (48). Remarks.—The main interest of these Indian daturas is from the point of view of poisoning and for this purpose the seeds constitute the favourite narcotic poison used by criminals. The seeds have a bitter acrid taste followed by a burning sensation in the mouth and throat. They are generally parched and reduced to a fine powder, as in this way it is easy to mix them with sugar, flour, tobacco, etc. In the great majority of cases the motive of administration is the facilitation of theft. In India when an individua! has been first drugged and then robbed, it is usually found that datura has been employed. A common form of crime with the aid of datura is road or rail robbery by professional highwaymen. Cases are also on record where by a judicious use of datura the miscreants have drugged a whole house- hold in such a manner that they could ransack the entire house at their leisure. In all such cases the drug is administered along with betel-leaf or some other foodstuffs or even in the form of a smoke depending upon what a miscreant can manage to offer to the prospec- tive victim. Accidental poisoning among children is not infrequently met with, but homicidal cases are rare. 34, Datura stramonium Linn. (Solanaceae). English names.—Devils’ Apple, Thorn Apple. Indian names.—Be. Sadadhutura; Pers. Tatulah; Sans. Dhattura, Kanaka; Tam. Emanamam; Tel. Dutturamu. 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Distribution.—A coarse annual found on the Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim up to an altitude of 9,ooo ft. Also met with in hilly tracts of central and southern India. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds do not contain any atropine but chiefly hyoscyamine (11). The percentage of alkaloids in the seeds varies from 0.46 to 0.52 per cent (49). Dry seeds contain 0.33 and fruit 0.38 per cent of total alkaloids of which 25 per cent is se es and 75 per cent hyoscyamine (50). Remarks.—The poisonous properties of the seeds and the uses they are put to are the same as those of D. metel Linn. and its variety fastuosa. In addition it may be stated that the seeds have been known to contaminate maize, wheat and beans and have given rise to such symptoms as delirium, trachycardia, mydriasis, dryness of mouth and throat and generalized flush over the skin, etc. (51). 35. Daucus carota Linn. (Umbelliferae). English name.—Carrot. Indian names.—Be. Gajar; Hi. & Pun. Gajar; Sans. Gajara; Tam. Gajjarakkilangu; Tel. Pitakanda. Distribution.—A hispid biennial with tuberous root cultivated throughout India as an article of food. Remarks.—The seeds are popularly regarded as a _ powerful abortifacient and numerous cases of abortion, following their internal administration, are on record. More precise information is, however, wanted with regard to their alleged abortifacient properties. 36. Delphinium elatum Linn. (Ranunculaceae). Distribution.—A_ sparingly branched herb found in the West Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon and in the inner Tibetan valleys at altitudes of 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea level. Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain about 1 per cent of alkaloids, one of which was obtained in a crystalline form and at least two other bases were present in the uncrystallized portion (52). Seeds contain alkaloid lelatine, delpheline, methyllycaconitine (53). Remarks.—In Europe the seeds are used as insecticides. Most of the Indian species of Delphinium have not been properly investigated but some of the popular uses in India and the beliefs and experiences of local people strongly indicate that they are poisonous. Generally speaking, the seeds are emetic, cathartic, anthelmintic and insecticidal. 37, Digitalis purpurea Linn. (Scrophulariaceae). English name.—Common Foxglove. Distribution.—A biennial herb now grown in most gardens in Indian hill stations for ornamental purposes and also cultivated in Kashmir, Kagan Valley, the Nilgiris, etc. on a commercial scale for medicinal purposes. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain three glucosides, Viz. digitalinum verum, digitonin and gitonin (54). | Remarks.—Like the leaves and roots, the seeds are also poisonous and poisoning may occur due to accidental use"ofithem:. te) 6 ye POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 101 33. Entada pursaetha DC. syn. E. scandens Benth. (Leguminosae). English names.—Giants’ Rattle, Mackay Bean. Indian names.—Be. Pangra; Bo. Garambi; Lep. Kulhokrik; Pun. Kastorikaman; Tam. Sillu; Tel. Gilatige. Distribution.—A gigantic woody climber found in the Central and Eastern Himalayas ascending to 4,000 ft. above sea level in Sikkim ; also in Eastern Bengal, Bihar and Orissa especially in damp forests situated at higher altitudes; also in the forests along the Ghats of the Bombay State. In the Madras State it is found in the hill forests of the Northern Circars, the Deccan and on the Western Ghats from South Kanara to Travancore in evergreen forests. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain two toxic saponins which were biologically tested with regard to their poisonous pro- perties on fishes (55); they are also said to contain a eullewcrsls which is hydrolyzed by emulsion (56). Remarks.—The seeds are emetic, but the white erro on being steeped in water and after roasting are sometimes eaten by local people. The author is informed that absence of this precaution pro- duces deleterious effects of a narcotic nature. The seeds are used as a fish poison in some parts of India, South Africa and in the Philippine Islands. 39. Ervatamia dichotoma (Roxb.) Blatter syn. Tabernaemontana dichotoma Roxb. (Apocynaceae). ? English names.—Eves Apple, Forbidden Fruit. Indian names.—Mal. Utalam; Pun. Kanerzad; Tam. Kattalari. Distribution.—A small dichotomously branched tree found in the Western Ghats, in Malabar, at low levels and is occasionally grown in gardens for ornamental purposes. ion Remarks.—The seeds are said to be powerfully narcotic and poisonous producing delirium and other symptoms similar to those caused by Datura; they are said by Lindley to be purgative (7). 40. Ginkgo biloba Linn. (Ginkgoaceae). English names.—Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree. Disbation. —A tree with deciduous leaves resembling those. of the maiden-hair fern found rarely in some gardens in Northern India, such as Amritsar. Remarks.—According to Muenscher {57) severe cases of dermatitis, resulting from handling the broken or crushed seeds, have been fre- quently reported. According to him cases of poisoning have also occurred from contact when the seeds were cleaned of pulp. 41. Gynandropsis gynandra (Linn.) Merr. syn. G.. pentaphylla DC. (Capparidaceae). Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Hurhur; Bo. Mabli; Sans. Hulhul ; Tam. Velai; Tel. Velakura. Distribution —A strong smelling, somewhat foetid weed, abundant throughout the warmer parts of India. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a sharp essential oil similar to the essential oil of mustard (11). Cleomin isolated from the seeds (58). 102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “AIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Remarks.—The seeds have anthelmintic and rubifacient pro- perties ; rubbed with oil they are used to destroy head lice. According to Watt (7) they are employed to poison fish, but this statement needs confirmation. 4 2. Qynocardia odorata R. Br. (Flacourtiaceae). Indian names.—Be., Bo. & Hi. Chaulmogra; Lep. Tukking; Pers. Brinjmogra; Sans. Kushthapa. Distribution.—A glabrous tree common in the evergreen forests of Sikkim and Assam, extending eastwards across Chittagong as far as Tenasserim. Constituents of the seeds. The seeds freed from the shell yield about 65 per cent of a fatty oil known as gynocardia oil, which does not contain chaulmoogric acid or its homologues but consists of glycerides of linolic, palmitic, linolenic, isolinolenic and oleic acids. They also contain a cyanogenetic glucoside, gynocardin ;5 per cent of shell-free seeds (59) |. Remarks.—The seed pulp is employed in Sikkim to poison fish. 43. Hedera helix Linn. (Araliaceae). English names.—Barren Ivy, Bentwood. Indian names.—Kash. Karmora; Kum. Banda; Mal. Maravala; Tam. Maravalai. Distribution.—An_ evergreen climbing shrub found in _ the Himalayas from 6,000 to 10,000 ft. above sea level and in the Khasia hills from 4,000 to 6,000 ft. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain the glucoside e{-hederin and probably certain other glucosides (61, 62). Remarks.—The seeds are poisonous. The glucoside hedeen is intensely haemolytic and acts as an irritant to the alimentary canal ; causes vaso-constriction; lowers the blood-pressure; slows the heart and increases its tonus, and causes death by a paralysis of the respira- tion (63). For warm blooded animals 2-3 cgm. per kgm. of body weight are lethal. Cold blooded animals appear to be less susceptible (64). 44, Hura crepitans Linn. (Euphorbiaceae). English name.—West Indian Sand-box Tree. Indian names.—Tam. Mullarasanam; Tel. Simaburuga. Distribution.—A tree indigenous o Tropical America, but now grown in many Indian gardens. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a powerful purgative oil and also a toxalbumin resembling abrin and ricin from Abrus Precatorious Linn., and Ricinus communis Linn. respectively (66). Remarks.—The seeds of this plant are emetic, and when fresh, violently purgative. 45. Hydnocarpus kurzii (King) Warb. syn. Taraktogenos kurzit King (Flacourtiaceae). Indian names.—Assam Lemtam; Burma Kalawaso; Lep. Tuka- Rkunga. | POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 103 Distribution.—A tree up to 50 ft. high growing abundantly in Eastern Bengal, Tippera, Chittagong and in the evergreen forests throughout upper Assam. Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain hydrocyanic acid, the yield being about 0.036 per cent of the kernels. The seeds yield the oil of chaulmoogra amounting to 38 per cent of the entire seeds and consisting of the glycerides of chaulmoogric acid, hydnocarpic acid and their lower homologues together with some palmitic acid {67). Seeds contain 30.9 per cent fixed oil (68). Remarks.—Chaulmoogra oil is extremely irritating by whichever route it is administered. Oral administration of 3 to 4 drops pro- duces nausea and vomiting. 46. Hydnocarpus laurifolia {Dennst.) Sleumer syn. H. wightiana Blume (Flacourtiaceae). Indian names,—Bo. Kowti; Mal. Koti; Sans. Garndaphala; Tam. Nivadimmutiu; Tel. Niradi. ; Distribution.—A tree 30-50 ft. high common in the Western Peninsula; endemic in tropical forests along the Western Ghats from the Konkan southwards and below the Ghats in Kanara and Malabar, in damp situations especially near water. In Travancore it is found up to an altitude of 2,000 ft. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain about 44 per cent of an oil which consists of the glyceryl esters of chaulmoogric acid, hydno- carpic acid and some of their lower homologues (7). They have not been found to contain any cyanogenetic compounds (60). Remarks.—The seed or the oil if taken internally acts as a gastro- intestinal irritant, producing vomiting and purging (7). 47, Hyoscyamus muticus Linn. (Solanaceae). English name.—Indian Henbane. Indian name.—Baluchistan Kohibhang. Distribution.—A herbaceous plant found in the Western Punjab, Waziristan, Sind and Baluchistan. Experimentally being cultivated ‘in Kashmir. x Constituents of the seeds.—Leaves, seeds, capsules, stems and roots contain the alkaloids consisting chiefly of hyoscyamine, the leaves and the seeds being comparatively rich (70, 71). Remarks.—Same as for next species. 48. Hyoscyamus niger Linn. (Solanaceae). English name.—Henbane. Indian names.—Be. Khorasaniajowan; Bo. Khorasaniowa; Hi. Khorasani-jamani; Pun. Bazrbang; Tam. Kurasaniyoman; Tel. KSurashanivaman. Distribution.—A more or less hairy and viscid herb with a disagreeable odour frequently found from Kashmir to Garhwal at altitudes of 5,000 to 11,000 ft. Constituents of the soos. —Seeds contain the alkaloid hy oscyamine and also yield a poisonous oil (72). 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Remarks.—The seeds are powerfully narcotic. and cases of live- stock poisoning due to them have been reported. Poisoning. among” children on account of eating the seeds, is also on record. It is believed that H. pusillus Linn. of Western Tibet and Ladakh is also poisonous. 49. Ipomoea hederacea (Linn.) Jacq. (Convolvulaceae). English names.—Indian Jalap, Morning Glory. Indian names.—Be., Bo. & Hi. Kaladanah; Kash. Hybilnil; Sans-~ Shyamabija; Tam. Kakkatan; Tel. Kochu. Distribution.—A slender twiner found ‘throughout India, both cultivated and apparently wild, up to 6,000 ft. above sea level.on the Himalayas. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a resin from which the resin glucoside, pharbitin, has been isolated (73, 74). The resin con- tent varies from 14.2 to 15.3 per cent (75). Remarks.—The seeds act as a drastic purgative and occasionally produce vomiting as well. 50, Jatropha curcas Linn. (Euphorbiaceae). English names.—Poison Nut, Purging Nut. Indian names.—Be. Bagbherenda; Bo. Yerand; Hi. Bagberenda ; Sans. Dravanti; Tam. Kattukkottai; Tel. Nepalemu. Distribution.—A shrub or small tree grown in various parts of India as a field barrier. Also found in a semi-wild condition in the vicinity of villages. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain 29 to 40 per cent of a pale-yellow acrid and irritant oil consisting of the glycerides of stearic, palmatic, myristic, oleic and linoleic acids but no hydroxy acids. The oil also contains a toxic principle which is resinolipoid in character. The seeds contain a toxalbumin known as curcin (76). Seed kernels gave fatty oil, 2 phytosterols, a phytosterlin (glucoside of phytosterol), large amount of sucrose and some resinous matter having nauseating, purging and griping effect (77). Remarks.—‘The acrid, emetic and drastic principle appears to reside chiefly in the embryo. It has been stated that if the embryo be wholly removed, four or five seeds may be used as a gentle and safe purgative’ (7). It is advisable to regard the seeds and the oil as unsafe thera- peutic agents on account of their highly irritant properties. 51. Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae). Indian names.—Be. Lalbherenda; Bo. & Hi. Undarbibi; Sans. Nikumbha; Tam. Kattamanaku; Tel. Nepalemu. Distribution.—A small evergreen tree found in the Deccan and Carnatic, from the Kistna river southwards, often on black cotton soil. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a fatty oil similar to Castor oil (11). Remarks.—The seeds and the oil obtained from them are stated to be just as poisonous and are used for the same purposes as those of Jatropha curcas Linn. POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 105 52. Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. (Euphorbiaceae). Indian names.—Mal. Simayavanakku; Tam. Simaiyamanakku ; Tel. Simanepalemu. Distribution.—A shrub occurring as a roadside weed in several States of India. Often also cultivated in gardens. Remarks.—The seeds possess drastic purgative and emetic pro- perties, and are almost as potent in action as those of Jatropha curcas Linn. 53. Jatropha multifida Linn. (Euphorbiaceae). English name.—Coral Plant. 7 Indian names.—Sans. Bhadradanti; Tam. Kattunervalam. Distribution.—A beautiful glabrous shrub native of South America and is commonly grown in gardens and near temples. Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds yield 28-30 per cent of an oil which is similar to that obtained from Jatropha curcas Linn. Remarks.—The seeds are just as poisonous as those of Jatropha curcas Linn. 54. Lagenaria siceraria Standil. syn. L. vulgaris Ser. (Cucurbi- taceae). | _ English names.—Bottle Gourd, White-Flowered Gourd. Indian names.—Be. Kodulau; Hi. Kaddu, Kashiphal; Mar. Kadubhopla; Pun. Lauki; Sans. Tumba; Tam. Shorakkai; Tel. Sorakaya. | Distribution.—A large climbing or trailing herb found wild in India and also extensively cultivated for the sake of its young fruits. - Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds are said to contain saponins (11). Remarks.—The seeds are suspected to be poisonous. : 55, Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.) Pers. syn. L. flos-reginae Retz. (Lythraceae). English name.—Queen Crape-Myrtle. Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Jarul; Bo. Bondara; Sans. Arjuna; Tam. Pumarudu; Tel. Varagogu. Distribution.—A tree found in Eastern Bengal, Assam and in the deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of the Eastern and Western Ghats. Much cultivated for ornamental and shade purposes in other places. Remarks.—Seeds are believed to have narcotic properties (7). (To be continued) A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF’ MUSSOORIE BY Nit AY Vines The number of plants that comprise the Flora of Mussoorie lie between 700 and 750 species. ' From among the hundreds of specimens collected by me, the following are now here recorded as belonging to the Flora of Mussoorie for the first time. They .have been checked at the Forest Research Institute by Mr. Raizada, to whom I am indebted. Plants that have received no mention in Collet’s ‘Flora Simlensis’ have been marked by an asterisk. RANUNCULACEAE Thalictrum rostellatum Hook. f. & Th. A herb growing up to 3 ft. off walls. Flowers in panicles, with white petals. Flowering time: July to..September. | Locality: Barlowgan}. CRUCIFERAE Cardamine oxycarpa Hook. f. & Anders. A weak-stemmed herb with white flowers and long pointed pods. Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Union Church. VIOLACEAE Viola biflora Linn. | A small pubescent herb with yellow flowers, and black honey guides. Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Oak Grove School. MALVACEAE Malva verticillata Linn. An erect herb up to 4 ft. with pink sessile flowers. Flowering time: June to September. Locality : along roadways, and the margins of ditches. ANACARDIACEAE Rhus punjabensis Stew. A tree up to 30 ft. with juice that raises blisters on the skin. The flowers are yellowish-green. The leaves are pinnate with glabrous, sessile leaflets. Flowering time: April to May. Locality: Woodstock. Sa A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE 107 PAPILIONACEAE Trifolium pratense Linn. Purple Clover. A herb with a decumbent stem. Heads. of dark red flowers up to 14 in. in diameter. The pods are one-seeded. Flowering time: April to July. Locality: Botanical Garden lawns. Flemingia fruticulosa Wall. A herb with procumbent branches. The pink flowers are enclosed in a bract. The simple leaves are up to 3 in. long. Locality: ‘Mossy Falls’. Desmodium polycarpum DC. A large undershrub with spreading branches. The flowers are purple, up to + in. long. The leaves are tri-foliate. The pod has 5 to 8 joints. Flowering time: July to August. Locality: Cart Road. Dumasia villosa DC. A hairy herb with yellow flowers up to ? in. long. The leaves are 3-foliolate. Flowering time: July to August. Locality : Barlowgan}j. UMBELLIFERAE Bupleurum tenue Don. A herb up to 3 ft. with yellowish-green flowers. The leaves are sessile up? to 32 °in.~ Flowering time: June to September. Locality: Balla Hissar. Sanicula eurcpaea Linn. A herb up to 3 ft. with minute white flowers. The leaves are palmately divided with 3 to 5 segments. Flowering time: June to Aueust. -Locality: “Happy Valley’. CAPRIFOLIACEAE *Viburnum acuminatum DC. A small tree with leaves up to 5 in. long. Flowers are white with purple centres and stamens, in congested corymbs. Flowering time: August to October. Locality: Balla Hissar. RUBIACEAE Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. A shrub with leaves up to 8 in. long, fetid when crushed. Flowers are blue, in panicles. Flowering time: August to November. Locality: On walls and along roadsides. 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 ‘VALERIANACEAE Valeriana hardwickii Wall. Hardwick’s WValerian.. A herb growing up to 1% ft. with undivided leaves. Flowers are white in terminal corymbs. Flowering time: July to August. Locality: St. George’s School. COMPOSITAE Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Floss Flower. An erect herb up to 3 ft. The flowers are pale blue. The leaves are opposite. Flowering time: May to September. Locality: along roadsides and the edges of drains. Conyza stricta Willd. ; “A rough herb up to 24 ft. The yellow flower heads are } in. in diameter. The leaves are pinnately lobed. Flowering time: June to: October.. ~Locality : (Seven Oaks mestate: Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. ; An erect herb up to 3 ft. The yellow flowers are in leafy panicles. Outer 5. bracts are spreading and glandular-pubescent. The leaves are opposite, coarsely toothed up to 5 in. long. Flowering time: August to October. Locality: Camel’s Back Road. *Dahlia variabilis Desf. A very large type of ‘Tree Dahlia’, growing up to to to 12 ft. The flowers are pink. The leaves are compound. Flowering time: September to November. Locality: Balla Hissar. , | *Vitadenia australis Wt. An erect herb growing up to 10 in. The flowers are white turning to pink. The leaves are up to 4 in. long. Flowering time: March to November. Locality: Along roadsides, everywhere. | Xanthium strumarium Linn. Cocklebur. An erect coarse herb up to 3 ft. The flowers are yellowish-green in axillary clusters. The leaves are alternate, rough and triangular. Flowering time: April to November. Locality: Balla Hissar. GENTIANACEAE *Swertia lurida Royle. A herb growing up to 3 ft. The flowers are pink with green honey guides. The leaves are opposite. Flowering time: August to October. Locality: Waverley Convent. Swertia angustifolia Buch-Ham. | A herb growing up fo 3 ft. The flowers are white, purple dotted, with one green gland on each petal. The leaves are lanceolate, up to 2 in. long. Flowering time: August to October. Locality: Kincraig. | A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE 109 SOLANACEAE *Cestrum nocturnum Linn. Lady of the Night. An evergreen shrub up to 6 ft. high. The flowers are > greenish- white in panicles. The leaves are up to 4 in. long. Flowering time : April to July. Locality: Wynberg School. SCROPHULARIACEAE *Calceolaria mexicana Benth. Ladies Slipper. A herb growing up to 2 ft. The flowers are lemon-yellow and bladdery. The leaves are compound. Flowering time: August to October. Locality: Arundell. Veronica agrestis Linn. Speedwell. A procumbent much branched herb. The flowers are nie in terminal racemes. The ovate leaves are up to 1 in. long. Flowering time: March to October. Locality: On the banks of wet ditches. GESNERACEAE *Didymocarpus tomentosa Wt. A herb growing up to 1 ft. The upper part of the flowering stalk is glandular-pubescent. The flowers are mauve pink. The leaves are elliptic. Flowering time: July to October. Locality: Church of the Ressurection. | *Rhynchoglossum obiiquum Bl. A herb growing up to 8 in., with dark blue flowers and one or two elliptic leaves. Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Barlowgan}. VERBENACEAE Verbena officinalis Linn. Vervein. A herb up to 3 ft. The flowers are light purple in spikes. The leaves are pinnatifid. Flowering time: April to July. Locality: Vincent Hill. a3 Caryopteris wallichiana Schauer. A shrub growing up to 8 ft. The flowers are white tinged with blue, in terminal panicles. The leaves are lanceolate, opposite up to 4 in. long. Flowering time: March to April; September to November. Locality: Kincraig. r LABIATAE Stachys sericea Wall. A herb growing up to 4 ft. and covered with hairs. The flowers are pink with purple honey guides. The leaves are up to 4 in. long. Flowering time: June to September. Locality: Camel’s' Back Road. 110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL, AIST! SOCIETY, . Viol. 152 Elsholtzia strobilifera Benth. A herb growing up to 1 ft. The flowers are white. The leaves are up to 1 in. long. Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Woodstock. Plectranthus rugosus Wall. An undershrub growing up to 4 ft. The flowers are in axillary racemes, white with a purple tinge. The leaves are opposite, the lower surface being white. Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Manor House. POLYGONACEAE Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Common Buckwheat. A herb growing up to 3 ft. The flowers are faintly pink in panicles. The leaves are up to 4 in. long. Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Mossy Falls. *Polygonum nepalense Linn. Pepper grass. A diffuse herb up to 1 ft. The flowers are pink. The leaves are up to 2 in. long. Flowering time: July ,to-September. | Vocality: Cart Road. EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha brachystachya Hornem. A herb growing up to 1 ft. The flower spikes are green. _The leaves are alternate up to 3 in. long. Flowering time: July to Octo- ber. Locality: Wynberg. *Euphorbia geniculata Orteg. A herb growing up to 3 ft. Umbellate inflorescence. The leaves are alternate, sessile up to 3 in. long. The upper leaves are whorled. Flowering time: April to June. Locality: Whimple’s pool. URTICACEAE Boehmeria platyphylla Don. A shrub growing up to 3 ft. The flowers are white in interrupted spikes. The leaves are ovate. Flowering time: April to June. Locality: Balla Hissar. Elatostemma sessile Forst. A herb growing up to 2 ft. The flowers are in heads with no involucral bracts. The leaves) are ovate up to 6 in. long. Flowering time: June to October. Locality: Church of the Ressurection. AMARYLLIDACEAE * Zephyranthes carinata Herb. Wind flower. A herb with radical leaves and pink flowers. Flowering time: June to August. Locality: Balla Hissar. ‘Mossy Falls’. rege eel A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE LLL LILIACEAE Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. A herb growing up to 2 ft. The flowers are white with brown guides. The leaves are radical. Flowering time: July to October. Locality: Vincent Hill. Allium rubellum Bieb. A herb growing up to 14 ft. The flowers are pink. The leaves are radical, up to 6 in. long. Flowering time: June to August. Locality : Cart Road. REFERENCES Collet, H. (1921): Flora Simlensis. Hooker, J. D. (1875): Flora of British India. Kanjlal, UW. (1901): Forest: Flora of the School Circle N.-W.P. Marten, J. (1909): Plants gathered in and about Mussoorie during 1908. Journ., Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., 19: 475-501. Royle, J. F. (1839): [lustrations of the Botany and other branches of the Natural History of the Himalayan Mountains and the Flora of Cashmere. PERIODICITY OF THE PLANKTON DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA LAKE FOR THE YEARS 1950 AND 1951 BY J. C.. Roy (Chilka Biological Station, Balugan) (With two maps and two text figures) INTRODUCTION In India, literature on the diatoms of brackish and estuarine waters is very meagre. However, Iyengar and Venkataraman (1951) have made detailed analysis of the ecology and seasonal succession of diatoms in the river Cooum. Casual references to the distribution of diatoms have also’ been made by Biswas (1932), Venkataraman (1939), Subrahmanyan (1946) and Chacko and Ganapati (1949). The Chilka Lake (Fig. 1), in the words of Annandale and Kemp (1915), is ‘a lagoon situated on the east coast of Peninsular India and con- nected with the Bay of Bengal’, with ‘an area of about 350 sq. miles’. i sha: aos aarus - .. Kalupara hat : he ZS | L as oe kets ee : . : . ae Xv ws PR a chee 2 3 Ny Pp ny Wee CRIDO Ly Bs Sey at Nes) Meee Cote ar eh vues ee Oy a A Metkhck the Lake BAY OF BENGAL Fig. 1.—Showing the map of the Chilka Lake with five places of collection. Biswas (op. cit.) is the pioneer to study the diatoms of the lake but his account contains merely a list of a few diatoms in their generic aspect. PERIODICITY OF THE DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA 113 Devasundaram and Roy (in press) have presented a full account of the dia- toms as they occur every month during the years 1950 and 1951. Since it was a preliminary report they could not go into the details of analysis, and in the present paper an attempt is being made to give a fuller account of the diatoms, species by species, giving an emphasis on their periodicity of occurrence. MATERIALS AND METHODS The places of collection, materials and methods were the same as des- cribed by Devasundaram and Roy (op. cit.). For the purpose of this paper the five places of collection have been grouped into three zones which will cover the entire lake. Each zone is characterised by a particular cycle of salinity variation (Table I). Zone No. 1: Kaluparaghat—Balugan. 2: Rambha 3: Satpara—Arkhakuda or Outer Channel. The first two zones represent the main area of the lake where the tidal effect is scarcely felt. ‘The third zone is about 12 miles long and a mile broad connecting the lake to the sea through a narrow passage near Arkhakuda. In this zone the tidal effect is strongly felt. CHEMICAL DATA In addition to salinity and surface temperature given by the above- mentioned authors, pH value of water was also recorded during each collection. In 1950 the pH varied between 8 and 9°5 and in 1951 it was between 7 and 10 (Table IT). GENERA AND SPECIES OF DIATOMS More than forty species of diatoms spread over nineteen genera were observed in the lake. The majority of them were of marine origin and the rest were of brackishwater types. A list of the diatoms of the lake along with their usual habitat as described by Cupp (1943), Subrahmanyan (op. cit.) and Venkataraman (op. cit.) is given below. (z) Marine diatoms observed in the lake Habitat in the sea Stephanopyxis turrts (Grev.&Arn.) Ralfs .. Neritic Coscinodiscus centralis Ehrenberg Oceanic Rhizosolenta bergonii H. Péragallo (Figs. 2-3) Oceanic delicatula Cleve (Fig. 4) Neritic stolterfothit H. Péragallo --» Oceanic robusta Norman abe Neritic tmobricata Brightwell see Neritic stylttormis Brightwell a Oceanic setigeva Brightwell -- Neritic calcar-avis M. Schultze Oceanic alata Brightwell Oceanic Bacteriastrum hyalinum Lauder Neritic Chaetoceros eibentt Grunow .-» Neritic peruvianus Brightwell --- Oceanic lorenzianus Grunow 4. _. 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THE CHELKA: ~PERFODICITY OF y= 16 | Ss ae ag or 6 6 3 $8 8 | 8 8 C8 ¢.8 CQ as || 8. $-8 | Cre 8G S-8 $.8 S.8 G.8 ISL ¥ OS6T 81894 OU} 105 OxB"] BYITYD OY} Jo SoUOZ JuOIEpIp sex} oy} Jo Yd aBwioAv oy] Samoyg nae 7 05 OS6T IT 91qey, OL: $6 $66 Or \ Sr S-6 $-8 . coe epnye uyIy-tiedyes eyquiey ueSneg-jeuSeiedney oN epnyeqgry-wiedyes ayq WEY uesnoy[e q-jeySeiednrey sau0g 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 compressus Lauder 1... Neritic atftinis Lauder .. Neritic laevis Leuduger-Fortmorel (Fig. 5) .. Neritic curvisetus Cleve ... Neritic subtilis Cleve ... Neritic Ditylum sol Grunow ... Neritic Biddulphia sinensis Greville s.. —Laittoral mobiliensis Bailey .. Neritic Thalassionema nitzschioides Grunow ... Neritic Thalassiothrix longissima Cleve and Grunow iE. Oceanic frauenteldit Grunow ... Oceanic Nitzschia longissima (Brebisson) Raifs ... Littoral pungens var. atlantica Cleve ... Neritic (iz) Brackishwater diatoms observed in the lake : Asterionella japonica cleve Cocconeis placentula Ehr. var. euglypta (Ehr.) Cleve Bacillaria paradoxa Gmelin Nitzschia closterium (Ehrenberg) W. Smith Besides these, one specimen each of Melosiva? (Fig. 6), Hemiaulus (Figs. 7-8), Grammatophora (Fig. 9), Achnanthes (Fig. 10), Gyrosigma (Figs. 11-12) and a few species of Vavicula also occurred in traces. Some of the species given in the list above do not appear in Table III as their numerical value was very insignificant. Of all the species Asterzonella japonica stood out very prominently over the others in both the years. ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF DIATOMS IN THE LAKE Table III shows the zonal distribution of diatoms in the lake and Table IV shows the previous record of distribution in India of the species of diatoms found in the Chilka Lake. Kaluparaghat-Balugan Zone Biddulphia mobiliensis, Cocconeis placentula var. euglypta, Nuiteschia closterium were the major species of this zone in both the years. Of them Niteschia clostertum stood out prominently in the year 1951. It appear- ed in the month of February and had its maximum in April to undergo a sharp fallin May. ‘This species, in the words of Iyengar and Venkata- raman (op. cit.), ‘is a halophilous mesohalobous form’. In conformity with their observation its numerical growth was augmented by the rise of salinity (from 7.04%, to 9.05%.) but it could not be sustained due, per- haps, to the excessively high pH (from 9.5 to 10) which was constantly having an inhibitory effect on it as a result of which it had a sharp fall in May. The other species which occurred next in importance is Cocconeis pla- centula. It appeared in the month of November, 1950 and May and December, 1951. Coscinodiscus centralis, Chaetoceros lorenzianus and Chaetoceros subtilis occurred only once in the months of June, March, and December respectively in the year 1951 but they were not at all present in the year 1950. Absence —— ] (=X (_\ LS Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE [ 3 | \ oe Figs. 2-6 Figs. 2-3. Rhizosolenia bergoni H. Pér. Fig. 2. Part of a cell showing inter- calary bands; diameter, 60 ft. Fig. 3. Apex of a cell. Fig. 4. Rhizosolenia delicatula Cleve, part of a chain ; diameter, 20/4; show- ing intercalary bands. Fig. 5. Chaetoceros laevis ‘Leud-Fort. A chain in broad girdle view ; width, 12ft.. Fig. 6. Melosira sp. (?), part of a chain in girdle view; diameter,24/. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II By 15, Figs. 7-15.—Figs.—7-8.—Hemiaulus sp. Fig. 7.—Part of chain in broad girdle view showing sculpturing on valve. mantle, processes and claws, width 50/4. Fig. 8.—Part of a chain in narrow girdle view. Fig. 9. Grammatophora sp. Cell in broad girdle view showing intercalary bands, length 87/. Fig. 10. Achnanthes sp. Cell in girdle view. Figs. 11-12. Gyrosigma sp. Fig. 11. Part of a cell, length 470/4, breadth Sof. Fig. 12. Section of the centre a cell showing striations. Figs. 13-15. Biddulphia sp. Fig. 13. A cell in broad girdle view showing chromatophores, width goft. Fig. 14. Part of a cell showing sculpturing, width 75. Fig. 15. Sculpturing highly magnified. PERIODICITY OF THE DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA 117 of these species in the other months may go to show that this zone was not suitable for the growth and development of those species. Also, Cosctno- discus centralis is an oceanic species, i¢., it thrives well in such areas. where there is much higher degree of salinity compared to that of this zone (11.22%,); hence it could not flourish although it occurred accidentally in this area. Perhaps the same reason holds good in the case of Chaetoceros lorenzianus and it is yet to be seen whether Chaetoceros subtilis will be represented in the subsequent year, i.e., 1952. Besides these, Gyrosigma sp., Melosira sp. (?) were sparsely distributed in the plankton collections. An unidentified species of Biddulphia (Figs. 13-15) aiso occurred in the month of October, 1951. Rambha Zone In both the years Cocconets placentula occurred more frequently than the only other species Nztzschia closterium. It first appeared in May, 1950, had good growth in June, then disappeared completely to reappear again in September ; it reached its maximum in November although it was absent in October. But in the year 1951 it was first seen in May and had its maximum in July. It was not represented in the subsequent months. except in November when it had appreciable increase in quantity. There appears to be aclose similarity in the occurrence of this species in the two years under review but its absence from August to October may be due to the fact that this is a fresh and slightly brackishwater species (Venkata- raman, op. cit.) and the upward trend of salinity maintained in the Rambha zone upto June, instead of falling down shot up suddenly from July to August thus preventing the prospect of good growth of this species. But in November, due to the prevalence of lesser salinity, it might have re- appeared. The water was alkaline in both the years as the pH ranged between 8 and 9.5. Satpara-Arkhakuda Zone In this zone there was a casual sprinkling of various species of diatoms in both the years. Quantitatively June formed the peak month of occur- rence of diatoms in the two years. The maximum number of species occurred in June, 1950 and in May, 1951. Thus it appears that the months of May and June formed the period of greatest incidence of dia- toms. During this period the level of the lake is lower than that of the sea and the surface current in the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 16) helps the pelagic diatoms to reach the coastal waters, thus enabling the entrance of various marine species into the lake through the mouth that connects it to the sea. Perhaps that may be the only possible reason for the sudden appear- ance of a large number of marine specimens in the plankton catches of these two months. In the year 1950 some of them had still persisted in the month of July, although salinity had gone down from 30.91%, to 23.51%, but they disappeared in the next month when the salinity fell steeply to 8.13%. , There are several swamps along the northern side of the Outer Channel and probably during the period of May-June maxima some of the diatoms 52 a SOCIETY; : Vol. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. £18 ~ OnINnnN AOQHhHnnae 1D IS 200 EN In in rm | | *a | (RIOT, q] 7 - pxopeied sliel[loeg “ Suasund *N MINLI9}SO[D SIYOSZ}IN ‘e[njusov[d SIsu0s009g voruodel e[jauoliajsy “+ I[pjoyWonesy KLIGIOISSELeY,L, ‘SOPIOTYOSZJIU VOIUOISSE[eyL, | soe OZOH > Coy ae) 46°] “ltz| sett. | €- Lu ne ape A IF lz} 498 09 | Rese age 1 IC | : Z “| pe} ia} 38 tl lg] ¢ Z| “lon Ste |) Ve 1a.) C | U || t pL ET |e re ce 1 afta ZO FES) FPF lee | . epnyeyyiy—viedyes eyquey ‘IG6T ® OSBT SIKAA 94} 103 axe] VY[IYD 24} Jo souoz JUaIeYIp arg} Oyj Ur 1ezwA J s : Il ATAVAL uesneg-—jeysviednye sy a EAN EE cS ‘' SISUOT[IqOUL *g sisuouls etyd[nppigq qos wunpAIIq bee SHJOSTAINO °d ae > STASY] “CO ot SnuviIzuealol ‘9 snueranied so1a00jaeya twnuyedy WnIjseliojoeg a elele “yy HY}Oj19}[0}S BlUs[OSoziyy SI[B1I]U9D SNOSIPOUIDsSO7) Smo}¥Ip jo.satsedsS 0 aiy[ Jad StUO}eIP Jo VOTNGIISIp ey} SUIMOYS 119 E. CHILKA T OF OF. THE DIATOMS . PERIODICITY | sca enn sens tt eh ORR TAN an a RR, ode iz) 1} |r| ac ly flealeit se Sled 15 | | tc — a le Ea 24 | 566 ae | ot le | Gar gid if € | +a 82 19 IT |2 Laz mH Poo hes = WeIOR hs ee | | sal fesse] amare (Pe fee mS na ft ta Dl fr ||| - | || || ar | E | s | | | | fr Fas be eo | | gst exopvled vlypeg T | | I | | | | | aa eey ve suesund ‘Ny Gj | eae lee | 3 al || | ble ease nae BULISSISTOT “NJ opaal eta be | eee eae ae , | f G G Mae aan Lt Tae eC ALCS at ale Gate WNLIo}SO[D BIYOSZIIN ICP | gee lee | || a e | Ace Be Get | eit | an g[njyuaor|d stem09907) 6 IT 5 ¢ | 1 | | || Pat, | Ly esa ears eoluodel eT[auOTIEIsy G | | | ree leg to ae bles | poten La | | 5 A "+ IIpjojuonely XLIqjOISSeley Ty, ae. t | i | | | | ie oe | [eae ey | ime SOPIOIYISZHIU BULSUOISSeeY Y, ate aes! yh | eis tf 4 are Oe |, Baa el be vere ss tds erqdnppig ren ea | | | le I | hvgt 1 Mo ae Wats se fl salle ace sisualTiqour *q oo ite ele ot | iE ie ete hae ede a «algae eet sisuduis BIyd[nppig aoe A ie! Ir Ne} a 4 eee el sap eed Pt eB oe si[qns *¢ a | | | | | 2 | ele We shal | | Belts oe, SHJOSIAIN *4y Le ; | | | ST 6 : | | | i astee 4 eve siete _ "i SIAOP] *7) a2) < | 2 0s | | | | | | vee a stumge za) ae | pa CG | | | I | | Tele ck sss ee ‘ SHUPIZUSIO] “CO le} | | | |. OT | | I | | eal ie Byles | ete, 1) Osnoptaniad *9 Ales | | TT | | [=| | Sreemey. Soke f«+ | | [et 9. © qedle soreoojee yd a being |) | | | It | | | ‘| | | fee lee | ede cates ot eae BIqEle *Yy LE | | I 9¢ et : ae ae | Sosa } {| Sho see SIAB IBO[BO *Y ZS est Pi yee | Ls | | | | Piha cc 38 eases “yy 0c al | | 02 | | | les | a | Abie ale salen 8 ,, eysngol *y als. || er | | | ea Pad ib cleatetler “+ - W1g3052031038 "Y Gr | 6 | ae line fe | Ieee al ia ese eae e[Nyeorsap “? Of | | z ¢ | seas | ei [i BS heirs 1u08.19q PIMeTosoziy Yy T ie | | ies | Foe | i “| er et eI pam ee siyeljuao SnosIpoutoso; 7 | elas | | OER Sle ack Sh oa s1inystxAdoueuda}g 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.- 52 found their way into them and in the month of August a few of them were banked up by the sudden onrush of floodwater from the main body 80 —~ 90 100° one Fig. 16. Showing the surface current of the Bay of Bengal (modified after Sewell) from March to May. of the lake but were subsequently released. ‘That may be the reason for the occurrence of the marine forms in the month of September, 1950. The Satpara-Arkhakuda zone, situated near the mouth of the lake, is subject to strong tidal effects. As a consequence some of the marine species might have found entrance into the lake along with the tide during January to April, although they were meagre in quantity. One notable feature in both the years is the predominance of Asterio- nella japonica over the other species. It was first observed in profuse quantity in the month of March, 1950, persisted in appearing in June and July, although it was mysteriously absent in May, But in the year 1951 it first occurred in the month of May and went suddenly higher up in June.. In the Trivandrum coast the periodicity of this diatom is from April to September with its maximum in July (Menon, 1945). It is quite likely that in the Orissa coast some such seasonal distribution of this diatom with its numerical superiority over others is in existence. That may be one of the reasons for its numerical preponderance in the lake. Venkataraman (op. cit.) described this species as a marine form. Subrahmanyan (op. cit.) recorded its existence in the brackishwater and it was also found in the river Cooum by Iyengar and Venkataraman (Table IV). All these tend to PERIODICITY OF THE DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA 121 show that this diatom is capable of wide adaptation to variations of salinity. Besides, high sunshine value and ample availability of nutrient material during the summer months probably helped this diatom to thrive well in the lake. PROBABLE CAUSES OF DIATOM SCARCITY During the winter millions of migratory ducks settle down in the lake and their excreta together with the detritus brought by the northern rivers help to increase phosphate, nitrate, and silica content of the water. These factors combined with the possibility of regular influx of marine diatoms. from the Bay of Bengal ought to give a more healthy picture of diatom occurrence than what had actually been observed during the years under review. The marine diatoms which appeared in the summer months had very short span of life in the lake. The probable causes for such meagre and spurious occurrence may be as follows : 1. They are unable to withstand the sudden change from saline to: freshwater at the advent of monsoon. 2. Theless number of sunshine hours during the monsoon and winter may not be conducive for the production of diatom. 3. High range of pH (8 to 10) in seasons other than summer may also inhibit their natural growth. Within the range of 7.8 to 8.8 the pH age not act as a limiting factor according to Lucas and Hutchinson 1927).* 4. The grazing effect of zooplankton and fish fauna, especially since the lake is very shallow, is likely to affect the reproduction of diatoms. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Sri M. Peter Devasundaram, Assistant Director of Fisheries (Marine), Orissa, for the pains he took in improving the paper and to Sri G. N. Mitra, Director of Industries, Orissa, for having kindly sanctioned the publication of it. REFERENCES Annandale, N, & Kemp, S. (1915): Introduction to the Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Mem, Ind. Mus., 5 (1): 1-20. Gane (1932) : Algal Flora of the Chilka Lake. Mem, Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 9 Chacko, P. I. (1950): Marine Plankton from waters around the Krusadai Island. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 31 (3) : 162-174, & Ganapati, S. V. (1949): Some Observations on the Adyar BiG eee reference to its Hydrobiological conditions. Imd. Geog. Journ. 24 (3); 1-15. Cupp, E. E. (1943): Marine Plankton Diatoms of the West Coast of North America, Bull, Scripps Inst, Oceanog., § (1) : 1-238. Devasundaram, M. P. & Roy, J. C. (In the press): A Preliminary Study of the Plankton of the Chilka Lake, Orissa, India, for the years 1950 & 1951. Hornell, J. & Nayudu, M. R. (1924): A Contribution to the life-history of the Indian Sardine with notes on the Plankton of the Malabar Coast. Mad, Fish Bull., XVII: 129-197. - . ee es, —— > -* Not consulted in original. 422 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 . lyengar, M. O. P. & Venkataraman, G.-(1951) : The Ecology and Seasonal Suc- cession of the Algal Flora of the River. Cooum at Madras with special teference to the Diatomaceae., Journ: Madras Univ., 2x : 140-192. © - ''Metfon, R.'S. (1931): A Prelirninary Account. of the. Madras Plankton, ‘Rec. Indian Mus., 33, Pt. IV: 489-516. Menon, M. A. S. (1945) : Observaiion on the Seasonal Distribution of the Plank- ton of the Trivandrum Coast. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 22 (2) : 31-62. Sewell, R. B. S: (1929) : Geographic and Oceanic Research in Indian Waters. Mem. Roy. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, g (50): 280-298. (Not consulted in original). > Subrahmanyan, R. (1946): A Systematic Account of the Marine Plankton Diatoms of the Madras Coast. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 24 (4) : 85-197. _ Venkataraman, G. (1939): A Systematic Account of some _ South Indian Diatoms. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sct., 10 (6): 293-368. TABLE IV erat Showing previous record of distribution in India of the species of diatoms - found ia the Chilka Lake in. the years 1950 and 1951 | / | : , | 4 ; | - Species of diatoms _ Places of occurrence | Author and year of | description = J ac oe Siephanopyxis turris (Grev, &| ' Arn.) Ralfs. ree Malabar coast | Hornell and Nevuee i 4 H ; ot | (1924) » Trivandrum coast Menon (1945). | Madras coast | Subrahmanyan oe Coscinodiscus centralis Ebr. .... Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946) Rhizosolenia stolterfothii H. Pér.| Madras coast — | Menon (1931) OTS ‘Trivandrum coast .|Menon:(1945y) oor. _ Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946) _Around Krusadai Island) Chacko (1950) R. robusta Norman .... Madras coast Menon (1931) ' Trivandrum coast 'Menon (1945) ' Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946) #. imbricata Brightwell . .... Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946) ere + nae Around Krusadai Island Chacko (1950)... : AR. stylitormis Brightwell ...| Madras coast _Subrahmanyan (1946) Net aonia ni a ~~ Around Krusadai Island; Chacko (1950) : R. setigera Brightwell .«., Madras coast Menon (1931) Trivandrum coast ' Menon (1945) | Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946) ecaaa Krusadailsland! Chacko (1950) &. calcar-ai 4s M. Schultze ... Madras coast | Menon (1931) plidc | | ‘Trivandrum coast Menon. (1945) | Around Krusadai Island) Chacko (1950) R..alata Brightwell .... Madras coast Menon (1931) Trivandrum coast Menon (1945) Madras coast |Subrahmanyan (1946) _Around Krusadai Island) Chacko (1950) Bacteriastruum hyalinm Lauder. | Madras coast Subrahmanyan (i946) Chaetoceros eibeniz Grunow ... Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946) C. peruvianus Brightwell ..., Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946) aviovl ios _ Around Krusadai IsJand| Chacko (1950) ‘C. lorenzianus Grunow .... Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946) A Around Krusadai Island! Chacko (1950) C. compressus Lauder +7. 51) } «a. Madnas coast Subrahmanyan (1946) C. ‘attinis eee - o,7....) Madras coast, - Subrahmanyan (1946) Ak 45.9? | Around Krusadai Island, Chacko..(1950) GC. eupinerte Clever ..., Madras coast Subrahmanyan: (1946) Ditylum sol Grunow .. Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946) Around Krusadai Island} Chacko (1950) - ! he Py Pale t Z 3 Ee a A RS ESS SS SS PERIODICITY LE ee a ay a Species « _ ALOT AAA OF THE DIATOMS OF “ip ivi oe © ih Bidduiphia sinensis : Greville AN Rha el ee Visine ate B. mobiliensis Bailey ' ‘ Us Thalassionema nitzschioides Grunow Thalassiothrix longissima Cleve . and Grunow . T. frauenteldii Grunow Asterionella japonica Cleve Ceconeis placenitula Ehr, euglypta (Ehr.) Cleve Bacillaria paradoxa Gmelin Nitzschia -W. Smith. clostevium (Ehr.) NV. longissima (Brebisson) Ralfs ... .| Malabar coast .| Malabar coast .... Madras coast .| Madras coast ...| Trivandrum coast. .| Malabar. coast Vat. icu ese .| Freshwater ...| Madras coast .| Madras coast Ss i aa) 5 BRA8 \ Madras coast Trivandrum coast Madras coast ' Around Krusadai ieland a] Madras coast Trivandrum coast Madras coast -Around Krusadai Island Trivandrum coast Madras coast Around Krusadai Island) Around Krusadai Island Madras coast ; Around Krusadai Island { Madras coast Trivandrum coast Madras coast | Around Krusadai Island Cooum river mouth | streams, - ponds. and. pools of} Madras River Cooum Adyar estuary, Madras Madras coast Around Krusadai Island River Cooum, Madras Trivandrum coast | Madras coast | Around Krusadai Island Madras coast EHE Places of occurrence |. | CHILKA 123 Author and year o ‘description — | Horaell and Nagtes (1924) Menon (1931) Menon (1945) Subrahmanyan (1946) Chacko (1950) Hornell and Nayudu (1924) Menon (1931) Menon (1945) Subrahmanyan (1946) Chacko (1950) | Menon (1931) | Menon (1945) Subrahmanyan ( 1946) Chacko (1950). Subraimanyan (1946) Chacko (1950). Menon (1945) | Subrahmanyan (1946) Chacko (1950) Hornell and Nayudu (1924) | Menon (1931) Menon (1945) Subrahmanyan (1946) Chacko (1950) ‘Iyengar and Venkata- raman (1951) Venkataraman (1939) Iyengar and Venkata- raman, (1951) | Menon (1931) Venkataraman (1939) Subrahmanyan (1946) Chacko (1950) Menon (1931) Venkataraman (1939) Menon (1945) Subrahmanyan (1946) Chacko (1950) Subrahmanyan (1946) oe Around eon Chacko (1950) GROWTH-RATE OF THE PEARL OYSTER, PINCTADA PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH WITH A NOTE ON THE PEARL FISHERY OF 1953' BY S. V. GOKHALE, C. R. EASWARAN AND R. NARSIMHAN Directorate of Marine Products, Saurashira Government, Jamnagar (With five text figures) C OT EB NaEtsS 1. INTRODUCTION can ae ae ee one ee if: 2. Previous Work ae Re =e a >, 125. 38. MATERIAL AND METHODS ah he e om noe, aoe 4. AGE-ANALYSIS af at be a ae seme I-73 (a) Growth-Rings ba es = ... 126 (b) Period of Ring-Formation a ee ae ... 197 (c) Probable Causes # aS nie ar soe O28 (d) Growth-Rate ue ae _., 129 (e) Agreement with Petersen's Method es a ... 130: 5. PopuLaTION STUDY Ce ae of the Stock) ee. coe ww. 131 6. SUMMARY a : ae en ACE Be 5) ve ACKNOWLEDGMENTS» er a = ABI ee oD 8. REFERENCES os me oe ae ea ... 136 9. ADDENDUM ie ae ay cee Mee ... 186 INTRODUCTION Pearl Oysters are commonly found off the Northern Coast of the Halar District (Saurashtra) in the Gulf of Kutch. The species has been recorded in the Directorate of Marine Products, Saurashtra as Pinctada pinctada and for the sake of convenience it has been referred to by the same name in this paper but this identification is not final yet. These oysters are found attached to coral reefs (known locally as ‘kadda’) of which 42 have been charted off the Halar Coast. Some of the important reefs are shown in the accompanying map. These reefs are situated in the inter-tidal zones and get completely exposed during the low tides. Collection of these oysters is, therefore, a comparatively simple operation and does not entail any diving, etc. Pearls have been obtained fairly regularly from these waters for the last two hundred years at least and are well-known for their lustre and brilliance. We are not aware of any systematic work that has been carried out on the bionomics of these oysters in the Gulf of Kutch. It was decided to undertake the study of its growth-rate and find 1 Communicated by Mr. K. R. Srivatsa, the Director of Marine Products, Government of Saurashtra. The investigations described here were conducted doder the Pearl Oyster Research Scheme of the Government of Saurashtra. GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH 125 out the approximate age at which the pearl-formation starts, for which purpose a Pearl Oyster Research Scheme was sanctioned by the Government of Saurashtra. Such studies have both commercial as well as scientific importance which cannot be over-emphasized. PREVIOUS WORK In his paper on K. apima, Rao (1951) has surveyed some of the work that has been carried out on the bivalve molluscs in the tropical seas. According to him, Herdman (1903) and Malpas (1933) have studied the growth-rate of the Ceylon Pearl Oyster, Pinctada vulgaris. Hornell (1922) and Cahn (1949) are other workers not mentioned by Rao. Hornell studied the growth-rate of the Ceylon Pearl Oyster while Cahn has traced the entire life-history of the Japanese Pearl Oyster, Pinctada martensti. None of these authors mention the use of annular growth- rings in their studies. Rao (1951) has himself used -such rings for ascertaining the age of K. apima and has shown that his readings agree with the length-frequency measurements. According to him the rings are ‘disturbance rings’ caused by the cessation of growth which, in itself, may be due to a drop in the salinity of ‘the sea-water. He finds sufficient regularity in the occurrence of these ‘disturbance rings’ to justify assumption that they indicate the approximate age of the animal. Growth-rings are known to occur annually in the skeletal structures of fishes and on the shells of bivaives such as Pecten sp., etc. in the temperate seas. From our observations on the pearl oysters kept in cages at Sikka from 1951 we found that such rings are formed annually on their shells and hence we have used them in our studies. MATERIAL AND METHODS Other material for these investigations was collected mainly from the pearl fishery of 1953. It was not possible to examine each and every oyster fished during this period and we had to content ourselves with random samples taken from this stock. Under the existing regulations the fishermen employed for collection could not bring in oysters below a certain size-limit. Consequently the stock fished was itself bias towards the older animals and this was also reflected in the random samples obtained by us. We were unable to get specimens of age-groups ‘o’ and ‘r’. Even the number of animals belonging to age-group 2 was very small making it difficult to calculate the average size of that group accurately. On the other hand, seven-year old animals, though not affected by this selection were a few in number while only three eight-year animals were obtained. The total number of oysters fished during the Pearl fishery of 1953 was 11,519 of which 1,353 constituted the random samples and were examined in detail. Apart from these, 334 oysters kept in cages in the Pearl Oyster Park at Sikka were measured regularly every month for a period of two years and formed the main source for observing the formation of ‘growth-rings’. In the beginning three different types of feos measurements were recorded—the length, the depth and the thickness. The lines of these 126 \ JOWRNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol, 52:.°5 measurements are shown in Fig. 1. It was, however, soon apparent that the thickness gave: more consistent data than the rest: .and hence in later studies only the thickness. was measured. This incidentally made it. possible to measure a large number of animals. A, Seen it the Left side. Hings TAN NAA pt EAN : Growth Rings. Fingerelike | Projections. . a h-b's The Length. ‘a-a'2Tho Depth B, Seen from the Hinge. tet 's Thicknsss. Fig. I Diagrammatic Sketch of P. pinctada Thickness can be defined as the maximum distance between the exter- nal surfaces of the two valves of the oyster. These measurements could easily~-be made with a pair of callipers and were recorded to’ the nearest millimeter. The number of ‘rings’ on the valves were also observed and recorded against the particular individual for correlation studies. , | AGE-ANALYSIS ~ (a) Grawtheiares Fig. 1m shows a ‘photograph of the right valve of an oyster ‘fve years old. There are a number of concentric rings on ie valve but out of them five are: séen better miarked than: the “rést’*-These: are GROWTH-RATE OF P. -PINCTADA IN THE GULF. OF ‘KUTCH 127 referred to in the following pages as ‘growth-rings” or merely as “rings”. The formation of these rings appears to be as follows :— Towards the free edge of a young oyster are always seen‘ small finger-like projections. These are particularly better marked during winter when the growth is quite fast. During summer when thé ai [Photo by Jamnagar Photo Co. lane fl Photograph of the right valve of a five-year old P. pinctada silhouetted against powerful artificial light. The black portion towards the straight margin is the point of maximum thickness. (Reduced to five-eighth of the original size.) growth slows down these projections disappear and instead there appears a continuous line—the growth-ring. Later on fresh projections appear which will give rise to the next year’s ring. = — Bee 7 1 8. 4) pe ae ae eee 5 2 7 42 te oa, a e 3 2 5 43 _ — — = 2 c= 2 44 ie os us = 2 = 2 Total es: 68 282 500 383 101 19 1 353. NN Css... =e lives to about five years of age, while according to Cahn (1949) P. martensii lives to about eight years. Hornell has not given’ any basis of his age-assessment but Cahn has summarised the studies. of Mr. M. Yanagonchi of the Japan Institute of Scientific Research on Pearls. Mr. Yanagonchi has traced the entire developmental history of P. martensti and hence his findings are more reliable than those of Hornell. Comparing Cahn’s data with ours it seems that there is not much difference between the life-spans of P. pinctada and P. martensit. (e) Agreement with Petersen’s Method: Petersen’s method essentially consists in measuring a very large number of individuals of a species and finding out the ‘peaks’ or the ‘modes’ which represent various age-groups. This method gives good results particularly for the young growing animals when the growth- rate is quite fast and distinct modes are seen; but with the advanc- GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE. GULF OF KUTCH 131 ing age the growth-rate falls and very often Petersen’s curve does not show any peak at all. In fig. Iv is shown a histogram of the thickness-frequencies of the pearl oyster. Superimposed on this are the lines indicating the average thicknesses of various age-groups as deduced from the rings. Except for the age-group 7 there is a fairly good agreement between the peaks of Petersen’s method and the thickness claculated from the rings. The number of seven-year old animals was small which may be responsible for the disagreement. Moreover, as stated earlier the growth-rate at this age falls considerably and consequently Petersen’s method cannot be solely relied upon; but the agreement which exists amongst other age-groups is ample proof of the reliability of the method of age-analysis with the help of annular rings. POPULATION STUDY (ANALYsIS OF THE STOCK) A total of 11,519 oysters were fished during the Pearl Fishery 1953... During, the pearl! fishery of; 1950 -we= had, obtained 33,720 oysters and on an average about 17,000 oysters have been fished in each of the previous fisheries since 1913. The drop in the output this year is primarily due to shortage of fishermen who volunteered for the fishery. Per capita production, however, has remained the same. When random samples were studied from this stock, some interesting information was obtained ‘and which is summarized below :— (i) The stock is a normal population. The various year-broods were represented as follows :— 1951 brood oe ee ge ey 1950 brood oe ee 2s 1949 brood Me eG 1948 brood es eemeeou 1947 brood a Spiess. Ss 1946 brood ars + ER These figures are represented in histogram in figure v. The population does not show any signs of over-fishing. The fact that 1950 brood forms about one-fifth of the stock and that the 1949 and 1948 broods form the bulk of the population today, prove that fishing conducted during 1950 was restricted to the older animals only and that too perhaps after spawning. A proper survey of animals belong- ing to 1951 brood will give a definite answer to this problem, but that two of us (C.R.E. and R.N.) collected twenty-five such animals within a search of two hours lends supports to this belief. (ii) Growth-rate of the oysters was not the same on all the beds. Amongst the oysters collected from Movada and Deda, a majority were older oysters and even the rate was faster. Movada also pro- vided the youngsters mentioned above. It is likely that these beds have probably the optimum conditions for the growth and propagation of the pearl oysters. 132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 NUMBER OF OF.S°T BRS. De a : ss Ce Re eT ee eT ee ee ee Agé- group ae e (80) ate : ie) pin oa = BE Xe, soot akg ; pl 5° oes : na ae a of FOO TPS OOOH OOS DS We Age-group 3e (oe) ae a © . .hepeammersaraee a4 | cond aes ai a rica) re Sy oD me eb ot we Ob a wn a es oe oe ce ws Agé6-groun Ge e ee : = toe ae : Soa aa 7 ek Dat DP DP Ok os Ew ae OP OP BS uperes 2 op ew =< Age-groun 5. L°eo me ye col ze. te g°ce H ‘ ob 1) OF 6c o tus of O26 2282202842 C2E 8 OF WO FOE BSE OPCS Sea canoe Ageé-group fd e o° Le Fig. IV Histogram showing the frequency of thickness GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH | 133 100 90] 80 | % of the various | Year broods in the Stock. 70 | 60 Po Bok ob Ne AVG Ee . 10 | *51 °50 %49 °48 "47 °*46 Wao a KR Bie OO DP Ss Fig.eV (iii) When the growth-rate of these ‘wild’ oysters (i.e. collected during the pearl fishery) was compared with that of oysters kept in cages at the Sikka Park, it was found that the latter showed a distinct retardation of growth after the third year. Since the number measured in the Sikka Park is rather small (334) we do not commit ourselves on this point but there is an indication that the growth in the Park is not very satisfactory. At present we are keeping the oysters in cages with wire meshes on one side and wood on the other three. Obviously these are not suitable for healthy growth. 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Perhaps bamboo-fence enclosing a few acres of the oyster bed will serve the purpose better, although this will be more expensive. (iv) On an average 15 to 20% oysters bear pearls. Narada bed differed in this respect in that about 30% oysters had pearls in them. Even the quality of the pearls produced in this bed was decidedly better. This is borne out by the fact that the total number of oysters collected from this bed in the sample survey was only 741 while the value of pearls was Rs. 2,380, a much higher average than that usually obtained. (v) When the pearl bearing oysters were classified into their respective age-groups, the following data was obtained :— 2s a Ce Daa Number of Age-group oysters Percentage 2 3 — 3 35 16+9% + 68 328% 5 76 36:7% 6 25 NOS 7 4 ic It appears from this data that the optimum conditions for the formation of pearls exist in the oyster when it is between three and six years old. Pearl formation starts at the age of three and rarely at two. It has already been shown that six-year old animals. form only 8% of the stock. Looking from this point of view it seems that chances of pearl formation are more in 6-year old animals than in other age-groups. Cahn (1949) points out that three-year old animals are chosen for inserting the nucleus in the oyster for cultured pearls in Japan and that the harvesting age is between 6 and 7. Our data also points in the same direction and culture experiments, if and when started, should be attempted when the oysters are three years old. A point worth considering in this respect is whether the present system of conducting pearl fisheries every third year is scientifically correct. From the above data it would appear that conducting a fishery every fourth or even fifth year should be more beneficial than in the third. ~ There ~is, “of scourse, the. danger ot Josie the older oysters altogether but if fishing is done intensively and the old oysters removed this difficulty can be overcome. Moreover, the number of 6- and 7-year old animals is small and they can be removed by the departmental staff during their inspection tours. (vi) Majority of the pearls were found near about the adductor muscle, mostly towards the hinge. We could not give proper attention to the study of location of pearls, etc., but mostly they were muscle pearls and smaller cyst pearls as defined by Hornell (1922). GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH § 135 Usually the muscle pearls appeared in clusters. Most of the pearl- bearing oysters contained more than three or four pearls each. It was exceptional to find only one pearl in an oyster. The highest number of pearls so far recorded from a single oyster is 68. Fusion of two or more pearls to form a bunch was not uncommon, It may be mentioned here that pearls of high values have been obtained from these waters. During the pearl fishery of 1950 one pearl was valued at Rs. 1,000 while the records show that during 1943-44 one pearl valued at Rs. 12,000 was collected from an oyster from the Narada Bed. SUMMARY (i) The growth-rate of the adult pearl oyster, Pinctada pinctada in the Gulf of Kutch has been worked out with the help of annual rings. As the samples were bias, the growth-rate of two-year old and younger animals could not be calculated. (ii) Two distinct periods—one of active growth and the other of rest—were observed in a year but no cause could be traced. It is likely that some internal biological factor is responsible for this cessation of growth. (iii) It has been shown that the oysters grow fast till they attain their fourth year after which the growth rate falls. It has been presumed from this that the animal reaches sexual maturity at the age: Of three Or for. (iv) Life-span of these oysters seems to be seven years, though a few survive to the eighth. (v) From sample-surveys of the pearl fishery in 1953 it has been ascertained that there are no signs of overfishing. On the contrary there is every reason to believe that this year the beds have been much underexploited due to labour shortage. (vi) On an average 15 to 20% oysters bear pearls. Amongst the pearl-bearing oysters, age-groups of 4, 5, and 6 years predominate. It is likely that the pearl formation starts when the oyster is 2-3 years old. It has been suggested that conducting the fishery every fourth year would be more beneficial. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to express their gratitude to Sri. K. R. Srivatsa, the Director of Marine Products, Saurashtra, for offering all the help and for suggesting these investigations. They are also indebted to Dr. S. L. Hora of the Zoological Survey of India for kindly going firoush= the manuscript, —Phey are grateful to Sri. K. V. Rao of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam, for favouring us with a reprint of his paper on K. apima. Sincere thanks are also due to the members of this Directorate, especially Sri. ie Ce Wakumbeand sri. MY. Nathan for their help in the collection of data. 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 REFERENCES 1. Cahn, A. R. (1949): Pearl Culture in Japan. U.S. Department of Interior. Fish and Wild Life Service Fishery Leaflet 357, November, 1949. . 2*. Herdman, W. A, (1903): Observations and Experiments on the Life-History and Habits of the Pearl Oyster. Rep. Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. Royal Soc., London, 1: 125-146. 3. Hornell, J. (1922): The Indian Pearl Fishery of the Gulf of Manaar and: Palk Bay. Madras Fisheries Department Bulletin, No. 16. 4*. Malpas, A. H. (1933): Further Observations on the Age and Growth-Rate of the Ceylon Pearl Oyster, Margaritifera vulgaris, with Special Reference in Oysters of Dorman’s Muthuvarathu Paar. Ceylon Journ. Sci., 8 (c): 21-48. 5. Rao, K. V. (1951): Studies on the growth of Katelysia apima (Gmelin). Section II of Proceedings of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council. 1951. 6. Devanesan, D. W. & Chidambaram, K. (1950): Report on Pearl Oyster of the Gulf of Manaar. (unpublished). ADDENDUM During discussion on the growth-rate of Pearl Oysters with Shri Kk. Chidambaram, Assistant Fisheries Development, Advisor to the Government of India in February 1954 he referred to the attempts. of the Madras Fisheries Department to study bionomics of the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mannar. An unpublished report on these studies extending over a period of nine years by D. W. Devanesan and K. Chidambaram (1950) was made available to us. These workers reared spats of known age and correlated age of oysters with body or thickness at the hinge as factors in age and growth assessment. The extensive investigations carried on by them for prolonged period, if reported and published would be valuable to workers on Bionomics of Molluscs. rg * Papers are not seen by us. CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS Ill. MURDANNIA SCAPIFLORUM (ROXB.) ROYLE. BY R. FERNANDES, B.SC. AND Hi. SANTAPAU, S.j. (With two plates) This paper is a continuation of several by the senior author (H.S. published in this journal in the last few years. (See J.B.N.H.S. 50: 305-312; 428-430; etc.). In our field work in the Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli, Salsette Island, we have found a plant that has given us plenty of trouble before we could come to a definite conclusion as to its identity. Finally after a detailed study of the pertinent literature on the subject, we have come to the conclusion that our plant is identical with ‘the one fisted by Cooke in his Flora of the Presidency of Bombay under the name Aneilema scapiflorum Wight. The main reasons: for our difficulty in identifying the plant were that neither Wight nor Clarke describe the root system of the plant, and Cooke only mentions that the roots possess ‘pisiform’ tubers; further the diagrams shown by Wight and Clarke picture a juvenile specimen, and their descriptions refer to the same undeveloped plant; the picture given by Royle has not been seen. We shall give here a complete description from numerous specimens collected in the field; we have found this plant on several occasions and in large numbers, so that we have had ample opportunity to examine the development of the specimens at leisure. 1. The generic name Murdannia Royle. Our plant is placed under the generic name Aneilema R. Br. in Cooke’s Flora, and in this he follows Hooker in the Flora of British India; most authors of local or provincial floras of India follow suit and use the name Aneilema. Royle in 1839 gave the name Murdannia to a section of the genus Aneilema; Briickner in 1926 named the same section Phaeneilema, which was made into an independent genus; but in 1930 the same Brickner recognised that his Phaeneilema coincided entirely in its circumscription with Murdannia Royle. The name Aneilema R.Br. is a valid genus, but our Bombay plants do not belong to it; for our plants the oldest valid name is Murdannia Royle. Brickner, in Engl & Pr. Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 2) 15 A: 165, divides the family Commelinaceae into two subfamilies, on the following grounds: A. Flowers actinomorphic i... Tradescantieae B. Flowers zygomorphic ... Commelineae 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 The genus Murdannia belongs to the subfamily Tvadescantieae, tribe Triandrae; on the other hand the genus Aneilema in the restricted sense belongs to the subfamily Commelineae, tribe Declinatae. Thus, although the name Aneilema R. Br. (1810) is much older than Murdannia Royle (1839), the latter name is considered valid as one of the subdivisions into which the conglomerate of species under Aneilema R. Br. has been split by Bruckner. 2. The specific name. Murdannia scapiflorum (Roxb.) Royle, Ill. Bot. Him. 403, t. 95, 1839; Brickner in Engl. & Piamilien. (eds 2) 150-8173 8 ogo: Commelina scapiflora Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 175, 1832. Aneilema scapiflorum Wight, Icon. 6: 30, t. 2073, 1853; Hook. f.-in Fl, Brit® Ind. -6:- 375°; Clarke Comm asC vine eo cner2e miner. 1874 & in DC. Mon. Phan. 3: 200, 1881; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 23377004 OOO; Aneilema tuberosum Ham. in Wall. Cat. 5207, nom. nud. 3. Previous descriptions of the pliant. The first description of this plant is that of Roxburgh in Flora Indica (Carey Ed.) 1: 175, 1832, where he writes: “Root perennial. Racemés radical, erect, with alternate, many-flowered spathes. Petals equal. Leaves in a tuft, ensiform. .. . Root perennial, composed of several, ‘smooth, elongated tubers, with a few filiform radicles. Stems none, except the sheathing bases of the leaves which appear a month or two. after the flowers; these are ensiform, waved, acute, smooth, and marked with several straight veins; length from four to eight inches, breadth one. Racemes radical, erect, straight, smooth, invested at each of the remote two or three joints, with a small, solitary sheath; these sheaths towards the top are more approximated, each of them there embracing the insertion of a branchlet which bears several pedicelled flowers. Calyx the three leaflets thereof broad- lanceolate, and considerably shorter than the corol, Petals equal, round, concave. WNectaries alternate with the stamens, hairy. Filaments three, alternate with the petals, longer than the filaments of the nectaries, and like them hairy about the middle. Anthers blue. Pistil declining. Stigma minutely three-toothed.’ Among the older authors who have described the plant, Roxburgh is the only one to mention the tuberous roots; such roots are not found in the figures of Wight or Clarke; the latter mentions, however, that ‘Radix plus minus tuberosa unde nomen Hamiltonianum’. (The root is tuberous, hence the name given by Hamilton Aneilema tuberosa in Wall. Cat. 5207, 1831-1832; Hamilton’s name happens to be the oldest for this plant, but being a nomen nudum in the sense of Art. 42 of the present Internat. Code of Bot. Nomencl. it is invalid, and must not be taken into consideration for the purposes of nomen- clature.) The roots are missing from the type specimen by Wight in Kew Herbarium (see plate I). We have examined the present plant in the living condition in the field, and have had the whole plant, the roots and tubers included, carefully lifted out of the ground; our description will differ in some an amen JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats 1 Murdannia scapifiorum Royle. Photograph of Wight’s Type sheet in Kew Herbarium. IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS 139 particulars from those of Roxburgh, Clarke and Wight, all of whom seem to have dealt with more or less imperfect plants. This is perhaps why Wight, in Icon. 6: 30, gives the following warning note: ‘My drawing is taken from a dried specimen with fruit, generally, nearly mature and does not therefore give a good idea of the flowering plant. Neither Roxburgh nor Royle mentions the fruit, though the latter constitutes this a new genus. Royle’s figure does not much resembie mine, but the difference seems to depend on his being a younger and less luxuriant form. The open flower of my drawing is taken from an unopened one, and may not represent the correct proportions of the parts as seen in naturally opened ones, but if they do represent the correct proportions, it seems to me this can scarcely be Roxburgh’s plant, as he distinctly mentions the petals being longer than the calyx. The inflorescence too seems different, that of mine being; properly a panicle, while he calls his a raceme, but describes it as having “‘branchlets’’, this showing that it has the elements of a panicle, only wanting luxuriance to develop it, as shown in my plant.’ Clarke, in DC. Mon. Phan. 3: 201, describes the plant thus (the description translated from the Latin original): ‘The root fasciculate with fusiform tubers. Leaves 10-15 cm. long, 1-1.5 cm. broad, somewhat narrowed at the base, scabrid. Scape 1o-4o cm, tall; the bracts at the primary dichotomies 1-5 cm. long; higher bracts small, amplexicaul, ovate, truncate. Petals blue. The pedicels in fruit 1 cm lone, suberect:' Stamens 3 perfect, 3 sterile, all the filaments bearded. Capsule trigonous-ellipsoid, mucronate and scarcely acute at the apex, lead-coloured. Seeds in each loculus 3-6, uniseriate, straw- coloured with a white aril, reticulate and scabrid with very minute dark glands, superposed exactly, forming a triangular column which is rounded at the back . . . India, at altitudes 0-1,000 meters .. .; mostly in grass fields that have been burnt; fairly frequent.’ It is clear from this description that Clarke was describing an immature or juvenile form of this species; the description agrees fairly well with the plants we have collected at the beginning of the season in Salsette. Cooke, on the other hand, speaks of ‘Roots of elongate pisiform tubers. ... Leaves 4-8x 8-2 in. ©. : . Blowers in erect: -elongate panicles on terminal leafless scapes; scape together with the panicle 8-18 in. long . . .’ (Italics ours). Obviously the word pisiform is a mistake for fusiform tubers; Cooke further mentions that the panicles are terminal; in none of our specimens have we found a single plant with terminal scapes; they are all lateral, one or two scapes for each plant, the scapes appearing either immediately before the leaves, or one scape before the leaves, the second one appearing in fact when the leaves are already fairly well developed. 4. Our own description of the plant. We give now our own description, which is illustrated by a careful diagram of the whole plant and with some details about the fiowers and fruits (see plate II). A perennial herb; root-fibres rather stout, coming from the base of the stem, up to 4o, usually 15-20, in number, about 3-4 mm. thick, 140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 straw-coloured outside, pure white inside, many of the roots having a fusiform or ellipsoidal tuber at their end or at some distance from it, that is to say, the root may continue for some distance beyond the tuber; tubers white inside, about 4x1 cm. in size, of the same colour as the fibrous roots. Stems short, hypogeal, about 2 cm. long or a little longer, and together with the bases of the leaves about 2 cm. diameter. ‘Leaves all radical, up to 10 in number in our speci- mens, alternate, the middle ones the largest, upper and lower leaves gradually decreasing in size, the lower ones passing into large bracts or scales at the base; the leaves. are up to 60x 4.5 cm., usually about 40x 4 cm., somewhat coriaceous, glabrous or nearly so, ensiform, parallel-veined, the nerves not being conspicuous; margins waved and with a narrow hyaline border at least in young leaves; the midrib depressed above, prominent beneath. Scapes one or two, always lateral, not terminal, up to 100 cm., usually 30-50 cm. long, simple below, branched above; flowers only on the upper third of the scape, paniculate; each scape is supported by a large bract or sheath, which may be entire or bifid at the very apex; bracts at the forking of the scape large, more or less triangular, acute or acuminate, the base embracing the -scape;! the») size :of the bracts ‘decreases’ from below upwards, until towards the apex of the plant they are but a few mm. in length. Flowers blue or purplish-blue, about 1 cm. in diameter when fully opened, bracteolate and pedicelled; the pedicels elongate in fruit up to about 1 cm. long; the flowers are perfectly regular, bisexual, hypogynous. Sepals purplish-green, 7x 3-4 mm., oblong or slightly tapering and rounded at the apex, persistent ; nerves 3-5, distinct. Petals 9x6 mm., or slightly larger, obovate, easily caducous, free. «Stamens 3) perfect, 3 sterile; fertile, stamens opposite the sepals and alternating with the petals; filaments of the fertile stamens filiform on the upper half, broadened into a strap- shaped lower half; filaments of sterile stamens uniformly filiform ; anthers purple, dorsifixed, opening by longitudinal slits; sterile stamens or staminodes alternating with and shorter than the fertile ones, their anthers X-shaped; both fertile and sterile stamens are bearded with moniliform hairs of the same-.colour as the corolla; in the case of the sterile filaments such hairs are confined to the lower third of the filament; with fertile stamens such hairs are found only at the point where the filament narrows from the broad base. Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior, 3-celled; placentae axile; style simple, terminal, a little shorter than the fertile stamens and of the same colour; stigma capitate, small. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, about 6 mm. long, 2.5-3 mm. broad in the middle, obovoid, somewhat trigonous, beaked with the remains of the style. Seeds about 4 in each cell, exactly superposed and uniseriate, more or less trigonous, the two inner faces being flat, the outer face rounded and marked with a minute circular depression, in the middle of which there is a prominent mucro or clypeus. Seeds externally reticulate with a brownish aril, the reticulations being very minute and_ perfectly hexagonal in shape. Habitat: In more or less water-logged soil beneath the protection of trees, along the plains on the south side of river Dahisar; it is not a common plant, but wherever it occurs it does so in considerable Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiaTE II _—— ? Murdannia scapiflorum Royle. * IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS 141 numbers, in almost pure stands; occasionally a few grasses or sedges: are mixed with these plants, but more often than not the plant grows in pure formations; perhaps the reason for this is that, at the time our plant was collected in flower or fruit, grasses were very far behind in development and many had not yet appeared above ground. | . Flowers were seen before any leaves had appeared above ground on June 18, 1953 (fernandes: 1260); on .June. 21, 1953, flowers were fully developed and some had already gone into fruit, while the first leaves were still but 3-6 cm. long (Fernandes 1276; Santapau 15627). By the 27 June, 1953, the leaves were up to 15x4 cm. and flowers about equalled the fruits in number, but only one scape for each plant was noticed up to that date (Fernandes 1311-1313).. On July 4th many plants were collected with 2 scapes each, mostly in fruit ; leaves were then about 30x 3.5-4 cm. (Fernandes 1316; Santapau 15642-15643). On July 10, 1953, leaves were 40x 4 cm., the scapes 50-60: (cm. or even exceptionally larger (Iernandes 1335. A-C; Santapau 15653-15659). Finally on July 25th, 1953, we found plants with very large leaves, and only the remains of the inflorescence or the dehisced fruits. Comparison between young and old plants has further shown that the number of tuberous roots increases with the age of the plant; younger specimens showed 5-10 roots, while at the end of the fruiting season it was common to find up to 4o roots for each plant. All the specimens mentioned in these pages are preserved in Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. EXPLANATION OF PLATES Pirate I.—Photograph of Wight’s type specimen in Kew Herbarium. Photo by H. Santapau, reproduced by kind permission of the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Pirate I].—Diagrammatic representation of Murdannia scapiflorum Royle drawn by R. Fernandes. A. Pull plant: B. Stem and base of leaves. C.’ Flower. D. Fruit, external view. fs. Seeds from a single cell seen from the inner angle. I. Seed as seen from the outer side. BiBLIOGRAP #H ¥ Briickner, G. (1930): Commelinaceae. In Engl. & Pr. Pfamilien. (ed. 2) 15 A: 159-181. Clarke, C. B. (1874): Commelinaceae et Cyrtandraceae Bengalenses (paucis aliis ex terris adjunctis additis). Calcutta. (1881) : Commelinaceae. In DC. Mon. Phan, 3: 113-324. Cooke, Th. (1901-1908): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. (Commeli- -maceae in 2: 779-797, 1907). Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British India. (Commelinaceae in 6: 366-390, 1892). Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica (Carey edition). Wight, R. (1838-1853): Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING INDUSTRY BY EeeR. Ay DEOZYLVA Acting Director of Fisheries, Ceylon DN TR OD UCM N Ceylon, with a population of 6.7 millions in 1946, had just over 100,000 persons engaged in the fishing industry, or 1.7% of the population. It is an interesting fact that the 1921 Census showed that out of.a population of nearly 5 millions, just under 80,000 persons were engaged in the industry, also 1.7% of the population. Of those at present engaged in the industry, it is estimated that about 72,000 fishermen are actively engaged in sea fisheries, and just under 9,500 in inland fisheries. The annual production of fish is estimated at 90 million Ibs. In other words, the average fisherman lands about 1,500 lbs. of fish each year. Compared with the production of Denmark, where the average is 33,000 lbs. per head per year (5), this is very low. In 1952, Ceylon’s fish imports were valued at 55 million rupees (17), representing about 9o million lbs. of cured and preserved fish. If it were possible for the local industry to double its present produc- tion, the country will have gone a long way towards achieving self- sufficiency in fish. How is this target to be achieved? It is clear that the industry is operating at a low level of efficiency. Primitive craft, the absence of capital for investment by fishermen, social prejudices, and the lack of new ideas or the incentive to pro- gress have worked together to keep the industry in the role of a Cinderella. Little progress in comparison with that achieved in agriculture has blessed the fishermen’s lot. An earlier awakening of public consciousness of the deplorable conditions under which fishermen lived and worked (2) was largely overshadowed by the international situation resulting from World War II, and almost the only significant progress achieved during that decade was the revival of trawler fishing operations, which showed that, in spite of the high cost of production, a trawler could be expected to bring in about two million pounds of fish per year at a cost of about 50 cents a pound, and that local personnel could be found or trained to man the trawlers (3). - Much expert opinion has been and is being sought on the problems of developing the island’s fishery potential, and this has yielded, and is yielding, much valuable data, from which future operations will benefit very considerably (4-9). The Government first secured the services of a Danish team consisting of a Senior biologist, a fisherman and a fish-food technologist for two months; since then, the Fisheries Division of the Food and Agriculture Organisation through the Indo- Pacific Fisheries Council and the Extended Technical Assistance DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING INDUSTRY 143 Programme, and more recently the Colombo Plan Technical Assistance Bureau, have provided personnel and equipment for the investigation of the Island’s fishery problems. Their energies have been directed to the introduction of more effective capture operations, cultural opera- tions, and secondary industrial development for the provision of storage, transport, processing and handling facilities, to ensure that fish reaches the consumer in the optimum condition (17). PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT The development of the sea fisheries presents a complex problem. The present low level of production is partly the result of the use of primitive craft, with little inboard accommodation, and partly the result of vagaries in the availability of fishable stocks. As these craft are dependent on the wind, the fishermen are obliged to spend very little time in actual fishing operations, up to 4/5th of their time being spent on the daily voyage to and from the fishing grounds. The limited inboard accommodation permits the use of very restricted quantities of gear. The resultant income is very low, and the fishermen can barely earn sufficient to buy improved gear in more appropriate quantity, much less indeed buy mechanized craft. The Government has sought to rescue the industry from this plight by, financing Co-operaive Societies of fishermen, either as Producer Societies for the purchase of craft and gear, or as Credit and Sales Societies to enable them to secure for the primary producer as large as possible a proportion of the ultimate value paid by the consumer, by eliminating the many existing links in the chain between producer and consumer. About 5% of the fishermen have so far formed themselves into Co-operative Societies, notwithstanding the great deal of impetus which the Government has endeavoured to give the project. A possible inference from this experience is that the Co-operative Society is not ideally suited to meet the requirements of the fisherman (8). On the other hand, it may not be the Co-operative system, but rather the inflexible procedure which is attendant on a Government controlled organisation that is responsible for the small number of Fishing Co-operatives. H. SANTAPAU, 6.3. 7. THE BIRDS OF THE BRIGISH ISLES. By avid Bannerman and George E. Lodge, Volumes, I and II. Passeres. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh and London. 45s nett. ; There are so many books on British birds that Dr. Bannerman is fully justified in saying that ‘there was not much room for’ another, unless it could be planned on original lines. It is not, perhaps, very easy to discover what Dr. Bannerman’s ‘original lines’ are, but he has certainly made the text of the work both authoritative and readable. The main feature of the work is, undoubtedly, the fact that every species is illustrated by that most gifted artist, George Lodge. Opinions differ about the quality of Lodge’s work, but the present reviewer can testify that when he first saw Lodge’s black and white text figures in Hudson’s ‘British Birds’ over. fifty years ago, he suddenly got a new idea of what bird drawings could be. Here were live birds, running about in the fields or perched as any small boy could see them perched any day in tree or shrub. They were not mere museum specimens. He has never altered his opinion, so he whole-heartedly, welcomes this latest (and alas! last) book full of the beauty and charm of Lodge’s pencil and brush. They are worthy of the master-artist. Lodge, the octogenarian, has died since these two volumes were published. Bannerman says that the artist contributed some 384 original paintings and 45,000 towards the cost of production. It is not quite clear whether further volumes are intended—even to complete the Passeres at least one more is needed; but if the paintings are avail- \ REVIEWS 199 able it is to: be hoped that the project can be financed, so that the complete Lodge-cum-Bannerman British bird-book will be available to the public. H.G,A. _.8., THE BIRDS OF WEST AND EQUATORIAL AFRICA, 2 volumes. By David A. Bannerman. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh and London, 1953. £6 6s, pp. xili+1,526. Dr. Bannerman is the author of the standard work on West African birds. This work appeared in eight volumes; the first was published in 1925, the last in 1951. So much new knowledge had come to light in the course of over twenty years that the final volume is infact a supplement, an attempt to bring the earlier volumes up-to- date. The, present work is an .up-to-date condensation into two bulky volumes of what was formerly only available in the much larger and very heavy eight volumes of the earlier work. Sir Alan Burns justly remarks in his preface that the ‘small Bannerman’ will quickly win for itself as many friends as the ‘large Bannerman’, and it will, no doubt, be the preference for all who are not systematists or men of wealth. Many of the excellent features of the earlier work are preserved, including thirty-seven coloured plates, and convenient identification keys. | | Seas 2, New -Legislation Passed or Contemplated. (1) Assam. The draft Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Bill was — scrutinised by the Assam Wild Life Board, and modified in places where considered necessary. An Assam National Parks Bill has been © drafted and will soon be placed before the Wild Life Board for — approval. Sub-committees have made proposals for the Rules etc., — of the State Wild Life Board, and for the revision of the Assam ; Forest Regulation. | WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 239 (2) Bengal. Proposals are being put up to Government for the management of the Jaldapara Sanctuary, as a national park. The Conservator-General of Forests is of the opinion that Forest Officers should be invested with the powers of a police officer to demand the production of a licence and of a gun for examination. The Government has renewed the leases to the Associations. of the Game Federation of Bengal. : (3) Bihar. Measures contemplated are: Rationalisation of the ‘Close’ season for all kinds of birds and animals; the enactment of a special law applicable only to the State-owned Forests which will provide for deterrent penalties, including confiscation of fire-arms and cancellation of licences of habitual offenders, and the creation of a national park, or in the alternative of a large sanctuary covering about 200-300 sq. miles in area. with the Indian Forest Act to effectuate proper control and preservation of wild life. (5) Orissa. No information has been received up-to-date of any legislation either passed or contemplated. ? (6) Tripura. Measures contemplated are: creation of a wild life sanctuary, and rules for shooting. } VI. GENERAL It is generally agreed, particularly in the Eastern Region of India, that a separate wild life organisation is not feasible, and that wild life preservation is best taken care of by the Forest Department under whose charge most of the wild life already falls. To counteract the possibility that the Minister for Forests and the officials of the Forest Department may not always act in a way best calculated to serve the interests of wild life, it has been accepted that each State should have a Wild Life Board whose main function will be to advise the Forest Department on all matters affecting wild life. Obviously these Boards must contain a strong, influential and knowledgeable element of non-officials, who should fully represent all important sections of public opinion and should contain among their number some experts in the field of nature conservation, natural history and _ sport. In order that the Forest Department, advised by the Wild Life Board, may efficiently carry out its duties, it is essential that the Forest Regulations should be revised and brought up-to-date. ; The State Forest Department can do a very great deal by strong executive action in the way, of Gazette Notifications. For example, in Assam there used to be shooting of sanctuary animals all round the Kaziranga Sanctuary, just outside the boundaries. But a Gazette Notification issued on April 6th, 1953, declared a buffer zone all ‘round Kaziranga Sanctuary with specified limits, within which shooting, is prohibited the whole year. The result has. been very encouraging, _ and poaching round the fringes of the sanctuary has almost entirely _ disappeared. ) pe (4) Manipur. Certain Rules have been framed in accordance ~ 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SO of wild life preservation conversion is easier than coercion, and once the children have been shown the value of wild life, the enforcement aH; o =e Ey Ne Sa ae Be - A great deal of shooting by artificial light at night from machans. over salt-licks and from vehicles takes place, and indiscriminate _ poisoning and dynamiting of fish in rivers. This is often connived at, if not actually done by subordinate officers of all the Services. In addition to warnings of severe penalties to be imposed, I think some publicity needs to be done to instill into these subordinate officers the best traditions of sportsmanship and sport of all kinds. For example, if military officers were interested in the sport of fishing ~ with rod and line, they would not connive at their men dynamiting — rivers for fish. | : _ Information on the wild life of the States of the Region is urgently, required, and it is recommended that the series ‘Wild Life Reserves in India’ as published by the Bombay Natural History Society, (Bihar by Jamal Ara in Vol. 48, No. 2, pages 282-287 and Assam by E. P. Gee in Vol. 49, No. 1, pages 81-88) be continued and include the other States of the Region and of the Indian Union as a whole. It is a welcome sign that in all the States of this Region there is a growing realization that much publicity for wild life preservation needs to be done in the Press, Radio and in Education. It is well- known that the best way of educating the adults is through their children. What is urgently wanted are suitable text-books, one for each stage of school and college curriculum, illustrated and well produced, to stress the need for nature conservation, preservation of — wild vegetable and animal life and all allied subjects. In matters of legislation will become very much less difficult. February 15, 1954. COMMENTS ON THE BIOGEOGRAPHY OF ARABIA WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO BIRDS j BY S. Ditton RIPLEy - _ (With two maps) During World War II my interest became aroused in southern _ Arabia, when I had occasion to fly over it several times on military _ business and to land at various hitherto inaccessible places, such as _ Sharjah and Dhahran. Although the mountains of Yemen in the _ south-west have been visited by, naturalists, notably a British Museum _ of Natural History expedition in 1937 (Scott, 1942), virtually nothing - is known of the fauna of Muscat and Oman, and of the spectacular so-called ‘Green’ Mountains, the Jabal al Akhdhar, which rise to a height of over 10,000 ft. 3 In 1950 I had an opportunity to visit Arabia and Muscat, but was prevented by a changed schedule from actually visiting the _ south-eastern corner of the Peninsula. However, as a result of that _ visit and of my correspondence with the Sultan of Muscat, three years later a joint collecting expedition, sponsored by the Philadelphia _ Academy of Natural Sciences and Yale’s Peabody Museum (de -Schauensee and Ripley, 1953) was arranged. The collection made on this expedition has added considerably to our knowledge of the - avifauna of the area, and has prompted me to prepare the following comments. Little can be understood of the history -of the fauna of Arabia _ without an attempt to picture the geological events which have produced _ the conditions perceived today. The following brief summary of the recent geology of Arabia, therefore, seems appropriate. GEOLOGY _ _ The Peninsula of Arabia is a vast peneplain, bordered at its western, - south-western, and south-eastern extremities by two blocks of highlands composed of a core of ancient crystalline rocks on which have been superimposed huge thicknesses of successive formations, mainly _ sandstones, during the Cretaceous. In late Cretaceous or early Cenozoic time, western Arabia was uplifted far above sea level and a period of faulting and crustal movements set in. At this time western Arabia was connected to Africa, which, during a large part of this period, was isolated from the rest of the world. This unity. remained until early Miocene time. Vulcanism developed and has continued to the present as evidenced by hot springs and vapor fissures. There are many lava outcroppings in the western Arabian highlands. The tableland of Yemen is an enormous 4 ‘upraised block of lower Cenozoic or Tertiary, age with central peaks ‘rising to 10,000 ft. above sea level. 242 ‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO a ae Eastern Arabia was submerged in Miocene time, emerging ‘telore the end of this period, covered with Eocene sediments. According to Gregory (1929) the Oman Mountains are related to the Zagros mountain system. He feels there is no evidence for considerable submergence in south-western Iran, or a broad separation between Eurasia and Arabia by intervening seas. On the contrary there seems to be no certain evidence for a land connection during this period across the Persian Gulf. Certainly the northern part of the Gulf is post-Pliocene (vide Gregory, 1929: 118). Meanwhile before the end of the Miocene, the time of the worldwide spread of savannah vegetation types still characteristic of parts of eastern Africa, the Red Sea was flooded from the north by the Mediterranean, but Arabia remained connected to Africa through Yemen-Somaliland (Furon, 1941). This latter connection was broken in late Pliocene and meanwhile a Sinai connection had arisen which has continued in roughly the same shape to the present day era of the Suez Canal. The above brief summary of geological events prior to the Pleistocene is given to indicate only that there had been land connections between Arabia and the adjacent continents as far back as the origin of the Peninsula, but that these connections were not always contemporaneous, and that the mountains of the south-western parts of Arabia in Yemen and of the south-eastern, in Oman respectively, are neither contemporary nor apparently closely related. PLEISTOCENE Superimposed on these earlier rocks are alluvial and aeolian deposits of Pleistocene date. The Pleistocene is noted, of course, for its glaciation in the temperate zones of the world, as well as for a certain amount of transitory glaciation in the higher montane equatorial areas. Flint (1947: 468) describes conditions in the northern hemisphere which tended to produce the so-called ae periods in the tropical latitudes: ‘With the gradual growth of ice sheets in North ey Siberia, and Europe and with the growth of sea ice in the Arctic Sea and the North Atlantic, high-pressure conditions were established in the air over them, and the entire belt of eastward- moving cyclonic storms (‘the belt. of westerlies’) was shifted progressively southward. In South America a similar northward — shift took place, but it was certainly less: pronounced because the — area of glacier ice in southern South America was comparatively © small. a ‘As the belt of cyclonic storms edged southward, regions— — especially in the extra-tropical belts of high pressure—that are dry — under the climates of today began to experience increased rainfall. — At the same time the increased cloudiness that characterizes the ~ belt of westerlies operated to reduce the evaporation rate, already — diminished somewhat by the worldwide cooling that had preceded ~ the growth of the ice sheets. The results were increased stream discharge, expansion of existing lakes without outlets, and the : teen uidoys *yX9} 943 UL payto ‘sroyyne snorva | NVLSINVd 4q pssodoid se ‘sjo1jstp 10 sadA}y | UIIZYINOS 21OUL BY} pur ‘9UOZ IOI v9L[eg 94} Us2eMJeq UOBoIeWap Jo soul] pasodoid pue ‘(seaie papeys) spueyysiy SuImoys viquiy jo dey °1I oindig (OES!) Zflas i] ’ : — Oe, t terse Fe oe XN < vt aw 00S ‘ISI ‘JUN Aequog ‘“uanor Pe tage 2 Ol Qs ane F: ci tant a OO ¥ eesce 2 oe 2 ne oo eo i oe : nos. oe “i CS oO Gc chen! Orne eirs e aes rales Joppa ware: D> E> ie ce fo th Sone 8 = a Oo 2 35 E oMS ag &é a eee ee eta) aes n _ oO se og Oo E Steere a = S95 ,2°, 5 “oH 2s s es kas Son. Bs -APHY OF ARABIA creation of pe in bacias. previously dry. In short, a pluvial age - came into being. 9 ‘In the Old World, in like manner, pluvial conditions affected chiefly the Mediterranean lands, northern and central Africa, Asia Minor, central Asia and northern China. However, the effects were felt right down to the equator itself, where evidence of expanded lakes in East Africa is clear and extensive. This fact is not as surprising as it seems at first. The northern half of Africa is the only large subtropical land mass lying north of the equator. Because of this vast expanse of land it is more favourably situated than any other subtropical region to receive winter-season outbreaks of cold polar air. Even today these outbreaks reach as far south as latitude 15°. During the glacial epoch these outbreaks should have reached the equator itself.’ During these pluvial periods it has been assumed that the average temperatures fell several degrees [how much for the equatorial belt - is uncertain and equivocal (Moreau, 1933, 1952)], but at 20°N. latitude there is little doubt that it would be a significant figure. _ Even a relatively small change in temperature plus increased precipitation would be enough to alter the climate sufficiently to extend _ the savannah and arid vegetation types north along the western Arabian coast to Sinai and Egypt, and on the east from Trucial Oman to Iran, thus making a continuous belt of light forest and grassland in the form of a connecting link between Arabia and the continents. Huzayyin (1941) who has worked in Yemen reports evidences of two major pluvial periods which he equates with the Kamasian and _ Gamblian in East Africa, with an interpluvial stage characterized by - vulcanism as also found in Africa. Zeuner (1950) states that both _ these pluvials are contemporary with a Levalloisian variety of the Paleolithic. Other remains of prehistoric man are still rare in the literature for Arabia. Blades, burins, and end scrapers of Levalloisio- - Mousterian type have been found at Turaif near the Jordan border, - and Mousterian implements at Badanah near Iraq, both of the last interglacial or the beginning of the last glacial period in date (Coon, personal communication). Caton-Thompson and Gardner a50) report paleoliths of a crude _ Levalloisian type from the Hadhramaut indicating in their opinion a low ebb in paleolithic culture, perhaps due to the impoverished and harsh environment, also indicating a degree of isolation from the nearby cultures of Africa, North Arabia, and Palestine. Such evidence as muere is, then, would indicate that pluvial conditions during the _ Pleistocene were enough only to ameliorate, not to change radically, the rather arid biota of Arabia. Savannah grassland and thorn scrub could have existed over large parts of the Peninsula, especially out- - lining the shore lines and montane features, where only desert exists -. today. That in itself would have been Sufacient to encourage the _ spread of animals, plants, and associated man. PLEISTOCENE—RECENT % 7 _ There are some scraps of evidence for a more recent wet phase. _ Huzayyin (1941) proposes that this wet phase may have continued as late as 1600 years ago, basing his theory largely on archaeological 244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 data. Philby (1933) found gravel spread on the north side of the Rub-al-Khali (possibly lacustrine) and stone artifacts ofi neolithic facies. This might be correlated with the ‘Neolithic’ wet phase found in Egypt at Fayoum and Kharga, and ‘Pluvial C’ in Palestine. In the Sudan Red Sea Hills there is some evidence for a wet phase about 10,000 to 15,000 years ago based on the semi-fossil Mollusca found there. Many other evidences point to the existence of a so-called © Mesolithic rainy interlude (Murray, 1951) in Egypt, Libya, and the Sudan, dating as late as 4000 B.c. and extending bdck at least to 8000 B.C. This date would be satisfactory when compared with the recent radiocarbon dating's of about 10,000 years ago for the Mankato maximum _ of Wisconsin, preceded by a warmer period about 11,400 years ago (Allerod horizon-Two Creeks) in Western Europe and North America (Flint and Deevey, 1951, Flint, 1953). Dessication certainly began in Africa about 6,000 years ago and has continued to the present with little change. In Nubia there has been no continuous rainfall since about 5,500 years ago. Wood-Jones (1907-1908) reported the preservation of later predynastic bodies of that time, which were buried in the sand, as so complete that even eyes and brains are preserved, shrunken but intact. Gradually the scrub forests and the grasslands have disappeared. Stumps of trees lie on the Libyan desert where they have not grown for 5,000 years. Similar vestiges occur near Taif in western Arabia. Networks of trails of grazing animals cover hillsides where the vegetation disappeared in early predynastic times. Flake industries existed on hills in eastern Egypt which have not supported populations for millenia. The rise ~ of the climatic optimum or thermal maximum in Europe which has been dated from about 6,000 to 3,000 years ago (Flint and Deevey, 1951) sounded the knell of the sparse savannah and steppeland growth of the lowlands of Arabia which thereby began their long progress towards the desert conditions of today. In spite of these minor changes, there is no indication whatsoever that the climate of this part of the world has undergone any radical alterations since the commencement of the Pleistocene. CLIMATE TODAy Today rainfall in Arabia as a whole is insignificant. In the Yemen highlands it may reach 14 to 15 inches annually, mostly during the summer monsoon. In these highlands there are perennial streams and springs, although no streams reach the coast or far into the interior, losing themselves in their older, greater courses in the sand. In the adjacent lowlands rainfall is no more than 2% inches per annum, with interior areas of the Peninsula having less. Isolated from the south-western hills (although the southern coastal belt of the Dhofar receives moisture in the form of a cloud and mist cover and heavy dews from the sea) are the south-western Oman hills. Rainfall may reach 4 inches in the coastal area, concentrated during December and January. Figures are not available for the Green Mountains of — Muscat which have a parallel rainy season, and an intermittent cloud — cover as well with a mist blanket of moisture in lieu of rain. In © ~ COMMENTS ON BIOGEOGRAPHY OF ARABIA February each year, crop of fine grasses springs up on the plateaux at 6,000 ft. which is grazed by feral asses. There are no perennial streams in Oman. The principal vegetation of Arabia is xerophytic, the habitats ranging from open desert sand to rocky cliffs, to arid steppe highlands dotted with occasional grasses or shrubs, many of them succulent, to patches of tropical grassland savannah. On the heights cultivation occurs with olives, figs, citrus trees, grains, wheat, barley, ‘dhurra’ or sorghum, millet, lucerne, and coffee above 5,000 feet. These isolated highlands in the south-west and south-east serve as ‘islands,’ ‘refugia,’ for relict, Palearctic plants—primulas, iris, potentillas, and such genera as Juniperus, Monotheca, and Caylusea. Among birds there are important Palearctic relict forms in Yemen such as the Hedge-Sparrow, the Bullfinch, the Wheatear, Gray Shrike, and the Serin Finch. There are Palearctic relict reptiles and numerous insects, all presumably dating from pluvial times. Among the mammals, however, none can be ascribed to the Palearctic with the possible exception of the hedgehog, the rest being derived either from Africa or the Orient. ORIGIN OF THE AVIFAUNA With the exception of the species enumerated above, the birds which are known to be resident today in southern Arabia can be shown to have been derived either from the Ethiopian region or the Indian sub-region. These are entirely arid country forms of life. Such species may have derived from savannah types, but endemism is very high in what Chapin (1932) calls the ‘Somali Arid’ sub-region. _ Attempting to screen out only the resident land birds, and to eliminate those species of presumed Palearctic origin, a rough listing of the two areas gives the following: SW. Arabia SE. Arabia No. of families (including ostrich) 22 — uepebe No. of species 36 isos? 1G Ethiopian derived 25 == 649% aero O Indian or Ethiopian G = 176 fae 3. = 20% Indian or Mid-Eastern T= 19% te OG The above figures include endemic species and subspecies. The latter are fairly easy to ascribe, as often they belong to species found either in the Ethiopian region or the Indian sub-region, although the latter category, may include south-east European elements. Some forms such as the local resident bee-eaters and larks might be assigned to _ either fauna, and have been listed under the category ‘Indian or Ethiopian’. Moreau (1952: 905) states that, ‘The status of the Somali... arid - -avifauna suggests . . . uninterrupted local evolution since the Pliocene, _ and perhaps since the Miocene. It follows that none of the Pleistocene pluvials (and no consequences of the movement in the caloric equator) can have extinguished at any time the arid environment in the areas concerned.’ ; . 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ee Analyzing the avifauna possessed in common by Africa and th Indo-Malayan region, Moreau (1952) shows that the affinities between the two areas in birds are mostly at the family or ordinal level indicating — a very long separation climatically, thus fitting with the hypothesis — that free interchange of evergreen forest organisms could not have continued more recently than early Pliocene time. | The above statements are interesting as supporting the fidence derived from the fauna of Arabia, that the Peninsula has been a segment of a faunal barrier for a considerable time. Looking also at the figures presented above it is interesting to — note the degree of difference between the avifaunas of south-west and south-east Arabia. While the south-west area [included by Chapin (1932) in the ‘Somali Arid’] has a clear majority of forms derived from the Ethiopian region, either similar subspecies or closely related forms, the south-east has no clear-cut cases, and only 20 per cent belonging to the category ‘Indian or Ethiopian’. It is of course entirely possible that further collecting in south-east Arabia will reveal more_ resident forms. In addition it is noteworthy that there are forms representing 19 per cent of the total in south-west Arabia which can clearly be ascribed to Indian or Middle-East sources, while this figure reaches 80 per cent in south-east Arabia. Therefore, it would appear that in southern Arabia, the intervening country between the Yemen and Muscat high- lands forms in itself a substantial barrier to faunal interchange; supported by the fact that several bird genera such as Turdoides, Ammomanes, Alectoris, Prinia, etc. have subspecies differing from each other in the two areas. Additionally the barriers between southern Arabia and neighbouring biotic types have been strong enough | to create a distinct group of residents, rather different in composition. As an example of this, in the Oman-Muscat area several Indian birds occur which have been able to penetrate no farther west than these hills. Five of these species, the Redwattled Lapwing, Senegal Dove, Indian Parakeet, House Crow, and Malabar Munia cannot be ae taxonomically from their Indian relatives., : Of the endemic birds found in southern Arabia only two are specifically distinct. One, the Blackheaded or Yemen Partridge, Alectoris melanocephala, seems most closely related to the Chukor Partridge of India and the Middle-East. The second species, the Taif Woodpecker, Picoides dorae, seems Asian in origin to me, closest to the Indian relict species Pee ies mahrattensis and: its ‘only close — relation, P. auriceps, of the Himalayas. Dorae resembles these species — in its reduced and browned-out but similar patterns on the nape, lower abdomen and vent, under tail-coverts, and on the wings and tail. Interestingly enough the sole Arabian mammal species is a similar | ‘relict’ related to the Himalayas area, the Tahr, Hemitragus. LIMIT OF THE PALEARCTIC IN ARABIA Seitz (1930; in Warnecke, 1933) says that the southern limit of — the Palearctic in Arabia lies north of a line between Mecca and the ~ northern end of the Gulf of Oman. Holdhaus (1929) makes the line a _ little more to the south along the 2oth parallel, thus excluding Oman Muscat Fomphiey. This woul be all very well if only Yemen re to be considered in southern Arabia, and if it were to be included. h the ‘Somali Arid District’ of Chapin (1932). Alternatively, however, the recent work of Bates (1936) and others in western Saudi Arabia, and the increased knowledge of the birds - Muscat would seem to indicate that the southern endemisms as well s the Oriental and Ethiopian forms range farther north along the oast, and that they are not confined strictly below such lines. South- est Arabian forms such as the sunbirds, Nectarinia, the Fantailed aven, Corvus vhipidurus, larks, bulbul, wheatears etc., all range arther north than formerly supposed, many to the edge of the Sinai eninsula. Eastward the border should certainly be north of Hofuf nd the Qatar Peninsula. Such a line would correspond to about 26°30’N.. latitude. CGNnGLUSEON Arabia has had a relatively stable climate since the beginning of F the Pleistocene. What history is known of the past few thousand years indicates only a steady increase in dessication., Recent studies of the avifauna indicate that endemism is fairly high for such an arid region and that important relict species occur. Based on climatic history it can be presumed that three of these relicts, the partridge, _ the woodpecker and the tahr, as well as the Palearctic relicts, represent invasions from the Indian sub- region, or from the north, of at least leistocene climatic conditions, at least among birds and mammals, ere are none.’ Presumably such species remnants have been slowly, xtinguished over the intervening millenia. In general, the presence of the Peninsula may be considered more f a barrier than an avenue of interchange between adjacent continents. in addition, the birds, at least, would tend to dispute the evidence dvanced by some zoologists, particularly in the field of entomology, hat the boundary of the Palearctic region lies far south in the Peninsula., would suggest, therefore, that in the future the Peninsula of Arabia south of latitude 26°30/N. be considered a distinct biotic type or province (to use Semenov’s term), distinct from the ‘Somali Arid,’ be known as the ‘South Arabian’. It is to be hoped, of course, ie further field studies in the hill ranges of southern Arabia will yield 2 dditional evidence for the distinctness of this isolated area. REFERENCES CITED Bates, G. L. (1936) : Ibis, 18 : 47-65, 301-321, 531-556, 674-712. Caton-Thompson, G. and Gardner, E. W. (1939): Geog. Jour., 93: 29-31. a Chapin, J. P. (1932) : Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull. 65: 90. _ de Schauensee, R. M. and Ripley, S. D. (1953) : Acad. Nat. .Scte Phila:, Prog. 3 105 : 71-90 -: Sie R. F. (1947) : Glacial Geology and the Pleistocene Epoch. New York, =a — — and eaves. E. S. (1951): Am. Jour. Sci., 249 : 257-296. — — — (1953): Bull. Geological Soc., America, 64: 897-919. Furon, R. (1941): La palégéographie. Paris. Gregory, J. W. (1929): The Structure of Asia. London. re-Pleistocene date. Of other vestigial species, remnants of pre-— Mee eee Sea NM ee BF seit i] 2 at eS a my ro ke ee sr abate ar A -Holdaus, K. (1929) + Handbuch fiir Been al Dis yin % Huzayyin, S. A. (1941): Mem. a l’Inst. a@Egypre, 13: 125. 126. Moreau, R. E. (1933): Jour, Ecol., 24: 428., — — — (1952): Zool. Soc., London, Proc., 124: 883-886. Murray, G. W. (1951): Geog. Jour., 117: 429-430. Philby, H. St. J. (1933): Geog. Jour., 84: 1-26. — Scott, H. (1942): In the high Yemen. London. ‘ Seitz, O. (1930): Suppl. Band zum Palaarkten. Grosschmetterlings der Erde. ah Warnecke, G. (1933): Zoogeographica, 1: 573-578. tas Dianex Wood-Jones, F. (1907-1908): Archaeol. Survey of Nubia, 2: 189-190. Zeuner, F. E. (1950): Dating the Past. London. p. 248. — : -~ 4 - OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF TWO SPIDER MIMICS _ OF THE RED ANT, OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA (FABR.): BY A. P. MATHEW, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Zoology, University College, Trivandrum (With five text figures) CONTENTS INTRODUCTION... ae Kip HaBITS OF THE MODEL AND THE MIMICS . THE RELATIONS OF THE MODEL AND THE MIMICS... (a) Discriminating powers of Occophylla (b) Do the ants mistake the spiders for other ants? (c) Does Mvrmarachne feed on its models? . DruRNAL HaBiIts OF THE SPIDERS . COURTSHIP AND MatTING | . COcooNns . LirE-HISTORY . CONCLUDING REMARKS . SUMMARY REFERENCES INTRODUCTION — Myrmarachne plataleoides Cambr. and Amyciaea forticeps _ (Cambr.) are two well-known spiders which mimic the Indian Red Ant, Oecophyilla smaragdina (Fabr.). These spiders belong to two a 1. Hapirs OF THE MODEL AND THE Mimics The Red Ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, that forms the model for _ both these mimics is a common ant occurring all over India. Its nests built of a number of leaves bound together with silk and guarded ferociously by the innumerable inhabitants are very familiar objects. _ Observations on the habits of these ants are recorded by Rothney _ (1890), Wroughton (1892) and Hingston (1923). : ; _ Wherever colonies of these ants exist, one can generally come ross two mimicking spiders—an Attid spider, Myrmarachne plataleoides and a Thomisid spider, Amyciaea forticeps. Observations — _ on the former are recorded by Cambridge (1869), Peckham (1892), a? Read before the Thirtyfirst Session of the Indian Science Congress Association, anuary 1944 (Delhi). iat Se ee Narayan (1915), Hingston: Rios ane Mathew Te, oe is moving about or halting, these front legs are always kept in motion the normal size. It is interesting that this wide range of variability Observations on A. forticeps are recorded by Cambridge (1873, 1901), Pocock (1909), Shelford (1902), Graveley (1915), Kunhikannan (1916), Hingston (1927) and Bhattacharya (1934). * se : Myrmarachne plataleoides is a perfect mimic of the red ant ; so perfect is this mimicry that even experienced biologists may pass. it by as an ant, in the field. There is a complete copying of the external form and coloration of the ant’. To this passive mimicry is added a close imitation of the general movements of the model. The front legs are long and directed forwards and, whether the animal and very often held raised up. In this position, frequently, the leg is bent about its middle so as to simulate the ‘scape’ and the. ‘flagellum’ of the ant’s antenna. During daytime these spiders may generally be found wandering on foliage not far from red ant colonies. To distinguish the spiders from the red ants as they move amongst them is rather difficult. Still, a few minutes’ observation will show one that in details of behaviour the spider is quite un-antlike and thus can be distinguished. When one of these spiders is disturbed—the shadow of an observer is enough to do this—after ‘looking’ at the.intruder for a moment, it -tries to escape. If it is on a leaf it dodges to the under-side and keeps quiet. One who has disturbed a red ant colony will realise that this is what an ant would never do. If the spider is still pursued, it moves fast in an attempt to get away. Sometimes it drops’ on the ground and thus baffles the would-be captor; for, once among the underlying scrub and dead leaves with many red ants moving about, detection of the tiny spider is very difficult. Most often, however, ~when the spider lets itself down like this, it will = have a silken cable attached to the leaf from which it dropped, so that _ it does not always reach the ground but hangs midway. The ~~ ~ particular behaviour often depends on the extent of the disturbance. If it is slight, the spider merely hangs by the silken cable for a minute or two and then climbs back to the leaf; but if the disturbance is greater, the cable snaps, and the spider drops down amidst the rubbish below. ee Specimens collected in the field show certain variations in colour and size. Adult individuals have been met with which are not larger than three-quarters the normal size, some even so small as only half in size was noticed mainly in the males. Observations on some se voung ones which I reared in _artificial cages suggest that this 4 depends to a great extent on food; regularly and well-fed individuals — at the final moult attained to the normal size and those which were underfed developed into smaller individuals. In coloration too there is variation. Specimens which were in close proximity to the red — ants had the normal reddish brown colour, whereas those collected — away from ant colonies had a darker colour. My breeding experi-— ments in this case have also given some suggestions as to the probau 1 vide references cited above. s af aie ane Al noticed that generally, when quite highly coloured individuals were confined in cages and fed on a diet of gnats and flies, they turned several shades darker, in two or three days. This suggests that the variation in colour may be, partly at a due to diet. \ Amyciaea forticeps is a Thomisid spider which, by an approxi- mation in size and coloration to the Oecophylla, has attained a general likeness to this ant but lacks the part-to-part correspondence so striking in the Attid mimic. Attempts to show such a correspondence have been unsatisfactory and often conflicting (see Pocock and Hingston). It is an aggressive mimic and may be seen moving about in a characteristic way in ‘rushes and pauses’ with a peculiar trembling - their colonies (fig. 1). It is said that these SE spiders keep the first pair of legs stretched in front, simulating the ant’s antennae as has already been noticed in Myrmarachne. _ My observations however do not confirm - this. While watching a specimen of this species for some time, one might occasionally see it in such a posture but normally it is seen to move about in a series of rushes and pauses during which the first two pairs Fic. 1—Amyciaea forticeps in of limbs, which are longer than the other ordinary movement. : pairs, are raised up together and brandished in a convulsive manner (figs. 2 A, 2 B and 2 C). As these two pairs is ne = to the peculiar movement of the first two pairs of limbs. _ 2 A—First two pairs of limbs raised up so as to form a pair of double arches. _ 2 B—These two pairs of legs brought down together for a moment. 2 C—Immediately after, they are jerked upwards. . of legs are held up over the head bent in a characteristic manner forming two double ‘arches, they suggest little resemblance to the antennae of the ants. When among the ants, it is interesting to notice the extremely - cautious movements of these spiders, always avoiding the main lines of the ants. Confronting one of the ants, the spider immediately dodges to the opposite side of the leaf moving dexterously sideways ‘in true Thomisid fashion, or it may drop on its silk line ‘safety cable’. Though it shuns the ant in the open foliage it is a regular hunter e these ants, stalking and feeding on them. It waits watching for - movement of the first two pairs of limbs near streams of red ants or Fic. 2—Amyciaea forticeps. Postures presented as the animal moves along, due 252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 2 7” + me an unwary stray ant and, when it sees one, cautiously approaches it si and finally makes an unerring spring. : et | 7 tee Hingston (1927) remarks that these spiders make silken retreats from _ fs 2, which they emerge to capture the. ants... have failed: te sce retreats made by these spiders; they do not make any. They hunt their prey in the open, lurking in the paths of the ants. In February 1930, I kept a few of these spiders and two red ~ ants in a glass box. After wandering about for some time one of the — spiders was seen stalking an ant. Facing the ant the spider retreated a little and waited for its chance. As it thus waited the body was — balanced on the 3rd and 4th pairs of legs, the 3rd pair directed forwards | and the 4th pair backwards. The two pairs of legs in front are held up together and gracefully bent at the joints forming a pair of double arches and are kept constantly quivering in a characteristic: way. This quivering movement of the limbs together with the two conspicuous black spots on the abdomen suggesting a pair of eyes gives the picture of a struggling ant. Probably this serves as a lure to the ant. Whereas an ant under normal conditions may not mistake a spider as it moves along for a member of its own species, it is quite possible that a small ant-like body with the legs all quivering may suggest an ant in trouble. The ant immediately took up the usual alarm attitude, paused, raised the body on the legs, held the antennae up and bent the abdomen sharply over the thorax. This was the spider’s chance. It quickly moved to a side and by a sudden unerring spring jumped on to the back of the ant and thrust its chelicerae into the ant’s head (fig. 3). Immediately the ant bent its body double and was motion- less...’ he: Spider: jel itor. 2a moment but soon returned and began sucking it. Meanwhile the other ant which was in the cage became highly alarmed and, mov- ing hurriedly with mandibles held wide open, came across the spider ‘quietly enjoying its meal; in a moment the spider was struggling between its mandibles, helpless. A similar observation regarding the hunting habits of Amyciaea has been made by Mrs. Drake as recorded by Graveley (191 a Though this appears to be the method of capture as observed in cages, my observations in the field show a different behaviour. One evening while 3 searching for spiders near an Oecophylla colony, I came across a stout » a ! -Amyciaea stalking a stray ant. It moved in its characteristic manner, — pee: took up the ‘luring posture’, and then made the spring; the ant : struggled, and the next moment I saw the hunter and the hunted 2 : tumbling down together from the twig. The spider never lost 1 ; firm hold on the prey but as it rolled down, it glued to the twig its ‘safety cable’ so that, instead of falling down on the rubbish below — : where the ant probably could make a good struggle, it hung down my from the twig on the slender cable in mid air with the ant struggling aes Fic 3—Amyciaea forticeps springing ° t on an ant. ee Se Bre “HABITS OF TWO SPIDER MIMICS OF THE RED ANT 253 between its chelicerae (fig. 4). Here the spider was ‘at home’ and the ant helpless. After hanging in this position for a while the spider began sucking its prey. Sometime later it climbed back to the twig carrying the prey along with it and there continued to suck it at different parts. = Since then I have observed on several occasions spiders of this | species enjoying their repast hanging in mid air on their threads from the open foliage. This is certainly safer since red ants move about in the vicinity and, if one of them surprises the spider, the i latter would, have no way of escape as was noticed previously in one of my observation cages. 2. THE RELATIONS OF THE MODEL AND THE MIMICS Amyciaea feeds on its models and so its close association with ant colonies is easy to understand. But it is difficult to see why the formidable red ants wink at the intrusion into their midst of these dangerous assassins, especially when we realise how uncourteous these ants generally are to intruders, and how fiercely and tenaciously they defend the colony and the nest from outside interference. it is surprising, similarly, to note the same apparent indifference shown by these ants towards the Attid mimic M. plataleoides 5, de ay cca fortran which also enjoys the closest proximity to hanging from a silken thread these insects. It is commonly suggested and sucking a captured ant. that by their ant-likeness they are mistaken by the ants for members of their own community and that thus they are tolerated. Regarding A. forticeps it is claimed that in this false garb it can get into ant colonies unrecognised and thus have plenty of unsus- pecting prey on which it can feed with impunity. This interpretation on the one hand and of the discriminating instincts of the ants on - the other. We have no reason to imagine that the ants are deceived by the false garb of the spiders so as to mistake them for other ants. The behaviour of the ant when it faces one of these spiders is ample evidence that it is not in any way deceived as to the real nature of the intruder. (a) Certain observations on the discriminating powers of Oecophylla Two individuals from a distant colony of red ants were introduced on a shrub where there was a thriving colony of these ants kept under __ observation. These moved about on the leaves. One of them soon came _ across one of the smaller type of workers of the colony. The latter immediately ‘recognised’ the stranger and, without waiting for any help or running away scared by a larger opponent, fearlessly attacked cannot, however, be held in the light of what we know of insect vision - colonies and is quite inhospitable to them. 254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 it. It gripped one of the legs of the intruder sith its snare bles a and pulled it hard but the other struggled and bending its body caught the enemy by the neck and severed the head from its body. The carcase of the defender rolled down the leaf, but its head never lost its firm grip. Meanwhile some half a dozen members of the colony had come on the scene and gripped the intruder at different places. Two held the antennae and pulled them tightly in opposite directions. Others caught hold of the legs and pulled them apart, while others got on the body and began to bite and tear viciously. While they were so uncourteous. towards members of strange colonies, they appeared to be very considerate towards individuals of their own colony: which were kept away from them for some time. On their being restored they were received with apparent cordiality and were not attacked. The Oecophylla’s sense of distinction goes a step further. One family seems to establish more than one colony —sometimes quite a number of colonies, grouped close together on the same or adjacent branches. Individuals of these different colonies, but all belonging to the same family, seem to recognise each other perfectly well for, when they meet, there is no show of hostility but they. seem to get on in the most friendly manner. Into a nest which was under observation I introduced a worker from one of the adjacent colonies whose proximity to this nest convinced me that they must form one family. It was not attacked. These observations show that: (1) Oc¢ecophylla can _ readily recognise members of its own colony (2) It distinguishes members of eeadly and allied colonies with little difficulty and accords to them the proper cordial treatment (3) It recognises members me other (b) Do the ants mistake these spiders for other ants? Possessing such instincts of discrimination as observed be it is highly improbable that the ants would be deceived by the false garb of these spiders with its many imperfections. My observations convince me that the Oecophylla recognise these spiders as strangers and are alarmed. I have often closely watched specimens of M. plataleoides: as they move about on plants with streams of red ants. The spider is very careful to avoid the ants, and if it comes across one, it immediately beats a hasty retreat and escapes. The ant recognising it (or recognising that something is amiss) assumes its alarm attitude which gives the spider time to escape. Should the ant pursue, the spider quickens its pace, dodges under a leaf, or as a last resort lets itself down by a thread and hangs suspended in air Where the ant cannot pursue it..The ant, losing its quarry, abandons the chase. If somehow this method of escape is rendered impossible or prevented, the ant pounces upon it in the most relentless manner and carries it triumphantly to the nest. This applies equally truly to Amyciaea. Coming across the foraging ants, this spider dodges and escapes or drops on a silk thread as Myrmarachne does. Only stray ants are ‘lured’ in the characteristic manner described above and ‘secured as prey. It never behaves as if it felt safe near the ants but is ever on the alert. A moment’s neglect or ease may find it being crushed Patt Eye ret 255 between the mandibles of ca ant! ‘T Bd safety of these spiders thea from being attacked by the red ants amongst whom they live depends, not so much on their deceptive garb though commonly thought to be so, as on their cleverness and quickness in perception and move-— ments. Their sight and nimble movements in any direction as may be necessary and their possession of the ‘safety cable’ ready for use at any time, alone make them safe in the midst of these vicious ants, What then, it might be asked, about the protective value of ant - mimicry? By looking like ants and haunting their vicinity, these spiders do secure comparative safety from their usual enemies, as has been pointed out by, me in a previous paper (1934). But we are not to think that the false garb in any way deceives the ants themselves. a0 ‘Does Myrmarachne feed on its models? Does Myrmarachne feed on its models as Amyciaea does? The few observations recorded that it does were quite likely made as a result’ of confusion between these two mimics. My observations extending over many years and made under diverse conditions show that M. plataleoides does not feed on the red ants. I have also made some tests with other Attid mimics and their models; I have never seen any Attid mimic attacking its model. This is quite a contrast to the Clubionid and Thomisid mimics which regularly hunt and prey on their models. - Though Myrmarachne dues not feed on the red ants, it still keeps persistently close to the ant neighbourhoods. This may suggest that - there is some biological interrelation between these animals. Many times I have seen these spiders getting as close as possible to the nest of the ants; and occasionally seen mature or immature individuals waiting in their ‘retreats’ on the underside of a leaf which was just an inch or two below the nests of these ants. But I have never seen them getting any further. While camping at Karupanthode, Travancore Reserve Forests, in December 1929, I came across a red ant nest which was deserted by _ the occupants. On opening it I found a female M. plataleoides inside. - Sometime later in Parur, North Travancore, I came across a male anda female M. plataleoides in a ‘mating nest’ within a deserted nest of Oecophylla. Probably the spiders might have got in after the nests were deserted by the ants. But, on another occasion in the summer of 1931 at Parur I found a female spider in a nest of —Ocecophylla still tenanted by a few ants. I have ascertained definitely that these spiders do not live in ant nests as certain other spider mimics do. . The above observations therefore merely suggest that under certain conditions they may enter ant nests. It seemed that the larvae and pupae of the ants might be the attraction for these spiders. To see if these would be taken and relished as food, I put a few ant pupae in a cage where there were -a few spiders. Since they ordinarily take only moving prey I was _ not expecting any positive results. But in a few minutes, when I returned. to. the cage, I was quite ‘surprised to see the spiders each 5) oath: a pupa in its jaws aed busy, sucking it! oe 256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Later, a red ant’s nest from which most of the ants were driven off leaving only a few larvae and pupae with a few smaller workers who persisted in remaining with the pupae, was gently dropped into one of the cages containing a few spiders. After a few minutes the spiders approached the nest with great caution. They moved carefully halting at every step. Getting on to the leaf on which the nest was, they moved about on its outer side. One casually got on the other side; it must have seen the ants guarding the pupae, | for it immediately dodged to the opposite side of the leaf. As it was thus approaching the pupae it showed evident signs of caution or fear; for, at the slightest movement of the ants or even of the cage, it would suddenly run back. After some time, however, I saw each of these spiders holding a pupa in its jaws! How they did it I was not able to observe. Once while collecting egg cocoons of these spiders I came across one cocoon near which was a nest of the small brown ants. In the cocoon the eggs had hatched and the spiderlings had completed their second moult within the cocoon and had become quite ant-like; their size and dark coloration made them appear very similar to the brown ants which were moving about on the leaf. This relation appeared quite interesting. The nest was taken to the laboratory and put in a glass cage. In doing this I evidently disturbed the young spiders as well as the ants; for, they became restless and leaving their nests began to wander about the glass cage. The disturbed ants according to their universal custom had each taken in its mandibles a larva or pupa and were wildly moving about for some time. Finally, they settled in a corner of the glass cage with their charges still in their jaws. Afterwards two of the spiderlings were seen moving to the new ant settlement; getting close to it they spun their retreats and settled close by. It seemed that these spider- lings too, like their parents, may be larva and pupa stealers, but these exploit, not Oecophylla, but the small brown ants which they mimic. , An attempt was made early in 1932 to see if a spiderling could be reared from its earliest stages on a diet exclusively of ant larvae and pupae. It was quite'a success and it is specially noteworthy that the specimens continued to be healthy and vigorous through all the stages. These studies show that quite possibly these spiders are larva and pupa stealers of their models. This may be only a step towards becoming actually aggressive; for, from the habit of feeding on larvae and pupae of the models to feeding on the models themselves is only a small step—yet, one accompanied by greater risks and therefore perhaps never taken. 3. DrurNAL Hapits OF THE SPIDERS During daytime M. plataleoides wander about in search of prey and towards dusk they generally spin silken shelters or retreats in which they rest for the night. They have seldom been seen to go Moth Cee Pian (nl ot ge acoder gtaam Aelia back to their old retreats, being satisfied with making a fresh retreat for the night wherever they chance to be. When confined in small cages they have quite often been noted to use the old retreats if they are not badly torn. The females, with their cocoons and guarding the eggs, stray out only a short distance from their ‘nests’ and return soon to their charge. My observations show that these spiders ‘rest’ in their retreats during the whole night and do not stir out after nightfall under normal conditions. Some of the observations and experiments which have convinced me that these spiders are not nocturnal were given in detail in a former paper (Mathew, 1931). The following observations may be noted: 1. In the field, towards dusk, these spiders can be seen making their retreats in which they remain all through the night. 2. When kept in observation cages they do the same. 3. At night, observing an individual in its retreat we note that it fails to observe the intruder’s approach; in the daytime it would be almost impossible to approach them without being noticed. _ 4. At night when an individual is within its retreat, if a needle is taken to its front and waved to and fro, it is not perceived. Only when touched by the needle does it become aware of any disturbance. But even then it does not realise the real nature of the disturbance ; it simply gets out of the retreat and runs about in a confused manner. 5. A specimen was kept in a cage and occasionally fed on tiny insects. One night after the spider had retreated into its nest, a small insect was introduced into the cage to see if the spider would attack it, which could be expected if it were nocturnal. But the next morning the insect was found alive and the spider still at rest. A few minutes later the spider got out of its retreat and soon afterwards caught the insect and sucked it. The retreats made for the night are never so thick and well built as the moulting chambers. They often consist of only a canopy over the spider resting on a leaf; the canopy being narrower towards the ends, both of which are open. The spider can conveniently turn about within this retreat. As it rests under the canopy the forelegs are stretched out forwards and upwards, so as to be in contact with the front part of the canopy; the tarsi are bent downwards so as to stretch across the front opening. The last pair of legs are stretched backwards in a similar manner with the tibia in contact with the dome and the tarsi resting on the floor stretched across the posterior opening. Thus both the openings are guarded and at the slightest 4 _ disturbance, whether on the dome or at any of the openings, the spider is on the alert. If the disturbance is from behind, it immediately turns around within the retreat and faces the intruder. If however the disturbance is sufficiently serious, the spider rushes out wildly and escapes. Amyciaea too is diurnal. During the day it is active near the colonies of the red ants. During the night it rests. However, it does not make retreats as M. plataleoides does. On the other hand towards nightfall it spins irregular tangles of silken threads stretched between adjacent leaves or twigs and suspending itself A RSS DSRS Tae SANs etapa aS of eS bythe UN ag EA 258 in the middle of this. framework, it rests secure (fig. 5): ‘The two front legs on either side are held to-— gether and stretched outwards at right angles to the length of the body in | a straight line. The third pair of legs which is the smallest pair, each grips one of the filaments while the last pair is directed backwards holding on firmly — to the strands behind. In such a position it can rest secure from the predacious red ants which may be moving in the vicinity. 4. COURTSHIP AND MATING The courtship and mating habits of M. plataleoides have been described by me in a previous paper (Mathew, 1940). It was shown that pairing normally takes place in ‘pairing nests’, without any _ preliminary courtship. Regarding the courting habits of Amyciaea, Bhattacharya (1934) has recorded certain observations, The following observations of mine may be added. On June 4, 1930 I saw a stout female Amyciaea on a portia — twig along which a stream of red ants was moving. On an adjoining leaf was a male, smaller and of a more slender build than the female. I secured them both in tubes and later put them together in a cage. Considering their aggressive nature I hesitated to put them together but there was no show of hostility; they moved about the cage in their characteristic way, in rushes and pauses, the anterior two pairs of legs being stretched out and flourished with a quivering movement during the pauses. This has been thought to have some special relation to courtship. It is referred to as a display of their graceful movement of legs in courtship. But I have shown above that they behave in this way in their ordinary movements, Soon they came near each other and then, without any preliminary ‘courtship’, the male made a sharp jump on to the back of the female as he would pounce upon his prey. He took up his position above her abdomen, facing in the same direction as she. This is unlike the positions — taken up by male and female M. plataleoides in pairing, who face in opposite directions and both have their legs resting on the floor. — Here, the male plants all his legs on the female’s- abdomen leaving her perfectly free to move about. While the male adjusted his position on the female’s back, -she remained quiet in a crouching ~— attitude. Soon, however, the female resumed her normal posture and | -on the slightest disturbance. would move about carrying the male on ~ her back. She was in fact quite free to move and continued to- do so in the cage for about a quarter of an hour. The movements then gradually Stopped and she became quiet. The male felt for the -epigynum of the female with his palpus and the sperm transfer was Fic. 5—Amyciaea forticeps. Position of night repose. or most sf hie time s were quiet eeeut for an pectin nal quivering “movement of the first two pairs of limbs. After copulation they _ separated and wandered apart. : Here we notice certain marked differences from the pairing habits of M. plataleoides. It is clear that in Amyciaea there is no preliminary courtship. Their ‘recognition’ or ‘realisation’ of each other seems __ to be instantaneous and, the moment the male has planted himself eon the back of the female, the latter’s feeding instinct is suppressed and she is ready to pair. Again, in Amyciaea pairing takes place in the open and not in any ‘pairing nests’. M. plataleoides withdraws into specially constructed nests for pairing, and it was pointed out in that connection (Mathew 1940) that this was necessary, since they ee live in close proximity to the predacious red ants which might at any time surprise them. But in Amyciaea, which too lives in identical a Bo cundings the necessity for retreating into a nest is dispensed with since the female during pairing is completely free to move about sieving the male on her ‘back. If surprised by a ee ant, she can dodge under cover and escape. 5. Cocoons Both these spiders make special cocoons in which they lay their eggs, and the ‘mothers’ remain guarding them long after the eggs have hatched out—till the spiderlings have become fit to leave the cocoons. eo as In M. plataleoides the cocoon is generally spun on the upper surface of a leaf though, during the rainy season cocoons have been = on the underside of large leaves. On the surface of the leaf a small sheet of silk is first spun—this in confinement takes a long Eaime- The eggs are laid usually in one group and arranged side by side in a single layer, in contact but not stuck to each other. Over this a fine silken felt sheet is made completely enclosing the eggs, its edges being firmly attached all round to the surface of the leaf. This layer is. reinforced by another or sometimes two or more layers over it closely adherent to it. In many instances I have seen a second clutch of eggs added after the first layer of felt has been fully spun, so that this clutch of eggs lies between the first and second layers of felt.. The second clutch when present contains a smaller number of eggs compared to the first; while the first clutch contains about 20 eggs, the second has only 5 or 6 eggs. s Adtter: the felt layer over ‘the eggs has been completed, the spider takes up her position over it; above her, she spins a dome-like canopy enclosing herself and the cocoon ah the eggs. This canopy is of the usual type with an opening at each end. Sometimes there ‘an irregular scattering of white fluffy silk on the wall of this dome scalling the ‘stabilimenta’ of some of the web-spinning. spiders. nside this retreat she remains till the eggs are hatched and the piderlings ready to leave the cocoon. Only rarely she leaves the cocoon, probably in search of food. The emaciated condition of most the spiders guarding the cocoons shows that they do not venture utside very frequently, even for feeding. When ase they 260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 appear very unwilling to desert their precious charge. During the monsoons I have come across a few nests with eggs but soaked in water. The mothers were found dead in their ‘on guard’ positions. Perhaps the sudden rains wetting the whole nest made their escape impossible. Generally the cocoons are seen Seely, but occasionally one comes across numbers of these aggregated on a single leaf. This tendency to aggregate during egg laying has never been seen in Amyciaea. Amyciaea too makes a cocoon which the female guards with great tenacity. The cocoon is generally made on the concave inner surface of a leaf the edges of which are drawn together by two strong bands of silk. On the leaf a silk sheet is spun over which the eges are laid. The eggs are not arranged in a flat row as in M. plataleoides but all stuck together in a round ball. In M.. plataleoides they are separate, not stuck to one another. Over the mass of eggs a thick felt is woven the edges of which are fused to the surface of the leaf all round. Over this felt the female takes up her position in true Thomisid style. There is no canopy over her as was noticed in M. plataleoides. 6. Lire-HIstTory The life-history of M. plataleoides has been described by me in a previous paper (Mathew, 1934). It was shown that the young too are ant-like and mimic different species of ants according to their size and coloration at their different stages, and this interesting form of mimicry was termed ‘Transformational mimicry’. It was seen that the young too share the advantages of mimicry; thus solving an old problem of the protective methods of the young of those spiders which are protected by mimicry as adults. This phenomenon introduces certain complications for the field naturalist. Collecting ant mimics he often comes across many spiders mimicking common ants. While it would be interesting to note models and mimics, their habits and behaviour, since many of them would be immature, their identification would be impossible unless the life-history of each species has been fully determined. A spider which when adult mimics a certain ant is observed in its early stages to mimic other ants out of necessity, as shown in the paper referred to (Mathew, 1934). Another fact to be noted is that the ants which form the models for the immature forms of certain spiders have certain other spiders mimicking them in their adult stages. Thus the small biting ant Solenopsis which is mimicked by M. plataleoides in one of its early stages, has a small species (very near M. spissus) mimicking it as adults. The small black ant Prenolepis is mimicked by an early stage of M. plataleoides as well as early stages of certain black mimics like M. manducator and M. ramunni. The form of the cephalothorax which is an important basis for specific distinction attains the characteristic shape only when adult or in the later stages. The cephalothorax of an immature form is different from that of the adult and often resembles that of some other — species. The falces, sternum and the epigynum which are such . distinctive features of most species attain the typical form only in ae adult stages. A OREN Ny a eer aD ee Se eS ne eT FT NS Re ee, ee } | HABITS OF TWO SPIDER MIMICS OF THE RED ANT 261 aos) Dn the development of Amyciaea no such transformational mimicry is seen. The young ones are of the typical crab-spider form with light green coloration without any ant-likeness. The two pairs of front legs which are the longest as in the adult are marked with certain reddish bands and these legs are held up and nervously brandished like the performance of the adult. The ant-likeness is assumed only in the later stages. As these spiders are of a more shy and retiring nature like the typical Thomisidae, contrasting with Attidae which more boldly expose themselves in the open, special protective methods in the earlier stages may not be so essential. 7, CONCLUDING REMARKS It was shown that the mimicry seen in M. plataleoides is most perfect when the spider is in movement in the company of ants. With and it is now well recognised, that it is not merely the coloration and pattern that contributes to safety but also immobility. A recent writer, (Cott, 1940) expresses this as follows: ‘Compared with stillness cryptic coloration is relatively unimportant; but combined with stillness it is-all important’. An individual however protectively coloured, if it actively moves about, runs the risk of being conspicuous. But in a true mimic of the type of this spider—which copies not an immobile object but an active organism—we find that the perfection of the mimicry depends not so much on the external appearance as on the imitation of movements. Thus in these two types of resemblances, one copying a passive object and the other an active one, safety seems to depend primarily on the passivity of the former and on | the activity of the latter. s The purpose of ant mimicry by spiders is believed to be either _ protective or aggressive. The value of ant mimicry as a protective device has been discussed in a previous paper (Mathew, 1934) where - I have shown that the objections which are ordinarily brought forward "against this have arisen as a result of the faulty way in which this - function is usually explained. = Amyciaeéa is a mimic of a different type. Its mimicry is termed _ aggressive since it feeds on the models, and the protective value of _ its mimicry is not stressed. It has been shown above that the ants ' never mistake these for other ants and that both these mimicking spiders enjoy the proximity of ants not by virtue of any simulating powers but only by their shy nature and possession of the safety cable. The role of mimicry here as an aid to aggression has been - explained. It is not an actively moving ant that is mimicked but a struggling or dying ant, thus serving as a ‘lure’ for would-be ' prey. This explains why the mimicry appears far from perfect and ' why there is no imitation here of the normal gait of the ant. In - addition the mimicry may also have a protective value. Though these ' spiders are aggressive towards their models, it does not mean that _ they are immune from the attacks of their own numerous enemies. For protection through ant-mimicry it is essential that the mimics = should be: amongst, or at any rate, close to the models. Field _ observations show that they are actually seen in the proximity of the ~ reference to protective coloration Beddard (1892) has pointed out,, * aa mie - i Liat re ey 262 JOURNAL, BOMBA’ 4 NATURAL HIST. red ants. What can be the incentive ‘that keeps ‘these mimics in their proper surroundings? Amyciaea feeds on the red ants ad so its Sheline proximity to— the latter is easy to understand. It has been shown above that M, plataleoides too has an attraction since it steals and preys on the larvae and pupae of the ants. The young ones of this species which mimic the Prenolepis ants have been seen to steal the larvae’ and — pupae of these ants and, evidently for this purpose, to keep their company. In a previous paper (Mathew, 1935) I have shown ants mimicking bugs feeding on plants which are also frequented by the models for certain exudations of. these plants; model and mimic ~ frequent the same plant for food and thus the mimic gets the requisite surroundings. : Beddard (1892) in considering a similar question says: ‘It is not generally believed that insects and other animals that are protectively coloured deliberately select for a temporary. resting place a situation— whether it be a trunk or a leaf—that harmonises with their own colour. The theory is that their colours have been modified in accordance with their usual environment, those that habitually settle among trees being green and so forth. It has, however, been stated that a small black moth (Physis carbonariella) is constantly met with in patches of underwood that have been burnt; its dusky hues approximate with the colour of charred wood.’ The theory that colours have been modified in accordance with their usual environments, while it might explain how a particular pattern has been arrived at in the course of generations, does not explain how a particular individual having a particular pattern gets into the proper environment. This difficulty would not arise in the case of fixed organisms or organisms which move only to a small extent; but in an animal with active habits like these spiders the question of being in the proper surroundings is very important. — 8S SUMMARY Ob oe atinas on two ant-mimicking spiders, the Attid jenseechne platalecides and the Thomisid Amyciaea forticeps, mimicking the — common red ant Oecophylla smaragdina, are recorded. M. plataleiodes © mimics not only the external form but also the movements of the model. Am yciaea is alleged to raise the first pair of legs to simulate the antennae of the ants but this is denied. It keeps both the first — and second pairs of legs raised, bent and quivering in a characteristic manner serving to ‘lure’ the ants. The usuai claim that by their mimicry these spiders are mistaken by the ants for other ants and — thus they procure plenty of unsuspecting prey, cannot be accepted in view of the discriminating powers of Oecophylla experimentally — shown. "3 Both these spiders are diurnal and their night retreats are described. | Amyciaea ‘sleeps’ suspended on a sling made for the night. Mating ~ of Amyciaea is not preceded by any courtship as is sometimes — suggested—the nervous movements noted when two individuals come together being observed also as they ordinarily move about. The young of Amyciaea do not mimic ants, contrasting in this respect Che purpose af ant mimicry in ‘Both these spiders is protective— m the usual enemies of spiders. In Amyciaea it is, in addition, — Stews to lure and capture ee ants. For protection — t e edie: How ne is brought about in the case of these spiders discussed. ae REFERENCES - Beddard, F, E, (1892): Animal Coloration. London. pp. viii-+1- 288. Bhattacharya, G. C. (1934): JBNHS, Bombay, 37 (1): pp. 233-239. semedee, O. P. (1869): Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., London, 4 (3): pp. 68-69. — — — (1873): Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1873, pp. 112-129. ~— — — (1901): Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1901, pp. 11-16. ‘ - Cott, H. B. (1940): Adaptive Coloration in Animals, London, xxxii-_pp. 1-508. _ Graveley, F. H. (1915): Rec. Ind. Mus., Calcutta, 11: 483-539. _ Hingston, R. W. (1923): The Red Ant, JBNHS, 29: 362-372 ; 681-693. — — — (1927): Proc. Zool. SOC, London, 1927 (4) pp. 841-858. _ Mathew, A. P. (1931): JBNHS, ‘Bombay, 35, pp. 132-143. ~ — — — (1934): ibid 37 (2): pp. 369-374. _ — — — (1935): ibid 37 (4): pp. 803-813. _— — — (1940): ibid 42 (1): pp. 171-180. Narayan, K. (1915): Rec. Ind. Mus., Calcutta, 41, pp. 393-406. x Peckham, GaewW. (1892) » Ant-like spiders of the parity Aitidae. Occ. Pap. Nat: Hist. Soc. Wisc., 2 “(1): pp. 1-83. - Pocock, R. I. (1909): Journ. Linn. Be London, 30, pp. 256-270. is Rothney, (1890): JBNHS, Bombay, 5 (1) : pp. 38-64, Shelford, R. eS Proc. Zool..Soc., London, 1902 (2) pp. 265-267. ~ Wroughton, 'R RC, Ge), JBNHS, ‘Bombay, 7 (1): pp. 13-60. = WILD LIFE PRESERVATION AND SANCTUARIES — IN THE UNION OF BURMA BY | . U_Tun YIN, BsA., B-C.s. (Selection Grade) (Retd.) (With a map) INTRODUCTION There are eleven Wild Life Sanctuaries comprising 914.87 aL miles in the Union of Burma. Pidaung Wild Lite Sanctuary (279.70 sq. miles) is sane in the Kachin State. Part of Shwe-U-Daung (45.00 sq. miles) and Taungeyi (6.20 sq. miles) are situated in the Shan States, Kahilu (62.00 sq. miles) and Mulayit (53.51 sq. miles) are situated in the Kaw-Thu-Lay (Karen) State. ‘The remaining sanctuaries are situated in Burma proper. They are: : Shwe-U-Daung me ae, BIOO>sq- mules Kyatthin les oe OAC OO a Ee Shwezettaw ee ee meen! Uren ton 2 Maymyo ae Ae OO Polke eg ai Moscos Islands Pe eS A OOO, Pe, Wettigan ai a PD va Ai Kelatha Hill a i ae 0 Abe. 5 Shwe-U-Daung and Kahilu were constituted primarily to protect the few remaining specimens of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis trom extinction, Sey otteay and Kyatthin to perpetuate Panolia eldi thamin Thomas, the typical deer of Burma. Pidaung was a natural haunt of various species of wild life, except rhino, and was the show place before 1940. Unfortunately it has been shot out during the last World War. Maymyo, Taunggyi and Kelatha Hill are refuges for various species of = birds and ee Lake is a refuge for waterfowl. Immediately prior to the British evacuation in 1942, preliminary notifications were issued in respect of Htu Lake in the Henzada Forest. Division for waterfowl, and Byingye Hill in the Yamethin Forest Division to protect the remaining accessible heads of goral. The Game Warden was appointed Settlement Officer in respect of these two proposed sanctuaries. As the post of Game Warden is at present held in abeyance, settlement cannot yet be carried out. LEGISLATION Section 6 of The Burma Wild Life Protection Act, 1986, reviewed in the Society's Journal, [Vol. 39 (3), pp. 606-607, 1937] affords cet oe RTL Pes} 7 SEP aE ar REI PI REL SID © Pete aR aN’ Cee Ep WARES eee ree iene Jgourn.,; Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Tal oJ ot a ae 4 Dns MAP Pa cay \ OF 1 » « B U R M A 56 ‘. SKOWING \ Pos GAME SANCTUARIES " —e gle ‘ fe \ KACHIN SYATE . Scale linch 10 78, S14Miles, : 7 INDIA ess s/ }SINGKALING | o Ry , RKAMTS | res e ? a ( 7 * 4 Pee, fae MATKYINA ‘ & a 3 Y 4 U O A . t foe COR THERN SHAN STATE 1 fas LAs < orashio & \ york a - Sn wo tat Y wow a Ss 24 &R PAKISTAN \ \ 5 TRRAWADDY Ruy iS e@eeraaervreer” : SPECIAL | iviSiON OF THE ¥ rie chins @ PAKOKKY § KYAUKSE DMYINGYAN ( \ ? x be “< TATES MeyKTILAS | SOUT Eye Sane t rite! ¥ AUNGGY 1 « ——EESoaas INDO -CHINA watt hig ‘6A pelts ead 4 ( | Ne LYAMETHIN | Y ° me if _ s J 20 AKYAB Shwezet a | ? \ = v ‘ \ o anctuary Pv! MANAY *= Sy : | Wo .4 @ \ cig ; eo) v2 & a ey “s ‘ wx § LOIRAW 7 'y KYAUKPYU SGo! THAY ETMYG, \ ‘ | AS \ ri c } Oi . o a 3 0 < SANQOWAY KYANGIN & : Htutake Sanctuary ne é Ea | BAY OF BENGAL as | > THAILAND AN | ae : ; Rede? as 16 |f 16 i (J2h) a)92°!) Y /RRAWADD REFERENCES: ~ Burma Boundary —Demarcated __._.—.— a oy Undemarcated — x» == State Boundary Moscos Island AE crac rere Sanctuary Burma Railway Line 4... «.. Game Sanctuary woe tes @ Maymyo Sanctuary Head-quarter of Game Sanctuary...SawEO : rlec* | WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA — A 265 complete protection to rhinoceros, tapir, peafowl, Argus pheasant and masked finfoot. But the proviso to the said section reads as follows: — ‘Provided that it shall not be an offence for any physician or druggist to possess or sell, or for any person to possess for private medical purposes rhinoceros blood or any preparation thereof.’ Under section 7, no person shail hunt any of the following animals or knowingly possess or sell or buy them alive or dead or part or product thereof save under and in accordance with the conditions of a licence: — ‘Elephant, bison, tsaing, thamin, serow and goral.’ Section 8 prescribes a close season from 15th June to 30th September for hog-deer, sambar and barking-deer and from 15th March to 30th September for all species of pheasant (except Argus pheasant), partridge, junglefowl, quail, wild duck and teal. Under sections 26 and 28, the Burma Wild Life Protection Rules were published in the Department of Agriculture and Forests Notifi- cation No. 2, dated the 2nd January 1941. The rules came into force on the lith January 1941. The Scheduled Areas Wild Life Protection Regulations (Regulation No. 1 of 1941) was published by the Defence Department, Political Branch, on the 10th February 1941. It extends to the following areas :— (i) The Arakan Hill Tracts; (ii) The Chin Hills District; _ (iti) So much of the Kaehin Hill Tracts of the Myitkyina, Bhamo and Katha Districts as is included in the Myitkyina, Bhamo and West Katha Forest Divisions; (iv) The Shan States of Hsawnghsup and Singkaling Hkamti and the Somra Tract in the Naga Hills District. The provisions of the Burma Wild Life Protection Act, 1986, shall apply to the areas mentioned above subject to the modifications as ~ get forth in the Schedule. Firstly, the Wild Life Protection Regulation has been extended only to the Kachin Hill Tracts in the three Forest Divisions—Myitkyina, Bhamo and West Katha. The Kachin Hill Tribes Regulation 1895 has been declared as the law applicable to the hill tribes in the following tracts :— (i) The Kachin Hill Tracts of the Bhamo, Myitkyina, and Katha Districts ; (ii) The Hill Tracts of the North Hsenwi State; and (iii) The Kodaung Hill Tracts of the State of Mongmit. This Regulation applies to the undermentioned tribes in the above- mentioned tracts :— | (i) Bhamo and Myitkyina Districts: Kachins, Yawyins, Nungs, Marus, Lashis, Atsis, and Chins (Nagas); and also Shans and Gurkhas permanently resident in a hill tract. (N.B. The term shan includes Shan-gyi, Shan-tayok and Shan Burmese but does not include the Shan Burmese in the hill tracts of the Mogaung Sub-Division.), (ii) Katha District—Kachins. © , (ii) North Hsenwi—Kachins. (iv) Mongmit—Kachins and Palaungs. 3 ' 266. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. ‘soci | ‘The -Hkamti. Long Administration Order,- 1926, eo tor ine. eight s Shan. Circles” “in the Putao ‘Sub-Division. ike “the. ‘Myitkyina. District: 3% (i) Lonkhun, (ii) Mansi, (iii) Lonkyein,, (iv) Mansekhun, (v) Mannu, ae Langdao, (vii) Mongyak, and. {vitit) Langnu in Hkamti Long. The. remainder of the Sub- -Division is. part of the: Kachin Hill ‘Tract a has the Kachin Hill Tribes Regulation applied to it.- » Under Section (8) sub-section (1) of the Kachin Hill Tribes: Berle fion;. notwithstanding anything. in-any enactment in foree; this regula- tion and the enactments in the Schedule annexed shall “be deemed to be the only ee Uae oe apply to members of a sake ee in a hill tract. has .. Under - Section (8). sab hagtioe (2). no Bike ‘alibi ofits shall be deemed to apply to members of a-hill tribe in a hill tract. To sum up, the position as the writer’ can interpret it is as” follows: ~The Burma Wild Life Protection Act does not apply to the Kachins, -Yawyins, Nungs,. Marus,. Lashis, Atsis and Chins (Nagas) ; and also Shans and Gurkhas permanently resident in a hill tract in the Bhamo and Myitkyina District, and Kachins in the Katha District. Regulation 1 of 1941. is “applicable only to non-members of a hill tribe resident in. hill- tracts of Maik yina,, Bhamo and West. Katha Forest Divisions. Burma became a Sovereign Independent Republic known as ; ‘The Union of Burma’ on the 4th January 1948. Section 226° sub-section (1) of the Constitution of hee ‘Unies of Burmai reads: ‘Subject to this Constitution and to the extent to which they are not inconsistent therewith, the existing laws shall continue to be in force until the same or any of them shall have been repealed or amended by a competent legislature or other competent authority’. Under Section 6 of the Constitution Myitkyina and Bhamo Districts form -a constituent. unit of the Union of Burma knows: as ‘The Hace State’. 3 ‘The few surviving specimens of Dicerorhinus sakiaiheee in the Nam Lang Valley, -Putao Sub-Division--and Kungsai tract, : ‘Kamaing: Santi icn Myitkyina ‘District are wholy unprotected.. And so are other rare animals such as the takin, musk deer, panda, goral and serow. If the present surviving specimens are ta be saved, it is necessary. to_extend the Burma Wild Life Protection Act to the whole of the Kachin State and at the same time amend the Kachin Hill Tribes” Regulation and Hkamti Long Administration Order. Under Section 196 of the Constitution the Chin— Hills ‘District and the Arakan Hill Tracts form a Special Division of the Chins. The Chin Affairs Council has gone ahead by extending the Wild Life Protection Act, 1936, to the whole of the Chin Special Division by the Chin Special Division (Extension of Laws) Act, 1948 (Act No, 48 of 1943). Under section S of the Constitution the Pedeniod. ‘Shan Staten. : ; Ss and Wa States form a constituent unit of the Union of Burma. A In 1987, the Federal Council of Shan Chiefs decided that the application of the Shan State Game Rules ‘should cease to extend to — those States or parts of States over which the Forest Act has ceased <0.) WILD LIFE PRESERVATION. IN BURMA. ~~ to apply, and also to- Block. VI of the Southern. Shan States Forest Bute which lies oul the _Temote Mekong drainage of Kengiung tate. = The protection of game in areas to: which the Shan States Game Rules, 1929, do not apply was- ‘undertaken’ by the Chiefs. concerned. The Chiefs agreed ‘to issue prohibitory orders” under customary laws. _ (1) Affording protection” to bison, serow, -goral- and peafowl so as to allow. shooting only ‘under permits issued by: ‘the Chiefs of the States: (2) Protecting animals. during closed” times similar to those i in 1 force in Burma. ae It will. be. noticed that" fee was” mee includad: There are no more Chiefs. Who.is now the competent authority to issue prohibitory orders | under the customary laws—the Commissioner, the Special Commissioner, or the Ministers of the Shan States? . From the. following extract from. the Annual. Report on Wild Life Preservation in the Federated Shan States for the year ending 81st March 1941, it is not clear whether the Shan States Game Rules, 1929, have since been amended: 3 ‘Ag the Burma Wild Life Peckooticn. Rules Seamed. under the Paria: Wild: Life - Protection Act, 1986, have now been issued, the question will: be taken up of amending. the Shan States Game Rules ee accord as far as possible with the Burma Act and Rules thereunder’. -The- Scheduled -Areas- Wild. Life Protection Regulation (Regula- a No. 1 of 1941) applies only. to the Shan States of Hsawnghsup. It is necessary to- examine the laws at present applicable to z Bickervtion of wild life in the Shan States and extend the Wild Lite Protection Act to the whole of the Shan States.. — -Under section 7 of the Constitution, -the | territories that. were heretofore known as the Karenni States, viz. Kantarawaddy, Bawlake, and Kyebogyi form a constituent’ unit of the Union of Burma. which is known as ‘the Kayah State’. The position of. the law is not complicated as in the Shan States. ‘The Burma Wild Life Protection Act, 1936, can be extended straightaway and extension is recommended. ‘The Loeaiiaie (Karen) State was recently constituted. The Burma Wild Life Protection Act may be extended ‘to it as in the case of the other constituent States. There should ies a uniform law throughout the Union of Burma. ~ It is gratifying to learn that the Forest Law Arieridinant Committee has recommended the deletion of the proviso to section 6 and to place the burden of proof on the possessor as in the case of possession of meat of wild animals during their close season. Harly legislation is necessary. to remove this ‘very large loophole for illicit dealings a in rhinoceros blood which. means | dead rhinoceros. ° ([JBNHS, vol. 40 (4), pp. 594-617]. The exception is a blot on an otherwise excellent Act, but it was s aden for the reason that so many people in Burma have such Implicit faith in the efficac y of rhinoceros blood for medicinal purposes. a Had. this. exception been omitted, the Bill would probably not have 2 2a pie oe JBNHS, vol. 39 saat PP. ee Septembes Bi eRe ae jan ae 268 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 THE PipAUNG GAME SANCTUARY. The Pidaung plain was known in old Burma as one of the best localities for big game (bison, tsaing, sambar and elephant) in the Province. It used also to be famous for the herds of hog-deer that were found there. The name originated from the open stretch of country or lwin covered with short grass situated to the north of Pidaung railway station on the Burma State Railways. The whole stretch of country over which the game was plentiful covers a very wide area containing several lwins separated by hills covered with densest evergreen jungle. The first proposals came from _ the Commissioner of the Mandalay Division in 1908. He stated that owing to the spread of cultivation big game was rapidly decreasing and Pidaung plain was a natural haunt and sanctuary. Leading officials in Myitkyina interested in shooting were unanimously in favour of reservation. The settlement was carried out at the close of 1911. Approximately 180 sq. miles were finally notified in April 1913. The reserved area covered the stretch of country north of the railway only. In 1917 the Reserve was visited by H. E. the Lieutenant- Governor, Sir Harcourt Butler, and orders were issued for a further reservation of the area south of the railway line. This was really part of the so-called plain and contained several salt licks constantly frequented by game. The settlement was carried out in 1920, the reserve being finally notified in August 1921. The original Reserve was notified under the Burma Game Rules, 1917, as a Game Reserve in October 1918, and the south extension in 1921. Both Reserves were notified as a Game Sanctuary in September 1927.. The area was then computed as 260 sq. miles. In 1937 the area was re-computed as 277.5 sq. miles. By the constitution of the Pidaung East Extension Reserve as part of the sanctuary in 1938, the area was further increased from 277.5 to 282.5 sq. miles. In order to provide a natural instead of an artificial boundary, and to free land for cultivation, an area of about four sq: miles on the west of Pidaung Sanctuary was excluded from the sanctuary in 1940. Approximately 0.7386 of a sq. mile (471 acres) situated in the Kamaing Kachin Hill Tract was declared as the Pidaung West Extension Reserve and included in the Sanctuary in 1941, The present area of the sanctuary is approximately 279.7 sq. miles. During the period of Japanese occupation 4,352 acres of Pidaung Reserve and 7,129 acres of Pidaung South Extension Reserve were encroached on by Kachins from Mayan Village. This whole area is now under paddy cultivation. The harm has been done, and it seems that the Forest Department may now have to exclude this area, finally. The sanctuary was primarily constituted for the following species: —Hlephant, bison, tsaing, sambar, hog-deer, barking-deer, pig; tiger, leopard, bear, peafowl, junglefowl, pheasant, partridge and quail. . There are 45 miles of paths and_57 miles of fair-weather motor road which were constructed before the war. The Stilwell Road which was constructed during the war passed through the southern. sector of the sanctuary for a distance of about 74 miles (Mile 13 /4 to Mile 21/0). From Mile 17/0 of this highway, a branch road was_ also constructed to Hopak, a distance of about a mile. All the main salt Pe PN es de tah TTA. et rie ee es fee ee es 4 ees RTO RR pret retibae tan erg te a es ved : a +4 nia iL nett end «¢ Vs pletikex patina eds Wee gigs be re tee as sh a 4 aA RI ACN IRENE es OND IE 5 = ) ~ ue we SN ern ‘WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA a 960 litks and Iwins' can-now be reached by jeep. A special game staff of one head keeper and five assistant keepers is maintained. per ~- Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.), has fully described this sanctuary in Burma (pre-1942) with present status of Rhinoceros and Thamin [JENHS, 49 (4), 1950]. ees ee March 1951-February 1952. During my tenure of office Ae Deputy Commissioner, Myitkyina District, I camped in the sanctuary on - four occasions and spent a total of eight days. The majority of the villages just outside the boundaries of the sanctuary were also visited. J observed an elephant in Kyanan lick on one evening in March, a sambar stag in Manaw lick for several minutes one morning in May, a hog-deer stag feeding in Kason lwin one evening and a small herd of tsaing feeding in Pyawbwe lwin on the following morning in June. In the course of my wanderings I disturbed a bison on one occasion, sambar and barking-deer on several occasions; peafowl and red jungle- fowl were seen all over the sanctuary, Blackbreasted Kalhj Pheasant (Gennaeus lathami) was seen once; Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock Harlan), the Chindwin Langoor (Trachypithecus pileatus shortridget Wroughton), the Burmese Pigtailed Macaque (Macaca nemestrina. Linnaeus) and Phayre’s Leaf-monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei phayrei Blyth) were also seen. The station master, Pidaung, had seen a leopard (black variety) in the dry bed of a chaung near the railway station. In March 1932, a leopard (black variety) was shot in the sanctuary. The forest officer who sat up failed to turn up at the hour scheduled for the departure of the ‘Governor’s Special’. As it was feared that he had met with an accident a rescue party comprising the medical officer and the veterinary officer of the Governor’s party set out, fully equipped to render First ‘Aid. To their relief the party came upon the forest officer unharmed and returning to camp with the dead leopard. The Governor’s Special left Pidaung Station behind schedule. Officers from Myitkyina ‘District who were left behind in camp found the steaks served up at, dinner to be tasty, and only learnt afterwards that they were leopard meat! Returning late from Mogaung one evening the Superintendent of Excise (U Tha Aung) noticed an animal racing alongside his jeep as he was driving along the Stilwell Road inside the sanctuary. He turned round to look and to. his surprise found the animal. to be a leopard. . : On the 25th April 1951 at about: dusk, a young cow elephant charged the up-passenger train between Mayan and Pidaung railway stations. ‘The cow elephant received serious injuries and was destroyed the following morning.. Ag Elephants from the sanctuary raided the standing’ paddy crop in Pamadi tract on two or three occasions and one of them trampled a hut in which a cultivator was keeping watch. | | Two bull bison. were shot inside the sanctuary, one by a Kachin from: Mayan with the rifle issued for village protection, and the other also. by a Kachin from Kabaw Kataung with an American rifle. ie Bee kien ta on open grassy plain usually undulating and often, quite. a small area surrounded by forest. » 270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 7) : Se oe oa = 2 The Cover: rifle was. Wihhd TaN. and the. private Sere rifle confiscated. In spite si my: fotneeene to Sprosccute the two culprits i in the Criminal Court, the late Divisional Forest Officer closed the two cases on the report of the Range Officer that the “culprits were not traceable. From the girth of the two horns, 18” in both heads, it is evident that there are still a fair number of big bulls inside the sanctuary. . Two bullocks were killed by tigers inside the. sanctuary. A family of four tigers—a tiger, a tigress and two: full-grown cubs—killed a number of cattle in the Pamadi tract. The Nepali headman of Pamadi shot cne cub over a kill in September 1951. It is probable that the same family killed the two bullocks. One tiger. was trapped by villagers from a Nepali village in January 1952 and destroyed. One leopard was also shot near Kabaw. Kataung village, outside the western boundary of the sanctuary - during. a by the Kachin who shot the second bison. Due to shortage of salt during the J: apanese. badupitions illagers camped near Loipyit salt lick and boiled salt out of the saline earth. The American army set up a saw mill on a ridge. close to Hopak salt lick. The converted timber was conveyed in motor lorries from the saw mill.on to the main Stilwell Road. Both salt licks are now abandoned by big game. Motor vehicles passing up .and down : the Stilwell Road both day and night .could also be heard: from Hopak. There -are still a few hog-deer and sambar in the area. Hopak lwin is admirably suited for the introduction of thamin: — Saw Ze lick in this _ sector, Kyanan, Manaw and Maw Raw licks in the northern sector are visited by elephant, bison, tsaing, sambar and hog deer regularly. - During the war period, the Army authorities put: up “NO SHOOT- ING—NO FISHING’ notice boards, one at Nankhwi Bridge on the old P.W.D. road from Myitkyina to Mogoung and one at Mile 13/4 on the Stilwell Road. Unfortunately this. did not seem, in any way, io deter the Army personnel from wholesale shooting of game inside the sanctuary.. On -re-occupation, there was considerable poaching both by members. of the Armed Forces and the civil population. Poaching was’ rife when I enrived in the District in March 1951, but by enlisting the cooperation of the Officer Commanding, 1st Kachin Rifles, Battalion Commandant, U. M.P., headmen and elders of the. villages-in the neighbourhood of the sanctuary, bringing up the game _ Staff to pre-war strength and maintaining two gates—one at Mile. 11/0 and one at Mile 22 /4—Mayan railway crossing on the Stilwell Road we succeeded in suppressing poaching completely by the middle of 1951. Salt was regularly put down in the salt licks and game started to appear in the many wins and salt licks ne I left the district in February: 1952. ae M: are h 1952 - S eptember “1958. ace after my rottdinth fcr Myitkyina, ‘the Kachin Rifles were replaced by the: Kayah Rifles. The Battalion Commandant, U.M.P., a keen conservationist, was recalled to the Army. The Chief Works Officer as well as the. District Super-. intendent of Police who. cooperated whole-heartedly in my humble efforts proceeded on leave,. and on the expiry. of Se leave returned , to the Union Government. ae i c 3 WILD LIFE PRESERVATION. IN BURMA...” ~.. ~ There ‘was also a: change’ in the’ Kachin -State Government. - This _ was followed by a wave ‘of serious erime in the Myitkyina District: Frequent poaching by parties of Army; ‘Civil ‘Police and- Union Military _ Police: personnel in motor cars was detected by the game staff and reports made: to the Deputy Commissioner, -but no- action was taken to stop it. -A bison was shot about half.a mile-from Kason Chaung Forest Rest ‘Hut. The culprits were not apprehended. Kason Chaung. is close to. Nankyin village. Two assistant game keepers reside: permanently in Nankyin - village. ete uae ~The new cantonment is now located near thie sanctuary. Without the co-operation of the Officer Commanding, we will not be able to stop poaching. Game As often driven out from the sanctuary and. shot outside. : October ‘S 1953. J une 1954. A Divisional Forest Officer, interested in game preservation, in the person of U Maung Gale, was selected. and sent to Myitkyina. Immediately on his arrival in the division in August 1953, he tried his best to: effect improvements in the rehabilitation ‘of the sanctuary. Before his work was half completed he was taken away on deputation with the Agricultural and Rural Development Corporation. Three Kachins were prosecuted for shooting a bison within the Sanctuary. The Court sentenced each of the Kachins to four months rigorous imprisonment. The headman of Nankyin village was prosecuted and fined Kyats 100 for cutting taungya inside the sanctuary. Four. armed guards were added to strengthen the existing game staff of 6 game keepers. Roads were repaired so that they eS ald be jeepable during the open season. Salt was deposited at all salt licks regularly. Poaching had almost ceased within the sanctuary. Game can now be seen in increasing numbers at the same licks. It is now left to the succeeding Divisional Forest Officers to. accep the task of bringing back the sanctuary to its pre-war conditions. ~ The following statement gives a rough idea of the existing depleted stock as compared with pre-war stock, All that is done at present to- estimate the stock of game is for the game establishment to prepare monthly and annual statements of game seen. These statements cannot be considered to be an accurate estimate of as actual AUTOR of 4s eet eo in the paltetnary 2 nu : Antioale | Kind of Animal |. comme 1936-37 1948-49] 1910 So] 50 | os] 1952-53 | Animals observed Mt Elephant 200 24 35 Bison 2 3: «4° -300 42 45 Tsaing . 200. 15 12 Hog-deer eee a sage ||) Bs 13 32 Sambar = - 250 18 25 Barking-deer . | 150 9 ae Tiger : 12 2 3 Pepenti ss, 4 AO, 2 ik Bear FpiA cage a I Ot 3 a Wilddog - | = 40 © eee see 272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 There are two small herds of bison, one of twelve animals with two — bvas and one of eight animals. The stock of tsaing consisting of a small herd of five animals is concentrated in the northern sector near Pyawbwe lwin. If we could completely stop burning of charcoal in the area, both bison and tsaing which have now taken to the hills might re-appear. From {the {report for the year ending 80th September 1953, it appears that the hog-deer from the adjoining un- classed forests have come into the sanctuary. There may be more barking-deer than the figures given in the annual statements. On my: way to Nanti one afternoon I came across no less than three barking-deer. Mr. J. N. Martin the chief works officer and his wife observed a barking-deer standing by the side of the Stilwell Road. A barking-deer is “also regularly seen between Mayan and Pidaung stations by passengers travelling in the up-passenger train. The figures for elephant, bison, tsaing and sambar may be considered as very nearly correct. Namkyin Village. It is understood that. the sotethehene cd of this village on the right bank of the Namkhwi Kha, was permitted by the Deputy Commissioner, Myitkyina, about the year 1932. ‘The site falls inside the sanctuary. There are 12 households, 7 bullock carts, 9 pairs of bullocks, 4 buffaloes and 10 other head of cattle. The villagers who are all Kachins earn their living by burning wood charcoal inside the sanctuary and marketing same in Myitkyina town. It would be a problem now to shift this village. The sanctuary is in the Kachin State and the attitude of the Kachin State Government. is not known. If the sanctuary is to be rehabilitated it is este to shift this village from inside the sanctuary. Namse Reserve. ‘With a view to ae the Pidaung Sanctuary to the south, settlement of 58 sq. miles of good game country to constitute the Namse Reserve was carried out in 1937 and notified in Department of Agriculture and Forests Notification No. 514 dated the 30th November 1939 with effect from the Ist February 1940. At the time of evacuation in 1942, plans were afoot to add this reserve together with Uya-Hatha Reserve, Kawan Reserve, and all the intervening unclassed forests. This contemplated addition to the Pidaung Sanctuary was well stocked with elephant, bison, tsaing, hog- deer, sambar, barking-deer, peafowl, partridge, pheasant and white- winged wood- ‘duck. The large open grass plains in the area make it very suitable for further development into a place where wild animals and birds can be easily seen. If this projected extension can be accomplished a sanctuary of approximately 600 square miles (including the existing Pidaung) will be brought into being. Soon after his arrival in the Division U Maung Gale, the Divisional Forest Officer, took up the question of rehabilitation of this sanctuary and submitted proposals in May 1954. The proposals are now being examined in Rangoon and it is hoped that early orders will be issued for the settlement of the proposed extension. The sanctuary can be developed into a Nz ational Park in a short time. and it would be an asset not only to the Kachin State but also to the Union Goyernment, 3 eee = lisadicdadiibine ese 0 ~~ WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA 273 _ The Hon’ble Thakin Kyaw Tun, Minister for Agriculture and Forests, accompanied by U Thein, Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, visited the sanctuary in the course of his tour in December 1953. _ he interest taken by the Hon’ble Minister is deeply appreciated. TAUNGGYI GAME SANCTUARY Year of notification We .. Ist March 1930. | Area in square miles es ai Oa _Forest division-in which situated ... Southern Shan States. Species for which the sanctuary is _ primarily constituted .. Birds and barking-deer. This sanctuary was notified under the Shan States Game Rules, 1929, in Ministry of Forests Notification No. 13 dated the 22nd January 1930 with effect from the 1st March 1930. It is situated in the Shan States. , | The sanctuary is more of a wild bird refuge than a game sanctuary. It was well stocked with birds and contained a few barking-deer before the War. As the sanctuary is practically surrounded by a densely populated area and is extremely accessible, poaching un- questionably takes place in spite of vigilance by the forest staff. - The Principal Forest Officer, Shan States, writes, 23rd March 1954:: “The Taunggyi Sanctuary has been greatly disturbed owing to proximity to villages and difficulty in control. There may still be about half a dozen gyis'. I gather that there are also a few leopards which prey on dogs from houses adjoining the reserve.’ 3 : Kanitt GAME SANCTUARY | Year of notification eee air September 1928. _ ‘Area in square miles a4. 02; Forest division in which situated - ... Thaton _ Species for which the sanctuary : : is primarily constituted — - 3, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, ie | serow, sambar, barking- : deer, mouse-deer, hog-deer i and junglefowl. . This sanctuary was notified in Ministry of Forest Notification z No. 188 dated the 9th July 1928 with effect from the 1st September 1928. It is situated in the Pa-an Township of the Thaton District, _ and the Papun Township of the Salween District. < _ &. sondaicus was once fairly plentiful in several parts of Burma, and was realised as being in danger of becoming very rare early in the: _ present century.. But it was not until about 1927, partly as a result of the activities of Thai poachers near the Siltaing River, that the Forest. Departrment became seriously alarmed and decided that special measures would be necessary if the species was to be saved from _ extinction. Unfortunately this sanctuary was established too late. ‘A thorough investigation of this sanctuary conducted in 1938 by the _ late: Theodore. Hubback showed that at least some of the rhinoceros: ee Barking-deer. oa 274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 inhabiting it -belonged ‘to the Sumatran” aro homedyi spebies.! LOrge, ae 2 vol. 2. (3),.-pp. 145-146, , ‘November, 1953]. In 1939-40, ‘the Game Warden (BF. Je “Mustill) tere a Suits evidence. regarding the species as an excellent view and photos of a rhinoceros in its wallow were obtained at very close range. The animal was undoubtedly of the Sumatran species and its track: was the largest measured in the sanctuary. In 1940-41 the Game Warden (C. E. a stated that the » ‘rare Rhinoceros sondaicus no longer existed here. The Divisional Forest Officer, Thaton ‘(August 1946) in answer So an enquiry informed Mr. Wi. F. H. Ansell ‘that there is at least one family of rhinoceros in the Kahilu Sanctuary and that tracks of two were recently seen’ [JBNHS, vol. 47 (2), p. 249, December tg Hatracts from Report on Forest Administration in Burma. 1946-47. ‘Tracks of two Rhinoceros sumatrensis were reported seen in the sanctuary’. 1947-48. ‘A Rhinoceros sumatrensis was ‘reported séen soGasionially’. Information later than 1948 is not available. The sanctuary is situated in the area at present. under occupation by the insurgents (Karens). - Besides Dicerorhinus sumatrensis the sanctuary contains serow, hog-deer, mouse-deer, barking-deer and a few bison. This sanctuary falls within the recently constituted Kaw-thu- -lay Srey Stae. Muuayir GAME SANOTUARY Year of notification “— - ist J anuary 1986. a dice ah Area in sq. miles IN a ae 5) eee tees oe Sipe 2S Forest division in which situated _ Thaungyin. Species for which the sanctuary - is patty constituted _ Barking- deer, ‘Pig, Mer. and es leopard. | : This sanctuary was notified in Ministry of Forest ‘Notification No. 232 dated the 5th November 1985 with effect from the 1st January 1986. - It is situated in the Kya-in Township, Kawkareik Sub-division,. Amherst District, on the western slopes of the Dawna Range and takes its name from the highest point in the area, namely Mount Mulayit (6,828 ft.). Mount Mulayit is a place of pilgrimage and the slopes of the mountains are uninhabited and likely to remain so. This is the first of a series of sanctuaries constituted with the support of the Buddhist monks. In an area with such. great range. in elevation (6,823 ft. down to 1,200 ft.) the flora varies a great deal—from dense evergreen and moist deciduous forests to hill forest — q and open grass screes on the highest slopes. ‘There is therefore much variety of food for herbivorous fauna. The streams are all perennial and there are plenty of fish in the deep pools which occur. The . climate is wet with a rainfall of probably more than 200 inches per annum. - This rascee! was ely Beers to. contain oe ¢ Dawna! Range” at. 6; 899 ft. “(1929- 5). The Caseig is that specimens may wander there from time to:time. .The sanctuary. was 4 last visited in 1946-47 by the range officer who found tracks of bison, mouse-deer, sambar, barking-deer, pig, bear, tiger and. leopard. = WILD: LIFE. PRESERVATION: PMBUEMALI IS. Sts te detailed: faunal ‘and floral: survey ‘is: necessary.“ The area is present under occupation ‘by insurgents oe, and t Mons), cs aus — the ee ae Karen” State. poy : ee elk pen ‘Suwe-U- Dave - -Year of notification er ioe : 4918. Area in square miles is 5 126:+ — pionesd men in- which situated: Sine Bagh) loon’: Be. Big | : : eet Burma s e205) ot: Se: Mone Mit, "sgn jsi5at c: Shan State. BSG ap 3S Species fn which the pancinary. as "126 - 1S s Primarily constituted e , Dicerorhinus ice : 5 ie pais ice elephant, bison, _ tsaing, Meer. Br es Sot ere - sambar,. serow,- . barking- es Me ee ely ye ip RE ~ deer, pig,- Boor leopard, moe Mls 85 Bis? of ee *) ¢-bear; . peafowl; - junglefowl; es 2 ; 3 pheasant, anes and +e ee eee o= 3 ee er Cee Meter ieee: oe 2 gl sq. “miles of the Shwe- UDaung “Reserve ying in ‘the ‘Mopok _ and Thabeikkyin Sub-Divisions of the Katha District was originally notified as a Game Reserve in 1918 and declared as ‘The Shwe-U-Daung _ Game Sanctuary’ in Forest Department (Ministry of Forests) Notifica- — tion No. 248 dated the 29th September 1927. 45 sq. miles of the _ Shwe-U-Daung Reserve lying in the Mongmit State was declared as “The Shwe- U- Daung Game Sanctuary, in Forest Department— as . Notification No. 188 dated the- 22nd July 1929 with effect from the gee Ist August 1929. An account of this sanctuary by E. H. Peacock has previously. been published in 1981 ‘(JBNHS, vol. 35 (2), October 1931 J. | she eons Ue all species ‘of animals ‘adicenoue to Northern Burma with the exception of thamin, goral and hog-deer and - many of these can be observed on the open grassy hill slopes found - at high elevations within the sanctuary. The scenic value of the sanctuary is said to be almost unequalled within the Union, many of the hills within it. being over 5;000 ft. above sea level. The _ Shwe-U-Daung Hill from which the sanctuary takes its name rises E pt an altitude of 6,222 ft. _ fe - the ‘salter’ huntsman usually wreaks havoc amongst the deer and pig. that come down to the lick, sparing neither doe nor fawn nor ODEETYeNe. i close season. Bea I-hear that there is a Sportsmen’s Acca tlans or sactiechiie: of that sort in Orissa formed by sportsmen and shikaris in that State, and it is hoped that they will take steps to see that the artificial ae are made illegal as soon as DOES ts = A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON THE STATUS OF RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN (PANOLIA ‘ELDI THAMIN) IN THE UNION OF BURMA, 1953 | : Se Seth he -U Tun Yu, B.c.s. (Retd.) This note is compiled from copies of reports very kindly furnished by the Personal Assistant to the Conservator of Forests, Burma (U Thein Yin), Principal Forest Officer, Shan States, Taungevi (U Ne Win), and the Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, Maymyo = (U Thein). The writer takes this opportunity to thank the, above mentioned forest officers for their readiness in tracing official reports on rhino and supplying him with copies on request. SHWE-U-DaunG SANCTUARY The range officer, Thabeitkyin, continues to receive reports from time to time that the ‘three rhinos reported previously are still surviving in the dense jungles in the upper reaches of the Shwe-Hnyar-U Chaung. (Annual Report on Forest Administration, East Katha Division, 1952- During the Japanese occupation, a villager from. Pegu village shot one cow rhino and a school teacher from heat Sein-Gon village shot two rhino (sex unkown). There is a local belief that the best time to come across rhino is during the full moon of Waso (July) when they. usually congregate together. (Report on the Shwe-U-Daung Game Sanctuary by Range oe Momeik, dated 22nd May 1948.) -Uyu RIVER DRAINAGE AREA “It’s pretty hard to estimate the number of rhinoceros in Homalin Sub-Division. I would personally hazard a guess of some seven or eight animals. Rhino tracks (possibly a solitary animal) have been reported from the right bank of the Chindwin north of Nantalaik. _ There may be one or two animals in the wild interior of Hkamti State. ‘I remember a Chin telling me in 1943 how he and a few others shot two rhinos within a week in the Uyu area, west of Chaungson. The Chin village east of Mawngkan is probably doing colossal damage to game and forests.’ (W.J.Carrot,t Commissioner, Sagaing Division—March 1951.3 - | The Divisional Forest Officer, Upper Chindwin, Myittha Division, suggests the triangle between Uyu and Chindwin rivers and Taw Sein unclassed forests for reservation as a sanctuary for rhino. Received report that there are rhinos surviving in the Nataleik Yele Forests in the Somra Tract. Not verified. (Annual Report on Forest Administration, Chindwin Circle, 1951-52.) The Divisional Forest Officer, West Katha Division, estimated the number of rhino in | be Mir, WV J. Carrot was Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills District, till June 1950. mig Bes gtr a 302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82 Namka-Za, Nam-Yoke Chaung unclassed forests and the Taungthonlon’ area, as. five.- The. same estimate was given in 1950-51.. (Annual Report on. a5 orest Administration, Northern Circle, _ 1952- -53-). MYITKYINA AREA: | ‘In July 1948, a track of a rhinoceros was seen on the hills of Pao Tan Bum in Pindung Reserve by gamekeeper La Kyon Nawng and the thugyi (headman) of Mayan village. It is believed that the animal crossed -over from the Uyu side and went north along the east bank of Namti_ and Pidaung Siete (stream) towards the Eimkhing Bum.. ‘At a place. called Kyaukkaik camp. néar the source of the Tagwin Chaung, Mogoung Range, tracks of another animal are reported to have been discovered as recently as November 1947. From the tracks seen, it is believed that the animal came from the west, crossed the Tagwin and went eastwards. ‘In Indawgyi Range tracks of two biinSeeross were seen near the border of the West Katha and this Division near a place called Maingseingyi as recently as September 1948. The animals are believed to have come over from the Uyu drainage and. the tracks of an animal indicated that it turned back into that drainage after about a fortnight.”. (Memo dated 16th December 1948 from the Divisional Forest Officer, Myitkyina, to the Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, Maymyo).. TENASSERIM PENINSULA ‘Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus and Rhinoceros sumatrensis) were at one time plentiful but owing to the depredations of Thai poachers have greatly decreased in numbers. They are now rarely heard about in any of the well-known forests. One animal may possibly visit the Yebu salt lick, another is on Nwalabo mountain, while occasional animals are reported in ‘other areas. A queer report comes in from time to time that rhinoceros visit Rodger’s Island. This report is hardly credible but as it recurs there may be some truth in it. | ‘In 1889, Anderson stated that rhinoceros found their way to Kisseraing Islands, that at that time they existed on Sir Robert Campbell and Sir Charles Forbes Islands. In those days the dried hide of Rhinoceros sondaicus was sold in the Mergui bazaar as food. He stated also that a police officer saw a two-horned rhinoceros swimming near High Island which is a' good 20 miles from the mainland although there are islands in sight all round.’ [Tavoy Divisional Working Plan (1939-40 to 1958- 59) BY. H. C. Pudden, 1.F.s., Deputy Conservator of Forests. | | renee PANOLIA ELDI THAMIN THAYETMYO FOREST DIVISION ‘Thamin~ occur mainly in the scrub jungle between the eastern Saieccued of the Pani stream and the Irrawaddy River. There are 1! Taungthonlon is an extinct volcano, 5,600 ft., near es = dos of Upper. Chindwin and Myitkyina Divisions, Sg a ANB eae ae 2 oy =? o% ba ‘af ‘ RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN IN BURMA ~~ 803 possibly 200 animals in this area. Round Sitsayan and Damathaw, south and north of Kama respectively, there are a total of 20-30 animals.’ ere ia orest. ees eens 1947.)!- a Dnicce FOREST “Division ‘The existing stock has diminished to a yee narrow oss and is now confined to the following ‘limits:—.-.0 00) () 0 : Area ae sie 2 eae Estimated stock - Stags. Hinds Meiktila Range ; Menyotaung reserve and unclassed Ree er 22>. _Inbinwa reserve and unclassed forest — ...10 8 Pyaukseikpin unclassed forest EE ef. 20 Tagundaing Range: ni tke Yupataung and Sintauny unclassed forest EOE 25 Sathwa range —s_|" i ORs . +. Small number Myothitrange ss ged, hike do (Divisional Forest Officer, Heit Ge: March DORE.) 6 ~U Aung Din, M.a. (Oxon), B.Sc., Silviculturist, informed the writer that he saw thamin on several occasions “during his inspection. of Meiktila Forest Division in March 1954. He is definite that thamin is Oil. the inerease.. 2 Sa Jie fee Se ‘Abundant in the Lower Chindwin, Yaw and Minbu Forest Divisions.’ (Annual Report on Forest Administration, Chindwin Circle, Maymyo, 1951-52.) “West Katha Forest Division, Nam Khan range, Ne-phi-lay un- classed forest: estimated stock 5. East Katha Forest Division—not seen now.’ (Annual Report on Forest Administration, Northern Circle, Maymyo, 1952-53.) Note.—Thamin exist in. fair numbers near’ Kyauk-O, ‘Thabeithyin Range, East _Forest Division (1948-49). CONCLUSION . ‘Are there any thamin alive in Burma today?’ (Lt.-Col. EE. G. Phythian-Adams, JBNHS, Vol. 50 (1) p. 1o—August 1951.) Thamin exists and is on the increase in the Union of Burma. The Japs were strict. Ammunition for shot gun was not procurable and there were no shooting parties. Thamin as well as all wild game increased during the war period. It was only on re-occupation that much game was destroyed. During the present Civil War, game is destroyed by peace guerillas who misuse the ammunition supplied by the Government. Whether the insurgents can afford to waste their limited stock on wild game is not known. Ammunition is still scarce. Permit holders are permitted to draw only fifteen rounds at a time (once in two or three years): People dare not venture out to shoot game. In 1948, a party. of five guns from Rangoon (Europeans) who’ went’ out to shoot. junglefowl in the Insein District, were surprised’ by’ the insurgents and all their guns and ammunition looted. The Rangoon resident who- organised the shoot later received a note from’ - the insurgents that the guns would be returned in exchange for rifles!” REPORT ON THE FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE, NORTH BURMA BY | 2 F. Kincpon-Warp, B.A. (Cantab.), 0.B.E,, F.L.S., V.M.H. A general description of the vegetation and flora of North Burma was published in four parts in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vols. xliv, xlv, xlvi (August 1944 to. August 1946), under the comprehensive title ‘A Sketch of the Botany and Geography of North Burma’. This is referred to in what follows as ‘the earlier monograph’. The present paper is a direct continuation of those observations, dealing with a part of North Burma not previously mentioned since “no botanical collecting had ever been done there—namely, the North Triangle, between the eastern and western branches of the Irrawaddy. Here,- between December 1952 and January 1954, my wife and I together with two Burmese colleagues, U Tha Hla and U Chit Ko Ko, seconded from the Burma Forest Department, spent eight and a half months. Though I have not attempted to reconcile in detail the vegetation zones recognised in the Triangle with those previously discussed, the use of the same names for the same zones leaves no room for confusion. INTRODUCTION Our objective in 1953 was the region known as the Triangle, situated in the Kachin State of the Union of Burma, north of Myitkyina. No serious botanical collecting had ever been done in this area; and though, as a result of previous exploration in adjacent areas, it was known what types of vegetation and what sort of flora would occur there, it required and still requires much further work to give a complete picture of North Burma. The ultimate goal decided on was the group of high peaks forming part of the watershed between the eastern and western branches of the Irrawaddy. It is amongst these peaks that the Hkrang Hka, a left bank tributary of the Mali Hka (or western branch), rises. The approximate position of the group is 26°50/N., 98°15/E., the highest peak called Tama Bum rising to 11,845 ft. above sea level. I shall refer to them as the Arahku peaks. The Triangle, whose apex is the confluence of the two branches of the Irrawaddy. at Tanghpore, 27 miles above Myitkyina, and whose ill-defined base lies a little north of the 27th parallel of latitude, is entirely mountainous. In fact, North Burma and north-eastern Assam together make. up part of ‘the under belly of the Sino-Himalayan plateau, which stretches for 2,000 miles across Asia. This under — belly has been so deeply and widely eroded that it no longer bears — any outward likeness to a plateau, and has in fact become somewhat detached from the main: plateau; and although this isolation is geologically recent (dating only from the beginning of the Pleistocene STS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE; KACHIN STATE 305 E saihon), the climatic and other Eee then initiated have left indelible marks on the flora. = . While, therefore; the yerotanion and flora of North Burma in _ general and of the Mali Hka-Nami Hka watershed in particular could. readily be inferred from what was already known of the surrounding areas, there was good reason to think that many new species remained to be discovered, even though the height of the _ peaks in the Triangle did not warrant belief in an ‘extensive oti flora. And so it proved. ~ There would, of course, be less scope for new Sonate tion types than for new species, since it takes a major climatic change acting over a long period of time to bring about the former, whereas new species may result from much smaller causes and in much less time. oe We established that the North Triangle had been glaciated, which glaciation lasting through perhaps half a million years, must have brought about a fundamental change of vegetation types; but these types would not differ appreciably from other vegetation types of North Burma, where the marks of glaciation are even plainer. oo Change of climate alone, consequent on the Pleistocene glaciation, sis, however, not the only reason for the unusually rich and varied - flora of North Burma. The dynamic events of the changeful and intermittent ice age have certainly been a major factor, causing _-—s migration, extermination, and re-introduction of species. But not less important has been the isolation of areas, the compression and telescoping of several phytogeographical regions within a small area, f-_-and the immigration of new species. Here, differences of altitude have played a major role by bringing different floras into three-dimensional f= contact. - (On the plains they can be in two-dimensional contact me Only) | = Over large parts of the earth’s land surface, the phytogeographical ___ regions are in contact, if at all, in two dimensions only, being separated from one another by deserts, by oceans, or by mountain ranges. In the Triangle, as in many other mountainous areas, they are in contact in three dimensions. It is not necessary to follow up all the implications of this truth here; but it is obvious that, whereas the ; alpine region is the most. isolated, the temperate region, between 5,000 and 10,000 ft., is in close and uninterrupted contact with two & distinct phytogeographical regions—Indo-Malaysian below, and alpine _ Sino-Himalayan above; which perhaps accounts for the fact that the temperate zone is the most prolific of all in endemic species. . Previous WorRK . Something was known of the vegetation and flora of four areas __ of North Burma outside the Triangle, all of which lie within 150 — miles of the SfOuD of peaks we ue tes to explore. These areas include : (i) the Myitkyina eiain to the ae (ii) the Htawgaw and Hpimaw Hills and western Yunnan to _ the south-east ; A (iii) the Hkamti plain and the Seinghku | ak Adung: valleys to the north; : tint PY £ £ eles Bh: fag a org Ze Sack ¢ te i Ss Ses : *% i" * ScS ee Th Ue = ee fae oe hee RE SF os 306 JOURNAL, .BOMBAY..NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53. _ (iv) the Taron valley: and: Irrawaddy plateau::to the northseast,. (For an account of the Mra wadsy ea see Oe ee Journal, 4 Ostober, TO38iit ies ) It was certain: that the flora Pore veweHiiod lof the Noth: Triangle would have a great deal in common with these’ areas; but 'éven they had. been’ only: superficially explored,. and there was still a great deal to bev learnt about North Burma—particularly in’ the es which in the botanical sense, ‘had never been explored at ‘all. A complete list of these previous explorations | has ‘been — given - in the eater monograph, Part I; so hee is no need to ape it spe. . ee ae Seale Sea TR STR eS ee SET EON Ce Dadian Fingeidunen el) : wie discussing my plans with the Chief Conservator | and the Sylviculturist, Burma Forest Department, it was arranged that two Range Officers of the Department, U Tha, Hla and U Chit Ko Ko, should join the expedition for training. in plant exploration ‘and botany, and to help us in -any. difficulties which, might arise. I cannot speak too highly of their enthusiasm, loyalty, and unselfish 3 co-operation. Thus, the four of us made up a team which worked together harmoniously throughout, to make the most of our unique opportunity. It is certain that my wife and I, the two most experienced members of the team, would not have achieved the results we did without the help of our Burmese colleagues. We had brought our stores, tents, and equipment out. an Ee England, and the “business of landing and. clearing these, obtaining the necessary permits from the Union and Kachin Governments, and s so forth occupied us in Rangoon for six days. My wife and | finally left for Myitkyina on the 18th December, 1952, our Burmese colleagues arranging to join us later. ROUTE We left Myitkyina by jeep on the 5th January, 1953, reaching = Sumprabum (131 miles by road) on the 7th, Here we halted for * two and a half months. The Arahku peaks and.the. ranges to the © north were under snow, and I did not think we _ should- find much a in flower in the ternpérate forest before mid-April; but in this I was A mistaken. The time was well spent making a representative collection e in the neighbourhood, pushing. out stores into the Triangle, purchasing = rice, and studying the country. g Sen from here the Arahku peaks, about 50 miles to the north-east, appeared to consist of a series of short, more or less overlapping chains arranged in echelon. Due to their height they are somewhat isolated on the spine of the Triangle, and seem to bear little relation to their visible surroundings ; WEE are like islands in an ocean. Two days before we set out for Arahku, U 14 Tha Hla and U Chit Ko Ko (who had been delayéd by unforeseen — joined us. They arranged to follow: us in a few days. On the 21st March we started on foot, crossed the Mali Hka at Ningma Daru by dugout, and four days ‘later reached the Hkrang Hka, which we crossed by bamboo raft. Throughout: : the: ten ; PAR TIAS a Pe Pee oe ke FORESTS, OF THE NORTH. TRIANGLE, | KACHIN. STATE 307 days’: “journey. to Arahku we followed : a ‘general - north-easterly, direction, halting at. Arahku fora profitable five days’. exploration, On the oth April: we reached: Hkinlum,. the last village up the main valley and close under the ‘peaks, having. marched: 86, miles::; ‘Here wé' made our base camp. On the 12th we were joined by .U ite ae and U Chit. Ko-Ko; so our party was now complete... Though Hkinlum is at exactly the ‘same altitude as. i na we noticed at once that certain trees familiar at'the latter place were lacking here; for example, Ficus benjamina, .Duabanga sonnera- tioides, Aesculus. assamica (?:— or A. punduana?), Shorea assamica, Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (?), Michelia sp. nov. (only- three specimens found), Altingia excelsa and Terminalia myriocarpa. Several of these, however, became prominent further down the valley of the Hkrang Hka.. Their absence at Hkinlum was obviously connected with the proximity to the high peaks. On the other hand, a number of trees not seen at Sumprabum were prominent at Hkinlum : e.g. Prunus cerasoides rubella, Bucklandia- populnea, Mangletia caveana: -Michelia bailloni, Alcimandra cathcartit, Myrica nagi, Acer cuniphelle (2), and others. It cannot, however, be too’ strongly insisted that, below 5,000 ft., the flora of the two areas is essentially the same, such differencés as there are being mainly due to minor. differences of climate, which here means temperature ‘differences. | @urvbkie oS A fairly. hotel ae picture of the climate of North Recna is given in the earlier monograph, Part I, and I can add little that is new here. The climate of the Triangle does not differ appreciably from that of other comparable parts.of North Burma—that is to say, prolonged summer rain, followed by a drier cold weather. The four seasons are well marked, and become more so with increase of altitude Up. to about 9,000 ft. In 1953 spring in Hkinlum (4,000 ft.) was S baSeally wet. This was Pllowed by a comparatively rainless August, the break in the monsoon lasting about a month with temperatures up to go°F. and_ high humidity. Such August breaks, however, as I recall, are not unusual _ in North Burma, when little rain falls—and that mostly in the form of short thunder storms: often at night. The fact is that, in mountainous North Burma, microclimates within the general monsoon framework are common. The most obvious deviation from the familiar monsoon climate of Burma. is, of course, the presence of a sub-arctic climate in the north (becoming cold-temperate in the Triangle), which affects ‘adjacent areas. Ground frosts occur so low as 4,000 ft. (as at Hkinlum, where’ the hillsides have been cleared); while above 10,000 ft. snow hes cer for three or four ma THE Wicericids TYPES OF THE NorTH TRIANGLE .. North Burma is almost completely covered with forest. There are three minor—but none the less important—exceptions to this: T. The banks of rivers, especially between low water mark and Mood level; also small areas above high flood level which are covered S) Le eae iad {pan oe we Te 308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 5: with sand. (In the latter the vegetation shows a transition to forest, though the species are often peculiar.) This river valley vegetation is, of course, no more than a narrow strip lining either side of the permanent stream bed; but along the many hundreds of miles of rivers, large and small, it amounts to a considerable area, and the immersible vegetation type includes a surprising number of species. Four distinct habitats are met with: i ee rg (a) rocky cliffs; (b) pure sand; | 3 (c) continuous stretches of comparatively small water-worn stones, with no sand or soil visible between them; : (d) piled-up boulders. | Silt rarely occurs, and where it does locally it is due to the presence of a small, slow jungle stream. There are, however, gradations between (b), (c), and (d), with occasional (and often temporary) admixtures of silt. Above flood level, sand is almost always piled up on low shores for a greater or lesser distance; but vertical cliffs, or boulder banks, are followed immediately by thick forest. | Each of the above habitats has its characteristic species, besides species common to more than one habitat. The most interesting plants of this sere (i.e. temporary stage on the way to forest) are those which at some period are more or less submerged, especially shrubs. They may be gregarious, like Homonoia riparia, scattered, or in dense mixed thickets, where such plants as Eugenia, Phlogacanthus, Phyllanthus, shrubby Strobilanthes,, Mussaenda, Ligustrum, Rosa, Camellia, Rhododendron simsii, and others occur. There is even a species of Euonymus with minute flowers.?. 3 The leaves of almost every shrub annually submerged are long and narrow, either narrow-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, and leathery. © This is true of all the species mentioned above except Mussaenda and Rosa involucrata which, with a species of Phyllanthus growing under similar conditions, have finely divided leaves. Other examples of narrow-leafed plants are Ficus pyriformis, Scutellaria, Salix tetrasperma, several grasses, ferns, and Cyperaceae. A much smaller, completely prostrate undershrub is the curious Rhabdia lycioides which grows in almost pure sand, usually well below high flood level. _Herbaceous plants include a creeping fern (Goniopteris) and _ the Arm-like Cryptocoryne, which forms compact colonies wedged between stones. Most of this strand flora flowers either in the winter at low water, after the river has begun to fall in October, or in the hot weather of March-April. | Coe Os ee “ae From the practical point of view, a knowledge of this river bank sere is imperative for the selection of plants suitable for reclamation work. pe ae ee ee ee It is important to remember that this river bed formation, stabilised ee at sere level, is open, and can easily absorb many more species, if they can comply with the conditions. 1 This is possibly the lapw shin lap of the’ Kachins (Burmee mway kike say) a— well-known remedy for snake bite (some snake bites ?).. eee Ge Are FORESTS « OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 309 +A. The zone of cultivation which extends intermittently from the _ lower valleys, less than 2,000 ft. above sea level, to about 6,000 ft. : _ Between these limits, much of the country has been cleared of forest and is covered with crops, or with second growth undergoing several -_ metamorphoses before its final return to climax forest—which of course it is never permitted to do. Cultivation, however, is confined to south and west slopes; north and east slopes, precipitous rocky slopes, gullies and ravines, are untouched. Thus, even within the zone of cultivation, in the most thickly populated districts, a good deal of climax forest survives. 4 Many widespread herbaceous and undershrub plants occur in this zone. Some of these are found in connection with cultivation all over South-East Asia, and even further afield; certain Compositae and grasses, for example. These plants are provided with good means of dispersal and quickly seize on unoccupied ground as soon it becomes 3 available, either through the felling and burning of forest for taungya cultivation, or the cutting of paths. © Many orchids, too, which will not grow inside the dank forests, are able io establish themselves on solitary trees left standing on cultivated slopes. They, like many other herbaceous plants commonly found on roadside banks, are as much a part of the Indo-Malayan flora as are the forest trees, to which they are necessary. They are not, like weeds of cultivation, intruders, though they may appear to be so because in the forest they are much more scattered. Such ___Indo-Malayan or pantropic herbaceous plants include species of Begonia, a Chirita, Impatiens, Viola, Didymocarpus, Ohiopogon, many ground orchids, Cyperaceae, Gramineae, and others, | Some of the most interesting herbaceous plants met with were __ those which occur only in villages, brought in perhaps long ago from __ outside by the people themselves. Examples are: Iris sp. (allied to = I. wait) and Hemerocallis, neither of which sets seed, and neither _ of which grows outside the village, though the iris at least occurs s in almost every village. The same is perhaps true of the Tea bush (Camellia sinensis) in the warmer zone, and of another species of Camellia, which might be a substitute for Tea in the cooler zone found only in Hkinlum and adjacent villages. a ‘The presence of these plants is suggestive, and a knowledge of __their occurrence and distribution might furnish valuable clues to anyone __- €nquiring into the history of the hill tribes of North Burma. One feels _ compelled to ask, who brought these plants here? and when? and Whence? Above all, why? Il. The apline zone on the mountain tops, where they exceed 10,000 ft. This is probably the most extensive non-forested area in North Burma. a _ The alpine vegetation may consist of elfin wood (especially _ Rhododendron species), or of scrub (also largely Rhododendron, with _ Prunus, Sorbus, Vaccinium), or of Arundinaria with a few scattered _undershrubs; all three exclude tree growth. | Where the summits reach 17,000 or 18,000 ft. there is an extensive | _ zone above the tree line filled with alpines—the real arctic alpine } 310 vegetation, or, as the limit of plant life is approached, open ground with widely scattered herbaceous plants. Even_ moss and lichens are rare here, and of few species. : Th oie en a At. lower altitudes an alpine vegetation clothes the precipitous ridges which lead up to the. exposed wind-swept summits... It also descends the steep gullies, which are kept open by running water .and falling rocks. | ar ae end ae In its extreme form, above 12,000 ft., the. alpine vegetation consists of turf and sedge, with many scattered and gregarious flowering plants, either of low stature (Pleurogyne, Lloydia, Creman- thodium, Gentiana, Saxifraga, Parnassia, Viola), or forming flat mats pressed against the rocks (Androsace, Arenaria, in great variety. This alpine flora is or with the flora of the It includes a number of compact Rhododendron, Diapensia) comparable with the European alpine flora, Arctic; and so also is the vegetation type. 3 , | endemic genera (Omphallogramma, Cremanthodium, Oreosolen, Nomocharis), besides entire sections of large genera such as Primula and Rhododendron, sufficient to raise the alpine and sub-alpine region of North Burma to the rank of a phytogeographical region (Sino- Himalaya), in spite of a considerable element of Arctic and northern forms. Not on a few new species (Primula, Nomocharis, Veratrum?) ; but a considerable number of species—especially alpine undershrubs common on mountains 15,000 to 18,000 ft. high further north—were lacking on the alpine tops of these lower peaks. For example, we found ‘no species of Berberis or dwarf Lonicera, and only one species of the following : _ Cotoneaster, Salix, Spiraea; while two whole series of Rhododendron (‘Laponicum’ and ‘Saluenense’) could not provide a single species between them. Further north, seven species belonging to these two sections are found in the alpine region. Another widely distributed alpine undershrub—Potentilla fruticosa—was not found; but Rosa omeiensis, Vaccinium modestum, Sorbus pygmea (?), and two alpine mat-forming Gaultherias occurred. There was also a dwarf Juniper. No Fritillaria, Notholirion or Meconopsis was ‘seen ; | the genus Primula, in sub-alpine and alpine zones combined, was represented by only four species, of which at least two appear to be new. ‘Thus, as might be expected, the alpine vegetation of the Arahku gy peaks—though many species must have remained undetected—wa Pp counted only between together, including Omphallogramma Avenaria, Pleurogyne, Gentiana, Saxifraga Lloydia, Androsace, Parnassia, and Tofieldia. This Sino-Himalayan flora_is the most vegetation types mountain top floras being ‘cut off from one another by 60 and 7o alpine and -sub-alpine species (two species), Cremanthodium, isolated of all the valleys. Different ranges running south from the Tibet plateau, though same general flora, seem to possess species: peculiar ‘to possessing the themselves. ~ ly were there many familiar North Burma alpines here, and “and even. oor compared with that ‘of the higher peaks to north and east. I (two species), Bergenia, - of -North~ Burma, and is discontinuous, ~ the ‘deep forested: Be eet OR ae + t . = j =) a La FORESTS OF THE. NORTH ‘TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE B11 Types OF ForEsT IN THE NORTH TRIANGLE The forest cover of North Burma is divisible into- five main types, ‘of which three: are represented in the North Triangle; these are ‘stratified -according to altitude. ‘The three types represented’ are: (i) Tropical Broad-leafed Evergreen Forest, which is a northward ‘extension of the Indo-Malayan phytogeographical region. In the Kachin State this type still persists in the low-lying valleys to about 28°N.; and in the Arahku-Hkinlum area it reaches an extreme altitude of about 6,000 ft., though it is more characteristic of the river gorges at 3,000-4,000 ft. | : (ii) Temperate Broad-leafed Rain Forest, which is in part a west- ward extension of the East Asiatic phytogeographical region, though separated from China by high mountain ranges and deep gorges. Temperate forest covers most of the North Triangle between 5,000 and 9,000 ft., and includes a great variety of broad-léafed trees, both evergreen and deciduous. — Ae wees : . (iii) Silver Fir—Rhododendron Forest. This, the highest forest belt, is under snow for at least three months in the year in the Arahku- Hkinlum area, and for six months in the year further north, where the mountains are much higher. 3 ts Pine forest, described in the earlier monograph, is_ entirely lacking in this part of the North Triangle, where we did not meet with a single Pine tree. eee Se Doge a ee - Mixed Temperate Forest is also lacking; we found neither Picea, Larix, nor Tsuga. In fact, the only Gymnosperms we noted, other than Abies, were a dwarf Juniper and Taxus—both above 10,000 ft. ; and two very rare species down in the valley at 4,000-5,000 ft.—a Cephalotaxus (probably C. mani) and an unidentified genus with leaves like a Metasequoia. This last, a big tree, was exceedingly rare. We saw no sign of Taiwania. : A The three main forest types briefly mentioned above are further divisible on the basis of dominant families or genera, and species frequency, many. species having a considerable vertical range, with of course an optimum altitude. Thus, the broad belt of tropical evergreen forest which fills the deep valleys and spreads upwards into the foothills, can be subdivided into a lower, narrow tropical belt, and an upper, broader sub-tropical belt, although at intermediate altitudes the distinction between. them is necessarily blurred. It is worth noting, however, that a change of forest type is almost always accompanied by a change in the dominant Bamboo genus, or MBECIESROC EF gt : oe De _ Again, in the temperate belt, a distinction between the lower warm- temperate and the upper cool-temperate forest: is not difficult to uphold.. We. may therefore récognise five forest types in the North Triangle, out of the eight described for North Burma in the earlier monograph. It will be useful to. give a brief. account of each, mentioning a few of .the more outstanding trees; a fuller account must await the working out of our collections. , , J. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest This type. is barely represented in. the Arahku-Hkinlum area, and need not detain us. Even at 3,000 ft. altitude, where the summers 319 JQURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. are hot, and no frost enters, and with ample atmospheric humidity throughout the year, the effect of the adjacent high peaks is already beginning to make itself felt. A number of trees mentioned in the earlier monograph as characteristic of this zone (e.g. Terminalia myriocarpa, Mesua ferrea, Duabanga sonneratioides, Gmelina arborea, Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Spondias), though occurring lower down the valley, had disappeared before we reached Hkinlum. Nevertheless, the forest lining the Hkrang Hka gorge, though composed largely, of species not seen at Sumprabum—or even in the valley of the Mali Hka—comes within our conception of tropical forest. Common trees here include species of Elaeocarpus (at least four species), Echinocarpus, Styrax (two or three species), Eugenia, Manglietia, Albizia, Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Spondias), though occurring lower down the one strangling species), besides several big Laurels, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, and others. Though forming only a small proportion of the total forest, this zone is interesting by reason of several rare species, and of importance because of its lining the steep river banks —rivers being the only economic means of transport under present conditions. The rarest tree met with—a single specimen of Cephalotaxus (and the strangest plant—an epiphytic Lily of the ‘Martagon’ type) belong to the borderline between tropical and sub-tropical forest. II. Sub-Tropical Hill Jungle This is well represented in the North Triangle between 4,oo0 and 6,000 ft., above which it passes gradually into a definitely temperate forest type. It lies entirely within the zone of cultivation, and on south and west slopes is represented mainly by second growth which, however, may include woodland of 20 or more years’ standing. (Such woodland is set aside for furnishing building poles.) By far the most interesting tree is a tall Gymnosperm whose identity, in the absence of flowers or fruit, we were unable to determine ; though microscopic examination of the wood is likely to furnish a clue. It is an extremely rare species, at least as a fully grown tree. Common are species of Diospyros, Rhus, Pieris, Schima, Elaeocarpus, Terminalia (?), Stvrax grandiflora, Zanthoxylum; also Altingia excelsa, Erythrina indica, Alnus nepalensis, Bucklandia populnea, Manglietia, caveana. Less common were Helicia, Tern- stroemia, Erniobotrya, and Sterculia (a small tree with reddish flowers like S. coccinea), and the very rare conifer, like Metasequoia, just mentioned. The majority of the species in the sub-tropical belt belong to a few families only, notable to Fagaceae (Quercus/Pasania, Castanopsis), © Rutaceae, Magnoliaceae (Magnolia/Michelia), Theaceae, Rubiaceae, Lauraceae, and Moraceae (Morus HeviEta; Ficus), together with the genera mentioned above. | : Climbing plants abound in this warm damp climate, and include species of Clematis, Lonicera, Jasminum, Smilax, Vitis, Vernonia, several Accle pia daccac and Apoeyanacenc, Frequent scramblers “ane Toddalia aculeata and Aspidopterys sp. | Characteristic and abundant is the epiphytic flora, including many — ; Orchidaceae and ferns, Ericaceae (Rhododendron dendricola, yaaa & EM Ree EU Ee RE ee eee ee Be ie Ae ss “ion a ® Te re ee ee * & et _ FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 313 A gapetes, Pentapterygium), Asclepiadaceae, species of Hedychium, and -so forth; also the lily just mentioned. The composition of the hill jungle, however, varies considerably with its distance from the high peaks. Nearer the peaks, the more tropical families rapidly decrease, while the more temperate families increase in numbers and variety. There are many useful and possibly valuable timbers, but no species forms pure stands; and extraction, except perhaps close to the larger streams, is a major problem. Hl. Warm-Tenperate Rain Forest (5,000-7,000 it.): Cool-Temperate Rain Forest (7,000-9,000 ft.) ‘In the North Triangle this type agrees fairly closely with the description given in the earlier monograph; the differences noted are mainly those of composition, a number of new species being added, while many of those mentioned as characteristic (e.g. Decaisnea, Dobinea, Pottingeria), were not met with in the Arahku-Hkinlum area. Perhaps the most striking trees of the Warm-Temperate belt are Gordonia axillaris, with flowers six inches in diameter, Rhodoleia forrestiit, Helicia excelsa, and several species of Rhododendron, including R. stenaulum, R. genesterianum, and a ‘Ciliicalyx’ species. ~ Oaks, Laurels and Magnoliaceae abound; also a species of Calamus which ascends to nearly 7,000 ft. The epiphytic flora, which includes several shrubs—notably Agapetes—is varied; but climbing plants, lacking the summer heat they need, are on the down grade. There are a few deciduous trees, but not enough to colour the autumn forest. On the other hand, several autumn-flowering trees are sufficiently abundant to brighten the slopes in November. Several of the trees mentioned serve to indicate the upper limit of the warm-temperate zone, but the dividing line must never be regarded as fixed; on the contrary, the number of genera with species in several zones, ranging sometimes through 6,000 ft., is a measure not only of its fluidity, but also of the fierce, continuous struggle which goes on always between the floras of two superimposed phytogeographical regions to extend their boundaries.. This is apparent not only regarding familiar genera such as Ilex, Castanopsis, Quercus, Rhododendron, and Acer (4,000 to 9,000 ft.), but equally amongst others less familiar, such as Eriobotrya (4,000, 7,000 ft.); Helicia (3,500, 6,500 ft.); Styrax (four or five species, 3,500 to 8,000 ft.); Pieris (3,500 to 9,500 ft.) ; Schima (4,000 to 8,500 ft.); and Symplocos (3,500 to 9,500 ft.). Bucklandia populnea, to mention but one species, has a vertical range of over 4,000 ft. in the Arahku-Hkinlum area. Thus mutual pressure is exerted by one phytogeographical region on another, not only laterally where these adjoin, but also vertically in the mountains. The next zone, the Cool Temperate forest, in latitude 27°N. is in some respects equivalent to the forests of lower altitudes in much higher latitudes—perhaps to those of the moister parts of western Europe. Its composition is, however, partly Eastern Asiatic. Here 6 yo ats My 314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY autumn colour becomes a major feature; indeed, the forests flush with colour twice a _year--in spring, when the magnolias, — rhododendrons and cherries come into blossom, and the breaking leaf- buds add a rich mosaic of greens, yellows, purples, and reds; and again in autumn when the dying year flings a patchwork of scarlet and gold over the hillsides. Amongst the most brilliant trees at this season may be counted Sorbus, Acer, Viburnum, Gamblea, Enkianthus, and Pyrus. During the height of the rains, however, and in the depth of winter, the temperate forest is sombre indeed; for the truth is that even at g,000-10,000 ft. it is still largely evergreen, with rhododendrons, Ilex, Symplocos, oaks, some laurels, and ,some Magnoliaceae retaining their leaves; while other trees (e.g. Eviobotrya sp.) are naked only for a very short time. This is the zone of the big-leafed tree rhododendrons, of R. sino-grande and others, one of which, with glorious yellow flowers, was outstanding in May. (We did not see any of the others in bloom.) The big-leafed -species (‘grande’ and ‘falconeri’ series) at 9,000 ft. tend to form almost pure Rhododendron forest; and though their trunks are gnarled and twisted to an extraordinary degree, they are large enough and abundant enough to provide an unlimited supply of timber for special purposes. The wood is extremely hard and close- grained, and takes a good polish. It would be valuable for veneer and panelling. These trees seemed to be immortal; I estimated many of them to be over 200 “years old, and rarely, did. we sce-a> dead rhododendron. There is also a great variety of shrub rhododendrons, including a number of epiphytic species. In fact, in the cool-temperate forest Rhododendron and Magnolia are dominant genera, so much so that it might properly be defined as the zone of Magnoliaceae and Ericaceae. Notable trees are Magnolia rostrata and M. Campbellu (mollicomata), — flex crenata nothofagifolia (very different in appearance from the Japanese I. crenata), and I. sikkimense, Acer wardii and A. sikkimensis, and species of Tetracentron, Zanthoxylum, Michelia, Eriobotrya, . Schima, Betula, Styrax, Illicium, and several large Araliaceae and Fagaceae (Quercus lamellosa and Q. pachyphylla). s - Two species of Primula petiolares and a ‘Candelabra’ species— likewise belong to this zone, together with species of Begonia, several ground orchids, and a few Compositae. - A noted feature is the swathing of the big trees with moss, which not only pads the trunks but hangs in long festoons from the limbs. In this moss a variety of perennial epiphytes, both woody and herbaceous, spring up from seed; in fact, there is hardly a tree in the forest which cannot start life thus, while many continue as epiphytes all their lives, and when fully grown are often connected with the earth as well, by means of a great root which has grown down the side of the trunk till it reached the ground (e.g. Sorbus). They are partial epiphytes. The thin-barked rhododendrons, however, carry no moss. Tos surprising that neither in this, nor in any higher zone, did we meet with a single species of Berberis, so many species of which occur further north; and with only one species of Cotoneaster. ‘ORESTS OF HE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE — 815 | LV. Diododendean Silver Fir Forest The Burmese, and probably Chinese, Silver Fir is found on sheltered slopes as low as g,ooo ft. in the North Triangle, as high as 12,000 ft. in North Burma generally. Though it forms practically pure stands, the trees are rather far apart, the intervening space being filled with Arundinaria and Rhododendron arizelum—one of the big- leafed trees, and to a lesser extent with another tree species of the -_ ‘Thomsoni’ species. In the earlier monograph I referred the Burmese Silver Fir to Abies fargesiu; but whether the North Triangle tree is this species or not remains to be seen. o A number of broad-leafed, mostly deciduous trees are associated with the Silver Fir, notably Gamblea, Clethra delavayi (?), Pyrus, and Sorbus insignis (S. harroviana?); besides numerous shrubs, especially species of Rhododendron and Gaultheria. It may be remarked that Abies is practically confined at this altitude to the more sheltered slopes, being unable to withstand bright sunshine. Hence, in this zone we find three distinct plant associations: (i) sheltered slopes - covered with Abies—Rhododendron forest; (11) exposed slopes, with - Rhododendron—broad-leafed deciduous trees, mostly of small size; — and (iii) ridges which, being exposed to both wind and sun, are covered mainly with mixed shrub growth of low stature, including many species of rhododendron [RR,. tephropeplum, telopeum (?), _trichociadum, polyandrum, and others], mixed with Euonymus, Enkianthus, Symplocos, Viburnum, Gaultheria, Vaccinium glauco- album, Taxus, and many other species. All three associations have Arundianaria as a fill-in. 3 ae Another point of interest is that Abies, the only tree other than _. rhododendron to form pure stands, is local in its occurrence. Thus, while it was a dominant on Tama Bum at 10,000-11,000 ft., we did not come across a single tree on Tagtlam Bum, only a few miles to the north and very little less in altitude. One gets the impression that, though a tough-looking tree, it is in reality sensitive to slight differences in climate. 4 _ There was no sub-alpine meadow association within this zone (or, _ indeed, anywhere else) such as is typical of the higher ranges along Ethie China: Tibet frontier. The nearest approach to this was in the 3 steep, sheltered gullies, which, being drained dry in their upper parts _ by October, carried only a fimited variety of coarse herbaceous plants, _ forming nevertheless a type of sere. The more outstanding plants in these gullies were: Caltha, Cimicifuga, Nomocharis, Polygonum, Lugula, Pedicularis, Rodgersia, Astilbe, and several Compositae with large leaves : besides a few shrubs, including a Lonicera. ‘= e FOREST IN GENERAL Since the various types of forest are in three-dimensional contact, as opposed to two-dimensional contact on flat land, over wide areas _ a good deal of interchange of species takes place. Every zone tries to expand its boundaries, and incorporate within itself something of E the zone below and the zone above. Even alpine species penetrate as far down the gullies as they can, while cool temperate species ‘Strive to become alpines. This, of course, is what one would expect, Al " i “e Pi . x tp 316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 3. since there are always transitional zones; nothing is hard and fast. But while species may, and often do transgress boundaries, different species of the same genus regularly occupy different zones. Obvious examples in North Burma are Rhododendron, with species in every zone from 1,000 ft. above sea level (R. simsi). 10 14,000 ft. (R. chryseum); and Ficus, with species in all zones between 1,000 ft. and 10,000 ft. But whereas the former is much more abundant above 8,ooo ft. than it is below, the latter is far better represented at 2,000 ft. than it. is at 9,000 ft. Hence, one suspects that Ficus is: a tropical genus which has worked its way up to a temperate climate, while Rhododendron is a temperate genus which has worked its way down to a tropical climate. Certain species of Rhododendron, ane become gregarious, have made their own small zones, e.g. RR. sino-grande and arizelum, which form together, or with other species, or even alone, a zone of rhododendron forest, while others form rhododendron scrub. Whole sections of the genus are confined to particular zones. This, however, is not exceptional; rather is it the rule, though on a less generous scale. Amongst common genera which have overflowed into two or more zones one might mention Quercus, Acer, Ilex, Magnolia, Michelia, Elaeocarpus (mainly in the lower zone, however), Euonymus, and — Prunus. Of all these we met with several species. In the North Triangle also grows a species of Rehderodendron, quite a common constituent of the forest between 4,000 and 5,000 ft.; at 8,000 ft. it was replaced by. a second species. The same with . Helicia © (Proteaceae)—one species at 4,000 ft., a second at 7,000 ft.; while Eriobotrya had four species, the lowest at 4,500 ft., the highest at 7500, it. Alpines, too, try to extend their territory downwards, e.g. a species of Nomocharis, found inside the forest at 8,500 ft., and on the open ridge at 10,000 ft. The fact that one finds such a genus as Symplocos, usually reckoned as sub-tropical, at 8,500 ft., and various Lauraceae at 8,000-9,000 ft., is another indication of the concerted attempts being made by the lower zones to extend upwards. It is worth noting that the green fruits of Rehderodendron sp, from 4,ooo ft. are regularly eaten (i.e. the rind) by the local inhabitants. It will be remarked that we actually passed through three main vegetation belts or climax, belonging to three different phytogeographical regions: (i) Tropical Indo-Malayasian forest ; (ii) Temperate forest (Eastern Asiatic and Northern phytogeo- graphical regions) ; (iii) Alpine (which comprises a region by itself) Sino- Himalayan. In the latest exposition of phytogeographical regions, Prof. Ronald Good has increased the number formerly recognised to 36.* 1 The Geography of the Flowering Plants, 1st edition, London 1947. +5 Seah is ah Bi aa A i a a a pe FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 317 That the number must be increased as we get to know more and more of the world’s flora, and the distribution of species and genera, is highly probable. But Prof. Good seems to me to be in advance of our certain knowledge. How many divisions we allow depends, of course, mainly on what degree of peculiarity—especially endemism and its degree (specific, generic, or family)—we insist on. (Prof. Good himself doubts the justification for his Continental South-east Asiatic Region.) It also depends on the results of continued exploration. For the present I am conservative enough to keep to the old comprehensive Indo-Malaysian region. We hardly know enough about the huge flora of Indo-Malaysia as yet to sub-divide it. Such knowledge as we do possess suggests that the first sub-divisions to make would be to detach Ceylon as a separate region, in spite of its proximity to India. ECONOMICS The question arises: have these extensive forests any economic. future? Are there any valuable products and, if so, is it possible, or worth while, to extract them? The absence of pure stands of any big tree other than Abies— the most inaccessible of all—suggests that the answer is an immediate ‘no’. On the other hand, it seems certain that many useful, even valuable, hardwoods occur at much lower altitudes, though even here the problem of extraction, at any rate ona big scale, is almost insoluble. Two possible methods, however, may be briefly referred to: (1) It would be worth while to test the Mali Hka and Hkrang Hka (below Laja a fair-sized river, especially during the rains) for floating logs down to Myitkyina; though it is certain that there would be awkward places where jams would occur. Thus, it would be necessary to maintain a series of patrols, with knowledge of how to free logs, along the banks. It might be advisable to obtain the services of lumberjacks from Canada or elsewhere to train the necessary personnel. The Mali Hka should, of course, be tested first, by throwing in, say, one hundred marked logs at the Hkrang Files confluence and keeping a watch for them at Tanghpre; though even here patrols might be necessary. If this proved successful, tests might be carried out on the Hkrang Hka from Laja (above which village the river rapidly breaks up). The fact that heavy planks (not logs) are successfully floated down the Ngawchang Hka—a river little superior, if any, in size to the Hkrang Hka—suggests that it would be worth while to examine the possibilities of the latter river. Only trees which grow close to the river could be regarded as accessible, whereas many of the more promising timbers grow high up in the temperate zone, far above the river. These, however, are not for ever out of reach, if the methods adopted in western China and in Tibet are adopted and developed. There, stout building poles are cut and roughly shaped in the forest, high above the villages. A narrow gutter is then cut straight down the steep mountain face, sae) 318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 along which the poles are dragged with ease. As the gutter becomes _ smoother with constant friction, and in winter when it becomes filled with snow (rapidly compacted into ice), the effort required is much diminished. Admittedly, conditions in the» North Triangle are very different. The heavy summer rain would tend to deepen and roughen the gutters; and it is only where the mountains exceed 12,000 ft. that there is any great quantity of snow descending so low as 9,000 ft. But taking the long-term view, it might be possible to develop a system of timber slide and river transport adapted to local conditions. (For example, a gutter lined with bamboos laid lengthwise would be extremely slippery.) It is not suggested that timber could be extracted thus on a commercial scale; but it seems a pity that with > water available, its possible uses should not be explored. (ii) In the Htawgaw Hills (south-east Kachin State) the Chinese export—or used to export—heavy coffin planks cut from the Gymnosperm Taiwania cryptomerioides. These coffin planks, weighing from 80 to 100 lb. each, were carried one by one some ten days journey over the high dividing range to Tengchung in Yunnan—a journey which involved crossing the Hpimaw Pass, 10,000 ft. high. It would be impossible to extract logs of this big tree—one of the largest in the forests of North Burma; but by cutting the planks to the required > shape at the spot where each tree is felled (Ta:wania does not grow in pure stands), floating them down the Ngawchang Hka, seasoning them for a year, and using human transport, thousands of coffins have been made and sold. Chinese carpenters are sent into the Kachin State to cut the planks;-and the industry, hoes a small and luxury trade, is well organised.’ It will be observed that both the ahows methods of extraction from difficult terrain, as practised today, depend upon a special technique applied to a particular species required for a known purpose. In Canada, soft woods are required on a huge scale for the immense paper pulp industry, the pulping machinery being sited on the river used for floating the logs, as high up the valley as possible. In the second example, the extraction of a single species of soft wood for the manufacture of one article—coffins—in limited but steady demand shows what is possible with scattered trees. It is suggested that, since it is not possible to extract Havber wholesale from the North Triangle, efforts should be made to extract planks, provided that they have a certain known value for a particular purpose. Before this could be done, it would be essential to know more about the forests—what species occur there, in what quantity, and for what particular purpose they would prove most useful. Until more information is available, it would be a mistake to embark on extensive and expensive operations. Indeed, it is of the greatest importance to know what raw materials exist, and to develop such a potentially valuable industry step by step. The emphasis here is on _ exploration. . Soa Apart from timber, the forests yield minor products used in the arts—many species of bamboo and cane, for example, used by the local _ “1 See The Chinese Coffin Tree, Geographical Magazine (London), November 1952. 3 : FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 319 aahahitants for Bi variety of purposes, from water pots and drinking vessels to suspension bridges and house floors. Another potential minor product is horticultural plants; and here again there is scope for further exploration to reveal new species _ which will always be in demand. First place may be given to orchids, _ so popular nowadays everywhere—even in countries with a cold climate. _ The forests of the Kachin State are as rich in orchids as is any other part of the world of equal area; and there are-even a few species of considerable merit, which are under snow for a few months each year. But, as already pointed out in an article in the Burmese Forester, the exploitation of these is best left to private enterprise. It may be said categorically, however, that anyone who took up with enthusiasm the cultivation of Burmese orchids for export could earn a living. Secondly, there is ample material in the mountains for a successful seed, or even nursery business, although for the latter purpose capital gy would be required and the nursery would have to be in the hills. There are potential markets all over the temperate world, and the 3 higher mountain tops everywhere are covered with desirable horti- cultural plants, the seeds of which would find a ready sale, yielding a modest profit. A successful seed business has been set up in _ Darjeeling, while in Japan there are a number of exporting nursery a firms: ; ' ~~ +Any such business must be content with a modest start, and knowledge—often bought at a price—is needed as well as enthusiasm ; but the good taste of the Burmese is a valuable asset in the choice of suitable plants. The expense of collecting orchids and seeds would be negligible. a Lastly, mention must be made of medicinal plants, many of which _ find a ready sale in China. “We did not come across the oft-acclaimed _ machit (the Kachin word; botanically, Fritillaria roylei), because the mountains we were exploring are not sufficiently high for this species. It can confidently be asserted that it does not occur anywhere south _ of Putao (except possibly east of the Taron) ; but it is abundant further - north, at altitudes of over 12,000 ft. Coptis teeta, another favourite Chinese drug (hwang-lien is the _ Chinese name), is not rare in the forests above Hkinlum at 7,000- 8,000 ft.; and where it occurs its spread is easily induced by clearing the undergrowth. It would, however, be profitable to cultivate it - on a much larger scale, concentrating it in one place. Only the _ yellow root is used, so that its collection involves the death of the plant. The best method would be to raise it in fields and plough it up when mature, replanting the fields in rotation. It is, however, a forest plant requiring heavy shade, and the best method of cultivation would be a matter for experiment. _ There ‘is also the plant known locally as Mashaw isi, alter cihe village of Mashaw (between Htingnam and Laja), which is reputed to have a monopoly not only of its sale but also of its occurrence! The claim seems extravagant. To bolster up the myth of --exclusiveness, stories are circulated locally of its peculiar appearance 4 fe BS stories aes to the botanist hardly ring true. However, we were - unable to break through the veil of secrecy which envelopes this plant, and ascertain its relationships. Substitutes are readily palmed off on the too curious, though there is some evidence in favour of its being a species of Euonymus. During our sojourn at Hkinlum _ the discoverer of this patent medicine, who called himself the Mashaw- | tsi Duwa, died; but his mantle doubtless descended on another member _ of the family. : Tee a: Lo age The one authentic fact which emerges from the cloud of rumour and speculation concerning this mysterious plant is that it is used mainly in connection with poisoning including alcoholic poisoning (or more briefly, drunkenness), and with undoubtedly good effect, as — reported by a doctor in the district. ia These notes on the flora and vegetation of the North Triangle do not claim to be exhaustive, and indeed, until the collections made by U Tha Hla and U Chit Ko Ko and by ourselves have been worked out (a long job, since the total number of species is about 1,500), no complete account of our joint discoveries is possible. | Incomplete as it is, however, it should, in conjunction with the valuable field notes made by U Tha Hla, prove of some interest to the Forest Departments' of Burma and India. . FOOD OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE - TATERA INDICA CUVIERI (WATERHOUSE) 4 : BY = M. R. N. PRasap , Department of Zoology, Central College, Bangalore, India (With one histogram) In an earlier paper (Prasad, 1954)) the natural history of the gerbille, Tatera indica cuvieri, has been described. In spite of its occurrence in large numbers and the admitted knowledge of its depredations on field crops, we have no adequate account of its food and feeding habits. Gerbilles are nocturnal and Seldon venture out during the day. Blanford (1891) states that these animals store a part of the grain in their burrows, but my examination of their burrow systems presented no indication of such a tendency. Consequently one has to adopt the expedient of examining the stomach contents to ascertain the type as well as the variety of food eaten. If the stomach contents are examined within an hour after feeding, the different constituents can be identified with little effort. Seeds are recognised by their hard outer coats, insect remains by wings, fragments of appendages, tracheal tubes and exoskeletons, while leaves and stems of plants which serve as food are made out by their colour and vascular structure. Rhizomes of grasses can be identified by their outer coats and roots attached io. them. Stomach contents were examined soon after the gerbilles were captured in the morning. ‘The animals feed during the night and -return to their burrows at dawn. The stomach was split and emptied of its contents into a trough containing a little water. The mixture was agitated and allowed to settle down, when the separation of the components could be effected easily. The volume of each kind of food was estimated to the nearest 10 per cent. More accurate estimation did not seem necessary since in a natural population there is generally a slight variation in the food items consumed. The environment and vegetation of the area under investigation (Shivanahalli village, 3 miles from Bangalore, Mysore State, India) have been described in the earlier’ paper referred to. The concentration of the gerbilles in a given area depends to a great extent on the availability of food in sufficiently large quantities throughout the year. ‘ SS Gt Rs ee Oe ON ee et ee ane ee Se CRT Le RC Pen ERE AECL RS NC EN ea? Fe eo Bs Bee: = Kee. he ld. pz fino ees re be: is es ee sh ee > ; NPP RO RO rE mn ere eee Pare a TABLE I[ Food of the gerbille, Vatera indica cuvieri, in Shivanahalli village, Bangalore District, India, in 1953. Volume—per cent. The figures ti : day JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 in parentheses indicate the number of gerbille stomachs examined in each month and the percentage 5 gu the average of the total number of. animals examined. a g| | 813 ; re w oS | oct age Food SE 2 ee (el ee eee [oxe) qa Q o a, a gq — : [oF booed ° QO” See et et Se ae re ee ) (10) | (11) | (9) | 10) | (8) |G1)| (8) | (12)} (22)|0) | 3} 2) et Seeds =o 60 50 25 10 |; 00 | 20 | 25} 10 | 00-145 25 50 Stems and Leaves | 10 (210 15 4-75" 400 10 (10) 20s R hizomes-grasses. 10 °.:20 35..a8 45.) S06 1245: 35-140 4-50: 1°40 1. 35.120 - Miscellaneous... | 10 | 10 i0 16:7}. 18 4° 00 )-00);4) 104210) * 1021-10-16 a Insects AD A 16 15 | 20 | 25 |-25.|-30} 201 25 | 20 1-20 | 10 It will be seen both from the table as well as the histogram that the relative food constituents vary in the different seasons of the year and with the food material available in the neighbourhood. June to August: At the end of the hot weather period the fields are bare and bereft of vegetation. With the onset of the south-west monsoon in the last week of May brisk farming activity is initiated and sowing operations begin by the third or fourth week of June. Sown seeds offer a good source of food during this period. The food also consists of rhizomes of a variety of grasses growing in and around the fields, namely: Cynodon dactylon, Brachiaria distachya, Urocholoa reptans, Setaria intermedia, Sporobolus sp., Eragrostis bifaria, etc. The advent of the monsoon and accompanying strong winds bring large numbers of dragonflies and these form an important constituent of the gerbille stomach for a fairly long period. It was not possible to identify the genera of the dragonflies. In July the sprouted seeds form the food. With the emergence of the saplings a little later, a new kind of food becomes available and the fields are also full of the different varieties of grasses already listed. September to November: : During this period seeds form a rather small percentage of the as food. Since all the seeds have either sprouted or been eaten up by awe now, the gerbilles become more and more dependent on other food i like the rhizomes of grasses and insects. A large number of cutworms belonging to the species Laphygma exigua and Euxoa sagetum which N Miscellaneous | Tare a URC REESE — ELAN ee qn Nt iy Bata Ree aaa Ma om oe seer sonahet otal totibetatetatatetateretcftateteostata cat SS Y) as x stag ars cin eencaes strat thane eto eae cee a © & C a PA) Bega. LAA = ANU a stelatecrranet srbsronaeaearatressenssnta tire cesnstate-ctatarettstoaretetatacatefstotacerscatiteretriecencnett S | = . arene eee eee na ZS .@) < & CE se aes Stes rg ite entertainer acrherelascae trate Sek Sane ‘he Mtlédéddddeag ne ie Raa +a Te oe . Pee eee briciercens seretertnesCetnceeheasieasscreeea acs rethcatetetese Se fess Y% 3 Lvs) a Z — We ANY Witenes chee ee _— ee 1 = muse omen = ot ‘a mreceaeceere = ir Ww x 2 es re i = = a *e aK Pantene, eine ety ohh eee baat 5 AN SNK Fre. NA E | ol ol ol Q! © uy t = VY 2 IE Vth: ae eee a A el oes Boneretanrcesecacereme iiecrere nt orceecacsaeerortceretenmrtee pete a epee ele a mR m ee vem OUITYON % Histogram showing Seasonal Food Constituents of the Indian Gerbille. was ~ — = FOOD OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE 323 cause damage to Ragi (Eleusine coracana) appear at this time and the _ gerbilles consume them in considerable numbers, thus helping in their control. In the middle of October a few of the early earheads of _ ragi and jola (Andropogon sorghum) ripen and the gerbilles feed on them. The percentage of seeds in the stomach increases gradually from now on, as ripening of the earheads progresses. This is the begin- ning of the breeding season and the first litters are brought forth in the third week of September. Intra-specific struggle and evidences of cannibalism are evidenced in the stomachs of a few gerbilles examined during October and November. e December to February: This is the period of plenty and the fields are all full of crops ready for the harvest. Gerbilles cut the earheads of ragi and jola ana gather the seeds. With this increase in the percentage of seeds taken, other items normally consumed in the earlier seasons show a gradual decline, though a considerable variety is still maintained. The ce grain crops are harvested in the middle of December. Since a mixed crop of the following plants, i.e. avare (Dolichos lablab), red gram (Cajanus indicus), Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus), black gram (Phaseolus mungo), green gram (Phaseolus -_ radiatus), cow peas (Vigna catiang), sesame (Sesamum indicum), ground nuts (Arachis hypogaea), and castor (Ricinus communis), is always grown in the same fields along with the main food crops, the harvesting of Eleusine coracana and Andropogon sorghum in the middle of December does not deprive the gerbilles of their food. The other plants continue to provide for them till the end of January, “when the harvesting of all the crops is completed. Cannibalistic remairis are also common in the-stomachs of a few well-grown adults. Insects are always found mixed with the other items of food. The animals show an increase in body weight and they appear to accumulate fat around the internal organs. HO a tae ees pee oe Pe te March to May: These are the hottest months of the year; the fields are bare and there is a general shortage of food in the neighbourhood. The gerbilles readily take to an omnivorous diet during this season and miscellaneous unidentifiable items of the stomach contents increase. Scattered seeds are available in the fields till the end of March and early April, after which period the main items of food include the rhizomes of grasses and insects. Most insects were so finely masticated that their identification was impossible. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS = Records available for a number of rodents show definite trends in population fluctuations which exhibit a periodic or cyclic change. Most of the apparently periodic fluctuations in year-to-year populations of mammals occur with either a 3/4-year rhythm or a 10-year rhythm. - __It has been pointed out by Errington (1951) that the number of animals in a population are the result of a number of factors _ ‘Important in the regulation of numbers of a wide variety of vertebrates may be inter- or intra-specific competition or the density factor, plant ~ u iy e fa: i ee 324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 succession, human land use, climate, lethal emergencies, epizootic diseases and uncompensated. predation including that frequently taking the form of hunting pressure by man. In addition to these some investigators, myself among them, think that a probable extra mundane factor may affect living things in an essentially periodic manner. Population impacts of at least the better defined of these factors vary with the species, time and place.’ Cyclic fluctuations of populations have been demonstrated by Elton (1942) in voles and mice, Dymond (1947) in the animals of Canada, Siivonen (1948) in the monet of the Northern Hemisphere, McLeod (1950) in the muskrat of Manitoba and Errington (1951) in the muskrats of South Dakota and Northern Minnesota. In such a cyclic fluctuation of populations peaks and depressions of abundance alternate regularly. The considerable increase or decrease in numbers of a population of rodents in an area has its effect on the extent of destruction to crops in the neighbourhood. In our country, and specially in Mysore State, such a study of population fluctuations of rodents has not been carried out systematically, hence no figures of economic losses to crops due to rat damage are available. The absence of general information of such a type appears to be due to the rather sporadic nature of. the damage caused and also to its restriction to localised areas, and finally to variations in annual incidence of damage, the effect being felt only during the years of heavy destruction. In spite of their capacity for destruction, the gerbilles do not appear to exert much adverse influence on the environment. One of the earliest references to an extreme effect of gerbille infestation is by Blanford (1891) who states that ‘in 1878-79 they ravaged the grain fields in the Deccan throughout several thousand square miles cutting down jowari (Holcus sorghum) and bajri (H. spicatus) stalks and feeding on the grain, part of which they stored in their burrows’. It is probable that this period marked a peak in the abundance of gerbilles in a cycle, which is not definitely established at present. While the damage to food crops caused by the gerbilles is to be admitted, it seems possible that they are to a small extent beneficial to the farmer. By destroying large numbers of cut-worms (Laphygma exigua) and (Euxoa sagetum) and other caterpillars, namely Stenachria elongella, Sphenarches caffer, Heliothes obsoleta, and Exelastes atomosa, which are inimical to ragi and other mixed crops, they help the farmer to keep down the numbers of these harmful types. Also by feeding on rhizomes of a variety of grasses and other pestilential weeds they must exert a beneficial “influence. SUMMARY It seems clear that there is a seasonal variation in the foods eaten by the gerbilles through the year. Seeds form a predominant food in December, January, February and to a lesser extent in June and July at the sowing season. In the hot weather period of April and May, and in the months of August and September, rhizomes of a variety of grasses form an important item of food. Insects are eaten in considerable numbers _consistently in all the seasons. Miscellaneous food items include remains of smaller gerbilles, a = br Me, 2a y Er? ‘ J p s y ae aad ie IN GERBILLE ‘result of cannibalism. This is specially noticeable during October, November, December and January, when the younger animals leave the parent burrow and establish new homes. The gerbilles also consume cutworms and harmful caterpillars inimical to crops and thus, perhaps, help in their control. By feeding extensively on rhizomes of a variety of grasses and other pestilential weeds they are of some help to the farmer in considerably reducing the cost of weeding operations. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study was undertaken with the aid of a liberal financial grant from the Education Ministry, Government of India. My thanks are due to Dr. B. R. Seshachar, Professor of Zoology, Central College, _ Bangalore, for valuable guidance and encouragement, and to Sri B. S. Doddashankarappa who kindly provided facilities for collection of the gerbilles from his estates. REFERENCES Blanford, W. T. (1891): The Fauna of British India, including Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia, 396-398. Dymond, J. R. (1947): Fluctuations in animal populations with special reference to those, of Canada. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 44 (5): 1-34. Elton, Charles (1942): Voles, Mice and Lemmings; problems in populaticn dynamics, 496 pp. Oxford. ; es Errington, Paul, L. (1951): Concerning fluctuations in populations of the prolific and widely distributed Muskrat. Amer. Nat., 85: 273-292. McLeod, J. A. (1950): A consideration of Muskrat populations and population ~ trends in Manitoba. Trans. Roy. Soc., Canada. 94% (ser. 3): 69-79. Re Prasad, M. R. N. (1954) : Natural history of the south Indian gerbille Tatera indica cuvieri (Waterhouse), J.B.N.H.S., 52 (1): 184-189. : Siivonen, Lauri (1948): Structure of ‘short cycle fluctuations in numbers of mammals and birds in the northern parts of the northern hemisphere. Papers on Game Research, 1: 166 pp. Helsinki: Finnish Foundation for Game Preservation. THE WHALE SHARK, RHINEODON TYPUS (SMITH) BY CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S. (Vertebrate Zoologist, Dominion Museum, Wellington,'New Zealand) (With two plates) Several years ago, when visiting the ‘shrine’ of that great entomologist M. T. R. Bell at Karwar, I walked in on him just as he had finished reading one of my articles in the Journal. After the usual greetings, the old man turned on me jockingly and said, ‘I don’t believe you, McCann.’ .“Don"t -believe--what?. “T'_replied, not knowing what he was referring to. ‘What you have written.’ The retort was spontaneous: ‘It is the privilege of “doctors and scientists to disbelieve each other—even themselves.’ We understood and laughed heartily. This is the spirit in which J now write this short article on a ‘monstrous’ subject. . Ina recent. issueof ‘the Journal (Volo 51, p.. 870) tba Gudger published an interesting article entitled, ‘What ultimately terminates the life-span of the Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus?’ I do not intend to answer this question, for «I. just donot know. However, there were certain aspects in the life of the Whale Shark which interested me. My limited experience with these giant fish | and the views of some writers on the subject were not quite in accord. Having had occasion to cast one, and ‘wallow’ in the ‘innards’ of two young males landed in Bombay (1938 and 1940)’ my hand flew to the hilt of my ‘sword’ on reading the above-mentioned article. But, I must confess that I feel diffident to cross swords with so great an authority on ‘fishy’ matters as Dr. ere I merely question rather than attack. . The substance under the first sub- eadine in Dr. Gudger’s article, ‘The only animate enemies of the Whale Shark—intestinal parasites’, I must pass over; I found none—I did not look for any. Howercs the next sub-heading calls for some comment. Great size certainly reduces the enemy cycle of such animals that possess it, but it must be remembered that they all had small beginnings, and that the ‘big fellows’ only became big fellows at the expense of their less fortunate companions when they were all smaller and younger together! This is paralleled on land by the elephant which, in adult life enjoys a certain amount of immunity from predators. Perhaps, there is a weakness in my comparison for there is nothing known of the life-cycle of the aquatic giant in its infancy. However, some authors refer to schools of adults and, if this is true of the adults, there is good reason to believe that the young also band * For a full account of these specimens see JBNHS, 42: 255. eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee together, just as many young fish do. All I intend to convey is that the predators take advantage of the giants during their early life and those that have reached the proportions of giants are comparatively immune from predators. | Turning to the second immunity factor referred to by Dr. Gudger, namely, the thickness and density of the skin, I can only rely on my experience with the two young specimens already referred to. The shagreen-covered skin was certainly tough to pierce with a large surgical scalpel but, once an incision was made, I experienced no difficulty in carrying on the cut. Incidentally, as is the case with most animals, the skin of the dorsal surface is somewhat tougher than that of the ventral. Speaking from memory, the tough outer skin was scarcely 3 to 4 mm.’ thick (see plate IV). Below this tough envelope, cutting was easy. There was scarcely any difference between cutting through the skin of one of these giants and that of any big shark. To carry the comparison yet further, I have since had the opportunity of dissecting a Sunfish (Mola mola). The difference in the texture and toughness of the two is considerable. In the one instance it is like cutting through tough canvas, and in the other, through several layers of tough cardboard! Incidentally, I used the same knife on the two species. With the ‘same scalpel, I got down to the heart without much difficulty. The heart is still in my possession. I have laboured this point just in order to show that these giants are not so tough as they appear to be. In the circumstances, I feel that the skin plays little, if any, part in protecting these monsters against well-armed predators. The giants, nearing maturity, have passed the stage of attack from their earlier enemies, just as adult elephants pass the stage of attack from large carnivora. That mutilated specimens showing the attacks of predators are seldom, if ever, encountered or washed up is not surprising for, once the skin is torn, the flesh being comparatively soft, would soon be demolished by smaller flesh eaters and scavengers, in which the sea abounds. Accordingly, I agree that size plays an important part in survival, but not entirely. The effectiveness of the skin, as a protective armour is seriously open to question. On the subject of food, Dr. Gudger believes that the Whale Shark ‘is largely a surface-feeding plankton-gulper; of similar habit to the large baleen whales. Apparently, his belief is based on the observations Of Others, for, in support, he quotes Mr.E. R. F.. Johnson: “They (the sharks) were plainly engaged in feeding, swimming about for one or two minutes with the wide mouths partly open, the upper jaw being about even with the surface of the water. Then each fish would close its mouth and dive to a shallow depth, for the depth pressure to help to get rid of the water through the gills; and then the giant fish would come to the surface for another swim with mouth open.’ Perhaps, this statement could be interpreted in quite another way. The opening and closing of the mouth was probably the normal ‘fish-fashion’ procedure of oxygenating the gills, and the occasional 1 The puckered skin is well illustrated in the accompanying photograph. 2 2 ert i WA ee oe eet oe ~ Dad 398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62: sounding to accelerate the flow over the gills.’ Such bulls, in spite of its sluggish habits, would require an enormous amount of oxygen to maintain itself. Accordingly, the original observation could be a misinterpretation, more so, as there are no stomach contents to support the statement. Again, I believe that surface plankton is comparatively scarce during the hours of daylight, and it is only at its maximum during the hours of darkness. However, depending on the season, there would be a considerable amount of drifting algae, with its attendant life, at the surface, which could be engulfed. Towards the end of his section on the feeding habits of these giant fish, Dr. Gudger refers to reports from waters north of Cuba of Whale Sharks feeding in a vertical position. Again, a Mr. Stewart Springer had actually seen sharks feeding in the Gulf of Mexico in such a position. This posture during feeding, Dr. Gudger refers to as ‘variant feeding’. Strangely enough, Dr. Gudger does not refer to the stomach contents of the only specimen which he had been fortunate enough to see in the flesh. The two young males, which I had the opportunity of examining, were captured by fishermen in their nets and towed ashore. Neither of them was a diseased nor a disabled specimen. The stomachs in both the individuals were packed to capacity with marine algae. The algae were so fresh that there could be little doubt that the meal was very recent—the animals must have been feeding at the time of capture and blundered into the nets. Likewise, there can be little doubt that a certain amount of both micro- and macro- plankton may enter the capacious mouth along with the vegetation, but that is perhaps more accidental than deliberate. In the case of both individuals examined, no fish were observed among the stomach contents. This is all the more surprising when we consider that the animals were captured at the fishing grounds, and in fishing nets that were set for smaller fry. Under the circumstance it would not appear rash to conclude that the Whale Shark is predominantly a true vegetarian. Nevertheless, let us look further for some more evidence in support of this view. A casual examination of one of these enormous fusiform giants seems to suggest that their shape has an important bearing on their manner of feeding. The greater bulk of their mass is concentrated towards the head, a factor of distinct advantage for sounding. Again, the terminal mouth would be of equal advantage whether they fed at the surface, or while sounding, in a vertical position as described by Springer. The numerous rows of rasp-like teeth, quite unsuitable for holding active prey, seem admirably adapted for browsing on slime-covered algae. The closely pectinate gill-rakers, believed to be adaptations for sifting out the zoo-plankiton engulfed while feeding, could be equally effective in expressing the water from the mouthful of algae. The gill-rakers would prevent the slimy laminae of the algae from getting among the gills themselves and, perhaps, fouling them. Speaking from memory, the gill-rakers appeared to be covered by 1 In fish with subterminal mouths the action of the mouth would not be readily visible. 7 PR ge a eg ne DPN MET mn Oe RESET RES eee ee a eee a ae 3 » na cin! i a 54 o's tneiee s Ee a eS ee nL. ee GEL eee. Oe ate re ee pe, Ms, oa ep ROARS di é ee NEN eee a De enw a eins THE WHALE SHARK. highly, vascular tissue and, besides performing the duty of a protecting sieve for the ‘gill-chambers, is it not possible that they perform the function of ancillary gills also? . However, this last point is an after- - thought and requires confirmation. | We have still to explain the surface haunting habits so often observed. Both the young males were caught at night. This may _—s- suggest that the animals normally feed at night (?), and surface during the day, there to leisurely swim about, and bask in the sun, - contentedly digesting the vast amount of algae eaten. Similar behaviour is met with among herbivorous land- mammals, such as the ruminants, which feed by night and lie up during the day digesting their enormous meal of cellulose.! Another consideration which may, not be out of place is that the surface water normally contains a higher volume of oxygen than the deeper layers; this fact alone would facilitate the respiration of such a monster and, at the same time, the “warmer temperature of the surface and the procumbent posture would go a long way in aiding digestion of the vast meal. In addition, there appears good reason of believe that a herbivorous diet often tends to produce larger body form than does a carnivorous diet. This is equally true of the animals of the past as of the present day. Whales, however, seem to be the exception, but this exception may be largely due to the type of food (not herbivorous) and the manner necessary for capturing and feeding on such a diet. The _ head of a baleen whale is converted into an enormous ‘trap’, and the diet is rich. It is significant that ithe more aggressive and carnivorous cetaceans are also of small size. Another feature of the Whale Shark, perhaps worthy of mention, is its apparently placid temperament. Apparently, this is also in keeping with its vegetarian diet. This too is paralleled by herbivorous land mammals. Not so long ago, I happened to see a film in which an aqualung diver had the courage to clamber over the head of a Whale Shark and to peer into its cavernous mouth. The shark did not seem in the least bit disturbed by this adventurous human. How- ever, this is speculation, so let me pass on,, _ The habit of the Whale Shark of leisurely drifting at the surface has undoubtedly given rise to the widely accepted assumption that. it is mainly a zoo-plankton feeder, but there is little or no evidence to support this view based on actual examination of the stomach contents. As early as 1870 Wright recorded large masses of algae as the stomach contents and he concluded that the animal was herbi- vorous. The repeated finding of large quantities of algae as the main stomach contents does not appear to be merely accidental ! ( i Soon after reading the great epic of the Kon-tiki, I had the < pleasure of meeting one of its crew, Bengt Danielsson. A passage from the book, dealing with the Whale Shark encountered, raised several questions in my mind and here was the chance of getting some of them cleared up. The passage is as follows: ‘and a toad- like jaw which was four or five feet wide and had long fringes | hanging drooping from the corners of the mouth.’* Were these [ress 1 I am aware of the other ors involved ‘also. : The italics are mine, . : PENS Ts 7 oe he | Ben 330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 algae? The behaviour of the animal, as. described, appeared {to me) as. though the animal were possibly feeding on. the algae which had developed on the logs composing the raft. In reply to one of my. questions, Mr. Danielsson informed me that. quite a considerable amount. of algae had formed on the logs. This then seems to be what the animal was after ‘to have spent so. much time about and. under..the raft. Evidently, it was browsing, and, perhaps, the fringes can be explained. If. this were so, it seems we have some evidence that the animals feed on-algae drifting at or-near the surface. Mr.. Danielsson confessed that he was not very: pleased with. the proximity of the great beast at the time, in spite of its placid nature! A further argument that these sharks are vegetarians centres round Heit seasonal migration, particularly their periodicity and location along the coasts of India. Writers on the Whale Shark have gone to some length to account for the movements of these fish in relation to the appearance of off-shore phyto- and zoo-plankton, and the trend of ocean currents. Although these factors play. an important indirect part, the main seasonal movement appears to be coupled with the first two principles of life—preservation (feeding) and procreation (breeding). Either one or both factors may cause animals to change their immediate habitat. This is common to most life in the broader sense, and is well known. However, it often happens that in our enthusiasm - to fathom the unknown we lose sight of the obvious! This reminds me of a story told me by a French biologist. A! professor - was making an exhaustive study of the uses of the leg. After considerable research, he went in great glee to his colleague and said, ‘Professor ! Deore ecor's I fave: discovered forty-nine uses of the leg.’ ‘Let. me see,’ said the other. After perusing the list, he turned to his companion and said, ‘Ah! but, my dear colleague, you have forgotten one’. ‘Which one?” came the sharp eas ‘The natural one—walking !’ - I do not intend to deal with this nee of the Whale Shark’s life-cycle in great detail, but merely to make brief references to some of the more probable. factors controlling its movements, as they present themselves to me. My observations are based mainly on the belief in the vegetarian diet of these great fish. Their appearance along the Indian coasts, particularly along the western coast, between certain months of the -year (January to April) seems to be very significant. It coincides with the annual increase of the algal vegetation along the coastline. That the trend of oceanic currents at that particular season of the year influences and assists migration, goes without saying, but it appears to me that the main influence is the abundance of marine algae (food). At the time when the fish are moving westward (January to April), the Bay of- Bengal is under the influence. of | the. north-east monsoon. . The great rivers. emptying: into. it CARTY, down enormous volumes of freshwater and sediment in suspension, The sediment in suspension may be‘ seen far out at sea. The dilution of the waters of the Bay and the large amount of sediment are factors detrimental to the growth of-marine- algae. Hence, food is scarce, and there would be .no incentive for the animals to travel up the Bay, apart from the muddy condition of the TN [ a1lvig uo] Suly] a M UtNISN]Y (SnmixvU snuIYys0J2)) YIeYS UOIUIMOG ASIJANOD Oe CASES ORE See Ces SUIyseT OY uOWIVS Lf :010ug "005 ‘ISIH ‘“38N Avquog ‘‘uinor Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiaTe II THe BaskING SHARK (Cetorhinus maximus) A. Showing gill arches and reduced tongue. Photos: #. T. Salmon Courtesy Dominion Museum Wellington, N.Z. B. Gill arch with gill and gill rakers. TE TAS 7 eles UL RA A 331. water and. lower density: That an» occasional stray..may enter the upper reaches of the Bay in no way negatives this conclusion. When the north-east monsoon is in progress, the western .coast of India is normally. free from heavy. rain. Excepting the Indus, no large rivers empty into the Arabian. Sea. Soon after the cessation of the south-west’ monsoon, which. brings heavy rain to the west of India, the coastal waters : clear, and. there is a marked increase in algal production. The inter-tidal zones are remarkably productive, and large quantities of the algae are swept out to sea by wave and tidal action. There is a corresponding increase in the deeper. water forms during this period. About March, each year, the inter-tidal algae commence to. die out.. By May, the monsoon swell commences and the sea often becomes boisterous and churns up the coastal waters.’ This action of the sea, shortly to be followed by the monsoon rains, coupled with the sediment in suspension, reduces the amount of the deep water algae. Thus again, there is a Scneny of food and the sharks, move off to ‘greener’. pastures. ‘In. Vol. A2, Pp. 255,-0f the Journal, Mr...S.:H. Prater gives us an informative article dealing with the distribution of the Whale Shark in the Indian waters. The article is well illustrated and worthy of careful perusal. Mr. Prater goes to some length in an effort to explain the seasonal migration of these animals and arrives at the conclusion that their movements are dependent on the movements of oceanic currents and zoo-plankton. This conclusion. is mainly based on the assumption that the Whale Shark is largely a zoo-plankton gulper. His view is all the more surprising when he was _ fully aware of the stomach contents of the 1938. and 1940 specimens, and of the circumstances under which they were captured. In addition, he. was also aware of Wright’s evidence. Surely, the stomach contents of these individuals were not. accidental? The evidence that the Whale Shark is a zoo-plankton_ feeder is, to say the. least, very slender. I am not fant with the Basking ‘Shark, Cetorhinus (see Pl. J) but from the numerous accounts of the species and some of its anatomical characteristics, it would appear that: there is little doubt that it isa zoo-plankton feeder, subsisting largely on shrimp-like crustacea (krill) and other small organism, just as the baleen whales do. The similar habit of drifting or swimming at or near the surface observed in both the Basking and Whale Sharks has, apparently, led to the assumption that the feeding habits and the food are similar, if not the same, in the two species. This assumption I am not prepared to accept for several reasons, not to mention the stomach contents already referred to. In support of my, ‘disbelief’, allow me to compare the two in several details: (a) Shape? :—If we contrast the shape of the two sant it will be noticed that Cetorhinus (Pl. 1) is. far more ~ fusiform and stream-lined than Rhineodon. The bulk-of .the former is more evenly, distributed throne bout. ‘its length: than in the case of the latter. 1 It is s generally believed tat Oiarics are averse to entering _ turbid: water. 2 The illustrations depicting the’ shape of Cetorhinus in many works are not in “strict keeping-with its actual-shape (i.e. line drawings) ! : 332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 In Rhineodon the greatest bulk. of the animal is situated in the fore- part of its body. The snout is more acute and ‘compressed’ in Cetorhinus than in Rhineodon ; in the latter it is more depressed. Again, if we compare the caudal fins, that of Cetorhinus is more in keeping with the fast moving sharks, such as the Mako (Lamna), than that of Rhineodon. All these factors taken conjointly indicate that the Basking Shark is built for greater speed and activity than the Whale Shark. (b) Head:—If we look more closely at the head, apart ae the acuteness and obtuseness of the snouts already referred to, the first point which immediately strikes the observer is that the Basking Shark has a Subterminal mouth and Rhineodon a terminal one. Further, the angle of the gape in Cetorhinus extends far behind the eye, whereas in Rhineodon the gape is ‘tadpole-like’ and terminates in front of the eyes. An obtuse snout and a terminal mouth would be a distinct disadvantage to a fast-moving animal feeding with its mouth open in ‘beds’ of zoo-plankton (krill and mollusca). The resistance of an open, terminal mouth to the pressure of water as the animal forged forward would tend to reduce speed in such an animal as the Basking Shark whereas, in a slow-moving ‘browser’ feeding on algae, speed is no consideration. Another point which strikes me most forcibly is the great disparity in the size of the gill-covers in the two species. In Cetorhinus the gill-covers almost ‘sever’ the head from the body (see Plate I), while in Rhineodon they are com- paratively short. This again, to my mind, is a further indication that the Basking Shark is a faster moving animal than it is believed to be, and that the extensive gill-openings are an adapation to its feeding habits. The large gill-openings would facilitate the rapid | flow of water taken in at the mouth along with its food, as it ploughs through the plankton when feeding. Such large openings would lessen the resistance to the water and not hinder the rapid progress of the animal. The mouth in this case is converted into a sure plankton ‘trap’, specialized gill-rakers confining the catch. It is also significant that the gill-arches reach further forward in Cetorhinus (see Plate II A & B) than they do in the Whale Shark. The latter has a large flat tongue, and the gill-arches are not so prominent. (c) Distribution:—Lastly, we come to the distribution of the two species. The Basking Shark is an inhabitant of the temperate waters of both the northern and southern hemispheres, whereas the Whale Shark is an inhabitant of the warmer waters of the globe. The Basking Shark, like the baleen whales, is more or less restricted to the areas where the normal food (krill and molluscs) is in great abundance, while that of the Whale Shark coincides with the algal distribution. Under the circumstances, I believe that the Whale Shark is essentially a herbivorous animal, subsisting on marine algae. Its great size, anatomical structure, habits and normal distribution all go far in confirming this views There i is the substantial evidence of at least three specimens—there is no concrete evidence to the contrary. The only point of similarity between the Whale Shark and the Basking Shark is the habit of leisurely drifting or swimming at or near the surface of the sea. This habit has undoubtedly led to the erroneous assumption that both species are zoo-plankton feeders. Perhaps, the | : ne meal to "dee and Sake is eee done at or near the surface — : where the volume of oxygen is greatest, a smaller effort required in Ses a reduced pressure around the loaded stomach, and a ‘ ae ee when conducting university’ students around the galleries, I often contrasted the Whale Shark, with its great bulk and - cavernous mouth, with the tiger! The comparison always called forth a considerable amount of laughter and merriment as my audience was more often than not composed of both strict vegetarians and meat eaters! It always went down well without offending the suscepti- bilities of my hearers, although. the ape was invariably against the vegetarians ! ERO SHEARWATERS AND OTHER OCEANIC BIRDS IN" THE NORTH. INDIAN: OCEAN BY W. W. A. PHLLrs. Since the aubleanon in the Pack in December 1950 of my paper on ‘Wilson’s Storm-Petrels, Shearwaters and other Sea-birds in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean’, I have crossed the Indian Ocean from Colombo to Aden and back once again, and have been able to make further observations on the oceanic birds of that part of the Ocean that lies between these two ports. The first voyage outwards from Colombo took place in early February 1953 and, as usual at that time of the year in these waters, oceanic bird life was very scarce until we arrived in the vicinity of Socotra and the Gulf of Aden, where shearwaters and phalaropes in small numbers were observed. No small petrel of any species was observed on this voyage. On the return journey in early August 1953, there were no phalaropes, but petrels and shearwaters were plentiful, as expected, and were observed in greater or lesser numbers each day until we entered Colombo Harbour. On this voyage, three Wilson’s Petrels (Oceanites oceanicus) and one Mascarene Black Petrel (Pterodroma aterrima)* were caught on deck after dark; they were all released the following mornings after thorough examination. Small white-bellied petrels—believed, in spite of Gibson-Hill’s statement (p. 446) that there are no reliable sight records of these species from our area, to have been either the Blackstreaked Storm Petrel (Fregetta tropica) or more probably the Whitebellied Storm Petrel (Ff. grallaria)—were fairly plentiful on one day near lat. 10°24/N. and long. 63°25’E. on this voyage. On our return to Colombo, through the good offices of Mr. D. D. Condon of the United Kingdom High Commissioner’s Office I was placed in touch with Mr. G. N. Grisenthwaite, Fishery Expert in trawler ‘Braconglen’ which makes regular trips from Colombo to the fishing grounds to the west of Cape Comorin. On his voyages, Mr. Grisenthwaite has made some valuable observations on the oceanic birds—chiefly Wilson’s Petrels and shearwaters—that he has en- countered ; extracts from his notes. are given at the end of this paper, including his interesting record of the migration of Wilson’s Petrels. In the following notes from my diaries, I have condensed my observations and confined them to the pelagic birds observed on each voyage. 1 Mackworth-Praed and Capt. Grant, in their ‘Birds of Eastern and North-Eastern Africa,’ Vol. I, call this bird Bulweria brevirostris, but Mr. W. B. Alexander informs me that this name appears to be incorrect. | ae : OPS “ ‘i = 5 te dee laa ec Pee ee Pa inne thes RG Pee ea Say OE Te eT ee ee eS Ee, eee Te ee ee een Re ee ee Se th sy sale as a. te” eR Re a a --PETRELS, SHEARWATERS, ETC: IN- N, INDIAN OCEAN 335 -HOMEWARD Wevece M. V. ‘Derbyshire’ (10, 625 Tons. ED. BRAND, ‘MastTER) Fe Colombo to dene ebruary 6th to Ree riacy, rath 1953. - February 6th. — 08.45. hrs. | Left Colombo Harbour ; sunny with siete breeze ; visibility excellent. , 09.45 hrs. Flock of about 30 Bridled Terns (Sterna anaethetus) j passed flying south. : 12 Noon. Lat, 7.06 N. “Long. 79.07, Ez. - Distance from Colombo —s« gg, miles ; average speed 14.33 knots. 12.10 hrs. Single tropic-bird (Phaethon sp.) flew past and. vanished : astern; it flew very rapidly at varying heights from item above to 100 ft. or more from the water. 14.30 hrs. to dusk. Visibility, excellent; no other birds seen. February 7th. Indian Ocean. 06.00 hrs. to Noon; flat calm; no wind; no birds. 12 Noon. Lat. 08. o4N. Long. 73- ee Distance run 370 miles ; average speed 15.10 knots. : 12.05 hrs. Passing Minicoy, distant about 15 miles; two solitary : Frigate Birds (Fregata sp.) far away to south. 14.00 hrs. to dusk. Visibility excellent; no birds seen. February 8th. Indian Ocean. | : 06.15 hrs. to Noon. Bright, sunny; slight breeze; visibility , excellent. No birds seen. | , __12 Noon. ‘Lat. og.11N. Long. 66.51E. . Distance run (3e miles ; 3 average speed 15. 35 knots. — ‘ Afternoon to dusk. No birds seen. February oth. Indian Ocean. 06.10 hrs. to Noon. Bright and’ sunny; slight breeze visibility E excellent; no birds seen. i: 12 Noon... Lat. 10.12N. Long. 60.57E. . Distance run 376 ES _ ~—s- average speed 14.53 knots. to 16.30 hrs. Visibility excellent ; no birds seen. ; 16.44 hrs. to 16.55 hrs. ‘Two tropic: -birds appeared and flew to- gether, round and over the ship, for about ro minutes; they seemed to be Indian or Smaller Redbilled Tropic-bird (P. indicus). e 17.20 hrs. ‘to dusk. Two tropic-birds again flying round the ship ; either the same two as seen before or a fresh pair; they were seen in a good light and were wigs es Indian ERs No other birds seen before dusk. | | a February 1oth. Indian Ocean. oe 06.10 hrs. Sea smooth, very slight breeze, visibility excellent. % - 06:15 hrs. to Noon. A tropic-bird appeared from over our bows ee spent the next 15 minutes flying rapidly ‘round and. over the ship ; it generally flew some 100 to 150 ft. above the sea, shook itself several times and spread its tail when banking to turn sharply ; beak bo eae 336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vo yellow, tail short with black tips to white feathers; black and brown on wings and upper parts; Se a juvenile Indian Tropic-bird (P. indicus). No other birds seen. 12 Noon. Late -1n48N. Long. 54. 49E, Distance run 369 miles ; average speed 15.07 knots. to 15.30 hrs. Visibility excellent ; no_birds.. : Hie Soe 15.50 hrs. Single, medium- sized shearwater (Puffinus sp.) flying low over water in usual shearwater manner, a long way out on port side; appeared to be dark brown all over. 16.20 hrs. Another solitary shearwater of same species. 3 16.55 hrs. Another shearwater, closer ‘to starboard; dark brown all over but rather darker on the upper parts; we are now about 60 to 70 miles south of Socotra and appear to have entered the habitat of a resident species of shearwater which looks very like the Wedge- tailed (Puffinus pacificus). 17.10 hrs. Another shearwater of the same species; dark brown in colour with rather long, pointed wings. 17.40. hrs.’ Patty -of 4 phalaropes (Phalaropus Sp.) : flying rapidly west close over the water, twisting and turning with the sun lighting up their white under parts. Another dark brown shearwater. Islets off the south of Socotra are now in sight. about 30 miles to north- wards. nen F ebruary 11th. Gulf of Aden. 05.30 hrs. to 06.15 hrs. Bright sunny morning ; wind steady from NE.; slight breeze and swell; visi excellent. African Coast is in sight to port. 06.20 hrs. Solitary phalarope crossed our bows flying south, 06.30 hrs. Tropic-bird in distance. 07.40 hrs. Two shearwaters crossed our bows fying rapidly northwards; light excellent; both were very dark sooty brown above and only a little lighter below ; wings long and pointed, tail also longish and rather pointed; they appear to be Wedgetailed Shearwaters (P. pacificus), 08.10 hrs. A smaller species of shearwater, white on the lower parts, flying some distance away on the port bow. Five phalaropes crossed our bows, flying close over the sea towards the aaeon coast. 08.55 hrs. Dark brown shearwater folkawel by a sinaller species with white under parts; the second one would appear to be the Persian Shearwater (P. lhermimieri eG which is well- known to be: resident in these waters. © 09.50 hrs. to 10.30 hrs. 4 dark brown shearwaters (P. pacificus ?) crossed our bows, flying N. “10.40: hrs,” Another dark brown Se ee onciaed our baw flying N; this one flew close to us and was almost certainly a Wedgetailed Shearwater. 12 Noon. at a2 7 Tone 48.53E.. Distance run 354 miles ; average speed.-r4.44. knots. 15.05 hrs.. Single phalarope - and. single dark. brown shearwater passed flying | low. over. water. . »+ 95.12 hrs. _ Another solitary phalarope . appeared close. to our. ae baw: . eis flew. a little. distance: and: settled. on the water for a minute S, ETC.-IN N INDIAN OCEAN 337 EOF SO ; it rode very upright with the neck held straight up. In appearance, it was a small white bird with a blue grey back; in flight the white wing bar is very noticeable; all seen have flown close over the water with the sun glistening upon them; they give the impression of small white and bluish grey birds. Probably the majority of them are Rednecked Phalaropes (P. lobatus) but some of them may be the Grey Phalarope (P. fulicarius); it is most difficult to identify the species, with any certainty, from the deck of a liner. _ 15.15 hrs. to 15.30 hrs. 4 dark brown shearwaters passed, flying : singly ; one settled on the sea directly in our course; it took to flight and wheeled off as the ship approached ; all these shearwaters: are rather slim birds with long pointed wings and longish, rather narrow tails. rie 35 hrs. Two more phalaropes flying E., followed by another dark brown Shearwater 500 yds. to port. _ 16.18 hrs. A, Persian Shearwater wheeling to port, the sun glisten- ing on its white under parts. 16.40 hrs, Two. more phalaropes. 17.00 hrs. ‘Two tropic-birds, flying round ship ; both appeared to be Indian Tropic-birds (P. indicus) with long white tail streamers. 17.25 hrs. Another solitary phalarope passed. We entered ier ‘Harbour ee the ata It will have been noted that, with the exception of the phalaropes, the frigates, and the tropic- -birds only two species of shearwaters were seen and ‘no other petrels at all. As the voyage took place during early February, when normally all Southern Hemisphere nesting birds, i.e. the migra- tory petrels and shearwaters, would still be in southern: latitudes, this is exactly what one would expect. Whenever I have passed through the Gulf of Aden and waters adjacent to Socotra, I have invariably observed two species of shearwaters, one moderately large and dark which I believe to be a race of the Wedgetailed Shearwater (P. pacificus) and the other smaller, sooty. black above and white below, which I was misled in my former paper into calling the Dusky Shear- water (P. assimilis) but which now appears to be the Persian Shearwater (P. lherminieri persica). There cannot be any doubt, I think, that both these shearwaters are resident in these. waters, all the year through; presumably they breed in Socotra and/or the adjacent islets., I have given by diary in full with regard to the sighting of these : shearwaters in order to show their density in these waters. Phalaropes - are always present around Socotra and in the Gulf of Aden during: 4 the winter months; I have seen many of them but almost always on the wing; I believe most of them are the Rednecked Phalarope ~ (Phalaropus lobatus) but some of them may be the Grey Phalarope (P. fulicarius), I am not sufficiently familiar with the two species to be able to distinguish them on the wing at a distance. My return voyage took place. during early August while the _ Southern. Hemisphere shearwaters and petrels were still in their northern haunts; many more oceanic birds were, therefore, to be __ observed in the Indian Ocean. On this voyage I had the pleasure of the company of Mr. D. D. Condon. of | Eelomee who meBene many hoes bird-watching with: me. : Say Poe eae o's. 338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; ‘Vol. $2 -OUTWARD| Vovace. M. a 3 fe ge ee nee fad Stee Tons. E. D. BRanp, Master) a Aden to Colombo: August 4th to August 10th 1953 August 4th. Gulf of Aden., ‘Left Aden about 08. Io hours. 09.15 hrs. One Wilson’s Petrel’and 20 to 30 Large Crested Sea- terns (Sterna bergii) passed. Wind strong from S.; slight swell and a little choppy; visibility fairly good with some distant haze. og.20 hrs. Liberated Wilson’s Petrel which had been caught on deck about 20.30 hrs. the evening before. This petrel has a subdued double call-note like a child’s squeaker; it was a very gentle bird and did not struggle to escape. 11.20 hrs. Several Wilson’s Petrels, all flying independently” close Over waves; none in wake. TTI SAS hrs. to Noon. Large numbers of Wilson’s. Petrels flying across our bows and in lee of ship, too yds. or so port; several hundreds in sight at one time. Often they paddle and feed on the water. 12 Noon. Lat. 12.43N. Long. 45.50E. Distance from Aden 53 miles; average speed 14.95 knots. 12.15 hrs. Still many Wilson’s Petrels to be seen. 12.30 hrs. Small numbers of Wilson’s Petrels still about but large concentrations, as seen between 11.45 to 12.15 hrs., now passed. | All these petrels appeared to be Wilson’s (Oceanites oceanicus).. eh 12.45 hrs. Still many Wilson’s Petrels; one shearwater, black and white, passed some distance away. — | 5 hrs. Many Wilson’s Petrels crossing bows, flying south- wards and in lee of ship. 2 6600: tS; ) TOO EO. 4-50 Wilson’s Petrels now in our wake; they Jook like a swarm of immense bees; small numbers flying across ’ bows and to leeward. | St | : . 15.10 hrs. Small sooty brown shearwater seen by Mr. Condon. 15.37 hrs. Single, rather small, blackish shearwater crossed our bows flying S. 15.45 hrs. Three Brownwinged Terns (Sterna anaethetus), beating S. against strong wind, crossed our bows; Wilson’s Petrels still plentiful. Sea very choppy with modérate swell and Comeised waves ; sunny with some cloud; visibility excellent. 16.00 hrs. to 16.45 hrs: 200 or more pétrels in our spake, flying to and from across the smoother water; all appear to be Wilson’s. 17.30 hrs. Still hundreds of Wilson’s Petrels-in our wake and many flying round ship; they remained until it became too dark to see them Dra iya Small numbers (about 12) Brownwinged Terns flying S.. ae ; Pie: : Sek August 5th. Gulf of Aden (approaching Socotra). . ~ 05.50 hrs. Some swell but no breaking waves; sky overcast ; ; light breeze; visibility good with horizon hazy. 06. 60 hrs. Passed ‘rafts’ of several hundreds of Wilson’s Petrels: many on water, others taking wing and flying off presumably to feed : none in wake. On other voyages also I have observed large ‘rafts eS eee ee eae eee é $3 7. : me . : a i GS ee a EEO ee Le ee ae ie Be on ee Y PETRELS, SHEARWATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 339 of these petrels on the water in the very early morning ; apparently they collect to spend the night sleeping and preening on the waier and disperse as soon as it is light, to commence feeding again. 06.10 hrs. Straggling flock of 100 or more Wilson’s Petrels crossed our bows; many others in various directions around us. 06.15 hrs. Small black and white shearwater, probably Persian ; many Wilson’s Petrels, one or two in our wake. 07.30 hrs. to 07.50 “hrs. _ One smallish sooty black GiSanuater and several Wilson’s Petrels passed but comparatively few about now. 07.55 hrs. Two smallish sooty black shearwaters flying near bows; longish tail, shortish black beak; too small for Wedgetailed Shearwaters, may be Mascarene Black Petrels (Pterodroma aterrima). 08.00 hrs. to 08. 45 hrs. Small number of Black Petrels (?) and one. or two Wilson’s Petrels; Black Petrels (?) fly like small shear- waters. aig : ; 08.50 hrs. to 09.30 hrs. Swell increasing and sea choppy; sky overcast. Small numbers of Black and Wilson’s Petrels passed; none in wake. 10.07 hrs. Tropic-bird reported flying eecnd ship; no petrels. 10.45. hrs. Solitary blackish shearwater—probably Mascarene Black -Petrel.* * ; : e W1-087hrs.: Single Wilson’s Petrel. paiae 11.55 hrs. Two Black Petrels (?) crossed our bows ying S; we are now about 25 to 30 miles from land. 12 Noon, ' Lat. 12.53N.-Long..51.57E. . Distance run 358 miles average speed 15.24 knots. Confused and choppy sea; strong wind from S; overcast, ene weak sunshine at times; visibility good but haze in distance. 13.40 hrs. to 13.55 ne Tropic-bird near bow; 5 Paes Petrels (2) all flying independently, crossed bows flying S. » 14.54 hrs. -Persian Shearwater (P. lherminieri Lope aye small, black above white below, crossed flying: Ss followed by a Brownwinged Tern (Sterna anaethetus). 15.00 hrs. Two Wedgetailed Shearwaters (P. pacificus), very much the same colour but larger than the Black Petrel (?); crossed flying N. 15.05 hrs. 5 or 6 Black Petrels (P. aterrima?) flying to port. 15.15 hrs.. 3 or 4 Persian Shearwaters and 4 or 5 Black Petrels (?) flying ahead. : sae he 3 15.30 hrs. to 15.40 hrs. ‘Many Black Petrels (?) flying in various ‘directions, usually solitary, with a few Persian Shearwaters and one Indian Tropic-bird (Phaethon indicus). 15.45 hrs. Large dark sooty shearwater crossed our bows flying ‘S.; its flight was more gull like ; it plunged once into the water; wings longer and sharper than in “Black Petre] (?) and had more flapping flight—unidentified. - 16.28 hrs. Several Persian Shearwaters, Black Petrels (?) and eae Brownwinged Tern crossed, flying S. ~ 16.32 hrs..- Another Indian Tropic-bird circled the ship; small SSE of Black Petrels (?) and Persian Shearwaters passing. . 16.50 hrs. Many Persian Shearwaters, many Black Petrels (7) and one tropic-bird passing. | 340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol: 62 16.55 hrs. ‘Still many Persian Shearwaters and Black: Petrels: (8 Socotra is now in sight on starboard bow. ~~ 17.15 hrs. to 17.30 hrs: Small. numbers of Pasa Shearwaters and Black Petreéls (?). 17.40 hrs. Black Petrel (?) settled on water, consuming some- thing; three ‘birds looking - like Nodies > (Anous cp hae vise flying S. _ 18.10 hrs. to 18.30 hrs. (Dusk) Aneithee Indian Tropic-bird naaeds Black Petrels (?) numerous, Persian Shearwaters in smaller numbers ; ‘we are now in the lee of Socotra, distance 20 to 25 ag sea fairly calm ; visibility good. — August 6th. Indian Ocean. 06.15 hrs. to 06.30 hrs. Shortly after sunrise; strong wind from SW.; heavy monsoon swell, choppy sea; visibility very good. No birds.. ' : | | 07.50 hrs. Solitary Black Petrel (?) crossed, flying N. 08.55 hrs. Black Petrel (?) crossed flying S. ss 09.05 hrs. Another Black Petrel (?) flying S., very rapidly. 10.25 hrs. to 11.30 hrs. Black Petrel (?) flying N.; Black Petrels (?) were seen at the rate of about one Overy: 15. minutes, mostly flying across thé wind, northwards. i 11.35 hrs. to Noon. No birds. ! 12, Noon. Lat. 12.04N.: Long. 57.44E. Distance run 1 346 miles ; average speed 14.73 knots. Sea and wind have moderated slightly. but typical SW. Monsoon conditions prevail; sunny; visibility good. ee. to 13.00 hrs. No birds. 15.00 hrs. to 16.30 hrs. No birds seen. 16.37 hrs. to dusk. One Black Petrel (?) Seeced, tying 55 another about 17.00 hrs. and a third about 18.00 hrs. 20.30 hrs. Mascarene Black Petrel (Pterodroma aterrima) came aboard; it knocked against one of the iss on the ae deck and was brought to me. Description and Measurements. Upper and lower plumage so6ty. blackish brown with a few grey feathers on abdomen near vent; small, darker patches immediately in front of eyes; legs and webs dusky flesh with a yellowish tinge when first caught; outer toes and webs more dusky and inner more flesh coloured; nails jet black, small and sharply curved; beak short and black. Wing 257 mm.; beak. to gape 34 mm. ; culmen 29 mm.; tarsus 37 mm.; eye dusky black... This specimen. confirms the identification of the numerous blackish, shear- water-like birds, too small and slim for Wedgetailed Shearwaters, seen during the past three days. When close, the small, shorter beak is a good distinguishing charactér but’ often, when the bird is a little distance away and there is nothing with which to gauge “its size, it is difficult to ‘distinguish it from the Wedgetailed: Shear- water, This bird was liberated the. following morning, ‘after. some Mallophaga parasites had been removed {xen it; oat was” in Pret unworn plumage. DS ER paar aoe wo byyort FERS fas a eRe TRELS, SHEAR WATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN .OCEAN August 7th. Indian Ocean. + 05.50 hrs. to 06.10 hrs. ‘eodenie Sei little eOHBY eevee _ to light breeze from SW. ; visibility good; 6 dark, medium-sized shear- __ waters crossed, flying independently, some distance away; seemed to be either Wedgetailed Shearwaters or Black Petrels. 06.15 hrs. to 07.07 hrs. Small numbers of medium-sized, dark shearwaters crossing, flying S.; mostly too far for certain identification. * 07.20 hrs. to 07.40 hrs. Indian Tropic-bird ranged up on starboard side, flew round and dropped astern; 2 Mascarene Black Petrels flying : _ independently to port. 07.45 hrs. to 08.00 hrs. Many dark, shearwater-like birds passed, mostly flying S.; majority appeared to be Mascarene Black Petrels but some of them, which seemed rather larger and more stoutly built, were probably Wedgetailed Shearwaters. One small petrel, rather far off, appeared to have white underparts. ) 08.15 hrs. to 08.55 hrs. Two small petrels passed closer to port; they definitely, have white underparts; they glide more than Wilson’s, are about_the same or a little smaller in size, have dark wings and white rumps. Several Mascarene Petrels continue to pass but large flights appear to be over. 09.25 hrs. Three Sooty Terns (Sterna fuscata) flying high, south- wards; 3 more Macarene Black Petrels and one small petrel with white underparts. 09.32 hrs. Two more Black Petrels. 09.35 hrs. 16 Sooty Terns, flying high, crossed our bows flying southwards; 5 minutes later a ‘large, straggling flock of 30 followed them. og.40 hrs. Indian Tropic-bird passed. 09.45 hrs. Another Mascarene Black Petrel and another white- bellied petrel. 10.37 hrs. to 10.50 hrs. Several Mascarene Black Petrels crossed our bows, flying N. | “TOs 4chtSs. <2 medium-sized, dark shearwaters, larger and more heavily built than Black Petrels; wings are wider and beak longer; there is little doubt that these are Wedgetailed Shearwaters (P. pacificus). Possibly some of those seen earlier were also of this species. 11.03 hrs. 2 more white-bellied, white-rumped small petrels crossed our bows close in; ; they could be well seen ; tail is almost square; wing- lining white, belly white, chest and throat black, rump white; they answer well to the description of the Whitebellied Storm Petrel (i regetta grallaria). I suspect that they are of this species, but possibly they “might be the Blackbellied Storm Petrel (F, tropica). 11.05 to 11.15 hrs. Two more Mascarene Black Petrels passed. 11.25 hrs. 3 more white-bellied storm petrels passed ; they glide low over the swell, much more so than Wilson’s; they often drop their feet and paddle; ‘they do not join our wake. | 11.30 hrs. Solitary Sooty Tern flying close to port; Indian Tropic- bird crossed, flying S. about 50 ft. above water; one Wedgetailed : Shearwater and one Mascarene Black Petrel. 11.45 hrs. 2 more Whitebellied Storm Petrels close to our bows, 2 eed > Shearwaters rose off the water close to our bows ; their “Dalen th j= eae) 342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 longer beaks could be seen distinctly ; . several. amore crossed: soon afterwards, all flying S. 3 11.50 hrs. to Noon... 2 more Wedgetaiied ‘Sicar ates aed 2 -more Whitebellied Storm Petrels; the latter seem generally to fly in DeNSs but sometimes singly. | One Mascarene Black Petrel crossed. | 2 Noon. : Lat.: 10,24N.,..Leng. 63. 25s: Distance run. 351 oie average speed 14.95 knots. Swell moderate, little choppy witha does waves eee light breeze from SW.; bright and sunny ; visibility excellent, 12.05 hrs. to 12.30 hrs. Small numbers of dark SSeS = birds passing; majority appear to be Wedgetailed | but two -were certainly Mascarene_ Black ‘Petrels. Another Whitebellied Storm Petrel at 12,30. hrs. :, 12.45 hrs. One Wedgetailed Shearwater and 2 Whitebellied Storm Petrels crossed. 14.50 -hrs,: ‘to 16.55 shes. One Wedgetailed Shearwater. rose from water, flew round and settled again; several others crossed from time to time together with one Mascarene Black Petrel. 16.20 hrs, Party of 15 to 20: Sooty, Terns, circling 100 ft. above water, passed slowly N., sun glistening upon their white underparts. 16,40: hrs..... Single Whitebellied Storm Petrel passed. Sea has now moderated into a_ long, slow swell, slightly choppy with an occasional wave breaking; visibility excellent. 17.50 hrs. Wedgetailed Shearwater flying N. ; another Whitebellied Storm Petrel passed. 18.05 hrs. Another Whitebellied Storm Petrel se in on port bow; line down centre of abdomen could be distinguished ; no other Bede seen before dusk. August 8th.. Indian Oee: fi 06.00 hrs. to 11.20 hrs. Slight breeze from SE. ; sea or Sale long swell and slight ripple; sunny; visibility excellent. .No birds. * 11.21 hrs. Solitary large, dark brown shearwater (Puffinus sp.) flying S.; possibly P. carneipes, the Pinkfooted peemio. ee too stout for P.. pacificus, No other birds before noon.. 12 Noon. Lat. o9.02N. Long. 69.13E.. Distance run 355 miles average Speed 15.10 knots. Noon to 16.00: hrs... Slight swell and Opies fine let! overcast. No birds. ; 16.10 hrs. Solitary dark ae es passed far out. 16.20 hrs. to 18.00 hrs. No birds. ; August oth. Indian Ocean. Approaching ‘Ceylon—Passed Tailed Antoll about’ 04.00 hrs. 06.20 hrs. Sea calm, with, very slight swell and ripple; very light breeze from S.;-fine but slightly, overcast ; visibility. excellent. . 06.30 hrs. Two Wilson’ S. Petrels | ‘fying, to and fro across: our wake - % 06. 40 hrs. to “07. 20 hrs. et Wilson? S Petrelg passed ; 07.00 hours there were. four quartering our. wake and others. passing. 08. 15 hrs, 5 Wilson’s eee in. wake, icagpetar eal oo PETRELS, SHEAR WATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 343, eg-10 hrs. - tO: .11. 30 hrs. Wilson’s Petrels in wake gradually increased in number until 25 to. 30 were. fying to and fro; others crossed our bows... - 12 Noon, iat. O7. 4sN. Long. 75.118. tarstatice run 365, miles ; average speed 15.52 knots. Moh is Sea moderately calm, with slight, long swell and little ripple with occasional breaking waves; some cloud but generally sunny ; visibility excellent. 7 12.15 hrs. 15 to 20 Wilson’s Petrels in wake. 12.40 hrs. Single Wilson’s Petrel in wake. 13.45 hrs. No petrels in wake; no birds of any sort to be seen. 15.40 hrs. Medium-sized, dark ‘brown shearwater and one Wilson’s Petrel to port; shearwater seems to be a Wedgetailed. 15.45 hrs. Petrels have reappeared ; there are now 12 flying 1 in our wake; all appear to be Wilson’s. 16. 4o hrs. Tropic-bird flew over; red beak; short, sharp tail with brown marking's on upper parts; probably a juvenile. 12 to 20 Wilson’s Petrels in wake. i705 lcs. Two shearwaters crossed fying’ S.; moderately large; dark brown, almost certainly Wedgetailed or Greenbilled (P. pacificus chlororhynchus) which is the common shearwater of these waters during the summer. Ae te i ~- 17.35 hrs. Another shearwater. Still 15 to 20 Wilson’s Petrels in wake. < 3 17-45 “hrs: ‘to 7 35 hrs. Several more Wilson’s Petrels:and dark brown shearwaters passed ; at dusk: there were still 4 or 5 Wilson’ S in wake. | 20.30 hts. 2 Wilson’ S Petrels (Oceanites pecknicusy were rouse to me alive; both had hit the lights on the Sports deck and fallen down unharmed. Both typical Wilson’s; they, roosted quietly in a cupboard in my cabin and were released the following morning, after yielding some Mallophaga parasites. Both.in fresh, unworn plumage. | August roth. Indian Ocean. Arrived Colombo about $ am. 05-45 hrs. Sea smooth, with slight swell and ripple; light breeze from S:; fine; visibility ood. - Several: petrels can be« distinguished flying’ to “and fro in our wake. Colombo light is in sight. _, 06.15 hrs. to 06.40 hrs. Several Wilson’s 'Petrels crossed, flying >. . One Tropic- -bird, in far distance astern; one shearwater crossed. | undoubtedly a Greenbilled ; 12 or more Wilson’s Petrels in wake. -} 06.50 hrs. We are now approx. 4. miles from land; one Wilson’ S Petrel crossed our bows; those in wake gradually disappeared as we closed the harbour. This voyage was chiefly notable for the very large number of Mascarene Black Petrels (Pterodroma aterrima) observed in the Gulf of Aden and in the vicinity of Socotra and the Whitebellied Storm Petrels seen on the 7th August. I had not definitely identified the Mascarene Black » Petrel on previous voyages. On this voyage, the identity was confirmed by the: one that came aboard on the evening ofthe 6th August. . Persian - and Wedgetailed Shearwaters were, as usual, seen in the vicinity of Socotra. It is curious that on the “th August, when white-bellied storm _petrels- ‘were. numerous, not a Ne 344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 single Wilson’s Petrel was observed and that white-bellied storm petrels should have been seen only on that day. _ I have not previously seen this small petrel between Colombo and Aden, but. I saw many that appeared to be of the same species near Lat. 18.20N. Long. 60.25E. between Aden.and Karachi on a voyage in July 1945. ee Undoubtedly there is room for considerable research into the oceanic birds of the northern Indian Ocean; not only is very little known of the species of migratory petrels and shearwaters that visit these waters during the summer months when they are not breeding, but it is obvious that several species must nest either on or in the vicinity: of Socotra, as both Persian and Wedgetailed Shearwaters have been observed frequently in the vicinity of Socotra throughout the year. On our return to Colombo, Mr. D. D. Condon was able to persuade Mr. G. N. Grisenthwaite, Fishery Expert in the Trawler ‘Braconglen’ to keep notes on the oceanic birds encountered on his fishing trips. Although in no way a trained observer, Mr. Grisenthwaite is familiar with shearwaters and petrels which he has met in European waters ; so he has been able to furnish some very interesting observations which throw light upon the density and distribution of migratory. shearwaters and petrels in South India and Ceylon waters, and on the dates of their departure to the South. _ The following are extracts from his reports, submitted through Mr. Condon :— ‘ August 22nd. Left Colombo on north west course to Cape Comorin; picked up large flocks of Wilson’s Petrels. Soon after leaving Colombo, there were scores of them. About 30 miles out on NW. course where sea’s depth is very great, all petrels disappeared; there were no birds at all. 120 miles out on this course, off the South Indian coast, observed first shearwater and large numbers of Wilson’s Petrels reappeared. | Note. Shearwater was probably the Greenbilled (P. pacificus) or Pinkfooted (P. carneipes), or both; he also saw many birds which, from his descriptions, were obviously Sooty and Bridled Terns (S. fuscata and S. anaethetus). He states that these terns never settle on the water, probably, he suggests, because of the large numbers of sharks always present! They come from the southwest in the morn- ing and returned in the afternoon; they were not seen after 5 p.m. He assumes that they go to the Maldives or Laccadives to roost. On this voyage, Mr. Grisenthwaite also saw two tropic-birds and a dark brown ‘gannet’ (probably the Brown Booby, Sula leucogaster) ; it was taking flying-fish on the wing, when they left the water ; he suggests that it was doing so, instead of diving for fish, as the sea was ‘alive with sharks’! eyes September oth to 15th 1953. Left Colombo 15.30 hrs. South-west monsoon blowing fairly fresh to strong; usual Wilson’s Petrels in large numbers, gradually left behind after leaving continental shelf; this shelf of shallow water extends on a course direct for the South Indian coast, i.e. NNW.—exactly 14 miles from Colombo. ~ . September t1oth. Vessel engaged in deep sea trawling off Travancore coast, approx. 15 miles SE. of Cape Comorin. Many Bridled Terns observed not far from ship. Also Wilson’s Petrels in flights of 2, 4, 6 and 8 but never more. (I ei TE eee ye ia il i ls ba Soe a ee —— = LZ PETRELS, SHEARWATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 345 September 11th. West of Cape Comorin. Strong SW. wind; bird-life absent with exception of Wilson’s Petrels, 21.30 hrs. Chief Officer reported Wilson’s Petrel in his cabin; it had numerous parasites under the wing and amongst the breast plumage. September 12th. West of Cape Comorin. One party of shearwaters or terns, evidently feeding, too far off for identification; another Wilson’s Petrel came on board. September 13th. Southwest of Cape Comorin; large numbers of ‘shearwaters noticed with many Wilson’s Petrels in company. Another Wilson’s Petrel came aboard. September 14th. Southwest of Cape Comorin. A few shearwaters noticed. September 15th. Returned to Colombo. September 18th to 23rd. SW. monsoon still blowing; course for Cape Comorin. A few miles out from Colombo passed several Wilson’s Petrels but not so plentiful as during July, August and early September. Off Cape Comorin and Muttam for 5 days until 23rd September. Shearwaters, previously seen in this area, were gone; only on one occasion did I see 4 birds of the small sooty kind (P. pacificus?). Each and every day large flocks of Wilson’s Petrels appeared—by this I mean hundreds. Our seamen, when gutting the fish, use old paint drums in which they put the offal. When they are full, they empty them overboard. This causes a distinct oil patch and it is marvellous to watch the little Wilson’s Petrels flying in from every point of the compass until they are like a cloud over the oil patch. The shearwaters used to be seen feeding like this, but even cheap feeding is no attraction now; they have just one. : September 30th to October 7th. Still SW. monsoon; no sea birds sighted between Colombo and Cape Comorin. Off West Muttam Light, and later 30 miles west of Cape Comorin, large flocks of Wilson’s Petrels seen every day. October 2nd. Caught one Wilson’s Petrel after dark. October 3rd. About 20.00 hrs., 16 Wilson’s Petrels stranded on deck ; four retained.+ October 7th. Leaving fishing grounds at 06.30 hrs. Still flocks of Wilson’s Petrels to be seen but no shearwaters. October 8th. Returned to Colombo. Mr. Grisenthwaite is very emphatic that the Wilson’s Petrels are seen only over the Continental Shelf area and never in the deeper water beyond this shelf. _ October 13th to 23rd. Course as on previous voyages. Leaving Colombo in exceptionally fine weather only birds seen for 30 miles were occasional pairs of terns. No Wilson’s Petrels were seen off Malabar Coast and Cape Comorin. Next day, however, Wilson’s Petrels were seen in quite large numbers. With the exception of a few swallows (probably, Hirundo rustica gutturalis) and other birds flying low over the water, obviously migrating towards the Gulf of Mannar, nothing further was Seen. Returning to Colombo and whilst about 15 miles out, my old friend the Gannet (Brown Booby ?) * See concluding note for identifications. 8 346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. S was sighted, a single bird only. the day was just dawning, but the plumage appeared either dirty white or cream with a light beak. He appears to stay well off the . land, because 12 miles from port he had left us. October 31st to oth November. Course as before. With the exception of an occasional tern, no birds were sighted; the Wilson’s Petrels had all disappeared. On Sunday November 8, however, I witnessed the spectacle of a huge flock of Wilson’s Petrels, probably reaching for over a mile, crossing the bows of our ship, flying low down on the water and making a beeline almost SW. Mr. O’Connor, the second engineer, watched these birds with me. Mr. W. G. Mitchell, the skipper, says he has witnessed a similar flight before this and that the Wilson’s — Petrels will be back again during May next year. Note by Mr. Condon. The Wilson’s Petrels were seen about 140 miles NW. by W. of Colombo. Mr. Grisenthwaite said that there were thousands, flying mostly 20 or more abreast. As usual they were seen on the Continental Shelf. They appeared to be coming from the Indian Coast and, while he watched, there was no pause or hesitation, no feeding or resting, just this steady, fast mass-flight, moving South-west. — , 3 November 14th to 24th. Course approximately as on previous voyages. ‘We were for the most of. the time fishing off the Malabar Coast. The most interesting feature with regard to bird-life was the total absence of Wilson’s Petrels.. It is quite obvious that I witnessed the migration of these birds on Sunday November 8. I am, however, still puzzled as to where such a huge flock had congregated before their flight. From all appearances, it would seem that they came from the shallow water regions of the Gulf of Mannar as the flock was flying in a straight south-west direction and came from the coast to the north-east, which would be straight out from the Gulf. All the petrels have now completely: gone. From Mr. Grisenthwaite’s observations it is evident that the shearwaters (probably both P. pacificus chlororhynchus and/or P. carnetpes) left Indo-Ceylon waters on or about the zoth September on their southward migration but Wilson’s Petrels remained until the 8th November on which date a very large migration was observed. Regarding this migration, it is interesting to speculate from where the petrels had collected to form the very large concourse that was noted by Messrs. Grisenthwaite and O’Connor. Many of them were probably birds that had spent at least the latter months of their sojourn in our northern oceans, in the relatively shallow waters of the Continental Shelf of India and Ceylon, for these diaries show that there have been many Wilson’s Petrels in Indo-Ceylon waters from at least early August to November 8th. Their numbers had probably been augmented, however, by other petrels from further — north up the west coast of peninsular India, for there is believed to be a clockwise movement of Wilson’s Petrels round the north Indian Ocean and moving south by way of the waters off Ceylon in September and November (Gibson-Hill 1948, p. 445). On the other hand, as Mr. Grisenthwaite is very insistent that the birds all appeared to be flying on a south-westerly course out of the I could not see. its colour well as Se he Bl Ue Ne ke la i le . IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 347 Gulf of Mannar, it is possible that some, at any rate, came from the Bay of Benead passing down the east coast of India and _ through the Palk Straits and Gulf of Mannar between India and Ceylon. This course would be on the direct south-westerly route from the Bay of Bengal to the known breeding haunts of these petre!s in Antarctica and the southern islands. Further observations on the movements of petrels and shearwaters in the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal are awaited with great interest. — 7 SUMMARY . Extracts fom the ane: of two voyages are-given, showing ‘the Senor of petrels and shearwaters in the Indian Ocean and Guif of Aden in early February and their abundance in early August. ~~ 2. ‘The occurrence of phalaropes (Phalaropus sp.) in the Gulf of _ Aden in February is recorded and of the Mascarene Black Petrel (Pterodroma aterrima) in early August; also of a small white-bellied petrel, believed to be either the whitebellied Storm Petrel (Fregetta grallaria) or the Blackbellied Storm Petrel (fF. tropica) in Lat. 10.24N. and Long. 63.25E. 3. Dates of departures in 1953 of shearwaters and Wilson’s Petrels (Oceanites oceanicus) from Indo-Ceylon waters are given. REFERENCES Alexander, W. B. (1928): Birds of the Ocean. Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1948): The Storm-Petrels occurring in the northern Indian Ocean and adjacent seas. JBNHS, 47: 443-448. — — — (1953): Notes on the Sea Birds of the orders Procellariformes and q - Pelecaniformes recorded as strays and visitors to the Ceylon Coast. Spolia Zeylanica pe 27: 83-102. E Macworth-Praed, C. W. and Grant, Capt. C. H. B. (1952): Birds of Eastern and North-Eastern Africa. Vol. 4, p. 7-15. --- Norris,-@.- E. (1952) : Oceanic and other birds seen on two recent trips between - Colombo and Aden in 1951. JBNHS, 50: 671-674. Phillips, W. W. A. (1947): The Ornithological diary of a voyage of s.s. Samluzcn. _ JBNHS, 46: 593-613. — — — (1950): Wilson’s Storm-Petrels, Rhee. and other Seabirds in the q Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean. JBNHS, 49: 503-508. ADDENDUM NOTE mx Seven specimens of Wilson’s Petrels, (Oceanites oceanicus), caught in the ‘Braconglen’, were sent to the British Museum (Natural ~ ae for determination of the races. Mr. J. D. Macdonald writing on 24th March, 1954, reports :— : ‘Your specimens are all in moult, but in four of them the new ‘primaries appear to be full grown. These specimens are :— (1) 12-9-1953. 18 miles West of Cape Comorin, W.136. If - fully grown, this bird could be magellanicus, and as a_ second alternative it could be parvus. - (2) 11-9-1953. 29 miles South of Cape Comorin, W.140.5. As above. | a. ty : ' (3 e 12-9-1953. 25 miles Southwest BE Cape Conmem —W.145. Could be either oceanicus or parvus or even a very small individual of the Atlantic-breeding exasperatus. ze (4) No. P.q4 collected 3-10-1953. »©W.154. Almost certainly O. 0. exasperatus.’ : ie The above report would appear to indicate that Wilson’s Petrels, from several separate breeding localities, congregate together in the northern Indian Ocean during the summer months or non-breeding season. OBSERVATIONS ON TILAPIA MOSSAMBICA PETERS IN MADRAS BY P. I. Cuacxo & B. KRISHNAMURTHI (Freshwater Fisheries Biological Station, Madras) (With six text figures) INTRODUCTION The. Cichlid fish, Tilapia mossambica Peters, is of economic importance as a source of protein for the population of Africa (Graham, 1929; Worthington, 1929; Wilbaux, 1946 & 1947; Hey, 1947; Bont, 1948; Sklower, 1951; Lowe, 1952). Owing to its great cultural value this fish has been introduced and cultured in several Asian countries such as Ceylon (De Zylva, 1952 & 1953), Indonesia (Hofstede and Ardiwinata, 1950; Hofstede and Botke, 1950; Vaas and Hofstede, 1952), Malaya (Burdon, 1950; Hickling, 1950) and Taiwan (Chen, 1953), from where favourable reports are made. The fish was first introduced into Madras from Ceylon on 8th September 1952, and the preliminary observations gave encouraging results (Devadas and Chacko, 1953 a & b). In this communication the salient features of further investigations carried out by us at the Freshwater Fisheries Biological Station, Madras, are recorded, in view of the many enquiries received from fisheries officers and fish farmers throughout India. Foop AND FEEDING HABITS The fish has been found feeding mostly on the following algae: Cyanophyceae: Anabaena, Merismopedia, Microcystis, Oscillatoria and Tetrapedia. Chlorophyceae: Actinastrum, Ankistrodesmus, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Closterium, Coelastrum, Cosmarium, Eudorina, Gonium, Mougeotia, Netrium, Pandorina, Pediastrum, Planktonema, Rhizoclo- nium, Scenedesmus, Selenastrum, Spirogyra and Staurastrum, Bacillariophyceae: Amphora, Cyclotella, Fragilaria, Gomphonema, Gyrosigma, Navicula, Nitzschia, Pinnularia, Pleurosigma, Synedra and Tabellaria. Zooplanktonic organisms such as protozoans (Euglena, Peridinum, Phacus and Volvox), rotifers (Anuraea and Brachionus), daphnids (Bosmina, Ceriodaphnia and Moina), ostracods (Cypridopsis) and copepods (Mesocyclops and Neodiaptomus), and leaves of hydrophytes like Hydrilla verticillata and Chara zeylanica are also consumed in smaller proportions. Sand grains are frequent in the guts, indicating browsing at the bottom. Under aquarium conditions the fish is found to be omnivorous, feeding on plant matter, mosquito larvae, corixid bugs, shrimps (Caridina nilotica), cooked rice, rice bran, oil-cake, Be Be ee tare eo 350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL H CIETY. -¥ and strands of boiled meat. When starved, small carp fry introduced into the aquarium are consumed to a certain extent. Barbus stigma, Brachydanio rerio, Gambusia affinis, Oryzias melastigma and similar smaller species of fish when introduced into the aquarium are found to be attacked only rarely. GROWTH The fish attains a length of 220 mm. (9 inches) and a weight of 4 to 5 oz. in 8 months. The growth thereafter is slow, only 12 inches and 8 oz. being reached at the end of 16 months. ASSOCIATION WITH OTHER FISHES In the ponds of the Chetpat fish farm, Ippur fish farm, Yellamanchili demonstration farm and Chingleput fort moat farm, Tilapia is growing . well in association with Catla catla, Cirrhina mrigala, C. cirrhosa, C. reba, Labeo fimbriatus, L. rohita, Barbus sarana, Barbus: carnaticus, Cyprinus carpio, Osphronemus goramy, Chanos chanos. and Etroplus suratensis. Carp fingerlings have been stocked with and without Tilapia in ponds of identical conditions; and observations on their growth did not show any difference. MATURITY AND BREEDING Tilapia attains maturity in Madras when about 90 to 100 mm. in size and 3 months old. The left ovary is slightly longer than the right one; and they contain 220 and 180 ova respectively. The mature ege is oblong and measures 20 to 22 mm. along its long axis. The mother has been noted to carry about 350 fertilised eggs in its mouth till the hatchlings attain a size of 9 to 10 mm. Breeders can be distinguished by the rosy tinge of their fins. Spawning is repeated at intervals of 8 to 10 weeks. DEVELOPMENT The fertilised egg measures about 25 mm. and has little pervitelline space. The yolk is yellowish-cream in colour and is minutely segmented. There are no oil globules. The eggs are reared successfully in aquaria for following embryonic development. By the end of the first day the eyes, auditory vesicle and few stellate chromatophores appear (fig. 1). At 36 hours after fertilisation the embryo is well mm, Fic. 1.—Embryo at end of first day of fertilisation. — TERS IN MADRAS | "defined with 11-14 myotomes. At the 48th hour, more chromatophores appear; and the embryo shows more myotomes, heart and blood vessels (fig. 2). On the third day the embryo almost completely Fic. 2.—Embryo at the end of second day. encircles the yolk-mass, and shows wriggling movements within the membrane. At the end of the fourth day hatching commences. The Fic. 3.—Embryo at the end of fourth day. a Hk _ hatchling is delicate and transparent, and measures 3.5 mm. in length and 0.35 mm. in width at the. anal region. The yolk sac is ---«-1.72 mm. in diameter. The eyes are not closed though pigmented bluish (fig. 4). On the second day after hatching the larva measures ‘7 Sy SSSI led 6 bee SSE eT NS PTZ 77 Spt Za gIL t 2 mms. Fic. 4.—Hatchling. t 5 mm. in length, and develops a yellowish tinge. Twenty-six myotomes are discernible. The eyes are fully developed but the mouth is not formed yet. The gills and pectoral fin buds appear. On the third _ day the larva is 5.5 mm. in length and shows occasional swimming ane Bits 352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 movements at the bottom of the aquarium. Mouth is formed, and the caudal fin demarcated. Thirty myotomes are clearly seen. More chromatophores appear over the body, particularly on the head (fig. 5). On the fourth day the larva continues to remain at the bottom WERALEaiteaee — ZZ SWUNUUNS NNN Me Ua —$\G Bie Fic. 5.—Three days old larva. with occasional brief risings to the surface. On the fifth day, the yolk sac is almost absorbed, and the larva swims at the surface. The dorsal and anal fins are differentiated, and 7-8 rays can be counted in the former. ~Chromatophores get distributed thickly in the head, nape and pectoral region (fig. 6). On the sixth day, the {| <—————_=% RES SS SRN Fic. 6.—Six days old larva. larva commences to feed mainly on diatoms and on a few daphnids and_ copepods. On the seventh day, the larva is 7 mm. in length; and actively feeds on planktonic organisms. Twentyfive and twelve rays can be counted on the dorsal and anal fins, though the embryonic " fin fold is still present. Pigmentation is spread almost all over the & body. On the ninth day, the larva measures 8.5 mm., with its ventral ¢ portion yellowish-blue and the opercles golden in colour. The ventral Fa fins are also formed. On the tenth day the chromatophores tend to x crowd on the dorsal half of the body in the form of vertical bands. = It is at this stage that the young ones are liberated by the mother from its mouth. aS AER ar DN ee Se) Ee ISNT COR ee ee CPS ee eS ee Ee ee ey ee er Te ee eR Coe ee oT ee OER SUITABILITY FOR CULTURE IN SoutH INDIA Non-cannibalistic habit, rapid growth and propagation, parental care, harmless association with indigenous species, adaptability to different types of fresh and brackish waters, capacity to withstand handling and transport, and algicidal and mosquitocidal propensities make this exotic fish ideal for culture in South Indian waters many a of which dry up in the summer. The seasonal waters can be stocked Al with Tilapia for raising a good fish crop within the short duration 2 | of water supply. It is also suited for the innumerable temple and village tanks, which are usually dirty and overgrown with algae. Its medium size and good flavour should make it popular with the rural ~ : . Ly wid i cs WiyeMie SS & cm _ TILAPIA MOSSAMBICA PETERS IN MADRAS | 353 population, especially as it can be purchased at a lesser cost than the large sized carps. It is also tasty and without small bones embedded in its flesh. It is neither possible nor practical to collect and transport all the required number of carp fry and fingerlings from the few rivers (the carp fisheries of which are not great) for stocking rural waters, which are not easily accessible for lack of means of communication. The majority of the estuaries and backwaters do not contain good fisheries excepting that of mullets. Introduction of Tilapia, a perennial breeder, into these waters will not only enrich their fisheries but also ameliorate the economic condition of the coastal fisherfolk, particularly during the season when there is no sea fishing. Thus Tilapia has great potentialities in South India and also in other parts of India. | / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are thankful to Sri K. N. Anantaraman, I.c.s., for according | permission to publish this paper. REFERENCES Bont, A. F. D. (1948): Fish farming in the Belgian Congo. Nature, 162: 998. Burdon, T. W. (1950): Report of the Fisheries Department, Colony of Singapore, for the year 1950. re Chen, T. P. (1953): The culture of Tilapia in rice paddies in Taiwan. Chinese- American Joint'Commission on Rural Reconstruction, Fisheries Series, 2: 1-29. De Zylva, E. R. A. (1952): Bull. Dept. Fish. Ceylon, 4: 1-9. — — — (1953): Administration report of the Acting Director of Fisheries for 1952. Ceylon Government Press. Devadas, D. D. P. and Chacko, P. I. (1953 a): Introduction of the exotic Cichlid fish, Tilapia mossambica Peters in Madras. Curr. Sci., 22: 29. — — — (1953 6b): Tilapia culture in Madras. Madras Information, T: 16. Graham, M. (1929): The Victoria Nyanza and its fisheries. Crown Agents for the ‘Colonies, London. Hey, D. (1947): The Culture of Freshwater Fish in South Africa, Cape Town. pp. 124 : Hickling, C. F. (1950): Tilapia culture in Singapore. Comptes Rendus de la Conference Piscicole Anglo-Belge, Elizabethville, June 1949; 287-292. Hofstede, A. E. and Ardiwinata, R. O. (1950): Compiling statistical data on fish culture in irrigated ricefields in West Java. Landbouw, 22: 469. Hofstede, A. E. and Botke, F. (1950) : Tilapia mossambica Peters as a factor in malaria control in the vicinity of Djakarta. ibid., 22: 453. Lowe, R. H. (1952): Report on the Tilapia and other fish fisheries of Lake Nyasa. Colonial Office Fishery Publications, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 126. Sklower, A. (1951): Fish farming and freshwater biology in Northern Rhodesia. Archiv fur Hydrobiologie, 45: 284. Vaas, K. F. and Hofstede, A. E. (1952): Studies on Tilapia mossambica Peters (ikan mudjair) in Indonesia. Contrib. Inland Fish. Res. Stat., Djakarta, Bogor, Indonesia, 1: 1-68. Wilbaux, R. (1946): Notes techniques sur les Pecheries du Lac Albert. Bull. Agricole du Congo Belge, 37: 385. hy — — — (1947): Notes sur Tilapia nilotica L. du. Sud du Lac Albert. ibid., 37: 619. ; : Worthington, F. B. (1929): A report on the fisheries survey of lakes Albert and Kiaga. Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. uN Ry “abr et ‘ON THE STRUCTURE AND POPULATION OF THE NEST OF THE COMMON INDIAN TREE ANT, CREMATOGASTER DOHRNI ROGENHOFERI MAYR (HYMENOPTERA, FORMICIDAE) BY M. L. Roonwat, M.sc., Ph.p. (Cantab.), F.N.I., F.Z.S.1. Forest Entomologist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (With one table, one text-figure and three plates) CONTENTS INTRODUCTION (a) Generai (b) Review of Crematogaster nests NEST-STRUCTURE AND NEST-POPULATION OF Crematogaster dohrni vogenhofert Mayr (a) Nest-structure (b) Nest-population ... (c) Three nests from the Sundarbans, Lower Bengal ... OTHER NESTS OF Crematogaster sP. SUMMARY REFERENCES APPENDIX L332 PNW RO D2 CoL- OLN (a) GENERAL Although a description of the nest of the common Indian tree ant, Crematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr (Family Formicidae, Sub- family Myrmecinae, Tribe Crematogasterini) has been touched upon _by several authors, e.g., Mayr (1878), Wroughton (1892 a, b) Rothney (1895), Watt (1898), Barlow (1900) and Lefroy (1909), they have THE TREE ANT ae described and figured the outer structure, and the few details - available regarding the inner structure and the composition of the - nest-material are either inadequate or faulty. No information is available regarding the nest-population. In the present account I have given a detailed and illustrated description of the outer and inner structure of the nest, the microscopic composition of its material and. finally, the composition of the nest-population. The account is largely based on a nest collected by me recently (17th May 1953). ‘It was built 15 ft. above ground-level on the branches of a mango tree, Magnifera indica Linn., at New Forest, Dehra Dun (western Himalayas, ca. 2,000 ft. above sea-level). In addition, the following 5 nests are briefly described :— (i) Three small, young nests of C. d. _-rogenhoferi recently _ (January, 1954) collected by me from the forest ~ on Kankramari char (island) in the Sundarbans, Lower Bengal. (ii) Two nests of Crematogaster sp. from South India. (b) REVIEW OF Crematogaster NESTS Information regarding the nests of the Indian species of the genus - Crematogaster is both scanty and widely scattered. Here I have brought together and reviewed the available information. It has long been known that ants of the genus Crematogaster construct large, globular or ovoid nests of papery material either high up on branches of trees or near ground-level. Sykes (1836, p. tor, pl. xii, fig. 1) described and figured the nests of Crematogaster _ physothorax Emery’, from the Maharashtra area in peninsular India, which are made among tree branches. According to him, ‘they consisted of a multitude of thin folia of cow-dung imbricated like tiles upon a house, the folium above all covering the summit in an unbroken sheet, like a skull cap on a man’s head’. In one case he also found a queen in the nest. According to Wheeler (1926, p. 215), Kirby (1837) also described the nest of C. physothorax Emery’, and Mayr (1878) of C. dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr. Rothney (1895, pp. 205-206) mentioned having found a ‘big brown-paper nest’ of C. dohrini vogenhofert Mayr at ‘Bandora’ near Bombay, but did not describe it. — Wroughton (1892 a, p. 23) observed as follows: ‘C. Rogenhoferi and C. ebeninus, and perhaps some other species, (which) build nests of a material which looks like cow-dung, but which is, probably, a sort of coarse brown paper, manufactured from vegetable tissues, and suspend them from the branches of trees, like wasps’ nests. The normal situation for the nest of a species is, however, not always ' strictly adhered to.’ He further (1892 b, p. 197) remarked that C. [{dohrni|] rogenhofert ‘builds large nests of ‘brown paper’, with projecting pen-houses, more or less overlapping one another. The nests may usually thus be distinguished from those of C. ebeninus, --which, at most, have only rudimentary verandahs. I believe this 356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 system of ‘frills’ is intended to give protection from the sun as much as from the rain; . . . ’. Wroughton added that, according to the observations of Aitken, a woodpecker habitually rears its young in the nest of this ant. Barlow (1900, p. 185, pl. xv, fig. 1 b) gave a drawing of the nest of C. [dohrni|] rogenhoferi Mayr. According to the same author, Watt (1898) made some observations on this species (wrongly identified by Watt as Crematogaster contenta Mayr) and found it as infesting tea bushes in Assam. Lefroy (1909, p. 228) gave a figure of the nest of the same species, as copied from Barlow (1900, vide supra). Hingston (1925) figured a nest of C. auberti from Baghdad, Iraq, which measured only about 4 cm. in diameter and was composed of seeds. Mukerji (1930, p. 153 and pl.) briefly described and figured a nest of C. sovor Forel from Calcutta; according to him, the nest was composed of vegetable fibres, clay and debris. He added that Prof. Hans Molisch of Vienna, who had examined a piece from this nest, opined that it was composed chiefly of a fungus—a position which is very unsual in Crematogaster. Ayyar (1937) gave a detailed description of the nests of C. dohrni artifex Mayr from South India, and also briefly touched upon their chemical composition. The nests are globular or ellipsoidal and vary in size from a diameter of ca. 3x4 inches to about 94x 114 and 7x12 inches. He further remarked that the eggs and young larvae were found more towards the interior of the nest, and the pupae, the ‘teneral adults’ and the winged males more towards the periphery ; the queens and the workers throng the interior of the entire nest. No special chambers are set apart for the queens. Beeson (1941, pp. 501-502) made a brief mention of the nest of C. dohrni artifex from the work of Ayyar (1937, supra). To sum up, the papery nests of the genus Crematogaster in India and the neighbouring countries have been mentioned and _ briefly described by the following authorities, the only detailed description being that of Ayyar (1937) regarding the nest of C. dohrni artifex Mayr :— C. auberti Emery.—Bacupap, Irag: Hingston, 1925. C. dohrni artifex Mayr.—Inpia: Ayyar, 1937; Beeson, 1941. C. dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr.—Inpia: Mayr, 1878; Wroughton, 1892 a, b; Rothney, 1895; Watt, 1898; Barlow, 1900; Lefroy, 1909; Roonwal, present account. C. physothorax Emery (synonym: Myrmica kirbii Skyes).—Inp1a: Sykes, 1836; Kirby, 1837. C. soror Forel.—Inp1a: Mukerji, 1930. Crematogaster sp.—Inp1A: Roonwal, present account. According to Ayyar (1937, pp. 296-297), Crematogaster rothneyt in South India does not build papery nests on trees but always nests in soil or in crevices in walls. Oe SORES ee IE eee Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I Photographs of Crematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr collected in New For Dehra Dun (U.P., India) ca. 2,000 ft. above sea-level; 17th May 1953, M. L. Roonwal Coll. The individuals in figs. 1-4 are from the single nest shown in figs. 5 and 6. 1—Large winged form. 2—Small winged form. 38—Worker major. 4—Worker minor. Fic. 5.—Whole nest as seen from outside. Built at a height of about 15 ft. above ground on a mango tree (Mangifera indica Linn.). Fic, 6.—Same, cut into two halves to show the inside structure. The small white dots inside the cells represent the winged ants. c—cells of the ant nest; /—dried up leaves of mango tree; n—nest; t—twigs. Ty ee Ne 357 I]. NEST-STRUCTURE AND NEST-POPULATION OF Crematogaster dohrni rogenhofert Mayr (a) NEST-STRUCTURE (Plate 1 and Text-figure) - The Dehra Dun nest is a light, globular, dark brown structure, measuring about 13 cm. in diameter. It is composed of papery material giving the appearance of loose felt or dried cow-dung. Examination under the microscope shows that this material is composed of pieces of vegetable matter, e.g., grass leaves, bits of bark, etc., cemented together by some sticky secretion and moulded into light, papery stuff (text-fig. 1 a, b). The individual vegetable fibres are about 2-6 mm. long and are extremely thin. The nest weighs about 81 gms. When the nest is carefully cut across’ it is seen to be composed internally of a large number of interconnected cells which run more or less concentrically, the depth of the cells, 1.e., the distance beween the neighbouring walls, being about 3-7 mm., and the width about 8-30 mm. or more. The cell-walls are about 0.5 mm. or less in thickness. The cells are strengthened by means of perpendicular or transverse walls (text-fig. c) of similar thickness and_ similar Text Ficure (a-c)—Portion of a nest of Crematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr. (a) Portion of the outer covering of nest. Note that the nest is composed of vegetable fibres, bits of bark, etc. cemented together into a papery material. (b) A few of the longer vegetable fibres from the nest-wall. (c) A few nest-cells near the periphery of the nest. f—vegetable fibres (bits of grass leaves, etc.); m—main cell-walls of nest; ty—transverse or perpendicular cell-walls of nest. material. Towards the periphery of the nest the cells are narrower than in the centre. The nest is built around the tree branches in such * To avoid damage to the delicate, papery nest, the cutting is best done with a small, finely-toothed saw; a bread-knife is excellent for the purpose. 358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIE a way that several branches pass right across the nest, In the — present case (pl. 1), besides the main twig which is about 1.5 cm. in © diameter, 7 other thinner twigs pierce through the nest. Externally, the nest is covered over by a continuous covering of thin, papery laminae of the same material as the remainder of the nest and in such a manner that the nest-cells do not open on the outside except by tiny crevices here and there through which the ants enter and come out of the nest. These crevices are probably partly ‘original structures’, i.e. are laid down as such while the nest is being constructed and partly ‘accidental’, 1.e., arise by the removal of the external covering here and there by mechanical injury caused by wind, contact with twigs and by other agencies. (b) NEST-POPULATION The nest-population in the Dehra Dun nest was counted by sampling. When the nest was kept aside after collection, very few individuals came out of it during the first few hours. The nest was then lightly dusted with 5 per cent D.D.T. powder and kept aside. Within an hour or two a large number of individuals—winged forms as well as workers—started crawling out of the nest and, by coming in contact with D.D.T., they died in the next few hours. In this way, individuals continued coming out for four days, after which there were no further | emergences. All these individuals were collected. When the nest was cut into two halves after a week, a small number of dead individuals were still found in the nest cells, and were collected. The entire lot of individuals collected from the nest were stirred vigorously in spirit and a sample taken out with a small glass vial. These samples were transferred to another small glass vial of about 1 cm. height and 1.5 cm. inside diameter. The second vial was repeatedly tapped against a soft surface to make the ants settle down in a more or less tight uniform mass. When the tube was thus full to the brim, it was emptied in a glass dish and the contents counted and classified into castes, etc. The volume of the entire collection, in terms of the standard second tube, was then determined and the total number of individuals calculated. To this total a 5 per cent addition was made to account for the individuals still remaining in the nést. In this way the approximate grand total was obtained (Table). : The population consisted of 4 kinds of adults and the pupae, the former being characterised as follows :— (i) Large winged adults—Body-length ca. 8 mm. Body golden brown; abdomen smoky. | (ii) Small winged adults—Body-length ca. 3.5 mm. Body golden brown; abdomen smoky. (11) Workers major—Body-length ca. 5.5 mm. Body golden brown; abdomen large and only faintly smoky, with a whitish band at the posterior margins of the terga. (iv) Workers minor—Body-length ca. 4.5 mm. Body brown, darker than in worker major; abdomen small and darkly smoky (almost blackish to the naked eye), with no white bands at the posterior margins of the terga. “TABLE _ . Betitation of a nest of the tree ant, Crematogaster dohrni rogenhofert Mayr, collected at New Forest. Se Dun, on 17th May 1953. Baga Add 5 per Percentage ce cent for . of each caste ge and caste number | individuals | T°! | among actually ; S pourica) left in nest adults ; = 1. Large winged adults vat 452 23 475 8 % 2. Small winged adults es 110 6 116 2% 3. Workers major ... cn: 452 23 475 8 % 4. Workers minor... Fie) fetes SYA Se cee 234 | 4,910 82 % Total (adults) ...| 5,690 986 5,976 14 =r 33 17 GRAND Totat ...| 5,704 289 5,993 2 ae pupae were large and whitish and essed about 5-6 mm. in ~ length. . The total calculated number of individuals (including the few pupae) in the nest, 13 cm. in diameter, was about 5,993 or say 6,000, the composition of the adult population being as follows :— 1, Large winged adults ... 475 individuals (or 8% of total adults) 2, Small winged adults sk LG a (or 2% of total adults) _ 3. Workers major Rape 7) a (or 8% of total adults) 4 4, Workers minor ... 4,910 Bs (or 82% of total adults) _ Ayyar (1937, pp. 303-304 and 307- 308) noted that in Crematogaster — dohrni artifex Mayr in South India in swarming individuals the pro- portion of females never exceeded 3 per cent of the emerged sexual _ forms.. He further gave the population of a nest, of about 54x 7# - inches diameter, as follows:— Caste, etc. Number and percentage of individuals 1, Workers major, including callows. 39,082 (68°6% of adults) _ 2, Workers minor, including callows. 13,192 (23°2% of adults) =--3. Males, winged -- 4,614 (8°1% of adults) eon 4, a Females, winged Sri fst 58 (0°1% ot adults) (a) Total adults: 56,947 wees ee 5. Female pupae Ssoee7 OO 6, Female larvae, large size Sie. oe OSS 7, +~Smaliest larvae, probably workers and males 2,744 8. Pupae of workers and males... 1,100 (b) Totallarvae and pupae 5,294 em ee Ae «9. «Eggs a3 aie a wey, (c) Grand Total €2,278 Sa yy 360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 The method adopted by Ayyar for counting the nest-population was by sample-weighments of lots. He, however, does not mention whether the samples were dried suitably or not before weighing. Unless uniform drying is done for all the samples, the degree of error in comparing the different samples is likely to be considerable. Assuming that Ayyar’s figures provide a correct picture of the pro- portions of the various castes, a comparison with the proportions observed by me in C. dohrm rogenhoferi is of interest. The percentage of the winged adults is nearly the same in both the subspecies—1o per cent winged adults in C. d. rogenhoferi and 8.2 per cent in C. d. artifex. The percentage of the workers ‘is also _ similar—go per cent in rogenhofert and 91.8 per cent in artifex. The relative proportion of the major and minor workers, however, differs radically and the tendencies in the two subspecies are, in fact, quite opposite, there being far more workers major (68.6 per cent of total adults) in artifex than in rogenhoferi (8 per cent of total adults). Correspond- ingly, the workers minor constitute only 23.2 per cent of total adults in artifex, as against 82 per cent in rogenhoferi. Among the workers themselves, the proportion of workers major to workers minor in artifex is 74.8 per cent and 25.2 per cent respectively or roughly as 3:1; in rogenhofert, 8.1 per cent and 91.9 per cent respectively or roughly as 1:11. Another point of comparison is the density of population in the two nests. In the globular nest of C. d. rogenhoferi, with the nest-diameter of 13 cm. (the nest-volume, therefore, being ca. 1,151 cu. cm.) the population, including the 17 pupae, was 5,993 individuals, or about 5.2 individuals per cubic centimetre. In the oval nest of C. d. artifex, with the nest-diameters of 54x74 inches or about 14x19 cm. (mean 10.5 cm.), the nest-volume worked out at about 2,630 cu. cm. ; with a total population of 62,278, including larvae and pupae but excluding the 37 eggs, this gave a density of about 26.4 individuals per cubic centimetre, or nearly 5 times as great as in rogenhoferi. (c) THREE NESTS FROM THE SUNDARBANS, LOWER BENGAL (Plate II) During a recent survey (January 1954) of the Sundarbans in Lower Bengal, I found small, young live nests of C. d. rogenhofert1 common on the island named Kankramari char’ which lies in the Muriganga River about 3 miles from Namkhana town. The ecological conditions obtaining on this island are of interest and may be briefly touched upon. The island, which is formed by silting, is of comparatively recent origin (about 60 years or so old) and is growing fast. It is about 8 miles long and about a quarter mile wide. The soil consists of clayey loam over stiff black clay and there is no rock. The altitude is about 15 ft. below the mean sea-level and the island is, therefore, 1 Char, in the local dialect, means an island formed by silting. i ie 1 fe 2 ae bo S a a a EBS "PSGI-1-G/9A “ON “HOD PIPIA—E = PSET-1-/SU “ON ‘TOD PPI—S “HS6I-1-3/PA “ON ‘TOD PPLA—T ‘peel ‘Arenuvf pug “yoD [VAuooy "YT "PY "jesueq jesMo7y ‘sueqiapung ayi “yy esursiunyy ‘(puvls]) apyo tavureryuvyy oy? worzy ‘AAV Meafoytiasos 1uAYyop Aajspsojpiuladg Jo ysou Sunok jo sydviasojoyg erence | © I] aiv1g ‘20S ‘ISIN ‘JUN Avquiog ‘‘uanor Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe. Photographs of nest of Crematogaster sp. Fic. 1—Nest No. 1 (Ent. Mus. Reg. No. 1001A), as seen from outside. Prats II! Cremato~ gaster sp. North Salem Forest Division, Madras State, India. February 1930, Cc. F. C. Beeson Coll. Natural size: 17x20 cm. diameter. Fic. 2—Nest No. 1 (Ent. Mus. Reg. No. 1001A), as seen in longitudinal- vertical section. Fic. 3—Nest No. 2 (Ent, Mus. Reg. No. 1001B), as seen from outside. Cremato- caster sp. Same collection data as in nest No. 1 above. Natural size: 13x17 cm. iS | diameter. Fic. 4—-Nest No. 2 (Ent. Mus. Re vertical section. < 3, No. 1001B), as seen in longitudinal- _ NEST STRUCTURE, ETC. OF THE TREE ANT. 361 fully submerged under the saline estuarine waters during the spring tides (March to August) for about 3 hours in the day and 3 hours in the night. The ground is always marshy. The island .is covered by a forest of the Heritiera-type, the principal species being baen (Avicennia officinalis L. and other species of Avicennia) and gengwa (Exacaecaria agallocha L.). Goran (Ceriops roxburghiana L.) has also come underneath gengwad; and occasionally korea (Sonneratia apetala Ham.) is found. The forest crop is young and flourishing, the tree canopy about 20-30 ft. high and half open, and the girth of trees about 6-24 inches at breast height (44 ft.). The larger mammals, e.g. tiger, wild boar and cheetal deer, have already invaded the island from the mainland. The insect fauna is poor: there are a few species of ants and grasshoppers; no termites were seen. It is obvious that only those ants which can nest high up in trees can survive because of the periodical submergence of the island under water. Several nests of C. d. rogenhoferi were commonly seen on trees at heights of about 4-10 ft. from the ground. All of them were small in size and were evidently young. In shape they were rounded or subovoid with irregular protuberances. Three nests were collected on 2nd January 1954 and are briefly described below (pl. 2):— Nest No. 1. (Coll. No. R4/2-1-1954) (pl. 2, fig. 1)—Subtrian- gular, the three sides measuring 7x 7x9 cm.; height ca. 4cm. Dark brown. Outer papery covering poorly developed. In a forked twig at a height of ca, 8 ft. on a gengwa tree. Nest No. 2. (Coll. No. R5/2-1-1954) (pl. 2, fig. 2).—Subglobular but rather flattened, with diameters ca. 5 cm. and 7 cm., and with two projections for holding on to thin twigs. Dark brown. Outer _ papery covering rather more complete than in No. 1. Attached to thin forked twigs, at a height of ca. 8 ft. on a goran tree. Nest No. 3. (Coll. No. R6/2-1-1954) (pl. 2 fig. 3).—Suboval, cm 5x8 cm. Dark brown. Outer papery covering as in No. 2. Attached to thin, forked twigs at a height of ca. 4 ft. on - a goran tree. Except in size and shape, the external and internal structure of these nests was essentially the same as in the Dehra Dun nest described above. The population consisted solely of major and minor workers. : III. OTHER NESTS OF Crematogaster sP. (Plate III) Besides the nests of C. dohrni rogenhoferi described above, there are two other nests of Crematogaster sp., both from South India, in the collection of the Forest Entomologist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. While these nests clearly belong to Crematogaster sp., 9 362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 no ants are now present in them and: it is, consequently, not possible to determine the species. The nests largely resemble those of C. dohrni rogenhoferi described above, but show certain differences and are briefly described below :— ee Lestat a Nest No. r. (pl. 3, figs. 1 and 2)—Ent. Mus. Reg. No. r1oo1A. The only data recorded are as follows: Crematogaster sp. Formicid | nest made up of leaves on the branches of some tree. North Salem [Forest] Division, Madras [State]. ee rs, ee Dr. C.F. bag Beeson. ie The nest is dark brown (cow-dung coloured) and lope in stapes the diameter being about 17x 20 cm. It is made up of numerous cells generally shaped as _ described above for C. d. rogenhoferi and composed of papery material which, under a lens, is seen to be composed of numerous small vegetable fibres cemented together— it is not ‘made up of leaves’, as stated in the original label. The cells appear to be proportionately smaller in width than in the nest of C.d.rogenhoferi but are otherwise similar to the latter. The nest weighs about 245 gms. | Nest No 2. (plate 3, figs. 3 and 4)—Ent. Mus. Reg. No. roo1B. Same collection data as in No. 1oo1A above. The nest is oval and measures about 13x17 cm. in diameter but is otherwise markedly different. It is much darker brown, being almost blackish. The cells are appreciably smaller than in the nests described above, and also much more irregular. In a transverse section the peripheral portions, especially on one side, are much darker, while the central portions appear to be paler owing to a fine, white, powdery deposit on the cell-walls. The central cells are larger than rhe nero ones. The nest ees, ye 152 gms. IV. SUMMARY ellie: snrblished information on nests of ihe Indien apeneS of fee ants of the genus Crematogaster is briefly reviewed. 2. The nest of Crematogaster dohrm rogenhofert Mayr is’ ABbilat is constructed high up on trees, and is made of dark brown, papery — material composed of fine vegetable fibres glued together by means of @& ‘a secretion. The inside of the nest is composed of numerous inter- connected cells. Externally the cells are covered over by a continuous layer of papery laminae, so that the peripheral cells do not open on the outside except for small chinks here and there. The Dehra Dun nest measured: about 13 cm. in diameter and weighed about 81 gms. 3. The ant-population, in a nest about. 13 cm. in diameter and collected at New Forest, Dehra Dun,'on 17th May 1953, consisted © of about 5,993 (or say 6,000) individuals, comprising 5,976 adults — =| and 17 pupae. The-proportion of. the four kinds of adults was as — follows :—(1) Large winged adults, 475, (8%) ; (ii)-small winged adults, PIG. (200) (iii) ee eel iee AS, et and mae workets: minor, 4,910. (82%). EU OT hg ent EL Tee ect? gif Jee Care a8 & +. 4s: The density of population was about 5.2 individuals per cu. pee 5. AX detailed comparison of the population-structure in C. d. rogenhofert with that of C. d. artifex Mayr (as studied by Ayyar, 1937) is made. This reveals certain similarities as well as some striking contrasts. : MS Pe oe, Ghat 6. Some small nests of C. d. rogenhoferi from the Sunderbans, Lower Bengal, are described. oe Gp 7 7. Iwo other nests of Crematogaster sp., from South India, are briefly described. : V. REFERENCES * Not seen in original. AyyaR, P. N. (1937). A new carton-building species of ant in South India, Crematogastey dohrni artifex Mayr. JBNHS, 39 (2): 291-308, 4 pls. Bartow, E. (1900). Notes on insect pests from the Entomological Section, Indian Museum. Indiam Mus, Notes, Calcutta, 4 (4): 180-221, 2 pls. (14 and 15). Beeson, C. F. C. (1941). |The Ecology and Control of the Forest Insects of India and Neighbouring Countries. 6+11+1,007 pp., several figs. Dehra Dun. BincuaM, C. T. (1903). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Hymenoptera. Vol. II. Ants and Cuckoo-Wasps. xiv+500 pp., 1 pl. London. Hineston, R. W. G. (1925). The Crematogaster ant. JBNHS, 30 (2): 541- 550, 1 pl. *Kirsy, W. (1837 a). Fauna Boreali-Americana, or the Zoology of the Northern parts of British America. Part 4. Insects. *__ —_ — (1937 b). On the History, Habits and Instincts of Animals. (7th Bridgewater Treatise. 2nd Amer. ed.)—Philadelphia. Lerroy, H. M. (1909). Indian Insect Life. A Manual of the Insects of the Plains (Tropical India). Pp. xii+786, several col. pls. Calcutta. *Mayr, G. (1878). Beitrage zur Ameisen-Fauna Asiens. Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien, Vienna, 28: 645-686. ; Mukery1, D. D. (1930). Report on a collection of ants in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. JBNHS, 34 (1): 149-163, 1 pl. ° — — — (1934). Entomological investigations on the spike disease of sandal (22). Formicidae. Indian For, Rec., Delhi, 20 (5): 1-15. Rotuney, G. A. J. (1895). Notes on Indian ants. Trans, ent. Soc., Lond., 1895 : 195-211. Sykes, W. H. (1836). Descriptions of new species of Indian ants. Trans. ent. Soc:,,-Lond. 1299-1075 1. col. pl. Wart, G. (1898). The pests and blights of the tea plants of Assam. Calcutta, 1898. Wureter, W. M. (1926). Ants, their Structure, Development and Behaviour. xxv-+663 pp. New York. — — — (1927). Burmese ants collected by Professor G. E. Gates. Psyche, Boston, 34: 42-46. Wrovucuron, R. C. (1892 a). Our ants. Part I. JBNHS, 7 (1): 13-60, 2 pls. a = see oye Our ants. (Part tl. pf BNES, 1: (2) 3175-303, 2 pls. VI. APPENDIX I have now been able to consult Watt (1898) and Watt & Mann (1903) in original. These authors clearly state that C. dohrni is a pest of tea bushes in Assam and Ceylon, injuring the bark and branches to such an extent that circulation is checked and death occurs. ‘They add that the belief that the ants are useful by keeping in check the harmful aphids and coccids is incorrect, and, on the contrary, they, 364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL protect these insects. In Ceylon, according to ‘fhe 5 same inuiiats - this ant injures cinchona, coffee and tea. Watt’s (1898, p. 257; 333) statement that the ant makes ‘mud enclosures’ (or nests) is of course not correct as discussed above, the nest being composed entirely of fibrous laminae. Watt & Mann (1903, pl. XIII) figure a a oe. nest of C. dohrni rogenhoferi. Watt, G. (1898). The Pests and Blights of the Tea. Plant. Being aa of Inves- tigations conducted in Assam and to some extent Be amy nea Calcutta (Supdt. Government Printing, India), iii+467-+ xvii. Watt, G. aNnD Mann, H. H. (1903). The Pests and Biches - of the eres Plant > (2nd ed.). xv+429 pp., 24 pls. Calcutta (Supdt. Government Printing, India). Se ee Pe ee eT ee ad Py Pehl 2 ae Sn Re ee a | y EPS re ae Te ee Sn Fu het FOS ig OF NOTES ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILLS, EASTERN GHATS. BY Ao EGi BESE During the two years from April 1950 until the end of February 1952, I paid frequent visits to the Nagalapuram Hills which form the outer spur of the Eastern Ghats between Nagari and Kalahasti. These hills extend for about 30 miles from south to north, the southernmost end being about 4o miles NW. of Madras City. _ These hills are, as far as I know completely uninhabited and are covered with thick jungle, the southern end being bare rocky peaks. There are no signs of grazing goats or cattle but there are numerous tracks of sambar and barking deer on the: forest paths; judging from the droppings and pug marks there must be a number of sloth bears and panthers and on one occasion I saw a couple in the early morning. The Grey Junglefowl i is fairly common and I have also seen an occasional spurfowl. The highest point is Kumbakkam Drug (about 2,700 ft.) and just below this is an unattended Forest Bungalow. But it is a long hard walk of 5 miles from the Government Fish Farm at Thantipandal and without careful arrangements made well before hand it is impossible to obtain coolies to carry one’s baggage to the top of the hill. There is no fresh running water on the plateau except in the monsoon, but there are two small poo es cue about one mile to the north of the bungalow and another 14 miles to the west. The first 2 miles from Thantipandal the ascent is very steep to about 1,900 ft., thereafter the path is along a rolling plateau gradually ascending to 2.500 ft: Around the northern edge of the hills is a small clear stream with a permanent flow of water which appears to emanate from a spring halfway up the hill. The jungle round the bottom of the hills is thick scrub with some big mango. and other trees and some patches of Pamnpoe jungle. This stream flows into a small artificial tank. : Most of my collecting was done on the Horthebn end of the hills as the southern and central parts are not easily accessible, at any rate for short visits. The rainy season is from mid-October to the end of November, but there are frequent heavy showers from July to September. There is one point which seems to me of particular interest and this is the scarcity of females of Papilio polytes compared to the very large number of males. In the two years spent among these hills, I’ certainly did not see more than 12 females, all of form stichius. This in itself seems peculiar as P. aristolochiae which stichius mimics is comparatively scare while P. hector, which the typical form mimics, is the commonest Papilio and hundreds and even thousands are seen every day. It is possible that I may have missed form polytes and passed them as hector, but I can usually distinguish between the two in flight and was always on the lookout for them. 366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 62 PAPILIONIDAE 1. Polydorus aristolochiae aristolochiae.. ie, eRe Rather scarce, but usually three or four to Be seen every day. 2. Polydorus hector. Very common at all seasons, round the lower slopes of the hills, but scarce at the top. This is one of the commonest species 208 is often seen in swarms of hundreds. : 3. Papilio polytes polvtes: Males fairly common from August to November but scarce at other times. On the 9th September 1950 after a week of heavy showers males of this butterfly appeared literally in thousands. on wet ashes. There had been a forest fire along the banks of the stream and these patches of ashes were covered with hundreds of butterflies, the commonest being P. polytes, P. demoleus, G. nomius, G. eurypylus jason, C. pomona, C. nerissa, A. libythea. Among the P. polytes was a male which had distinct light blue scaling on lower h.w. between the discal series of white spots and the discal edge of the wings in interspaces 1-7. The underside of the h.w. had a series of small blue lunules under the discal series of white spots. This butterfly was. quite conspicuous among a crowd of about 4o P. polytes hovering and settled over wet ash. Now after 18 months the set specimen. still shows the unusual a mene they have faded some- what. Females of all forms are scarce and during the whole two years not more than 12 of form stichius were seen and none of the other forms. 4. Papilio polymnestor. Only one was seen in July flying down the river, but. the wings: of another were seen floating in a pool at the end of June. 5, Papilio crino. Scarce at most times of the year but saw one in res and took another early in December on thistle. The next time this butterfly was seen was at the top of the hill in April-when 9 were seen round the summit of Kumbakkam Hill. No others seen except at the top of the hill in August. | Res 6. Papilio demoleus demoleus. ; Very common everywhere and at all times. a the. yo 7. Chilasa clytia clytia. : Scarce—only one tattered specimen seen at the bottom of ‘del hill, but always one or two to be found round the summit. These © vary in colour from almost black to a rusty brown. ~—— a 8. Chilasa clytia dissimilis. ie © ae Scarcer than clytia yi and opr seen “round cm summit of ee Kumbakkam. : peas ee eae a a as ie aa tod eo ¥ 9. Graphium agamemnon menides. ia Scarce at all times=-a few seen in eee near ihe tone of ‘the hill and others on lantana. 10. Graphium teredon sarpedon. Very scarce—a few taken on damp rock near a | spring on ae top» of the hill in a 11. Graphinn: auevpyias f. jason. | Very common at the bottom of the hill qlee ‘the stream, especially from August to January. They come to damp patches in numbers and are easy to catch when settled but are very rapid fliers. 12. Graphium nomius nomius. : Fairly common in July only but these have been seen Hehconenont the year. On the 25th July there were hundreds newly hatched, whereas on the 9th August only one was seen and again in early September only one was seen. PIERIDAE 1. Leptosia nina nina. en on Not common, but a few seen in wooded areas on the lower | slopes of the hill. 2. Delias eucharis. . Rather scarce but usually:a few to be seen most days. 3. Appias libythea libythea. Males common at most times of the year, but females scarce. ~ 4. Appias albina. Scarce, but a few males taken on wet patches of sand. 5. Catopsilia crocale. Males fairly common, but females very Scar eg omy two seen over the entire period. 6. Catopsilia pomona. Very common: 7. Catopsilia pomona f. catilla. Only one seen and taken. 3 8. Catopsilia pyranthe. Common. Eurema pichewee Scarce.” Waar 68) Be iecb aick oe ad noxch 5 368 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY ey Cee HIST. “SOCIET 1. Danais limniace mutina. 10. Eurema hecabe simulata. © © # # © =| Scarce. or as 11. Cepora nerissa ane e. Very common. 12. Ixias pyrene frequens. Rather scarce, but usually a few to > be seen at the bottom of the hill and along the stream. 13. Ixias marianne. As above. 14. Anapheis mesentina. Usually very scarce except on one day in September when there were hundreds about and many pairs were seen in copula. c | 15. Colotis amata amata. 2 AN Scarce, but always one or two to be seen on most days. 16. Colotis etrida. Fairly common in the scrub jungle at the foot of the hill. 17. Colotis danae. Common in scrub jungle at the foot of the hills. 18. Colotis faustia fulvia. Fairly common in same places as etvida and danae. 19. Colotis modesta modesta. ‘A few seen as above. 20. Valeria valeria hippia. Very scarce indeed and only three seen in the entire period, all males. 21. Valeria ceylonica. One only seen and taken. DANAIDAE Common at all seasons. 2. Danais plexippus. aiivceteied beet ces Very common. 3. Danais chrysippus. rt Oe are eS Very scarce—only a dozen or so seen during the entire. period. - BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILLS 369 4. Euploea core core. Very common. 5. Euploea coreta coreta. eta ; ete ee a - Very common. : : Seis OS & Note.—These two Euploeas are both about equally distributed. : ne SATYRIDAE 3 1. Mycalesis perseus. 5 : " Very scarce. | ee Coen 2. Lethe rohria nilgiriensis. : Soa: Only one seen at the top of the hill round damp rocky outcrops. ee 3. Ypthima hubneri. oe Common round the foot of the hill. tii, 4, Melanitis leda ismene. | : Very scarce. tal ae ERYCINIDAE | ; ee 1. Abisara echerius prunosa, | ; ay oe Very scarce. a 2. Libythea myrhha myrhha. G : | ah Very scarce—only three seen. ee 4 NYMPHALIDAE 7 1. Charaxes polyxima imna. fa 4 Fairly common round the peak of the hill at midday. One male oe a q was seen on fresh bear droppings. No females seen at any time. x 2. Charaxes fabius fabius. ; | cate E A few seen at the peak and others at the bottom of the hill on rocks by the stream. + 3. Eriboea athamas. : ae ; Common at the peak and in several places on the rocks in the ae zs middle of the stream. yas is ed | 4, Euthalia nais. | % © - Fairly common all over the area. re HE 5, Limenitis procris procris. : Scarce. A few seen at higher elevations. is d te | 6. Neptis columella. wag g Common at higher elevations, ie : 2 Si: 370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA TURAL IST. SOCIETY, ‘5. 7. Neptis hylas varmona. , SG SHEE Bet Common throughout the area. EPR ee 8. Rahinda hordonia. Scarce, but usually one or two at the foot of the hills. 9, Precis hierta hierta, Fairly common. Si BAS / 10. Precis lemonias vaisya. Common. 11. Precis iphita pluvialis. ‘Common. 12. Precis almana almana. | | Very scarce—only two seen near the stream. 13. Precis orithiya. Common everywhere. 14. Vanessa cardui. Only two seen. 15. Hypolimnas bolina. Very scarce—no males seen. 16. Hypolimnas missipus. Males very scarce—all but one seen being in the jungle at the bottom of the hill and near the stream. No females were seen in this locality but they were quite plentiful near the hill- -top_ where only one tattered male Was seen. : 17. Atella phalanta, Very common. . nee 18. Ergolis merione taprobana Very common. 19. Ergolis ariadne. fina Common. 20. Telchinia violae. Very common everywhere. 21. Biblia ilythea. Rare, but there were several on the panies of a ‘small tank into which the stream empties about 2 miles from the foot of the hills. -LycaENIDaR, hk. Castalius rosimon rosimon. Not rare, eee: one or two to ie seen at : low levels. as 2: Castalius deleta deeidea. 3 | Very scarce—only three taken in two years. _ —-3,,—« Spalgis epius. Scarce—a few near the stream. 4, Talicada nyseus. No others seen. 7 5. Syntarucus plinius. and August.< ae %.") : 6. Lycaenopsis puspa gisca. Fairly common at low level. J 7, ~Chilades laius laius. ¥ A single one taken near the summit of Kumbakkam in n September. a Scarce—two near the stream and others on | the main road in July Very common at low levels, July to October. Sometimes swarms at damp patches on the forest road. y 8. Zizeeria trochilus ou . Common. 9, Zizeeria lysimon. & Common. 10. Zizeeria otis decreta. . Scarce. 2 11. Euchrysops cnejus. Ne ge, | One only on the plateau at 12,000 ft., October. 12. Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycaenina., Two at hill-top near a anal spans of water. 13. Ggthelresape Serab: Common. 14, Lampides boeticus. Scarce—only one taken near hill-top, but others seen. 15. Jamides celeno celeno. colour. Scarce—females ey so. All seemed to be of very” pale 372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 16. Curetis thetis. Males fairly common—only two females seen. 17. Horsfieldia anita dina. ae et a Fairly common on the banks of fhe: stream, July to zn oben: Not seen elsewhere. 2 18. Amblypodia amantes ‘amantes. Common, particularly on the plateau. Males sometimes came to damp sand. 19. Surendra quercetorum biplagiata. Fairly common. 20. Loxura atymnus atymnus, Very scarce—only two, both in October. 21. Apharitis lilacinus. Only one taken in February near Kumbakkam peak. 22. Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus, Fairly common in April on the plateau. Also seen in September and October. 23. Spindasis ictis ictis. - Two poor specimens taken in April—no others seen. 24. Tajuria cippus cippus. Several on the top of the hill in August. “Rano taken in the valley in November. No others seen. 25. Rathinda amor. . ° Common August to October, but very small compared to Bombay specimens. a 26. Rapala melampus. Two males seen and one taken in December in valley. Note.—I have three more lycaenids which I have been unable to identify so far. HESPERIIDAE 1. Hasora alexis alexis, Only one taken but several seen in October, November and December. dei cca ai aes sili 0 oe a Badamia exclamationis. Fairly common. 3. Calaenorrhinus ambareesa. Three only, all in October. 4, Calaenorrhinus leucocera leucocera. Two only in November. BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILLS 373 5. Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa. ~ Only one in October; - 6. Coladenia dan dan. Common. ve ah = Te gee BA Ge Jt, anes VY. 2 7. Coladenia indrana indra. es Fairly common. > 8. Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni. . =e a Only one taken in November, and another seen the same day. © : 9, Caprona ransonetti ransonetti. ; Common. . i 10. Caprona agama pelias. ' os : Only one taken in July. ; Bie. Se ae 1l. Syrichtus galba, ; : Fairly common. | : Se 12. Ampittia diascorides, oy Scarce. - 13. Aeromachus dubius. ) i, Ss : Two taken in October. | = ay x 14. Suastus gremius gremius. ~ . . = Three taken in October. te 15, Udaspes folus, i _ Only one taken in October. .- 16. Notocrypta paralysos alysia, Common. E fat 417, Gangara thyrsis thyrsis. 3 c Seen twice October, but missed each time. 18. Taractocera ceramus ceramus. | 3 Common. : 19. Astycus pythias lanka. : ast F. Only two taken in March and May. ve - 20. Baoris kumara kumara, oe ' Only one in April. anor 21. Baoris zelleri cinnara. Ne Fairly common. : 7 Note.—There are two more specimens which I cannot identify 4 with certainty. 2 4 THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT BY SAtim ALI ParT I (With a map and tive plates) INTRODUCTION The publication of this paper has been unduly : delayed. The main - field work of which it is the outcome was undertaken for varying periods of a month to five months at a time between the years 1944 and 1946 with shorter field trips up to 1948. It covered the then State territories of Kutch, Baroda (including its Kathiawar enclaves), Rajpipla, Cambay, Palanpur, and Radhanpur, together with the cluster of tiny Bhil States known as the Surat Dangs. Financial and other assistance was gene- rously provided by the darbars concerned, and supplemented by a wel- come grant from the Gujarat Research Society. Publication even at this late date is considered desirable in view of the great deal of fresh distributional and ecological data brought to light by the field surveys and the study material collected, which seem worthy of being put on permanent record. I have tried to make the paper as comprehensive as possible by collating other available information, either previously published or since supplied by.competent observers. For various reasons I was unable to cover the Kathiawar peninsula except only fragmentarily, but happily this gap in our knowledge will be filled by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji’s shortly forthcoming book on the Birds of Saurashtra. The author being a keen and knowledgeable resident orni- thologist of Bhavnagar will doubtless furnish fuller information than a short seasonal survey or two would have made possible. My thanks are due to the Bombay Natural History Society for lending me, as usual, the services of their collectors and skinners Messrs. J. Gab- riel and L. Nogueira, whose assistance was invaluable and greatly appreciated. The draft of the major ‘portion Ae this report ° was Gireparcn many years ago, at the time the collections were first worked out ; therefore some of my notes, such as on the status of various species (written i in the ‘present tense) may already be much out of date. Conditions affecting wildlife in general, directly or indirectly, have changed and are changing rapidly, a and unhappily not for the better.. This is particularly noticeable in the case of areas whose erstwhile rulers were actively interested in the preservation of wildlife in their respective territories. In view of the recent changes in the political structure of the country, it seems necessary to define the entity ‘Gujarat ’ as used in the title above. It is all that tract of country in Bombay State, some 64,000 sq. ' miles in area, which stretches down the western side of India from Sind in Western Pakistan (ca. 24°30’N) to the southern boundary of Surat District (ca. 20°15’N). In addition to the former Indian administrative districts of Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panchmahals, Broach and Surat, it includes. Be oe, ret enn eee ee ee es nr asses += Journ., Bombay Naje ee bse) we yr INDORI Pa Snes ado P rb thay, ; : 4 4 4 Wy Wy, i] Me ja ,, Bonbsy Nat. Hist, Boo. |, ah SO bene HYDERABAD MANDvVI Okha Port DWARKA\ PORBANDAR MILES, $0 40 30 20 JUNAGARH 10 0 DHRANGADHRA MORVI Heyes yw oy ON, Cir Wars ns {| yyitinns a Hayy GUJARAT, 50 Miles ee wlll), BHAVNAGAR => Bans es Brahma CA 7 ; yp oe INDOR o Ss _—————— — ws Rajpipla ulin, wi, 5 ", a uumeny, 4, TRS mw aynnunr TS 3 i 1 a 4 aD 4sp aw vee i MALEGAON “Nog. ° 76° ‘iourNn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Praweal {. Moist deciduous forest, Rajpipla, S. Gujarat 2. Deciduous biotope, Surat Dangs, March Photos by Author Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc. 1. Moist deciduous secondary jungle, Surat Dangs 2. Looking towards Salher Fort, Navsari Dist.. S. Gujarat Photos by Author ee ke tke ae et 1s ba ed lta rn 7 FRANS BHR BIRDS“OF GUJARAT ti fy :BTB ‘Kutch and the Kathiawar peninsula (Saurashtra). It includes also the _tract. of hilly jungle country south of the Tapti River known as the Surat Dangs which lies between the Nasik-Khandesh Deccan and the south Gujarat plain. This area which may roughly be enclosed within the parallelogram 20°30’ to 24°N and 69° to 74°E, has recently been termed Maha Gujarat or Great(er) Gujarat (Jour. Gujarat Res. Soc. vol. ix. (3) p. 155—July 1947), a name whose general adoption is commendable from several points of view. PHYSIOGRA PHY ‘Maha Gujarat contains a wide range of biotopes, stretching from practically pure sandy desert (e.g. the Great Rann of Kutch), with an annual rainfall of less than 10 inches, to tropical semi evergreen forest (e.g. portions of Navsari district and the Surat Dangs) with an average annual precipitation of over 80”. The most prominent trees and shrubs interspersed among cultivation as well as about villages and on the countryside generally are mango (Mangitera indica), neem (Melia azadirachta), kot (feronia limonia), mhowa (Lassza latifolia), ber (Zizyphus jujuba), kandi (Prosopis spicigera), babul (Acacia arabica), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), the two Salvadoras ‘(persica and oleozdes), Gymnosporia montana, and Capparis aphylla, depend- Sing upon the requisite locality factors. It is not easy to classify the terrain as a whole, but three main types are Clearly recognisable. The northern portions, from a little NW. of Ahmedabad city, eg. the Mehsana, Radhanpur and Palanpur areas stretching up to the Marwar desert are largely flat, undulating, sandy, semidesert tracts with sparse cultivation and tail luxuriant Euphorbia hedges. As it approaches the Abu hills (Aravalis) the country assumes a hilly and stony character eg. about Hathidhara and Balaram in Palanpur territory. Here it is tolerabiy ‘well-wooded being covered mostly with scrub jungle, 12 to 15 ft. high, consisting of Zizyphus, Acacia, Butea, Salvadora, Aegle marmelos, -Gymnosporta and such other typical species, with a sprinkling of enormous, ancient, spreading Ficus trees, chiefly -. bengalensis. Bordering streams are found some lofty arjun trees (Zermznalia arjuna) and bamboo (sp. ?) is locally abundant on the low hills. . In years of normal rainfall a chain of marshy jheels forms between Ahmedabad and Sidhpur attracting abundant wildfowl. The greater part of the plains or champaign (Central Gujarat), including the erstwhile Baroda State territory are heavily cultivated, the principal crops being bajra (Pennisetum typhotdeum), jowar (Sorghum vulgare), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and cotton (Gossypium). Scattered among the cultivated fields or clustered in groves around the little villages are trees, usually large and leaty, of mango (Mangitera indica), neem (Melia - azadirachta), teep-papdi’ (? Acanthocephalus kadamba), mhowa (Bassia _lattfolia) and tamarind. (Tamarindus indica), Butea frondosa forms scrub , patches here and there along the banks of streams and nullahs, while the tad or palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliter) i is locally abundant. _ The physiography and vegetation of Kutch are in the main similar to N, Gujarat—sandy flat semidesert with a preponderance of xerophytic = species. Here and there occur, ‘scattered singly or in clusters, shady trees around villages and tanks, or in the luxuriant ‘ wadis’ or market garderis irrigated from deep wells. The unique, feature | ‘of the Kutch’ landscape, 376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 however, and one that calls for special mention is the Great Rann which divides Kutch from Western Pakistan (Sind) to the north. It is an ex- pansive billiard-table-flat strip of salt, barren, sandy waste some 150 miles long east to west, and 80 wide north to south. During the SW. monsoon season the Rann becomes completely inundated, partly by the flood waters of the rivers Banas and Luni debouchinginto it, and partly by the sea. When the water dries the Rann assumes a hard flat desiccated surface, covered with pebbly stones, shingle and salt encrustation. To the ornithologist the greatest interest of the Rann lies in the unequalled potentialities it offers for the visual observation of bird migration in autumn and spring, and in its being the only known breeding ground of the flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) in this country, the most easterly in Asia and perhaps the largest in the world. Further details regarding the climate and floristics of Kutch may be found in the Introduction to Salim Ali: The Birds of Kutch (Oxford University Press, 1945). The Kathiawar peninsula (Saurashtra) in its physiography is an epitome of Kutch and the rest of Gujarat. The hilly deciduous forest, characteristic of portions of Central Gujarat, finds its parallel in Juna- gadh (southern Saurashtra), particularly in the Gir which has an annual rainfall of 40 to 50”. For an account of the flora of this area reference may be made to the excellent paper recently published by H, Santapau, s.s., and M. B. Raizada (/ndian Forester, 80 (7), July 1954. Forest, wherever it occurs, broadly falls into the following four major types of Champion’s classification! 1. Tropical Thorn Forest (Kutch, Saurashtra, N. Gujarat), — 2. Tropical Dry Deciduous (Central Gujarat, Saurashtra (Gir), 3. Tropical Moist Deciduous ) (Surat Dangs, Navsari prant, Raj- 4. ‘Tropical Semi-evergreen 4 ae) In the composition of the Dangs forests the principal species is ‘Teak. Some of the other characteristic trees are ain or sadada (7ermin- alia tomentosa), beo or bibla (Pterocarpus marsupium), Ahaman (Grewza tiliaefolia), dhamoda (Anogeissus latifolia), kilai (Albizzia procera), hald- wan (Adina cordifolia), khair (Acacia catechu), koshim (Schleichera tvijuga), mahuda or mhowa (Bassia latifolia), samar (Bombax malabari- cum), tanach or tiwas (Ougeinia dalbergioides), timru (Diospyros melan- oxylon) and others. Bamboo is abundant, both the katas (Bamébusa arundinacea) and manwel (Dendrocalamus strictus). Among the more important scientific results of the ornithological explorations in Maha Gujarat has been the northward extension of a number of forest birds hitherto believed to be restricted only to the humid southern section of the Western Ghats or Sahyadris. Their discovery at the northern end of this mountain chain, in the region where these hills dovetail with the Satpuras (Rajpipla and Khandesh, etc.), provides striking evidence in support of Dr. S. L. Hora’s hypothesis concerning the proba- ble route by which East Himalayan fauna, particularly fishes of the hill streams, spread to South India, namely over the Satpura mountain trend. This aspect of the field work in Gujarat has been dealt with more fully ‘elsewhere [Sdlim Ali (1948): The Role of the Gujarat Satpuras in Indian Ornithogeography, Jour. Guj. Res. Soc., Vol. 10, pp. 35-45. | pM a anaemia aaa PORES eee oe te ioe) ES oe ee 1Champion, H.G.(1936): A Preliminary Survey of the Forest Types of Indi and Burma. Jnd. For. Rec. (New Series), Sylviculture. VoI.I, No, 1. suRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III 1. Country about Balaram, Palanpur N. Gujarat Abu hills in the distance 2. Lesser Flamingos at Banas River mouth, Little Rann of Kutch Photos by Author Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 1. ‘The Banni country, N. Kutch 2. Typical coastal sand-dunes, Mandvi, Kutch | Photos by Author THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT NT ee Oe BE ee EM ee OR ye EE RN EDEL ae ee MT Le EE EN an OTT ETT Ry are el ee TEESE ERE ne oe apy eS LO OY ee Se BS x healt 4 Ber asst fy eg MI ee RY Bai Some of the peculiar species whose distributional range has now been shown tozextend to the Gujarat Satpuras are : Malabar Trogon (/farpactes fasciatus) Bluebearded Bee-eater (Alcemerops athertont) Malabar Whistling Thrush (A/zyophoneus horstieldz) Large Wood Shrike (Zephrodornis gularis) Orange Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus) Blackbacked Pied Shrike (Hemipus picatus) | Vigor’s Yellowbacked Sunbird (Aethopyya siparaja vigorst) Malherbe’s Goldenbacked Woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus) Heartspotted Woodpecker (/emicircus canente) Malabar Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis) BirD MIGRATION The geographical position of Kutch, Banaskantha and the Kathiawar peninsula and the natural conditions that obtain, particularly in the former _two, make them ideal venues for the study of Indian bird migration. Kutch lies directly athwart the main route of the hordes of species that sweep into India from the north and north-west in autumn and out in the reverse direction in spring. It forms, moreover, the eastern fringe of the broad stream of through migration that flows down from Central and Northern Asia in a southwesterly direction in autumn. This current passes over the NW. Frontier Province, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Sind, beyond across the Arabian Sea and southern Arabia into British Somaiiland and Abyssinia, and trickles down the eastern side of the continent even to South Africa. Many of the Asiatic forms that winter in Africa pass through Kutch in September and early October. They come in great waves, as it were ‘Swarming’, on the countryside during their temporary sojourn, and are all completely gone within the course of a few short weeks. ‘The return passage, in the main at any rate, apparently takes a somewhat different route since the birds are not in such promi- nence again in spring. Outstanding examples of these Africa-bound ‘through passengers’ by the Arabian route are the Greybacked Warbler (Agrobates galactodes familiaris), Indian Whitethroat (Sylvia communis acterops), Kashmir Roller (Covacias garrula semenow?), European Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus unwint ) and Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata neumannt). Kutch derives a substantial quota of its winter visitors and/or passage migrants into peninsular India from the NW. and WNW.,, i.e. from nor- thern and eastern Europe and from Middle-Eastern countries. ‘The Rosy Pastor (Pastor roseus), Blackheaded Bunting (Amberiza melanocephala), Greynecked Bunting (Z. buchananz), Yarkand Short-toed Lark (Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis) and White Stork (Ciconta c¢. ciconia) ate some of the species that enter by this route. Kutch is a veritable crossroads for all these migrational streams, and offers unique opportunities for a well planned study of Indian bird mig- ration by ringing and observational methods. The bare and open nature of the terrain, and the scantiness of vegetation are distinct advan- tages. Data which otherwise would have to be collected more or less piecemeal and conjecturally, here stand out in graphic clarity. Especially suitable for trapping and observation stations is the northernmost edge of the ‘islands’ or ‘bets’ where the flat, featureless Rann meets the stony range of hills (Kala Dongar, Bhanjda Bet, Chhaparia etc.) that runs ee Pos a, uttoer et 378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 more or less continuously along the northeastern border of Kutch. I can think of no better place than this for the study of visual migration in the whole of India. The wide expanse of the Great Rann that separates Sind from Kutch must of necessity be crossed by all birds journeying along this sector of the route. There are no natural distractions to make them linger, and thus create doubts and uncertainties in the mind of the observer as to whether what he sees is actual migration in progress or not. There is no obstruction to good visibility here save perchance when a dust storm ison. Ifa few observation posts could be strung out along the northern base of this transverse range of hills—say from Kuar Bet across to Bela Island—manned at the appropriate seasons by competent bird watchers, I am confident that data of the highest value could be secured. While encamped at Nir on the NE. point of Pachham Island during the first 3 or 4 days of October (1943) I found ample assurance of this from the abur ‘ance of the species and numbers of birds that were continually passing through. The late Maharao of Kutch, Shri Vijayarajji, who was keenly interested in birds, had approved of a tentative scheme for the putting up of obser- vation posts along the Great Rann. Owing to his untimely death and the change in the general set-up, the plan unfortunately never reached fruition. When field ornithology in India comes into its own—as one hopes it will do in the not too distant future—the implementation of such a scheme will deserve one of the top priorities. The classification adopted in the Systematic List that follows is a modified version of Wetmore’s well known arrangement which, in essen- tials, is now more or less internationally adopted. ‘A (1952) Revised Checklist of the Birds of Ceylon’ by W.W.A. Phillips (published by the National Museums of Ceylon), Dr. B. Biswas’s very useful ‘ Checklist of Genera of Indian Birds’ (Rec. Ind. Mus., 50 (1): 1-62) and Dr. S. Dillon Ripley’s more complete ‘Checklist of Indian Birds’ (under active preparation) have all adopted the Wetmore classification with suitable modifications. Moreover, all the recent checklists of birds of our neighbouring countries (Malaysia, Thailand, etc), either published or shortly to be published, follow this system of classification, namely they begin with what is believed to be the lowest rung of the evolutionary ladder and climb to the highest. Thus inthe case of Indian birds they begin with the Gaviidae (Divers & Loons) and end with the Corvidae (Crows), and not vice versa as Stuart Baker’s Fauna volumes did. The position of individual genera and species within this framework may vary somewhat as between one author and another, but the divergence is usually of minor degree. Personally I consider it immaterial at which end we begin ; and while naturally I would rather retain an arrangement with which the living generation of Indian bird students is familiar—and on which | was myself brought up—it seems clear that we cannot isolate ourselves from the universal trend which, for better or worse, has largely replaced what is now considered to be an outmoded system. If we wish to keep in close touch with modern ornithological thought and literature, we must of necessity adopt the new classification and familiarize ourselves with it in the shortest possible time. Therefore, the sooner we begin, the better. I trust this apologia will suffice for what some will, 1 fear, consider a thoroughly unwarranted innovation. A little inconvenience and confusion e q 3 = 3 ‘ j f 4 ] a. : ed ip ye ui aay are inevitable at first, but one soon gets accustomed to change, however drastic, and it may be hoped that in due time the younger generation will find it just as easy to grope their way through the new classification as we did through the old. | In order to facilitate reference, the new sequence in which the families appear in the following pages is given below : Podicipitidae : Grebes, Dabchick Pelecanidae: Pelicans Phalacrocoracidae: Darter, Cormorants. Ardeidae : Herons, Egrets, Bitterns Ciconiidae: Storks. Plataleidae : Ibises, Spoonbill Phoenicopteridae: Flamingos Anatidae: Ducks, Geese, Swans Accipitridae : Hawks, Vultures Falconidae: Falcons Phasianidae : Junglefowl, Partridges, Quails Turnicidae: Button-and Bustard-Quails Gruidae : Cranes © Rallidae: Rails, Coots Otidae: Bustards, Florican Jacanidae: Jacanas ' Haematopodidae : Oystercatcher Charadriidae: Plovers, Lapwings Subfamily Scolopacinae: Curlew, Sandpipers, Snipe, Woodcock Recurvirostridae: Stilt, Avocet Rostratulidae: Painted Snipe Dromadidae: Crab Plover Burhinidae : Stone-Curlews Glareolidae : Coursers, Pratincoles Laridae: Gulls, Terns Pteroclidae : Sandgrouse Columbidae : Pigeons, Doves Psittacidae: Parakeets Cuculidae : Cuckoos Tytonidae: Barn Owl Strigidae : Owls Caprimulgidae : Nightjars Apodidae : Swifts 3 Trogonidae : Trogons Alcedinidae: Kingfishers Meropidae: Bee-eaters Coractidae : Rollers or Blue Jay 3 Upupidae : Hoopoes Bucerotidae : Hornbills Capitonidae : Barbets Picidae ; Woodpeckers Pittidae: Pittas Alaudidae: Larks N.B. Unless otherwise stated all measurements in the account that follows were taken in the flesh; therefore allowance for shrinkage in the wing must be made when comparing with museum material. In my experience this varies from 2 to 4mm. in the case of birds up to the size of a starling. THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 379 z » og 7 : » JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL 1 SYSTEMATIC LIST Family PODICIPITIDAE: Grebes, Dabchick. Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori. The Little Grebe or Dabchick. 4 Specimens collected: Kutch xs350 9 9-3-44 Mandvi; Gujarat: i” GS575 2 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.) | Measurements: . We Oe: B Tar. paid |, — i 2 ad. 102 28 34°5 — 1 & imm. 93 2055 32 23 Resident. Common on all inland still waters. Breeding was in full 4 swing in Kutch during August and September (1943). a Podiceps caspicus caspicus (Hablizl) The Blacknecked Grebe = (= nigricollis) A specimen was collected by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji near Bhavnagar ~ on 7-11-1951. (J8NHS, 50: 664). This is the only record of this rare migrant for western India. o . Podiceps cristatus cristatus (Linn.) The Great Crested Grebe. A rare winter visitor. K. 5. Dharmakumarsinhji obtained a pair (f'Q) 22/24-8-1947, and saw a third example on a tank in Bhavnagar (JBNHS, 47; 385.). The early date is interesting. In’ the Society’s collection there is a specimen from Viramgam, 13-3-1905. Hume records others (S-/., iv : 31) from Deesa, Kutch and the western coast of Kathia- war, at Beyt and Porbunder. Family PELECANIDAE: Pelicans. Pelecanus onocrotalus Linn. The Rosy Pelican. nS Pelecanus philippensis philippensis Gmelin. The Spottedbilled " Pelican. Pelecanus philippensis crispus Bruch. The Dalmatian Pelican. Noted: Kutch: Pung Bet (Little Rann) at the mouth of the Banas — River. Saurashtra: Mithapur (Okhamandal); Navlakhi. Gujarat: © Kharaghoda. : Of the birds observed by the Surveys some were satisfactorily identi- fied as onocrotalus and others as ~. philippensis. It is not unlikely that the large gatherings may have contained f. crisbus as well since that species is a common winter visitor to Sind and has heen noted by Hume on the Rann of Kutch and on the western coast of Kathiawar. But the birds were always so wild that close enough approach for definite diagno- _ sis was seldom possible: q Lester saw about 20 Rosy Pelicans at Devisar Tank (Bhuj Dist. — Kutch) in the winter of 1893, and Butler (S./., iv: 32) records immense flocks of onocrotalus on some tanks in northern Gujarat during winter. — PE philip pensis were equally common, and on the same ground. Family PHALACROCORACIDAE : Darter, Cormorants. | Phalacrocorax carbo [sinensis (Shaw & eee The Large Indian ormorant. Noted: Kutch: Chobari (Bhachau Dist.); Kandla. Gujarat: Baduchi (Cambay town environs) ; Kanewal (Cambay) ; Radhanpur. = Small numbers at tidal lagoons, duck-shooting jheels, salt pans, etc. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephen. The Indian Shag. Noted : Kanewal (Cambay). Possibly overlooked elsewhere. _ Phalacrocorax niger (Vieill.). The Little Cormorant. No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Bhuj environs; Mandvi, etc. Saurashtra: Dhari Berne Dist.) Ghatwad (Kodinar). Gujarat: Baroda environs and strict ; Cambay and envirous; Balaram (Palanpur) Gujarat : Viramgam, | Resident. Common. Breeding in mixed heronries of egrets, etc. in August (Kutch). Normal clutch 4 eggs. Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. ‘The Darter or Snake-bird. No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Bhuj environs; Rapar ; Khadir Island (Great Rann) ;Saurashtra: Dwarka; Mithapur (Okhamandal) ; Kodie ear : Ghatwad etc. Gujarat: Baroda and environs ; Cam bay and environs ; Palanpur, Viramgam, etc. Resident. Common. In smaller numbers than cormorants, but ‘usually in association with them at tanks and jheels. Breeding in mixed heronry with spoonbills, etc. in August (Kutch). Family ARDEIDAE: Herons, Egrets, Bitterns. _ Ardea purpurea [manilensis Meyen]. The Purple Heron. No specimens collected. ca Fairly common resident throughout the area. Frequent, but not abundant. Solos at suitable waters—jheels with reedbeds, tidal man- grove swamps, elcr = ee in Kutch in August in mixed heronries with Cattle Egrets, Normal clutch 3 eggs. " Ardea cinerea [rectirostris Gould]. The Grey Heron, Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gs245 2 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda GE H . Measurements : : W B Lar. Ay : 19 41732 120 Jossk 150 (from forehead feathers) _ Apparently this subspecies, but I am not positive. _ Same remarks as for the Purple Heron. Breeding in Kutch in August. 382 Butorides striatus [javanicus (Horsf.)] - - The Lattle Green Bittern. No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Saurashtra: Dwarka (Okhamandal), Dhari (Amreli Dist.); Gujarat: Dediapada (Rajpipla); Waghai & Laochali (Surat Dangs). Soios in bushes bordering streams and tidal mangroves. Largely crepuscular. Doubtless resident, but no data on breeding within the area. When perched on a low branch, flicks tail like kingfisher, more rapidly. Ardeola grayii (Sykes). The Pond Heron. Specimens collected: Gujarat; Gsl22 9, Gs123 @ 5-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) Gs522 #1 9-12-45 Nadiad environs (Kaira Dist.) Measurements : WwW B Tar. ae 25'S 215-219 57-64 57-60 75-79 (from forehead feathers) iy. 206 61 54 50 Common throughout, at ditches, ponds and tanks. Usually singly ; occasionally loose parties. Nesting July to September in mixed heronries with egrets and cormorants, etc. Colour of legs variable seasonally and individually, from bright yellowish green or sage green (non-breeding ) to bright salmon pink or rose pink (breeding). Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.) The Cattle Egret. Specimen collected : Gs155 4 7-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) Measurements : W B at. T 1g 263 69 90 97°5 Common throughout, mostly in attendance on grazing cattle. Large numbers collect to roost at night in favourite leafy trees. Breeding in progress July to September. Much harried by House Crows in the mixed heronries who destroy vast numbers of eggs and young, missing no oppor- tunity to lift them from nests howsoever momentarily left unattended. Bluebottle flies (AZusca vomitoria) picked-off low herbage while follow- ing cattle, figure largely in its diet. Poises bill, sways neck from side to side like a snake to take aim, and jabs bill at fly. Egretta alba modesta (Gray). The Large White Egret. Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs220 2 14-9-43 Tuna (Anjar Dist.); Gujarat: Gs236 @ 15-11-45 Baroda town environs ; Gs339 9, Gs340 2 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; GS517 ¢ 9-11-45 Nadiad environs. Measurements : W B Tati T 1d 372 115 165 ASS 4 29 337-365 97-100°5 132-160 120-138 _ All the specimens are in winter dress so there are no breast plumes to suggest any of them being zztermedia. ‘The measurements of modesta and intermedia overlap so considerably, with odd birds shooting up or down from the norm, that identifying individual examples is not always satis- factory. In the field extreme examples of the two are often impossible to tell apart. THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 383 A specimen (Q) in the B.N.H.S. collection labelled ‘ Yonywa, Sando- way Dist. (Burma) 26-2-30 ’—also in winter plumage and without breast plumes—is determined by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst as zztermedia. I measure this specimen W 361; B 99, Tar. 136, T 133, therefore far exceeding the wing measurement given for zzdermedia by Stuart Baker : ‘304-333 mm., once 354’ (F.B.I., vi: 347). It falls more satisfactorily within the range of &. a. modesta, namely ‘ 354-391 mm.’ and altogether there seems no doubt that it is misidentified. Further, as regards colour of bill, according to published descriptions (cf. F.B.I., vi, 345-47) this in the breeding season is black and in non- breeding birds yellow, in both a. modesta and intermedia. In a heronry off Kandla in the Gulf of Kutch Mr. W.T. Loke and I particularly remarked that a number of actually breeding examples (with nest and young) of E.. a. modesta had yellow bills! The presence of dorsal plumes and the absence of breast plumes now made their identity undoubted. The bill colour of breeding birds could be a dimorphic character analogous to the colour phases of Demiegretta asha or to leg colour in breeding egrets and pond herons (Avdeola). It is also possible that the seasonal change in bill colour from yellow to black and vice versa is not perfectly synchro- nized with the donning and doffing of breeding plumes. Resident evidently over the entire area. Seen singly, as a rule, at jheels, ponds, marshes, rivers, etc., but its identity is often confused with the Lesser Egret (2. intermedia). Nesting was in progress in Kutch (Kandla Creek) in August/September in a mixed heronry among man- grove trees, shared chiefly by Reef Herons. Egretta intermedia [intermedia (Wagler) |]. The Indian Smaller Egret. No specimens collected. Observed in Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat but sometimes possibly confused with the Large White Egret. When the two species are seen together it is usually possible to differentiate them on size. ‘The Smaller Egret is more gregarious, as a rule, though solitaries are also not un- common. Breeding was in progress in Kutch during August/September, in mixed heronries. Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linn.). The Little’ Egret. Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS181 9% 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda . Dist.) ; @S1172 31-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla). Measurements : W B “Ar. I 20 285-290 90-93 114-115 103-104 In both the above the legs (tibia and tarsus) are black, and the feet greenish yellow. Common over the entire area, usually at jheels and on marsn land and inundated ploughed fields, etc. Normally gregarious. Breeding was in full swing in Kutch during August and September, in mixed heronries with Cattle Egrets and Cormorants. Threequarter fledged young are confusable with Budbulcus of comparable age, but black bill as against dark yellowish brown in the Cattle Egret is a distinguishing character. 384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘Demiegretta asha (Sykes). The Indian Reef Heron. Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks62 Qimm. 13-8-43. Bhuj environs ; Saurashtra: op 4-447 Okha (coll. ee. : 4 Measurements : W =B Tee i 1 oad. 214 93 104 104 1 1mm. 265 85 | 98 85 Common along the sea coast, and about tidal creeks and mangroves. Once seen at a freshwater tank in Kutch. Usually solitary, but nests colonially. Feeds largely on mudfish FLO AUIS Also wades into shallow surf and ‘ still hunts’ for small fry. Nesting was in progress in Kandla Creek, Kutch, during August and September on a tide-swept isiand in a mixed heronry on mangrove trees with Large and Smaller Egrets (4. a. modesta and &. 2. intermedia). In this colony the majority of birds were slaty blue-black. There was no direct evidence of blue and white birds being paired together. All the nests examined (about 8 out of over 30) contained either exclusively white young (3 or 4 per nest), or exclusively ashy ones. Only in one nest was there a mixture of the two phases—two chicks all-white, one all-grey. At least one of the parents of this brood (observed feeding young) was pure white. None of the white chicks in the colony were ever pure white, all being dappled grey to a greater or lesser extent. (Is the juvenile plumage also dimorphic, or do only the dappled white young turn into the white - adult phase and the ashy become darker with subsequent moults ?) In recently hatched chicks the naked body skin—the apteria, and also in between the feather-buds—is yellowish grey-green; legs and feet yellowish green and brown. Bill dark brown with a greenish tinge. Iris greenish grey in very young chicks ; ; lighter coloured—almost whitish grey—in older ones. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linn.). The Night Heron. Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gsl175 ¢ + 31-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla). Noted: Kutch: Bhuj environs; Kandla; Tuna; Lakhpat, etc. Gujarat: Baroda city and environs ; Kanewal (Cambay) ; Viramgam. Measurements : W B Tar. iE 1? 293 65 73 109 Resident. Not common and rather locally distributed. Crepuscular and nocturnal Breeding in Kutch during August and September in mixed heronries. Apparently breeds in Gujarat at other seasons also; | the specimen of March 31 had the oviduct distended and the largest ovarian follicles measured 2 mm. Ixobrychus sinensis [sinensis (Gmelin) ]. The Yellow Bittern. Not met with by the Surveys. Butler (S.7., v: 216) found two or three pairs breeding in bulrushes by a small tank at Milana near Deesa during the rainy season—August 1876. 5 taurus stellaris rstellaris (Linn The Bittern. Not met with by the Surveys. Butler (S./, iv : 24, 1876) records it Family CICONIIDAE : Storks. Ibis leucocephalus leucocephalus (Pennant). The Painted Stork. No specimen collected. - The commonest stork in the area, found in ones and twos or large _ gatherings at jheels, ponds, marshes etc., and sometimes also at streams and tidal creeks. Breeds in August vA Beebe in large colonies on trees standing in or near water, usually in a mixed heronry. Feeds in shallow _ water, jabbing the partly open bill into the ooze, sometimes right up to the gape. One leg is raised and kicked forward, a little behind and to one side of the bill, and deliberately shaken with a raking motion, to drive the _ quarry into the mandibles. From time to time one wing is flicked open 3 in an attempt to stampede the ‘ frozen’ quarry ; and that this manoeuvre _ usually succeeds is apparent from the bird’s subsequent movements—the sudden snapping of the mandibles, jerking upwards of the head and swallowing. oad ples __ Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.). The Openbilled Stork. No specimen collected. Not uncommon, throughout the area as a whole, but not abundant, and subject to considerable local movements dependent on the monsoon. | Seen i in twos and threes or small flocks at jheels and marshes. Ciconia episcopa episcopa (Bodd.). The Whitenecked Stork. . Specimen collected: Gujarat: sp212 $ 7-3-48 Chinchli (Surat - Dangs) ; Gs644 #1 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) 2 Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Dediapada - (Rajpipla) ; Mahal, Galkund, Mheskatri (Surat Dangs). Measurements : WwW B tar: at 20'S 515-519 163-171. 184-185 162-190 Iris brown; bill black, red on culmen and gonys, at tips of both _ mandibles and along commissure ; legs and feet lake red. Resident in Gujarat. Not uncommon, but sparse and local. Singly or pairs at ponds and ditches, etc. Roosts at night up in branches of tall _ trees. Stomach of one contained larvae of water beetles and a fish 3” long. Not met with by the Kutch Survey though Lester records it _ ‘during the cold season and rains.’ Local Mahratti name Kardok. Ciconia ciconia ssp. The White Stork. __ Observed only on three occasions in Gujarat (January and March) at _Deesa (Palanpur) and in the Surat Dangs at Pimpri and Mheskatri—solos and parties of 3 or 4. Apparently an uncommon winter visitor. -Ciconia nigra (Linn.). The!lBlack Stork. Not observed by the Surveys. Lester records it in Kutch during ‘Ab cold weather. Butler (S.Z., Iv : 22-1876) noted one on a tank between } Ahmedabad and Deesa, and it may well occur in other parts of the area also in winter season. 386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xenorhynchus asiaticus [asiaticus (Lath.)]. The Blacknecked Stork. No specimen collected. p Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Bhuj environs; Anjar. Saurashtra: Dwarka (Okhamandal); Gujarat: Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Saiat (Kaira Dist.) ; Viramgam. | Resident. Sparse. Occasional solos at tanks, etc. On September 10 (1943—Kandla, Kutch) a bird was observed sitting on an empty but fresh nest on a mangrove tree-top amongst a mixed heronry on an islet in Kandla Creek. Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). The Adjutant. Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsf.). The Smaller Adjutant. Not met with by the Surveys. The late Sir Peter Clutterbuck, 1.F.s. reported seeing both species in Kutch during the winter of 1944/45, the former near Bhuj, the latter at Mandvi. Butler (S.7. iv : 21—1876) considered the former rare in northern Gujarat. He saw occasional solos and small parties of 3 to 8 birds (August and November) usually feeding with vultures at animal carcases, but ap- parently did not meet the Smaller Adjutant. Family PLATALEIDAE: Ibises, Spoonbill. Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). The White Ibis. Specimen collected : Gujarat: Gs548 $1 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.) Noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Bhuj and environs; Kandla Khavda; Dholovira (Khadir I), etc. Saurashtra: Mithapur (Okhamandal). Gujarat: Baroda district; Cambay district ; Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Viramgam ; Kharaghoda, etc. Measurements: W B Parr a 1d 381 185 Ds Bao ge br (from forehead feathers) Resident. Rather local, but in small numbers usually at tanks, etc. Breeding in mixed heronry of Painted Storks, cormorants etc., August- — September (Kutch). When probing into the bottom mud in shallow ~ water, the head is sometimes completely immersed momentarily. é Pseudibis papillosus (Temminck). The Indian Black Ibis. e Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl272 g'+ 16-4-46 Mahal (Surat | Dangs) ; Sb343 2 imm. 16-3-48 Mheskatri (Surat Dangs). Z Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Mandvi; Bhuj; Chobari (Bhachau Dist.); Saurashtra: Veraval (Junagadh); Kodinar; ete. Gujarat: Viramgam ; Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Radhan- pur. ; Measurements : W B Pat, T iL 401 152 78 190 Simon. 390 140 82:5 182 The female was a young bird in the brown plumage, except for the remiges and rectrices which were adult and freshly moulted, glistening Jlue-black. THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 387 Resident. Not uncommon. In family parties and flocks of up to 20 or so. Feeds in dry fallow fields etc., often far from water. Has accustom- ed roosts in large trees to which flocks repair nightly. Utters a loud, nasal, screaming cry of 3 or 4 notes resembling the Brahminy Duck’s. On November 5 (1945—Bodeli) a nest was found ca. 80 ft. up among the snags of cut-away leaves in the head of a palmyra palm, containing 3 . hard-set pale bluish green eggs. While one bird was incubating, its mate continued to fetch twigs and add them to the nest. Plegadis falcinellus [falcinellus (Linn.)|. The Glossy Ibis. No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Bhuj (March & April, 1944 and 1945); Gujarat; Viramgam and Kharaghoda (March 1946). Status uncertain. I cannot trace the source of Stuart Baker's statement (F.B.I., vi: 319) that it breeds in the Rann of Kutch, nor was I able to obtain supporting evidence. This locality has been subsequently omitted by him from ‘ Nidification ’ (iv: 440/1). On one occasion a flock of over 40 was observed feeding on the edge of a tank. The birds waded in up to the belly and often had their heads completely submerged. Platalea leucorodia [major Temm. & Schleg.)].. The Spoonbill. No specimens collected. Noted : Kutch : Bhuj and environs; Mandvi; Kandla; Chobari (Bhachau Dist.) etc. Saurashtra: Dwarka; Mithapur (Okhamandal); Gujarat: Viramgam ; Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Cambay town environs; Saiat (Kaira Dist.) ; Deesa (Palanpur); Kharaghoda etc. Resident. Common. Breeding in mixed heronries with egrets, cormo- rants etc., August-September (Kutch). Family PHOENICOPTERIDAE: Flamingos. Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas). The Flamingo. Specimens collected : Kutch: KS205 #11-9-43 Kandla. Saurashtra: 3 99 4-4-47 Mithapur, Okhamandal (coll. Devkar). Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nir (Pachham I., Great Rann); Mandvi; Pung Bet (Little Rann); Saurashtra: Dwarka (Okhamandal), Measurements : W B Rariz ah 1 jad. 464 134 324 167 a 22 ad. 393-410 116-126 261-284 130-140 Resident. Widely dispersed on jheels, brackish lagoons, salt pans and sea coast throughout the year and concentrating to breed on the Great Rann off Nir (Pachham Island) in vast numbers. The breeding season varies with the availability of requisite conditions. Normally it is September /October, but in 1945 nesting was at its height as late as March/April. The nest ‘ city ’ covered an area of about 100,000 square yards with an average density of 131 nests per hundred square yards. The number of adult birds present in this colony was estimated at 2,09,516 and the young 69,839, and the total population of flamingos including young and non-breeding birds concentrated in the area was 388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SS probably not less than half a million. For further details see JBNHS, : 45 (4) : 586-593. : Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffr.). The Lesser Flamingo, No specimens’ collected. Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Nir (Great Rann) ; Pung Bet (Little Rann); Saurashtra: Mithapur (Okhamandal). ; Presumably resident. Usually seen in small parties by themselves or in association with the larger species. Between 25 February and 2 March — 1946, enormous concentrations roughly estimated as close on a hundred thousand birds, with no admixture of ruber, were observed on the flat muddy expanse of the shallow Banas River near its mouth (opposite Dhutari Bet) in the Little Rann of Kutch. The species has so far not been found breeding within Indian limits, but there seems high probability of its doing so inthe Great or Little Rann. The gathering here included numerous birds in the brown post-juvenal plumage perhaps not more than ~ 2 or 3 months old, which could well be from this undiscovered breed- ing ground. The birds were feeding with great avidity in the bottom, ooze. A sample of mud collected at the actual spot, ca -25 cubic foot, when washed and strained produced only 3 red worm-like larvae ca. 5 mm. long each (Chivonomus ?). ‘The mud was soft and velvety to the touch, of a clayey texture with no grit in it at all nor any visible organic substances. It was reminscent of the oily sludge that collects in the bottom of the crankcase of a motor engine. This ooze is obviously extraordinarily rich in organic matter, since besides this immense gather- ing of Lesser Flamingos it afforded sustenance to hundreds of thousands of ducks and waders, all concentrated here prior to emigration. 2 Family ANATIDAE: Ducks, Geese and Swans. Anser anser [rubrirostris Swinhoe]. The Grey Lag Goose. No specimens collected. According to the late Maharao Shri Vijayarajji (VBVAS, 21: 678-9) the Grey Lag was a regular winter visitor to Chhari Dhandh (36 miles NW. of Bhuj) in past years and provided good sport. Owing to scarcity of rain and the consequent progressive desiccation since 1930 or thereabouts, the Dhand has apparently disappeared and with it the wintering geese. (Salim Ali: The Birds of Kutch, p. 158). : Butler (S./, iv: 26—1876) recorded it as rare in northern Gujarat. In the neighbourhood of Ahmedabad. ‘Very scarce. Seldom more than 1 or 2 shot in a season.’ (R. M. Simmons ca. 1932). Observed by Dr. H. C. Aldrich is December and January 1931/32 and 1939 at Pariej and Chitersumba (Kaira Dist.) Anser albifrons [albifrons (Scopoli)]. The Whitefronted Goose. No specimens collected. Evidently a rare winter straggler. Lester shot 3 birds in February 1892 on a dirty village tank near Anjar (Kutch). Anser indicus (Latham). The Barheaded Goose. No specimens collected. According to the late Maharao Vijayarajji — (JBNHS, 21: 678) arare winter visitor to Kutch. The surveys did not Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE Y 1. Portion of ‘Flamingo City — Great Rann of Kutch April 1945 2. Exhausted immigrating Grey Quail sheltering under old flamingo nest-mound, Great Rann of Kutch Photos by Author ‘ome across it in Gujarat or Saurashtra, nor has it been recorded by Hume or Butler or more recent observers. Cygnus bewickii jankowskii Alpheraky. Alpheraky’s Swan. Specimen: o? 8-4-1947 Bhuj, Kutch (lat. 23° 15’ N) coll. -_H.H. Maharao Madansinhji a. Measurements : W B Der (in flesh) o? 552 99 (from it 161 forehead feathers) Middle toe with claw 140 mm. One of a pair reported to have frequented Hamirsar tank, within the town of Bhuj, since 4 or 5 days prior to its being picked up disabled on _ the shore, presumably due to attack by a small crocodile. en ag 47 (3): 167). A unique record. In 1870 or thereabouts Stoliczka claimed to have seen some swans _ while crossing the Great Rann from Kutch to Pachham Island, (/.4.S.B., © xli, 1872). Later Hume (S./, iv ; 33, 1876) suspected that Stoliczka, who was known to be short sighted, had proLably mistaken pelicans in the distance for swans! ~ Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.). The Lesser Whistling Teal. No specimens collected. Resident. Fairly common locally, but not abundant. Breeding was in progress in Kutch during August (1943). 4 Dr. H. C. Aldrich of Nadiad found a nest in a hollow in a banyan tree near the village tank of Sandhana (Kaira Dist.) on 1 Sept. 1945, contain- ing 17 eggs believed to be the product of a single female. (/BNAS, 22. G10)... Dendrecygna bicolor (Vieillot’. The Larger Whistling Teal. a Not met with by the Surveys. Included in Palin’s original list of the birds of Kutch. ‘Ticehurst (Lozs 1923 :457) says ‘it is less common in Kutch also than the next species (D. javanica).’ I have not been able to trace any authentic records for Kutch or Gujarat, but there is of course no reason why it may not occur. _ Tardorna ferruginea (Vroeg). The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy ~ Duck. 4q No specimens collected. A rare and erratic winter visitor to Kutch; less uncommon in Gujarat, though never abundant. Usually in Bhs and threes; once a loose flock of about 20 (Mahi River, Dabka, Baroda Dist.) Always excessively wary and wide awake. Todorna todorna (Linn.). The Sheldrake. A very rare winter visitor, or vagrant. Col. C.B. O’Brien shot one a near Bhachau (Kutch) in 1921, and it has been obtained also in Saurashtra q (JBNHS, 26: 674). ; _ Anas angustirostris Menetries. The Marbled Duck. 3 M. K. S. Fatehsinhji shot one in Kutch in 1940, and it has also been Gg obtained in Saurashtra (/BNVHS, 38: 195). According to Butler (S.A, _ iv: 30—1876) though far from common in northern Gujarat, the species occurs on many of the tanks. It is fairly common in Sind. 390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52 Anas acuta acuta Linn. ‘The Pintail. Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; fairiy common and plentiful. Often flocks comprised more or less exclusively of drakes. Anas crecca crecca (Linn.). The Common Teal. , Specimens shot. Winter visitor; common and plentiful. One of the earliest ducks to arrive: first date August 28 (1943—Kutch). Often in large flocks. Enormous concentrations were observed on the shallow expanse of the Banas River near its mouth in the Little Rann of Kutch in early March (1946), together with many other species, notably the Gar- ganey, presumably just before emigration. Anas falcata Georgi. The Bronzecapped or Falcated Teal. Vagrant. A specimen was shot by the late Maharao Vijayarajji in Kutch on 7 February 1932 (JBN/TS, 35 : 899). Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster. The Spotbill or Grey Duck. Specimen collected : Kutch: Ks223 2 + 15-9-43 Anjar. Elsewhere noied: Kutch: Mandvi, Rudra Mata (Bhuj Dist.). Gujarat: Timbi (Baroda Dist.) ; Dakor & Saiat-(Kaira Dist.) ; Khara- ahoda. Measurements : W B ars T LQ 269 64 48 94 Resident. Breeds in Kutch during August and September. The specimen was laying. The largest ovarian eggs measured 19x15 mm. and the oviduct was greatly distended. Anas platyrhyncha Linn. The Mallard. No specimens collected. An uncommon but regular winter visitor ; rather more plentiful in abnormally cold winters. ‘ Confined to the reedier jheels’. (R. M. Simmons). Anas strepera Linn. The Gadwall. Specimens shot. Winter visitor. Common. Anas penelope Linn. The Wigeon. Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; fairly common and plentiful. Accord- ing to Lester it arrives in Kutch later than most other species of duck. Anas querquedula Linn. The Garganey or Bluewinged Teal. Specimens shot. Winter visitor; common and abundant. According to Lester it arrives in Kutch later than the Common Teal. It is also one of the latest to leave, and he records a party of 7 as late as May 6 (1897— JBNHS, 11 : 168). Spatula clypeata (Linn.). The Shoveler. Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs1047 2 20-3-46 Kharaghoda. Meastirements : W B Tar. T gS 236 75 ey 79 Winter visitor ; common and abundant. Also amongst the last ducks to leave. I have seen them in numbers till 24th April and Lester records 20 on a tank in Kutch as late as May 6 (1897—JBNZ'S, 11: 168). THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT Netta rufina (Pallas). The Redcrested Pochard. Noted in Gujarat at Patan (Mehsana Dist.). Only a couple, so presu- mably an uncommon winter visitor. Butler (S./., iv : 30—1876) writes of _ it as not very common in northern Gujarat, but occurring on most large tanks. Aythya ferina (Linn.). The Pochard or Dun Bird. Seen in small numbers in Kutch and Gujarat. Winter visitor. Fairly -common. Aythya nyroca (Giuldenstadt). The White-eyed Pochard: Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; common. Aythya fulgiula (Linn.). The Tufted Pochard. Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; fairly common, but its abundance varying from year to year. : Aythya marila marila (Linn.). The Scaup Duck. A rare vagrant. One was shot by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji near Bhavnagar (Saurashtra) on 22nd February 1935 (JBNAS, 38 : 195). Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). The Cotton Teal. : Specimens seen: Kutch: 2 29, winter 1937, Bhimasar Tank (Anjar Dist. Shot by M.K.S. Fatehsinhji & Sir G. Archer). ‘- Noted: Kutch: Bhuj (Humayun Abdualali); Gujarat: Harni _ (Baroda environs) Saiat (Kaira Dist.) ; Measurements : 2 92 W 151-160 ; Tail 62-64. a Hume (.S./., iv, 27) records it as occurring in ‘ Kattiawar ’. Resident in -smallnumbers. Also local migrant. Breeds July to September. 4 Sarkidiornis melanotus melanotus (Pennant). The Nukta or Comb ® Duck. : _ No specimens collected. a Noted: Kutch: Mandvi (Changdai tank) Rudra Mata (Devisar tank) of Bhuj environs; Gujarat: Pariej (Kaira Dist.); WVaghjipur (Mehsana _ Dist.) ; Champaner (Godhra Dist.) “9 Resident, in small numbers. According to Hume (S./, iv: 27) ~ ‘Common in Kathiawar’. Lester records it as breeding in Kutch during : the rains in holes in cliffs. Normally it nests in tree-holes. . Mergus albellus Linnaeus. The Smew. a Butler (S.Z., iv: 31-1876) saw it occasionally on some tanks in northern = Gujarat. He describes itaS very uncommon and excessively shy. It has not been recorded from Kutch or Saurashtra. te . Family ACCIPITRIDAE: Hawks Vultures etc. ke Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). The Blackwinged Kite. 4 Specimens collected ; Gujarat: Gs4l1 2 30-10-1945, Gs49 7, Gs50 — 31-10-45. Ajwa (Baroda Dist; \GSo71 og 21- 12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.) ; Gs639 4 18-12-45, Gs672 2 20-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; i cs820 Q 4-1-46 Radhanpur. Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mandvi; .. ‘ers a, = us 392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIET ep Jakhau ; Bhuj environs ; Bela Island Great Rann); Anjar ; Gagodar etc. 4 Saurashtra: Ghatwad (Kodinar); Kharaghoda; Gulkund (Surat — Dangs). ; Measurements : W B Tar. oo & 3A 270-276) a0 Dees 30-31, 120-1225. 4 aS 274-283 Deo 235 35-36 125-130 Fairly common, but sparse and local. Affects dry scrub-and-grass country in open cultivation and waste land. A colony hadits roostina “small leafy Pithecolobium saman tree in the compound of Ajwa Rest House (Baroda Dist., 30 October). Fifteen or more birds would converge on this from all points of the compass over the surrounding expanse of tall grass every evening at dusk. In fading light the wing action of an oncoming bird is ‘ angular’ and reminiscent ofa flying fox. Stomachs of specimens contained remains of field mice and rats. The gonads of es41, cs49 and Gs50 (30-31 October) were slightly enlarged, but not sufficiently to provide any indication of the breeding season. Pernis ptilorhynchus _ ruficollis Lesson. The Crested Honey Buzzard. Specimens collected. Kutch: Ks 330 2 3-3-1944 Bhuj; Gujarat: GS755 Q 30-12-45, Gs772 2 31-12-45, Gs823 2, Gs824 of, Gs825 ¢, 4-1-1946 Radhanpur ; Gs873 # 11-1-46, Gs901 #1 13-1-16 Deesa (Palanpur). Elsewhere noted: Balaram (Palanpur); Mahal (Surat Dangs). Measurements : W B Tar. sl 4dg 382-404 36-38 49-57 245-262 ee cad 400-445 38°5—42 55:-69 250-276 This series contains examples in every phase of coloration from dark, more or less uniform umber brown below (as in the dark form of Aguzdla vapax vindhiana) with broad brownish grey band in tail (anterior to the black subterminal band), to almost white below with broad or narrow dark brown streaks along the shafts of the feathers on the breast and under- parts, and wavy narrow bars and mottling of grey and brown in the tail. In this latter plumage the underparts resemble one phase of Wzeraétus pennatus, a bird of rather similar proportions. The deeper, stronger bill, — feathered legs and absence of scale-like feathers on lores, forehead and © cheeks, and the unbarred under aspect of the tail distinguishes the Booted ~ Eagle from the honey Buzzard in this comparable colour phase. a In some of the Gujarat specimens the whitish underparts are barred with broken brown bands; in others the underparts are brown similarly — cross-barred with white. The dark brown shaft streaks are present in © both phases. Whether any of my specimens belong to the typical race of — Java or to the Siberian oxzentalis it is not possible to determine for want of suitable comparative material. It would appear that wing size and — y(t x 100) W ‘ tail-wing index are the ultimate criteria between the races. — The tail-wing index of the specimens ranges between 62 and 64.8, there- — fore conforming with Stresemann’s dictum! that the tail-wing index of vuticolizs is usually under 65. : 1 Archiv tir Naturgeschichte, 1940 : 137-193. I find, however, that determination of the races satisfactorily with any degree of confidence is by no means a simple matter. Honey Buzzards were common in the Radhanpur area during the last week of December 1945 and the first week of January 1946. A congregation of 8 or 10 birds roosted in large neem and other trees in Jorawar Bagh on the outskirts of the town, and others similarly in the compound of Lalbagh Palace, within municipal limits. It is just possible that all 3 - races, or at least one other besides rzficoll7s, were represented in these - gatherings. My notes show that of the 3 specimens collected on 4-1-1946, _ two with many narrow cross-bars in the tail were also very fat, whereas the third which had the typical broad grey-and—black banded tail of vuticollts was not. The same was noted in the rest of the specimens : birds with narrow tail bars were fat; those with the broad bands lean, suggesting that the fat birds belonged to the migratory Palaearctic species. The call-note uttered as the birds flew about was a rather kitelike long- _ drawn whistling whee-cew. Presumably it was also this same call that was once heard during night in the Surat Dangs subsequently, and if it can be confirmed that Pesnzs sometimes does call during the night then the mys- terious ‘owl’ referred to in my Central India Ornithological Survey Report (JBNAZS, 41; 475) was probably no other than this species. Milvus milvus (Linn). The Red Kite. ' No specimen obtained. Over 50 of these birds collected for scraps in the neighbourhood of my camp on Pung Bet (near Adesar, Little Rann) Kutch (March 1945) where several specimens of wild ass for the British Museum were being skinned. This kite has not hitherto been recorded from Indian limits, but close examination through glasses, several days running, left no doubt whatsoever of its identity. The overall rust-brown coloration with paler (whitish) head, dark-streaked brown breast, the very bright rufous tail and white underwing patch were quite diagnostic. The squealing whistle was similar to the Pariah Kite’s, but shriller. It is probable that the Red Kite is a regular winter visitor to Kutch but has been overlooked, though its deeply forked rufous tail would seem s sufficiently distinctive. Milvus migrans govinda Sykes. The Common Pariah Kite. Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs234 9 + 12-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs913 g’ 13-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); GslU81 2 +4 21-3-46 Kharaghoda _. Measurements : W B 7 bare T Ad: oe 458 37 53 290 4 - Acommon resident in Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat. Usually about wi , q ea. : FE _ towns and villages and herdsmen’s encampments, and wherever the pros- pects of refuse and garbage are promising. Breeding from September to _ end March. _Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert). The Becta Kite. Specimens collected: Gujarat: G@s375 ? 23-11-45 Dabka (Baroda 3 _ Dist.). Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Anjar rey | JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCTETY, Vol. Gujarat: Ajwa, Bodeli (Batoda Dist.) ; Balaram (Palanpar) ; -Juna ay pipla ; Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; Mahal (Surat Dangs). Not common, but usually present on the larger rivers and streams. Breeding was in pie during April. Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temm. & faeces The Indian Shikra. Specimens collected: Kutch: xs69 df 16-8-43, Ks70 9+ 17-8-43° Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Gujarat: Gs77 2 1-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs179 § 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs306 2 19-11-45, Gs357 2 + 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs390 $ 27-11-45, Gs445 of 1-12-45, Gs497 2 6-12-45 Cambay town environs; Gs914 Q 14-1-45 Deesa (Palanpur); sbD39 Q 26-2-48 Galkund ; sp47 9 27-2-48 Malegaon; sp129 oJ 2-3-48 Galkund; sp160 #1 5-3-48 Pandwa; sp139 2 3-3=48 Galkund ; spd295. ¢' 14-3-48 Mahal; sp390 2 20-3-48 Sarwar (sp series = Surat Dangs). Measurements : W B bar T 738 179-206 18°5-21 © 50-54 - 137-166 8 29 206-222 2I5—23 51-55 160-175 The commonest of the smaller hawks. Affects wooded country — generally. Its favourite haunts are groves of trees in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation. General moult in August and also in March— body, rectrices, remiges. No direct evidence of the breeding season was obtained, though Lester gives it as March/April for Kutch. Stomachs examined contained remains of skinks, large insects and small birds. Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell). The Asiatic Sparrow-Hawk. Specimens collected: Gujarat: @s441 3 30-11-45 Cambay town environs; GS1171 2 31-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla); Gsl3ll # 21-4-46. Galkund (Surat Dangs). Measurements : EN