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cies ~ JOURNAL ( OF ° THE
- ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

fe Published hooves containing | Original Papers and

anches of Pure and Applied Zoology
aes Bree per Volume of Two Issues :
Rs. 22/- Foreign; Rs. 20/- Inland.
| A few bak numbers ae aio avalabls |
served for adve tsements at rates available from

e Mus staan of the Indian Museum, Fauna of India (new volumes), 3
f] “ce ad etna of «fy pg fhe Inn Hemintnogt
Lae eae erao, could abe now (ie sa on Office of

at a eA:

6 coloured plates depicting 22: pug es, and 22 | in mono-

(to members Rs. 26)s0h

_ THe Bompay Narurat History Society

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 33, NO. 1

PAGE

“Two BITTERNS IN A PENANG MARSH, PART II, By Loke Wan‘ Tho (With
1 coloured and 4 black & white plates) bss seh wat 1

_A Note on Afpanieles flavipes CAM., A BRACONID PARASITE OF THE CHOLAM
StEM Borer, Chilo zonellus Swinu. By K.C. Chandy, M.a., Assoc.
IARI. (With 1 text figure) ee Sa Pa =, 6

_A BoTANICAL ExcurSION TO NoRtTH KANARA, BOMBAY STATE, IN May
1954. By H. Santapau, S.J., F.N.Ie «se abe a3 ae 10

-SomE BrrRDS FROM NORTH-WESTERN NEPAL. By Col. D. G. Lowndes.
(With a sketch map) abn oe ans ot Le 29

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN. By Daya Krishna, p.8HIL.
(Alld.), PH.D. (Cantab.), F.z.S., and Ishwar Prakash (With 4 fext-
figures) wn aes zh wes nae ae 38

_NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE HEADWATERS OF THE BHAVANI
RIVER, SouTH INpIA. By S. Rajan ... me 13. at 44

“Brrp MIGRATION AND FOWLING IN AFGHANISTAN. By S. A. Akhtar.
(With a map) Res aise aes eee ae 49

_A New Polygala From SoutH Inpia. By SS. K. Mukerjee (With a
plate) odb Pp 60K 500 B00 54

“More NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY. By Desiré2
Proud aa OD ae cae e's sy, 57

THE FUNCTION OF ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS IN THE PRESERVATION OF WILD
LIFE. By E. P. Gee, M.a.,C.M.Z.S. (With 4 plates) ih 79

-Bronomics oF Uventius echinus Dist. (HZMIPTERA-HETEROPTERA :
TINGIDAE) AN IMPORTANT PEST OF BRINJAL (Solanum melongena L.)
IN NORTH GUJARAT. By R. C. Patel, M.sc. (Agri.) and H. L. Kulkarny,
M.Sc. (With 2 plates) wee We on he 86

“Some NortES ON THE RICE GALL-FLY, Pachidiplosis oryzae (W.-M.). By
Dr. M. Q. Khan, m.sc., PH.D. (LOND.), D.I.c. and D. V. Murthy, prp.
AGRI. a sok

oes bee SS ax 97

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA—ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1953 ON THE
SOUTHERN REGION. By Y. R. Ghorpade ane 500 ce) 10G

_REVIEWS :—
1, The Seals and the Curragh (L.F.) eco 580 seed 0
2. Someof my Animals (L.F.) of ate so HO
3. Introduction to the Birds of Jamaica (S.A, he ry , BN oT
4, The Fruit, the Seed and the Soil (A.J.A.) ie Be dis)
5. Birds of the Sudan (H.A.) a3 oo ae ao ND
4. Nature Parade (H.A.)... ae wo oe

li CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53, NO. 1—(contd.)

7. Progress of Zoology in India during the Years 1938-1950 (E,G.S.).
8. The Annals of Zoology, Voi. 1 (1) (E.G.S.) 56 oe
9. Living Fossils (J.C.D.) 506

10.. The Wild Flowers of Kuwait and Bahrain (H. ‘Saraiacea)

11. The Book of Indian Birds (B. Biswas)

12. Some Beautiful Indian Trees (H. Santapaw)

13. Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs (H. Santapen)

soo

eon

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1, The Abominable Snowman. Editors (p.121). 2. Remarkable Re-
covery of a Panther from Injury. Editors (With a photo) (p. 122). 3. Nema-
todes and Fledgebog Mortality. Ishwar Prakash & S. C. Sharma (p. 123).
4, Tufted Deer in Burma (Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards). U Tun
Yin (With @ photo) (p. 123). 5. The Indian Elephant (2. maximus) :
Early growth gradient and intervals between calfing, E. P. Gee (With
4 plates) (p. 125). 6. The Rosy Pastor in the Bellary Area. M. Krishnan
(p. 128). 7. Nesting of House Sparrows in Trees. A.S.Thyagaraju, M.A.
(p. 129). 8. The Courtship (? Display of the Blackbacked Indian Robin
{ Sazicoloides fulicata (Linn.)] A.S. Thyagaraju; m.a. (p. 129). 9. Occur-
rence of the Whitewinged Black Tern (Chlidenias leucopierus Temm.) in
Saurashtra. Shivrajkumar (p. 130). 10. Breeding of Sarus Crane [Awéz-
gone a. antigone (Linn. )] in Captivity. R. K. Lahiri (p. 130). 11. Wilson’s
Petrel [(Oceanites oceanicus (Kuhl)] in Indo-Ceylon Waters, with special
reference to the 1954 Southward Migration. W. W: A. Phillips (p. 132).
12. Some New Bird Records in the Palni Hills, South India. Br. A. Novarro
(p. 133). 13. Extension of Range of the Lizard Cnemaspis kandiana
(Kelaart), Humayun Abdulali (p. 134). 14. Pythons. C. J. T. Wrenicke
(p. 134). 15. A ‘White’ Python. R. K. Lahiri (With a photo) (p. 135).
16. On the Allocation of the ‘name Coluber platurinus Shaw. Alan E.

PAGE
113i:
114
115
116.
117
118
118

Leviton (p. 136). 17. Fisheries of certain ‘Tropical Fishes in natural cold.

waters of India. S. L. Hora (p. 138). 18. Some interesting features of
the Aquatic Fauna of the Kashmir Valley. S. L. Hora, G. M. Mulik
and H. Khajuria (p. 140). 19. The Royal Cells of the Termite Odonto-
termes obésus with unusually large openings. H. S. Vishnoi (Wzth one photo)

(p. 143). 20. The Butterfly Zhecla triloka Hannyngton (Lepidoptera-

Lycaenidae). W. H. Evans (p. 144). 21. Adaptive Coloration and Camou-
flage of the Common Membracid (‘Tree-Hopper’) Ofiuotus oneratus

Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota). Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 145).

22. Incidence of Mango Flower Gallsin Bombay Karnatak. H. L. Kulkarny
(With a photo) (p. 147). 23. Swarming of Long-horned Grasshoppers
(Mecapoda elongata) Humayun Abdulali (p.148). 24. Leeches. W.R.
Sykes (p. 148). 25. Occurrence of the Freshwater Medusae, Limnocnida
Indica Annandale, in Thunga River near Shimoga Town, Mysore State.
H. D. R. lyengar and K. Venkatesh (p. 151). 26. A New Weed for Ceylon.
A. H. G. Alston (p. 151). 27. A Note on the Flora of Mirzapur
(U.P.). J. G. Srivastava (p. 152). 28. Some Edible and Medicinal Plants
from East Nepal. M. L. Banerji (p.153).. 29. An abnormal condition of
fruiting in Banana. G.S. Srivastava (p..155). 30. Abnormal branching
‘and fasciation of the Inflorescence Axis in Musa paradisiaca Linn. R. Rama-
swami (With a plate) (p. 156). 31. Laurentia Longiflora Endl., a new
record for Bombay State. H. Santapau, sy. (With a plate) ‘(p. 156).
32. A Vasculum for.the Mountaineer. M.L. Banerji.(W2th two.figures)
(p. 158). 33. Gleanings (p. 160).

NOTES AND NEWS. ... let oe ade ft SOR

162°

Journ. BomBay NAT. HIsT. Soc. PLATE I

Kodachrome 5 ~ Loke Wan Tho
The Chestnut Bittern
(Ixobrychus cimnamomeus)
Male

JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1955 . VoL. 53 No. 1

TWO BITTERNS IN A PENANG MARSH

BY
LOKE Wan THO

Part I]
(With 1 coloured and 4 black & white plates)

(Continued from Vol. 52, p. 691)
Tue CueEstnut BitTERN (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus)

During the weekend in August when the Yellow Bittern had been
successfully photographed, I had noticed in the same area a number of
Chestnut Bitterns whose spectacular plumage—of a colour better des-
cribed, as ‘chestnut’ than ‘cinnamon’—had made them more conspicuous
than their cousins. Less shy and retiring, they could be admired as they
stood in the open in some patch of the ricefield where the Scirpus.
grass had been cut. Not until an intruder came really close did
they take wing, and then it was that the bright brown-red of their
plumage could best be admired.

Most authorities speak of the bird being crepuscular and shy, but
Smythies makes an interesting observation:

‘This species is neither crespuscular nor shy in the breeding
season, when it becomes conspicuous and flies about in broad daylight,
but during the rest of the year it is secretive and not often seen.”’

Smythies goes on to quote Stanford who ‘once watched a male
bird displaying at midday, flying in front of the female with very
slow, stiff beats of the wings, which reminded me of the nuptial

* Note: One of the Malay names for the Chestnut Bittern is ‘burong gelam’,
i.e., bird of the gelam tree (Melaleuca leucodendron). What connexion our bittern
has with the familiar tree with the beautiful white bark, it is difficult to imagine,
unless perhaps that Melaleuca grows best near water, in marshy places close to
the sea. Had the word been ‘kelam’, instead of ‘gelam’, the meaning would have
been perfectly clear: ‘kelam’, according to Wilkinson's Malay Dictionary means
‘darkness, gloom or obscurity’.

HOV 1 5 195%

Y} JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68

flight of a long-eared owl or a greenfinch’., Stanford also added that
the Yellow, Bittern sometimes behaves in the same way. -

The Chestnut Bittern is ‘widespread in the oriental region, and also
in north-eastern Asia’. It is a bird of the swamplands, but may be
found up to quite surprising heights above sea-level: thus, in north-
eastern Burma, it has been recorded at 6,000 feet, and Sdlim Ali saw
it in the vicinity of Periyar Lake, Travancore, at about 3,000 feet.

Nests are not easily tound, unless one is prepared to go tramping
through the marshes. There is a Malay belief that because the nest
is so difficult to find anyone who wears it on his head becomes invi-
sible: (See Chasen, ‘Birds of Singapore Island’, page g1). I re-
solved, however, that | would try to photograph the bird, not only
in black-and-white, but if possible also in colour. Mr. Cairns once
more generously offered to help, and in due course, the eagerly-
awaited news came that a nest had been found. As soon as I couid
disengage myself from the office, I flew to Penang, arriving at just
after 11 a.m. on the morning of Friday, September 17th. We went
straight out to the reed-beds at Ginting: on the way, we picked up
two soap-boxes, one for me to sit on, and the other to serve as a
table for my heavy camera case.

The first nest we inspected contained four young birds, already
so large that they clambered out of the nest at our approach, and
in so doing got themselves thoroughly wet by falling into the water.
It would have been useless to attempt photography here, so we tried
another nest which was situated about 40-50 yards away. In it were
four eggs, very clean and white, and so fresh that they looked pale
pink in the sunshine: the last egg of the clutch, Mr. Cairns told
me, had been laid only the day betore.

All three of the nests which I have had the good fortune to see
in Penang were of identical construction, consisting of a heavy flat-
tened pad of reeds and grass, mixed ‘with a few slender sticks and
rootlets. None was placed more than 12 inches above the level of
the water. Other writers have, on the whole, found the same thing,
but there are a few records of unusual sites. Stuart Baker quotes
Colonel Butler’s description of a nest in Belgaum which, consisting
of ‘a tolerably substantial pad of short pieces of coarse, damp sedge,
lined with pieces of dry grass, was built upon a small plot or rising
ground in the middle of an inundated cornfield. The island was
covered with grass about a foot from the ground, and some 9g or
10 feet from the water’s edge’. La Touche, writing about the birds
of Eastern China, refers to a pair of birds at Mengtsz where they were
found to ‘breed in the Commissioner of Customs’s garden in a rose-
arbour, the nest being placed several feet from the ground, and
the young. hatch out about the middle of June’.

Stuart Baker was of the opinion that the Chestnut Bittern is
bolder than the Yellow Bittern, and speaks of having found its nest
in the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta. Smythies, too, found a nest
in the Botanical Gardens at Maymyo, in Burma.

Profiting from the experience gained on my previous visit when
J had failed to obtain colour pictures of the male Yellow Bittern
because I had used only one camera at a time, I had now brought

fourN. Bompay Nar. Hrsr. Soc. Parcel

Rall and the hide set up in position at the Chestnut Bittern’s nest.

The twin mounting for the cameras to enable black-and-white and
colour photographs to be taken simultancously,
(Photos: W. T. Loke)

)

STNUT BITTERN, (FEMALE

HE

C

Journ. Bomsay Nar. Hisr. Soc.

ack.”

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ils on he

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(Photos: W. T. Loke)

TWO BITTERNS IN A PENANG MARSH 3

with me a new gadget, made by my assistant Hwang, which allowed
two cameras to be used together on the same tripod. The cameras—
a quarter-plate Speed Graphic and a Leica with a 20 cm. lens—were
each mounted on its own pan-tilt head, and we had feared that their
combined weight might have proved too much for the single tripod,
but, fortunately, it remained rock-steady. How successful I was in
its use, the story which follows will tell.

Inside the hide, it was fiendishly hot. The sun poured like molten
lead out of an unclouded sky. This was not only untortunate for
my own comfort, but it caused the reeds to cast heavy shadows which
lay like black ribbons across the nest.

The female began creeping stealthily back soon after my helpers
had left me: a long neck rose up behind the nest, and a yellow eye
looked fixedly in my direction. Unable to detect any suspicious
movement, she lowered her head, and with deliberate steps moved
quietly and stealthily forward. Her yellow-green feet made only a
faint splash in the water, and the body, laterally compressed to faci-
litate her passage through the reeds, rustled them so gently that
I could not be sure if 1 had really heard a sound, or had merely
imagined it. Before long she stepped on to the nest which was not
more than 8 inches above the level of the water. The shutters of
the two cameras clicked almost simultaneously, but the bird paid
no heed, and it was only when I made too much noise tearing off
the paper tongue of my filmpack that she rose and slipped into
hiding: she soon came back and I exposed one film after another
in quick succession. .

The chestnut back of the female made a sharp contrast with the
bright colour of the underparts. Down the middle of her breast
there was a heavy streak, dark brown in colour, and on either side
were finer streakings that looked like brown thread stitched on
coarsely. As in the case of the Yellow Bitterns, the Chestnut Bittern
had a patch of dark feathers with pale brown edges on each side
of the breast. A similar patch was later noticed also in the male.

The female bird never became reconciled to the noise of paper
being torn from the filmpack, and after some two hours it was clear
that she was becoming more and more nervous, and so I decided
to leave her in peace. The photographic session ended at 4 p.m.
without my having had a single glimpse of the male. The pictures
of the female, both in colour and black-and-white, turned out passably
well, but would have been better had the fierce sun not laid black
weals on her back. .

The next morning I returned to the same nest to try and get a
picture of the cock bird which I hoped would by then be taking his
turn at incubation. Within minutes of my helpers leaving me, there
was a faint sound of dripping water and of a ‘noiseless noise’ within
the reeds. Again, a long neck stretched up cautiously and its owner
took a deep look at the hide; the examination proving satisfactory,
the bird began to approach the nest and would have eventually step-
ped on if, at that very moment, Ralli had not returned for his “parang”

* ‘parang’ (Malay) = long-bladed knife.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83

which he had left behind on a nearby bund. Like a flash, the bird
disappeared. The interruption was doubly unwelcome because I had
seen enough to realise that it was the male who had shown himself.
Fortunately, no great harm was done, and before long the routine
of inspection was repeated.

I waited for the male to use the same back-door route as the female.
All the grass in front of the nest had been cut only that morning—
indeed, we had arrived in the nick of time to prevent further damage —
and when the bird stepped out into the open and clambered on the
nest from the front, the action was totally unexpected. The male
had evidently been in the habit of approaching the nest by a different
route to that of his mate, and now, despite the lack of cover, force-
of-habit made him take the same path. However, it was clear that he
felt uncomfortable, and on subsequent approaches he adapted himself
to the changed circumstances and walked on, either from the side, or
from the back. The bird had, throughout, moved deliberately, and
with almost complete absence of noise: only once did he stumble, when
a reed gave way under him, and the sound it made in the silence was
like the crash of a tree falling in the jungle.

During the time when the Chestnut Bittern had been making his
quiet approach to the nest, a pair of Rails (Rallus striatus) were
behaving in quite the opposite manner. ‘They chased each other through
the reeds, making loud trilling sounds as they did so. I got a glimpse
of one bird as it slipped through the grass in front of the hide; the
upper part of the body was dark grey, and the head and bill a lovely
shade of red.

The Rails were not the only visitors. A young Yellow Bittern also
came very close to my hide, so close indeed that a quick movement
I made inside sent it scuttling away. Looking dapper in shiny new
feathers, it flicked its little stump of a black tail constantly up and
down like a waterhen. The long, thin neck was frequently stretched
out, and the tiny crest, in which black feathers were already showing,
was often raised. It never left the area and was my constant companion.

A Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler (Prinia flaviventris), too, appeared
within the arc of my vision. It sometimes came so close that I was
able to admire the yellow wash on its vent, and the white rmg round
the red eye. It looked handsome in a dress of new feathers, and
every reed was assiduously searched for insects.

Finally, another bird of equally fine feather, made a quick visit:
this was a Fantail Warbler (Cisticola) whose noisy clicking I had
heard in the distance all morning.

I noticed that the Chestnut Bitterns, unlike their cousins the
Yellow Bitterns, did not stretch out their necks in imitation of a
reed whenever danger threatened, but instead preferred to crouch.

The cock bird was more richly coloured than the hen. He, too,
had a chestnut line down the centre of the breast, but the “perforated
lines’ on either side were missing. The base of the mandibles, as
also the bare skin in front of the eye, was a beautiful rosy red. The
culmen was black, and the rest of the bill a light orange-yellow. I
was glad the double mounting on the tripod was working satis-
factorily, thus enabling me to obtain a series of coloured pictures,

ouRN. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

CHESTNUT BITTERN, (MALE)

Male and eggs.
(Photos: W. T. Loke)

PLATE [V

4
Ae

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc

)

MALE

T BitTERN

STNL

CHE

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93

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.

urning Ove

T

Photos

if
\

TWO BITTERNS IN A PENANG MARSH 5

in addition to the black-and-white. The bird showed little sign of
fear, and I was able to take a large number of pictures. Instead of
the harsh sunshine of the previous day, light clouds on this occasion
obscured the sun sufficiently to give me a lovely soft illumination.
Later in the morning, heavier clouds spread over the sky, until, at
noon, rain began to fall. I stayed long enough to obtain pictures
of the rain drops lying like globules of quicksilver on the back of
the bird, and then it was time to gather together. my equipment,
and make a dash for it before the full fury of the storm broke.

When I went to Penang, quite apart from playing truant from
my office, I was also playing truant from my job as a committee
member of the Singapore Turf Club, and by missing the Gold Cup
race had, as it were, traded 16 horses for 2 Chestnut Bitterns, so,
good readers, I must leave you to judge—do you not think that, by
getting the bird, I had also got the best of the bargain?

A NOTE ON APANTELES FLAVIPES CAM., A- BRACONID
PARASITE OF THE CHOLAM STEM BORER,
CHILO ZONELLUS SWINH.

~

BY
K. C. CHANDY, M.A., ASSOC. I.A.R.L,
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore

(With one text figure)

INTRODUCTION

Chilo zonellus Swinh. is a serious stem borer of Cholam (Andropogon
sorghum,) and occasionally of maize in South India. It is fatal to the plant
in the early stages of the crop, but only retards its growth in oldér stages,
When the old plants are attacked at the base they are also liable to be
adversely affected by wind which breaks the stem at the point weakened
by the tunnel bored inside. ‘The incidence of the borer in the sorghum
fields of the Government Central Farm, Coimbatore, is on an average 45-
60% of the plants. Chemical control of the stem borer is difficult, and
very little work has been carried out so far to find suitable parasites for
controlling the pest. The present investigations have been conducted to
study the incidence and the breeding habits of its predominant parasite
and to examine the scope for its utilisation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The sorghum borers were collected from the infested plants grown in
the Central Farm area of the Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore,
for about two years, and regular observations were made on the incidence
of the parasite on the borers. All the borers and parasite cocoons
collected from the infested sorghum stems were kept in suitable jars for
the emergence of the parasites. Apanteles flavipes Cam. was noted to be
the most predominant parasite. Other parasites such as Svtenobracon sp.,
a Muicrobracon sp. and a Bethylid were also noted though in negligibie
numbers. It was found that 5-35% of the borers collected were para-
sitized by A. flavipes. The maximum percentage of parasitization by
Apanteles was noted towards the last week of June and the beginning of
July in the 1948 crop, and towards the beginning of March in the
1949 crop.

Most of the earlier workers have noted this parasite on sugar cane
borers. H. 8. Pruthi (1934) and Subramanyam, T. V.(1939) have noted
the parasite on Argyria sticticrasbis H. and Diatraea venosata Wk.
Moutia (1936) and Jepson, W. F. (1938 and 1939) have noted it on
Diatraca venosata and D. mauriciella Wk. respectively. Cheriyan, M. C.
and Subramanyam, C. K. (1942) have recorded the parasite on D. venosata
and Narayanan, E. S. (1936) has recorded it on A. sticticraspis, D. venosata
and Chilo zonellus at Pusa.

NATURE AND ACTIVITIES OF THE PARASITE

The adult is a small black insect about 2-2°5 mm. in length. This
species is described by D. 8S. Wilkinson (1928-29) in the reference cited.
‘The males can be identified from females easily by the longer antennae.

A NOTE ON APANTELES FLAVIPES CAM. ¥/

The adults get attracted to the infested sorghum stalks and enter the
lumen made by the borer to get at the host. For observing the actual
process of oviposition, a sorghum stem with a borer partly exposed outside
was keptina glassjar. A few adult parasites were introduced into the
jar which was covered up with a muslincloth. The female oviposited by
alighting on the body of the borer and finishing the operation within one
or two seconds with a thrust of the ovipositor into the body. ‘The host
seemed to be irritated during the process of oviposition and was trying to
get away from the parasite by boring further into the sorghum stem. All
the female parasites made an attempt to oviposit on the only host
available. So itis probable that in nature too a single host may serve as
host for egg laying to a number of parasites. From external characteristics
it was not possible to identify parasitized caterpillars. But it was observed
that the parasitized borers feed more voraciously than the healthy ones.
The eggs were noted by dissecting out a caterpillar immediately after
the parasites had oviposited. The egg (Fig. a) is ovoid with one end

ad b

a ee BNL
ee . s C
>,
CReR See hee wxthoret’ era © .
* TOR Ra tery Re,
a 14a nen wf ASS
‘

. TEx? FIGURE

Life History Stages of Apanteles flavipes Cam.

a. Eggs (x 56) zs
b. Larva (x 10)

ce. A cocoon (x 9)

d. A cocoon mass (x 2)

e. Adult (x 25)

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

tapering to a point and the broader end with a lid-like covering. It is
almost transparent. The larva is pale white with a more or less transparent
body. A fairly grown up larva is 2°25 mm. long and 0°5 mm. broad at
the caudal vesicle which is the broadest region. ‘The caudal vesicle is a
characteristic appendage of Braconid larvae, and it serves as a respiratory
organ. When fully grown, the larvae come out of the body of the host
and pupate in a cluster of cocoons and are usually found inside the lumen
of the stem bored by the host.

After the emergence of the parasite larvae prior to pupation from the
host-body, the host survives for some time but is very sluggish and it also
has brown spots all over the body. The host does not feed after this
and dies a lingering death within about five days. A parasitized host
never pupates.

TABLE I.

*Broop Stupy oF Apanteles flavipes CAM.

Total No. of

er
|

15-6-48 Ist brood 24 | 21 3 88%
1-7-48 2nd brood 43 | 36 7 84 %
20-7-48 | 3rd brood 36 | 31 5 73%
8-4-49 4th brood 18 16 2 89%
29-4-49 5th brood 37 36 1 97 %
20-5-49 | 6th brood 40 | 34 6 85%

The pupal period is 3-5 days. Each brood of parasitic larvae emerg-
ing from the body ofa single host and pupating, consists of from 20 to
45 cocoons. The majority of these give emergence to adults excepting
for a few spoilt cocoons. About 75—97% of the total adults emerged
are females (Table 1). In the laboratory, aduits fed on sugar solution
lived from 3-7 days.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Apanteles flavifes Cam. is the most predominant parasite of Chilo
zonellus at Coimbatore, though the present incidence of the parasite in
nature is not sufficient to control the sorghum stem borer early enough
to avoid its damage to the crop. The higher percentage of females in
the progeny should serve as a valuable factor for the parasite to increase
the chances of its survival by at least some of the females finding a suitable
host to parasitize within the limited period of their longevity. A suitable
method of propagating the parasite on a large scale in the laboratory on
some easily procurable host has to be found out first. Utilising the

nr - a —————— ee

* A group of parasites emerging from a single host is reckoned as a brood,

A NOTE ON APANTELES FLAVIPES CAM. 9

parasites by liberating them in the sorghum fields during the early stages of
the pest incidence might serve to control the pest toa great extent. Preli-
minary experiments made by the author to breed the parasite on Corcyra
cephalonica Staint, and Spodopiera mauritia B. were not successful.

SUMMARY

Investigation regarding the incidence of parasites on Chilo zonellus,
the sorghum borer, revealed that Afanteles flavipes was the most predo-
minant one in nature. The life history and habits of the parasite have
been studied under laboratory conditions. Preliminary experiments for
the mass propagation of the parasite on two easily procurable hosts were
not successful.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to Sri K. P. Anantanarayanan,
Government Entomologist, Coimbatore, for going through the manuscript
and giving valuable suggestions. Jam also grateful to Sri M. C. Cheriyan,
ex-Entomologist and Sri E. R. Gopala Menon, Lecturer in Entomology,
Coimbatore, for the encouragement and suggestions given.

REFERENCES

1. Cherian, M. C. and Subramanyam, C. K. (1942): Studies on Diéatraea
venosata Wik. A pyralid pest of sugarcane in South India. Madras Agricultural
Journal 30, No. 2. 1942.

2. Jepson, W. F. (1938): Entomology Section Report. Rep. Dep. Agric.
Mautitius.

3. Moutia, A. (1936): Entomology Section Report.~ Rep. Dep. Agric.
Mauritius 1936.

4, Narayanan, E. S. (1936): Importance of the study of Hymenopterous para-
sites in India with notes on the bionomics of some of the important parasites found
in Pusa. Proc. Ind. Sc. Cong. 1936.

5. Pruthi, H. S. (1936-1937) : Report of the Imperial Entomologist Sci.’ Repor.
Inst. Agri. Res. Pusa. 1934 and ’35 and 1935 and ’36. > iret

6. Subramanyam, T. V. (1939) : Sugarcane borers and their control in Mysore
State. Jour. Mys. Agric. Exptl. Union 1939, ee ;

7. Wilkinson, D.S, (1928-1929) : A revision of the Indo-Australian species of
the genus Apanteles (Hym. Bracon) Part! Bull. Ent. Res. 19: 79-105.

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA,
BOMBAY STATE, IN MAY 1954

BY
H, SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I.
Chief Botanist,
Botanical Survey of India

[NERO D Ue TD LON

In May 1954 the writer and a party of friends spent some three
weeks touring in North Kanara; these pages consist mainly of the diary
of this excursion. The party consisted of Dr. F. A. Kincl representing
Syntex S. A. of Mexico; Dr. R. P. Patil, the Forest Botanist, Bombay
State; Mr. Wagh, the assistant of Dr. Kincl; Mr. R. Asrana, an M.Sc.
student, Bhavan College, Andheri, Bombay; and the writer with two
servants. :

The aim of the outing was mainly to study and collect medicinal
plants from North Kanara; but in addition we were out to study the
Evergreen Moist Forest, the only real portion of virgin forest left in
Bombay State. We made a very extensive collection of plants, which has
not yet been worked out, and took ample notes and photos; on such
notes and photos this paper is. based. I shall give my impressions in the
shape of a diary, since this is the way I entered my notes in my private
book.

15 May, 1954, Saturday.

Left Bombay yesterday evening by the Deccan Queen; at Poona
shifted to the metre gauge for Hubli. Fortunately we had made our
reservations and the journey was as comfortable as one can expect in a
very shaky toy train. Reached Hubli at about noon of today and went
out trying to get some lunch in town. ‘The place does not seem to cater
for visitors, for in the whole town there is but one passably good
restaurant.

Hubli bus station was very hot, incredibly crowded and very dusty.
The waiting room of the station consists of a small open shed with a few
benches, perhaps enough to seat about twelve persons; the rest of the
waiting passengers had to sit on the ground or fend for themselves, there
were well over ahundred people awaiting the various buses that start from
Hubli. My party spent three hours waiting in the station, and causing
much admiration particularly on account of the shiny aluminium vascula,
or boxes for the collection of plants. At 4 p.m. we set out for Sirsi by
bus; we were tightly packed in the bus, but by evening the temperature
had cooled down considerably. ‘The engine of the bus gave us much
trouble all the way to Sirsi, and had to stop in various places to repair
some of the minor ailments of the machine. Reached Sirsi at 9-15 p.m.,
very tired, dusty and rather hungry. At 7 p.m. on the way we had the
first downpour of the monsoon, a very violent storm that lasted for nearly
one hour.

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA 13

16 May, 1954, Sunday.

Last night was peaceful in spite of large numbers of very hungry
mosquitoes ; we were too tired to notice such a small thing as the mos-
quitoes.

In the early morning went out near the forest bungalow and had the
first glimpse of the forest in North Kanara. A large tree near the bun-
galow had all its branches covered with an interesting species of Drynaria,
a climbing fern with mighty rope-like stems; the abundance of mosses
showed that we were in a tropical moist forest. We collected two inter-
esting orchids in flower, and two species of Loranthus that were being
seen by me for the first time. Yesterday along the road in the twilight
we saw a number of plants of Mussaenda frondosa in flower, with their
ghostly white calyx segments ; this morning noticed another large shrub
of the same plant with much larger white calyx than what one sees
nearer Bombay. The ground under the forest trees was covered with
masses of Elephantopus and Mimosa pudica, the latter in plenty of
flowers.

For the first time we were struck with the large number of epiphytes
in this type of forest. Meptapleurum venulosum is very abundant near
the bungalow, in bud and flower or fruit; very large masses cover more
than half of a large Ficus near the road that leads to the bungalow: the
plant is remarkably similar to the European Ivy in its flowers and fruits.

Inthe open ground in the middle of the compound noticed a small
species of Curcuma, with just one flower per plant; the corolla is pure
white with a broad yellow stripe in the middle of the lip. Saztalum
album isin full bloom near the house; they are small trees about 25-30 ft.
high, the petals of the flowers being of a dark purple brown, very similar
in colour to /phigenta tndica seen in more northern parts.

At noon the public bus company called at our place to pick us up
and take us to Jog ; I was informed that such a company is one of the
few still in private hands, and in consequence they could oblige us by
picking us up from our house, a thing the State Transport would not be
allowed to do.

The way from Sirsi to Siddapur and Jog is very impressive ; majestic
trees on either side of the road forming dense forests, though there
are already many patches from which the forest has been locally
removed. AHopea is a glorious sight, very large trees with crimson red
fruits, and masses of them; the little Curcuma seen at Sirsi is very com-
mon and in places very abundant along the road, generally in the under-
growth; the flowers vary from pure white to fleshy pink, and their
number from one to about seven per plant, no leaves seen.

Just after milestone No. 11 from Sirsi, we came upon a plantation
of Areca catechu; the trees composing the plantation are very tal! and
slender, placed rather closely, with occasionally bananas, Pzfer éetle etc.,
cultivated in the ground below Areca. On the trees we noticed a number
of epiphytes and not a few parasites. The stems of Areca trees are
whitish, and the sight of the plantation is very impressive.

The road is good all along except for about a quarter of a mile neat
the areca plantations ; at that spot it was very bad. After a short stop at
Siddapur for tea and provisions, we went upto Jog, where we reached
at about 5 p.m. From the moment of landing from the bus one is nearly
deafened by the noise of the falls. The bungalow, belonging to the
P,W.D., Bombay State, is on a hill overlooking the falls; just across the

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the deep chasm of the falis is Mysore State bungalow, and about half a
mile lower down along the stream is the Mysore Hydro-electric Power
Station. As wesat on our vantage point near the Falls, the view was almost
overpowering ; the drop is 597 ft. high; occasionally clouds of mist are
wafted up by the streams of air that come canalised by the river; the
falls are facing due west.

The river is the Swarua Nadi. Geologically the bed of the river
consists of a large number of strata all inclined about 45 degrees from the
horizontal ; the stream of the river is divided into several smaller streams
by the slanting strata, and thus in place of one might fall along the main
course of the river, we get four very beautiful ones, even though smaller.
The formation and appearance of the various falls are clearly dependent
on the strata of the river bed. The biggest fall, Rajah, is not visible
from the Bombay bungalow, and is made by the main stream of the river;
the next fall, Roarer, comes down more or less hidden away by the con-
figuration of the hill for about half its length, then it just jumps into the
same basin as Rajah. The third fall, Aavz, is so called because it is sup-
posed to look like the tresses of a woman spread over the shoulders.
The fourth and furthest from Bombay bungalow is the Rocket, the most
impressive of the lot from the Bombay side. One of the interesting shows
near the falls, looking at them from the edge of the Bombay side in front
of the bungalow, is that a number of rainbows fringe the base of the falls,
at times I counted three such rainbows.

At night the Mysore side is lit with electric lights, from the hydro-
electric power house near the bungalow; during the night two powerful
spotlights are focussed on the falls from about half way down the slope;
these lights bring out the beauty of the falls in a striking manner parti-
cularly in moonless nights.

Went to bed at night with the roar of the falls still filling our ears;
during the night on waking up, the same roar is the first thing to impress
itself on one’s consciousness. Gradually the noise becomes so powerful
that it gets on one’s nerves, and excursions away from the falls give a
welcome silence and rest.

In the evening some of our party amused ourselves reading through
the Visitors’ Books in the Bombay bungalow. One of the recent entries
is by Joaquim Alva of Bombay, who remarked that the Bombay Govern-
ment seems to have made it almost impossible for visitors to come to Jog,
to judge from the poor transport facilities and the sort of accommodation:
provided for them in the State bungalow. Older visitors left more
interesting remarks, particularly on subjects such as animal life in the
neighbourhood of the falls. It may be of interest to the readers to: copy
a tew of the more striking remarks.

Vol. 2, 1878, gage 21: I met a planter who had been shikarring and
had met antelope, bustard, florican, rock grouse etc.

Vol. 2, 1882, age 70: Within the last 15 days about 20 head-loads
of fish were taken out of the river a little below the falls by poisoning
the water.

Page 78: The pools are teeming with fish . . . Let some one bring
a collapsible boat or a wicker coracle and fish in the centre of the big
pool. He will, I feel sure, catch monsters: a young swallow will make
a good bait.

Page 93, 1885: A herd of 20 wild elephants crossed my path on my
road here about 30 miles east of this: 2 fine tuskers, 8 females and 10

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA 13

young ones. Reported to have killed a man near Kumsi. Traffic along
the road was stopped.

Page 154, 1890: I spent two days at the bungalow with my family.
It seems unnecessary to add anything to the wealth of eloquence and
bathos, not to mention wit, so lavishly squandered in the foregoing pages
but it struck me that while the falls (and the patel) have had much attention,
the poor bungalow has missed its share. Yet it would repay some
small attention, and its occupants would be in a better frame of mind,
perhaps, for enjoying the falls. The bungalow has three fine rooms
and just the same number of chairs, but one of the latter (inscribed
with the name of ‘ Arry’ on both arms) is past use and another will
soon follow. ‘The three most important doors have not one bolt
between them in working order. ‘The wind rushes in at night with
equal fury through broken panes, misfitting doors and dilapidated roof
with its natural consequence of headaches and neuralgia. Finally why
should all manner of rubbish, wrecks of weather-fencing, straw, paper,
old shoes etc. be shovelled over the declivity in front of the bungalow ?
‘The view of the falls from the verandah is very fine and needs no such
contrast to set it off. (HE. H. Aitken, Asst. Collector of Salt Revenue,
4th January 1890).

Page 259, 1 Noy. 1901: I came here purposely for new specimens of
the butterflies and was very successful. Many species here are similar to
those found at Kandy, Ceylon. I caught 4 butterflies here that are not to
be found at any other place in India, to my knowledge. (A. Cranston).

17 May, 1954, Monday.

Very early in the morning was awakened by the Whistling School
Boy, which gave a long reveille near our house ; the bird could be heard
very distinctly above the noise of the falls. At 6 a.m. the whole river is
covered with mist, dense clouds of which come up every few moments
from the bottom of the falls. Our bungalow is due north of the falls,
the Mysore bungalow is sightly south-west ; the altitude of our rest house
by my barometric altimeter is 1,500 ft. above Bombay sea-level. At 7 a.m.
just before the sun came out, a large flight of white birds was seen
hovering about half way up the falls, many of the birds seem to make
their nests on the very steep crags that form the falls.

My own experience of the game of these parts seems to vary very
radically from.the experience of older visitors. So far in the journey
from Hubli to Sirsi and thence to Jog we have only seen a few doves,
several hares and a number of monkeys. ‘The Whistling School Boy
was heard singing for a long time near our rest house, but has not
been heard again.

first Botanical Outing in Jog. In order to get an idea of the consti-
tution of the Evergreen Forest near Jog, this morning my party went
along the main road; we tried but could not succeed in penetrating into
the forest proper. Climbers with enormous rope-like stems, and very
many spiny plants made the attempt at going through the forest out of
the beaten tracks a risky and painful process. Calamus pseudotenuts, of
very painful memories for me, is very abundant and its inflorescence
branches are stoutly armed with very nasty recurved thorns. ‘The little
Curcumu of yesterday was today dug up and showed that the root system
possesses fairly long fibrous adventitious roots with a fusiform tuber at the
end of each root ; from this character alone the plant seems to be something

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

new. Of the more impressive sights in the forest, one must mention
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae, gigantic trees covered with masses of large
showy flowers; the tree appears to be wild and indigenous in the district.
From the road side we turned to the river; its bed is nearly covered with
a species of Syzygium or Eugenia shrubs, up to 10 ft. high, in leaf at
present. The party moved along the river course until we came to the top
of the falls; from that point of vantage, Rajah is very impressive ; some
of our party said their heads were being affected by the sight and had to
move away from the brink of the precipice for safety.

Returned home at noon with our collecting boxes filled to overflow-
ing; the business of identification. etc., took us the rest of the day; the
job was only given up at 7 p.m. when darkness forced us to desist from
our work. This has been a very successful and interesting day.

18 May, 1954, Tuesday.

For the second time, this morning we were awakened by the Whist-
ling School Boy. In the course of these days at Jog, we were often un-
pleasantly disturbed by a noise as loud and as shrill as that of a knife
grinder ; at first | took the noise to be produced by some instrument in the
hydro-electric power house ; eventually it was found that the noise was
being produced by the many cicadas in the forest ; we found some of those
insects and experimented with the noise-making organs, and soon found
that the noise at close quarters was almost unbearable.

Second Lotanical Outing. We went today along the same road as
yesterday, but only started collecting plants and photos where we left
yesterday. Going along the road to the river ferry, we noticed several
species of Garcinia, G. morella, G. cambogia etc., Pristimera grahamit,
several Psychotrias in the undergrowth together with Ophiorhiza FPavetta
etc.; in a backwater of the river collected Lagenandra toxicaria, very
abundant in leaf all over the stream-bed but just out of water.

‘The river was crossed in a very unsteady canoe; as I was carrying
a number of scientific instruments with me, I did feel rather uncomfort-
able in the canoe; the river is said to be about 10 ft. deep at that spot
roughly one mile above the falls.

The Mysore side of the river shows even denser vegetation than on
the Bombay side; the forest is over 75 ft. tall; among the trees we
saw a number otf unknown species, which had not been seen on the
other side. The distance from the ferry to the Mysore bungalow is but
one and a hali miles, but in this short distance we made a wonderful
collection. ‘Lhe sight of the falls from the Mysore bungalow is simply
erand; the four talls are seen in their majestic beauty, there is no
obstruction of any sort. While the attendants were preparing some tea,
we had time to take some good photos of the sight.

On the return journey we collected seeds of Ventilago bombazensis
with the typical twisted wing, saw P7rzstimera grahami, and one large
climbing Stvychnos which could not be collected from the very high
tree on which the plant was mounted. Near the road met several
women who were coilecting the seeds of Garcinia moredla ; the rind of
the fruit is thrown away, the seeds are used for the extraction of a
valuable edible oil that is said to be much esteemed for cakes etc.

The Mysore bungalow is much better kept than the Bombay one;
there is a large park around the bungalow with plenty of room for guests,
etc. Electricity is found all over the Mysore side; and this is why

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA 15

guests can have iced water there from the refrigerators in the bungalow.
In every respect the authorities of Mysore have tried to make the place
accessible and popular; during our short stay in the bungalow we saw
many more people than in several days inthe Bombay side.

19, May 1954, Wednesday,

From Jog we went along the road to Mavingundi, a village about
two miles away. On the way we saw for the first time Vtex altzsstma
in flower; some of the trees were loaded with epiphytic orchids in flower
and fruit; some ofthese plants were pressed and some packed in moss
for replanting in Bombay. Incidentally such plants were planted in
Bombay on our return, but rats and mice seemed to have eaten the lot
and spoiled a fine set of specimens. Rice is intensively cultivated in the
district, and we were informed that usually two crops are obtained every

year. Areca catechu is also much cultivated near Mavingundi.

One of the plants we found today was Parsonsia spiralis, a plant
that later on we tried to collect again for medicinal study; one of our
party went in the afternoon to collect materials for study, but returned
empty-handed. On being asked why he did not bring the plant, he
explained that some ten large monkeys had stood on the road in a very
threatening attitude and would not budge - from whatever side of the
road he tried to pass them ; he did not insist, but thought it more prudent
to come back to the safety of the house.

The constitution of the forest at Jog. Summarising all my obser-
vations on the constitution of the forest near Jog, I put down the follow-
ing notes. The forest in the immediate neighbourhood of Jog is ever-
green and very dense; the height goes up to 100 ft., the upper layer
seldom going below 75 ft. There are clearly several levels or layers, all
connected with numerous climbers. These are the constituents of the
various layers : |

a. Top layer:
Flopea wightiana Wall.
Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels.

(Augenia jambolana Lamk.)
Pouteria tomentosa (Roxb.) Baehni.

(Szderoxylon tomentosum Roxb.)
Floligarna arnottiana Hook. f.
Knema attenuata Warb.

(Myristica attenuata Wall.)
Artocarpus inctsa Linn. f.
Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk.

(Hemigyrosa canescens Blume.)
Garcinia morella Dest.
Pithecellobium bigeminum Mart.
Garcinia cambogia Dest.

Celtis cinnamomea Lindl.

Litsea stocksit Hook. f,
Lophopetalum wightianum Arn,
Lrvatamia heyneana Cooke.

(Labernaemontana heyneana Wall.)
Artocarpus hirsuta Lamk.
Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.) Pers,

(Lagerstvoemia tlos-reginae Retz.)

16

Cc.

¥

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Macaranga peliata Muell.
(Macaranga tomentosa Wight.)
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume.
Caryota uvens Linn.
Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) Chatt.
(Stereospermum chelonoides auct., non DC.)
Aporosa lindleyana Baill.
Vitex altissima Linn. f.-
Terminalia bellivica Roxb.
Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook. f.
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.

Second layer, 10-25 ft.
Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Radlk.
(Allophyllus cobbe Hiern.)
Callicarpa lanata Linn.
Trema orientalis Blume.
Emblica officinalis Gaernt.
(Lhyllanthus emblica Linn.)
Leea indica (Burm.) Merr.
(Leea sambucina Willd.)
Mussaenda trondosa Linn.
Aporosa lindleyana Baill.

Third layer 3-6 it.
Ardisia solanacea Roxb.
Melanthesa turbinata (Koen.) Wight.
(Breynia patens Rolfe).
Psychotria spec. several.
[xora coccinea Linn.
Pleomele terniflora (Roxb.) Merr.
(Dracaena ternitlora Roxb.)
Croton gibsonianus Nim.
Chasalta curvitlorva Thw.
Solanum spec.
Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.
(Clexedendrium tntfortunatum auct., non Linn.)
Maesa trdica Wall.

Climbers, woody or herbaceous.
Tylophora indica (Burm.) Merr.

(Tylophora asthmatica W. & A.)
Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz.
Toddalia aculeata Pers.
Calamus pseudotenuts Becc.
Jasminum rotlerianum Wall.
Elacagnus spec.
Cissus dtscolor Blume.

(Vitis discolor Dalz.)
Gnetum ua Brongn.
(Gnetum scandens auct., non Roxb.)
Smilax zeylanica Linn.

(Smilax macrophylla Roxb.

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA il¢/

Zizyphus rugosa Lamk.

Pothos scandens Linn.

Caesalpinia mimosoides Lamk.

Artabotrys zeylanicus Hook. f. & Thoms.

Hibiscus furcatus Willd.

Gouania microcarpa DC.

Rubia corditolia Linn.

Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall.

Raphidophora spec.

Scheftlera venulosa Harms.
(Heptapleurum venulosum Seem.)

Premna coriacea Clarke,

Entada phaseoloides (Linn.) Merr.
(Entada scandens Benth.)

Cayratia auriculata (DC.) Gamble.
(Vitis auriculata Wall.)

and many others, though not so common.

The ground is covered with but a few herbs, particularly at the edges
of the forest; in dense forest the ground is particularly bare of any vege-
tation. The more common herbs seen at the edges of the forest are the
following :

Opbhiorhiza harristana Heyne.
Gynura angulosa DC.
Hedyotts spec.

Leucas aspera Spreng.

One of the more typical aspects of the forest is that no species may
be said to be dominant, perhaps about 15% is the highest percentage of
any species. Another feature is the great abundance of climbers, which
render the forest almost impenetrable. Thirdly the biotic factor, mainly
human, can be seen in many spots ; when the forest is cut down by man,
it is soon replaced by shrubs or small trees, among which a small species
of Phoenix is rather common. Finally at the time of our visit the number
of mosquitoes and leeches was negligible; within a fortnight of our visit

the forest is said to be impassable on account of these pests.

20 May, 1954, Thursday.

At 7.30 this morning the bus came to collect us and our luggage
from the P.W.D. bungalow, and shortly afterwards left the district. About
three miles from Jog we started the climb up the Gersoppa Ghat, a steep
but rather gradual climb. ‘There we noticed the devastation that is being
brought to the forest by the new electrification schemes; without regard
for the forest, an avenue is cut in the forest, 100 ft. on either side of the
electric pylons; mighty trees are left lying on the ground until the Forest
Department picks them up and puts them up for sale. Some such cuttings
we have seen passing through some of the finest spots in the forest, places
set aside by the Forest Department for the training of its officers, where
every tree has been carefully identified and labelled.

On the return journey to Sirsi, I could notice the condition of the
forest, which in many spots has been reduced to scrub forest; after the
real forest has been cut down, it is replaced by useless and small shrubs
or trees, among which the small Phoenix, Zizyphus spec. etc. are rather
prominent. This is the case particularly in the neighbourhood of villages.

2

is JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Where the forest has not been disturbed, it reaches a height of 100 ft.,
with splendid trees of the evergreen type. On the return journey our
bus had to stop near the plantations of Aveca catechu and this gave me a
chance to obtain some good photos.

In the middle of the village of Sirsi there is a very large tree
(unidentified), one of the mighty giants of the forest, though it is standing
alone. The lower part of the trunk is covered with Pothos scandens, the
upper branches with Drynaria; about 30 ft. from the ground, where the
trunk branches, there is a huge cinema poster at the fork, a very in-
congruous sight on such a beautiful tree.

During our bus journey this morning we had a commotion as some
ladies would not come into the bus, and claimed that the men who occupi-
ed some front seats had to vacate them; the reason was that such seats
were apparently reserved for the ladies, the seats being marked with a

large notice that said ‘ ONLY LEDEIS’.

21 May, 1954, Friday. |

During the past night there has been a strong storm, with plenty of
noise and fireworks; at some time in the night there came a downpour
of rain; this caused much commotion among the members of my party,
for we had to keep moving from corner to corner so as to escape the many
leakages from the roof. In the early hours of the morning it was still
raining quietly, but all rain stopped by 7.30 a.m.

Botanical Excursion to the Kalgar Khan. This is one of the best
evergreen patches near Sirsi; it is about three miles away from the town.
Today we have been lucky in having the help of some local people who
accompanied us and did the climbing and seemed to know the local names
of most of the plants.

Kalgar Khan gave me the impression that I had been transported to
Meroli near Khandala; the constitution of the forest and the general
appearance and even many of the constituent trees were the same in both
places. In the undergrowth we saw many seedlings of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum only 3-8 ft. tall; Stvychnos nux-vomica is abundant all over
the Khan in fruit; at the edges of the forest we saw a few plants of
Rauwoltia serbentina in flower and fruit; the local people told us that
some few years ago the whole place was covered with Razuwolfia, but
that of late there has been an intense collection, the plant being very highly
paid for. The ground inside the Khan is very wet, but there are no
leeches as yet. In the Khan we made a search for Antiarts toxicaria,
which is said to occur here, but in vain; we saw a gigantic tree, about the
largest and tallest in that part of the forest, but even with binoculars we
could not discover its identity; the trunk is unbranched and beautifully
straight for over 60 ft.; the local name is said to be Halmadz, which
later on I discovered to be Azlanthus malabarica.'

The constitution of the forest at the Kalgar Khan. There are clearly
three levels, the uppermost being about 100 ft. high; as in the evergreen
forest at Jog, so here too there was no ground cover, grasses being only
found in open spots and near the edges of the forest.

a. The top level or layer.
Mangitera indica Linn.
Beilschmiedia tagifolia var. dalzellid Meisn.

reer. |

1 The correct botanical name of this tree is A. trvzphysa (Dennst.) Alst.

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA

Flopea wightiana Wall.
Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.
Cletdion spicitlorum (Burm.) Mert.
(Cletdion javanicum Blume)
Knema attenuata Watb.
(Myristica attenuata Wall.)
Myrvistica beddomei King.
Zerminalia crenulata Roth.
Adina corditolia Hook.
Cinnanonum zeylanicum Blume.

b. The middle layer, 10-25 ft.
Diospyros microphylla Bedd.
Evyvatamia heyneana Cooke.
Mussaenda trondosa Linn.
Macaranga peltata Muell.

(Macaranga tomentosa Wt.)
Murraya koenigiz Spreng.
Vitex altisstma Linn, f.
Randia brandisit Gamble.
Allophyllus serratus Radlk.
(Allophylius cobbe Hiern.)
Emblica officinalis Gaernt.
(Phyllanthus emblica Linn.)
Flacourtia montana Grah.
[xora brachiata Roxb.
‘ Strobilanthes’’ spec. and many others.

c. Lower level, ground to 3 ft.
Ophiorhiza harrisiana Heyne.
Murraya koenigit Spreng.
Chasalia curvitlora Thw. -
Pleomele ternitlora (Roxb.) Merr.

(Dracaena ternitlora Roxb.)
Psychotria, 2-3 species.

d. Climbers.
Gnetum ula Brongn.
(Gnetum scandens auct., non Roxb.)
Olax spec.
Pothos scandens Linn.
| Luvunga eleutherandra Dalz.
| Hoya spec.
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.
Smilax zeylanica Linn.
(Smilax macrophylla Roxb.)
Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall.
Calycopterts tlortbunda Lamk.
Piper spec.

19

The three miles return journey was found rather hot and tiring
by most of us. Along the main road there is a small herb in fower and

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

fruit, some novelty, that proved to be WVelsonia campestris ; on the hedges
near the road there is plenty of Santalum album in flower, none of the
plants showing any virus infection so far.

In the evening as we were busy with the morning’s collection we were
startled by a pitched battle between two camps of monkeys fighting
ferociously not far from our house ; a well-placed stone put a stop to the
proceedings. All through our tour of North Kanara we have been much
struck by the numbers and sizes of the monkeys ; some of the Forest Rest
Houses have been much damaged by the heavy animals jumping on to the
roof of the house and breaking numbers of tiles; this was the reason for
the leakages in our roof during the past night.

Today several of us have been affected by a nasty irruption in the skin
particularly on our faces and hands; there is a continuous itch, which
causes us to keep scratching day and night; this type of itch started at
Jog, and has kept growing worse all these days; perhaps it is due to the
water we have been drinking.

Frogs are singing merrily in our garden in the evening, not a melod-
ious song, but certainly not an unpleasant one, nothing to compare with
the Cicadas of Jog ; the latter, by the way, have only been heard once since
we left Jog.

May 22, 1954, Saturday.

Our outing today was to the Hulimane Khan, a small bit of ever-
ereen forest near Oormunde village. The way is all deciduous forest, in
parts rather dense, but often very bare, the results of man’s interference.
Many of the trees showed large masses of orchids, some of them in
flower. White ants nests or mounds are rather conspicuous in the decidu-
ous forests; they may be up to 6 ft. tall, and common. Yet the damage
of the white ants in the forest seems to be negligible.

On our way to Hulimane Khan our forest guard disappeared for some
moments and soon came back with a large bunch of bananas, which we
all savoured greatly. Personally I found them about the tastiest bananas
I have had. Iwas informed that the district is famous for the quality of
its bananas and mangoes.

Hulimane Khan is a poor type of evergreen forest, much interfered
with by cultivators. The undergrowth is almost nil, with about Caesa/-
pinta mimusoides and Clerodendrum viscosum seedlings as the only shrubby
plants. In the forest there are several wild mango trees, the fruit of
which proved to be remarkably sweet, though rather fibrous. One of
the finds of the day was a large tree of Mydnocarpus laurtfolia (Denn.)
Sleumer (=H. wightiana Blume) at the edge of the evergreen near a
nulla; the tree was overloaded with fruits, many of which were collected
and taken home for medicinal tests.

On our way home on the return journey, we stopped for a cup of tea
at a house owned by a Havick Brahmin; he was very kind and nice and
offered us some bananas and tea. Our forest guard openly wiped all the
tea cups before pouring any tea into them, our host smiling all the while.
The belief is that such hosts are very hospitable, but gradually try to poison
their guests. The house is low-roofed, thick walled, and very cool inside;
its inner walls are decorated with stucco paintings; in the centre of the
main room there is a well, where rain water is collected jor drinking
purposes during the monsoon.

In the evening at about 4 p.m. the sky became black almost sudden-

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA 21

ly, and we soon had a very violent storm, with plenty of lightning and
rain; the temperature came down very considerably after the rain. In
open forest today we have seen plenty of Strychnos nux-vomica, large
trees over 75 ft., with orange fruits about 3-5 inches in diameter; at present
no economic use is made of the fruits, except that this is said to be the
material used by Havick Brahmins for treating their guests.

May,23, 1954, Sunday.

It has not been raining during the night, yet the moisture of the
atmosphere is such that everything outside the house is dripping with
moisture. In the early morning went to examine Chipgi forest, an
interesting patch near Sirsi, but not as good as Kalgar Khan. In this
forest we noticed the usual top layer of trees, but there seemed to be no
middle layer; the constitution of the forest is as follows:

a. Top layer:
Terminalia crenulata Roth.
Beilschmiedia tagitolia var. dalzellit Miesn.
Garcinia malabarica 'Talb.
Mangitera indica Linn.
Aylia xylocarpa Roxb.
Stereospermum personatum Chatt.
(Stereospermum chelonoides auct. non D.C.)
Litsea spec,
Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wall.
Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.
Terminalia chebula Retz.
Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.

b. Ground layer:
Randia brandisit Gamble.
Garcinia malabarica Talb.
Murraya koenigiz Spreng.
Pavetta spec.
Lantana camara vat. aculeata Mold. ete.

Climbers :
Gnetum ula Brongn.
Premna cortacea Clarke.
Toddalia aculeata Pers.
Smilax zeylanica Linn. etc.

oO

Near the edge of the forest there was a large plantation of Aveca catechu,
even more striking than any seen so far. The men collecting the nuts
are said to climb one tree at the end of a row of areca trees ; after collect-
ing all the nuts from the tree they shake the tree until they come near the next
one in the row, then they pass on to the next tree without having to climb
down, which would be a very tiring process, on account of the height of
the trees. ‘This system of harvesting the nuts explains the presence of
numerous epiphytic orchids on the trunks of such trees, which would
definitely obstruct the climbers in their efforts,

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

24 May, 1954, Monday.

Another violent storm of rain and lightning in the early morning, anid
more gymnastics to avoid the rain falling on our beds during the last
part of the night. Packed and moved to the bus station on our way to
Yellapur. x

The Sirsi bus station deserves mention. Sirsi is the centre from
which buses go in all directions ; the bus station has a time-table posted
up, and buses are sent out by the ringing of a large bell, everything very
well organised. Whilst waiting for our bus, which was over two hours
late, we were invaded by a host of beggars, who proved to be very
persistent.

The journey from Sirsito Yellapur is most interesting botanically ; the
road goes through some evergreen forests for the greater part of the way;
the road is lined with gigantic trees, many of which are covered with
climbers. ‘The last three or four miles before Yellapur are particularly.
interesting botanically, on account of the very dense forest on either side
of the road. ‘Today we noticed a large fox standing in the middle of the
road at the approach of our bus, and only moved away when we were but
about twenty yards from the spot; the fox then moved into the forest
and watched our bus as it passed but ten yeards away. A little later
along the side of the road I noticed a large brownish snake, probably a
Dhaman, gliding leisurely into the forest. These two animals are about
the limit of our zoological observations in the district ; we looked for
animals, but found very few indeed.

The arrival of our large party at the velanee bus station caused a
commotion; we were received by the forest guard in full uniform, who
was at once nicknamed ‘ Major-General’ Adam Sheik Mahmud ; the forest
bungalow is just in front of the bus station. ‘Through the kind offices of
Mr. Bhathena, the Forest Utilisation Officer, and of Dr. Patil the Forest
Botanist, we found that everything had been got ready for us in the bunga-
low; the Asst. Divisional Forest Officer, Mr. P. K. Vasuvada, made our
stay in Yellapur most comfortable and pleasant, as well as profitable.
The Yellapur Forest Bungalow is one of the finest so far encountered in
this trip; the building is solid and very clean; outside there is a fine
garden with nice clean lawns and plenty of flowers. Monkeys seem to
like this bungalow in a particular manner; as we sat in the verandah
discussing plans, a large host of monkeys amused themselves playing
and fighting on the iawns of the house.

Our first outing of Yellapur was late in the evening, when Mr.
Vasuvada took us to some dense forest but halfa mile away from the
village. Among other interesting items, today we collected Rhynchostylis
retusa in full bloom, Hoya retusa, ete.

25 May, 1954, Tuesday.

The night has been quiet and restful except for the armies of very
hungry mosquitoes that seemed to have been waiting for our arrival to
have a proper meal.

At 7.30 a.m. we were taken by lorry to the Linear Tyree Increment
Plot (LTI in short), the Telgiri Khan. Along the road the forest is
impressive, large and massive trees line the road, and as we get nearer
to the LTI the forest becomes denser.

The LTI plot is a narrow band of forest in the middle of the ever-
green, about 50 yards broad, and nearly half a mile long; the

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA 23

undergrowth has been cleared to some extent, and all the trees and large
shurbs have been identified and labelled. The identification of such trees
has been a laborious task that has taken years to accomplish; the trees
are over 75 ft. tall, their upper branches all interlinked together. All the
trees in the LTI plot are indigenous, that is to say, no tree has been
especially planted by the Forest Department. The aim of such plots is
to give Forest Officers the chance of learning the various constitutents of
their forests in a small compressed space. We spent over three hours
moving in the evergreen forest, and noting the trees as well as the under-
growth. The following is the result of our examination :

a. Top level, trees 75 ft. and over in height.

Tetrameles nudtflora R. Br.

Polyalthia cerasoides Benth. & Hook. f.

Cinnanomum zeylanicum Blume.

Macaranga peltata Muell.

Terminalia crenulata Roth.

Terminalia bellirvica Roxb.

Caryota urens Linn.

Pterygota alata (Roxb.) R. Br.
(Sterculia alatz Roxb.)

Dysoxylum malabaricum Bedd.

Knema attenuata Warb.

Myristica spec. (beddomez ?)

Aporosa lindleyana Baill.

Terminalia arjuna W. & A.

Diospyros microphylla Bedd. ete.

b. Middle layer:

Leea indica (Burm.) Merr.
Ardisia solanacea Roxb.
Aliophyllus serratus Radlk.
Murraya koenigit Spreng.
Emblica officinalis Gaernt.
Cordia macleodiz Hook. f.
Randia brandisii Gamble.

c. Ground level, 4-36 inches.
Chasalia curvttlora Thw.
Rauwolfia serpentina Benth.
Nervilia intundibulifolia Bl. & McC.
Curculigo orchiotdes Gaernt.
Elephantopus scaber Linn.
Psychotria spec.

d. Climbers: the usual ones in these parts, particularly great
masses of Guetum ula Brongn.

This Khan is a mixture of evergreen and deciduous trees, the former
predominating, though no species can be said to be dominant.

In the course of the evening while writing up my diary, my attention
was called to some very loud barking of dogs and ‘ swearing’ of monkeys;
several monkeys had been treed on an isolated tree, and the dogs were
mounting guard at the foot of the tree; every now and then, when a
monkey tried to come down, the dogs barked furiously. For as long as

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the watch of the dogs lasted, they had the best in the fight; however,
the dogs’ attention was distracted for just a few moments, and then all the
monkeys came down and ran into one of the trees at the edge of the
forest ; it was noticed that mother monkeys with their babies hanging
from their chests were the loudest in ‘ swearing ’ at the dogs.

We have been looking for some specially good trees and in vain; we
have searched for Azlanthus malabarica, Antiaris toxicaria, etc., but
without success, we had not recognised the Hlalwadi tree as Adlanthus.
Today one of our party went to Karwar in search of Samdadera, which is
said to be common in those parts; three days spent in the search,
with the help of some of the local Vaidyas, did not succeed in finding
LHe mthees

26 May, 1954, Wednesday.

In the early morning went to Sahasrahalli Khan, not more than a
mile from our residence. Along the main road we found numerous speci- —
mens of Rauwolfia densilfora, shrubs 6-10 ft. high, with plenty of flowers
or fruits. 2. serpentina was seen only on sloping ground near the Khan,
in ground from which the forest had been cut a few years ago.

The forest at Sahasrahalli Khan is imposing; most of the trees are
straight, unbranched for over 50 ft., and then going up to 100 ft. or more.
There are mighty climbers going over such trees, among which Gretum
ula is probably the mightiest.

The constitution of the forest is approximately as follows;

a. ‘Top layer, up to 100 ft. or more.
Mallotus albus Mueli.-Are.
Lophopetalum wightianum Arn.
Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wail.
Lrvatamia heyneana Cooke.
Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels.
floligarna arnottiana Hook. f.
Vitex altissima Linn. f.

Knema attenuata Watb.
Diospyros montana Roxb.?
Artocarpus hirsuta Lamk.
Garcinia xanthochymus Hook. f.
Careya arborea Roxb.

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.
Terminalia chebula Retz.
Terminalia crenulata Roth.
XAXylia xylocarpa Roxb.
Machilus macrantha Nees,
Chukrassia tabularts Juss. var.?
Betlschmiedia tagtfolia var. dalzellii Meisn. etc.

b. Middle layer:
Solanum giganteum Jacq.
Allophyllus serratus Radlk.
Ardista solanacea Roxb.
Mussaenda trondosa Linn,
Pajanelia multijuga DC,
Leea indica Merr.

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA 25

Murraya koenigiz Spreng.
Strychnos nux-vonica Linn. seedlings.

ec. Ground vegetation, less than 3 ft. tall.
Curcuma spec.
Centella asiatica Urb.
Cissus discolor Blume.
Nervilia- intundtbultformis Bl. & McC.
Murdannia scapitlorum Royle.
Hypoxts aurea Lout.
Ophiorhiza harristana Heyne.

d. Climbers the usual ones, with plenty of Radermachera spec.

27 May, 1954, Thursday.

Packing in early morning in readiness to move to Halyal according to
programme. The road to Halyal is fairly good, but the bus either had no
spring or was unduly overloaded, so that along the road we got every
jolt in our bones. Up to about half way to Halyal the forest is mixed
evergreen and deciduous, then the deciduous trees seem to become
dominant, until in the neighbourhood of Halyal it is clearly a deciduous
forest, whatever is left of it, which is not much. Near Halyal cultivation
is intense. Along the road sides on various trees I noticed the largest
masses of Acampe premorsa that I have seen in Western India.

The forest bungalow at Halyal is situated inside the Fort, a large
structure built of loose stones without cement; in several spots the walls
are crumbling down, and in this they are substantially helped by several
Ficus that send their roots into the cracks in the walls. Monkeys are also
in evidence here, for every now and then we heard ioud noises over our
heads, caused by monkeys disporting themselves on the roof of the
house.

In the afternoon went to see the Research Experimental Station of
the Forest Department; the various experiments being conducted in the
station are beautifully described in the report of the Silviculturist for 1951.
Many interesting trees from other parts of India or from abroad are under
trial, and some have given very good results. ARauwolfia serpentina was
under cultivation; vegetative reproduction gave good results, seeds did
not do well, as seldom more than 10% did germinate. Of the imported
trees that seemed to be doing best, Aucalyptus citriodora and Dua-
banga grandiflora Walp. seemed to be conspicuous; trees planted but
four or five years ago were already over 30 ft. high and going strong.

28 May, 1954, Friday.

In the morning went out to the village, to photograph several trees
loaded with Flying Foxes; two or three of the largest trees were just
black with these strange animals, who kept a loud and constant noise
going through the hours of daylight.

After lunch we packed ourselves into a taxi and moved to Dandeli;
the packing was tight, there were four of my party, the driver and two
assistant drivers. The taxi, an old crock, kept rattling as if it could not go
one yard further ; as the road in the main is downwards from Halyal to
Dandeli, our driver shut off the engine most of the time, and just kept
going by gravity. The forest along the road becomes soon very dense,

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

even though the deciduous character is quite clear ; teak is abundant, and
where teak has been cut down and not replanted, bamboos cover much of
the ground. The journey by taxi took only 40 minutes. In Dandeli we
were accommodated in the ‘ Riverview’ forest bungalow, a palatial build-
ing with a grand stand view of the National Animal Sanctuary across the
Kali Nadi just in front of the bungalow.

29 May, 1954, Saturday.

In the morning we were told that there are crocodiles in the river,
which apparently no one has ever seen, at least I could not discover any
of the local inhabitants who had seen them; it is a fact, however, that
people do not go swimming in the river. In the night I heard some
violent splashes in the river, but in spite of a good moon could not see
anything in the river.

Riverside botanical outing. Our first outing at Dandeli has been
along the river banks and on rocks in the river bed. Found some of the
familiar plants, and a multitude of novelties, among them Drosera burmanniz,
Terminalia arjuna, etc. Along the banks there are plenty of mango
trees, the fruit lying on the floor or in the water; no one seems to care for
such fruit, Zerminalia arjuna is plentiful along the sides of the river, tall
straight trees, with whitish trunks. Some of our party have been searching
all these days for Cryptocorine, which we found in abundance in the river
bed in or just out of water. |

Today several of us seemed to come under the weather and this we
attributed to the water ; our servants just took water from the river and
served at table untreated. We started on Entero-vioform treatment, and
our troubles stopped at once.

30 May, 1954, Sunday.

The animal sanctuary is just across the river ; all we saw were crowds
of monkeys, some domesticated buffaloes and heard junglefowl and an
occasional woodpecker. The present area of the animal sanctuary is about
70 sq. miles ; there are said to be some interesting animals still left, such
as sambar, an occasional bison etc. There are several villages in the
territory of the sanctuary, and these are supposed to be moved out of the
place to prevent the wholesale poaching that goes on under the name of
crop protection ; so far, however, no village has been moved.

Botanical excursion to the Moist Deciduous Forest. The spot chosen
for exploration was the forest along the right-hand side of the Experi-
mental Station not far from the forest bungalow. The more striking
points of today’s exploration are these: 1. Caurcuma is very abundant all
over in the undergrowth, often in leaf. 2. Mosquitoes are there in
millions and very hunery. 3. The constitution of the forest is rather
uniform, much bamboo and plenty of Zectona, the two dominant plants ;
in the undergrowth found plenty of Hyranthemum roseum, Murdannia
scapitlorum etc. On our return home we identified the plant Avanthemum
voscum, and decided to collect some more for chemical and medicinal
trials. Two parties went out to collect the plants ; both parties returned
in about half an hour for diverse reasons. One party said they could not
go any further on account of the mosquitoes ; the second party saw in the
ground. the clear marks where a tiger had just sharpened its claws, and
{rom the size of the marks, it was a large animal. The forest guards in-
formed us that all through the previous season two large tigers have been

A BOTANICAL EXCURSION TO NORTH KANARA 27

living in that part of the forest. On the way home some of them saw a
hare of gigantic size, ‘almost like a small deer *.

In today’s excursion I gathered some interesting plants, that gave
many of us great pleasure; Lvanthemum roseum for medicinal trials, very
abundant in the undergrowth; Phaulopsis dorstflora Santapau, the first
time I see this plant in the field ; Justccza trinervia, Nelsonta campestris,
etc. .Among the more abundant plants in the undergrowth is MWurdannia
scapitlorum which is supposed to be a.very rare plant in Bombay State,

31 May, 1954, Monday.

In a private car and a forest lorry went to Shoroli, about 8 miles
south of Dandeli. At the office of the Industrial Mining Enterprises,
Shiroli Mines, we were shown samples of the manganese ore that is being
extracted there. The mines are all surface operated; the upper ground
layers are of bright reddish or yellowish laterite ; below there are streaks
or veins of manganese ore, at times mixed with iron ore ; the latter is not
extracted, the former is only extracted when it contains over 50 % man-
ganese.

Shivoli Khan. ‘This is an impressive plot of evergreen forest; the
trees there reach gigantic proportions ; climbers are all over the place,
epiphytes are quite as common. It is not possible to separate the forest
into several layers, for the various layers seem to mix together into
a very dense mass. The ground slopes very steeply, and this adds
to the difficulty of separating the various layers of the forest. The
more noticeable plants of the Khan are the following :

Pothos scandens Linn.
Piper subpeltatum Willd.
Mallotus stenanthus Muell.
Harpullia arborea Radlk.
(Harpullia imbricata Thw.)
Ardtsia solanacea Roxb.
Capparis heyneana Wall.
Gnetum ula Brongn. an immense climber.
Pristimera indica (Willd.) A. C. Smith.
(Aiippocratea indica Willd.)
Tetrameles nudttlora R. Br.
Callicarpa lanata Linn., a tree.
Holigarna grahamii Hook. f.
Solanum ferox Linn.
Radermachera spec.
Barleria courtallica Nees.
Sarcochilus spec.
Solanum verbascttolium Linn.
Pouteria tomentosa Baehni.
Ancistrocladus heyneanus Wall.
Alstonia scholaris R. Br., a gigantic tree.
Elatostema lineolatum Wt.
Mallotus albus Muell.
Naravellia zeylanica DC. etc.

This was the last outing of this trip and it was a fitting conclusion
to a most interesting field excursion. Everywhere we received the greatest
kindness from the Forest Department, Bombay State; in Dandelj

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Mr. Rajput, the Mining Engineer of the Industrial Mining Enterprises,
gave us much help during our short stay in the district ; to them ali go
our gratitude and acknowledgements. Dr. F. A. Kincl deserves special
mention for it was to accompany him in his collection of medicinal plants
that I was given the grand opportunity of touring through North Kanara.
Dr. R. P. Patil, the Forest Botanist, Bombay State, made all the arrange-
ments in connection with the reservation of bungalows, etc. ; without his
help we would have been seriously handicapped in our tour.

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SOME BIRDS FROM NORTH-WESTERN NEPAL

BY
Cot. D. G. LOWNDES

(With a sketch map)

The birds included in the following list were collected for the British
Museum by Major J. O. M. Roberts, m.c., 1/2nd K.E.O. Goorkha Rifles,
during a mountaineering expedition to Central Nepal led by Major
H. W. Tilman, D.S.O., M.c., in the summer of 1950. The species marked
with an asterisk were observed by me but not collected.

But for the fact that the firearms available were far from satisfactory
and that the bulk of the cartridges provided were unfortunately loaded
with No. 6 shot, the collection would have been more extensive.

The localities Manangbhot, Jargeng Khola, Khangsar and Pisang (see
sketch map) are in the dry zone of the upper valley of the Marsiyandi:
River which is effectively sheltered from the monsoon by the Annapurna
Range which rises to a height of over 26,000 ft.

The Manangbhot area is separated from Langtang Khola where
Mr. Polunin collected in 1949 (see JBNHS, 52 : 887) by about 100
miles. ‘The terrain here is of a more arid ‘ Tibetan’ character, and mark-
edly different from the Rasua Garhi Dist. of Central Nepal. We are greatly
indebted to Sir Norman Kinnear for the determination of the specimens.
His notes appear in square brackets). (@ indicates that the bird was not
recorded by Polunin.

LIsT

@ Corvus corax: The Raven.”

Ravens were frequently seen in the valley of the Jargeng Khola,
between 14,000 and 15,000 ft. during July and August.

Urocissa erythroryncha occipitalis : Redbilled Blue Magpie.

ov 31-9-50 Khamihoke 3,000 {t.
In open forest.

Urocissa f. flavirostris : Yellowbilled Blue Magpie.

oJ 30-9-50 Khoplang 3,000 ft.
In open forest.

@ Dendrocitta formosae himalayensis : Himalayan Tree Pie.

J 29-9-50Khoplang 3,900 ft.
In open forest.

Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila:; Himalayan Nutcracker.

JY. 6-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Frequent in pine forest.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

@ Pyrrhocerax pyrrhocorax himalayensis : Redbilled Chough.

J 9-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Common up to 16,000 ft.

Pyrrhocorax graculus : Yellowbilled Chough,

J 10-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Common up to 16,000 ft. Often in company with the former,

Parus monticolus monticolus: Greenbacked Tit.

© 16-8-50 Chame 8,000 ft. ; 9 21-8-50 Thonje 6,500 ft.

One of the commonest tits in the wet zone from 6-12,000 ft.
[12,000 ft. is the previously reported limit—N.B.K.]

Parus rubidiventris : Rufousbellied Tit.

OILS 26-6-50 to 24-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.

From 8,000-13,000 ft. among conifers and birch. The ‘ highest’ tit
and common between 11 and 12,000 ft. [Interesting that this was the
commonest tit between 11 and 12,000 ft.—N.B K.]

Parus ater aemodius : Himalayan Cole Tit.

3 17-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft. Among conifers with other tits and war-
blers ; 9! 24-8-50 Bimta Kothi 12,000 ft. In pine trees near the glacier.
[The specimens are probably the most westerly that have been obtained.
—N.B.K.]

Parus d. dichrous: Brown Crested Tit.
ov 6-9-50 Bimta Kothi 10,000 ft. In dense forest.

@ Trochalopteron erythrocephalum ; Redheaded Laughing Thrush.

J 18-8-50 Thangja 8,900 ft.
In dense mixed forest.

Trochalopteron a. affine: Blackfaced Laughing Thrush.
2 13-8-50 Chame 9,000 ft.
In pine and birch thickets. Also seen at 12,090 ft. at Bimta Kothi.

Trochalopteron lineatum setifer: Streaked Laughing Thrush.

J 18-9-50 Thonje 6,590 ft. In mixed forest and scrub. 3

[Ticehurst, Whistler and I consider that the bird figured by Gould in
‘A Century of Birds from the Himalayas’ is the western and NoT the
Nepal bird. Hodgson named the Nepal bird sefzfey and we consider it
should stand as 7° lineatum setifer, T. 1. lineatum being the bird from the
Simla—Kumaon area. (see /BNVA/5, 52 :—April 1955)—N.B.K.]

Trochalopteron v, variegatum: Variegated Laughing Thrush.

dP 6-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.

Among conifers and birches, from 9,000 to the tree line, 13,009 ft.
‘The ‘ highest ’ and commonest laughing thrush.

[I do not think it has been recorded as high as 13,000 ft. before—
N.B.K.]

®
SOME BIRDS FROM NORTH-WESTERN NEPAL 31

@ Fulvetta v. vinipecta: Hodgson’s Fulvetta.

J 15-8-50 Chame 8,000 ft. ;
Among pines and birches ; feeding in company with warblers.

Leioptila c. capistrata: Blackheaded Sibia.

oS 18-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft.
Common from 6,500 to 10,590 ft. in the wet zone.

Siva s, strigula: Stripethroated Siva.

J 17-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft.
One or two seen in pines and mixed forest between 8,000 and

NOOO sae

Ixulus f, flavicollis : Yellownaped Ixulus.

fi 22-8-50 Thonje 6,500 ft.
Among bushes and willow trees.

Yuhina g. gularis ; Stripethroated Yuhina.

2 18-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft.
In company with Stripethroated Sivas.

Yuhina occipitalis : Slatyheaded Yubina.

of 17-8-50 Chame 8,000 ft.
Noisy family parties in forest and scrub.

Certhia familiaris mandellii: Nepal Tree Creeper.

9 14-7-50 Manangbhot 13,000 ft.
A few seen among conifers between 11,000 and 13,500 ft.

Troglodytes troglodytes nipalensis : Nepal Wren.
Q 29-8-50 Bimta Kothi 11,000 ft.
On open stony ground.

Hodgsonius ph. phoenicuroides : Hodgson’s Shortwing.
S2 2-7-50 Jargeng Khola 14,009 ft. ; #1 7-7-50 Manangbhot 13,000 ft.

OSQ 24-7--50 and 3-8-50 Khangsar 13,500 ft. |
In birch thickets and juniper ete. scrub from 10,000 to 14,500 ft.

Common. An isolated pair seen at 8,000 ft.

@ Rhodophila f, ferrea: Darkgrey Bush Chat.

Jd 21-9-50 Thonje 6,500 ft.
In mixed forest and scrub.

Phoenicurus frontalis : Bluefronted Redstart.
df 6-7-50 Jargeng Khola 15,000 ft. ; %.18-7-50, Manangbhot 12,500 ft.
Males fairly common in pines and birches and open ground. 11,500

to 15,000 ft. Few females seen.

| Phoenicurus ochrurus rufiventris: Indian Black Redstart.
J 29-8-50 Bimta Kothi 12,000 ft. Open stony ground.

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

@ Phoenicurus schisticeps ; Whitethroated Redstart.

SSLISL. 28-6-50 to 29-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.; Qf 24-7-50 and
30-7-50 Khangsar 13,000 ft.
Common among conifers and in juniper scrub 10,000 to 13,000 ft.

Chaimorrhornis leucocephala: Whitecapped Redstart.

Q 20-7-50 Manangbhot 12,500 ft. ; # 29-7-50 Khangsar 14,000 ft.
Range 6—15,000 ft., but very scattered above 11,000 ft.

Rhyacornis f. fuliginosa : Plumbeous Redstart.

J 16-8-50 Chame 8,000 ft.
Up to 10,500 ft. in the wet zone only. More common than the former
at the lower levels.

lanthia cyanura rufilata: Redflanked Bush Robin.

@ 11-7-50, Manangbhot 13,000 ft.; 2 15-7-50 Manangbhot 12,500 ft. ;
2 18-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.

Fairly plentiful locally in the pine and birch forest between 10 and
13,000 ft., but very few males seen and none secured.

(@ Calliope p. pectoralis : Himalayan Rubythroat.
dif 2-7-50 and 6-7-50 Jargeng Khola 14 and 15,000 ft.; 99% 5-8-50

Khangsar 14 and 15,000 ft.
Fairly common in dwarf juniper and on open hill sides from 13-5,000 ft.

@ Monticola solitaria pandoo ;: Indian Blue Rock Thrush.

Of 26-6-50 and 2-8-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Kare. The only pair seen, on rocky cliffs.

Myophoneus caeruleus temminckii: Himalayan Whistling Thrush.

9 14-8-50 Chame 8,500 ft.
Also seen at 12,000 ft. in Manangbhot, but scarce above 8,500 ft.

@ Accentor collaris nipalensis : Alpine Accentor.

CSF 29-7-50 and 7-8-50 Khangsar 15,500 ft.
Among boulders on rocky slopes and screes from 15-16,000 ft.

Prunella s. strophiata ; Rufousbreasted Accentor.
SSE. 2-7-50, 5-7-50 and 30-7-50 Jargeng Khola 14,000 ft.
Very common in juniper scrub 13,000-15,000 ft.

Muscicapa s. strophiata: Orangegorgeted Flycatcher.
J 14-8-50 Chame 8,560 ft.
At the edge of the forest. Aiso seen at 12,000 ft. at Bimta Kothi.

(@ Muscicapa sibirica fuliginosa ; Sooty Flycatcher.
J (imm.) 17-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft.
Singly in clearings in the forest.

@ Eumyias thalassina: Verditer Flycatcher
9 22-8-50 Thonje 6,500 ft.
A few seen among willows and bushes.

SOME BIRDS FROM NORTH-WESTERN NEPAL 83

(@ Culicapa c, ceylonensis: Greyheaded Flycatcher.

ot 20-9-50 Thonje 6,500 ft.
In mixed forest and scrub.

@ Alseonax ruficaudus: Rufoustailed Flycatcher.

SM 19-7-50 Mananegbhot 12,000 ft.
Only two seen among pines and birches.

@ Cyornis magnirostris ;

o (imm.) 20-8-50, Thangja 8,500 ft.
In dense forest.

Lanius schach nipalensis ; Rufousbacked Shrike.

JP 26-8-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.

Among bushes and in fields. 8-13,000 ft. Common from 11-12,000 ft.,
but not seen between 9,000 and 14,000 ft.

@ Pericrocotus ethologus laetus: Shortbilled Minivet.

SQ 4-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.; 2 (imm.) 3-8-50 Khangsar
13,000 ft.

Among conifers 12-13,000 ft. Jn small parties ; occasionally seen.

(@ Phylloscopus affinis ; ‘Tickell’s Willow-Warbler.
OSS 28-6-50, 1-7-59 and 6-8-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.; 2 8-8-50
Khangsar 13,000 ft.

Common among pines and in juniper scrub from 12~14,000 ft. The
‘highest ’ warbler.

Phyloscopus proreguius chloronotus: Pallas’s Willow-Warbler.
3 28-6-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Among pine and birch. One only.

- Phylloscopus r. reguloides: Blyth’s Crowned Willow-Warblet. .

J 15-8-50 Chame 8,000 ft.; — 20-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft.; g 12-9-50.,
Thonje 6,500 ft. * |
In pine and birch thickets, etc.

(@ Phylloscopus t. trochiloides : Greenish Willow-Warbler.

10-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft. ; 3 17-8-59 Chame 8,000 ft.
in coniferous and mixed forest, 10-13,000 ft. Overlaps the range of
P. atfinis, but does not occur so high.

Seicercus b, burkii : Blackbrowed Flycatcher—Warbler.

di 13-8-50 Chame 9,000 ft. ; % 23-8-50 Bimta Kothi 10,000 ft.
In thickets between 9,000 and 10,000 ft.

Perissospiza affinis : Allied Grosbeak.
3 3-8-50 Manangbhot 12,500 ft.
In pines. One only.
3

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Perissospiza c. carnipes : Whitewinged Grosbeak.

did! 3-7-50 and 5-7-50 Jargeng Khola 14,000 ft. ; 4% 2-7-50 and 4-7-50
Manangbhot 12,500 ft.

In pines and juniper trees 10-14,000 ft. ; common between 12,000 and
13,000 ft.

Pyrrhula erythrocephala : Redheaded Bullfinch.

OS LAY 2-7-50 to 8-8-50 Manangbhot 12-13, COO ft.
In mixed forest. Not common.

Carpodacus p. pulcherrimus : Beautiful Rosefinch.
S22 1-7-50 to 5-7-50 Jargeng Khola 13-14,000 tt, 3 13-7-50,
Manangbhot 12,000 ft.; #Q 24-7-50 and 28-7-50 Rh aneeen 13, 000 ft.
13-15,000 ft. Occurs at higher levels than C. erythrinus roseatus, but
seen together at 13,000 ft.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus : Common Rosefinch.

SLA SLE 26-6-50 to 15-7-50 Manangbhot 12,090 ft.: # 24-7-50
Khangsar 13,000 ft.

9-14,0C0 ft. Fairly common upto 13,000 ft. among rocks and scrub
Sometimes in open coniferous forest.

@, Pyrrhospiza punicea : Redbreasted Rosefinch.

J 5-7-50 and 7-7-50 Jargeng Khola 14-14,500 ft.

Seen on five occasions only, among rocks and juniper scrub. Only
one female seen.

(@ Carduelis caniceps ; Himalayan Goldfinch.

J€ 28-6-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.; #1 29-7-50 Khangsar 13,000 ft.
In fields and scrub, 10-13,000 ft. Quite large flocks in June.

Hypacanthis s, spinoides : Himalayan Greenfinch.

SES 28-6-50 to 15-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Common in flocks, 8-12,500 ft. in fields and forest. In mid-July
10-11,000 ft.

Fringillauda mn, nemoricola ;: Hodgson’s Mountain Finch.

Q 29-7-50 Khangsar 15,500 ft.; §% 4-7-50 Jareng Khola 14,000 ft.
In dwarf juniper 14-15,500 ft. and higher. In pairs and large flocks.

Passer montanus mialaccensis : Tree Sparrow.

2 11-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
~ Common in villages and fields upto 13,000 ft.

(@ Emberiza cia stracheyi ; Eastern Meadow Bunting.

SAIS LS 24-6-50 to 30-7-50 Manangbhot 12-13,000 ft.
10,C00—13,000 ft.

@ Motacilla cinerea melanope : Grey Wagtail.

d' 12-8-50 Pisang 10,000 ft.; #1 21-8-50 Thangja 7,000 ft. ; fg 31-8-50
Bimta Kothi 12,000 ft.

SOME BIRDS FROM NORTH-WESTERN NEPAL 35

Open wet ground and under bushes. Not above 10,000 ft. in the dry
zone, but up to 13,500 ft. in the wet zone. Feeding young at Pisang on
29-5-50. S

@ Motacilla alba alboides : Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail.

Jd 26-6-50 and 28-6-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Wet fields and stony stream beds. Not common.

@ Motacilla alba personata : Masked Wagtail.

Jf 15-7-50 Manangbhot 11,500 ft.
One only seen on open stony ground.

@ Anthus hodgsoni : Indian Tree Pipit.

J 2-7-50 Jargeng Khola 15,000 ft.; 9 2-7-50 Manangbhot 12,500 £t. ;
o 30-7-50, 0 ? 6-8-50 Khangsar 13,000 ft.; 4 20-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft.

Seen on open rocky ground. In forest and also among dwarf juniper
up to 14,50 ft. at the edge of forest.

Anthus roseatus : Hodgson’s Pipit.

o ? 6-8-50 Khangsar 14,590 it.
Locally fairly common on open slopes to 15,500 ft.

@ Otocoris alpestris elwesi : Elwes’s Horned Lark.
& 5-8-50 Khangsar 15,090 ft.
One pair only seen with young on high open slopes.

Aethopyga n. nipalensis ; Nepal Yellowbacked Sunbird.
SPS 12-9-50 to 21-9-50 Thonje 6,500 ft. ; #1 15-8-50 Chame 8,000 ft.
In forest and open scrub. Among pine trees.

@ Pachyglossa melanoxantha : Yellowbellied Flowerpecker.

J 18-8-50 Thonje 8,090 ft.
In clearings in dense forest. Seen nowhere else.

Picus s. squamatus : Scalybellied Green Woodpecker.
@ 23-8-50 Bimta Kothi 9,500 ft. ; 4 10-93-50, Thonje 6,500 ft.
A single bird seen at the edge of mixed forest.

@ Dryobates macei : Fulvousbreasted Pied Woodpecker.

9 17-8-50 Thangja 8,000 tte
In mixed forest.

Cuculus canorus : Cuckoo.”
Cuckoos were comparatively plentiful (and were breeding) between
12,000 and 13,590 ft. in Manangbhot from June to August.

Rhopodytes tristis ; Greenbilled Malkoha.

© 30-9-50 Khamihoke 2,000 ft.
In open forest.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

@ Coracias b. benghalensis : Indian Roller.

3 5-8-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft. A single stray bird in open meadow.
[Occurrence at 12,000 ft. is remarkable, as it is not usually found above
4,000 ft.—N.B.K.]

Upupa epops : Hoopoe.*
Hoopoes appeared in Manangbhot in small numbers during July and
were in evidence until the second week of August.

@ Strix nivicola : Himalayan Wood Owl.

© 14-8-50 Chame 9,000 ft.
Pine forest. Almost the only owl seen in five months.

@ Gyps himalayensis; Griffon Vulture.*

A single pair of Griffon Vultures was frequently to be seen in the area
round Braga village, 11,500 ft., during June and July.

(@ Gypaétus barbatus : Lammergeier.*

Several pairs of Lammergeiers were present in Manangbhot from May
to September at altitudes from 11,000 to 14,000 ft.

Milvus govinda : Pariah Kite.*

A single pair of Kites was present in the area of Braga village during
July.

Eagles were frequently to be seen soaring above the Marsiandi Valley
in Manangbhot during June and July ; possibly Aguzla chrysaétos.

Smaller birds of prey were conspicuous by their absence, but on 27 July
a Falcon took a young— very young—Snowcock from a family party that
Major Roberts was stalking.

(@ Sphenocercus s. sphenurus : Wedgetailed Green Pigeon.
2 18-8-50 Thangja 8,000 ft.
Fairly common in the tree-tops in mixed forest, and flighting.

(@ Columba livia ; Rock Pigeon.

J (imm.) 3-7-50 Manangbhot 12,0090 ft.
Common 10-13,000 ft. on fields, cliffs and gorges. Small flocks,
often in company with /ezconota.

Columba |. leuconota ; Snow Pigeon.

9 28-6-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Common 11—15,590 ft. on fields, and less often on high open slopes.
In large flocks.

(@ Dendrotreron hodgsoni ; Speckled Wood Pigeon.

2 23-8-50 Bimta Kothi 10,000 ft.
Several seen in open mixed forest.

Streptopelia o, orientalis ; Rufous Turtle Dove.

2 13-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft. ; 9 30-7-50 Ehangsat 13,000 ft.
In coniferous forest up to 13, O00 ft.

SOME BIRDS FROM NORTH-WESTERN NEPAL 37

@ Ithaginis c. cruentus ; Blood Pheasant.

oJ 29-8-50 Bimta Kothi 12,000 ft.
In birch woods. Locally well known and named Chzlme.

@ Alectoris graeca chukar ; Chukor.

J 26-6-50 and 3-7-50 Manangbhot 12,000 ft.
Quite plentiful on fields 10-13,000 ft. Young seen in June.

@ Perdix h. hodgsoniae : Tibetan Partridge.
J 5-7-50 Jargeng Khola 14,000 ft.; # (imm.) 29-7-50 Khangsar

14,000 ft.
In juniper scrub. Very noisy in the mornings.

Tetraogallus himalayensis : Snowcock.
Snowcock were common between 14,000 and 16,000 ft. in Manang-
bhot during July and August.

Lophophorus impejanus ; Monal Pheasant.

© 29-8-50 Bimta Kothi 13,000 ft.
Sparingly above the tree line. Does not occur in the dry zone.
[In Sikkim not recorded above 15,000 ft.—N.B.K. ]

@ Tringa ochropus ; Green Sandpiper.*
During July solitary Green Sandpipers were seen on several occasions
on the river-shingles in the valley near Braga.

(@® Scolopax rusticola ; Woodcock.
Woodcock were observed ‘ roding’ at Tone! 6,500 ft. on 25 May.

@ Mareca penelope : Wigeon.* |

A solitary cock Wigeon in full breeding plumage was seen on a small
pond onll June. It was most unwilling to fly and had presumably been
injured,

(@ Nyroca ferina : Pochard.*

A small party of Pochards was seen on another pond on 10 June;
the drakes in breeding plumage.

A few other duck and teal were observed (on passage ?) on several
occasions early in June,

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN

BY
Daya KRISHNA, D.PHIL (Alld.), PH.D, (Cantab.), F.Z.S.,
AND
IsHWAR PRAKASH
Jaswant College, Jodhpur

Part 1. FossorrtaAL HAapirs AND DISTRIBUTION
(With four text-tigures)
INTRODUCTION

Although the fossorial habits of many insectivores (moles and shrews
etc.) have been studied to some extent, those of hedgehogs have not been
studied so far. In this country particularly even their distribution has not
been satisfactorily studied. Among the earlier workers, Herrick (1892)
and Wood (1910) have studied only certain aspects of the fossorial habits
of moles. The former has described their digging habits to be ‘swim-
ming through the earth’. Wood (1910) remarked: ‘the burrows of the
moles are always excavated not by bringing dirt to the surface but by
pushing it aside.’ Later on Hisaw (1923) and recently Reed (1951) have
described in detail the method of their digging and shoving of the soil.

Coming to the question of their distribution in this country, Jerdon
(1867), Blanford (1888-91), Wroughton (1918), Prater (1948) and Eller-
man and Morrison-Scott (1951) have recorded the presence of these
animals on a very broad basis. ‘The details are lacking and also these
workers have not mentioned anything about the population density of
these animals.

This study, therefore, has been attempted in order to collect further
information. ‘fhe distribution was studied last summer (1954) during our
tour of the desert. ‘The tour was undertaken under a UNESCO scheme
to study the role of vertebrates in spreading and preserving the desert
conditions. We are highly grateful to UNESCO for the financial help.
Information on distribution was also collected through the officers of the
Government of Rajasthan, and those of the Anti-Locust Department
(Directorate of Plant Protection, Government of India). The fossorial
and feeding habits were studied in Pilani under the patronage of the Birla
Education Trust, for which we are thankful to its Secretary, Shri S. D.
Pande. We also acknowledge the help given by the Government depart-
ments and various organisations and express our gratitude to them and
also to those individuals who helped us in various ways from time to time.
Our thanks are also due to Shri K. S. Pradhan of the Zoological Survey
of India and to its Director for helping us with necessary literature.

TECHNIQUE

Owing to their nocturnal habit, hedgehogs are not easily collected
during the day time. They are generally found in the evenings under

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN 39
hedges. Ina village or outside a town they are often seen under lamp
posts, where they come to feed upon insects and toads. During the day
they have to be dug out of their burrows. For the present study they
were kept in captivity and also in semi-captivity. For the former condition
they were kept in large cages (90” x 30” x 30”) with a thick layer of sand
at their bottom; for the latter they were left in aclosed courtyard
(15’ x 20’). For the study of the burrow its roof was removed and the
burrow was covered with a glass pane. After this change, too, the
hedgehogs continued to use the tunnel.

DISTRIBUTION

According to our collections and the reports received, there are two
species of hedgehogs found in this region: 1. Hemiechinus aurttus
collaris Gray 2. Paraechinus micropus micropus Blyth. The former is spread
all over the desert. It is less abundant in the northern and western regions

MAP OF \
@ 4 Sem
= Gine RAJASTHAN
J, :SANGANAGARES a

7 Se nay DISTRIBUTION OF HEDGEHOGS
Ngo: "28, IN THE DESERT AREA

ber
0) Leite

\ } > BIKANER
ES 2 MO sel 7

& / fo

es
2 o +

Ee 6 Se
an JAISALHER — POKRAN
° o

s
>

a)
PHALODI'

es

° wks
, BARMER

‘ es

e
UDAIPUR

REFERENCES
" Hemiechinus auritus collaris — Earn

Paraechinus micropus micropus

DESERT ARPA

40 JOURNAL,’ BOMBAY NATURAL) AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
a

(Ganganagar, Bap, Phalodi, Jaisalmer and Barmer) than in the southern
and eastern ones (Ratangarh, Jhunjhunu, Bikaner and Jodhpur).
P. m. micropus is confined to the north-eastern part (Ratangarh and
Jhunjhunu), where it is more abundant than even H/. a. collaris. Our
catches have shown that P. m. micropus are twice as abundant there as
ff. a. collavis. Here the collection was made at three different places for
a fixed period at each one (three days) in the months of August and
September. The catches revealed that the sex ratio for both the species
in these months was 3 males to ‘1 female.

Jerdon (1867) and Blanford (1888-91) did not record P. m. micropus
from Rajasthan, and have mentioned that this variety occurred only in the
South India (Trichinopoly and Coimbatore etc.). At that time the sub-
species mzcropus and nudiventris were not separated and were included
under a common name mzcropus, which had a full specific rank. The
accounts of Jerdon (1867) and Blanford (1888-91) are correct for the
Paraechinus micropus nudiventris Horsfield but not for P. m. micropus.
The other reason for their omission could be that they collected material
from Barmer, Jaisalmer and Ganganagar only, where we also have not
observed this sub-species. Later Wroughton (1918) has recorded the
presence of P. m. micropus from this northern part of Rajasthan and has

described Bahawalpur as its type locality. The type locality for //. a. collaris
was not yet spotted out,

GENERAL HABITS

Hedgehogs are nocturnal and during the day they remain inside their
burrows rolled up as a ball. They come out at dusk and remain active
for about 5 to 6 hours. They retire to their burrows at mid-night.
When touched, or sometimes even when approached, they roll up in an
impregnable ball of spines, withdrawing their snout and limbs. After
some time they slowly and cautiously open out. Whena stick is inserted
in their burrow they make a hissing noise. Probably this is an adapta-
tion to mimic snakes which are generally regarded to be dangerous
animals. In captivity also they make a similar noise when they are
touched to pick up and also react with an upward jerk as they are
touched. When the animal is moving its spines are directed backwards,
but as it rolls up they stand erect due to the stretching of measculaus
orbicularts.

FOSSORIAL HABITS

Hedgehogs spend most of their life under the ground. They inhabit
small burrows dug by themselves. These burrows are invariably found
under a hedge or a dense bush, but never in open ground and in loose
soil. These subterranean homes follow a fixed plan. ‘They are simple
straight pouches in the earth with only one opening. Their inner blind
ends ate slightly dilated and there is no ‘bolt run’ (Fig. 2). The bur-
rows are ustially 1 to 14 ft. long but in Bikaner, where the soil is looser
than in Jhunjhunu, 4 to 5 ft. long burrows have also been observed.
Ordinarily only one individual lives in a burrow, except in the breeding
season when the female lives with her offspring till such time as they are

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN AL

old enough to dig their own burrow. ‘To accommodate the young, the
female widens the blind (distal) end of the burrow (Fig. 3). In semi-
captivity P. m. microfus made an abnormal burrow in which three
individuals used to live (Fig. 4). The following are the dimensions of
the burrows :—

Length . , leetoves?
Diameter of opening Re ae atten aoe
Diameter of distal dilated end... 3°5” to 5”
Diameter of the distal blind end

of burrow of female hedgehog

in breeding season gyn es (Onl
Deptn eA aonnto: LAY

Ce eed

TAT HG UG 4

EnGe 2

Burrow of hedgehog. Common in nature. Vertical Section.

— > emo ao oe moe

biyrgdid,
ltyaql

|
|

ytd

oD

14!

— oro memantine i ed

tee mrp in|
| |
|
|

fprpPbldgagdday

list!

IG 3)

Burrow of female hedgehog in breeding season. Vertical section.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

—_ -~ —o ese ED os oS

—
—_
_
==
—
—
en
=

Fic. 4

Abnormal burrow of hedgehogs, dug by three Paraechinus micropus micropus.
A was dug first, then B and C were dug by two other individuals. Vertical Section.

Hedgehogs enter their burrow head first and while doing so they pro-
ject the anterior portion of the musculus orbicularts over the snout. to
protect it from any injury. The animal iies in the burrow in two
positions: 1. Halfrolled up, 2. fully stretched. In its return journey
also, the snout comes first. The turning inside the narrow burrow is
done by pressing the body sideways.

During the process of digging, hedgehogs loosen the earth by lateral
strokes of the fore-limbs, which are armed with broad spade-like claws.
These strokes are so powerful that the sand is thrown to a considerable
distance behind the body. Shoving of dirt is thus achieved by the power-
ful strokes of the fore-limbs till the burrow is 6” to 7” long. Thereafter,
when the burrow reaches a length of about a foot, the hedgehog backs
up to the middle of the burrow in ‘ reverse gear’ and kicks the sand out
by the rapid alternate action of the hind-limbs. A small hill of sand is
formed at the opening of the burrow. The hedgehog now comes to the
opening by moving in reverse and shoves away the hill also, again with
its hind-limbs. In semi-captivity P. mm. microbus were not observed
to dig their own burrows. ‘They always preferred to remain under logs
and dense branches of bushes. Sometimes they chose the burrows dug
and vacated by #7. a. collarvis. In nature, however, the P. m7. micropus
were always found in burrows. 7. a. collarvis, on the contrary, always
dug their burrows themselves. When the earth is sufficiently hard they
usually compiete digging their 12” to 15” long burrow in 3 to 4 hours.

The method of digging of these animals is similar to that of the moles,
Scalopus aguaticus machrinoides (Hisaw, 1923), Scapanus latimanus
latimanus (Reed, 1951) and WNeurotrichus (Reed, 1951). No other
insectivore has been recorded by naturalists to shovel like these animals.
The talpine mole, Scapanus latimanus latimanus shoves the earth by
‘using one outthrust hand as a pusher, with the neck and _ thorax
bent to one side and locomotion achieved by use of the other three
limbs ; this same posture is maintained when pushing dirt out onto the
surface. Under such conditions the hind-limbs would be performing the
major part of locomotor effort’ (Reed, 1951). About the shoving by
Neurotrichus, Reed (1951) states: ‘ It does not however, bring dirt to

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN 43

the surface to form mole, hills, nor does it seem to transport dirt through
a burrow as will a true mole ; presumably it always excavates in such soft
earth that a burrow can readily be constructed by pressing the dirt aside.’

Cuvier (1817) wrote that there is a special bone in the nose of the
mole, Zalpa europea, which the animal uses for digging. But Reed’s
remarks are to the contrary. He writes: ‘I can only say that there is no
special ‘ digging ’ bone in the nose of Scapanus latimanus and Neurotrichus
gibbsiz, and I doubt if any other mole has one.’ Other observers have
also not recorded the presence of the special bone which Cuvier (1817)
mentioned (J. G. Wood, 1859 ; Herrick, 1892 ; Stephens, 1906 ; Slonaker,
1920).

Skulls of these hedgehogs were also examined, and no such special
bone has been observed. Moreover, the hedgehogs have never been
observed using their snouts for digging purposes.

SUMMARY

1. Fossorial habits of two species of hedgehogs found in the desert
of Rajasthan are described ; also their method of tunnelling.

2. The distribution of Hemiechinus auritus collaris Gray and Paraechi-
nus micropus mucropus Blyth in the desert of Rajasthan is given.

REFERENCES

Blanford, W. T. (1888-91) : Fauna of British India. Mammalia. ‘Taylor and
Francis, London.

Cuvier, G. (1817) : Le régne animal distribué d’aprés son organisation, Vol. I.
L’. Introduction, les mammiféres, et les oeseaux (Deterville, Paris} 1-540.

Ellerman, J. R. and Morrison-Scott, I.C.S. (1951) : Check-list of Palaearctic and
Indian Mammals. British Museum. London.

Herrick, C. L. (1892): The Mammals of Minnesota. Geol. and Nat. Hist.
Surv. Minn, Bull., 7+ 37-42.

Hisaw, F. L. (1923): Observations of the burrowing habits of mole (Scalopus
aquaticus machrinoides)., Jour. Mamm. 4: 79-88.

Jerdon, I’. C. (1867): The Mammals of India.

Prakash, Ishwar (1954): Swimming and locomotion of captive’ hedgehog,
JBNAS, 52: 584-585.

Prater, S. H. (1948):- The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

Reed, C. A. (1951): Locomotion and appendicular anatomy in three soricoid
insectivores. Amer. Midl. Nat., 45 : 513-671.

Slonaker, J. R. (1920): some morphological changes for adaptations in the
mole. Jour. Morph., 34: 335-373.

Stephens, F.(1906) : California Mammals. San Diego (West Coast Publishing Co.)

Wood, F. E. (1910): A Study of Mammals of Champaign county, Illinois, JZ7/,
State Lab. Nat. Hist. Bull., 8: 500-613.

Wroughton, R, C. (1918) : Summary of results from the Indian Mammals Survey
of the Bombay Natural History Society. JBNAS., 26: 19,

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE
HEADWATERS OF THE BHAVANI RIVER, SOUTH INDIA

BY
©. RAJAN
(From the Laboratories of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta)

INTRODUCTION

Two collections of fish were made at different periods in 1954, from
the Bhavani and Moyar rivers and some of their tributaries. The first
collection, mainly from the Moyar watershed, was made from February
to April. The second collection was made from both the rivers from
September to November. Since the collection is fairly representative of
the area surveyed, it is intended to report on it. The Bhavani River
drains the southern and the Moyar River the north-eastern face of the
Nilgiri Hills.

Since the publication of Day’s volume on Fishes in the Fauna of
British India series (1889) the only other comprehensive list of fishes of
the Nilgiri and Wynaad Hills is that given by Hora (1942)'. ‘The present
collection, which comprises 2380 specimens, can be referred to 48
species and was made at different altitudes. Above 5000 feet, only
specimens of Danio Hamilton, Rasbora Bleeker, Tor Gray and Moema-
cheilus van Hasselt were collected, while these and the other genera given
in the list below occur at lower altitudes. Naturalised species, namely,
Carassius carassius (Linnaeus) ; Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus) var. communis
and var. specularis ; Tinca tinca (Bloch) and Gambusia affinis Baird and
Girard were obtained from the Ootacamund Lake while Salmo levenensis
Walker? was collected from the Krurumund River.

LOCALITIES

For the sake of brevity, the localities are tabulated as follows :—

No. Localities No. of Stations
1. Bhavani River, between Chindaki and Bhavanisagar ... 29
2. Kunda River BAD we “ie 2
3. Taimalai Stream Sas oaks ide 1
4, Pykara River, between Mukurti Dam and Wood
Estate wan 5
Krurumund River 1

6. Moyar River, between Moyar Division of Government
Cinchona Plantations, Naduvatam and Gazalhatti
7. Stream running through Devarshola Estate, crossing the
Gudalur Sultan Battery Road at Mile 4/3 40
8. Stream in Devon Estate, Devarshola
9, Stream below the Tea Experiment Station, Devarshola
10. Stream in Kekkanhalla 600
11. Sandy Nullah River
12. Kokkal Stream
13. Siruvani River

bt pet FF DO DO DD fp)

~

1 Hora, S. L., Rec. Ind., Mus., 44. pp. 193-200 (1942 ).
* Misra, K.S., Rec. Ind. Mus., 45. p. 412 (1947).

en retin

A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER 45

LIST OF SPECIES

Number of Standard Length

Name of Species

Family Cyprinidae
Sub-family Abramadinae

MG

Chela atpar (Hamilton) one

2. Chela lanbuca (Hamilton)

3h
4,

Oxygaster argentea (Day) Ore
Oxygaster clupeoides (Bloch) on8

Sub-family Rasborinae

OHO ND En

Barilius bendelisis Hamilton
Barilius gatensis (Valenciennes)
Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
Esomus barbatus (Jerdon)
Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton )

Sub-family Cyprininae

Ambly pharyngodon melettina OE SS ae eae

Puntius amphibius (Valenciennes)

Puntius carnaticus (SJerdon)

Puntius chola Hamilton

Puntins curmuca (Hamilton)

Puntius dorsalis (Jerdon)

Puntius dubius Day

Puntius tilamentosus (Valenciennes)
Puniius jerdonit Day ~

Puntius melanampyx (Day)

Puntius micropogon (Valenciennes)

Puntius pulchellus (Day)

Puntius savana (Hamilton)

Puntius sophore Hamilton

Puntius ticto ticto Hamilton

Tor khudree (Sykes)

Osteochilus (Kantaka) brevidorsalis (Day) ..
Osteochilus (Osteochilichthys) nashit ane BG
Labeo kontius (Jerdon) :

Sub-family Garrinae

29.
30.
We
32.

Cirr hina veba (Hamilton)
Garra mullya (Sykes)
Garra jerdoni (Day)?

Garra stenorhynchus (Jerdon)

Family Cobitidae

33.
34,
35.
36.
37.

Lepidocephalus ther matis (Valenciennes) ...
Noemacheilus beavani Ginther of
Noemacheilus denisonit Day

Noemacheilus guenthert Day oes
Noemacheilus monilis Hora Sie

Family Siluridae

38.
39,

Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)
Silurus berdmoret wynaadensis Day

Family Bagridae

40.
4},
42.

43,

Mystus cavasius (Hamilton)

My stus malabaricus (Jerdon) +f

Mystus punctatus (Jerdon) ade
Mystus vittatus (Bloch) eos

Specimens

me

CO Fr & &

in mm,

Minimum Maximum

31.25 - 82.00
34.00 - 56.75
25.29 ~ 99.75
64.25 - 99.00 -

52.50 - 74.00
19.25 — 89.00
15.00 - 83.25
38.25 - 71.25
22.90 - 72.75

42.00 - 68.25
45,25 -— 88.00
23.00 — 250.00
62.00 -77.50
43.75

31.25

91.00 - 107.50
33.00- 56.50
46.50 - 61.25

26.00 - 48.50
82.00 - 169.09
36.25 - 95.00
76.50 - 106.00
43.75 - 56.25
14.75 — 50.00
98.00 - 200.00
54.75 - 126.25
36.00

94,50 - 156,00

89.00 — 140.00
21.50 — 112.00
73.00 —- 125.00

26.00 - 120.00
25.00 - 48.75
33.60 - 49.75
30.75 ~ 32.75
52.00

46.00 - 46.75.
259.25

99.00

97.25 — 118.50
79.75 - 81.00.
320.00

54.00 — 73.00

u Silas, E. e Roan Gierion’ Ss work ' On the Trechaater Fishes of Southern

India’ (1840).

(Seen in MSS.)

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Family Sisoridae
44. Glyplothorax madraspatanus (Day) is 9 81.75 - 94.75

Family Anguillidae
45, Anguilla omnia aie 500 i 1000.00

Family Gobiidae
46. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) md 7 ~ 86.00 - 150.00

Family Ophiocephalidae
47. Channa gachua (Hamilton) Bod 14 50.00 - 85.50

Family Mastacembelidae
48. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacépéde) at 6 135.00 - 326.00

NOTES ON CERTAIN SPECIES
Esomus barbatus (Jerdon)

1928. Esomus barbatus, Hora and Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., 30: 46.

Hora and Mukerji (loc. cit.), while discussing the taxonomy of this
species, observed that ‘it can be readily distinguished by its characteristic
coloration (sides without black, broad, lateral bands) and by the posses-
sion of 17 predorsal scales’, from £&. ¢hermoicos (Cuvier and Valen-
ciennes).

In as many as thirty specimens of &. darbatus examined, it is found
that the number of predorsal scales varies between 17 and 19. Fresh
specimens also show a well-defined dark lateral band, about one scale
in width, extending from the posterior margin of the orbit or from the
operculum to the base of the caudal fin.

Thus it wiil be seen that both in the coloration and scalation there is
considerable intergradation between Jdarbatus of Peninsular India and
thermoicos of Ceylon. Asthe minor differences noticeable between the
two do not seem to be of specific importance, it is best to consider
thermoticos as a subspecies of the earlier described darbatus as treated by
Silas (1955).*

This species is distributed throughout South India.

Puntius carnaticus (Jerdon)
1932. Barbus carnaticus, Mukerji, JBNAS, 35: 164.

In a young specimen examined, there is a clear, dark precaudal spot
extending over the penultimate lateral line scale. The outer margins of
a few anterior scales along the lateral line show dark pigmentation.

Day (op. cit. p. 305) introduced this species in the Ootacamund Lake,
but it seems to have failed to acclimatize itself there as no catch has been
reported in recent years.

It is distributed in the rivers along the base of the Nilgiris, Wynaad,
Mysore and South Kanara and in the Anamalai and Nelliampathi Hill
ranges.

ten

Anodes coh

1 Silas, E. G., Bull. Nat. Inst, Sci. India, No.5. p. (1955),

A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER 47

Puntius micropogon (Valenciennes)
1941. Barbus (Puntius) micropogon Raj, Rec. Ind. Mus., 43: 382.

The specimens of P. mzcropogon in the present collection fall under
group 3 as given by Raj, but they exhibit slight variations, which may
be partly due to their smaller size. The number of scales along the
lateral line are 41 and 42, and the L. tr. is 74 11/4-5. The diameter of
the eye is contained 1.25 to 1.75 times in the snout.

The distribution of this species is in the rivers around the base of
Nilgiris, Wynaad, Mysore and South Kanara. A subspecies, vzz. P.
micropogon periyarensis Raj has been described from the Periyar River
in the Travancore Hills.

Labeo kontius (Jerdon) .
1889. Labeo kontius, Day, Fauna, Brit. India, Fish. 1, p. 264.

Since the specimens show some variations in the range of certain
characters from Day’s description, a brief account of the species is given
below.

The length of the head is contained from 4.80 to 5.86 times in the
total and 3.74 to 4.46 times in the standard length. The snout is contain-
ed 1.94 to 2.36 times in the head length. The eyes are situated 1.57 to
2.46 diameters behind the tip of the snout, and are 3.73 to 5.07 in the head
length and 1.80 to 2.50 in the inter-orbital distance. The height of the
body is contained 4.04 to 5.46 times in the total and 3.19 to 4.00 times
in the standard length. There are 14 to 16 (3/11-13) dorsal fin rays.
The number of lateral line scales ranges from 39 to 42; and the predorsal
scales from 15 to 17. There are 8 to 95 rows of scales between the
dorsal fin and the lateral line; 54 to 64 rows between the lateral line and
pelvic fin and 64 to 74 rows between the lateral line and the origin of the
anal fin. Scales round the caudal peduncle number 21 or 22 along the
natrowest part.

L. kontius is distributed in Nilgiris and Mysore.

Noemacheilus monilis Hora

1921. Nemachilus monilis, Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., 22:19.

This is the first record of this beautifully coloured loach from
the Bhavani river (Siruvani, a tributary stream) after its discovery
ray JUS ZI

In all essential features the two specimens in the present collection
agree with Hora’s detailed description except in the number of dorsal fin
rays, which is 3/8 in one of the specimens. This would mean that in
NV. monilzs the dorsal fin ray count is 3/7-8.

Mystus malabaricus (Jerdon)

1889. Macrenes malabaricus Day, Fauna Brit. India, Fish. x. p. 160.

In most of the characters it conforms to Day’s description of the
species, except with regard to the pectoral and anal fin ray counts. The
former shows a count of 1/7 versus (Day: 1/9). In the latter the number
of rays varies from 11 to 13 (3-4/8-9) versus (Day : 2-3/8).

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The species is distnbuted from Ratnagiri District in Bombay State
down to Travancore.

Mystus punctatus (Jerdon)

1889. Jacrones punctatus Day, Fauna Brit. India, Fish, z., p. 153.

One specimen of JZ. punctatus, 320 mm. in length was obtained from
the Moyar river at Mangalapatti. The specimen was taken on hook,
which was laid at dusk and removed next morning. The predaceous
nature of this species is seen from the fact that the stomach was found to
contain a full-sized specimen of Garra stenorhynchus (Jerdon) 103 mm.
in length and a severed head (25 mm. long) of the same species of
Garra.

Glyptothorax madraspatanus (Day)

1889. Gly ptosternum madraspatanum, Day, Fauna Brit. India, Fish. 1., p. 200.

1938. Glyptothorax madraspatanus, Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., 40 : 370.

1951. Glyptothorvax madraspatanus, Silas, JBNA'S, 50 : 368.

Nine specimens of G. madvaspatanus were collected, of which five are
females and the rest males. Since they show differences from Day’s
description and as the body proportions of adult males and females seem
to differ in certain characters, a brief description of the species giving
these details is appended below.

The length of the head is contained 4.86 to 5.54 (#1 5.14-5.54; 2
4.86-5.21) and the depth of the body 4.93 to 8.04 (7 6.20-8.41 ; ¢ 4. 93-
6.70) times in the total length and 3.71 to 4.22 (#1 3.87-4.22 ; 9 3.71-
4.04) and 3.81 to 6.52 (f 4.71-6.41 ; 2 3.82—5.08) in the standard length
respectively. The occipital process is 2.18 to 4.42 times as long as wide
at its base. ~The dorsal spine is serrated at its Upper third anteriorly and
all along its posterior margin. The caudal peduncle is 1.68 to 2.17 times
as long as high and the ‘adhesive disc ’ on the ventral surface is 1.28 to
1.55 times as long as wide. ‘The general body colour is yellowish grey,
being darker on the head and anterior part of the body. ‘There are two
broad, transverse lighter bands, one from below the tip of the dorsal fin
extending to about the middle of the adipose dorsal and the second from
below the last third of the adipose dorsal to the base of the caudal fin.
There is a black band at the base of the caudal fin followed by a broad white
band. Each caudal lobe has a black band and the tips are white. The
rayed dorsal, adipose dorsal, pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are tipped white.
There is a dark band at the upper half of the dorsal fin extending along
the first three rays. ‘The ventral surface is dirty white. ‘The region of
the disc is yellowish. In gravid females the colour pattern is lighter
while in mature males the entire dorsal surface is dark greyish.

G. madraspatanus is distributed in the Nilgiris and parts of Mysore.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to Dr. 5. L. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey
of India, for the facilities offered me to work out this collection, and to Dr.
E. G. Silas, for all the help he has rendered me in the preparation of this
paper. ‘To the staff of the Madras Fisheries and Forest Departments and
the Nilgiri Game Association my thanks are due for all the help rendered
me while out in the field.

Ss q AN
nia.

~~ va ‘00S ‘JSIET ‘JUN Avquog ‘udnor

BIRD MIGRATION AND FOWLING IN AFGHANISTAN

BY
S. A. AKHTAR
Professor ot Biology, Faculty of Science, Kabul

(With a map)

It is a well known fact that in the northern hemisphere, birds have
their breeding quarters in the northern parts and winter quarters near the
Equator. Absence of an adequate food supply in winter is by itself
enough to account for emigration; and return from the south in spring
is probably due to the desire of birds to re-occupy their old homes in
which they have been bred. By means of migration they avoid the
rigours of the northern winter while they are able to enjoy the long hours
of the northern summer when rearing their young. There can be little
doubt that during migratory movements visual clues play an important
if not exclusive part ; and the majority of birds adopt routes along the
tiver courses where they are provided with food as well as drink.
[ ? Eps. }

It is not intended here to discuss the birds as a whole, but to examine
the conditions of those species which have their summer quarters north
of the Himalayas and their winter quarters south of that range. It is quite
possible that the bulk of the migratory birds from Siberia, after spending
Winter in India pass round the Himalayas either east or west. No great
migratory movements have been observed via any of the big Himalayan
valleys between Kashmir and Sikkim. ‘The Himalayan extension towards
south from Kashmir to Quetta appears to offer no obstacle except the
Sulaiman Range, if that is of any importance, but nowhere have the
migrants been observed so plentifully as at the lower end of the Kurram
Valley. Here in the months of February and March are found vast
quantities of wildfowl, waders, gulls etc. on passage to their far-off
northern homes from the lower reaches of the Indus and the Manchar
Lake in Sind. Whitehead remarks: ‘The majority of these birds un-
doubtedly keep to the river-route, there being no other important water-
way lying near that line of migration, and must therefore of necessity pass
up the Kurram Valley.’

The migrants from Sind etc. thus enter Afghanistan through the
Kurram Valley which leads them to the upper basin of the Kabul River
in which it flows with its tributaries, the Logar, the Ghorband and the
Punjshair. It is relatively flat country and, beginning from the Logar
Valley, it stretches northwards through the Kabul Valley and the Kohda-
man Valley up to the Kohistan Valiey. But it is bounded on the north
by the lofty range of the Hindukush, which forms a natural barrier the
migrants have to meet in crossing Afghanistan. It is a western offshoot
of the Himalayas, stretching westwards from Pamir to Bamian where it
breaks up into several almost parallel branches. It rises far in the region
of perpetual snow but has certain points along it less high, forming many
passes of which one, the Perwan Pass (at present known as the Salung

4

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiSt. SOCIEDY, Volewo3

Pass), has a great importance in connection with the migration of
birds.

The head of the Salung Pass is the source of two opposite flowing
rivers, the Khinjan and the Perwan (at present known as the Jubbal-us-
siraj River). The former, flowing down its northern slope, joins its
tributary the Andrab, and a little farther the Ballola or Bamian River, and
then becomes the Kunduz River which flows further northwards into the
Oxus. Thus it forms to some extent a flight line, as it may be called,
beyond the Hindukush. The Jubbal-us-siraj flowing down the southern
slope joins its tributary the Ghorband River, and a little farther the Punj-
shair River. Farther beyond the Kohistan Valley it joins the Kabul
River which afterwards flows eastwards into the Indus. Thus an almost
continuous waterway is present over the Hindukush at the Salung Pass.
This pass provides the shortest route into Afghan Turkestan and lies
just in front of and along the flight line from the head of the Kurram
Valley and along the Logar River. Sultan Baber remarks : ‘(The Perwan
Pass)... is the grand pass up the Hindukush, and there is no other
pass but itseif in this vicinity. Onthat account all the game ascends the
mountain by this route’. Incidentally it is interesting to note that the
remarks of Whitehead regarding the Kurram Valley are almost identical
with those of Sultan Baber regarding the Salung Valley made about five
hundred years earlier.

Just as the birds, during their northward journey before ascending the
Kurram Pass, make a halt on their way at Bannu in the open, similarly
before ascending the Salung Pass they make a halt at Bagram, anc every
one who has visited the place at the appropriate time has been struck by
the great abundance of birds there. It is quite possible that birds coming
up from the southeast along the Kabul River, and those coming up
through the Gomal Pass, may be further added to the number arrived
from the south through the Kurram Pass. Thus large flocks of duck,
teal, lapwings, herons, pelicans, etc., come and make a halt at
Bagram. Alexander Burns made ‘a collection of no less than forty-five
different species of ducks, and it was quite evident,’ he says, ‘that many
additions might have been made’. Tamerlane on his way to India,
finding immense numbers of birds, took back with him fowlers from
Multan on his return journey. They were installed in about two or three
hundred houses and were called slave-fowlers. There is still a village -
near Bagram which is known as Syyadan (= fowlers,) and mostly inhabit-
ed by them.

Leaving Bagram aside let us look over the whole of the upper basin
of the Kabul River. In addition to rivers there are places here and there
where in early spring snow-water accumulates forming large shallow
lakes. There are two or three such lakes or marshes about Kabul City
which ate the resort of immense numbers of aquatic birds. It is for this
reason that the inhabitants, from ancient times, are fond of game and
skilful in fowling. Formerly they used to catch big birds by means of
springs. A long cord was wound on a stick with a cross handle of horn
at one end and a double-pointed arrow at the other. At night when the
birds fly low, the stick was taken out and the cordage was thrown over
the bird. The cord winding over the neck, wing or leg used to bring the
bird down.* ‘The practice does not seem to exist toaey.

+ This description is somewhat obscure. (Presumably some foun er poles a

BIRD MIGRATION AND FOWLING IN AFGHANISTAN 51

At some places on the Hindukush there are, however, some detached
oval ponds specially constructed for catching wild geese and ducks. The
plan adopted, though crude, is unique in its way. By the aid of narrow
dug trenches or channels, water from the running stream ts let into the
ponds and turned off when full. The pond is surrounded by a stone
wall high enough to allow a man to crouch behind unobserved. Over
and across one-half or less of this pond a rough trellis-work of thin
willow branches is put up. ‘The birds on alighting are gradually driven
under this canopy and a sudden rush is made by those on the watch. In
this manner hundreds of birds are caught daily during the season.

In the valleys of Kohdaman and Kohistan another method is adopted
for catching ducks. A small hut, covered with reeds ete. is built over a
water channel leading off from the main river or the lake on which the
birds gather. At night when the ducks are floating about in sleep, the
fowler enters the hut and, opening a sluice-gate that divides off the waier
of the river or lake, strikes a light inside and awaits the ducks. They
drift in on the current one by one through the narrow opening and are at
once seized by the neck and made halal—killed according to Islamic
Jaw. In this manner a couple of men can easily secure from a hundred
and fifty to two hundred ducks in a single night.

Coots are resident and common in the country. They are caught by
means of nets stretched across the channels in the reed-beds. ‘These
nets are hung on sticks fixed in the mud, the iower edge being in the
water, the upper edge above the surface. The flocks are driven into the
nets with the aid of rafts.

With the introduction of fire-arms bird-shooting has become a favourite
sport and great havoc is done annually. The rivers and lakes are fringed
with shooting boxes —little loop-holed mud-huts built on the edge of the
water. Near them are placed many decoy-ducks, dead ones whose
bodies are stuffed and attached to sticks fixed in the water. Sometimes
they are anchored in their proper position by stones tied to their feet
with pieces: of cord that reach the bottom. ‘The decoy-ducks whichare
locally called maulay, are so skilfully arranged on the sides of the water
that once Alexander Burns, seeing plenty of ducks in the river at Bagram,
fired at them, when to his great surprise he found they were but decoys!
Often they are arranged in a straight line along the edge of a river or a
lake. At night when the fowler finds a bird on either side out of the line
he fires atit. ‘The decoy ducks are meant to deceive their fellow birds
and they often serve their purpose admirably.

Sometimes another method is employed to counteract the shyness of
the birds. ‘Two men with shot-guns creep behind a bullock driven
towards the fowls, and when within range fire leisurely over the animal’s
back at them.

Early in the spring, when the trees are still deveid of leaves, the
inhabitants of Kohdaman or Kohistan fix mazwlays to the branches of
mulberry trees. These are not stuffed birds but are simply pieces of half-
burnt wood. Birds like the starling etc. taking them for their fellow birds
descend on the trees where they are easily shot from cover.

Not only are aquatic birds in abundance but other birds like larks,
pipits, wagtails etc. are also plentiful during the spring season, hence
several kinds of raptorial birds are trapped and trained for falconry. The
principal kinds are Baz (?Goshawk, Accipiter gentilis) Charagh or
Charagh falcon (falco cherrug) and Shahin or Peregrine falcon

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Or
Le)

(F. peregrinus) etc. Of these the Baz is the most esteemed and is taught
to soar over the falconer’s head and strike the quarry as it rises in the air.

Large flocks of Wrynecks, Bluethroats and Pastors arrive in April and
May. Vigne has noticed large flocks of Rosy Pastor entering Afghanistan
by the Gomal Pass on 27th April. These birds were knocked over by
pellet-bows. The bows were made of bamboo and the round pellets were
of clay baked in the sun, but now the pellet-bow is nowhere to be seen
in the country.

Sparrows are knocked over by means of foofak or blow-pipe which is
a bored wooden stick about a yard long, its hole not being more than
half a centimetre in diameter. A small pill of moist clay is put in*at one
end and from the other it is blown forcibly by mouth at the bird nearby.
But catapults are common and boys are generally seen wandering about
with them. They are charged with small gravel to which small birds
fall easy victims.

As soon as the quails are ‘in’, every boy and man turns out with a
long thin willow-rod at one end of which there is a horse-hair noose.
When a quail is seen crouching under a stone the noose is slowly slipped
over its neck and jerked up. Sometimes horse—hair nooses are fastened
to lumps of clay which are then scattered around the borders of the fields
where the birds are accustomed to run about.

Sparrows, quails and other small birds are caught in large numbers
by means of nets thrown over standing corn. Sparrows are said to be
caught in such immense numbers in Kohistan that even a widow
having nobody to take care of her gets enough birds for one meal at least
once a season! The feathers are plucked and the birds are minced flesh
and bone together. The dish is greatly relished by the people, and
thought to be a kind of tonic, especially for the malesex. All birds that
are not consumed locally are brought down to Kabul and sold by the
basketful in the markets, as are also all other kinds of birds.‘ In early
spring villagers are seen in the early morning coming towards the town with
duck, teal, coots etc. hanging by their legs from both hands. . Teal are,
perhaps, the earliest to arrive as they are seen in the beginning of February
when there is no other bird available. If the previous night has been
cloudy or rainy the game is more plentiful in the markets... On such
days especially, storks, cranes, herons, spoonbills etc. in singles, and snipe,
duck, avocets, stilts, coots, teal, grebes and other species in fives, tens or
twenties, are seen hanging up for sale in poulterer’s shops. From all of
which it is evident that passage migrants have to pay a heavy toll in
crossing over this country.

REFERENCES

Rellew, H. W. (1862) : Journal of a Political Mission to Afghanistan in 1857,
pp. 294, 402,

Burns, Alexander (1842) : Cabool p. 162.

Gray, J. (1946) : Migration of Vertebrate Animals. Andeavour 5 : 87.

1 In a letter Dr. Akhtar informs us that not only sparrows, but a@// small birds
that fly in flocks, irrespective of species, are netted and sold in bulk in this manner,
particularly starlings (Rosy?) and wagtails of several species. On an ornitho-
logical trip to N. Afghanistan in 1937 (with Col. R. Meinertzhagen) Mr, Sdélim Ali
observed heaping basketfuls of Short-toed Larks (Calandrella acutirostris)—with
their throats neatly cut in the approved Islamic way —hawked about for sale in the
weekly bazaars.—EDbs.

BIRD MIGRATION AND. FOWLING IN AFGHANISTAN 53

Leyden, J. and Erskine, W. (1826): Memoirs of Zehirudin Mohammed Baber,

Emperor of Hindustan, pp. 151, 153.
Masson, Charles (1844): Balochistan, Afghanistan, the Punjab and Kelat. Vol.

Ill, pp. 6-7.
McNair, W. W. (1884) : A Visit to Kaffiristan.. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. VI. 9.
Meinertzhagen, R. (1938) : On the Birds of Northern Afghanistan. /é7s ser. 14.

It. 3: 485, 487.

Vigne, G. T. (1840): A Personal Narrative of a Visit to Ghazni, Kabul and

Afghanistan p. 44.
Whistler, Hugh. (1945): Material for the Ornithology of

JBNAS, 45: 470.
Whitehead, C. H. T. (1909) : Onthe Birds of Kohat and the Kurram Valley.

Northern India. JBNA’S, 20 ;: 173-174.

Afghanistan.

A NEW POLYGALA FROM SOUTH INDIA

BY
S. K. MUKERJEE
Indian Botanic .Garden, Calcutta

(With a plate)

In Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis 1: 38, 1834, Wight
and Arnott described 14 species of Polygala. One of these they design-
ated as P. ciliata Linn. But P. czliata of Linnaeus had been found to be a
species of Salomonia and therefore, it was named as SS. czlzata (L.) DC. in
DeCandolle’s Prodromus Regni Vegetabilis 1: 334, 1824, and the
binomial—P. cz/iata Linn. was put as a synonym to S. cz/zafa. But the
species described as P. ciliata by Wight and Arnott was, however, found
to be a true Polygala and different from P. czliata Linn, i.e., S. cdlzata (L.)
DC. SoS. T. Dunn gave a new name to Wight and Arnott’s species
and called it P. dolbothrix Dunn in Kew Bull. 1916: 63, 1916.

Wight and Arnott mentioned two varieties of their P. czliata, viz. var.
< and var. 8. Under var. & they quoted Wallich’s No. 4177 and under
var. 8 they quoted W. Roxburgh’s coloured plate No. 675 of P.- arvensis
Willd. This, however, is a figure of P. chinensis Linn. Therefore,
P. ciliata W. and A. var. & is P. bolbothrix, and Wallich’s No. 4177
becomes the type sheet.

While examining the sheets of Polygala in the Calcutta Herbarium the
writer has come across a few sheets markedas P. delbothrix Dunn. Among
these are two sheets bearing Wallichian number 4177. Other sheets
matching exactly with these 2 sheets are : Fischer No. 157a from
Nerinjipet-Coimbatore, Fischer No. 2187 from Muttipulao Ghat, Coimba-
tore, and Fischer No. 3480 from Tekkadi, Malabar. In addition to those
mentioned above there are a few more, named similarly, but appearing
distinct because of being densely hispid all over with long spreading hairs.
These are larger and much branched specimens, and have smaller and
thicker leaves and smaller flowers. These differ from P. dolbothrix and
doubtlessly represent a new and hitherto undescribed species.

This species comes close also to another, viz. P. Azrsutula Arn. a
Ceylon plant. Of P. hzrsutula there are the following sheets in the
Calcutta Herbarium, viz. : Thwaites C P. No. 1081 (2 sheets) ; Thwaites,
Ceylon, without precise locality and without number ; and T. Thomson,
Ceylon, without precise locality and without number. In P. hirsutula
the hairs are small and decurved, the flowers are larger and the petals
longer than the wing-sepals. ‘The raceme is erect while in P. bolbothrix
and the new species it is more or less horizontal.

The sheets of this new species in Herb. Cal. were examined by W. W.
Smith, M. S. Ramaswami and P. Debbarman, and from the remarks made
by them on the sheets and on the covers, it appears that they also consider-
ed that these were specimens of a new species or variety. ‘The sheets were
sent to Kew for confirmation where these were named by Dunn himself as

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

POLYGALA RAMASWAMIANA

(A) a portion of the plant (x 1).
(B) a flower (x 5).

(C) sepals (x 5 ).

(D) carina (x 5 ).

(E) immature fruit (x 2).

A NEW POLYGALA FROM SOUTH INDIA 55

his P. bolbothrix. Considering that Dunn only renamed an earlier described
species, it is perhaps possible that he did not examine critically Wight
and Arnott’s P. cz/zata and, therefore, named the sheets from. Calcutta as
P. bolbothrix, which these resemble to some extent. Depending upon
Wallich’s No. 4177, of which there are 2 sheets in Herb. Cal. it now
becomes possible to study the distinguishing characters separating this
from P. bolbothrix. Ramaswami prepared a nice sketch of the flower
and its parts. The sketch is preserved in this Herbarium along with the
dissected parts of the flower. These have been very helpful and I
dedicate the species in his honour and call it P. rvamaswamiana.

Among these sheets, however, some difference is noticed in the leaves.
One sheet with smaller leaves and shorter racemes was named by Dunn
as P. bolbothrix with a question mark. ‘This, I believe, is a distinct
variety of the new species which also has a distinct form as is evident
from the difference in the shape of leaves in different specimens. The
species with its form and variety is described below.

Polygala ramaswamiana Mukerjee sp. nov.

Accedit ad P. 6dolbotricem Dunn structura et aspectu generali, ab ea
tamen differt inter alia in eo quod nova species est dense hispida, eiusque
folia sunt minora atque marginibus revolutis et nervo medio in superiore
pagina depresso, in inferiore vero prominenti ornata.

Flerba diffuse ramosissima e basi; rami tenues, teretes infra, angulares
supra, dense vestiti pilis longis patentibus simul atque pilis brevibus
adpressis ; rami ascendentes vel erecti, usque 36cm. alti. /o/za simplicia,
carnosa, alterna, obovata vel elliptica vel lineari-oblonga, rotundata atque
saepe breviter emarginata ad apicem, angustata ad basim in petiolum
brevissimum, marginibus integris, revolutis, hispida in utraque pagina pilis
longis patentibus, hispidiora ad margines, qui sunt hispidi brevibus pilis
adpressisque ; nervus medius depressus in Superiore pagina, prominens
in inferiore, lamina 8-18 mm. longa, 4-8 mm. lata. Aacemz usque ad
8 cm. longi, tenues, horizontales, laxiflori, vel ad apicem densiflori,
hispidi longis adpressis pilis, atque hirsuti brevibus pilis adpressis ;
bracteae binae singulos pedicellos supportant; bracteae 1 mm. longae,
deltoideo-lanceolatae, acuminatae, hispidae; pedicelli 3-4 mm. longi;
flores purpurei. Sesala 5, hispida pilis longis, setacea vel rostrata ad
apicem, persistentia; 3 exteriora quidem lanceolata, 1:5 mm. longa; 2
interiora alata, ovata, obliqua 4 mm. longa, 2 min. lata, angustata ad
utrumque apicem, marginibus membranaceis. /etala 3, unguiculata, ad
basim adnata columnae staminali; petala lateralia orbiculari-oblonga, °
emarginata; inferius petalum carinatum, ad apicem bilcbum, lobis
cristatis. Stamzna@ 8, filamenta unita infra in vaginam, antherae dehiscent
per poros terminales. Ovarium orbiculare, compressum, 2-cellulatum ;
ovula singula in singulis cellulis, pendula. Fructus capsularis, late
oblongus, compressus, longitudinaliter sulcatus in medio, apice emargin-
ato, margine dense ciliato pilis longis, haud alatus, 3 mm. longus.
Semina 2 mm. longa, nigra, levia, oblonga, obtuse truncata ad apicem,
tenuiter angustata ad basim, dense operta longis pilis atque albis, caruncu-
lata ad basim ; carunculus luteus, 3-appendiculatus.

S. India : Peermade, A. Meebold No. 12858 (Type in Herb. Cal.) ;
Without precise locality, A. Meebold No. 13066; Shembaganur, Rev. L,
Anglade No, 1859. (per errorem Auglady).

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Forma devicolamensis f. nov. .

Folia anguste oblonga vel lineari-oblonga, flores minoresparvi.

S. India: Devicolam, A. Meebold No. 13185 (Type in Herb. Cal.)

Var. palniensis var. nov.

Foliis minoribus, ellipticis vel oblongis nonnumquam lineari-oblongis,
racemis brevissimis, floribus minoribus a typo recedit.

Folia 5-11 mm. longa, 2-4 mm. lata, apice rotundata vel obtusa.
Racemi usque ad 1°5 cm. longi, pedicelli 2 mm. longi. Flores parvi (?),
sepala aliformia 3 mm. longa.

S. India: Kilavare, Upper Palnis, 2,000 mtr., 20-9-1911, C.E.C.
Fischer No. 3026 (Holotype in Herb. Cal.).

(I am indebted to Rev. H. Santapau for kindly rendering the deserip-
tions into Latin.—S.K.M.)

MORE NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE
NEPAL VALLEY

BY
DESIREE PRouD

The following notes are additions and corrections to the lists of birds I
published in the jowrnzal.t Since the lists were made we have lived more
than 6 years in the Valley, and all possible weekends (alas too few!) are
spent camping on Sheopuri or Godavari. During the monsoon of course
such camps are not possible because of the leeches, but during the rest of
the year we are out as much as possible. I have also collected birds,
particularly willow-warblers and wagtails, both of which are a fascinating
study here owing to the numbers of different races which pass through on
the migrations.

I have kept careful records of the song periods of the Vailey birds and
prepared a chart of these, after the model of those prepared by Mr. H. G.
Alexander and published in the ‘Handbook of British Birds’. I have found
these very valuable in England, and consider it would be a good idea if
readers would send in similar charts for different parts of India.

I append charts of arrival and departure dates for the various migrant
birds of the Valley.

The building of a motor road to India has opened up new country,
particularly sugar cane fields at about 3,000 ft. This has added new birds
to my list. I look forward to the time when the road will be completed
and the terai with its swarming bird population within a few hours’ drive
by car.

Parus major nipalensis (Hodgson) : Nepal Grey Tit.

Though not normally found in the valley occasionally there is an
invasion of these birds, and I saw a number during the winter of ’5], and
during March and April of both ’52 and ’53.

Parus spilonotus Blyth: Blackspotted Yellow Tit.

My previous record of this bird must have been a mistake. I have
never seen it since.

Syiviparus modestus Burton: Yellow-browed Tit.

These little tits are very common on the hills about 7—9,000 ft. They
are acrobatic as all tits. They seem to feed almost entirely on the pupae
of the Zortrzx moth or something similar which are found in the curled-up
leaves all over the trees here. I have watched them collecting hundreds
from infested leaves, and they must do a great deal of good. In appearance
and habits they are very like a phylloscopus, and have a thin shrill zee-z2
zec-2t zee-zt note uttered endlessly in April. For the rest of the year they
are rather silent.

1 «Some notes on Bitds of the Nepal Valley ’, /BNA‘S, 48 : 695-719 , ‘ More Bird
Notes from Nepal Valley.’ J/BNAS, 49 : 784-5,

-

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Garrulax caerulatus (Hodgson): Greysided Laughing-Thrush.

I have found this bird really very common on Sheopuri and Phul
Chok, at 8,000 ft. and above, in summer. They make a great disturbance
when feeding on the ground, hurling earth and dead ‘eaves in all directions
with the vigour of a puppy digging for rats. They have a delightful liquid
whistle. In winter they are found at Godavari.

Garrulax rufogularis (Gould): Rufouschinned Laughing-Thrush.

Uncommon but found sparingly all over the lower hills up to 6,000 ft.
It has a very beautiful whistle. Found both in dense jungle and thin
scrub at such places as Phar Ping.

Garrulax striatus Vigors : Striated Laughing-Thrush.

One of the commonest of the laughing-thrushes but only in dense
jungle. At Pokhara they were very common up to 8,500 ft. They are
often found at fruiting trees in company with green and Speckled Wood
Pigeons.

Stachyris nigriceps Blyth : Blackthroated Babbler.

Rather scarce, but small flocks often seen at Godavari. I have not yet
succeeded in getting a specimen. The call is peculiar, a single note followed
by a trill which sounds like a small bell being rung faster and faster, then
stopping abruptly.

Stachyris chrysaea Blyth : Goldenheaded Babbler.

We found this bird at Pokhara at 8,000 ft., but have not seen one in the
Valley.

Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson : Spotted Babbler.

Very common in the terai; | have found them scarce in the Valley,
though seen occasionally in Goucher woods during the monsoon and all
the year on the lower slopes of Nagar Jung.

Alcippe castaneiceps (Hodgson) : Chestnut-headed Babbler.

I previously recorded this little babbler as scarce which it certainly is
not. On the higher parts of Sheopuri, Phul Chok and the inner hills from
7-9,000 ft. it is very common indeed. It has a rather distinctive churring
purr, which can be very soft, or loud and harsh.

Pnoepyga pusilla Hodgson : Lesser Scalybellied Wren-Babbler.

These tiny wrens are common in the Valley especially in dense scrub on
steep hillsides. 1 had spent much time watching them but always failed
to get aspecimen. ‘They have a maddening habit of appearing just under
one’s feet, where to shoot would be to blow them to pieces. They thsn
dash into dense cover and remain invisible though the moving leaves all
round them give away their presence. Dr. Fleming very kindly gave me
a specimen which he shot at 8,000 ft. on Phulchok. They are common
at Godavari and Nagar Jung, at about 5,000 ft. and upto 8,000.

Pnoepyga albiventer Kinnear : Larger Scalybreasted Wren-Babbler.
This iittle bird is, I think, much scarcer than the last and found mostly

at higher elevations. Like the last species I had failed to get a specimen,

but was able to examine a couple shot by Dr. Fleming high on Phulchok,

BIRDS OF FHE NEPAL VALLEY 59

one golden, the other white-breasted. The colour of the underparts is
difficult to see in the field, but I think the bird with a white breast is the
commoner variety here.

Siva strigula Hodgson : Stripethroated Siva.

Abundant all over the hills from 6~-11,000 ft. Down to the Valley in
winter. The display of this bird in spring is most amusing to watch. I
have not seen it described anywhere so include it here. The birds collect
into flocks of anything from 15 to 50 birds, and these break up into pairs,
but the pairs all remain together in the same tree. The 2 birds of each
pair sit very close together, tails on opposite sides of the branch and
separated by at least 6 inches from the next pair. They then alternately
bow and stretch their heads and necks up to the fullest extent, the feathers
of the head and neck fluffed out. They frequently reverse their positions
on the branch, and both birds always do this at the same instant as if at
a signal so that they never both have their tails the same side of the branch
even for a second. The whole thing is like an elaborate dance and will
continue for an hour or more without a break. Each pair normally take
no notice of any other birds in the tree, but I have occasionally seen one
bird leave its partner and commence to bow to the nearest bird of the next
pair, this leads to much scuffling and disturbance but the pairs soon
re-form, although whether in the original order Iam not quite sure. If
one pair should leave the tree and fly off all the others follow and the
whole thing starts again in another tree, though this is sometimes the
signal for the whole thing to break up. A\jll the time this is going on the
birds keep up a continual churring note with an occasional sweet whistle.
It can be quite deafening when a large number are displaying close to
one. The song proper, a sweet 3-syllable whistle, is not heard during the
display in fact not until the birds have separated into pairs in preparation
for nest building. I have seen this display take place on Sheopuri at
8,000 ft. in April and on the Gandak-Kosi watershed at 11,000 ft. in May.
The one essential seems to be a large population of these birds. 8 pairs is
the smailest number I have seen doing it. Where they are few, the pairs
seem to form without any fuss.

Siva ignotincta (Hodgson) : Redtailed Minla.

Scarce but found sparingly on Sheopuri above 7,000 ft. insummer. In
breeding condition in May.

Cutia nipalensis Hodgson : Nepal Cutia.

Commoner than I at first thought. They keep much to the lanuginosa
forest, where they range round the hillsides keeping to the same elevation,
about 7,000 ft.

Pteruthius melanotis melanotis Hodgson : Chestnut-throated Shrike
babbler.

This bird also is commoner than I used to think. It is usually solitary
in a large flock of tits, phylloscopi and particularly of Bluewinged Sivas.
I have never seen more than one bird in a flock of probably 30 to 50
Other individuals. I think they breed on the ridges at 7-8,000 ft., where I
have seen them in April and May, but spend the winters in such places as
Godavari at 5,000 ft. Never away from forest.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATRURAE UST. SO CLE Y.. Volos

Pteruthius xanthochloris Gray : Green Shrike-babbler.

This bird also is commoner than I had thought. The first one [ saw was
shot by Dr. Fleming. Since then I have seen a number, but they are
very silent and unobtrusive, creeping about in dense jungle. They often
perch along a branch instead of across it. I have never heard them utter
a sound. Mostly at about 7—8,000 ft. throughout the year.

Aegithinia tiphia (L.): Tora.

I had previously recorded this bird as a monsoon visitor, Although
this is correct for the Goucher area where I had previously observed them,
they are found along the south side of Nagar Jung in Simal trees (Bombox)
as early as March.

Cinclus pallasii (Temminck): Brown Dipper.

These birds breed each year on the stream near the dam at Sundarijal.
This year the nest was under the fall of: water from the dam. When the
water was flowing the parent birds had to fly through a curtain of water to
reach the nest. When the reservoir was not full and the water was turned
off, a good view of the nest was obtained. 1 much enjoyed watching the
young birds leaving the nest on the 17th February.

Luscinia brunnea (Hodgson): Indian Blue Chat.

Numbers of these birds nest on Sheopuri at 8,400 ft. They are in full
song by the 28th April. They were still singing, though not nearly so
much, on the 28th June.

Luscinia suecica (L.): Bluethroat.

I had previously recorded this bird as a passage migrant. They
are certainly very common on passage, but a few remain throughout the
winter in the Valley. They are particularly partial to bean fields.

Luscinia pectoralis Gould: Himalayan Rubythroat.

Occasionally seen on passage and a few may remain throughout the
winter, as the Common Rubythroat does.

Phoenicurus ochruros (S. G. Gmelin): Black Redstart.

These go through rapidly on the spring migration. On 19-4-52 during
an afternoon’s ride through the fields I must have seen half a dozen indivi-
duals. Next day there were none. Some years I never see any.

Muscisylvia leucura Hodgson: Whitetailed Blue Robin.

In April and May these birds breed at about 8,900 ft. on Sheopuri.
Generally near a stream, and always found in the same areas. I have not
found a nest.

Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes: Pied Bushchat.

Not usually seen in the Valley, but in 1953 I saw several birds on some
bare eroded cliffs at the foot of Sheopuri. They are very common along
the new road as soon as one drops to 3,000 ft.

Rhodophila ferrea (Gray): Grey Bushchat.

Much commoner than J had supposed. Breeds on Sheopuri above
8,000 ft, and on all the inner ranges North of the Valley. Itis one of the

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 81

earliest birds to sing in the morning, often heard before 4a.m. By May
24th many had newly-fledged young sitting about, speckled and lumpy, on
low branches. Others were still feeding young in the nest.

Turdus m. albocinctus Royle: Whitecollared blackbird.

I think that none of these birds remain to breed on Sheopuri or Phul-
chok or anywhere below 10,000 ft. Very common in March; I have seen
none after the 4th April.

Turdus rubrocanus Gray : Greyheaded Thrush.

Very uncommon here. I have seen them only twice at about 7,000 ft.
in winter. On the other hand they were common on the hills north of
Pokhara.

Oreocincla mollissima Blyth: Plainbacked Mountain Thrush.

Quite common during the winter, mostly on the ridges where I have
seen it at 8,000 ft. in coldest weather with snow on the ground, but it
occasionally comes down to 5,000 ft. at Godavari. This I think is the
thrush which breeds and sings at 12,000 ft. on the Gandak-Kosi watershed.

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors) : Blueheaded Rock Thrush.

Not a passage migrant as I had previously thought, but a summer
visitor breeding on Nagar Jang and in a few other places, but rather local.
Young birds are seen all over the south side of Nagar Jung from about
the end of June.

Prunella strophiata (Blyth): Rufousbreasted Accentor.

A few birds seen each year on the ridges north of the Valley at about
7,000 ft. On the inner hills north of the Sheopuri lekh they are very com-
mon in winter, and breed at 12,000 ft. on the same hills.

Siphia parva hyperythra (Cabanis) : Kashmir Redbreasted Flycatcher
This flycatcher with black bands bordering the red breast was seen

once in my garden on April 10th 1953. I am surprised to find one so far
east on the migration.

Siphia parva albicilla (Pallas): Eastern Redbreasted Flycatcher.

Winters in large numbers in the Valley. I am puzzled over the reason
why birds with red breasts are seen only in spring during the migration.
I read that Mr. Betts found the same thing as stated in his ‘ Birds of
Coorg’. In the Nilgiris I have seen red-breasted birds all winter ; perhaps
the western race. This year I did in fact see a bird with a very red throat
at Godavari on 30th Jan., but this is the only one seen during 6 winters
here. I have also seen very few during the autumn migration. Where do
the adult males winter ?

Hemichelidon cinereiceps (Hodgson): Ferruginous Flycatcher.

Scarce but seen a few times at about 8,000 ft. A breeding male was
shot at that height on Sheopuri on May 17th.

Muscicapa amabilis (Deignan): Rustybreasted Flycatcher.

A fairly common bird during the winter and early spring. Sir Norman
Kinnear tells me that males frequently breed in female plumage and
certainly one sees a dozen ‘ femaies ’ for one adult-plumaged male.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOGIUGING. Wat, 553

Muscicapa hyperythra (Blyth): Whitefronted Blue Flycatcher.

Much commoner than I had at first supposed. They arrive towards
the end of April and move up into the hills at 7-8,000 ft. Last year we
found a nest. Both parents were building on April 25. The nest was
built into a lump of moss suspended from a tree about 20 ft. from the
ground, and so looked like a hanging nest with a dome. I should think
this must be an unusual situation. We only saw the female incubating,
but did not have time to watch for long. Both parents were feeding young
on the 26th May. The 2 young birds had their heads sticking out of the
hole. They had a very mealy appearance, and one—I suppose a young
male—already had a very distinct white bar across the front of his face.

Nitidula hodgsoni (Moore): Pigmy Flycatcher.

Rather scarce, but as it keeps to dense forest and is very unobtrusive,
it may well be often overlooked. I have only seen them from Phulchok
at about 7—8,000 ft. in summer, down to valley level in winter. They are
sometimes in mixed flocks with phylloscopi.

Muscicapula leucomelanura (Hodgson): Slatyblue Flycatcher.

Muscicapula tricolor. Since the opening of the new road we have found
these flycatchers common in winter in the sugar cane fields at 3,000 ft. or
so. In summer they are much more sparingly distributed in the higher
hills,

Niltava sundara (Hodgson): Rufousbellied Niltava.

Quite common in thick jungle in summer, in more open country in
winter. Ihave heard it utter a sqeaky grating song, certainly not a fine
song. It is much like that of the Small Niltava (V. macgrigori@) also
common here. The Large Niltava (VV. grandis) although found in deep
forest on very steep hillsides is much the rarest of the three.

Pericrocotus ethologus (Bangs & Phillips): Longtailed Minivet.

All birds that I have shot have been of this species. I do not know it
the Shortbilled Minivet (P. dvevirostris) is found here also.

Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster): Orange Minivet.

Quite a common bird from 5-9,000 ft. but only in forest. It does not
fly through the gardens of the Valley as the last species does.

Dicrurus aeneus (Vieillot) : Bronzed Drongo.

This drongo is common on Nagar Jung, but | have seen it nowhere
else. It is not found above about 5,000 ft. They are very active spritely
birds, and it is a joy to watch them with their brilliant iridescent plumage
flashing in the sun as they dive and swoop through the jungle.

Phylloscopus aifinis (Tickell) : Tickell’s Willow- Warbler.
Common passage migrant during March-April, and September. Only
on hills ; I have not seen it in the Valley.

Phylloscopus pulcher Blyth : Orangebarred Willow-Warbler.
Common on the high hills, especially in Owercus semecarpiftolia forest
from October to March. In very cold weather they come down to the

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 63

Valley at 5,000 ft. where there is forest. They move on to the higher
inner hills above 9,500 ft. at the end of March and first week of April. I
do not think any remain to breed on Sheopuri and Phulchok.

Phylloscopus inornatus inornatus (Blyth): Yellowbrowed Willow-
Warbler.

Not very common, but a fair number pass through in the autumn and
spring. I have obtained them in October-November and end March-
April. They can be distinguished sometimes in the field by their notes.
Although they utter the double chee-wee like humez, they have also a
single note whee? as described by Dr. Ticehurst, and this is uttered fre-
quently enough to be a good field character. I have never heard this bird
or humez utter any song.

Phylloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks) : Hume’s Willow-Warbler.

The common willow-warbler of the Valley in winter ; abundant in every
sort of country except deep forest. They arrive in October and spread all
over the Valley in every garden and clump of trees, and on the open
hillsides up to 7,000 ft. there seems to be a bird in every isolated bush or
tree. They remain till the end of April.

Phylloscopus proregulus chloronotus (Gray) : Yellowrumped Willow-
Warbler.

Very common in winter in the valley, and I have found fair numbers
in breeding condition on the ridges round the Valley at 7-9,000 ft. at the
end of May, so I have no doubt they breed here and move down to valley
level in winter. They appear in the Godavari forest at the end of October
and leave by the 12th of April, but they do not come into our gardens
until November. They are always in little flocks during the winter. They
commence their feeble but pieasing little tinkling song in the middle of
February and continue to sing until at least the end of May.

Phylloscopus maculipennis (Blyth) : Greyfaced Willow-Warbler.

These birds also breed on the ridges round the Valley as we have
found them there in breeding condition on 28th May and my husband
shot one on 28th June, 8,000 ft. They come down to the Valley in
winter and are then fairly common at Sundarijal and Godavari. ‘They
do not come into gardens and are not found much below 5,000 ft.

Phyloscopus magnirostris Biyth: Largebilled Willow-Warbler.

We have shot this bird in breeding condition on Sheopuri in forest at
the end of April, but I have only seen one or two, and they might still be
on migration for higher hills. We did not find them on the Gandak-Kosi
watershed in May. In August they appear in large numbers in the gardens
of the Valley and remain there for about a month. Their unmistakable
note is then heard every morning in our garden and they also sometimes
sing a little in September. They are the only willow-warblers seen in the
Valley during the monsoon. I imagine they breed in thick forest on
Sheopuri and Phulchok and move down into the Valley after breeding. I
have never seen or heard them in the Valley in spring, and they cannot. be
easily overlooked with their very striking song. Larliest date in Valley
8th August ; latest September 9th.

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Phylloscopus trochiloides trochiloides (Sundevall) : Dull-green Willow-
Warbler.

We found these birds very common on the Gandak-Kosi watershed at
9,500-12,000 ft. Those shot were in breeding condition. Ido not think
any remain to breed on the hills round the Valley, nor are they ever found
in the Valley in winter. I think they must pass through rapidly on mig-
ration as I have only obtained very few then—in our garden 17th and
23rd September and 7th Oct. ; on hills at 7,000 ft. 30th April.

Phyiloscopus trochiloides viridanus Blyth : The Greenish Willow-
Warbler.

This bird is an abundant passage migrant from early March until the
middle of May. During late April and May they sing continuously. I
find the call note indistinguishable from that of P. zxornatus humez, but
I have collected carefully all winter and have never obtained one of these
birds between mid-November and March. They pass through quite
rapidly during the autumn migration and do not linger as in the spring.
Last date 20th May.

Phylloscopus trochiloides ludlowi Whistler.

A single bird shot on Sheopuri at 8,009 ft. on May 31st and in breeding
condition was identified by Sir Norman Kinnear as an intergrade between
this race and P. ¢. trochilo:des. This is the only one I have seen, and
presume a straggler from further west. As it was in forest and fairly low,
it would in any case not overlap with ¢rochilotdes which is not found in
summer below 10,009 ft. and usually in more open country—small bush
type of country.

Phylloscopus trochiloides nitidus Blyth : Green Willow-Warbler.

A very common passage migrant in spring, but never seen in autumn.
They begin to arrive in the Valley in the last days of March, but are not
common till the middle of April, when hundreds go through, all singing
with a bubbling vehemence unusual in willow-warblers on passage. They
are found everywhere, in gardens, orchards, trees along river banks and
on the hills in light jungle to 8,000 ft. at least By the first week of May
most are gone, but I have seen a few on 5th May in our garden. ‘The call
note is indistinguishable from that of other races of the (frochiloides
group, but the song is different and could be easily recognised by anyone
with a good ear.

Phylloscopus reguloides reguloides (Blyth): Blyth’s Willow-Warbler.

A common breeding bird on the hills round the Nepal Valley. They
arrive early in March and are then found from 4,000 ft. but only in dense
forest. By the end of April they are established in their breeding haunts
at about 8,000 ft. and are singing lustily. The song is distinctive—a
continuous little trill of 9 or 10 notes Chi-t7-chi-ti-cht-ti-cht-tt-chee. Some-
times the last note also is double.

I have never obtained a specimen of P. subaffinis collected here by
Dr. Ripley, but have seen what I believe io be this bird on Nagar Jung
and at Godavari in April and November. I may possibly be confusing it
with affinzs.

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 65

Seicercus poliogenys (Blyth) : Greycheeked Flycatcher-Warbler.
Very scarce. A few seenin our garden during November amongst
other warblers.

S. castaneiceps (Gray). Chestnutheaded Flycatcher-Warbler.

Not very common but odd ones are seen in winter at Godavari and
on the hills amongst flocks of willow-warblers, etc. ; also sometimes in our
garden.

Abrornis schisticeps (Hodgson): Blackfaced Flycatcher-Warbler.

Not nearly as uncommon as I had thought, but local. In summer they
are really common on Sheopuri at 7-8,000 ft. where I have frequently seen
them in April and May in small flocks of generally 4 or 5 birds, probably
family parties. Presumably breeding takes place early in the year. They
seem to have an affinity with Sy/vzharus modestus, as these twe species are
nearly always found together. In the winter they form part of the huge
mixed flocks which wander round the hillsides and are sometimes seen at
Godavari. But there are not usually more than 1 or 2 of this species,
and they then seem scarce.

Neornis flavolivaceus Blyth : Aberrant Bush-warbler.

This bird is absolutely abundant round Pokhara at all elevations from
2,500 to 6,000 ft., but I had never seen it in the Valley until the opening of
the new road enabled us to get down to sugar cane fields at 3,000 ft.
There this bird is certainly very common in winter.

Horeites brunnifrons (Hodgson): Rufouscappped Bush-warbier.

This bird breeds on the hills north of the Nepal Valley at 10,000-
12,000 ft. and one would expect it to be common in the Valley in winter,
but I have never found it here, only occasionally on the hills in spring on
passage. On the other hand we found this little bird also very common
round Pokhara at 4,000 ft. in November. I suppose the grass conditions
in the Valley are somehow not right for it.

Prinia criniger criniger (Hodgson) : Brown Hill-warbler.

Very common on grassy hills round the Valley, but local. It is very
common above Pharping and on open siopes of Sheopuri. Inthe monsoon
when the grass is long it breeds on Nagar Jung. ‘They must breed late
as we have seen parents with just-fledged tailless young on October 4th.

Prinia gracilis Franklin : Franklin’s Wren-warbler.

Another species added to my list by the opening of the road. Never
seen in the Valley ; it is abundant in sugar cane at 3,000 ft., below the
Valley.

Tesia cyaniventer Hodgson. Slatybellied Wren.

Once these birds’ habitat is known they are found to be very common.
They frequent the dense low undergrowth round small mountain streams.
running through forest. I have seen them mostly about 5-—6000 ft.

Oligura castaneocoronata (Burton). Chestnut-headed Wren.
Not quite as common as the last species, but found in the same situa:
tions and often in company with it. [ have found it up to 7000 ft. I must

5

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

say that from the field naturalist’s point of view these birds seem much
more happily placed with the wrens than with the warblers.

Pyrrhula erythrocephala Vigors : Redheaded Bulifinch.
Small flocks seen on Sheopuri in April and,May at 8,000 ft.

Pyrrhula nipalensis (Hodgson) : Brown Bullfinch.

Common on both Sheopuri and Phulchok in winter andas late as early
May, but I doubt if any remain to breed here.

Spinus tibetanus (Hume): Tibetan Siskin.

This bird must, I think, be extending its range. For the last two years
numbers have been seen in the Vailey. It is however very local, and I
have only seen them at Godavari where they frequent the huge alders
growing by the stream. This year, on 27th and 28th Feb., these trees were
literally swarming with them. and the twittering they made was so loud
that from a distance it sounded almost like starlings going to roost. After
watching them for some time I began to count, the main flock had passed
on, but 1 counted 58 stragglers. ‘There must have been several hundred
birds. I did not see any after the first week in March.

Carpodacus redochrea (Vigors): Pinkbrowed Rosefinch.

Very common on Sheonpuri in winter and early spring when the rhodo-
dendrens are out. I have not seen them below 8,000 ft. They have all
left by the middle of April.

Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas): Common Rosefinch.

‘+ Very common from March until the middle of May. They swarm in
our garden on the Prunus puddum trees whose fruit is ripe then. Nearly
all are the race evythrinus I think, and have only the upper breast rosy. [
have seen only one bird shot in the Valley with the rosy extending as far
as the abdomen.

Uroloncha striata acuticauda (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Munia.

I had always thought this bird to be a summer visitor only to the
Valley, but this year (’53) large numbers remained in my garden all December
and January. During this time they built huge untidy straw nests in which
numbers roosted at night. On the new road we found them very common

round sugar care fields, so their migrations are obviously only of a very
local nature.

Emberiza aureola Pallas: Yellowbreasted Bunting.

Lhad thought this bird to be a passage migrant only, but find that large
flocks winter in the Valley. ‘They are also very common in fields at 3,000 ft.
along the new road.. They begin to change into breeding dress in the
middle of February and are in full plumage by the middle of March. A
flock of these birds feeding in a ploughed field is a most pleasant sight, the
yellow and brown bodies and flicker of white in the wings gives life to the
winter landscape.

Delichon nipalensis Horsf. & Moore: Nepal Mattin.

Not often seen in the Valley but common over the low grassy passes
in the inner hills. I think they breed on the cliffs above Golbu at 7,000 ft.

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 67

Ripara paludicola (Vieillot): Sand Martin.

The common Sand Martin of the Valley. ‘The breeding season must
be an extended one as I have seen them flying in and out of the nest-
holes as early as February and as late as May. These holes are in the
mud cliffs which border the river beds, and are often in a crumbling condi-
tion. Some of the holes are very large and are obviously used year after

year. My previous record of Azfaria riparia in the Valley must have
been a mistake.

Motacilla alba L. White Wagtail.

This wagtail is really a fascinating study as no less than 6 races are
found here at various times. I have collected carefully during the last two
years and kept notes of all arrival and departure dates. It is impossible,
I think, to distinguish young birds in the field and even in the hand they
are difficult, but I think I can now spot the adult birds with fair certainty.
The chief difficulty is in winter when the black-backed forms may lose
the black back for a grey one. However, a large proportion retain the black
back and even in those which do not, the grey is distinctly darker in the
black-backed forms. ‘They may sometimes be mistaken in the field, but
are always distinguishable in the hand. The following are the races which
I have observed and collected here. .

M. a. personata Gould : Masked Wagtail.

Certainly the rarest form seen here, a mere straggler on the migrations.
I have not seen above 6 birds in 3 winters.

M. a. ocularis Swinhoe: Streakeyed Wagtail.

Tolerably common on migration. I have only seen one in the autumn,
in October, but they begin to appear in early March, and then for the next
2 months a few are generally seen any day on the river bank in company
with Indian White Wagtails. Earliest date March 12th; latest April 25th.
They can be picked out fairly easily in the field, the dark eye-streak being
clearly seen with glasses in all plumages.

M. a. dukhunensits Sykes. Indian White Wagtail.

Probably the commonest of all the wagtails. Although less common
on sandbanks in the rivers than the 2 black-backed forms, they spread
widely over the ploughed fields and the total population must be enormous.
They start arriving about 22nd September and are common from the 28th
of the month. They are the last to leave in spring, being common to the
30th April, and a few are seen till the 6th of May. During April the
resident birds are augmented by large flocks of passage migrants.

M. a. baicalensis Swinhoe: Swinhoe’s White Wagtail.

This is the most difficult of the white wagtails to distinguish in the
field. With young birds it is impossible, and adults are difficult. I am
much indebted to Mrs. Liushington who examined numbers in the
British Museum and sent me her notes. { have since coilected several
which have been identified as bazcalensis. 'The chief thing to notice is the
greater extent of white in the wing; and the general appearance of the
bird, especially in breeding plumage, is altogether whiter. A few of these
birds winter here, but they become much commoner in spring. For a

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

short time in March they are as common in river beds as the White Wag-
tail. They are less common in April and very few are seen after the
20th of the month. Last date 30th April.

M, a. alboides Hodgson: Hodgson’s White Wagtail.

This bird starts arriving on 22nd and 23rd of September and by
the end of the month is abundant all along the river banks. It is not seen
very much away from the rivers, though odd ones are present in ploughed
fields, and numbers will swarm in a flooded area. They are abundant ail
Winter, but start to leave early and the numbers decrease rapidly after
ZOth March, by the end of the month all are gone. Only a single odd
one is seen occasionally during the first fortnight of April. As these birds
breed in the Himalayas I suppose their breeding areas are habitable long
before those which go to the far north.

M. a. leucopsis Gould : Whitefaced Wagtail.

This bird is also extremely common all winter and is the first to arrive,
early birds appearing on 13th Sept., a week before the others. By the 20th
they are abundant and remain so all winter. Like albozdes they leave
early, and by the end of March they are all gone, nor have I ever seen a
single straggler in early April.

Motacilla flava L. Tworaces of this wagtail occur, though not in any-
thing like the numbers of the last species.

M, flava beema (Sykes): Indian Blueheaded Wagtail.

This birdis found in small numbers along the river banks and in fields
all winter. They first arrive about 19th September. ‘They are frequently
seen with White and Yellowheaded Wagtails. About the middle of March
large numbers of passage migrants augment the numbers of wintering
birds, and for about a week they are very common feeding largely in fields
of flowering mustard. ‘They are all gone by the end of the month.

M. flava thunbergi Billberg: Greyheaded Wagtail.

A passage migrant only. This year there were about 30 birds in the
dry bed of the Vishnumati on 29th and 30th April. Only 2 birds seen on
4th May and then no more. My husband was in the terai that week and
he said he saw enormous flocks of these birds along the Kosi River on the
same dates. A few days later he saw only one or two.

Motacilla citreola Pallas: Yellowheaded Wagtail.

Passage migrants, particularly in the autumn when numbers were seen
in the rice fields along the Manora River on 6th September, the first
wagtails to appear. They remained in large numbers throughout the month
and a few were seen during’ the winter. [am not quite sure of the race
although I think it is calcavata ; but I have a few skins and must check

them on my next leave.

Anthus roseatus Blyth: Roseate Pipit.

This pipit breeds in large numbers on the hills above 10,000 ft. north of
the Valley. It is abundant in the Valley all winter and even more so in the
sugarcane fields at lower elevations. It is also very abundant on passage.

Remains until early May.

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALERY | 69

Alauda gulgula Franklin: Little Skylark.

A common winter visitor arriving about Oct. 10th and spreading all
over the ploughed fields. Their rich gurgling chirrup is a pleasant sound
throughout the winter. I have never heard them sing here. They are
cominon till the end of March and flocks were seen roosting in swampy
fields as late as 21st April. On the bare hills north of Sheopuri I saw a
small flock of about 8 birds on the 10th April, possibly on migration.

Aethopyga saturata (Hodgson): Blackbreasted Sunbird.

Quite common at Godavari. ‘They leave for a couple of months in
the coldest weather but are back and singing by the end of February.
Always near forest.

Aethopyga nipalensis (Hodgson) : Nepal Sunbird.

Extremely abundant on ail the ridges round the Valley at 7-9,000 ft.
At first I confused it with Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird, but although in the last
few years I have examined all birds carefully with glasses and seen
numbers shot, I have never seen a specimen of Ae. gouldiae and wonder
if perhaps the 2 species do not occur in the same area? ‘The 4 species
zenicauda, ntpalensis, saturata and sifaraja are all found together in
winter, feeding on flowering Leucosceplrum canum and later Caryopteris,
but gouldiae is never found with them.

Pachyglossa melanozanthum Blyth : Yellowbellied Flowerpecker.

Seen occasionally in our garden and on the lower hills of Nagar Jung,
and Pharping during the winter December to February.

Iynx torquilla L. : Wryneck.

A passage migrant seen in gardens, and particularly in the lines of
willows bordering the rivers, in September, October and March, April.

Cuculus poliocepbhalus Latham : Small Cuckoo.

Common on the ridges about 7,000 ft. and also at Godavari 5,000 ft.
They arrive iate and I have not heard the call, so like a cackling hen,
before the end of April.

Cuculus sparveroides Vigors : Large Hawk-Cuckoo.

This is the cuckco so common at 7—9,0C0O ft. which puzzled us for so
long. The call is much pleasanter than that of the Common Hawk-
Cuckoo, not having the piercing crescendo of the latter bird’s call.

Surniculus lugubris dicruroides (Hodgson): Drongo Cuckoo.

Fairly common in the Valley, but not heard much above 5,000 ft. My
husband found it abundant and calling in the terai in early May, and I
imagine we are on the extreme upper linzit of its range.

Chalcites maculatus (Gmelin) : Emerald Cuckoo.
Seen only once, a small party in our garden on 7th September.

Megalaima haemacephala (Miller): Coppersmith.

I had previously thought this bird to be only a monsoon visitor to the
Valley, but find it is resident wherever banyan trees grow, that is, at Phar-

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

ping and at the village of Bara Nil Kanta at the foot of Sheopuri at 5,000 ft.
It is here in the coldest winter.

Coracias benghalensis (L.): Indian Roller.

Never seen in the Valley, but along the new road within a mile of the
edge of the Valley, and less than 1,000 ft. below it is quite common.

Harpactes erythrocephalus (Gould) : Redheaded Trogon.

I found a pair of these lovely birds breeding at about 6,000 ft. up the
Valley to the west of Godavari where a small stream runs through dense
forest.

Ketupa zeylonensis leschenault (Temminck) : Brown Fish-Owl.
Common at Gowkarna. Last year they used to leave the forest and fly
across to the bare slopes of Gowkarna hill at exactly the same time every
evening. During the iast fortnight of August it was 6°45 exactly. Some-
times only one bird, sometimes several, evidently a family party. .We have
also seen them at the foot of Nagar Jung and shot one there on October 4th.

Otus bakkamoena Pennant : Collared Scops Owl.

Common in the Valley. Its soft interrogative Wat? is heard almost
throughout the year. It is very nocturnal and never calls before it is
quite dark. In the light of a torch its eyes look quite red. It is a shy little
bird but is occasionaliy seen by day, fast asleep in some dense shrubbery.

Otus spilocephalus (Blyth) : Spotted Scops Owl.

Common on all the hills where it calls for hours at night. At Goda-
vari we hear it from February onwards. They are commonest from about
6-8,500 ft. The note phew phew rings out all night but ceases before dawn,
and we have never succeeded in actually seeing one. Dr. Fleming obtained
2 on Phulchok by imitating the call and attracting it within range. He
very kindly gave me one.

Glaucidium cuculoides (Vigors) : Barred Owlet.

Very common in jungle and on the edges of it, but never in gardens
in the Valiey. It is particularly common at Godavari and on Nagar Jung.
The tamest of the owls and very diurnal. They do not call at night, but
are very noisy at dawn and for a couple of hours after the sun is up. The
call rather reminds me of a barbet. In winter I have seen them in bright
sunlight catching insects on the ground in a small swamp at Godavari.

Glaucidium brodiei (Burton) : Pigmy Owlet.

Very common indeed on all the hills from 4—9,000 ft. Calls mostly by
day and all day, and throughout the year, June and July being the only
months when I have not heard them. ‘They are not heard in the Valley
away from jungle, although common on the edge of it.

Aquila chrysaétos (L) : Golden Eagle.

Golden Eagles are seen fairly often in the winter, sometimes in pairs
flying over Nagar Jung. ‘These are sight records only based entirely on
the flight of the bird with wings raised above the back and very different
indeed from the stiff vulture-like flight of the Steppe and Imperial eagles,

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY 71.

Aquila heliaca Savigny : Imperial Eagle.

A very dark eagle almost purple black in colour with short vulture-
like tail and broad stiff wings, the primaries very separated like the fingers
of a hand, is seen often in January and February. I take it to be of this
species.

Aquila nipalensis Hodgson : Steppe Eagle.

The eagle with 2 wing bars, larger than the last bird and with slightly
less stiff flight is very common in the Valley all winter, 3 or 4 often seen
soaring together particularly over the broad part of the river before it cuts °
its way out of the Valley by the gorge of Chorbar. My husband shot one
this winter, but I have not yet had a chance of comparing it with others
in a museum, and all my identifications of eagles are rather doubtful.

Hieraétus pennatus (Gmelin) : Booted Eagle. |

This is the only eagle of which I am certain (except for the common
and unmistakable Black and Serpent eagles). This bird has been seen
several times perched on one of the huge pines in our garden. It is here
throughout the year, most eagles being merely winter visitors. Last June
one perched in our garden was furiously attacked by 2 pairs of drongos
which had nests in the garden. The eagle snapped at them furiously and
I thought their end had come, but in the end the drongos were victorious
and the splendid bird rose in disgust and sailed away.

Pernis sp. ?

A honey buzzard is common here in winter between November and
March, We also saw it frequently in Pokhara, but I have not been able to
get a specimen and do not know what species or race it is.

Accipiter virgatus affinis Hodgson : Besra Sparrowhawk.

Moderately common in our garden all the year, and one was shot last
September while devouring a small bird.

Columba pulchricollis Blyth : Purple Wood Pigeon.
Scarce. I have only seen them on the ridge of Sheopuri at 8,400 ft.
A male shot 20th May was in breeding condition.

Columba hodgsonii Vigors : Speckled Wood Pigeon.

This pigeon is really quite common. It wanders a great deal and
appears wherever the various fruit are ripe in the jungle. Last March I
watched one for some time gorging on the green berries of a wild olive.
It was beside a path where wood-cutters were constantly passing. When
they appeared the bird would freeze in whatever position it was some-
times almost upside down. Not one of the many coolies noticed this large
bird within a few feet of their heads.

Streptopelia decaocto Frivalszky: Ring Dove.
Not normally seen in the Valley, but at the end of the monsoon
flocks appear and gorge on the ripening rice.

Arborophila torqueola (Valenc.) : Common Hill Partridge.

Not uncommon on the hills at about 8,000 ft. ‘They are very
secretive and I have watched them hiding under leaves and bushes when
disturbed. A male shot on May 24th was in breeding condition,

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Arborophila rufogularis (Blyth): Rufousthroated Hill Partridge

This bird occupies the.zone below the last and is commonest about
5-6000 ft.

Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori): Indian Stone-curlew

Seen once only in the Valley, 28th August. It was standing on our
lawn after dark obviously bewildered in the glare of the headlights.

Sterna hirundo tibetana Saunders: Common Tern

Seen only during the autumn migration on the Manora River. Some-
times they remain a day or two when the river is in spate at the end of
the monsoon. An immature bird shot on August 9th. Several seen
early September.

Tringa glareola L. : Wood Sandpiper

A passage migrant common on both spring and autumn migrations.
Usually 4 or 5 birds together, but I have seen an occasional solitary bird.

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) Greenshank

Seen only on the autumn migration, when it is fairly common from
the end of August to the middle of September.

Philomachus pugnax (L.): Ruff & Reeve

On passage in autumn. A number on the Manora on Sept. 16.
2 birds shot were both males, one in golden and one in grey plumage.

Erolia temminckii (Leisler): Temminck’s Stint

Common all winter on the Manora River and on the Bagmati where
it widens before cutting its way out of the Valley. I have never seen it
on the smailer rivers. ;

They arrive about the 8th August and for the next 3 weeks swarm
all along the river banks, little flocks constantly rising with their purring
twitter. By the end of August the main migration has passed on, but
wintering birds remain. I have seen them until 17th May when they are
in full breeding dress. They are therefore absent for less than 3 months.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant: Indian Snake-bird

Seen only once soaring over the Valley after a severe dust storm, on
16th April. A Neophron vulture was soaring with it, both obviously
storm driven as neither normally occurs in the Valley.

Anas querquedula L. : Garganey Teal

The common duck of the Valley in winter, though most are passage
migrants, passing through in large numbers in September and early
October. This year I saw 2 ducks in a small pool in the growing rice as
early as August Ist. No more were seen until 7th September.

In the following charts I have divided the migrant birds into Sum-
mer and Winter Visitors and Passage Migrants. Many birds, of course,
are both winter visitors and passage migrants. I have put them into
whichever group they appear the most numerous,

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY

Species of bird

Luscinia brunnea
Blue Chat.

Geokichla citrina
Orangeheaded Ground-
thrush.

Monticola cinclorhyncha
Blueheaded Rockthrush,

Muscicapa sibirica |
Sooty Flycatcher. |

Muscicapa latirostris
Brown Flycatcher.

MM. hyperythra
Whitefronted Blue Fly-
catcher. |

MW. superciliaris
Whitebrowed Blue Fly- |
catcher.

M. rubeculoides
Bluethroated Flycatch-
er

M. thalassina
Verditer Flycatcher.

Culicicapa cevlonensis
Greyheaded Flycatcher,

Tersiphone paradisi
Paradise Flycatcher.

Coracina melaschista
Dark Cuckoo-Shrike,

Oriolus oriolus

SUMMER VISITORS

Golden Oriole,

Sturnus malabaricus
Greyheaded Mynah.

tirundo rustica
Common Swallow.

Apus attinis
House Swift.

Foe Nt

First dates

15-4-53, 27-3-54

12-4-48, 8-5-49, 20-4-52,
2.5.53

early April °53, 5-4-54

11-4-52, 19-4-53, 8.4-54
1-4-52, 27-4-54

292-4.-51, 19-4-53

occasionally end February, |

early March

11-4-48, 17-4-50, 22-4-53

25-3-48, 22-3-51, 16-3-52,
23-3-53, 6-3-54 (odd bird)
main body 19-3-54

mid February, local migra-
tion a few miles below
Valley

19-3-48, 4.4.52,
26-3-54

24.3-53,

23-2-53, 27-2-54

mid April

mid March

mid February

29-2-48, 25-2-52, 12-2-54
these records are for
birds flying high almost
out of sight. They do

not appear flying round
the houses till the llth
— 12th March

73

ES CRT A BAC AS RS BTR TR ay

Last dates

26-9-52, 8-10-53

8-10-53

PORT eS Oh eTIE53

20-9-53

| 20-9-53

5-10-53
mid October

12-9-48, 8-9-53

all gone 2nd week Oct.
local migration to
foothill

first week September

gone by first week Nov-

ember

most gone by end August

mid October

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

SUMMER VISITORS— (contd.)

Species of bird First dates Last dates
iad |
Turdus unicolor April _ end October
Tickell’s Thrush
Phylloscopus veguloides | mid March mid September
Crowned Willow-
Warbler.
Passer rutilans Seen only rarely March to
Cinnamon Sparrow. September
Passer domesticus early March but most in | August
House Sparrow. April
Nectarinia asiatica 1-6-48, 1-6-51, 2-6-52, 1-6-53 | mid November
Purple Sunbird. I do find it astonishing
that this bird should |
arrive year after year |
on almost exactly the |
same day |
Dicaeum concolor mid March end September
Plaincoloured Flower-
pecker.
D. agile end June mid October
Thickbilled Flower-
pecker.

WINTER VISITORS

Species of bird First dates Last dates

Lustinia svecica September 14-9-53 End April 30-4-54
Bluethroat.

Phoenicurus frontalis end October 22-3-54
Bluefronted Redstart. |

P. hodgsont late October mid March
Hodgson’s Redstart.

P. leucocephala mid October April 12th
Whitecapped Redstart.

Tarsiger chrysaeus end October not common till |} March 22nd
Golden Bush Robin. November

Tarsiger cyanurus mid October March 24th in Valley
Redflanked Bush Robin. April 12th on hills

Adelura coeruleocephala | early November | end February

Blueheaded Robin.

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY

WINTER VISITORS—(contd.)

75

Species of bird

Turdus ruticollis
Blackthroated Thrush.

Zoothera dauma
Smallbilled Mountain
Thrush.

Muscicapa parva
Redbreasted Flycatcher.

M. strophiata
Orangegorgetted Fly-
catcher.

M. amabilis
Rustybreasted Flycatch-
er.

Rhipidura hypoxantha
Yellowbellied Fantail
Flycatcher.

Lanius tephronotus
Greybacked Shrike.

Lanius cristatus
Brown Shrike.

Phylloscopus collybita
Chiff-chiff.

Acrocephalus dumetorum
Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

Seieercus burkiit
Blackbrowed Flycat-
cher-Warbler.

Oriolus chinensis
Blacknaped Oriole.

Pyrrhula nipalensis
Brown Bullfinch.

Spinus tibetanus
‘Tibetan Siskin.

First dates

mid November

25-9-53

23-9-48, 25-9-53

mid November

December

20th November

end October
24th September
end November
3rd October

7th September

Seen January only
middle to erd September

end November

Last dates

April 25th

early May

27-4-53 ; all gone by first

week May; one 11th
May 54.

mid April

end March

end March. This year I

observed a migration
taking place, there were
at least 25 of these
birds flying north along
the Gandak-Kosi water-
shed at 8,000 ft. April
Sth.

end April-early May
ilth May

end March

lIth May

April 6th

early May

end March from Vailey
later on hills

SSDP BE CS 7

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SQCIETY, Vol. 53

WINTER VISITORS

Species of bird First dates Last dates

Car podacus rodochroa mid April
Pinkbrowed Rosefinch.

Car podacus nipalensis late November often ~|end March
Nepal Rosefincii, December.

Emteriza pusilla | November early April .
Little Bunting.

EZ. aureola end November end April, sometimes May
Yellowbreasted Bunting. |

Alauda gulgula | 10th October 2lst April
Kashmir Skylark.

Motacilla alba 13-9- (leucopsis) ‘ May 6th (dukhunensis )
White Wagtail.

M. cineréa 13th October . May 10th
Grey Wagtail. ;

M. flava 19th September May 4th
Greyheaded Wagtail.

M. citreola 6th September end April
Yellewheaded Wagtail.

Anthus hodgsoni | 14th September 4th May
Hodgson’s Pipit.

A, richardt 19th September ?
Richard’s pipit. .

A. voseatus | 7th October May 3rd
Reseate Pipit |

Pachyglossa melano- 'Only December to February.
zantha. |
Yellowbellied Flower-

pecker. |

Psitltacula himalayana December end March
Slatyheaded Parroquet.

Pandion haliaétus 14th September March
Osprey.

Aquila chrysactos December to February only. ees

Golden Eagle.

A. heliaca December to March
Imperial Eagle.

A. nipalensis end November to end March, 600
Steppe Eagle.

Civcus aeruginosus 5-9-48, 6-9-52, 6-9-53 April
Marsh Harrier. |

BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY re

WINTER VISITORS—(contd.)

CR AED EN

Species of bird | First dates

Buteo sp ? October 8th
Falco peregrinus calidus. | 16th September
Peregrine.

F. tinnunculus 20th September
Kestrel.
Accipiter nisus 14th October
Asiatic Sparrowhawk.
Tringa ochropus ° 17-8-48, 10-8-53
Green Sandpiper.
Actitis hypoleucos 1 8-8-48, 8-8-53
Common Sandpiper.
Evrolia temminckit about 8th September
‘Temmincek’s Stint.
Scolopax rusticola mid October
Woodcock.

Snipe (Fantail and Pin- | about 4th September
tail.

Last dates

mid April

18th April

Usually 3rd week ‘April
occasional llth May,

March

| about second week May

first fortnight May
17th May

early March when cften
inour garden on migra- |
tion

early May

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Rta eee ace RE ABN EL ED

Species of bird

Phoenicurus ochruros
Black Redstart.

Phylloscopus attinis

Tickell’s Willow-Warb-

ler.

P. trochiloides vividanus

P. nitidus

Green Willow-Warbler.

Car podacus erythrinus
Common Rosefinch.

lynx torquilla
Wryneck.

Sterna hirundo tibetana
Common Tern.

Numenius arquata
Curlew.

Tringa glareola
Wood Sandpiper.

Tringa neébularia
Greenshank.

Philomachus pugnax
Ruff.

Anas querquedu!la
Garganey.

PASSAGE MIGRANTS

| Autumn Spring
| |
| ? | Between 12th and 20th
April
September early March to April 25th

mid September to early | early March to May 20th
November

not in autumn last week March to
| Ist week May, mostly
second half April

scarcely any in autumn mid March to mid May ;
September-October April mostly
August-September not in spring

August

September mid April to mid May

mid August-end September
mid September

all September-mid October

THE FUNCTION OF ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS IN THE
PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE

BY
E. P. GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S.

(With four plates)

SYNOPSIS

Distinction between zoological gardens and zoological parks is mainly one of interior
space and geographical location. Prejudices against zoological gardens are mainly
unfounded and based on an anthropomorphic approach. Lack of space is not a
serious consideration. Animals are often healthier, happier and longer lived in
zoological gardens. Wild animals trapped for zoological gardens are only a tiny
fraction of those destroyed by various means. Importance of standard of mainten-
ance of zoological gardens, whether the emphasis is on the recreational or the cultural
side. Increasing scarcity of wild life demands attention from zoological gardens
which provide the opportunity of rescuing species from extinction. Some species are
now in urgent need of rescuing in this way. The additional indirect method of pre-
serving wild life by the education derived from zoological gardens.

1. INTRODUCTION

The distinction between a zoological garden and a zoological park may
be briefly summarised as foilows: <A zoological garden is usually a place
where as large a number of the world’s mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, etc.,
as possible are on show to the public in a small area, say 30 to 150 acres.
These animals are usually kept in cages or restricted to small enclosures.
The function of a zoological garden is to show animals to the public as
conveniently as possible for their recreation and education, and to provide
material for scientific study. A zoological garden is usually found in a
large city.

A zoological park, on the other hand, is usually a place where a
selection of the world’s mammals, birds, etc., are maintained in an environ-
ment as far as possible similar to their natural habitat, in an area of some
300 to 600 acres or more. The animals are kept in open fields or small
wooded gilades or lakes ; and it is the human visitors who are restricted to
fenced roadways and paths. It is situated usually outside, but not far
from, a large city.

The chief difference, therefore, between a zoological garden and a
zoological park is one of interior space and geographical location. The
functions and the principles of management are generally similar for both

these institutions, and for the purpose of this paper it is proposed to treat
them together as one entity.

2, PREJUDICES SHOULD BE DISCARDED

There exists in the minds of many people, even of the widely-read
and well-educated, a certain amount of prejudice against Zoological
gardens which may be roughly analysed as follows. ‘They consider that
conditions in captivity are detrimental to the happiness and well-being of
animals due to lack of space and freedom. ‘This idea is open to question,

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

since it seems to be based entirely on an anthropomorphic approach to the
subject. Certain people think that because they themselves enjoy seeing
the wide open spaces the animals must react similarly.

It has recently been suggested by eminent biologists, naturalists and
others who have studied animal behaviour that, contrary to the prevalent
belief, most animals living in their wild state are confined to restricted
territories, and that lack of space in captivity is probably not a serious
consideration. As evidence of this is the fact that those species which
range over the widest areas in their wild state, such as elephants, the
larger hoofed mammais and birds of prey, are among the easiest to keep
in confinement and usually live to a ripe old age. Birds in.general often
do better in small cages than in large aviaries. )

If further examples are required, mention could be made of the male
gorilla now in the London Zoo which is doing much better in its com-
paratively small cage than did the two pre-war gorillas in the very large
house specially built for them. And there is the instance of the impala
gazelles from Africa which never did well in a large enclosure at Whips-
nade Park, but which have thrived and bred regularly after being
transferred to a small pen in the Regent’s Park Zoo in the heart of
London.

A further reason for a prejudice against zoological gardens in the
minds of some people is the notion that animals are necessarily unhealthy
when in captivity. But such people overlook the fact that the majority of
animals are healthier, have a longer average life, and are better fed in good
zoological gardens than in their wild state. Most of the animals which
arrive in the London Zoo, for example, are infested with various parasites
which have to be eliminated. The famous hunter F. C. Selous once
stated that he could always distinguish the skin of a menagerie lion from
that of a wild one because it was healthier and had a longer and glossier
coat.

As for longevity Dr. Hindle (1950) has quoted the case of the Long-
tailed Field Mouse, which in Britain seldom survives from one winter
season to the next but in the London Zoo often lives for three or four
years.

Another factor which leads many to suppose that wild animals are
unhappy in zoological gardens is the ferocity and struggle they usually
display when newly captured. It is well known, however, that this is due
almost entirely to their fear of man: once this fear is removed, as quickly
happens, the erstwhile wild creature settles down remarkably well and
within an incredibly short time actually looks to its human captor for food
and attention.

Wild elephants and rhinoceroses captured in India are outstanding
examples of quickly losing their fear of man. Captured at all ages from
one year to maturity, they exhibit a frightening savagery at first, but accept
food from human hands within a few days and then can be contentedly
ridden by a man after only a few weeks.

It has been observed in zoological gardens that a great many animals not
only have no fear of human spectators but actually enjoy being watched
by them. ‘This. is especially noticeable among apes, monkeys, bears,
lions and seals—all of which greatly enjoy the presence of human visitors.
As Dr. Hindle (1950) has observed, of the chimpanzees at the London
Zoo there is always at least one individual which actually uses various
devices to attract a crowd.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

American Bison (Woburn Park, England)
(Photos: E.: P. Gee)

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PuateE [i]

Photo: EE PE Gee

A bull Gaur, known to sportsmen in India as the ‘Indian Bison’, (Mysore Zoo)

NY \

\\

\\ A

NN
i a i

; | ! : Wy, ii
He ide get EN Lae GM — hn,

Courtesy: London Zoo
White-tailed Gnu

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS & PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE 81

It is sometimes thought that the keeping in captivity of wild animals
brought from a cold climate into.a hot one, or vice versa, is cruel. But
wild animals, on the contrary, have rapid and remarkable powers of
adaptation: the hippopotamuses from their hot river in Kenya have
thrived and bred regularly in the cold, windy upland park at Whipsnade,
and polar bears from the Arctic do well in gardens in a hot climate.

The training of animals in captivity is a more controversial subject.
But if the animal being trained is ina healthy condition, and if it is not
ill-treated in order to make it perform, then there would appear to be no
harm done. Dr. Hediger (1950) claims that the training of animals in
captivity can provide them with suitable occupation and the means of
avoiding monotony and boredom. He believes that the training of
animals probably provides them with a new interest, that it is therefore
‘healthy, expedient and good’ and that it can be regarded as correspond-
ing to some extent with sport and athletic activities for civilized man.

A final aspect of zoological gardens which is apt to arouse some
opposition among wild life conservationists is the alleged charge that the
trapping of wild animals for the purposes of exhibition to the public
constitutes a threat to the preservation of wild life. While this charge
may be true in the case of certain rare and vanishing species, especially if
captured in an unauthorised manner without due regard to their numbers
and breeding seasons, it is not substantiated generally. It has been
accepted by most persons qualified to give an opinion in the matter that
the wild animals so captured alive for zoological gardens represent only a
tiny fraction of the number killed in various ways, by destruction of their
habitat, by overzealous sportsmen, by crop protectors, by poachers, and by
commercial dealers in meat, ivory, fur, skins, etc.

It is obvious, of course, that any objectionable aspects connected with
the live animal dealing business, such as cruelty and inadequate feeding |
and housing, should be severely dealt with by iegislation.

3. STANDARDS OF MAINTENANCE

It is generally accepted that the functions of zoological gardens are at
the same time recreational and educational, or cultural. Zoological
gardens vary considerably in standard of maintenance, from being purely
menageries or amusement parks run merely for the recreation of the public
on commercial lines for profit, to being institutions maintained primarily
for cultural, educational and scientific purposes and only secondarily for
recreation.

It has been pointed out by Mr. F. J. Appleman (1951) that for the
purpose of classification ‘It does not seem adequate to divide zoological
gardens into cultural and non-cultural ones, as some non-cultural gardens
are, thanks to their better financial position, much more up-to-date and
better run and adapted than some poor so-called cultural zoos. The only
right discrimination seems to be to divide the zoos into good and bad
ones.’

Dr. A. L. Sunier (1952) believes that ‘Zoological gardens, like
museums, should have education as their first objective, and should be
classified according to their efforts and their success or failure and not to
their financial resources. Almost equal to their educational work is their
important role in acting as scientific research centres .. . On the whole,
the demand for living wild animals by zoological gardens is negligible as

6

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

compared with other reasons for the disastrous diminution of many
representatives of this type of fauna ... Only zoological gardens worthy
of the name which undertook the double task of education and scientific
research should be allowed to acquire rare specimens.’

The general standard of maintenance, then, of a zoological garden as
an institution of both educational and recreational value is the most
important aspect, and the criterion by which it is to be judged. Of lesser
importance is the actual size of the collection of animals exhibited: it is
preferabie to have fewer animals well maintained than a larger number less
well maintained. It is better to have no zoological garden at all than to
have one poorly maintained.

4, NEED FOR PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE

Having attempted to explain and remove the prejudice, real or imagin-
ary, against zoological gardens, and to draw attention to the fact that the
objectives should be primarily cultural and only secondarily recreational,
it now remains to explain how such institutions can help specifically in the
preservation of wild life.

With the huge increase of human population and agriculture through-
out the world, and with the vastly improved means of destruction in the
way of firearms, poisons and the like, wild life has diminished and is
diminishing at an alarming rate. Two obvious methods of rescuing wild
fauna from otherwise certain extermination are firstly national parks,
nature reserves and wild life sanctuaries, and secondly zoological parks
and zoological gardens. | |

The former method of large unspoilt areas is obviously the more
desirable ; but here lies a drawback that only a limited few of the world’s
human population can avail themselves of the opportunity of visiting such
remote places, while zoological gardens are easily accessible in cities where
there are great concentrations of people.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad, President of the Indian Republic, has wisely re-
marked that ‘ Whatever function the forest performs, the touchstone and
measure of its value is human satisfaction.’ Similarly it might be said that
wild life and its preservation is not an end in-itself: the measure of the
value of wild life must ultimately be our own satisfaction.

It follows then that the more of the world’s animals that can be
humanely and attractively exhibited to the public for recreational and
cultural purposes the better, provided that rare and vanishing species which
are difficult to keep in captivity are excepted. It was for this reason that
a few years ago the London Zoo wisely and humanely decided to discour-
age the further acquisition from the bamboo forests of western China of
giant pandas, after the mysterious death of the ones in their garden, until
more is known of their habits and food requirements.

Shortiy after this the Chinese Government placed a total ban on the
export of these creatures; and it is believed that there is none now in
captivity unless behind the Iron Curtain.

It has been computed by Francis Harper (1945) that some 77 species
of mammals alone have become extinct during the last 2,000 years, the
rate of extinction having increased considerably during the last 150 years.

Many species of birds also have become extinct. When the Dodo was
discovered in 1598 it was not realised that the future of a particular
Species was in danger, never to be replaced. It had become extinct by

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PrAnEw

Courtesy: Basle Zoo

Madi

Photo: E. P. Gee
African Cheetah (Mysore Zoo)

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate IV

ie te. ee ae be, ‘
hal Ec be * : REN GS ‘ SK Ws CY
ee -

Photo: V. C. Whyte
Whitewinged Wood Duck in captivity

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS & PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE 83

1681. From what is known of this flightless bird, it is possible that it
could have been as easily preserved in captivity as it was impossible for
it to survive in its wild state. The Labrador Duck and the Great Auk
might also have been saved in zoological gardens.

The Passenger Pigeon, on the other hand, possessed the tendency to
gregariousness to such a degree as to make it impossible to survive in any
form of captivity, and the last of these birds died in the Cincinnati Zoolo-
gical Park in 1914.

5. Somer SpEcIFs ALREADY SAVED

In comparatively recent years several species have been successfully
saved from extinction by man in zoological gardens. The bison of
America and of Europe have both been preserved in this way. The great
herds of bison in America, popularly called ‘ buffalo’, which once roamed
the western plains of the U.S.A. and which are estimated to have number-
ed fifty or sixty million head, are now extinct in their purely wild state.
But a fair number of these animals are still living in a semi-domestic state
in parks and zoological gardens throughout the world.

The European Bison is believed to be practically if not totally extinct
in its wild state, but about ninety head are thriving in captivity in the parks
and zoological gardens of the world.

The White-tailed Gnu of Africa, a much more interesting antelope than
the Brindled Gnu of that continent, is also totally extinct in iis wild state,
but successfully preserved in certain farms, parks and gardens, where it
now numbers about 1,000 head.

Perhaps the most ‘ classic ’ example of a wild animal saved in captivity
from extinction is the famous Pére David’s Deer. Formerly found in the
swamps of Honan in China, then later confined to the Imperial Hunting
Park south of Peking, the last female in China died in captivity in Peking
in 1920. But a few had found their way to the zoological gardens of
Europe ; and in 1897 two or three animals in Woburn Park in England,
home of the Dukes of Bedford, were the tiny nucleus of what is now a
strong and vigorous herd of over 300. Deer from this renowned herd are
now being sent to zoological gardens throughout the world, and could
appropriately be re-introduced into their native haunts in China—if there
was the will and the place to receive them.

A bird which has just been reported to have been saved by breeding
in captivity is the Hawatian Islands Goose. Sixteen of these birds are
now thriving at the Severn Wildfowl Trust, and four goslings have recent-
ly been hatched out in Hawaii, itself bringing the total there to fourteen.
Only thirty or forty wild birds now exist in the region.

Breeding in captivity has also been suggested as a means of saving
the North American Whooping Crane, and attempts may be made to pre-
serve this bird in a zoological garden in the near future.

6. SPECIES REQUIRING PRESERVATION

There are many species of mammals and birds which are now in
urgent need of preservation in zoological gardens, since their existence is
threatened in their native habitats. Of the three species of Asiatic rhino-
ceroses, all of which are rare and vanishing species, the Javan or Smaller
One-horned is in the greatest danger. Not more than forty of these rare

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

creatures are reported by A. Hoogerwerf (1954) to exist in their wild state
in the Udjung Kulon Reserve of Java. Fortunate indeed will be the
zoological garden which will be the first to obtain a pair of this rhinoceros,
for at present no representative of this species exists in any zoological
garden, although rhinoceroses generally do extremely well in captivity.

The Cheetah or Hunting Leopard is either extinct or practically extinct
in its wild state as far as India is concerned ; and it is imperative that any
representatives of the Indian species still living in captivity should be care-
fully observed. It is most unfortunate that this animal is one of the very
few creatures which have never bred in captivity in any part of the world,
as far as is known.

Owing to its jarge size and the reduction of its habitat, the Great
Indian Bustard is becoming extremely rare ; and the possibility of rescuing
this fine bird and preserving it in zoological gardens should not be
overlooked.

The Whitewinged Wood Duck of north-east India, recently placed by
the Indian Board for Wild Life on the list of birds proposed to be totally
protected, is known to thrive in captivity : here is another opportunity of
saving from extermination a species before it goes the way of the Pink-
headed Duck.

The Manipur sub-species of the Brow-antlered Deer, of which there are
believed to be only a few representatives alive today, cannot possibly be
expected to survive in their wild state. The only chance of successfully
preserving them is in captivity where they do remarkably well. There is
a fine herd of the Burma sub-species in the Rangoon Zoological Garden,
and of the Indo-China sub-species in the Vincennes Zoological Garden of
Paris.

Many other mammals and birds could be mentioned, which are now
becoming rare and should therefore be safeguarded by some of their
numbers being maintained in good zoological gardens in India and other
countries.

7. CONCLUSION

There can be little doubt that well administered zoological gardens can
be of the greatest direct value in preserving wild life by keeping and
exhibiting rare and vanishing species.

There is, in addition, an indirect way : by education of the public, and
by drawing their attention to the status of the species in their native
haunts, public opinion will then be enlisted to the cause of wild life
preservation.

With well-displayed legend information about the habits and habitat of
each animal exhibited, and with simple but attractive maps showing
former geographical range and present restricted distribution, and with
further information available in the way of illustrated guide books, book-
lets, pamphlets, postcards and the like, much can be achieved in the field
of education.

Visitors to a good zoological garden who can see animals in healthy
and happy condition at close quarters in captivity can surely be led to
visualise them in their natural surroundings. And if they cannot them-
selves go out into the remoter national parks and sanctuaries to see them
in their wild state, at least they can determine that they will do all in
their power to secure the survival of wild life for their own and for future
generations.

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS & PRESERVATION OF WILD LIFE 85

REFERENCES

1. Appleman, F. J. (1951): Problem of Zoological Gardens and Wildlife
Animal Trade. Proc. 1.U.P.N.1951.

2. Harper, Francis (1945): Extinct and vanishing Mammals of the Old World.

3. Hediger, H. (1950) : Wild Animals in Captivity.

4, Hindle, E. (1950): Foreword to ‘Wild Animals in Captivity’ by H.
Hediger.

5. Hoogerwerf, A. (1954): Nature Protection in Indonesia. Oryx, 2 (4).

6. IU.P.N. (1955) : Bulletin Vol. [V. No. 1.

7 sinier Ay Ey (952) Lr0ee ROR iZ NEA 952,

BIONOMICS OF URENTIUS ECHINUS DIST. (HEMIPTERA—
HETEROPTERA: TINGIDAE) AN IMPORTANT PEST OF
BRINJAL (SOLANUM MELONGENA L.) IN NORTH

GUJARAT} |

BY
R. C. PATEL, M.Sc. (Agri.)
Institute of Agriculture, Anand

AND

H. L. KULKARNY, M.Sc.
Protessor of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dharwar

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

Among the various vegetables grown in Gujarat, the brinjal crop
(Solanum melongena 1.) is prominently cultivated. However with its
extensive cultivation the insect pests of brinjal have been noticed to
regularly infest the crop and reduce its yield considerably almost
annually. ‘The most common insect pest of brinjal, particularly in the
summer season, is Uventius echinus Dist. which occupies the first place in
the extent and severity of damage. Therefore, investigations were
undertaken with a view to obtaining fuller information on the life history
and seasonal history of the insect.

Incidence of the pest

The insect activity is mostly observed during the summer months
between March and May. Weekly observations taken during this period
showed that the peak ofinfestation is reached during April and May, when
the suminer crop is 3to 4 weeks old, in the transplanted fields. However,
the insect was also found breeding at a very low level on early planted
monsoon crop as well.

Technique of study

The insect population was estimated by counting the number of
adults on three different sized leaves on the same plant. Observations
made on ten random plants were averaged out and the insect population on
a medium-sized leaf was estimated. Only the population of adult insects
was taken each time. Investigations on the life-history of the insect were
commenced in the laboratory on potted host seedlings. For this purpose
nymphs of U. echinus Dist. obtained from the field were initially encaged

1 Being a part of the thesis for the degree of M.Sc. (Agri.) submitted to the Uni-
versity of Gujarat by the former author under the guidance of the latter.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTEH 1

On 2, Uae.

; AN AEA ANH 1 TT
fon Aan tng Ann

A — Ege of Uventius echinus Dist.
B — Sth instar nymph of U. echinus Dist.
C — Adult of U. echinus Dist.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 2

a6

0.1 mm.

F
F |

B

\ |

o-1 mm.

Various tubercles or scoli on the nymphal instars of U. echinus Dist.

J. Elongated tubercles on the 1 instar nymph.
A. Elongated tubercle by the side of the base of the beak. Bb. Elongated tubercle on the mid-

dorsal line above the base of the beak. D. fLlongated tubercle on the mesothorax by the side of
mid-dorsal line. E. Elongated tubercle on the first abdominal segment on the mid-dorsal line.
F, Elongated tubercle on the third abdominal segment on the lateral side.

Il. Scoli on the II instar nymph.

Ill. » Hl y
IV. 1V »
Vv. ” V yy

A. Scolus by the side of the base of the beak, B. Scolus by the mid-dorsal line above
the base of the beak. C. Scolus on the anterior margin of the prothorax, D. Scolus on the
mesothorax by the side of the mid-dorsal line. E. Scolus on the first abdominal segment on the
mid-dorsal line. F. Scolus on the third abdominal segment on the lateral side. 6

BIONOMICS OF URENTIUS ECHINUS DIST. 87

in glass vials, reared up to adults, and the young ones obtained from
them were used for further studies. The egg-laying capacity of
individual insects was noted by pairing adults in glass tubes of convenient
sizes. Small pieces of host leaves with wet cotton-wool plugs at the
petioles were provided for the insects. Eggs laid in the leaves were
counted under the stereoscopic microscope by receiving a strong beam of
incident light on a concave mirror projected from below the infested leaf.
The control of the insect in the field was tried with suitable insecticides
during 1952.

Historical Review

Study of U. echinus Dist. has been much neglected and practically no
literature could be traced on the bionomics of this insect. Distant
(1909) collected specimens from Ceylon and described the insect as
Uventius echinus. From India, Lefroy and Howlett (1909) described the
nature of damage caused by the insect and noted for the first time the
habit of the insect of laying eggs in the leaf tissue. Subsequently U. echinus
Dist. was reported from different Indian territories by Fletcher (1914,
1921), Pillai (1921), Ramakrishna Ayyar (1940) and Isaac (1933, 1946) ;
while from Ceylon, by Henry (1916), Hutson (1921), Entomological staff
(1923) and Jepson (1935) as damaging brinjal. Sinha (1951) reported
the pest as of minor importance and stated that it is prevalent during
latter part of the rainy season. He recommended DDT for the control of
the pest without any experimental data.

Nature of damage

Both nymphs and adults of U. echinus Dist. are responsible for
damage to the host plants. The nymphs were mostly found to aggregate
on the undersurface of the leaves, whereas the adults scattered mainly on
the upper sides of the leaves. They sucked the cell sap by thrusting
their proboscis into the leaf tissue. The damaged portions of the
leaf developed characteristic whitish yellow patches and subsequently the
leaves dried up. In case of heavy attack the plants turned sickly pale,
suspended growth and finally dried out.

LIFE HISTORY

EGG. (Plate. 1, A)

Dull yellow with pale brownish operculum, measuring on an average
0:444 mm. in length and 0°174 mm. in width; slightly curved, wider in
the middle with an oval operculum at the anterior pole and bluntly
rounded posteriorly. The chorion of the egg is hard and without any
surface patterns. The rim of the operculum showed inwardly projecting
denticles. Generally the eggs were laid marginally inwards from the
upper surface of the leaf, closer to each other. No eggs could be seen in
the leaf veins. The eggs were thrust slanting in the leaf tissue with some
glueing material in such a way that a little portion of the egg usually
remained above the leaf surface.

Incubation period of the egg

The incubation period of 52 eggs studied in the laboratory at
temperatures ranging between 80:0°F. to 102°F. varied from 5 to 7 days .

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

with an average of 5°33 days during Apriland May. The data obtained
is presented in the following table :

TABLE 1

Duration of the egg stage of Urentius echinus Dist.

Average TIncuba-
temperature | y, of Date of Date of tion enti
Season (in °F. during aces ege hatching | period of Berea
the period 8&8 laying of eggs eggs in P que
of study | days y
| | |
May 1952 | SO2/Smana| 4 2-5-52 7-5-52 §
bus 2-5-52 7-5-52 5 5-11
ge al 2.5-52 9.5-52 7
) 2-5-52 7-5-52 5
2 2-5-52 —7-5-52 5
April 1953 89°41 9 1-4-53 7-4-53 6
aa 5-4-53 10-4-53 5 5°44
8 6-4-53 11-4-53 5
6 11-4-53 17-4-53 6

THE NYMPH

I INSTAR

Nymphs measured on an average 0:603 mm. in length and 0-267 mm.
in width ; elongated oval and yellowish brown in colour. Dorsally
the body is covered with 4 or less, small, white basiconic tubercles
except on the head.

Head: Bears elongated tubercles each with an apical capitate spine
(Plate 2, 1). Two tubercles are placed just above the base of the
beak, one on either side. A group of two similar tubercles originates
posterior to the base of the beak on the mid-dorsal line. Two such pairs
of similar tubercles are located on the inner aspect of the eyes, one on
either side. yes: Composed of a group of five ommatidia, rose-red in
colour. Antennae: 3 segmented, apically brownish, measuring on an
average 0:199 mm. in length. Segments i and ii are subequal. Segment
iii is the longest and shows a cleavage indicating the further line of
division in the segment, to make up the full complement of the four
segmented antenna. Rostrum: Three-segmented with brownish pointed
tip, extends up to half the abdominal length,

BIONOMICS OF URENTIUS ECHINUS DIST. 29

Thorax: Prothorax without any raised dorsal tubercles. Laterally
one marginal raised tubercle is present on either side. Mesothorax bears
two tubercles with capitate apical spines, placed ‘a little away from the
mid-dorsal line, one on either side. lLaterally it bears a marginal
elongated tubercle, one on either side. The arrangement of tubercles on
the metathorax is similar to that on the prothorax.

Abdomen: Each of the Ist, 4th and 7th abdominal terga bears a
pair of elongated tubercles placed side by side along the mid-dorsal line,
each having a capitate spine at the apex. Besides, all the abdominal
segments bear.a pair of tubercles with capitate apical spines, placed laterally,
one on either side. ‘The lateral tubercles on the 8th abdominal segment
are placed posteriorly pointing backwards.

II INSTAR

Nymphs yellowish brown with pale brown marginal patches on the
thorax, measured on an average 0°826 mm. in length and 0°388 mm. in
width. Dorsally, body covered over with 4 to 6 small, basiconic, white
tubercles except on the head.

Head: Bears 5 elongated tubercles* each with an apical capitate
spine (Plate 2, II). Two scoli are placed just above the base of the
beak by the side of the mid-dorsal line. The two tubercles described in
the first instar as arising side by side on the mid-dorsal line are fused
basally, but yet distinctly separated apically. The two pairs of scoli each
situated on the inner aspect of the compound eyes, also show similar
fusion basally, but are bifurcated distally. Ayes: Brownish with 6—7
ommatidia. Antennae: 4 segmented with a brownish tip, measured
on an average 0:280 mm. in length; segments i and ii subequal, segment
iii is little longer than twice the length of segment 1 and segment iv is
the longest. Rostrum :—3-segmented with a cleavage in the third
segment ; deep brown apically and extends upto the third coxae.

Thorax: The prothorax bears two very small unbranched scoli
placed about the mid-dorsal line. Two pairs of similarly unbranched scoli
are borne laterally, one pair on either side. Mesothorax bears two dark
brown unbranched scoli, placed a little away from the mid-dorsal line, one
on either side. The lateral scoli are similar in description to those on the

prothorax. Metathorax bears only one unbranched scolus placed laterally
on either side.

Abdcmen: Each of the Ist, 4th and 7th abdominal terga bears a
deep brown scolus on the mid-dorsal line, similar in shape to those situated
near the inner aspect of the eyes. Laterally each of the abdominal
segments bears an unbranched scolus, one on either side. The 8th

abdominal. segment bears lateral scoli projecting backwards from the
posterior margin.

* Such body structures are referred to as scoli by Kapur (1950). The description
of the elongated tubercles referred to here compares well with the definition of scolus
and therefore the tubercles are henceforth referred to as scoli.

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

III r1NSTAR

Nymphs yellowish brown with greenish tinge measured on an average
1:008 mm. in length and 0446 mm. in width; oval slightly flattened
dorso-ventrally, with brown marginal patches on the thorax. Except the
nead, dorsally, each body segment bears 12 or less, small, white basiconic
tubercles.

Head: All the five sccli on the head are similar to those of the II
instar nymph in form and location (Plate 2, III). yes: Brownish,
projecting outside with about 8 ommatidia. Antennae: 4 segmented,
brown apically and measured on an average 0°364 mm. Segment ii is
slightly longer than segment i and segment iii is the longest, nearly 3 times
the segment i. Rostrum: 4-segmented with deep brown pointed tip
extending upto the third coxae.

Thorax: The prothorax bears two unbranched elongated scoli
placed about the mid-dorsal line. In this instar, instead of one scolus as
in second instar, there are 4 unbranched scoli of varying lengths placed
laterally on either side. Mesothorax bears two dark brown unbranched
scoli, one on either side, a2 little away from the mid-dorsal line. Four
scoli of varying lengths are placed laterally on either side. Development
of wing-pads is observed laterally, in the form of dark brown patches.
Metathorax bears no scoli. 3

~

Abdo men: Each of the Ist, 4th and 7th abdominal terga bears a
scolus, similar in structure to that described in the second instar. Lateral
scoli on the third and fourth abdominal segments are brownish, while the
rest are pale yellowish.

IV INSTAR

Nymphs greenish yellow, mottied with brown to deep brown patterns,
measured on an average 1°447 mm. in length and 0°84 mm..in width ; oval,
dorso-ventrally flattened, supressed anteriorly. Dorsally armoured with
large number of small white basiconic tubercles except the head.

Head: The positions of the five scoli on the head remain the same
as in the previous instars. The scoli by the side of the base of the beak
are similar to those in the previous instar. Each of the remaining three
scoli shows only slight bifurcation at the apex, with a short capitate apical
spine (Plate 2, IV). yes: Deep brown projecting outwards with
more than 8 ommatidia on either side. Antennae: Deep brown apically,
4 segmented measuring on an average 0°532 mm. in length. Segment ii
is slightly longer than segment i, segment iii is the longest and slightly
longer than three times the segment ii. Rostrum: Extends upto second
coxae, 4 segmented showing a cleavage in the third segment indicating
development of the 5th and final segment.

Thorax: Prothorax bears two unbranched slightly elongated scoli
placed about the mid-dorsal line. Laterally it bears 6 to 8 scoli on either
side. Mesothorax bears two dark brown unbranched scoli placed little
away from the mid-dorsal line, one on either side. On the stem of each

BIONOMICS OF URENTIUS ECHINUS DIST. 91

of these scoli one to three minute tubercles bearing small spines are
visible. Laterai scoli are similar to those present on the prothorax.
Wing-pads are well marked extending upto half the first abdominal
segment. The lateral scoli on the mesothorax appear to have been
reduced.

Abdomen: Each of the Ist, 4th and 7th abdominal terga bears one
deep brown scolus placed on the mid-dorsal line showing slight bifurcation
at the apex. The basal part of the scolus is elongated with one or two
minute spined tubercles on the stem. The lateral scoli also bear similar
minute spined tubercles on their basal parts.

V instar. (Text-fig. 1, B)

Nymphs greenish yellow, mottled with deep brown to black patterns,
measured on an average 2°114 mm. in length and 1°204 mm. in width;
oval, but slightly supressed anteriorly and flattened dorso-ventrally,
armoured with numerous small, white basiconic tubercles all over the
body except the head.

Head: The two elongated scoli placed by the side of the base of the
beak are further elongated. The remaining three scoli, indicating only slight
bifurcation apically, are armoured with none to two spined tubercles on
the stem. Their positions are the same as described in the previous
instar. (Plate 2, V). yes: Deep brown, distinctly projecting
outwardly. Antennae: 4 segmented, measuring on an average
0-757 mm. in length, deep brown apically. Segment i is slightly
longer than segment ii and is about one-fourth segment iii; segment
iii is the longest and is little more than one and half times the segment
iv. Rostrum: 5-segmented but the cleavage in the third segment is
yet indistinct ; deep brown pointed, highly sclerotised and extends upto
the posterior margin of mesothorax.

Thorax: Prothorax bears two unbranched scoli placed about the
mid-dorsal line, bearing one or two spined tubercles on the stem.
Laterally about 9 to 10 brown scoli are borne on either side. Mesothorax
bears two deep brown scoli placed a little away from the mid-dorsal line
with 2 to 3 minute spined tubercles on the stem of either. Lateral scoli
are similar to those on the prothorax. Wing-pads are deep brown distally,
extending as far back as the 3rd abdominal segment.

Abdomen: Each of the Ist, 4th and 7th abdominal terga bears one
deep brown scolus placed on the mid-dorsal line, showing slight bifur-
cation apically and armoured with one or two minute spined tubercles on
the stem. First two abdominal segments bear no lateral scoli, whereas
the rest of the abdominal segments laterally bear one scolus with one to
three minute spined tubercles borne on the stem and an additional spined
tubercle placed anterior to the scolus itself.

Duration of the nymphal period: ‘The nymphal period
varied from 7 to 9 days during the months of April and May 1952 and
1953, when the laboratory temperatures varied from 80°0°F. to 104:0°F.
The nymphs moulted 5 times to reach the adult stage. The data

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

pertaining to the average duration of the nymphal instars is given
below :—
TABLE 2

Duration of the nymphal instars of Urentius echinus Dist.

| Average Average duration of the Average
temperature! No. of stadium in days duration
Season in °F. during indivi- a of nymphal

the period | duals ms) | | period in

| of study : I | 01 MOE, 10) | V | days
May 1952 ..., 90°05 | 7 1:86 | 143] 1:43 | 1:29 | 2-14 8:15
April 1953... 90°68 | 9 2:00 | 1:00 | 1:00 | 1-89 | 2-22 8:11
Aprile1953....\naniS0;3ohaiial 8 260 | 150 | 1:25 | 1:25 | 2-125 8-125
Average ...| ae 24 AS96329 921 seals O al eealyy 8°13

It will be seen that the duration of the I and V instars is 1°96 and 2°17
days respectively, which is longer than that of the remaining instars.
The nymphal period in the II, III and IV instars is not more than one and
a half days. The average duration of the total nymphal period comes to
8:13 days.

THE ADULT. (Plate 1, C)

The adult measured on an average 2°367 mm. in length and 0:922 mm.
in width, with blackish brown body. Female measured on an average
0-066 mm. shorter and 0:08 mm. wider than the male.

Head: The positions of the scoli on the head remain the same. -
The scolus borne on the mid-dorsal line shows very little or no bifurcation
at the apex but bears two short spines only. The scoli by the side of the
compound eyes do not indicate any bifurcation and are without apical
spines. “Ayes: Corinthian red, projecting laterally, occupying about
two-fifths of the head width. <Axtennae: 4 segmented, brownish black
apically, measuring on an average 0°906 mm. in length. Segments i and ii
are bulb-like, segment iii long and slender and segment iv is club
shaped and placed at an angle. Segment ii is little less than one and a
half times segment i, and segment iii is about nine times the segment i
and little more, than two and half times the segment iv. Rostrum:
Measured on an average 0°718 mm. in length, 5 segmented, honey-dew in
colour except the last segment which is brownish black. Laterally it is
guarded by a pair of marginally spined areolated buculae.

Thorax: Prothorax dorsally bears a triangular areolated shield
with long scoli on the anterior margin. Anteriorly it covers some portion
of the head and its posterior apex extends as far back as the 5th abdominal
segment. Mesothorax and metathorax are small and do not bear any
tubercles or scoli on the surface. Wzngs: The forewing is rectangular
completely areolated and armoured with spines on the costal margin and

BIONOMICS OF URENTIUS ECHINUS DIST. 93

the veins. At the base of the forewing, proximal to vannus, a well-develop-
ed elongated areolated lobe is present, which is comparable to the jugum.
The hindwing is membraneous and does not present any areolations.

Abdomen: Slightly concave dorsally and convex ventrally without
any spines or scoli. Last three segments bear a number of minute
marginal hairs.

Sex differentiation: The sex of the adults could be judged
from the external genital organs. In female the tip of the abdomen is
bluntly rounded and the 7th abdominal sternum bears the ovipositor
which extends up to the tip of the abdomen. In male the last abdominal
segmentis rectangular with rounded posterior margin bearing two inwardly-
bending sickle shaped claspers.

Longevity and fecundity of adults: For the study of egg-
laying capacity of an individual female, the insects were bred in glass
vials during April and May 1953, at temperatures varying from 80:0°F
to 104:0°F. (Table 3).

TABLE 3

The egg-laying capacity and the pre-and post-oviposition periods of
U. echinus Dist.

|
Pre-ovie | Oviposi- | Post ovi- Total life in days
be one. No, of | position tion | ss re or position |
: pairs period | period in ast period | |
tion ; female : | |
in days days | | indays | Male | Female
i: | | | | Bike
|
i | ae] 2 11 G2 6 9 13
2 1 3 10 108 0 4 13
3 1 3 2 22 0 4 4
4 I 2 13 120 0 4 15
5 ] 3 5 40 0 5 8
6 1 3 6 30 0 9 9
” 1 3 3 13 0 6 5
8 1 3 ] 4 1 6 5
9 1 2 13 142 0 15 15
10 | I, 2 ) 108 0 9 10
ah 1 3 11 165 1 15 15
Average “| eS LCR GS 7-64 74:0 0°18 7°81 | 10,18

It will be seen that the pre-oviposition period of females varied from
2 to 3 days with an average of 2:64 days, whereas the oviposition period

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

varied from 1 to 13 days with an average of 7°64 days. In the majority
of cases the females died just after oviposition, and thus the post-
oviposition period averaged as low as 0°18 days. The number of eggs
laid by a single female varied from 4 to 165 with an average of 74:0 eggs
per female. In two trials arranged during April and May 1953, wherein
4 and 5 pairs were caged together, an average of 62°5 :and 92:0 eggs were
laid per female respectively. The longevity of male and female bugs
varied from 4 to 15 days with an average of 7°81 and 10:18 days
respectively. Out of two pairs reared in the laboratory, during
December 1953, when the temperatures varied from 60:0°F. to 89:0°F.,
the females survived for 29 and 33 days while the males survived for
16 and 18 days respectively.

From the laboratory rearings it was observed that the females of
Uventius echinus Dist. regularly preferred to oviposit only on the upper
surface of the host leaf.. An experiment was therefore arranged to study
the selection of the host leaf areas by the insects for egg-laying. For this
purpose 12 pairs of bugs were enclosed in a glass bowl with a fresh
healthy brinjal leaf. After 48 hours the leaf was taken out and
circumscribed in three approximately equal zones—one in the centre of
the leaf, another towards the margin, and the third between the two. It
was found that the outermost zone of 0°5 cm. width contained 123
eggs, the middle zone of 0°6 cm. in width contained 70 eggs and the
innermost zone contained only 40 eggs. Out of 233 eggs laid by
the females, only two eggs were observed to have been laid on the under-
surface of the leaf. It could be inferred from these observations that the
bugs selected the marginal areas of the upper surface of the leaves for
Oviposition.

CoNTROL MEASURES

Fletcher (1914, 1921) recommended spraying with crude oil emulsion
and picking off affected leaves. Gurcharan Singh (1945) attempted 0°5 to
4%, DDT dusts with cow-dung-ash as carrier on potted plants. He found
that the bugs died in 24 hours. Sinha (1951) suggested 3% DDT dust or
spray against U. echinus Dist. but without any experimental data.
Workers in the past have recommended the use of DDT to control the pest
without any experimental data. It was therefore thought worthwhile to
pian an experiment on a field scale to study the effect of DDT as an
insecticide to control the pest. The following insecticidal treatments were
included in the experiment :—

A—Control.

B—0:1% DDT water suspension + Nicotine sulphate (1 part of
40% Nicotine in 960 parts of water).

C—0:2% DDT water suspension spray.

D—0:3% DDT water suspension spray.

The DDT sprays were formulated using ‘Guesarol 550’ a 50% DDT
water wettable powder.

The treatments were replicated 4 times and laid out in a randomised
block. It covered an area of 18,262 sq. ft. The results obtained have
been tabulated in ‘Table 4.

ees Ss
BIONOMICS OF URENTIUS ECHINUS DiIsT. 95

TABLE 4

Average population of Uventius echinus Dist. before and after treatments
with DDT concentrations

| Average No. of adults per
No. of | Time of observation Tepe ores
application . Nic i ala
| <A | B | C D
1 ‘Initial ...| 4:36 fe See eon OO me mayo
24 hours after treatment s0| - o' 82 1°83 | 1:02 | 0:96
48 hours _,, 4 Baie 3°92 1:80 | P6ses| 1-72
1 week ,, 4 |) 408 | 048 | 0-27 0-40
2 weeks ,, 2 743 Sob 0:70. | 0°46 0°77
2 24 hours _,, ) ...| 3°93 | 0°40 | 0-23 0:22
48 hours ,, 9 Hela: 45 | 0°44 | 0:23 0°13
l week ,, i | 106 | 033-| o19 | 0:13
2 weeks } nf ol 1:18 0°33 -'} 0°19 | 0°22

It will be seen that each of 0°1% DDT with nicotine sulphate, 0:29 DDT
and 0°39% DDT proved effective in the control of the pest. However,
between the treatments no significant difference was noticeable. The
gradual decline in the population of the insect in the control plots may be
due to the highly devitalised leaves and reduced number of plants to sustain
insect population. After 16 days from the treatment, the control plots
showed only 20% of the plant population as compared to 85% in the treated
ones. On working out the economics of these treatments it was found
that 0°2% DDT spray was the most economical and effective in the control
of the pest.

SUMMARY

Uventius echinus Dist. is one of the important insect pests of brinjals in
North Gujarat, so much so that on the summer brinjal crop the insect
behaves as a limiting factor in the successful cultivation of the crop. The
insect is mostly noticed during February to May. On an average a
female laid 74:0 eggs. However, the maximum egg-laying capacity is
165 eggs. The incubation period of eggs varied from 5 to 7 days with
an average of 5°33 days when the laboratory temperature ranged from
80:0°F. to 102°0°F. The nymphs passed through five instars to reach
the adult stage. Che nymphal period varied from 7 to 9 days with an
average of 8°13 days when the laboratory temperatures varied from
80-0°F. to 104:0°F. The pilot trial conducted to control the pest in the field
indicated that 0:2% DDT water suspension spray is effective and economic
for recommendation to the cultivators.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Dr. M. D. Patel, Director, Institute of
Agriculture, Anand, for giving permission and providing adequate
facilities in conducting the present work.

They also take this opportunity to thank Dr. H. K. Patel, Professor of
Entomology, Institute of Agriculture, Anand, for the constructive sugges-
tions made hy him in the writing of this paper.

REFERENCES

1. Distant, F.:I. (1909) : Fauna British India Rynchota, Vol. II, p. 134.

2. Entomological Staff (1923) : A preliminary list of pests of cultivated plants
in Ceylon, Dept. of Agri., Ceylon. Bull. No. 67, p. 68.

a Fletcher, T. B., (1914): Some South Indian Insects, p. 485.

—-— ——— (1921) : Annotated list of Indian crop pests, Bull., Agri.

Res. ne Pusa. No. 100, p. 197.

5. Henry, G. M. (1916: Report of the Assistant Entomologist, Trop. Agric.
Peradeniya, XUVII, No. 2, pp. 94-100.

6. Hutson, J. C. (1921) : Report of the Entomologist, Report Ceylon Dept.
Agri. 1920; Peradeniya, 1921, pp. C. 15-C 17.

7. Isaac, P. V. (1933: Report of the Imperial Entomologist, Sci. Rep. Imp.
Inst. of Agri. Res. Pusa, 1931-32; Delhi, pp. 141-145.

8 —--— ee (1946) : Report of the Imperial Entomologist, Sci. Rep.
Agri. Res. Inst. New Delhi, 1944-45. pp. 73-79.

OM JepsOlsa bra: (1935) : Report on the work of Entomological Division 1934,
Adm. Rep. Dir. ae Ceylon. 1934, Colombo, pp. D. 132-D. 147.

10. Kapur, A. P. (1950): Biology and external morphology of larvae of E pila-
chninea eee " Ccecinellidae) Bul. Ent. Res. London, 41 (1) pp. 161-208.

ll. Lefroy and Howlett: (1909). Indian Insect Life, p. 693.

12. Pillai, R. M. (1921): Short notes on insect pests of crops in Travancore.
Travancore Dept. Agri. Trivandrum, 1921, p. 53.

13. Ramkrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1940) : Handbook of Economic Entomology
for South India. Madras Govt. Press, p. 259,

14. Sinha, S. 8. (1951): Some chservations on an attack of Uventius echinus
Se er Brinjal at Sabour Farm, Bihar, Jud. J. Ent. New Delhi, 13 (2).
p. 182.

SOME NOTES ON THE RICE GALL-FLY, PACH/DIPLOSIS
ORYZAE (W.M.)

BY
Dr. M. Q. KHAN, M.Sc., PH.D. (Lond.), D.1.c.
Government Entomologist and Plant Protection Officer
AND
D. V. MuRTHY, DIP. AGRIC.

Assistant Entomologist,
Department of Agriculture, Hyderabad-Dn.

INTRODUCTION

Rice is the most important crop in the Nizamabad District of Hydera-
bad State, the annual acreage under the crop being 2,20,000 acres. The
crop is cultivated in two seasons, Viz., 4éz and 7adbz. Adz is the monsoon
crop where the sowings are done during June and July and harvested in
the months of November and December. 7Zadz crop is sown in January
and February and harvested in the months of April and May. The Aéz
crop is of longer duration and is almost invariably transplanted, whereas
the 7aéz crop is generally broadcast sown. The average rainfall of the
tract is 40”, received mostly in south-west monsoon months.

RICE GALL-FLY IN NIZAMABAD AREA

Rice Gall-fly, Pachidiplosts oryzae (Wood-Mason), popularly known as
‘ Koyya ’ and ‘ Koyya dumpa ’, used to be a comparatively minor pest in
Nizamabad till 1947. In September 1947, however, there was a severe
outbreak of the pest on a large scale and a random survey conducted
revealed that nearly 30% of the area under the crop was affected. Since
that time investigations are being carried out on the biology and control of
this pest, and some of the observations recorded are presented in this
paper.

SEASONAL HISTORY

The Gall-fly unlike most of the other rice insect pests in the Nizama-
bad area is not observed on both the seasonal crops in a pest form but is
almost exclusively noted in Adz season only. As noted, the 4dz seasonal
crop is sown in the months of June-July. The first appearance of the
insect on the crop differs only slightly from season to season, as shown
in the table below. ‘The second week of July appears to be the normal
period of the first appearance of the pest.

TABLE I

The period of first appearance of Rice Gall-fly on Abi paddy,
during different years

Year Period of first appearance
1948 ‘as July 2nd week.

1949 Me June last week.

1950 oe July Ist week.

1951 ae July lst week.

1952 se July 2nd week.

1953 aes August lst week.

1954 a July Ist week

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

After its first appearance in the second week of July, galls are observed
in stray numbers only till middle of August. From there on the incidence
of the pest rises very high. Innumerable galls are observed in the crop
by this time. This is the first ‘ peak’ of the incidence of the pest as noted
by both the numbers of galls in the field as well as catches of the adults at
the light. According to the season, this appearance of the ‘ peak ’ may
vary a week to ten days earlier or later. ‘There will be a break of a fort-
night to 20 days before the second ‘ peak’ in incidence is observed. The
damage done at this time is mostly to late secondary tillers and tertiaries.
The maggots of this ‘ peak’ or generation are very heavily parasitized by
Platygaster oryzae C. (Hymenoptera). The attack of the pest dwindles
down from the first week of October. Stray galls continue to be obser-
ved, however, throughout October. It has not been possible to clearly
mark out the broods as there is great overlapping of generations. Adults
are short lived (3-5 days).

Soon after the harvest of the short duration crop, the stubble germina-
ted crop will also be sometimes found attacked. Jn the Zadz season,
though the midge is not observed in pest form, stray galls are observed
in the crop.

INCIDENCE IN RELATION TO TIME OF SOWING

It has been a common observation amongst workers that late sown
crops becoine susceptible to gall-fly attack. It is reported that damage is
insignificant when operations are carried out eariy and the plants grow
to some height (Proc. 3rd Ento. Meeting, Pusa.). Ramchandra Rao
(1926) mentions that during 1925, when there was a severe outbreak of
this pest at Buntawal in South Canara, the early-planted fields were only
lightly attacked, while those planted a fortnight later suffered very badly.
The earliest possible sowing or transplanting is reeommended by Hegde-
katti (1927) as a measure of control against the Rice Gall-fly.

During 1952-53 Adz season, observations were recorded at the Agri-
cuitural Research Station Rudroor on the incidence of Gall-fly in six
numbers of weekly sowings commencing from the last week of June
1952. The variety planted was H.R. 19, a common rice variety grown in
the Nizamsagar tract. The data recorded are given in the tabie below :~

TABLE IL

The incidence of Gall-fly on the variety H.R. 19 in different
weekly sowings

Total number of Galls observed
Date ot transplanting HUD YEO NS
1. 28-6-1952 ft 15
2. 5-7-1952 ae 28
3. 12-7-1952 awe 28
4, 19-7-1952 vee 21
5, 26-7-1952 ae 83
6. 2-8-1952 ane 79

The late transplantings, especially those done in the last week of July
and first week of August, have recorded a higher incidence.

SOME NOTES ON THE RICE GALL-FLY 99

The data recorded at Government Experimental Farm, Yedpally, on
the incidence of Gall-fly in 1950 on the variety H.R. 19 transpianted side
by side on two different dates are also given below :—

TABLE III

The incidence of Rice Gall-fly on the variety H.R. 19 sown on two
different dates

No. of Galls observed in two 3’ x 3’ units in crop
Plot No. transplanted on
II~7-1950 24-7-1950
] 1 14
2 — 6
3 3 8
4 —_ 10
Mean 1:0 9°5

os ed

The data obtained from routine field survey have also confirmed that
broadcasting or transplanting of the crop after the last week of July
renders it susceptible to Gail-fly attack.

,

RELATION TO SOME OF THE RICE VARIETIES

It has been observed that Gall-fly has a greater preference for certain
rice varieties. During 1950-51 and 1951-52 Adz seasons, observations
were taken in the District Trial Plots meant for comparison of new
varieties of rice. The percentage incidence of Gall-fly observed in the
different rice varieties in some of the taluquas of the Nizamabad district
is given below :

TABLE IV
Incidence of Rice Gallefly in some varieties of rice in Nizamabad District

% incidence in Rice varieties
Abi 1950-51 season

| HROMEIRGSER OMe HR HRegtiRer He
Locality [Ieee USSUNSBial Gyaimortiomen 47

Armoor ene La OL aol 1726
Banswada “fp, Bll Tes Ac7. 7-2
Nizamabad fea 6°4 6°6 98 7:6

Abi 1951-52 Season

Armoor a Xs 9 BPI 2:9
Banswada Serle 7 Ou Aco 6°5

Nizamabad _ oe TRS) 13°7 88 95

Of all the varieties, the variety H.R. 14 has consistently recorded low
incidence. :

During the year 1952-53, Adz season, observations were conducted in
a varietal test with the following six varieties, viz. Teksannal, H.R. 8
H.R. 19, H.R. 21, H.R. 22 and H.R. 33 replicated five times. The crop

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

had been broadcast sown on 1-8-1952. The incidence of Gali-fly recorded
on three different dates is given below :

TABLE V
Showing the Gali-fly incidence in different Rice varieties during 1952-53

Adi season

PROGRESSIVE
Waened Percentage incidence recorded on
pease 8-9-1952 239-1952 10-10-1952

1. Tekksanal ee 3°6 6°6 15:4
By ald, BS 16:9 28°7
Sih delle dle) sa 3°4 7 8:4
4, °H.R. 21 Se 5°9 9-0 325
Bye lelelS, 24 SHY) 11:4 12°9
6.7 EUIR2 33 3°6 6:7 11:4

The variety H.R. 8, which is a selection from an indigenous variety
Gandhari Nikko is found to be comparatively more susceptible to the
attack of Gall-fly. The sheath of this variety is of purple colour in con-
trast to the green colour of the other varieties under test. This observa-

tion is contrary to that of the observations recorded at the Central Rice
Research Institute, Cuttack (1952).

NATURAL ENEMIES

Platygaster oryzae C. (Hymenoptera) a larval parasite is the only
natural enemy of the Rice Gall-fly so far recorded in this tract. Its
appearance iS rather late in the season, and without further work its
usefulness cannot be estimated. ‘The percentage of parasitization at
various periods of the Adz season recorded in 1952 is given below :—

TABLE VI

Showing the percentage parasitization of Rice Gall-fly
Maggots by Platygaster oryzae C.

Date of observation Locality Parasitization percentage

23-7-195 2 Rudroor Nil
28-7-1952 Bodhan Nil

15-8-1952 Rudroor Nil

19-8-1952 Rudroor Nil

20-8-1952 Bodhan 5-0
27-8--1952 Bedhan 76'8

29-8-1952 Rudroor SPS}

3-9-1952 Rudroor 100:0

Licot TRAP EXPERIMENTS

One of the known control measures against the Rice Gall-fly is the
setting up of light traps, although its efficacy has been doubted some-
times (Proc. 3rd Ento. Meeting, Pusa). Sen (1953) however records that
the population of the midge was reduced considerably by setting up light
traps for 5 consecutive nights at one place. Under the direct guidance
and direction of the Senior author, who is also the Plant Protection Officer
to the Government of Hyderabad, petromax light traps were arranged
during the years 1953-54 and 1954-55 Adz seasons in Banswada taluga of

SOME NOTES ON THE RICE GALL-FLY 101

Nizamabad district. Three places were selected for keeping the traps,
namely Borlum, Banswada proper, and Durki. Fifteen petromax lanterns
were assigned to each place, each petromax to cover an area of 30 acres.
The traps were kept at each locality for a period of 10 weeks commen-
cing from the 4th week of July 1953 during 1952-53 season and from 3rd
week of July 1954 during 1953-54 season. The catches during the Ist
two weeks in 1952—53 season were almost nil. The maximum number of
adult Gall-flies were attracted to the traps during the period commencing
from last week of August to second week of September and again during
the first week of October in all the places. The total number of flies that
were caught at Banswada proper were 17,139 during 1952-53 season
and 1,01,510 during 1953-54 season. The average numbers of traps kept
at this place were ten.

At the time of harvest of the crop during 1952-53 season, a number
of random 3’ x3’ units were located in all the three places in areas
served by the light traps (Treated) and those not served (Control). For
comparison, care was taken to see that both experimental and control
crops were fairly similar as regards the time of sowing, manurial treat-
ments, cultivation, etc. The varieties selected for the comparison were
the same. The average numbers of matured earheads at harvest in
3’ x 3’ units in both treated as well as control areas are given in the table
below, which indicates the efficacy of the traps.

TABLE VII

Average number of matured ears in areas served by light traps and
those not served

Total No. ® Average Nos. of Matured ears in

Locality Variety of 3’ x 3’ Treated area Control area
units (3’ x 3’ ynit) (3’ x 3” unit)
Banswada H.R. 35 10 199 169
Durki eRe 35 36 217 134
Durki R.D.R.4 24 159 102
Borlum He Rwoo 48 198 112
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Shri Y. Ramachandra Rao, Bangalore,
for supplying them with references and suggestions. Thanks are also due
to Dr. M. S. Mani, School of Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra, for
identification of Platygaster oryzae.

SUMMARY

Pachidiplosts oryzae (Wood-Mason) Mani—the ceycidomyiid midge is
one of the major insect pests of rice in the areas served by the Nizam-
sagar Reservoir in the Hyderabad State. Unlike other rice insect pests
in the area, it is only observed in pest form in the Adz seasonal crop sown
in June-July. Its active period extends from 2nd week of July to end of
September. The rice crop sown late after last week of July is found
highly susceptible to this pest. Amongst the varieties, H.R. 14 has

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

consistently recorded low incidence of this pest, whereas H.R. 8, a
purple sheathed variety, fairly higher incidence. The Proctotrypid
parasite—FPlatygaster oryzae C. 18 the only natural enemy of the pest
observed in the area. The setting up of the light traps is found to
give a good measure of control of this Gall-midge.

REFERENCES

1. Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack: Ann. Report for 1951-52.
2. Hedgekatti, R. M. (1927): The Rice Gall-Midge in North Canara, Agr.
Jour. Ind., 22, 6, 461-2.
Ramachandra Rao, Y. (1926): The Silver-shoot disease of Paddy, Madras
Agri. Dept. Year Book, 1925.
4, Sen, A.C. (1953): Ann. Progress Report of the Section of Entomology,
Dept. of Agri., Bihar, for 1952-53 (Cyclostyled.)

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA
ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1953 ON THE SOUTHERN REGION

BY
Y. R. GHORPADE
Regional Secretary

_WiLp LIFE IN THE REGION

In this report no attempt is made to give a comprehensive survey of
the varied wild life in the Southern Region—viz. Madras, Mysore, Hy-
derabad, Travancore-Cochin, Coorg, Andhra and the Andamans—as that
would be needless repetition of what is now available in the Fauna of
British India volumes, and similar books. I have confined myself to
the mention of certain species in this region that are urgently in need of
the strictest protection, and more particularly to certain problems of wild
life protection in India.

The Great Indian Bustard, the Hunting Leopard, the Nilgiri
Tahr and the Nilgiri Black Langur, and perhaps the Malabar Squirrel, are
good examples of species more or less threatened with extinction ; in
some of these the threat has gone a long way towards fulfilment. How-
ever, I think that certain other animals, not so patently threatened, are no
less in need of protection. It is wise to act on the basis that prevention
is better than cure in the matter of wild life conservation, especially as we
are not now in a position to fully realize or completely control the factors
that lead to the decline and disappearance of our fauna. Hence, I would
certainly include such animals as the Four-horned Antelope, the Chinkara,
and the Blackbuck in any list of beasts specially in need of protection in
the Southern Region.

It is well known that the Four-horned Antelope is capricious in its
distribution and that this unique beast is peculiar to India. It is found
only where its preference for fairly open hill jungles is satisfied. I know
this antelope weil, for it is common in the Sandur Hills ; outside the arena
of these hills, it is not to be found. The Chinkara, which used to be
common immediately outside these hills and which are still to be found in
the surrounding country, are never met within the circuit of the
Sandur Hills. I mention this fact as it illustrates graphically the decided
‘ preference for habitats shown by wild life. The Sandur area is only about
130 square miles in extent ; it is easy for human interference here to alter
the terrain or conditions of life so greatly that the Four-horned Antelope
of the area may be seriously threatened.

Blackbuck are still to be found in certain parts of the Southern
Region, especially in the black cotton soil tracts near the Tungabhadra
Dam area, in and around the Hyderabad boundary. Some fifteen years
ago, I distinctly remember counting no less than a hundred buck in a
single spot in this area, not to mention the innumerable does in the herds,
A sight such as that is an impossibility today in that very place, which
used to be so replete with these most graceful and purely Indian antelope.
Local tribes, who are professional netters of buck for food and sale of

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

meat and skins, and shooting from cars by both licensed and zzlicensed
euns, have contributed to the great decline of the Blackbuck of this area.
It is possible to kill off these buck from an area by indiscriminate shooting ;
it has happened before.

The decline of these buck and other beasts of open country in places
where the Hunting Leopard was once not uncommon is the chief reason
for the disappearance of the latter. One still hopes for the survival of
stray specimens of the Hunting Leopard in the region—one was reported
to have been seen in the Chittoor District recently. Some villagers in the
Kopbal District of Hyderabad, near the village of Mukumpi, talk of a rare
animal which they call the Shzvanga or Shivungi, which they claim to
have seen sitting on the boulders of the rocky terrain. I have good rea-
son to believe that Skzvanga and Shivungi are the Kanarese names of the
Hunting Leopard and, although I have not been able tosee a Shzvanga in
this locality for all my efforts, I think there is every chance of a few
specimens surviving here. Should it be possible to restore a sufficient
tract in this area to near the natural conditions of the past, and to effecti-
vely prevent the killing of a Hunting Leopard by any means, the species
might be restored here. Surely itis worth taking considerable pains to
restore the Hunting Leopard to India, if necessary by reintreductions after
the terrain has been suitably prepared.

The Great Indian Bustard should also be pretty high in the list of
protected animals and birds. I have seen quite a few of them in
the black cotton soil areas in the extreme south of Hyderabad,
already referred to in connection with blackbuck. They are found wher-
ever there are expanses of flat black cotton soil. I have been seeing them
for the last so many years in the blackbuck country in the southernmost
parts of Hyderabad. ‘These grand birds are also endangered by the local
Passepardis who net them, and probably also take away their eggs—and
it should be realised the bird is a slow breeder and most often lays but
one egg. Itis extremely difficult to effectively implement any legislation
against the killing or trapping of the Great Indian Bustard without declar-
ing the entire area where they are found a sanctuary. Now if a person
kills the bird and is caught by a forest guard, the burden of proof is on
the latter, and if the offender has plucked the feathers it is impossible to
prove the identity of the bird before the magistrate. Even otherwise this
is a difficult matter. Moreover there are few forest guards in the vast,
open country which is the home of these rare birds and also of Passe-
pardis. ‘The setting up of parks and sanctuaries envisaged by the Wild
Life Board is good, but not until many square miles of open country are
set apart in many places all over South India, exclusively for the animals
of the flat open country, can anyone really hope to preserve our wild life
—especially the Great Indian Bustard, the Blackbuck and the Hunting
Leopard.

Merely to declare certain animals and birds as protected by
law is not a sufficient safeguard against their destruction, apart from the
administrative difficulties of enforcing protection. For, apart from the
environmental conditions necessary for them to thrive, there are so many
other animals which enter into their lives, and which are therefore also
necessary, directly or indirectly, for them to live in a healthy state. For
example, undue check on the predators in a wild community may well
lead to the breakdown in the health and fitness of a community of
their prey—a result which is seemingly illogical. But life is not logic as

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 105

every biologist knows. We know precious little about the social lives
and the interspecific relationships of our wild life, and even in the West
very little work has been done on these aspects of animal life. We do
not know much about how the lives of certain animals affect the lives of
other animals, how far the predators help to maintain the balance of
nature, how much the imposition of artificial conditions by man has
undermined their destiny. We do not even know the pattern of life of
so many of our animals, their family and social behaviour. However,
we know empirically that there is such a thing as the balance of nature,
and that where animals are left undisturbed, provided there is a minimum
biological population to start with, they continue to thrive and survive
most of the usual hazards of life, and to live in a healthy state.
Therefore, the most effective way of giving protection to animals is to
see to it that the entire area which they inhabit, or a good portion
of it, is as little disturbed or interfered with as possible. Given protec-
tion from disturbance and interference, Nature will look after itself better
than we can ever hope to do, with all our meticulous laws and by-laws.
This is, in the ultimate analysis, a far more effective measure than merely
declaring a few rare or diminishing species as protected, without bother-
ing sufficiently to ensure protection from all other kinds of interference
for the whole area or a big chunk of it, in which these species are
to be found.

Within a radius of about thirty to forty miles from the Tungabhadra
Dam we find country which is admirably suited for a large variety of
game, such as Blackbuck, the Great Indian Bustard,the Hunting Leopard
or the Cheetah, Chinkara, Four-horned Antelope, Sambar, Tiger, Panther,
Sloth Bear, and also small game including the Florican. Within this area
there is excellent blackbuck and bustard country (vast stretches of black
cotton soil), as well as ideally suited tracts for the Cheetah and the Sloth
Bear (open areas interspersed with typical rocky terrain and light scrub
jungle). A part of this area inthe Kopbal District of Hyderabad used to be
swarming with bears and even today there are quite a fair number left. Some
twenty-five years ago there is evidence of H. H. the Maharaja Chatrapatti
of Kolhapur having sent his men to capture a few Hunting Leopards
from this area for his sporting purposes in Kolhapur. These cheetahs
were caught, tamed and trained to catch blackbuck. Obviously there
must have been quite a few of these animals then. As regards the Great
Indian Bustard I have known people who once upon a time have seen
them in droves of thirty and forty. I have been a witness to the gradual
decline in the numbers of bustards through the years. One can give a
large number of reasons for this. But the main reason is of course the
increasing disturbance of wild life in this area by the industrial and other
activities of our ever-increasing population which has, directly and
indirectly, interfered in athousand and one ways with the normal activities
of the animals. Totake only one example, the recent Tungabhadra
Project near Hospet caused a noticeable reduction in the game in Kopbal.
The number of people wanting to shoot, with and without licence,
increased. Many enthusiasts from the Project area started disturbing game
by endless night drives with searchlights. A local shikari at Mukumpi
village, a few miles from Hospet in Kopbal, told me that within the last
few months one amateur shikari from the Tungabhadra Project had fired
at no less than fifteen panthers in addition to several other animals,
which he shot and wounded during night drives. This is only to illustrate

6

”

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the amount of disturbance one single industrial project can cause to
the game. This does not of course mean that such projects must not be
started, but it does mean that stricter methods of protecting wild life must
be evolved, to cope with the encroachment of the noise and bustle of civil-
isation into the peace of the wilderness. Apart from indiscriminate
shooting and slaughter for meat or money, deprivation of territory by the
utterly haphazard and needlessly extensive methods of augmenting trans-
port and agriculture, practised by our alarmingly increasing population,
can be, and should be, regulated in such areas, if not completely stopped.
Four different but closely linked concepts are involved in this last
statement. That is, interference with the environment by (z) interfering
with the flora by forestry work or wWood-cutting, or the introduction of
new plants intentionally or unintentionally, (zz) by shooting or otherwise
killing or persecuting a part of the fauna, (22) by disturbing the animals
and so interfering with their normal activity—a very potent cause—and
(zv) loss of territory by needlessly extensive agriculture and transport
practices. Is it just fortuitous that the game animals are plentiful in
Bandipur and not in Mudumalai ?

‘Therefore I suggest that if the valuable wild life in this area, viz.,
radius of thirty to forty miles from the Tungabhadra Project, is to be saved
from destruction, the only way is to declare it a National Park, as this will
give the best protection by affording concentrated supervision. ‘The wide
expanse of water caused by the Tungabhadra Dam itself will increase the
value of this area as a National Park. Moreover, only a few miles from
Hospet are the historic ruins of the great Vijayanagar Empire. Some of
our finest pieces of stone carving and sculpture are to be found here.
Hampi, as the place is called, is undoubtedly a remarkable legacy of the
past, which must be looked after in the best possible way. Pandit Nehru
was very much impressed by Hampi when he visited it recently. As [I
have already pointed out, many square miles of open country in addition
to forest will have to be set aside and preserved as sanctuaries and
national parks, if the animals of the flat open country are to be preserved.

The only difficulty in this suggestion is that the area to be made into
a National Park or sanctuary will lie in more than one State. It will
include areas from Hyderabad, Mysore and Madras. If the Centre was
directly responsible for National Parks then there would be no difficulty.
Even otherwise it is only aslight administrative problem which the three
concerned States can easily solve by mutual agreement.

The Central Wild Life Board has already recommended that Bandi-
pur, Mudumalai and the Periyar in Travancore-Cochin should be made
into National Parks. I strongly suggest that attention must also be given
to the area I have mentioned; another National Park would be ideal.
Attention should also be paid to some good areas in Coorg, such as
Nagarahole and Murkal, which may be made into game sanctuaries.

MEASURES TAKEN, AND EFFECTIVENESS OF CURRENT
PROTECTIVE LEGISLATION

In accordance with the suggestion of the Executive Committee of the
Centra! Wild Life Board to the State Governments, to set up State Wild
Life Boards and to promulgate wild life protection laws on the lines of
the Bombay Law, Mysore and Hyderabad have already set up Wild Life
Boards. ‘The Chief Conservator of Forests of Travancore and Cochin

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 10?

wrote to me, saying that it was decided at a conference held recently by
the Forest officers of the State, that a Board for Wild Life may be cons-
tituted under the name ‘ Travancore-Cochin State Board for Wild Life,’
and that action towards this end is in progress. ‘Phe Madras Govern-
ment had deferred the proposal to set up a Wild Life Board till the form-
ation of Andhra State. . Now I believe it is under consideration and steps
will be taken to set upa Board in due course. Andhra is a new State and
I do not know what steps they have taken towards setting up a Wild
Life Board. I had suggested to all the State Governments in the Southern
Region, in my letter dated 12th June 1953, to consider taking certaiu
urgent measures, such as prohibiting sale of wild life, netting of wild
birds and animals, strictly observing close seasons, discouraging or prohi-
biting the use of crop protection weapons for purposes of hunting in the
forests and lands at the disposal of Government, etc., until more compre-
hensive measures were taken after the recommendations of the State
Wild Life Boards. I had also requested all the Chief Conservators of
Forests in my region, and also non-officials who were keenly inter-
ested in wild life protection, to give their views on the effectiveness of
existing legislation and the measures that should be taken to effectively
protect wild life.

The consensus of opinion was that it is 2o¢ so much the nature of
_ the legislation as the etfective implementation of zt which is the crux of
the problem. If the existing game laws were enforced properly they
would be adequate to protect game. But the utter inefficiency in enforcing
game laws cannot be exaggerated or over-emphasized. The callous indiffer-
ence and appalling apathy of forest guards who are supposed to be the
guardians of the forest is simply staggering. Jam convinced of this. To
give an example, the sambar in Sandur (S. India) till a few years ago
before the State was merged, could be, and were, protected effectively
with the same legislation that exists today. One could see forty to fifty
sambar in a single drive of seven to eight miles. As a result, tiger started
coming into Sandur where they were never known to exist before. Both
tiger and sambar increased faster than expectations. But suddenly within the
last few years there has been a tragic extermination of the sambar. Poach-
ing and ffocturnal sambar hunts with packs of dogs have been responsible
for this. The foresters now just do not seem to be interested in stopping
it Game is openly sold for money. The same fate befell the
partridges. Passepardis caught them by the hundreds and sold them with
impunity. I have seen with my own eyes the disappearance of game in
Sandur which I had protected and fostered for the last twenty years. I
decided to give this example of the Sandur sambar because I can perso-
nally vouch for its veracity, and because it illustrates vividly the amount
of damage indifferent implementation of game laws can do to game in a
short time. It is amazing how fast game can be destroyed. And
there is only one explanation to it in the above case—non-enforcement of
existing laws. In short, present laws do not encourage wild life. They only
prohibit, and they are often unknown and unimplemented.

Issue of game and gun licences in the name of crop protection is
another potent cause. Practically all the keen sportsmen I wrote to
mentioned this as a grave threat to wild life. It was suggested by the
Nilgiri Game Association that gun permits for crop protection should be
withdrawn when the crops are garnered. Better still crackers or dummy
cartridges should be used for scaring away game from fields, The Chief

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Conservator of Forests of Madras also felt that drastic reduction in the
number of gun licences for crop protection, and marked increase in the
licence fees and deposits for the issue of licence, will go a long way in
protecting game. Licences for crop protection provide a cover for a much
larger number of unlicensed guns. ‘This aggravates the problem greatly.
The problem of a large party of unscrupulous shikaris shooting on a single
licence is also a difficult one. |

Small game and antelopes require protection from wandering tribes
of professional trappers such as the ‘ Hacci Pacci Avaru’ or Passepardis
who are responsible for the small game being on the verge of extinction. It
was suggested at the Mysore Wild Life Board that these people in Mysore
State be found alternative employment by giving them lands. There were,
however, so many applications, including those from outside Mysore, that
the matter had to be kept in abeyance. ‘These Passepardis are keen to take
to agriculture, as they say small game is now so reduced that they are put
to great hardships and sometimes starvation. This isa matter which must
be given some serious consideration. First of all, a thorough census must
be made of these tribes whose livelihood involves the destruction of small
game.

Another piece of information which is worth noting is that all people
in Coorg enjoy a free licence and a large majority of them own guns.
Clearly this could not be very conducive to the protection of game in
Coorg. Free licences ought to be cancelled and licences be issued only to
bona fide sportsmen. There are quite a few keen sportsmen in Coorg, as
elsewhere, who shiould be made Honorary Game Wardens. This will have
a salutary effect on poaching which is going on there, as everywhere else.

The Honorary Secretary of the Peermade Game Association in reply
to inquiries made by me writes as follows: (1 am quoting from his letter as
it brings out certain of the administrative problems of maintaining a game
sanctuary. A game sanctuary only becomes a home for poachers if it is
not properly supervised.) ‘ The Periyar Game Sanctuary in Travancore-
Cochin State is about 300 sq. miles in area. There are no separate laws or
rules in respect of the sanctuary except the laws covered by theState Forests
Act. The staff now working under the Game Department is quite inade-
quate to effectively protect the sanctuary and for preservation work. The
staff consists of the D.F.O.-cum-Game Warden, Kottayam, Assistant Game
Warden (also the Secretary of the Peermade Game Association), one Game
Range Officer, two foresters and thirteen guards. Of these, one forester
and a few guards are posted for protection work outside the sanctuary.
The amenities such as transport facilities, housing conveniences, etc.,
provided for the subordinate staff are very poor. They have also to be
provided with necessary arms and ammunition. The existing paths in the
sanctuary are very limited. ‘The opening of a few more paths through the
sanctuary will help better patrol work and supervision of the area.
For the Periyar Sanctuary,’ the D.F.O., Kottayam, is also the Game
Warden, and his headquarters is at Kottayam, far away from the game area.
A separate Game Warden, as was the case when the sanctuary was started,
with headquarters in the game area,who could concentrate all his attention
on wild life preservation, must be appointed. With dual duty it will not
be possible to exercise effective control and personal supervision over the
area. . . . The more lowly paid members of the forest staff should be
encouraged by a system of rewards, as for instance, a proportion of fines
levied. ... Fines and penalties are not sufficiently deterrent.....

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 109

Officials charged with the enforcement of game laws are frequently indiff-
erent. The round up of all unlicensed arms of all kinds, and the severe
restriction of licences granted for protection of crops is necessary... .
Steps should be taken to develop public conscience and to render poach-
ing a hazardous thing, which should almost always land the poacher in
trouble. Officials and game preservation staff in general should be impres-
sed with the importance of their work, and with the vital necessity for the
most rigid entorcement of game laws.’

The Nilgiri Game Association feels that ‘existing legislation is not
sufficient to stop poaching. The present maximum fine of Rs. 50 is
totally inadequate. It might be increased to Rs. 500 with the alternative
of 6 months’ rigorous imprisonment and thus brought into line with
penalties for breaches of Nilgiri Fishing Ruies. In addition, confiscation
of weapons and/or motor car is most desirable. Failure to report the
wounding of dangerous animals should be punishable with a manda-
tory sentence of 6 months’ imprisonment as is the case under the.
Kenya Game Rules.’

As regards the Mudumalai Sanctuary, I believe that there is a
proposal to increase its area by attaching the Wynaad area. The Wynaad
area, | am told, is full of private holdings and Estates, and hence the
advisability and wisdom of adding Wynaad to the Mudumalai Sanctuary
should be carefully examined.

Lastly, [ must mention that widespread publicity to remove public
apathy towards the cause of wild life preservation is more important
than one imagines. To make the conscience of the nation alive to
the great need for wild life protection is absolutely necessary. In my
letter to Shri S. D. Udhrain regarding publicity for wild life protec-
tion, I have referred to certain ways and methods of giving effective
publicity to the cause of protecting our fast-vanishing wild life. It is
very important that the generality of people down to those in the remo-
test village must be made aware of the fact that the Central Government
considers wild life a valuable national asset, and is earnest about pre-
serving it. This will yield great results and is a necessary psychological
preparation for the effective protection of India’s vast and varied wild
life.

SANDUR,
December 31, 1953.

REVIEWS

1. THE SEALS AND THE CURRAGH. . By R. M, Lockley.
Pp. 149 (81”x52”). Photographs, maps, black-&-white drawings.
London, 1954 (J. M. Dent & Sons). 15s. net.

R. M. Lockley has specialised in the study of marine creatures. He
has already written books on Puffins and Shearwaters; he now writes
about the Atlantic Grey Seal.

During the last war, while he was on ‘secret official business’ ior
the Royal Navy, Mr. Lockley discovered, on a wild stretch of Welsh
coast, a place where these seals had made their summer home and
nursery. -Here, on the pebbly shore, he counted some hundred seais
dozing and playing together in an amicable community life. He made
up his mind that as soon as the war was over he would come back
here to study their life and breeding habits.

This book, then, is the result of that promised visit. Mr. Lockley
sailed to this place in his Irish canoe, and lived on the beach with
the seals for more than a fortnight. He made friends with many
individual seals, and he came to know their different temperaments and
characters. He even became foster mother to an orphaned baby seal
whom he calls Billy; he fed it on goats milk and looked after it until
it was independent.

Seals only come to the comparatively warmer coasts of the British
Isles in order to breed and rear their young. A bull seal captures a
part of the beach and patrols it carefully, fighting off all other bull
aspirants ; meanwhile, cows who are ready to drop their young, gather
on this beach and turn it into a communal nursery. It was in this
nursery that Mr. Lockley spent his two weeks. He certainly made
the most of his time. He has recorded, with the meticulous accuracy
of a research worker, the behaviour and breeding habits of his seals.
Mr. Lockley’s style is so readable that, unlike most authoritative infor-
mation, it slips down easily. We are grateful to him for writing about
this fascinating subject with so much imagination—it doubles the plea-
sure of finding out what makes a seal tick.

|i Sh

2. SOME OF MY ANIMALS. By Maxwell Knight. Pp. 113
(74” x 42”). 10 black-&-white illustrations by E. M. Mansell, 8 photo-
graphs. London, 1954 (G. Bell & Sons). 10/6 net.

This is an excellent book for children. They will love the pictures
and photographs and they will enjoy the stories and anecdotes about
the animals which Maxwell Knight has kept as pets. Best of all
they will absorb a great deal of knowledge of Natural History pain-
lessly and in fact with a great deal of pleasure. Mr. Knight kept
some very unusual pets, and acquaintance with their ways would
give any child very useful general knowledge of the habits of a cross
section of the animal world.

REVIEWS lil

Among. Mr. Knight’s pets were: tree frogs, bears, civet cats,
monkeys, tree snakes, hedgehogs, badgers, parrots, mynas, to mention
only a few. Many of these animals lived with their master in his flat
at Knightsbridge; they seem to have been quite happy in the citv.
Mr. Knight tells us that he always made a point of studying each
animal’s natural habits and tried to provide the environment which con-
formed as closely as possible to them. The great secret of his success
with animals is due partly to the fact that he took great pains to
make them happy, and partly to the simple fact that he had very real
affection for them.

L.F.

3. INTRODUCTION TO THE BIRDS OF JAMAICA. By Lady
Taylor, M.B.o.u. Illustrated by William Reeves. Pp. 114 (7#” x 42”).
Paper cover. London, 1955 (Macmillan & Co. Ltd.). Price ?

This. is a commendable little guide for one who would acquaint
himself with the commoner birds of Jamaica. It deals with about
eighty of the species most commonly seen, almost all of which are
pleasingly illustrated with black-&-white drawings in the text.

The booklet is divided into six sections—Birds of Lawns and
Gardens; Birds of Ponds, Rivers and Reservoirs; Sea Birds, and so
on—which again are subdivided into groups such as Humming Birds,
Black Birds, American Warblers, etc. Six standards of size are used
in the descriptions. An appendix explains the system of scientific
“nomenclature and gives a list of scientific names of the birds treated
in the booklet with the orders and families to which they belong. A
useful index completes a useful little booklet.

S.A.

4. THE-FRUIT, THE SEED AND THE SOIL. By The Staff
of the John Innes Horticultural Institution, edited by W. J.C.
Lawrence. Pp. vili+93. Edinburgh, 1954, Oliver and Boyd Ltd. 5s.

This is a collection of leaflets issued by the Institution during
recent years and its aim is to keep the British horticulturist,
nurseryman and fruit-grower in touch with the results of the latest
researches in horticulture. It does not deal with fundamental research
or theoretical biology, but with the results of experiments to help
practical horticulture. There are nine chapters in the book, as follows:
(x) Composts for Potted Plants. (2) Soil Ingredients of Composts.
(3) A Soil Steriliser.. (4) Raising Seedlings in Soil Blocks. (5) Ferti-
lity Rules in Fruit Planting. (6) Outdoor Tomato Growing. (7) Grow-
_ ing Pure Seed. (8) Sweet Corn in England. (9) Use of Colchicine in
producing new plants. .

This list shows that the chapters are of special use for the British
grower, and to a lesser extent for the European grower, since even
small differences in climate would alter the results considerably. Even
the soil composts suggested cannot be used in India because
materials like peat are not available and the humus content of our

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

soils is much lower while the oxidation of humus and the release of
nitrogen for use by plants is much quicker. The chapter on Soil
Blocks may become interesting to us at a later date. These came
into use when pots became difficult to get. Soil was compressed
in moulds to form blocks and used for sowing seed. The seedlings
did not suffer in spite of the compressed soil in which they were made
to grow. The fertility rules apply to temperate fruits only. Certain
varieties do not fertilise each other and most varieties are self-sterile,
so a plan for mixed planting is necessary. Groups have been worked
out which must be interplanted to get the maximum fruiting. This
suggests the type of work that has to be done on our own commercial
fruits specially the mango, of which modern plantations are now
coming into being. This knowledge is also necessary for cross breeding.
The chapter on Pure Seed should be read by all our seed growers,
while the last one on the use of Colchicine is of interest for all interest-
ed in biology and modern plant breeding, because although it is 17
years since Colchicine was first used on plants, many people have not
yet realised its full significance in plant breeding. |

The most important thing about the book is that it points the
road along which Indian horticulture will have to travel in the future.

A.J.A.

5. BIRDS OF THE SUDAN. By F. O. Cave and J. D. Mac-
donald. lustrated by D. M. Reid-Henry. Pp. 444 (9” x 6”); 12 colour
plates, 315 line drawings and a map. Edinburgh, 1955. (Oliver and
Boyd) 45s.

We have now so many books on birds from different parts of the
world that it would be difficult to take particular interest in one con-
cerning an area so far away as the Sudan. The present publication,
however, is so strikingly attractive that it is dificult not to do so. It
is essentially a book for the bird-watcher and is divided into two main
parts. In the first entitled ‘Introduction to Families’, the different
groups of birds are dealt with briefly giving the layman an indication
of the differences in the field between grebes, petrels, cormorants,
darters, pelicans, birds of prey, vultures, and so on. This is followed
by a ‘Guide to Species’ in which each of the 871 species is separately
dealt with. A description of the bird is followed by a short reference
to its range of distribution and the adjoining races, if any. Through-
out the book line drawings assist the reader in following the descrip-
tions, and the quality of the illustrations is guaranteed by the name
of D. M. Reid-Henry. Notes relating to habits and nidification are
conspicuous by their absence, but then the book is avowedly a guide to
field identification only.

There is a valuable appendix entitled ‘Principle (sic) Divisions of
Vegetation’ which is a model of the type of vegetational report
that must accompany regional papers. The areas described are also
well illustrated by photographs.

This is followed by a short history of bird exploration in the
Sudan.

REVIEWS 113

The printing and binding are excellent. The 12 colour plates are
very good and of a standard which would indeed be difficult to improve
upon. The 315 line drawings and 24 photographs of biotopes add
to the value and interest.

H.A.

6. NATURE PARADE. By Frank W. Lane, 4th Edition. Pp.288
(81” x 54”). Reset and revised with one coloured and 59 black-&-white
photographs, Jarrolds Publishers (London) Ltd., 1955. 18s.

This is a new edition of a work which appeared some years ago
and is an interesting compilation of information regarding various
aspects of animal life.

The author in his introduction states that he has consulted over
1,000 books and 5,000 magazines, monographs, abstracts, newspapers
and other journals. Press reports on Natural History matters are
proverbially unreliable and though experts on various subjects have
read over the manuscript it is not at all clear if they have agreed
with the facts stated. Some of the stories and incidents recorded
must be viewed with doubt, but this is of necessity a matter of opinion.

There are chapters on different aspects of animal food, toilet, speed,
leadership, strength, war etc., and the last chapter deals with mysteries
in the animal world. The reference to the Abominable Snowman is
of particular interest in India. Africa also has its own mystery animals
like the Nandi and ‘a dark black thing about the size of an eagle

whose lower jaw hung open and bore a semi-circle of pointed
white teeth . . .’ It is indeed intriguing to speculate what forms
of animal life still remain to be discovered on this planet.

This is an extremely interesting compilation and it is hoped that
those who have the opportunity will try to confirm or repudiate the
many startling interpretations and records of animal life.

H.A.

Che PROGRESS OF ZOOLOGY IN INDIA DURING THE YEARS
/ 1938-1950

The utility of well-planned and exhaustive bibliographies, both to
the research worker and to the general public, needs no_ speciai
emphasis. Credit goes to the National Institute of Sciences of India
for sponsoring such an enterprise in the cause of zoological science in
India. The present publication is planned to appear under four sec-
tions, namely (1) General Zoology, (2) Entomology, (3) Fisheries and
(4) Parasitology. Of these, the first two sections have been published
and a review of both of them together seems appropriate.

1. A LIST OF REFERENCES RELATING TO INDIAN ZOOLOGY (EXCLUDING
INSECTS, FIsHES AND HELMINTHS) PUBLISHED DURING THE YEARS 1938-50:
compiled by B. S. Chauhan [Rec. Ind. Mus., 51 (3): 427-480 (1953)].

8 :

Lid JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53 %

The purpose of a good bibliography is to help the investigator find,
in the minimum possible time, the references he requires. This biblio-
graphy which is broadly divided into two categories, namely, ‘General
Zoology’ and ‘Comprehensive Zoology’ partly fulfils this purpose.
However, no bibliography can be complete, and this dictum is force-
fully brought to mind at the very outset by the statement that ‘only
a few selected references are included here owing to limitation of space,
and the bibliography is therefore far from complete.’ A supplementary
list seems to be in the offing. As far as the general arrangement
is concerned one is surprised to find here articles on Oogenesis,
Spermatogenesis, Chromosome, Mitosis and Meiosis etc., placed along
with morphology, general anatomy, osteology etc., instead of relegating
the former to a separate group—Genetics—as the compiler has done
for papers on cytology. Neither can there be any justification for the
appalling manner in which mis-spellings have been overlooked, or for
the completely wrong pagination given against the list of contents, or
for grouping of certain papers under the irrelevant subdivision—
‘Mechanism’. Being part of a project on the progress of Indian
Zoology a brief review of the various trends of progress in general
and comprehensive zoology would have proved valuable.

On the whole this list of references should prove useful to the
amateur zoologist and the general naturalist, while it is doubtful how
far it will serve the serious research worker.

2. A BRIEF REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF ENTOMOLOGY IN INDIA
DURING THE PERIOD 1938-50, TOGETHER WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY. Com-
piled by M. L. Roonwal Mem. Entomol. Soc. No. 3, 1-119 (1954) Price
Rs. 7-8-0 (Foreign: 12s. 6d.)

The bibliography is prefaced by a detailed introduction and an
extensive review indicating the main trends of entomological research
in India and these are arranged under suitable subheads which readily
make available to the reader the progress achieved during the period
under review. The listed references number over 1500, and the mair
list is augmented by two supplementary lists to make the bibliography
complete as far as possible. The task of the future compiler seems
lessened by the inclusion of certain references appearing as late as
1953. The references are arranged authorwise in an alphabetical
sequence. The compiler has rightly drawn attention to the urgent
need for more sustained and critical work and a higher standard of
refereeing, editing and printing to be aimed at. To all entomologists
keenly interested in Indian insect life, this bibliography should form
an indispensable source of reference.

BAGis,

8, THE ANNALS OF ZOOLOGY, Vol. 1 (1). Edited by Prof. B. C.
Mahendra. Pp. 1-22 (64” x 93”). The Academy of Zoology, Agra, 1955.
With the rapid progress of the biological sciences in India, the
news of the issue of a new journal for the dissemination of zoological
knowledge should be welcomed. The Academy of Zoology, which was
founded recently with the object of encouraging’ research work in

REVIEWS 115

taxonomy, anatomy, physiology, cytology, and other branches of
zoology, both fundamental and applied, has brought out its first
number.

Known as The Annals of Zoology, it has as its first contribution
a detailed study on the venous system of Rana tigrina Daud. by
S. Sharma and P. N. Tiku. The journal is of a handy size, and each
volume when completed is expected to contain approximately 240 pages.
Each volume will be priced at Rs. 15 inland or 30s. foreign—post free.

The format and get-up of the journal is pleasing, but it is felt
that the printing could be considerably improved. Printed instruc-
tions inside the coverleaf as to how the list of References should be
prepared and about the dimensions of text-figures and plates etc.,
would be desirable. Our best wishes go to this latest addition to
Indian zoological periodicals.

Dl Cuisy

Oy PEINENG eh OSSINES: By —Maurice: “Burton sD:Schi Ppis 252
(847 x54”) with 83 drawings by Jane Burton. London & New York,
(Thames and Hudson). ats.

Few scientists have the gift of expressing themselves on their
subject, in anything but its own particular brand of scientific termino-
logy. It should be quite evident to those familiar with Dr. Maurice
Burton’s earlier publications, that he is one among this gifted minority.
In this book, he has dealt mainly with those animals which have been
fortunate enough to attain more or less perfect balance with their
environment, and thus secure in their ecological niche, let the centuries
and the changing world pass by, with but few changes to their gross
features. These are the Living Fossils, survivors of ancient groups
which vanished from the face of the earth millions of years ago.

In the sixteen fascinating chapters of the book, the author takes
us to the far corners of the world, on the trail of the animals to
which the term ‘Living Fossil’ could be most aptly applied. These
survivors of a past era are usually more numerous in the regions which
became isolated from the rest of the landmass at an early period in
earth’s history. Here, free from the competition of more highly
evolved animals, live the relict species whose pedigree runs back for
millions of years. The history, habits, habitat, evolutionary deve-
lopment and the reasons for the continued survival of these living
fossils are discussed in detail.

A substantial portion of the book is devoted to ‘living fossils’
among the invertebrates, for it is among these lowly organisms, thai
one finds species that are nearly as old as life itself. Among this host
of hoary antiquity, the one that holds pride of place is Peripatus, a
‘missing link’ as well as a ‘living fossil’. This remarkable animal
which resembles a caterpillar, has undergone little change over a
period of 500 million years, and possesses characters in common with
worms, and the Arthropoda.

The discovery of the century in the field of zoology, and the latest
addition to the list of living fossils, is of course the Coelacanth.
belonging to a group of fishes believed to have been extinct for

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

seventy million years. A remarkable fact about the Coelacanth is
that fossil and living coelacanths show little difference in their struc-
ture despite the varied physical environments inhabited by the group
during its 300 million year history. Since its discovery off the coast
of South Africa in 1938, other specimens have been collected from the
same area. One much publicised capture was made in 1952, from off
the Comoro Islands near Madagascar. This specimen was named
by its collector, with unwitting irony one believes, Malania, after
the former Premier of South Africa, Dr. Malan.

The causes of extinction are examined in the light of species that
have become extinct within recent years. The author after scruti-
nizing the evidence available from such classic cases as that of the
Passenger Pigeon and the Great Auk, comes to the conclusion that .
extinction is not the result of a single factor but due to a chain of
unfavourable circumstances. Another noteworthy point is that grega-
rious species are more liable to decline under adverse conditions than
those which lead a solitary existence. 7

From the history of ‘living fossils’ it is clear that survival—like

extinction—depends on a number of factors, which are primarily:
a habitat which affords protection from the elements and natural pre-
dators, a constant food supply, specific longevity, and extended provision
for the young.
In the final chapter the evidence, for and against the existence
of mysterious animals like the Nandi Bear and the Abominable Snow-
man are discussed. It is surprising to note the absence of the finding
of the African peacock-like bird Afropavo in the account of the recent
discoveries. The story of this bird is as exciting as a well-written
piece of detective fiction. The clues were a single feather in the
cap of a Congo native and two moth-eaten specimens in a Belgian
Museum labelled as the young of the common peafowl. These made
the wheels turn which led to the discovery of this remarkable bird
in the late thirties of the present century.

The book is excellent reading and brings together facts which are
usually difficult to find under one cover. The illustrations are well
chosen.

J.C .D:

1o. THE WILD FLOWERS OF KUWAIT AND BAHRAIN. By
Violet Dickson. Pp. 144 (21.5 x 14 cm.) Profusely illustrated. London,
1955 (George Allen & Unwin). 25s. net.

This is a very welcome publication; it is not a text-book of botany
on the plants of Kuwait, but it. gives a very fair idea of the flora of
the district and of other parts of Arabia. In India most of our
knowledge of the flora of Arabia is derived from the work of Fr.
Blatter, ‘Flora Arabica,’ and ‘Flora of Aden’, published in the Records
of the Botanical Survey of India. My information goes to show that
Blatter prepared the MS. of his books mainly in European herbaria ;
Joseph Fernandes, his assistant, did go to Arabia and make collections
in the neighbourhood of Muscat; similarly Col. Hotson sent to Blatter
numerous specimens from various parts of Arabia and Mesopotamia ;

REVIEWS 117

but in general the work of Blatter was based mainly on preserved
European collections. The merit of the present book is that the details
therein gathered have been picked up in the field by the authoress,
and specimens have been identified by the specialist in Kew Gardens.

There are in all four maps at the beginning of the book; I have
nothing but praise for their artistic presentation. The numerous line
drawings give in bold outline the main features of the plant; in con-
nection with these drawings I have been agreeably surprised to see
that although the authoress is not a trained botanist, she has done
what many professionals seem often to forget: she has given the scale
for each of her diagrams, and this apparently small detail may help
the amateur on the spot to identify the plants. The diagrams are
neat, and free from unnecessary detail.

After the diagrams, the most interesting part of the book is the
lengthy ‘List of Vascular Plants’; the list is an alphabetical one, the
order followed is that of the scientific names of the plants. As
the book is intended for the amateur, descriptions are simple and 1
non-technical language; she gives popular uses, and at times tales
or traditions, of, the plants; the localities where the plant has been
seen, and often its flowering and fruiting times are mentioned. Among
the Vascular Plants, a full technical description in English is given
by Dr. W. Turrill of Horwoodia dicksonia, a new genus of Cruci-
feree collected by Mrs. Dickson. The description is accompanied by
neat diagrams showing all the essential parts of the plant in the style
that is usual with Kew artists.

From p. 100 onwards, the authoress gives a number of shorter
notes on Algz, on the edible fungi of Kuwait, on the Arabic names
of some plants, on some types of vegetation near Kuwait etc.

One point may surprise many of the readers of this delightful
book. The authoress speaks of the desert, and yet she mentions a
large number of flowers or flowering plants found in the district. This
simply means that with a little patience and after a small amount of
training, one can find very beautiful flowers even in the deserts; they
must be found at their own proper time. It is to the large numbers
of technical personnel engaged in the oil business in the Kuwait area
that Mrs. Dickson has rendered a special service; this reviewer wishes
all success to the book, and in particular that it may help visitors to
pay some attention to the sometimes abundant plant life of what is
commonly cited as one of the more barren deserts of the world. The
presentation of the book, its printing etc. is of a very high standard.

Hi SANTAPAW

11. THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. By Salim Alt. 5th
(Revised) edition. Pp. xlvit+142, (74” x 42”) 78 plates (56 in colour
by D. V. Cowen), 3 diagrams and 2 end paper maps. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay, 1955. Ks. 20/- net.

The fourth edition of Salim Ali’s ‘Book of Indian Birds’ was out
of print for some years, and during this period there has been a steady
demand for the book. It is a pleasure, therefore, to welcome this revis-
ed version. Except for the five general chapters that have been brought

118 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 33

up to date, the whole book has been rewritten and remodelled so that
we have an altogether new book before us. Instead of a single species
each plate now provides four species done from entirely new drawings.
Corresponding to this change, the text has been suitably rewritten.
Salim Ali is indeed.a master in his subject, and it is amazing how
admirably he has given a wealth of information in such a short space.
These changes have, moreover, yielded enough space for the inclusion
of descriptions and illustrations of 27 additional species in a slimmer
volume. Another novel feature is the provision of Hindi names of
birds wherever available.

A weakness of the earlier editions was the badly produced coloured
plates. In this edition, although considerable improvement has been
effected by new drawings and new blocks, yet the printers have not
done justice to the talented artist in reproducing them; several of the
coloured plates show either a wrong colour combination or are off regis-
tration. The defects in the coloured plates strike one particularly,
because this book follows so soon after the author’s ‘Birds of Travan-
core & Cochin’ which has a most pleasing aesthetic effect. Furthermore,
except in a few instances, no attempt has been made to ‘modernize’
the scientific names of birds, as the author has done in his paper on
‘Birds of Gujarat’ recently published in the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society. In a work like ‘The Book of Indian Birds’
scientific names may not be an essential feature, but since they have
been included, they should have been brought up to date.

The general printing, binding and get-up are neat.

The reviewer sincerely hopes that this only pocket-sized handbook
of Indian birds will continue to enjoy the same popularity as its
previous editions did.

B. BISWAS

12. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By Ethelbert Blatter
and Walter Samuel Millard. Second edition revised by William T.
Stearn. Bombay Natural History Society, 1954. Pp. xv+165,
(24.5x 16 cm.); frontisp. +31 coloured plates, numerous black-and-
white plates, text-figures. Rs. 20/-

13. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
By N. L. Bor and M. B. Raizada. Pp. viii+286 (24.5 16.5 cm.);
with 31 coloured and 99 half-tone plates and 154 text-figures. Bombay
Natural History Society, 1954. Rs. 22/-

In the course of many years of teaching botany to university
students in Bombay, and in my dealings with many visitors to India,
particularly during the War years, I have received many inquiries
about these two books under review; the first one had been out of
print for many years, and it was very difficult to obtain even a
second-hand copy; the second book was advertised as ready to appear
but the final publication was delayed for years for reasons beyond
the control of the Society. The almost simultaneous appearance
of the two books is most welcome; persons interested in the subject

REVIEWS IIS)

will be able to obtain both books together. Both books appeared in
the first instance in the form of a series of papers published in
the Journal of the Society; in the present publication there are
but a few slight alterations (generally additions) to what has already
appeared in the Journal. These two books come to fill a real need
in India, and will be welcome not only to students ‘but also to all
those interested in knowing something of the beautiful resources of
the country.

Blatter and Millard’s book is in the second edition; Prof. W. ¥,
Stearn, of the British Museum (Natural History) London, has taken
great pains in the revision of the book. This reviewer . welcomes
the additions and changes that have been introduced in this edition:
there are several appendices that wil] make the book most useful to
students; the names of many trees have been changed to what is
considered the correct scientific name, and the order of treatment
in the book has been altered accordingly, so that the final arrange-
ment is by alphabetical order of trees according to their revised
scientific names. This edition gives the references to the original
publications where the names first appeared (but the system of giving
such references is a complicated one, somewhat different from the
one recommended by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature,
Appendix VI). The printing of the book is of a very high standard,
both for the text and for the plates. In general I find this edition
an improvement on the first, with but one exception: some of the
colour plates show colours that seem to be rather different from the
actual trees represented, the first edition was more accurate in this
respect.

Bor and Raizada’s book is also a faithful reproduction of the
series that has been appearing in the Journal in the last to or 12
years, with some additions. In the book every family has been given
a short introduction; at the end of the book the authors have added
a short glossary that will make technical terms intelligible to the
general reader. Plants are listed by the names commonly used in
gardeners’ books, even though often such names are far from cor-
rect botanically; to satisfy more exacting readers the authors give
the correct botanical name in brackets, wherever the gardeners’ name
differs from the scientific one. Every plant is given a full botanical
description, times of flowering and/or fruiting, country of origin and
distribution of the plant, gardening notes, economic uses of the plant.

One -word about the colour plates; the beginning of the series
was printed by John Bale & Sons of London; gradually as the last
World War progressed it became impossible to print such plates in
Britain and had to be printed locally; for some time there were plenty
of reserve materials in this country and the plates kept up the high
standard of the beginning of the series; in time, however, it became
very difficult to obtain printing coloured inks, and the quality of the
plates deteriorated considerably. It is to be hoped that when a second
edition becomes necessary, new plates will be printed from materials
that will reproduce the original colours of Ganga Singh’s paintings
in all their brilliancy.

Another point of interest in the case of the second book, a point
that will make the book more attractive to botanical readers. Most

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

of the plants described and illustrated in the book are not indigenous
in India, and therefore are left out of most of our local or provincial
floras. In my experience it is a very difficult task to identify garden
plants in India. In this respect the present book will be a real boon
to Indian botanists.

The Bombay Natural History Society is to be congratulated on
the almost simultaneous publication of these two books. Together
they form a most useful and interesting present to offer to friends
on special occasions; both botanists and laymen alike will be happy
to possess such beautiful books and to read them at! leisure. The price
of both books is moderate for this kind of publication, and members
of the Bombay Natural History Society will be happy to obtain the
books at the reduced members’ price offered by the Society.

H. SANTAPAU
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
CALCUTTA.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. THE ABOMINABLE. SNOWMAN

With reference to our Note on the ‘Abominable Snowman’ on
p. 594 of Vol. 52 (2 & 3), December 1954, Col. R. W. Burton has
drawn our attention to an article written by F. S. Smythe, the
celebrated mountaineer, in The Statesman of Calcutta (21 Nov. 1937).

This article would appear to have been overlooked by or unknown to
the many people who have in recent years made various conjectures
regarding the identity of the creature responsible for the tracks left in
snow at high altitudes in the Himalayas—otherwise the Abominable
Snowman.

Mr. Smythe mentions coming upon perfect overnight tracks on
fresh snow on a pass at about 16,500 ft. above the Bhyundar Valley
in the Garhwal Himalayas. They ran for several hundred yards,
turned off the ridge and descended a steep rock face. He took pains
to make a complete record and close-up photographs. On the level
the footmarks averaged 12-13 inches in length and 6 inches in breadth;
uphill they averaged only 8 inches in length, though the breadth was
the same. The stride was some 14 to 2 ft. on the level, but consider-
ably less uphill, and the footmarks were turned outwards at about
the same angle as a man’s. ‘There were the well-defined imprints of
five toes 14 to 1% inches long and 2% inches broad. All the toes,
unlike the human foot, however, were arranged symmetrically. What
appeared to be the impression of the heel had two curious toelike
impressions on either side.

The photographs were scrutinised in London, together with Mr.
Smythe’s measurements and observations, by Prof. Julian Huxley,
Mr. Martin C. Hinton, Keeper of Zoology at the British Museum
(Natural History) and Mr. Pocock. They came to the conclusion that
the tracks were those of a Himalayan Brown Bear, Ursus arctos
pruinosus, which varies in colour from brown to silver grey, agreeing
with legendary descriptions by Tibetans.

The fact that the tracks appeared to have been made by a biped
1S explained by the bear putting its rear foot into the rear end of the
impression left by its front foot. Thus only the side toes would show
as the curious indentations noted on either side of the ‘heel’. This
would also account for the large size of the spoor, which when melt-
ed out by the sun, would appear enormous.

Col. Burton suggests that this more or less convincing diagnosis
of the tracks as belonging to the Himalayan Brown Bear may be consi-
dered as the ‘something more definite’ for which the Editors were waiting
in the last line of their note!

114 APOLLO STREET,
BomBay 1, EDITORS
March 11, 1955.

L22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
2, REMARKABLE RECOVERY OF A PANTHER FROM INJURY
(With a photo)

We have obtained from Fr. Fuller, Sacred Heart College,
Shembaganur Palni Hills, Madurai District, South India, a panther’s
femur bone with the following note.

‘On Monday 13th September 1954, two cows were killed by a
panther. The first night the panther returned to one of the cows,
had a meal and went away unharmed. On the morning of 15th
September it came back again to the same cow and _ helped itself
to a hearty meal and while lying on a rock nearby was shot dead
with a rifle. It was a full-grown male and measured 54 inches from
nose to root of tail (over curves) with a tail 35 inches long.

‘While it was being skinned, three little dry scabs’ were noticed on
the left rump. Each of them was 2 inch in diameter and arranged
in a triangular pattern, # inch away from each other. This group of
scabs was 4 inches from the centre of the back and 7 inches from
the tail (measurements taken over curves). There was no internal
wound on the femoral muscles, but the femur on the right side itself
was broken, but had joined and healed. This broken femur was
nearly two inches shorter than the other.’

As the recovery from such a serious injury seemed remarkable the
bone was sent to the Principal of the Bombay Veterinary College who
reports on it as follows:

‘The femur of the panther is from the right side and shows
diaphysary comminuted fracture at the proximal third. Due to the
epiphyseal traction, the bone is short by two inches, as compared to
the normal one on the opposite side. An extensive callus is formed,
as a result of the large gap, between the broken ends.’

The photograph will give an idea of the extent of the injury and
recovery.

114 APOLLO STREET;
BoMBAY 1, EDITORS

March 20, 1955.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123
3. NEMATODES AND HEDGEHOG MORTALITY

While studying the feeding habits of captive hedgehogs, we observed
a sudden increase in their mortality, though all the favourable conditions
were provided to them. The reason for this incidence was thought
to be the spread of some epidemic among them. We dissected some
ailing hedgehogs and noticed the presence of innumerable cysts of
Trichinella sp., throughout the viscera of the animals. Our attention
was directed towards the food which was being given to them. At
that time we were feeding them on the ‘Rat-tailed bats’, Rhinopoma
kinneart Wroughton. On dissecting the bats we found that their
alimentary canals also contained a large number of these nematodes.

To ascertain the probability that nematodes were responsible for
the mortality, four wild hedgehogs, Hemiechinus auritus collaris Gray,
were caught. Two were dissected. Every organ was_ thoroughly
examined and found to be free from Tvrichinella sp. The remaining
two hedgehogs were then kept in a cage and were supplied with fifty
R. kinneari. During the first two days they consumed about forty
bats. From the third day onwards they ceased to feed and showed
signs of lethargy. On the fourth day their sluggishness increased, and
on the fifth day one of them took to a corner of the cage and was
unable to respond to any stimulus. The other was moving slowly and
tumbling down at every step. It showed signs of epilepsy also. Its
body trembled violently at intervals. This condition was seen frequently
till the evening. On the sixth morning both were breathing spasmodi-
cally. Some liquid was also oozing out of their mouths and noses.
At 1 p.m. on the sixth day they were reported dead. On dissecting
the hedgehogs, nematodes were found in the alimentary canal, peri-
cardium, liver, lungs, and brain. Even the ribs were affected.

It might be interesting to note that these parasites had no obvious
effect on three juvenile foxes, Vulpes vulpes pusilla Blyth and three
adult mongooses, Herpestes edwardsii ferrugineus Blanford. These
animals were also provided with R. kinneari, which had Trichinella sp.
in their alimentary canals.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
JASWANT COLLEGE, ISHWAR PRAKASH
JODHPUR, S. C. SHARMA

May 10, 1955.

4. TUFTED DEER IN BURMA
(ELAPHODUS CEPHALOPHUS MILNE-EDWARDS)

(With a photo)

A male Tufted Deer was shot by a member of the Frontier Deve-
lopment Enquiry Commission near Panwa Pass—longitude 98° 30’,
latitude 25°40’, altitude 6,500 ft.—on the 18th December 1954.
Enclosed is a photo of the mounted head. D, M. Williams, Esq., also

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

shot a male Tufted Deer on the 4th March 1937 near Hpimaw at a
height of 9,000 ft.

mee

BRE ie SS aadeiin

Head of the Tufted Deer

The following information was collected regarding the above. Local
name: Chik Naw. Distribution : Hpimaw-Hpare and Zuk Lang
at high altitudes. Generally come down to lower altitude for breed-
ing. Found singly or in pairs. Lisus consider the Chik Naw as
an animal of ill omen. They never shoot the Tufted Deer unless
by accident. Mating season: April and May. Gestation period
about six months. Only one fawn dropped at a time. The colour
of the fawn is brownish. The colour becomes dark as the animal
grows old. Both male and female bark like the Muntjac during
the mating season. Outside the mating season they bark when sur-
prised or scenting danger. The females and young males have no
horns. The horns appear only as the males grow up. In old males
the points of the “horn curve in and face each other.

The average weight of an old male is roughly about 50 lb. The
specimen shot was judged as three years old. Each of its horns
measures + (?) inch in length. Below is an extract from the report on
mammals collected by the Vernay-Cutting Burma Expedition (1938-30)
by H. E. Anthony, Curator of Mammals, American Museum of
Natural History.

‘These dark Tufted Deer are indistinguishable from a series col-
lected in Western China for which the name cephalophus is applicable.
From the evidence in hand, north-eastern Burma may be the western
limit of the range. ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125

In newspaper accounts of the proposed field work in Burma, before
the expedition left the States, some mention was made of a ‘‘black
barking deer’? never taken in Burma and an especial object to be
sought. Apparently this statement derived in some way from the fact
that there is a true barking deer, so called ‘‘black’’ (Muntiacus crini-
ferous Sclater) of which only three specimens have been recorded
(from Chekiang, China), and that a Chinese name for the Tufted Deer
can be translated as ‘‘black muntjac’’. There was little likelihood that
the very local Muntiacus criniferous would be encountered in Burma
over 1,000 miles removed from the known records. When I saw the
first specimens of the Tufted Deer I could readily understand how
natural a thing it would be for the layman to call it a ‘“‘black barking
deer’’; size, colour and general appearance all make the name seem
appropriate, although it is not a barking deer (Muntiacus) at all.

The Tufted Deer has been taken before in north-eastern Burma.
Captain E. Maxwell West (1925, p. 1080) gives an account of a
hunt ‘within a day’s march’’ of Htawgaw which brought him a speci-
men of what he called Michie’s Tufted Deer. Michie’s variety of
Tufted Deer is the race confined to south-eastern China, and the
Burma animal is not michianus but the race discovered in Szechwan
by Pére David. .

Our specimens were purchased from the natives who brought
them in the flesh, making it possible to save complete material.

I saw an animal near our camp in the Chimeti road but was
hunting with a shot-gun and loads too light for deer. My native boy
and I were coming up the mule trail through primeval forest, inter-
spersed with small openings and at an elevation approximating
10,000 ft. The time was late in the afternoon. The deer was in an
opening near the trail and quite close before I saw it. It bounded
off into cover at once. I did not see any horns but was impressed
by the dark colour and by the white underside of the tail, which
was very conspicuous. The tail was carried high, very much like
that of our Virginia deer, flopping with each leap.

I believe this deer is to be found in most of the high damp
forest of the main mountain ridges of north-eastern Burma.

The second one brought to us was said to have been trapped
not far from the Chimeti Pass section and the men carried it for
three days to deliver it to us at the Imaw Burma Camp.’

25, InyA Myainc Roap,
University P.O., U TUN YIN
RANGOON—BuRMA,

April 9, 1955.
5. THE INDIAN ELELPHANT (£. MAXIMUS): EARLY
GROWTH GRADIENT AND INTERVALS BETWEEN CALFING
(With four plates)

1. RatTE oF GRowtTH or A BABy INDIAN ELEPHANT

On February 6th 1950 an adult cow elephant named Deokali, 7’ 6”
in height and belonging to the Forest Department of Assam, gave

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

birth to a baby, subsequently named Parbati. As this event occurred
only three miles from my tea estate, I was able to go immediately to
photograph the baby on the day of its birth, and subsequently every
year on its birthday—February 6th.

Each year from 1950 to 1955 I have carefully measured the
circumference of the forefoot and the height to the shoulder, taking
the average after repeating the process four times. Thus an accurate
record of the rate of growth of an Indian baby female elephant has
been obtained under near natural conditions, as the mother was laid
off work and allowed to roam in her forest habitat every day. The
heights and other information are as follows:

Pate Age Forefoot Height Increase Remarks

6-2-50 0 Aes (370%) A Could not be accurately
measured on day of birth.
Estimated at 3’ 0”.

6-2-51 1 wee Aas oe Forefoot could not be mea-
sured. Suckling well.

6-2-52 2 DO MD = Nes fh 1” — Still suckling.

6-2-53 3 2’ 64” Sila 1” Still suckling~two or three

times a day.

6-2-54 4 OY 5” 5}” 43” Was said to be occasionally
wasuckling. Ridden by
mahout occasionally.

Hees 5 5 2’ 114” a BY 33” No longer suckling. Ridden
regularly by mahout.

This is probably the only accurate and detailed record of the rate —
of growth of a baby Indian elephant under near natural conditions.
I have studied the measurements given by Gordon Hundley of Messrs.
Steel Brothers & Co., Ltd. (Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 37: p. 487),
but these appear to be unreliable. For instance, no measurement is
given for female calves of two years old; measurements weré not
taken on the dates of birth and the height given at the ages of nine
and thirteen years are less than those at eight and twelve years—
which is not possible.

Male calves are slightly bigger than female ones at varying ages,
and from a comparison of many figures I estimate that 7% or 8%
added to the height of a female calf would give the approximate height
of a male calf of the same age (this would apply only to calves between
the ages of one and twelve years).

The manner in which Deokali cow elephant came to be mated is
interesting. She ran away from her pilkhana-at Jamguri m the
Sibsagar District of Assam on 15-2-45, and spent some years in the
nearby forest with wild elephants. Then she was captured along with
a herd of wild elephants in khedda operations on 15-3-49, in a stock-
ade in the same stretch of forest. She was quickly recognised to be
a ban gharasia (escaped-tame-one-run-wild), and was claimed by the
lorest Department and returned to her former pilkhana at Jamguri.

J URN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc
|

an remeniaeras'h ee

1. On day of birth, February
Height 3'-034"

2. February 6, 1951, aged 1 year.
| Height 4'-1".
(Photos: E. P. Gee)

PLATE I

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

3. February 6, 1952, aged 2 years.
Height 4'-842".

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4, February 6, 1953, aged 3 years.
Flerolniieonilew,

COINS 1, Je, (EGB)

uRN. BomspaAy Nar. Hist. Soc. Puate III

9. February 6, 1954, aged 4 years.
Height 5-5".

ee ae eee

5

Height 5'-9".
' (Photos: E. P. Gee)

Ose hicbruary.05 1955) aged Siyears.

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

7. Cow elephant with four (successive?) calves.

Heights 4'-1", 5'-0", 6-2" and unknown.

8. ‘The same herd, showing the deformed calf which had
miraculously survived.
(Photos: E, P. Gee)

MISCELLANEOUS NOUES. 127

Recently both Deokali and her baby Parbati, now five years old,
have been transferred to Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary, where both
animals are being ridden by visitors coming to see rhino and other
wild lite in the Sanctuary.

My thanks are due to the Officers of the Assam Forest Department
who have always courteously assisted me in obtaining the above mea-
surements and other information required by me from time to time.

2. INTERVAL BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE ELEPHANT CALVES IN WILD STATE

On the night of 17th-r8th February 1953 a small herd of five wild
elephants was captured in Garampani stockade in the forest not far
from Jamguri in the Sibsagar District of Assam. It consisted oi
an older cow elephant and four smaller female elephants of varying
sizes, all of which milled around together in family fashion. The
experienced elephant catchers who were there with me all agreed that
this was almost certainly a family party of a mother and four calves,
possibly successive calves. This appears to be unique in the annals
of elephant catching, and the Senior Conservator of Forests, P. D.
Stracey, I.F.S., confirmed later after a study of the photographs that:
it was almost certainly a cow and her four calves. He had himself
seen a cow captured with three calves, but never with four as in this
case, and his experience in this field is considerable.

Several of the spectators at the stockade were villagers from nearby
villages ; and they recognised the herd, mainly by the deformed animal,
as the very herd of five elephants which had been raiding their rice
fields on the fringe of the forest. ;

The three youngest calves were roped in the stockade and removed
to the elephant training depot. As the Director of the Regent’s Pazix
Zoo of London had just written to me asking me.to obtain a baby
female elephant, I immediately purchased the youngest calf, Lakhsmi,
~which measured exactly 4° 1”; and this was sent by air about a month
later to the London Zoo where she still is. The next calf measured
5, and the bigger one 6’ 2”. The eldest calf was badly deformed, and
was therefore released with the mother.

Now from the measurements of a.female calf given in (I) above, it
will be seen that Parbati was 4’ 1” when one year old. ' Therefore
Lakhsmi (4° 1”) must have been approximately one year old when
captured. The next calf at 5’ must have been either three years old
or even slightly less, as Parbati was 5° 1” when three years old.
Therefore it can safely be deduced that in their wild state cow ele-
phants can produce a second calf within two years, or even slightly
less, of the first calf. In this particular case the cow must have mated
again when her young calf at heel was only about three months old,
presuming the gestation period was 21 months.

The largest of the three calves extracted from the stockade was
6’ 2”, and probably seven (or eight) years old. So in this case the
spacing was either four (or five) years, or else a calf may have died
in the interval.

With regard to the eldest and deformed calf, it was difficult to
assess her age owing to her bad condition, and estimates varied be-
tween ten and fifteen years. It is probable that she had been trampled

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

on by her mother or by the herd when very young, and had somehow
survived. It is significant to note that only by hanging on closely
to her mother and sisters had she been able to survive at all. Had
she become at any time separated she would almost certainly have
been killed by a roaming tiger or by other wild elephants. Much
credit, then, is due to the mother for having safely protected such a
badly handicapped creature for so many years. I suggested that this
deformed elephant should be destroyed, but there was no Forest
Officer present at the stockade to authorise this, and both mother and
deformed offspring were released into the forest by the catching
company.

A similar short interval between the births of Indian elephants
was recorded in the case of the young pair in captivity in the Rome
Zoo, when the first calf was born in August 1948 and the second as
quickly as two years afterwards. The above case, however, of
Lakshmi and her elder sister being born within two years of each
other may be the first known authentic case of such quick successive
births of Indian elephant calves in the wild state.

Doyanc TEA ESTATE,

OaTING P.O., | Eee GE
ASSAM,

May 30, 195).

6) THE ROSY PASTOR] TN] El bye bbe Rave wie

Jowar is the ‘staple foodgrain of the people of certain tracts in the
Bellary area. For eight years I was resident in Sandur State, the area
of which is sharply demarked by a double range of hills from the
surrounding flat country. Jowar is grown extensively in the Sandur
valley, inside the hills, and also along the route leading from Sandur
town to Bellary town. The grain comes to a head about November
in the Sandur area and is harvested about December—in the surround-
ing Bellary country both ripening and harvest are later by about a
month. These things, of course, are dependent on rainfall and other
climatic factors, and I am only giving the periods approximately, from
long experience.

One other factor I should mention in a prefatory manner is that
the Sandur Hills seem to obstruct in some measure the free passage
of bird life between the Sandur and Bellary areas. I had much diifi-
culty in training my Racing Homers (birds of proven worth over long
distances) over these hills.

Rosy Pastors arrive in thousands in the Bellary country outside
the Sandur hills about September-October. No crop in that area is
then ripe, but the birds probably are still to be found there in Novem-
ber when a few early heads of Jowar may be available to them.
By December they appear to have quit. The remarkable thing is that
they never cross the Sandur Hills into the Sandur area where grain
is available to them in plenty. On this point I am certain, but having

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 129

been only an occasional visitor to the Bellary area outside the Sandur
Hills, I have formed only rough impressions of the movements ol the
Rosy Pastors there.

PERUKULAM HOUSE,
EpWaRpD ELiior Roap, * M.. KRISHNAN
MyLaporE, MaApras,
February 19, 1954.

». NESTING OF HOUSE SPARROWS IN TREES

With reference to Mr. Humayun Abdulali’s note on the nesting of the
house sparrow in colonies in trees, in your journal, Vol. 52, Nos. 2
and 3, Aug.-Dec. 1954, the following from my records will be of
interest.

It was during the months February-April 1950, that the common
house sparrow, Passer domesticus, was prospecting for house sites in
my house in Dhanavaipet, Rajahmundry. Various old crevices under
the roof and rafter holes in the masonry had been occupied and the
little builders were constantly busy bringing rags, straws, grass
and bits of paper, indeed anything they could find to build their
nests, inside and flowing out of the holes. There was a medium-sized
Pithecolobium dulce tree in the back-yard, which was used, as it were,
as a halting station both to and fro by the birds, as they flew in
and out of the house. Often streamers of rags and papers would get
caught in the thorns and remain dangling there. However, I began
to notice that at a particular spot in this tangle of twigs of the tree
the conglomeration of odds and ends was increasing in size, and soon
I noticed that a pair had selected the spot for building their nest.
In course of time a large globular affair had been built, much in the
manner of the grass nests of jungle mynahs and munias, and a brood
was duly hatched out from there. This is the first and only instance
I have noticed, in a long period of bird-watching when Passer domesti-
cus, reverted to what may be called the wild type of nest structure.
There was no mistaking the birds, which were a young pair of the
common house sparrow, for they often came into the house for pick-
ing up morsels.

GANDHINAGAR, |
KAKINADA, ! A. S. THYAGARAJU, .a.
February 17, 1955. |

8. THE COURTSHIP (? DISPLAY OF THE BLACKBACKED
INDIAN ROBIN [SAXICOLOIDES FULICATA (LINN.)]

A slightly cloudy morning and many birds were about. It was the
middle of October (1929), when the courtship (?) display of this little
robin was observed in the front garden of my house in Batchupet,
Masulipatam.

9

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 538

The hen bird was hopping on the ground and running about, with
its tail very much erected, ‘almost perpendicularly. The male bird
alighted on a twig of a tree, just above the spot where the female
was hopping about, and began to whistle a few notes. Next he also
flew down to the ground and began to strut near the hen, much as a
turkey-cock would do; his tail was stiff and pressed down, touching
the ground. ‘This performance was repeated three or four times, when
they both began to feed, with the tails let down and not cocked up.

GANDHINAGAR,
KAKINADA, A. S. THYAGARAJU, .a.
February 17, 1955.

[A rather more elaborate description of the same display is given
by Capt. C. R. Stonor in The Ibis, 1944—Vol. 86, p. 91—Epbs. |

9. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITEWINGED BLACK TERN
(CHLIDONIAS LEUCOPTERUS TEMM.) IN SAURASHTRA

On 12-5-55 watching Avocets on a lake near Jasdan, I had the
good fortune of seeing a Whitewinged Black Tern among a flock of
Whiskered Terns. The bird flew very close to me and I had an excel-
lent opportunity of noting its distinguishing characters. The black
head and body, and white shoulders and tail are impossible to overlook,
nor is it possible to mistake it for any other tern found here.

This is a second record for Jasdan and Saurashtra, the first
being in June 1949 on a lake close to this one. This record, I under-
stand was the first for the west coast of India, the previous ones having
been from the Persian Gulf and Ceylon. Mr. Humayun Abdulali
subsequently saw one near Bombay on 26th March 1950.

JASDAN, ,
SAURASHTRA, | SHIVRAJKUMAR

May 135 TOss:

10. BREEDING OF SARUS CRANE [ANTIGONE
A. ANTIGONE (LINN.)] IN CAPTIVITY

A pair of Sarus Cranes in our Calcutta Zoo occupies an enclosure
measuring about 187’x 195° along with some Nilgai, and there in a
shallow pool in it lives a Gharial. This association of animals varying
so widely in habit and character is no doubt very strange and unusual.
Nevertheless they have been living there for many years in perfect peace
and harmony. In this surrounding, the pair of Sarus was observed to
build a nest, breed, hatch out a young and rear it during July-

August, 1949.
Nest.—A shallow nest measuring approximately 2’-10” in dia-

meter was built at a distance of 2’-2” from the water’s edge. The
nesting materials were twigs of Peepul (Ficus religiosa Linn.), Banyan

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 131

(Ficus bengalensis Linn.), leaves of Date (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.),
pieces of bones and other unusual materials that were handy inside
the enclosure.

The nest, very simple and hardly 3.5” in depth, contained only one
egg. Both cock and hen birds shared equally in nest building.

Incubation Period—tThe bird (birds?) started sitting on the
egg from 14-7-49 and successfully hatched out a chick on 10-8-49
recording an incubation period of 28 days. There appears to be no
previous record of the period of incubation of the Sarus Crane.

Blaauw in his Monograph of the Cranes observes: ‘I find no exact
information about the time of incubation of this Crane, but think it
probable 30 days will be about the duration of it.’

The parents continued to keep constant watch over the chick and
nursed it very carefully.

The Gharial who knew his old friends in the enclosure was ap-
parently surprised at the sight of the new-comer. He did not seem
to like the chick’s unfamiliar presence inside the enclosure and felt
excited. On several occasions when the chick moved into water along
with its parents, the Gharial was observed to chase it as far as the
edge of the water. Curiously enough, in each and every attempt of
the Gharial to get at the chick he was repulsed and driven back by the
parent birds in the usual Sarus manner by flapping of their wings and
brave and loud trumpeting.

Food Habits—Evidently there was enough of available na-
tural food on the site for the chick has been growing unusually fast
and keeping healthy and buoyant. Earthworms apparently form the
principal item of its food.

At first either of the parents was observed to dig out earthworms
and collect aquatic as well as other kinds of insect food (grasshoppers,
etc.) for the young and hold them at the level of the chick’s beak,
when the latter would take it rather lustily. No grain food was given
by the parents to the chick at this stage.

The chick having now grown up, the parents would no longer
follow the same process of feeding. They no doubt sought out the
food as before, but instead of holding the same in their beak in front
of the young they would dangle and drop it on the ground before the
chick until it realized that it was something to be picked up by itself.
Thus the Sarus Crane teaches its young the way of sef-feeding.

It is interesting to watch a week old Sarus going freely into the
water and swimming back to land unaided and unattended.

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS,
ALIPORE, RY Kee PA ER

CALCUTTA 27,
June 6, 1955.

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 53

11. WILSON’S PETREL [OCEANITES OCEANICUS (KUHL)] IN
INDO-CEYLON WATERS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO THE 1954 SOUTHWARD MIGRATION

In my recent paper ‘Petrels, Shearwaters and other Oceanic Birds
in the North Indian Ocean’ (see Journal B.N.H.S. Vol. 52, p. 334)
I recorded certain interesting observations made during 1953 by
Mr. G. N. Grisenthwaite from the Ceylon Government Trawler ‘Bra-
conglen’ in Indo-Ceylon waters, off Cape Comorin, the most southerly
point of India. During 1954 Mr. Grisenthwaite continued his observa-
tions during his frequent voyages in these same waters; the present
note is based upon his reports submitted on his return to port.

NORTHWARD RETURN OF WILSON’S PETRELS (Ocednites oceanicus)

No petrels were observed between 8th November, 1953 and
26th May, 1954. At I10.30 a.m. on 26th May, however, when
‘Braconglen’ was about 20 miles south of Cape Comorin, Mr.
Grisenthwaite observed a solitary Wilson’s Petrel and by the evening
‘quite a few’ had appeared, attracted to the vicinity by the oil that
the fishing operations leave on the surface; no shearwaters were seen.
That evening one petrel came aboard, attracted by the powerful deck
lights, and two days later, i.e. on 28th May, another one was
captured. The first was taken 19 miles SE. of Cape Comorin and
the second 11 miles W. of the Cape. Both were in fine, fresh plum-
age; they were sent to Mr. J. D. Macdonaid at the Bird Room, British
Museum (Natural History), for determination of the races to which
they belonged.

Mr. Macdonald, in his letter dated 6th December, 1954, reports:
‘On measurement the ¢ is O.0o.exasperatus and the Q could either
be that race or O.0.0ceanicus.’ 7

DURATION OF STAY IN INDO-CEYLON WATERS

Wilson’s Petrels continued to be observed by Mr. Grisenthwaite on
each voyage after 26th May, 1953, until early November. Generally
they were observed from just clear of Colombo Harbour to the edge
of the Continental shelf. Across the deep water they were usually
absent, but they became abundant again when the shallower waters
south of Cape Comorin were reached. No shearwaters were seen until
the voyage of gth to 20th July when one solitary, dark shearwater
(probably Puffinus pacificus chlororhynchus) was observed, |

Leaving Colombo Harbour on 27th July, Mr. Grisenthwaite
reports ‘I was immediately impressed by the large numbers of Wilson’s
Petrels present; just clear of the harbour they were like flies. . Gradual-
ly we lost them on the way across (the deep water) but when we
arrived off Cape Comorin and commenced fishing operations, we were
amongst very large flocks. During the hours of darkness, when our
searchlights were on, one night alone we released 51 of these petrels
and it was usual to have from 15 to 25 on board during each night.
They were all Wilson’s Petrels. Several flocks of 20 to 30 shearwaters
were also observed but they all kept fairly far away.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 133

SOUTHWARD MASS-MIGRATION 1954

In 1954, all or almost all Wilson’s Petrels appear to have left Indo-
Ceylon waters on their southward migration to their breeding grounds
in the Southern Hemisphere, on 5th November—three days earlier
than in 1953.

Mr. Grisenthwaite reports: ‘On 5th November Mr. P. L. N. Mendis,
the Ceylonese Fishing-Skipper, called me, quite excitedly, on to the
bridge. He had noticed ahead what appeared, at first sight, to be
three or four large patches of seaweed but when I looked through my
glasses I could see four very large flocks of petrels, packed together
and sitting on the water; there must have been thousands of them !
As the ship closed them, they rose in a cloud and flew in one body
away to the south and west. As the sea was dead calm, we watched
them until they were out of sight. Since then, we have not seen a
single petrel. On 6th November, we had a strong north-east wind,
approaching force 4.’

From Mr. Grisenthwaite’s observations we now know that :

(a) Wilson’s Petrels, of several races, arrive in Indo-Ceylon waters
during the last week in May; they arrive flying independently and not .
in large flocks.

(b) Many remain in Indo-Ceylon waters, chiefly in the shallower
coastal areas of both India and Ceylon, for approximately six months.
(c) They collect in very large flocks in the Gulf of Mannar during
the first week of the following November and fly southwards in mass-
migration, leaving Indo-Ceylon waters generally during the first or
second week of November.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My grateful thanks are due to Mr. G. N. Grisenthwaite for fur-
nishing his interesting reports and to Mr. J. D. Macdonald for deter-
mining the races of the Petrels sent to him for identification.

CEYLON,
February 11, 1955. Wi NV AS PHIL EIPS

12. SOME NEW BIRD RECORDS IN THE PALNIT HILLS,
SOUTH INDIA °

In the last week of October 1954, I had the opportunity of making
a small collection of birds around Shembaganur, 6,000 ft. elevation in
‘the Palni Hills. These have been identified by the Society and I am
informed that the following are not listed by Fairbank and Terry from
this area (Stray Feathers Vol. 5, Pp. 387-410 & Vol. ro, Pp. 467-480) :
Microtarsus poioicephala in foothills ca, 1000’,

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Rhipidura aureola compressirostris. (In the Eastern Ghats Report,
JBNHS, Vol. 36, Pp. 92, Whistler doubted Fairbanks’s record since
the latter had omitted R. pectoralis).

Strix 1. indranee

Astur t. trivirgatus

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis

St. XAVIER’S H1GH SCHOOL,
BomBAy; Br. A. NOVARRO

January 24, 1955.

13. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE LIZARD CNEMASPIS
KANDIANA (KELAART)

On 16th January 1953, I picked up a lizard in the dak bungalow
at Yellapur, North Kanara, which was identified at the Indian Museum
as Cnemaspis kandiana (Kelaart). On 31st November 1954 another was
obtained under a stone in forest at Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft-, Satara
District, Bombay. Subsequently V. K. Chari and J. C. Daniel of the
Prince of Wales Museum obtained two more at Mahableshwar on roth
December 1954, one in a house and the other under a stone.

The Fauna (Smith, 1935) gives the distribution as ‘Ceylon and hills
of Southern India as far north as latitude 12°; Jog, North Kanara
Dist., where Dr. Rao collected a single specimen in 1928; the Andaman
Islands; islands west of Sumatra’. The present records, therefore,
constitute a considerable northward extension of the known range of
this species.

C/o Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN ST., HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY 3,

March 15, 1955.

14. PYTHONS

The note on the congregation of Pythons, by Mr. Frank Nicholls
in the Miscellaneous Notes of the Journal for Aug.-Dec. 1954, is of
considerable interest, but it would appear that this habit is not of such
unusual occurrence as might be supposed.

On Christmas Eve 1934, I was on a shooting party in the Dar-
jeeling foothills. We were beating for junglefowl on some grassy
islands in the bedsof the Sivoke River about a mile above its junc-
tion with the Teesta, at about 4oo ft. elevation. I was on an ele-
phant with the beaters when one of the men came running up, saying
that he had just seen a large snake. [| turned the elephant back,
and the man led me to a pile of dead grass and leaves and said the
snake was lying inside it. I dismounted from the elephant and poked
around in the heap of grass with a stick, whereupon a large python
stuck its head out and hissed at me. I shot it then and there and,
as it wriggled about in its death throes a second python emerged

\

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135

from the far side of the heap and made off through the surrounding
elephant-grass. I chased after it as it dodged through the clumps
of long grass, and eventually succeeded in catching up with it by
stamping on its tail and, running round to the other end, I shot it
in the head. This one measured 17 ft. No sooner had I shot it than
I heard the beaters shouting that there was still another one in the
pile of grass, so I went back and despatched that.

“A friend who had also been coming along with the beaters, on
hearing the shots, now came up, and I asked him if he would like to
shoot a python. On his agreeing, we again poked about in the pile
of grass and, sure enough, a fourth python slowly crept out, which
he shot. The eaters ithen told me that yet another python had
crawled away and escaped in the long grass while I was chasing
the second one. Five pythons together in all.

The four we shot measured between them over 60 ft., the biggest
being 17 ft. and the smallest 12 ft., so they were all evidently mature
specimens. The skins, as far as I remember, were fairly new, and
as this happened in the cold weather the circumstances almost exactly
coincide with those of Mr. Nicholls’s case.

On another occasion, in February 1954, I found a similar heap
of dried grass with four adult pythons in it. This was in an area
of long grass in the bed of a dry stream that joins the Mechi River
just inside the Nepal boundary opposite the Darjeeling Terai at the
foot of the hills at about 500 ft. elevation. On prodding the heap
of grass the pythons all crawled out and disappeared in the surround-
ing jungle.

As both Mr. Nicholls’s and my own experiences were in the winter,
it would seem that the pythons may have been in a state of semi-
hibernation. None of the snakes that I saw appeared to have recently
fed, at least none of their bodies showed any bulging signs of freshly
eaten animals.

VICTORIA, SEYCHELLES, C. J. T. WRENICKE
April 20, 1955.

15. A ‘WHITE’ PYTHON
(With a photo)

In December 1954 information reached this Zoo regarding the
availability of a ‘white’ Python in possession of a local animal dealer.
The specimen was being shown at various places in and around Calcutta
in a small crate by its owner. On February 18, 1955, the snake was
brought to the Zoo for detailed examination and the following were
recorded :

1. Colour ... .... Uniformly ivory-white with no blemish
nor any marking.

Ye WAS NEAUN “aoe oon, GE Oe

Zora — lO;

4. Max. girth if Q”

ge Neck= -.?. ae MAR Ine

6. Weight sooe toy La

~. Colour of Iris... Brownish black.

Shoes ou pee Males

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

From the characteristics of its scales, it appeared to be a Rock
Python, Python molurus.

NES

The dealer reported that the reptile had thrice shed its skin at his
place and no change in colour was observed during the period.

It is being force-fed on meat, fish such as Ophicephalus punctatus
etc. by an outside snakeman once a week and is thriving well. It
is, however, seen that the growth is rather slow and the snake looks
somewhat emaciated.

A foreign animal dealer who has recently purchased the specimen
checked feeding by offering live white rats and red munias. The snake
very greedily caught and devoured two white rats and three munias.

The exact locality “of procurement could not be ascertained, but
it is stated to have been secured through a village snakeman from the
hill tract north of Jalpaiguri.

I am unable to trace any record of a similar freak in Python in
the standard books.

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, ALIPORE,
GALGUTDA 27; R. K, LAHIRI

June 6, 1955:

16. ON THE ALLOCATION OF THE NAME COLUBER
PLATURINUS SHAW

Recently while preparing a paper dealing with the subspecies of
Lycodon subcinctus Boie (1827, Isis, 20, p. 551), my attention was
drawn to the reference in Duméril, Bibron and Duméri] (1854, Erp.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 137

Gen., 7, p. 598) in which they place the name Coluber platurinus Shaw
(1802, Gen. Zool., 3, (2), p. 468) as a questioned synonym of Ophites
(=Lycodon) subcinctus.

On checking the literature it was further determined that Cantor
(1847, Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 16, (2), p. 916) had suppressed the
name subcinctus in favour of Shaw’s terminology. Gunther (1864,
Rept. Brit. India, p. 322), however, placed Shaw’s name in the
synonymy of subcinctus, stating in a footnote, ‘As it was impossible
to recognize this species from Shaw’s description, the name proposed
_ by him has no claim to priority.’ Subsequently Boulenger (1893, Cat.
Snakes Brit. Mus., 1, p. 359) placed Lycodon platurinus Cantor (not
Shaw) in the synonymy of subcinctus, and completely neglected to
indicate what was to be done with Shaw’s name. Recent authors (e.g.,
de Rooi, Rept. Indo-Aust. Arch., 1917, vol. 2; Taylor, Snakes Philip.
lds lLo22ziwalope. Kept, China, 1935+ Smith, FP B-Is "1943, vol. 3)
have not even mentioned the name platurinus, either of Shaw or of
Cantor, in their synonymies.

An examinaticn of Shaw’s description leads one to the conclusion
that it would be impossible for his name to be applied to any species
of Lycodon, and it becomes quite evident that Shaw and Cantor were
not speaking of the same snake.

A careful examination of this problem has led to the conclusion
that Coluber platurinus Shaw was undoubtedly based upon a specimen
of snake referrable to the genus Bungarus. The description of C.
platurinus as given by Shaw (op. cit.) is as follows: ‘... back
Slightly carinated, sides somewhat sloping, and
abdomen flattish: colour of the whole animal an equal variega-
tion of broad blackish-brown and white bands, equidistant from each
other, and entirely surrounding the respective parts: the white bands
are spotted with black: head rather large than small, covered with
large scales of a black-brown colour elegantly separated from each
other by intervening white spaces, so that the head appears marked
with large black spots on a white background: nose abrupt or
mime cha hede vla ili wermyitone, slender and-+ gradu-
ally tapering to the extremity: length of the whole ani-
-mal about three feet and a half: scales of moderate size,
Ovate, and not carinated.’ (No scale counts are given !)

Certainly from the information given in this description (note
particularly the statements in spaced type which present what I believe
are the most critical points of the description) there can be little doubt
but that Shaw was describing one of the kraits (genus Bungarus) and
most definitely not a Lycodon. Furthermore, from the nature of the
coloration, e.g. ‘the broad black and white bands, equidistant from each
other, and entirely surrounding the respective parts; ... head appears
marked with large black spots on a white background,’ and so forth,
it seems highly probable that he was examining a_ specimen of
Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801), the so-called ‘banded krait’ (see
Smith, op. cit., p. 416, for comparison of description); his reference
to Seba’s plate (2, t. 83, fig. 2), which he questions anyhow (note
question mark immediately following reference), possibly resulted from
the great similarity in dorsal coloration of his specimen to Seba’s
figure (probably L. subcinctus, fide Cantor, op. cit.).

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Thus, it is believed that Coluber platurinus Shaw should be con-
sidered a synonym of Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider) ; Lycodon platurinus
Cantor must be placed in the synonymy of Lycodon subcinctus sub-
cinctus Boie.

NATURAL History MUuSEvuM,

STANFORD UNIVERSITY, ALAN E, LEVITON
STANFORD, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A.,

January 24, 1955.

17. FISHERIES OF CERTAIN TROPICAL FISHES
IN NATURAL COLD WATERS OF INDIA!

During a recent zoological survey of the Kashmir Valley (May-
June, 1954), the wide occurrence of the Central American Poecilid
Mosquito-control Fish, Gambusia (Schizophallus) holbrookii Girard
(Original home: Atlantic Coast drainage from New Jersey to Florida
and adjoining gulf drainage), attracted our early attention as the
fishermen showed curiosity in having a fish which gave birth to young
ones instead of liberating eggs as all other fishes found in the Kashmir
Valley do. Such a curiosity was, however, felt in the U.S.A. also
when the fish was introduced there for the first time. Innes (1944,
D3 hU)mawitesy:

‘To many aquarists, at least in the United States Gambusia affinis represents
the beginning of an epoch. It was our first live-bearer. The species was

advertised by dealers as the. eighth wonder of the world. All flocked with their
$ 2 per pair to prove or disprove for themselves the claims for this strange fish.’

Mr. G. M. Malik of the S.P. College, Srinagar, who has considerable
acquaintance with the fish fauna of the Valley, had not seen or heard
of it when he was in charge of the Game and Fish Service of the
Kashmir State. The fishermen had observed this fish in natural waters
only a couple of years ago and now keep living specimens in earthen
pots to verify for themselves and to show to others the birth of young
fish from pregnant females.

No record of the introduction of Gambusia in the Valley could be
obtained. Specimens were collected from the Dal Lake (Dal Ghat,
Srinagar; Nishat Garden Ghat; Tel-bal stream and adjoining portion
of Dal Lake), Wooler Lake at Ningle ; Manasbal Lake; and from paddy
fields about 7 miles from Srinagar on the way to Tangmarg. Whoever
may have taken the fish to the Kashmir Valley, either as an aquarium
fish or for public health purposes, Gambusia is now firmly established
in the natural waters of the Kashmir Valley.

As a larvicidal fish, it is reputedly very efficient and ‘its practical
value is enhanced because it can live in good or bad water, and will
stand a temperature range from 40 to too degrees’ (Innes, loc. cit.).

4

Read at the 42nd Session of the Indian Science Congress held at Baroda in
January 1955,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 139

In his letter dated October 19, Mr. Malik sent me the following note
about the habits of this fish in the Kashmir Valley :—

‘1. Gambusia has stopped breeding in September.

2. Instead of remaining scattered on the surface water it has
formed big shoals and concentrated in the spring-fed war-
mer regions of the lake. This has synchronised with the
arrival of the cold season.

3. It has left the colder regions of the lakes and moved to war-
mer areas in vegetation or to spring-fed areas.

4. It has passed through the Jhelum and spread in Nagin,
Manasbal and Wooler lakes and also in other still waters
and marshy areas round the Valley.

. It does not live in the Jhelum either in summer or winter.
The reasons can be the comparatively strong current and
colder water.

6. It prefers to live in still waters where the water is slightly
warmer and above 52°F. It avoids generally all waters
below 50° F.

7. With the disappearance of mosquitoes in the lake in early
September, it has begun to feed on surface swimming water
fleas and also bits of vegetation or the insects attached to the
vegetation as was revealed by stomach contents.

8. It has been found breeding in Kashmir from the beginning of
May to September, i.e., for 5 months. It appears that the
breeding season is very lengthy and different fishes breed at
different times of the season. I have not been able to find
out yet if one fish breeds more than once, which I doubt
very much.’

On

It is known that the same pair of Gambusia will breed once in
about three months. It would seem probable, therefore, that the same
pair may breed twice or even thrice during the five favourable months
from May to September in the Kashmir Valley.

In the Mysore State, Gambusia was introduced for the control of
mosquitoes but it has now become fully acclimatised to natural waters
and breeds prolifically. It is found in such great abundance in the
State that it is now sold in heaps as dried fish on road sides (vide
Bhimachar, 1942, p. 29). Though in the Kashmir Valley no local
name has yet been assigned to it, in a few years this fish is likely
to become very abundant and may form a fishery as in the Mysore
State. |

In February-March 1920, the writer surveyed extensively the fauna
of the Manipur Valley in Assam and wrote a report on the fish and
fisheries of the Valley (Hora, 1921). In February 1953, another visit
was paid to the Valley (Menon, 1954) and to the writer’s great surprise
the principal fish in the market at Imphal was the famous [or fish of
Bengal, Anabas testudineus (Bloch), the so-called Climbing Perch. This
fish is now most abundant all over the Valley, particularly in the Logtak
Lake, while in 1920 it was totally absent from the Valley. Two other
species of fish, Colisa fasciata (Bloch) and C. chuna (Hamilton), were
non-existent in the Valley during 1920, but now form commercial

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53 -

fisheries as dried and _smoked fish. Similarly, another new introduc-
tion in the valley is Ophicephalus striatus Bloch, a commercial fish of
some importance in certain parts of Peninsular India.

Fortunately, in the case of the Manipur Valley it is known that
these fishes were introduced about 1930-31 by Raja Dumbra Singh,
paternal uncle of the present Maharaja. We were informed that
within a period of six to seven years after introduction, these became
available in abundance in the Valley. - All these species normally in-
habit warm waters, but now they have become fully acclimatised to
the cold waters of the Valley. We were \informed that Anuabas,
during severe cold, lies along the edges of the lake in a state of tor-
por when it can easily be picked up with hands. The behaviour and
life histories of these familiar tropical Indian fishes under changed eco-
logical conditions of the Manipur Valley are worth investigation.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE,
CALCUTTA, S. L. HORA

March 24, 1955.

REFERENCES

Bhimachar, B. S. (1942): Report on Survey of the Fisheries of the Mysore State.
Fisheries Bull, Dept. of Agric., Mysore State, 1: 1-39.

Hora, S. L. (1921): Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with some observations on
those of the Naga Hills. Rec. Ind. Mus., 22: 165-214.

Innes, W. T. (1944): Exotic Aquarium Fishes, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Menon, A. G. K. (1954): Further observations on the Fish fauna of the Manipur
State. Rec. Ind. Mus., 52: 21-26.

18. SOME INTERESTING FEATURES OF THE AQUATIC
FAUNA OF THE KASHMIR VALLEY!

Pe GN LEaREORDAUEClTaILOuN

Despite the highly interesting ecological and geographical features
of the Kashmir Valley, its fauna has been very inadequately explored.
The present article is based on the information collected about the
aquatic fauna by two short faunistic surveys conducted by small parties
of the Zoological Survey of India during May-July 1921 and May-
June, 1954. As was expected, even a superficial analysis of the data
collected has yielded very useful information regarding faunal charac-
teristics of the Kashmir Valley. It is hoped that a more extensive
and critical study of the fauna, which is now under way in the
Zoological Survey of India, will prove to be helpful in developing
the fishery resources of the Valley.

* Read at the 42nd Session of the Indian Science Congress held at Baroda in
January 1955,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 141
II]. ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERS

The Valley of Kashmir is situated amidst the snowy ranges of the
Western Himalayas. It is about eighty miles long, about twenty to
twenty-five miles broad, and on the average rising about 6,000 ft.
above sea level. It is flanked almost on all sides by snow-capped
mountains. The Jhelum River which originates in its south-eastern
corner traverses its whole length and is supplied by several spring-fed
and snow-fed streams as well as by its all great water reservoirs, the
most important of which are the Wular, the Dal, and the Manasbai
lakes.. It finally flows down to Pakistan from the western side of
the Valley. Down the mountain slopes, numerous hill-streams tumble
down into the Valley where they are received and silenced by the
vast and calm waters, expanses of the Jhelum drainage system.

The mean temperature at Srinagar varies from 35° to 95° F. and
the total annual rainfall at the same station is about 26.7 inches.

The Kashmir Valley is blessed with a rich flora much of which
is peculiar to it. The mountains are clad with fine forests chiefly of
pine and fir, while on the plain, the willow, the poplar, numerous
fruit trees of finest kind, and other flowering plants abound. The
aquatic vegetation, wherever water is somewhat stagnant, is also
abundant. The principal aquatic plants met with are Hydrilla, Crispa,
Nelumbium, Potomegeton, Spirogyra and others.

Ill. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE FAUNA

On the basis of its faunistic characteristics, the Jhelum catchment
system can very conveniently be divided into two categories: (i) The
Jhelum River itself and the various lakes and springs pouring into it
from all sides. These waters are characterized by slow current, com-
paratively high temperature, and generally by the presence of sufficient
aquatic vegetation; (ii) The snow-fed torrential mountain-streams with
icy-cold current of water flowing over boulders and stones. Except a
few minute Thallophytes, these streams are generally devoid of any
vegetation.

The first category has its characteristic fauna consisting’ of plana-
rians, leeches, the Amphipod Gammarus, water beetles, water skaters,
bugs, several kinds of insect larvae and nymphs, molluscs, a number
of Schizothoracine fishes, and frogs. The most striking feature of
this fauna is that almost all forms are widely distributed in the Valley
owing to the continuity of and similarity of the Jhelum drainage waters.

In the second category comprising mountain-streams, the fauna is
scanty but very different from that included in the first category. It
includes the characteristic mountain-stream fishes (Oreinus, Glypto-
thorax, Giyptosternum and Nemachilus), Blapherocerid larvae, larvae
and nymphs of Mayflies and Caddisflies which by virtue of their suckers
and other adhering adaptations can admirably withstand torrential
currents. The amphiped Gammarus is also found in clear waters of
mountain-streams.

As will be apparent to any collector: the variety in the fauna is
poor but this is compensated by each form being represented by large
populations. The chief reason for this phenomenon appears to be

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 33

the rigours of the climate which only a few species have been able
to cope with; but once this hurdle had been crossed the species have
flourished abundantly ; the lack of competition and of enemies accele-
rating the process. Isolation of the Valley by formidable physical
barriers has contributed to the high endemicity among the species of
the Valley.

Though most of the species are of Central Asiatic origin, some
hill-stream fishes of the Indian plains have been able to colonise the
Valley via the route provided by the Jhelum River.

Introduction of exotic species appears to be rare, but one notable
instance is that of the Central American larvivorous fish, Gambusia,
which has shown remarkable adaptive capabilities to an environment
very different from that of its homeland. The fish, however, is reported
to withstand great variations in temperature even in its original habitat.

IV. Group By GROUP NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS

Porifera.—A few specimens were found encrusting weeds and pieces
of wood in the Dal lake.

Platyhelminthes.—Planarians were commonly found sticking to the
stones or crawling on the muddy bottoms of springs and their outlets.
Cestodes, Nematodes and Acanthocephala were commonly met with in
the intestines of Schizothoracine fishes. The infection was approxi-
mately 50%.

Annelida—Aquatic leeches were very common in all parts of the
Valley. Some of them parasitized fishes.

Among the 12 species of leeches known from the Valley, the
Palearctic element predominates and there are some polytyptic species
among them.

Crustacea—A species of Gammarus, Palearctic in origin, was
perhaps the most abundant species, occurring in large numbers in
all types of habitats. It forms an important item of the food of fishes.
It is noteworthy that no Decapod Crustaceans are so far known from
the Valley.

Apus cancriformis, locally known as Dadar, Dadao, and Pahar, is
met with in paddy fields. It is considered to be a pest of the paddy.
This species has got a wide distribution in other parts of the world
and is notable for its sporadic occurrence and sudden appearance and
disappearance.

Insecta—Aquatic Coleoptera and Hemiptera are very common.
Several kinds of insect larvae and nymphs are also met with in great
numbers. ‘The latter form an important source of the food of fishes.

Mollusca—Various species of Lymnea are abundant. One species
of Corbicula is found in the lakes. Besides Succinea, Indoplanorbis,
Bithyma, Valvata, and Gyraulus, are also found here and there in
small numbers.

Of the twenty-two species and varieties of aquatic molluscs known
from the Valley, 7 are endemic, 9 Palearctic and 6 Oriental. The
endemic species are of Palearctic origin showing thereby the great
preponderance of the Palzearctic element in the fauna.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 143

Pisces—There are about seventeen species of fish found in the
Valley. Of these, 9 are of Central Asiatic origin, 7 of Indian origin,
and one introduced.

Amphibia—F rogs (Rana limnocharis and R. cyanophlyctis) are very
common. Their use as important fish food in trout farms has been.
suggested to the fishery, authorities.

V. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The foregoing bird’s-eye view of the fauna of Kashmir has brought
to light some interesting ecological problems which can very profitably
be tackled in the Kashmir Valley. The highly adapted hill-stream
fishes are sometimes suddenly washed down into almost stagnant waters
of the lakes. The recent zoological survey obtained a number of such
strayed individuals in the Wular Lake. It will be an interesting study
to know how a naturally induced sudden change of habitat affects the
life of such fishes. A detailed comparison of the fauna of Kashmir
with those of the adjoining geographical tracts is bound to throw a
flood of light on the problems of adaptation, speciation and zoogeo-
graphy.

As the approximate time when the Valley became isolated in its
present form is known as five lakh years, it may be possible to work
out the rate of speciation to a fairly accurate degree.

Lastly, the potentialities of Kashmir Valley for fishery development
cannot be overemphasized. The presence of vast water reservoirs
ideally suited for fish breeding, of many delicious species of fish, and
a great demand for fish among the population cannot but bring home
the urgent need for the development of fisheries in the Valley.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEy OF INDIA,

CaLCUTTA,

March 24, 1955.
S. L. HORA
G. M. MULIK
H. KHAJURIA

19. THE ROYAL CELLS OF THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES
OBESUS WITH UNUSUALLY LARGE OPENINGS

(With one photo)

Royal cells of the termite Odontotermes obesus are made of hard
clayey material. Their walls may be thin or thick and are occasionally
traversed by roots of the trees against which the mounds of this
termite are often constructed. The royal cells usually possess a few
small holes in their walls. These tiny holes allow passage for the
workers and soldiers but at the same time they are too narrow for
any transit of the royal pair.

Certain mounds of this termite were dug out in June 1954 (Loc.
Dhampur, West U.P.) and one of them showed an interesting condi-
tion. It had two royal cells: one situated at about ground level and

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the other about 4 inches below the first. Besides the usual tiny holes,
walls of each of these royal cells contained one exceptionally large
opening. It established a communication between the interior of the
royal chamber and the outside. In each cell the opening was 1.5 cm.

Royal cell of Odontotermes obesus, lateral view, showing an unusually large
opening x ? (approx.)

wide and thus it was large enough for any transit of the queen. As
expected, both these royal cells were found to be empty. A normal
queen was recovered from a deeper level.

It is suggestive from the above, that the queen in this case had
been changing her position in the nest. <A large hole was made each
time in the walls of the royal cell to enable her to be taken out and
transported to the new site by other members of the colony. A possi-
bility of such transportation of queen has previously been expressed
by Mukerji and Raychaudhuri (1942) in respect of O. redemanni.

DeEpT. OF ZOOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI, H. S. VISHNOI

May 14, 1955.

REFERENCE

Mukerji, D. and Raychaudhuri, S. (1942): Structure, function and origin of the
exudate organs in the abdomen of the physogastric queen of the termite Termes
vedemanni Wasmann. Indian J. Entom. 4& (2): 176.

20. THE BUTTERFLY THECLA TRILOKA HANNYNGTON
(LEPIDOPTERA—LYCAENIDAE)

In 1910 there was published in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Volume
XX, ‘The Butterflies of Kumaun’ by F. Hannyngton, who on page 367
described as a new species Zephyrus (now Thecla) triloka, based on
3 females obtained in August in the Pindari Valley, Kumaun.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 145

In 1911 Swinhoe in Lepidoptera Indica, volume 8, page 260, stated:
‘Zephyrus triloka (sic) Hannyngton, whose type he has kindly allowed
us to examine is undoubtedly only a dry form of the female of Ruralis
(now Thecla) syla Kollar’. Subsequent authors, following on Swinhoe’s
determination, have placed triloka as a synonym of syla, which is a
common Himalayan species. Hannyngton died in 191g and his collec-
tion was acquired by Lord Rothschild for the Tring Museum.

In 1954 T. G. Howarth of the British Museum (Natural History)
was called upon to name a large collection of Chinese Lycaenidae.
For the difficult genus Thecla he found it necessary to carry out a
detailed examination of all the material available and specimens from
Tring were amalgamated with the general collection in London. In
addition to the 3 females mentioned by Hannyngton, 2 males were
found labelled respectively ‘Kumaun Aug. Coll. Hannyngton’ and ‘C.
Kumaun, E. Ramganga Valley, Quanti, 5,000 ft., H. G. Champion:
June 1924.’ Superficially, as well as in the form of genitalia, triloka
was found to be a distinct species with no near ally. The upperside of
the male resembles syla, but on the underside triloka is quite distinct,
as described by Hannyngton.

I publish this note, with the consent of Mr. Howarth, in order to
justify the judgement of my friend F. Hannyngton.

British Museum (NATURAL History),
LONDON, W. H. EVANS
March 26, 1955.

a1, ADAPTIVE COLORATION AND CAMOUFLAGE OF THE
COMMON MEMBRACID (‘TREE-HOPPER’) OTINOTUS
ONERATUS WALK. (HOMOPTERA: RHYNCHOTA)!

The common membracid Otinotus oneratus Walk. infests a large
number of plants belonging to various natural orders in Orissa, Bengal
and Bihar (Behura, 1951; Behura & Sinha, 1951). During June to
October and sometimes till early November, the nymphal stages of
O. oneratus occur in plenty and the feeding: and mating activities reach
their zenith at this period. The membracid is closely attended by the
common ant Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) compressus Latr., which
relishes its anal excretions.

From late November to the beginning of March, that is, during the
winter season till the advent of hot summer weather, the membracids
are not usually attended by the ants and the nymphal stages are
rarely seen during this period, though the adults persist. The general
coloration of the mature form shows cryptic coloration with the twig
and the spiny pronotal processes of the membracid as the insect rests
on the axils of plants appear like thorns or some spiny projections
or some other structures of the host-plants. It is interesting to point
out that heightening of cryptic resemblance occurs when the ants are

he A Aes gh BR a

2 The note was presented to the Indian Science Congress, Baroda, 1955 and an
abstract appeared in the Proc. 42nd Ind. Sc. Cong, (8): 291.

10

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 53

not in attendance, and the dense brown colour of the body, wings and
the pronotal processes acquires the distinct pale tawny colour of twigs,
drying thorns or other processes of the host-plants.

Ayyar (1935) in South India observed that the activities of the ant,
C. compressus were at a minimum during the period from late November
to March. The rhythmic activity of the ant, therefore, appeared to
have its effect on the seasonal history of its ant cattle O. oneratus,
as indicated by the change of colour of the membracids with the non-
attendance of ants.

In order to determine whether the change of coloration in O. onera-
tus is due to the non-attendance of the ant C. compressus, the mem-
bracids were isolated from the group where the ants were associated
with them, but no remarkable change in the coloration of the membracids
was noticed after separation. It would therefore appear, that the
change in coloration is cryptic and is not at all dependent on the
attendance and non-attendance of the ant C. compressus, and the
correlation beween colour changes in the membracid and the seasonal
history of its attending ant is merely a matter of coincidence. During
winter, when the host-plants assume a rugged appearance, the colour
of the membracids changes in accordance with the coloration of the
host-plants, and incidentally they are not then attended by the ants..

Poulton (1903) in Buckton’s monograph of Membracids on ‘Sugges-
tions as to the meaning of the shapes and colour of the Membracide
in the struggle for existence’ stated that in the Membracide the dis-
guise is chiefly borne by the pronotum alone and the likeness to plant
structures is for the purpose of concealment. However, he stated that
direct evidence was lacking as to the change of colour in the Mem-
bracide in accordance with two or more environments. It is interesting
that Poulton’s remark now~ finds its support from-O. oneratus. The
coloration of this membracid' species is cryptic, and-it is.a matter of
coincidence that the change of colour is so marked when the. attending
ants are absent.

The author’s grateful thanks are due to Prof. Julian Huxley, F.R.S.,
for kindly going “through the manuscript and offering helpful sugges~
tiotis, and to Mr. D. Mukerji, Department of Zoology, University
College of Science, Calcutta University, for his kind help in the
preparation of the manuscript.

DEPARTMENT OF. ZOOLOGY, .

RAVENSHAW COLLEGE, ,

CUTTACK, : BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA
February 3, 1955. |

REFERENCES

Ayyar, P. N. K. (1935): The biology and economic status of the common black.
ant of South India—Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) compressus Latr. Bull. Ent. Res.,
26 : 575-585. te

Behura, B. K. (1951): Habits of the common membraced (“Tree-hopper’) Otinotus
oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota). /BNHS., 50: 300-301. :

Behura, B. K. & Sinha, V. (1951): A record of, the common membracid, Otinotus
oneratus Walls. (Homoptera: Rhynchota) from the city of Patna (Bihar). JBNHS
50: 183-184. HES

Poulton in Buckton, G. B. (1903): A Monograph. of the Membracide : 275-276.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 147

22. INCIDENCE OF MANGO FLOWER GALLS IN
BOMBAY KARNATAK

(With a photo)

A number of gall-forming insects have been recorded previously on
Mangifera indica Linn. in various parts of the world. However, very
few of them have been observed as serious pests. In Bombay State,
with the exception of the Cecidomyiid flies—Allasomyia tenuispatha—
noted by the author as a serious pest of mango, practically no informa-
tion exists about the fauna of other gall-forming insects of serious im-
portance. During January and February 1954, at Dharwar, in Bombay
Karnatak another gall fly Dasyneura mangiferae Felt. was noted for
the first time, infesting the mango flower buds to an extent of 80 to
go% in a single inflorescence. The infested flower bud instead of
developing in a normal way, presented a characteristic gall-like swelling.
The dimensions of such galls varied from 0.3 x 0-4 mm. to 0.32 x 0.45
mm. As the size of the galls increased, the larvae contained within
them reached maturity. Pupation was noticed within the gall in white
silken cocoons. The adult flies finally emerged through an apical
opening from the gall.

EARLY STAGE LATE STAGE
Infestation by Dasyneura mangifera

Life-history—tThe insects oviposited in the individual un-
opened flowers just after their emergence. On the 4th day only the
healthy flowers opened, whereas the infested ones swelled into small
peanut-sized galls. On opening the individual galls, in each of them
one to four cream yellow coloured larvae were noticed. Each full-
grown larva was spindle-shaped and measured on an average 0.20 mm.
to 0.25 mm. The average of 36 rearings conducted from egg to adult
in the laboratory indicated that larval period ranged between 6 to 9g
days. The well-developed pupa showed yellowish brown to dark brown
coloration prior to. hatching. The pupae invariably developed within
white papery silken cocoons. The adult insects emerged after a period

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

of two to three days in the laboratory rearings. The newly-emerged
adults measured on an average 0.40 mm. in length and 0.50 mm. across
wings; with 15 segmented antennae and 4 segmented tarsae. The
duration of the life cycle of the insect in the laboratory was found to
range from 8 to 11 days.

These observations were also confirmed in the field during investi-
gations lasting from roth December 1953 to 23rd January 1954. Dur-
ing this period there were successive emergences of the insect which
continued to infest the mango inflorescence on a considerable scale,
thus affecting the bearing of the crop. Before working on the con-
trol of the insect, alternative host plants will have to be experimented
with. The investigations are in progress and the details will be
published as they are completed.

ENTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, by Wo ROI RNIRUIN| YY
DHARWAR,

January 15, 109054.

23, SWARMING OF LONG-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS
(MECAPODA ELONGATA)

On the 29th October 1954, while driving home from the city to Bandra
at about 7 p.m. I saw large numbers (30-50) of Mecapoda elongata
at each of the street lights, about 15, from the top of Cumballa Hill
down to Hornby Vellard. They were also present in smaller numbers
at occasional lights further northwards to Bandra. During the pre-
vious week, a few had entered my house at Bandra at night and
several other people had reported similar insects entering their homes
in and around Bombay.

The Zoological Survey of India to whom a specimen was _ sent
for confirmation of identity state that this species has not been known
to swarm, and this occurrence therefore seems worth recording.

On the night of 18th October while looking for frogs at Matheran
(2,000 ft.) I had heard a long strident call and traced it down to one
of these insects on a bush under trees about 2 ft. above ground. This —
may of course have no connection with the swarming.

c/o Faiz & Co.,
75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

Bombay, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
December 18, 1954.

24, LEECHES

{ found the letters on leeches in your August-December issue most
interesting. I cannot claim to have had long experience of these
unpleasant creatures, but a few observations made in Nepal during
1952 and 1954 may be of interest. I was primarily engaged in col-
lecting plants west and south of the great Dhaulagiri range in that
country. The heavy rainfall which is precipitated on the southern flank
of the range provides very suitable country for leeches to thrive in.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 149

Two types of leech were encountered. The commonest type, which
seems to correspond with the species Haemadipsa montana mentioned
by J. L. Harrison had a very wide distribution and the vertical range
was especially interesting. I found this type at 3,000 ft. which seemed
more or less to constitute its lower limit, in the evergreen Castanopsis
and Schima forests near the Kali Gandak River. Here a few leeches
were active before the monsoon, and I was bitten in mid-April. Later
they were abundant and were still active in November when I left.
The other end of their altitudinal range I found was about 13,000 ft.,
and it came as an unpleasant surprise to have hands bitten while collect-
ing primulas, meconopsis, potentillas, etc. in the beautiful alpine mea-
dows. Of course the season of activity here is much shorter since the
ground is frozen from October to April or May.

The most important point concerning their presence, i.e., , their
relative abundance or not, is, I feel intimately linked with the passage
of domesticated cows, buffaloes, sheep and goats. In Central Nepal at
least it seems that their distribution is dependent upon these animals.
It was a familiar sight to follow a blood-stained goat track up to an
alpine grazing encampment, and this leech was especially given to
hiding under stones in the track and around the grazing sites. I found
that if one strayed well away from the track, leeches were usually mark-
edly fewer in number, and I was particularly interested to observe that in
some cases where domesticated animals either did not use the track,
or used it only in the winter months, leeches were almost absent.
Above one Nepali hillside village at 8,500 ft. leeches were abundant
on many of the grazed slopes, and especially frequented the densely
forested ravines. Yet below the village in very moist Tsuga and Quercus
forest leading down to the river bed, there were practically no leeches
on the tracks and in the clearings. I was most surprised at first,
since this was in the middle of the monsoon, but my Lepcha collector
said that the cattle and goats only came down in the winter months
when the grazings above were frozen and snow covered.

The question of overwintering is very interesting, especially at the
higher altitudes. While it has occurred to me that in their uppermost
limits they may die out each year, the population being renewed by
the upward passage of animals in the following season, I certainly
found in at least one grazing site at 11,000 ft. very active leeches in
early June before any herds had arrived. I must admit that I failed
to find these leeches in late October when bitter frosts were occurring,
and I considered that they must descend quite deeply into the soil to
hibernate. One incident linked with this question happened when
I was encamped in a forest clearing at 10,500 ft. in late September.
A number of leeches came into my tent at night, a most unusual occur-
rence with this species (I normally used a waterproof groundsheet).
They were, however, not interested in me for a change, and upon
inspection they seemed to be gorged or partly gorged leeches, which I
rightly or wrongly assumed were trying to find a place to hibernate in.

The problem of the time which elapses between one blood meal
and the next raises itself, and I think that in Nepal at any rate the
five months suggested by J. L. Harrison must be extended in many
cases to at least ten months, and it appears that in the higher regions
that length of time would be usual. Incidentally I saw nothing to
suggest that anything other than blood was consumed. Also I do not

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

feel that wild animals play an important part in their distribution, since
the population of mammals in the upper forests at least does not seem
very high. I never saw this leech attempting to climb anything but
the lowest herbs, and it always attacked near ground level.

The other type I encountered was a rather larger creature of a
lighter brown colour with a yellow dorsal stripe, which we called the
‘tree’ leech to distinguish it from the previous type. In spite of its
definite climbing habits I agree with your other correspondents in that
I never saw them drop from above, and the odd occasions when a
gorged brute fell from my head was I am sure due to brushing against
shrubs. Their sense of smell seemed almost uncanny when one’s
presence was noticed from a yard or two away.

I found it quite noticeable that this type did not really make its
appearance in strength until the monsoon was well under way, about
the end of July. Then by the end of September they had disappeared.
When the weather was fine they were not troublesome except in very
damp and shady ravines, but when it was raining they ascended the
tall herbs and shrubs in very large numbers, so that on a narrow
track it was almost impossible to avoid getting bitten. I well remem-
ber sheltering in a herdsman’s shack from a particularly heavy down-
pour one day, when a buffalo and its calf also came along with the
owner. The poor beasts were covered with ‘tree’ leeches, even into
their eyes, and one realised what a menace they could be. This leech
had a much more restricted range and I only found it between 5,000 ft.
and 8,ooo ft. in the wettest areas immediately south of the Dhaulagiri
range. The two types inhabited the same country, although where the
‘tree’ leech was abundant there seemed to be fewer of the other.

To combat these creatures, i.e., mainly the ground frequenting type,
I used dried tobacco leaves wrapped in my socks, and found that with
puttees on I could remain reasonably free from attack. The styptic
pencil I carried with me would seldom satisfactorily staunch the flow
of blood from a ‘good’ bite. The local people who went barefoot were
often bitten, and it was quite a usual sight to have my coolies come
into camp with legs streaming blood. They used to often spit the juice
from tobacco leaves on to the leeches, to which they were undoubtedly
very susceptible.

I have been told that one should never pull leeches off, but I confess
I again followed the example of the local people and my Lepcha who
always pulled them off. Incidentally I observed that the ‘tree’ leech
had a larger sucker and was more difficult to get rid of. However,
unlike Col. F. M. Bailey, I have fortunately never had a bite fester,
even coming down to the Indian border in rather poor condition in
1952. Also I have never noticed any irritation resulting from a leech
bite.

In conclusion I should like to state that I make no claim to have
solved the problems concerning leeches, for my observations have been
over a very limited time, and confined to a particular area where special
geographical features occur.

Royat HorTICULTURAL SOCIETY’S GARDENS,

WISsLEy, RIPLEy,

WOKING, SURREY, W. R. SYKES
March 28, 1955+

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 151

25. OCCURRENCE OF THE FRESHWATER MEDUSAE,
LIMNOCNIDA INDICA ANNANDALE, IN THUNGA RIVER
NEAR SHIMOGA TOWN, MYSORE STATE

A survey of the fisheries, between Thunga anicut and Shimoga
town (a distance of 7 miles) was being conducted in the month of
March, 1954. On. March 26th, 1954, a pool in Thunga River near
Arkere which is 3 miles from Shimoga town was seen to contain
swarms of freshwater medusae. This being significant, series of obser-
vations were made in the pool from 26th March 1954 to ath june
1954. “J

The pool has a sandy bed with rocks on one side aaa 1S £50 ries
long, 50 ft. wide and 64 ft. deep, there was a small flow of water
from the main stream at one end and a little overflow at the opposite
end. The water in the pool was still and had a clarity of 2 ft., the
colour of the water was generally light green. There was no aquatic
vegetation except for a few submerged shrubs. Small fishes like
Rasbora, Danio, Barilius, Ambassis and Chela were found in the pool.
The water temperature was observed from March to June, 1954 and
it ranged from 29.0°C. to 34.0°C. The medusae were visible at the
surface on days when the water temperature was 30.0°C. and below.
On hotter days, the medusae were mostly at the bottom.

Again on 25th Feb. 1955, the medusae reappeared in the same pool
after a lapse of seven months.

H. S. Rao (1932)! mentions his unsuccessful attempt to locate
freshwater medusae in Thunga and Bhadra rivers and. P. A. Rama-
krishna (1950)” while recording the occurrence of freshwater medusae
in the Sharavathi river, raises a point about the occurrence of the
medusae in the same pool year after year. The occurrence of the
freshwater medusae in Thunga River and their recurring appearance in
one and same pool in successive years is significant. The medusae
are washed away with the floods and die, while the eggs, they have
left behind in the pools develop and reappear as medusae in the sub-
sequent season.

FISHERIES SECTION,

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SERVICES,

GOVERNMENT OF MYSORE,

BANGALORE,
H. DOR. TYENGAR
~ K,. VENKATESH

26. A NEW WEED FOR CEYLON

On my way back from Djakarta I stopped at Colombo for a few
hours, and noticed a conspicuous white flower scattered over the grassy
area in front of the Colombo Club and the Galle Face Hotel. I do
not remember seeing the plant when I was last in Colombo 25 years

ey

1 Rao, H. S. (1932): JBNHS, 36, (1); 210-217.
~ ® Ramakrishna, P. A., et al. (1950): JBNHS, 49, (2), 318-319.

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

ago, and it turns out to be Gomphrena celosioides Mart. This species
is a native of S. Brazil and Argentina; it has been recorded from Africa,
India (Dehra Dun and Madras), Malaysia, and Australia as an intr oduced
weed. It is the G, decumbens of Gamble’s Flora of Madras. Probably
it will be found elsewhere in Tropical Asia. The specimen is in the
herbarium of the British Museum (Natural History). :

AG Edy Grp Ale Ssh ON

|Gomphrena celosioides is a plant of recent introduction into India,
but in a short time it has managed to spread very widely almost all
over the country. We have seen it in various parts of Bombay and
Saurashtra, usually along the main roads or on railway lines.—Ens. |

27, A NOTE ON THE FLORA OF MIRZAPUR (U.P.)

Hooker, Duthie, Raizada and Bor studied the flora of Uttar Pradesh
in general, but it appears that the Mirzapur district which has a large
hilly area, a continuation of the Vindhyan Range, bearing forest of all
classes, has not been intensively botanized.

Winds, rain and man play an important role in the distribution of
plants to long distances, so that, Mirzapur being surrounded by Bihar
in the east, Madhya Pradesh in the south, and Vindhya Pradesh in the
west, should show an admixture of the flora of these provinces with
those of U.P. The author’s study of the flora of this district does
indicate such admixture. Many such plants have been collected which
are not reported from any part of the Uttar Pradesh, even from the
nearby districts of Allahabad (G. D. Srivastava, 1938) or Benares (Misra,
1944 and 1946), but they are known to occur in the neighbouring
states.

The list of these plants is as follows :—

Alternanthera echinata Sm (Amarantaceae)

Athroisma laciniatum DC (Compositae)

Blumea Jacquemontit Hook. f. (Compositae)

Bulbostylis capillaris Kunth (Cyperacae)

Convolvulus microphlilus Sieb (Convolvulaceae)

*Dimeria connivens Hack (Gramineae)

Dopatrium junceum Buch-Ham (Scrophulariaceae)
Eragrostis rupestris Steud (Gramineae)

Gomphrena celosioides Mart. (Amarantaceae)
Lepidagathis trinervis Nees (Acanthaceae)

Lindernia multiflora (Roxb.) Mukerjee (Scrophulariaceae)
Landernia verbenaefolia (Colms) Pennell (Scrophulariaceae)
Luffa gvaveolens Roxb (Cucurbitaceae)

Microcarpaea muscosa R. Br. (Scrophulariaceae)
*Penmsetum pedicellatum Trin (Gramineae)
*Pseudoraphis aspera (Koen) Pilger (Gramineae)

Vicoa cernua Dalz (Compositae)

The author is very grateful to Prof. K. N. Kaul, Director, National
Botanical Gardens, Lucknow, for providing facilities for work; to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 153

Dr. D. Chatterji, Systematic Botanist, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, for sug-
gesting many improvements in the MSS. and to Dr. S. K. Mukerji,
Curator, Indian Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, for identifying many of
the specimens.

(aie RVALTIULR eG dy ETD,

Bor., N. L. (1947): Common grasses of the United Provinces. Indian Forest
Records, 2, (1).

Duthie, J. F. (1883): A list of grasses of NW. India, indigenous and culti-
vated. Roorkee.

— — — (1903-1929): Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plains and the adjacent
Siwalik Hills.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British India, London.

Misra, R. (1944): The vegetation of the Rajghat ravines. Jour. Indian Bot.
Sec., 28: 113-121.

——— (1946): An ecological study of the vegetation of the Benares Hindu
University grounds. ibid, 25: 39-59.

Raizada, M. B. (1931): Contributions to Duthie’s Flora from the neighbourhood
of Dehra Dun. ibid, 10 (2).

— — — (1935): Recently introduced or otherwise imperfectly known plants from
the Indo-Gangetic plains. ibid, 14; 339-348.

——— (1936): ————— — ibid, 15: 149-167.

— — — (1939): ———— — Indian Forest Records, 1 (5).

Srivastava, G. D. (1938): Flora of Allahabad. Allahabad University - Studies
Supplement, 1, (1949).

NATIONAL BOTANICAL GARDENS,
LucKNOW,

March 21, 1955. J RGMSRIVASPAVA

Species marked with an asterisk * have very recently been reported by Raizada,
M. B. (Grasses of the Upper Gangetic Plain) in the Indian Forest Records, 4 (5), 1954.

28. SOME EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS FROM
EAST NEPAL

During my five visits to East Nepal I have come across many medi-
cinal plants. Of most of them, the medicinal properties are well known;
but there have been some that are used by the local inhabitants, and
I have not been able to find reference to them in the standard books. I
have also on record some plants that are edible and are quite frequently
used. Below is the hst of such plants :—

Cerastium vulgatum L. (Caryophyllaceae )

A very common herb ascending up to 12,000 ft.
A little decoction of the plant is said to relieve headache.

Ephedra gerardiana (Wall.) Stapf.var. sikkimensis (Stapf.) R. Florin.
A small rigid shrub growing abundantly in exposed places, especial-
ly on shingly slopes from 12,500 ft. to 16,000 ft. It is most abundant
in Namchebazar area.
The sherpas drink a little of hot decoction in cases of acute bron-
chial. congestion. This shows that the plants have some ephedrine
contents,

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Geranium nepalensis Sweet. (Geraniaceae )

A perennial herb abundant between 5 and 9,000 ft. all over East
Nepal.

I have often seen my porters chew the roots! particularly after long
marches. It can either be‘as a tonic or to flush the urinary system.

Meconopsis nepalensis DC. (Papaveraceae) |

Abundant between 10-12,000 ft. Stem about Bhi young parts
densely covered with golden hairs. Flowers yellow. I have noticed
the species to be very common in Topke Gola area, and Panch Pokhri
and Jata Pokhri area (above Thosé). The rhizomatous portion after
peeling the outer rind is eaten. I have seen my sherpa porters digging up
the underground portion and eating it raw. On tasting, I found it to
be sweet and very much like Pachyrhizus angulatus Richb. I have
also been reliably informed that the herdsmen eat plenty of it when
in Camp.

Myrica nagi Thunbg. (Myricaceae)

A small tree with beautiful reddish drupes and known as ‘Kaiphal’

r ‘Kaphal’ by the Nepalese.

The plant is of great medicinal value. The powdered bark is most
commonly used as a snuff to relieve headache and nasal congestion.
It is also used in amenorrhoea. The headman of Thosé informed me
that the plants were in abundance in earlier days; but now the plant is
scarcely met with in East Nepal. I have seen some above Lebang
village (en route to Topke Gola.)

Oleandra wallichii Persl. (Eiliea lesan avallinceae))

An epiphytic fern commonly met with.

The rhizome is said to be of medicinal value. According to the
headman of Thosé the rhizome is beneficial to the aged. I presume that
it 1S a rejuvenator just as Lycopodium, which has an important place
as a rejuvenator in the homeopathic system.

Polygonum molle D. Don. (Polygonaceae)

A large trailing shrub known as ‘Thotna’ also as ‘Patu soa’.
Noticed to be abundant in all the valleys of East Nepal and growing
in shady places.

In 1952, after our descent from the perpetual snow, I found my
porters eating the tender branches. They explained that the digestion
which gets upset in the cold is remedied by the juice. Also, when one
suffers from diarrhoea ‘thotna’ is often given.

Prasiola fluviatalis (Ulotrichales—Prasiolinae)

Reported to be occurring in the cold streams towards Godavari in
Nepal.

Dried masses are sold in Kathmandu. A curry which is much relish-
ed is prepared of this alga.

Rhus parviflora Roxb. (Anacardiacae) :
A shrub of very common occurrence along the dry slopes. At about
2,500 ft. open scrubs of Rhus are mostly seen, i Ot

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 155

_ The fruits are sold in Kathmandu and in the weekly markets in
the interior. Fresh or dried fruits known as ‘Sati bair’ are eaten. It
is said that the fruit juice is a vermifuge.

Sambucus adnata Wall. (Caprifoliaceae)

A plant which has been introduced and has well established itself
in Kathmandu Valley. Abundant in the interior.

Shrub of 4-8 ft. in height with white flowers in corymbs.

The tender branches are cooked and a pickle is also made out of
it. The curry and the pickle was tasted in a sherpa home and was
found to be of exquisite taste. The sherpas seem to hold the prepara-
tions as delicacies.

Thermopsis barbata Royle. (Leguminosae)
Another common herb of the temperate and sub-alpine zone. The
young rootstock and the branches are edible.

Valeriana wallichiti DC. (Valerianaceae)

A herb found at 5-7,000 ft. Rootstock aromatic. Collected by me
from Chandragiri and Bhitrikhani (Thosé to Ramechap) I have been
told that after childbirth a decoction is given to the mother. Is it
to sooth the nerves?

Zanthoxylum hamiltonianum Wall. (Rutaceae)

A scandent shrub known as ‘Purpura Timur’ or ‘Timur’ and also
as ‘Nepali Dhania’. Occasionally found by me in the forests between
Dhankuta and Chainpur (Tinjura) ; Dingla and Bhojpur (Ghorebisa) and
around Papung (Topke Gola side). At Papung in 1953 Mrs. Banerji,
who had developed acute stomach trouble, was given powdered seeds
of this plant by the hostess. The first dose showed signs of effect and
after two more doses the trouble was no more. A spice is also pre-
pared by crushing the fruits along with the seeds and mixing in it a
little of red chillies and salt. I can say from my experience that it
tastes well with ‘dal’ or even with rice. The various species of Zantho-
xylum are commonly known as ‘Timur’.

I am indebted to U.P. Research Committee for partly financing the
tours of 1952, 1953 and 1954; and to Fr. H. Santapau for his valuable
suggestions and useful criticisms.

BoTANy DEPARTMENT,
MEERUT COLLEGE,
MEERUT, (U.P.) M. L. BANERJ1

29. AN ABNORMAL CONDITION OF FRUITING IN BANANA

In Banana (Musa sapientum Linn.) the stem is a pseudo-stem com-
posed of the convolute leaf sheaths. The inflorescence which is a spike
arises from the rhizome, and is pushed up through the centre of the
pseudo-stem until it emerges from the top near the base of the spirally
arranged leaves. ,

Recently at Lucknow a plant was noticed with a spike bursting
from the middle of the pseudo-stem (about 8 ft. high) at a height of

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

about 24 ft. from the ground. The ruptured place from where the
spike came out had a rotten appearance. The plant was growing in
a thick banana clump and was a rather unhealthy specimen.

This abnormal condition probably occurred because of check in the
growth of the spike from reaching the top of the pseudo-stem.

BoTANyY LABORATORY,

NATIONAL BOTANICAL GARDENS,

LUCKNow,

February 5, 1955. | G. S. SRIVASTAVA

30. ABNORMAL BRANCHING AND FASCIATION OF THE
INFLORESCENCE AXIS IN MUSA PARADISIACA LINN.

(With a plate)

In the early stages, at the time of emergence through the false
stem, the inflorescence was normal with a single ‘flower’ at the tip.
After giving 5 hands of fruits branching of the tip was noticed. One
of the three ‘flowers’ at the tip and the individual flowers in it are
slightly abnormal in shape. This is probably due to an abnormal
branching of the growing point of the inflorescence axis brought about
as a result of proliferation. The ‘flower’ showing marked fasciation
is more or less rounded and easily distinguished from the others.

Of the three ‘flowers’ at the tip one was sterile as in the normal
case. The other two additional inflorescences bore only pistilate flowers
and all of them matured into fruits. These two are not terminated by
sterile flowers as in normal cases. The fruits are very close and
crowded.

GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE,
Mount Roap, Mapras, R. RAMASWAMI
February 22, 1955.

31. LAURENTIA LONGIFLORA ENDL., A NEW RECORD
FOR BOMBAY STATE

(With a plate)

Two or three years ago a friend gave me a plant that he had
discovered growing accidentally in his garden in Bombay; in October
1953 I found the same plant growing in waste lands near the railway
station at Castle Rock in North Kanara. The plant was identified at
the time as Isotoma longiflora Presl. This is a new record for Bombay.
As it may be of interest for other botanists, I have taken the descrip-
tion of the same from the recently published monograph of Wimmer
in Pflanzenreich, vol. 107; the description is herewith given translated
from the Latin of Wimmer:

‘Root branching, many-headed, with fusiform root fibres. Stems
up to 50 cm. high, simple or slightly branched, more or less pubescent,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

WS

or
~

RR REE RARE

CEC <<

Photo by K. R. Ramasami

ABNORMAL INFLORESCENCE IN BANANA

:
if Be

ae

Se ee

Lm =f

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Laurentia longiflora Endl.

eet Hi qigs ree——

==

j
4
i
;
&
5

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 157

angled with two double lines from the base of the leaves, generally
leafy. Leaves subsessile, lanceolate, 6-17 cm. long, 1-5 cm. broad,
acute, base decurrent into an obscure petiole, the margins remotely
and unequally roughly dentate or repand dentate, at times sparsely
pubescent, at other times glabrous and pubescent only on the mid-
nerve, somewhat thick, slightly membranous when dry, the midnerve
prominent, whitish. Flowers solitary in the axils of the higher leaves.
Pedicels 5-8 mm. long, hairy, somewhat thick, with two filiform
bracteoles above the base. Calyx turbinate, hairy, 5 mm. long; calyx
lobes triangular-linear, 10-13 mm. long, remotely callously denti-
culate, subhairy, erect. Corolla white, pubescent, sweet-scented or
inodorous, tube narrowly cylindric, 7-9 cm. long, 2-3 mm. broad,
straight, the limb sub+bilabiate, patent; lobes lanceolate, about
15-20 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, glabrous on the inner side. Anthers
pale, glabrous, bearded at the apex. Capsule ellipsoid, 1o-nerved,
sparsely hairy, 15 mm. long, about 10 mm. broad. Seeds ovoid,
somewhat compressed, scrobiculate, dark, about 0.8 mm. long.’

The plant is said to be a native of the West Indies, Central and
South America; it has been seen in Pennsylvania, Hawaii, Malacca,
Java and Ceylon; there seems to be no record from India. I have
seen the plant from Bombay gardens as an introduced weed; also
growing in waste lands at Castle Rock (Santapau 17662); in Blatter
Herbarium there are some specimens collected from Victoria Gardens,
Bombay.

It may be of interest to add a few remarks on the poisonous quali-
ties of the plant. Wimmer notes on the subject:

‘A most poisonous plant, containing the base Isotomine, which
retards heart beats. Jacquin experimented with this plant and
noted on the subject: ‘‘This plant, taken internally, is a violent
purgative, which cannot be counteracted by any remedies until finally
it proves lethal. If the juice of this plant falls on the hand, and
then one rubs eyes or lips, a burning inflammation is produced.”’
The plant is said to be particularly harmful to horses so that if
a horse eats it, the horse will burst through the middle, hence the
common Spanish name of ‘‘Revienta-Caballos’’ (The Horse-splitting
weed).’

The flowers of this plant are rather attractive, and for this reason
the plant is sometimes cultivated in gardens, from which it has
escaped and is now naturalised in several tropical countries. At the
present stage, when the plant has not yet spread in India we are still
in time to try and eradicate such a dangerous weed from our country.

The nomenclature of the plant.is as follows :

Laurentia longiflora (Linn.) Endl. Gen. Pl. 512, 1838; synonyms:
Lobelia longiflora Linn. Spec. Pl. 930, 1753; [sotoma longiflora Presl.,
Prodr. Lobel. 42, 1836; Hippobroma longiflora G. Don, Gen. Syst.

3: 727, 1834.

CALCUTTA, H. SANTAPAYU, s,j.,
December 5, 1954. Chief Botanist,
Botanical Survey of India.

i158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
32. A VASCULUM FOR THE MOUNTAINEER
(With two figures)
For a field botanist a vasculum or a bag is a necessity. But the
conventional vasculum has certain disadvantages. It offers little space

when the collection is big, further it becomes rather troublesome to
carry it in the hand for long. A bag, too, has its disadvantages.

'THE VASCULUM

Usually the specimens in the bag wilt so much that they offer difficulty
in pressing if the specimens have been in the bag for long and when
the day is hot and sultry. For a botanist working in the Himalayas
the days are not so hot as in the plains, but his collections are fairly

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 159

big’ to be carried in one of the conventional types of vasculum. His
hands must be free. While working in East Nepal I have tried my
best to keep a porter with a basket with me. The porter keeps
company for a few days and then feeling lonely he joins his fellow
porters and is rather reluctant to remain with me. With all possible care
I have found the specimens showing signs of wilting. Experiencing

es Poses,
RAs Fat eteesses

mT AE Ts j PRAY De
RA pan Rubber pads. WSS

Ly
&

SStSs eo oot)

|

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|

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I n
Sar ia

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SECTION FROM ABOVE

such difficulties I have devised a vasculum which is big: enough to hold

a good-sized collection, and keep the hands free. One would suggest
pressing the plants shortly after collecting them: But the conditions
under which one has to. work in Nepal are best understood by those

who have been there. It becomes next to impossible to press the plants.

before you are back in your camp. It must be said that these observa-
tions apply when the party consists of a handful of persons and not to the
bigger expeditions. 7

‘The usual biscuit tin of 38 lb. capacity is 18” highx14”.x 14”. It
is remodelled so that it slings over the shoulders and offers the least
difficulty in carrying, being light in weight. The tin canister is cut
along one of the sides and resoldered so that the face is curv-
ed to fit the curvature of the back. This curved face is padded
with foam rubber. Straps from a junk shop are good enough to form
the two shoulder straps. The straps are hooked on the top, and
passing below the base are attached to the opposite face. This gives
support to the canister and, besides, the tin, when slung over the
shoulders does not move. A lid is provided, thus big-sized specimens
can be easily placed in the vasculum by the carrier himself.

I have used’ this vasculum during the last two visits to Nepal and
having found it very convenient I make bold to suggest that this_

seems to be the right type for those working in the Himalayas. With
such a vasculum I have felt great ease in collecting, placing the

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. 83

Specimens in the vasculum and in climbing rocky ledges with the
vasculum on the back, both hands being free all the time. —

The total expense incurred (at Meerut) is:—

Cost of the canister... es ea S ateS
Straps (from military disposals store)... ,, 1-0
Rubber pads ... ved Miah Soha srh ty ALG)
Tinsmiths charges ae ak say VERSO

Total ,, 6-8

Some minor modifications can be made to hold specimen tubes.
Small attachments on the sides will be good enough, provided they
have lids to prevent the tubes from falling.

As to the durability, I have carried a load of 22 seers (approx. 44 lb.)
in this vasculum cum ‘haverbox’ during my lone trek to Gangotri.

The accompanying diagrams give the details of the construction.

BotTANy DEPARTMENT,
MEERUT COLLEGE,

MEERUT.
M. L. BANERJI

33. GLEANINGS

An Eastern Invader.

‘An instance (of baneful introduction) is the Chinese Crab (Eriocheir
sinensis), a crustacean and clandestine passenger to Europe in a long-
voyage ship. Noticed for the first time in 1942 it has now infested
rivers in Germany, Scandinavia, Holland, Belgium and France. It is
very omnivorous and eats up the fishes’ nourishment, breaks fishing
nets, mutilates the captured fish, burrows in the banks of rivers thereby
causing erosion in those borders, and finally has been proved to be a
dangerous carrier of a human malady—parasitic hemoptisy. In spite
of extensive operations the invader continues to advance.’

—I.U.P.N. Bulletin, December 1954.

Birds of Prey.

Defending Birds of Prey, an article in the ‘Wisconsin Conservation
Bulletin’ quotes striking facts and figures on the diet of hawks and
owls. ‘Stomach contents of 5,000 hawks were examined and the birds
supposedly a prime enemy of poultry, showed 55% of their food to
be rats and mice.’

Other figures given as to owls confirm an impressive toll on the
mice population by the night birds.

-—I.U.P.N, Bulletin, December 1954,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 161

Crabs as enemies of Snakes.

Writing of Sikkim in 1877 (Siray Feathers, v, 382) of the changes
taking place in the status of animal and plant species due to the spread
of cultivation and other human influences, J. A. Gammie says:—

‘Snakes, on the other hand, are getting more abundant year by
year, but their greatest enemy, the land crab, is scarcer, which may
account for the increase. Crabs do not thrive in the grassy jungles
which have taken the place of the forest trees, but snakes do, the
latter thus gaining a double chance of multiplying.

It is amusing to watch a crab trying to draw a snake that has
partly got into its hole. He catches it by one ‘‘hand’’ quite close to.
the hole and holds it tight till it yields a little, when he clutches it
in front with the other, and so on, till the snake either yields altogether
or breaks. Usually the crab has to be satisfied with the tail-end on
which he makes a hearty meal, tearing it in pieces and handing the
morsels into its out-of-the-way mouth in a very ludicrous manner.
Those with an unfortunate—for themselves—prejudice against snakes
may think that snake-killing is the particular mission of the crab to
the warmer slopes of the Himalayas; but I hope, and believe, that it
has a better part to play in the economy of nature than that of des-
troying our many charming species of harmless snakes.’

Field Rats and Seeding Bamboos.

‘A marked instance of how rapidly animals increase in numbers
under extra favourable circumstances occurred in Sikkim in 1867-68
when one of the small hill bamboos flowered and seeded simultaneously
all over Sikkim, as is its habit to do about once in five and twenty
years. The increase in the number of rats, caused by the extra amount
of food, was something marvellous. The seeds yielded by the large
masses of bamboos were more than sufficient food for them, and as
long as they lasted, the increase went on at an alarming pace. When
that food-supply ceased they descended in such legions on the maize
fields that on every cornstalk, almost, might have been seen several
rats. After the remnant of the corn crop had been harvested, the
legions of rats diminished as suddenly as they had imcreased. So
rapid, at these times, are both the increase and decrease that the
natives have the idea that they come up the river beds from the plains
to eat the bamboo seed, and afterwards take their departure by the
same route .. .’

—J. A. Gammie, Stray Feathers, v, 386-

NOTES AND NEWS.

The Loke-Salim Ali Sikkim Ornithological Survey resumed its work
in mid March 1955 and was in the field up to the end of April. It
collected a good deal of additional valuable data concerning high
elevation birds.

%* * * *

R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, the first stipendiary Wild Life Preserva-
tion Officer to be appointed by the Government of Bombay, or by any-
State in the Indian Union, took charge of his office with headquarters
at Poona on 7 April 1955.

Mr. Lee Merriam Talbot, ecologist of the International Union for
the Protection of Nature, is on a mission to India to explore the possi-
bilities and nature of the technical assistance the Union can provide in
our efforts to save the Lion, the Onehorned Rhinoceros and other rare
Indian animals from extinction. Mr. Talbot has visited the lion area
of the Gir forest in Saurashtra, and plans to visit Kashmir for the
Hanglu, and Nepal and Kaziranga for the rhinoceros before proceeding
to Indonesia to investigate the position of the two other surviving
Asiatic species.

* * * *

The Indian Council of Ecological Research at the Forest Research
Institute, P.O. New Forest, Dehra Dun (India), is attempting to build
up an Ecological library. An appeal is made to all Ecologists and Ecolo-
gical Societies of the world for help. The Council trains teachers and
post-graduate students from Indian universities in ecological research
and offers facilities to research workers for carrying on original
work and in consulting ecological publications. Contributions of
ecological publications from publishers, ecological societies and ecolo-
gists will be gratefully received by the Secretary of the Council,
Dr.G. S. Puri, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (India)

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53, NO. 2

PAGE
On SoME INDIAN LAND SNAILS. By Ilse Rensch (With 8 text figures)... 163

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE DAILY ROUTINE AND SocrtAL BEHAVIOUR
OF COMMON INDIAN MONKEYS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE
Bonnet Monxey (Macaca radiata GrorFroyv). By Angela Nolte
(With a plate) bc vc ve ist eae. LZ

THE BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF THE KRISHNAGIRI NATIONAL PARK,
BORIVLI, NEAR BomMBAy. By H. Santapau, s.J., F.N.I., and Aban
J. Randeria, M.sc. (With two maps, one coloured and two black-ana-
white plates) 2 ede se: a Bao rite?)

MARINE ORGANISMS INJURIOUS TO SUBMERGED TIMBER IN THE BOMBAY
HARBOUR. By V. C. Palekar and D. V. Bal (With one plate, 12
figures, and a map) ane gs is ee och WAU

THE ‘ SLuG’ CATERPILLAR, Parasa lepida CRAM., AND ITS CONTROL. By

kK, P. Ananthanarayanan and E. V. Abraham (With one plate) YEGSG205
NEw PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY—III. By H. Santapau, S.J., F.N.1.,

and C. Saldanha, S.J., B.Sc. (Hens.) (With five plates) .... scenes 2 (Ole
New PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY—IV. By H. Santapau, s.z. (With

four plates) B00 ee rth ae dct Sol cea
TROUT FISHING IN KAsHMiR. By Philip K. Crowe aoc 5 hall)

GAME PRESERVATION IN KASHMIR. REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF
THE BompBay NaturRAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S DELEGATION, OCTOBER
1952. By R. C. Morris and Salim Ali ae Ae bck SEAS)

BIOLOGY. AND. ECoLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES (ISOPTERA). No. 3. SOME
OBSERVATIONS ON Jeotermes gardneri (Snyder) [Family Kaloter-
mitidae]. By M.L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.N.I., F.Z.S.I. and P. K.

Sen-Sarma, M.sc. (With a text-figure and 2 plates) 2a we «= 234
REVIEWS::—

1. Sampon ki Duniya (in Hindi) (M.R.R.) ee ts Be PD)

2. Birds of Saurashtra, India (H.A.) 66 600 “6 220

3. African Handbook of Birds, Series One: Birds of Eastern and
Northeastern Africa, Vol, II (S.A.) cer C00 500 84

4, Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos (R.R.) or 1 noo AS

5. Bird Navigation (D.W. Snow) ss a we 244

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY ets Bee spake Ate)

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53, NO. 2—(contd.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1, A new species of LangurinAssam. By E. P. Gee (With a sketch map)
(p. 252). 2. Monkeys and Panther. By Lieut.-Col. R. S. P. Bates (p. 254).
3. The Bicycle Tiger. By J. H. Burnett (p. 255). 4. Wild Animals in the
Andaman Islands. By J. Banerji (p. 256). 5. Great Indian One-horned
Rhinoceros (A. wvicornis Linn.) cow with (presumptive) twin calves. By
E. P. Gee (p. 256), 6. A supplementary note on the status of Rhinoceros in
the Union of Burma—1955. By Tun Yin (p. 257). 7. Wild Boars being
used as Blood Hounds. ByCol. K. Guman Singh (p. 258). 8. Malformed
Muntjac head. By H.J. Kitchner (Witha photo) (p. 259). 9. The status of
the Nilgiri Tahr or ‘Ibex’ (Hemitragus hylocrius Blyth). By Lieut.-Col.
E.G. Phythian-Adams (p. 260). 10. The family life of a Five-striped
Squirrel (Funambulus pennanti Wr.). By (Mrs.) Aruna Banerji (p. 261).
11. Attachment to winter quarters in migratory birds. By Humayun Abdul-
ali (p. 265). 12. Additions to the birds of. the Palni Hills (South India), By
Norman A. Fuller, s.j. (p. 265). 13. Trapping birds for ringing. By Lieut.-
Col. R. S. P. Bates (With eight text-figures) (p. 268). 14. Food of the
Ruddy Shelduck, Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg). By J. K. Stanford (p. 273).
35. The Python’s food. By Editors (p. 275.). 16. Anaemia causing morta-
lity among Brown Trout at the Achhabal Farm, Kashmir. By Sunder Lal
Hora (p. 275). 17. Occurrence of the eel (Anguilla bengalensis) in Sulekere
reservoir and Markandeya stream in Mysore State. By H.D.R. Iyengar,
K. Venkatesh and D. R. Krishna Murthy (p. 276). 18. The 7atta-khondaa—
A screen trap of the Chilka Lake. By P. Mohapatra (Wilh a diagram)
(p. 277). 19. Group fishing with castnets in the Chilka Lake. By P. Moha-
patra (p. 280). 20. Additional information on the M/anz-jal of the Chilka
Lake. By P. Mohapatra (p. 280). 21. Thecast net. By P.I. R. Maclaren
(p. 281). 22.-A tank-fish malady. By V. Chandra (p. 281). 23. Butterflies
of Bombay and Salsette—Additions. By A. E. G. Best (p. 282). 24. Geni-
talia, and reproductive organs of Monanthia globulifera Wik. (Hemiptera
—Tingidae). By U.S. Sharga (With a plate) (p. 284). 25. Living creeper
ot Nwe-shin. By Editors (p. 286). 26. Obstruction in a fowl’s stomach.
By Ishwar Prakash and 8S. C. Sharma (p. 286). 27. Depredations of the
Giant African Land Snail, 4chotina fulica (Ferussac) in Balasore (Orissa).
By Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 287). 23. Leaf variation within a species—

Cadaba trifoliataW. & A. By J.Sakharam Rao (With a plate) (p. 288)..

29. A new species of Marsilea from Ajmer, India. By K. M. Gupta (With

three plates) (p. 289). 30. Utility of the forest products of Orissa in the

fisheries of the Chilka Lake. By J.C. Roy (p. 292).

GLEANINGS

Notes AND NEWS ... ea wae

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE
YEAR ENDING 31ST DECEMBER, 1954 ... aie 49d Sie

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1954

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT COVERING THE
PERIOD JANUARY TO AuGUS® 1955

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NatTurAL HIStory Socrety

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OB ee Re

PAGE

295
298

299
300

. 396

309
314

JOURNAL
OF |THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1955 MOL asa No. 2

ON SOME INDIAN LAND SNAILS

BY
ILsz RENSCH
Minster / Westfalia (Germany)

(With 8 text figures)

When working on some scientific problems in India recently, we?
had the opportunity to collect some land snails. Although it was during
the dry season (March-May 1953) we couid gather series of shells and
some living snails on the slopes of the Western Himalayas (Chakrata-
Deoban, ca. 8,000-10,000 ft.), in the Western Ghats, east of Bombay
(Bhimashankar, ca. 3,500 ft.) and in the hills of S. Mysore (Byrankuppe, ca.
3,000 ft.).

Since the publication of the rather exhaustive studies on Indian Mol-
lusca by H. H. Godwin-Austen and G. K. Gude’®, this zoogeographically
important group of animals has been rather neglected. But we may hope
that the further development of the Indian Universities will offer good
opportunities for Indian students to study molluscs too. Because of their
very restricted capacity for distribution, these animals are particularly
Suitable for studying zoogeographical problems. I hope that this small
paper will suggest further studies in this highly interesting field.

The determination of the species was only made possible by comparing
the material with the large collections of the Senckenberg-Museum in
Frankfurt-am-Main and of the Zoological Museum of the Humboldt

nt nes

1 Dr. B. Rensch. Dr. A. Nolte, Dr. K. W. Harde, Dr. R. Altevogt and myself.
The expedition was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
and of the Kuitus:ninisterium of the Land Nordrhein-Westfalia.

*H. H. Godwin-Austen, Land and Freshwater Mollusca of India, Vols. I and II,
1882 and 1889-1914, Plates.

G. K, Gude, The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Mollusea,
Vols, I-IJ1, London 1921, 1924,

MAR 2 U 1956

164. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

University in Berlin. I take this opportunity to express my best thanks to
Dr. 8. Jaeckel (Berlin) and to Dr. Zilch (Frankfurt), who allowed me to
work in their departments and who kindly helped to determine the species
(Dr. S. Jaeckel especially some small species).

Before discussing the species collected, it may be useful to say some
words about the technique of collecting and preserving snails in tropical
countries. I would also refer those interested to the more complete
statements of B. Rensch (Zool. Jahrb., Abt. f. Syst., 61, p. 367, 1931).

In tropical countries land snails may be found especially in forests,
among and under dead leaves, under stones, and in and under wet, rotten
logs ; some species also in gardens etc. It is also possible to find shells,
particularly of the very small land species, on the shores of rivers and
lakes (zone of inundation). But the most promising places are always
dead, rotten logs, where the smallest shells will be found under the bark.
It is also useful to collect moist dead leaves and the moist earth underneath
in small bags and to pick out the shells later on in camp by spreading this
material on a sheet of white paper or a plate. It is also possible to put such
material in water : then the smail shells, but also small living snails, will
float on the surface, and they may be picked out easily with a wet hair
pencil. In the hot cultivated plains of India only a few species will be
found; but in moister hill regions, especially on limestone, land snails are
normally very abundant. It is convenient to pack the shells collected in
small bags of gauze or muslin between moss, the smallest shells in small
glass tubes. It is necessary to keep the label (bearing data about locality,
altitude, underground, habitat, date) separately in a special glass tube,
because the living snails like to eat the paper labels.

For determination it will be sufficient to have shells only. For detailed
studies dissections of the animals will be needed. To preserve this
material, the living snails have to be put in water in tins or glass tubes.
It is necessary that no air should be accessible to the animals. Then the
snails will stretch out the foot in about 10-20 hours and will die in such
position, enabling a dissection of the body later on. They have to be
preserved in alcohol of 70% (in a higher percentage the body becomes
too hard).

As the shells of many Indian species have a very similar structure
and colour, a thorough comparison with types in the Museums of Calcutta
and London, or with paratypes in other museums, will be necessary.
Anatomical dissections and exact comparisons with Godwin-Austen’s
drawings wili prove the identity. Probably many of the now so-called
species will, on closer study, be recognized as merely geographical races of
other species. Thorough mapping out of the distributions will help to
clarify the zoogeographical connections. The relations of the species of the
Himalayas (particularly those of the Assam-Sikkim area) should prove of
special interest. An inquiry into the relation between the Palaearctic and
the Oriental Regions in the Himalayas, and the question of relics of the
glacial periods in the foothills of the Himalayas and in the mountains
further south, as far as the Lesser Sunda Islands* will reveal ESE NG
zoogeographical problems. ae

1B. Rensch, Die Geschichte des Sundabogens : Hine tiergeozraphische Unter-
suchung, 318 pp., 20 Abb., Berlin 1936.

ON SOME INDIAN LAND SNAILS 165
DISCUSSION OF THE SNAILS COLLECTED

I. PROSOBRANCHIA

1. Cyclophorus (Glossostylus) stenomphalus Pfr.

Cyclostoma stenomphalum Pfr., Zeitschr. Malak. Ul, 1846, p. 44. Assam
(Khasi Hills) Orig. measurements : diameter 25 mm., height 24 mm.

Further localities : Bhutan (Stol.), Elephanta Island, Bombay (Coll. Sencken-
berg, Berl. Museum). ;

A series of mostly bleached shells from dry slopes covered with
sparse bushes near Bhimashankar ca. 3,800 ft. (Western Ghats) Bombay
State; height 24:9-29-0 mm.; diameter 30°:4-35:'1 mm.

2. Diplommatina costulata Bens.

Diplommatina costulatum Benson, Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist. 2, vol. 4. p. 194, 1849,
Landour (W. Himalaya). Orig. measurements : height 2 mm., diameter scarcely
1 mm.

Some series (together with small species of Szfala and Kaliella and
D. folliculus) collected on the ground among dead leaves and dry moss
in the forests of Chakrata (ca. 8,000 ft.) and Deoban (ca. 10,000 ft.).
Distinguished from JD. folliculas by the size and by the finer and narrower
tibs. The last whorl of JD. costulata is ribbed more coarsely than the
penultimate whorl. D. costulata is smaller and has a more blunt form
than folliculus. Measurements : height 2:2—2°3:mm., diameter 1 min.

3, Diplommatina folliculus (Pfr.)
Buliminus folliculus Pfr. Symb. Hist. Helic. III, p. 83, 1846 (Landour, Simla,
Nainital, W. Himalaya). Orig. measurements : height 3°5 mm., diameter 2 mm.
We collected D. falliculus (together with D. costulata) in some larger
series among moss and dead leaves in the mountain-forests near Chakrata
and near Deoban (ca. 8,500-10,000 ft.) Measurements : height 3°5-3°7
mm., diameter 1°5-1°9 mm.

4, Micraulax coeloconus (Bens. )

Cyclostoma coeloconus Benson, Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. 2, vol.8, p. 189, 1851.
South India, Nilgiri Mts. Orig. measurements : height axis 9 mm., diameter 13 mm.

One shell from Byrankuppe (South Mysore) is similar in shape
to the compared examples in the Senckenberg Museum. The latter have
a reddish brown pattern, which is nearly invisible in my specimen. Com-
pared with the measurements given by Kobelt in his monograph on
Cyclophoridae? the shell from Byrankuppe has a markedly smaller
diameter: height 6°4 mm., diameter 7°3 mm.

5, Alycaeus strangulatus (Pfr.)

Cyclostoma strangulalum Pfr. Ztsch. Malak. Ml, p. 86, 1846. Orig. measure-
mezts : height 2°6 mm., diameter 4°5 mm,

Up to the present this species has only been found in the Western
Himalayas [the locality ‘ Borneo’, which Kobelt published in his mono-
graph of the Cyclophoridae (p. 376) is erroneous, as Gude has already
mentioned (p. 269).] We collected a rather large series in the Western

——

'W. Kobelt, Cyclophoridae in ‘ Das ‘Tierreich ’ 16 Lief., Berlin 1902, (p. 71).

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEFY, Vol. 58

Himalayas (Chakrata and Deoban, ca. 8-10,000 ft.) Other known
localities in the W. Himalayas are Simla, Nainital, Landour, Mussoorie,
Kumaon. Godwin-Austen published figures of this species in the ‘ Land
and Freshwater Moll. India’, II, 1914, p. 337, pl. 136, fig. 1, la.
Measurements : height 2-8—3-1 mm., diameter 4:0-4:2 mm.

6, Cyathopoma deccanense Blanf.

Cyathopoma dcccanense Bianford, Journ. Conchyl. 16, p. 258, Pl. 12, fig. 2, 1868.
(Sylhed—Mountains near Bombay). Orig. measurements: height 3°25 mm.,
diameter 2°5-3 mm,

Two shells from Bhimashankar, Western Ghats, Bombay State (ca.
3,500 ft.) show all the characters mentioned by Kobelt (p. 220): two or
three elevated spiral ribs on the upper side, a peripheral keel, and on the
underside two elevated spiral ribs, an umbilicus with several thick ribs.
The margin of the aperture is scarcely thickened but elongated on the
keel; aperture a little oblique, circular.

Other localities mentioned by Gude (p. 134) are also situated in the
Western Ghats: Khandala, Singhur, Bhore Ghat (Nevill). Measure-
ments : height 3°5 mm., diameter 3-4 mm.

Ii PuLMoNATA

1, Pyramidula humilis (Benson).
Helix humilis Benson, J.A.S.B, vu, p. 217, 1838.

A series collected in the Western Himalayas (Chakrata-Deoban,
ca. 8,000-10,000 ft.) on chalky rocks and in rifts between them. Com-
pared with the next species, Pyvamidula rufestris sdlimalit, collected on
the same place, P. humilis shows a flatter shape and a yellow-horny
colour (not reddish brown). ‘The whorls on the apex are broader and
the aperture is more orbicular, whereas the aperture of P. 7”. sdlimalzz is
more oval. The sutures, especially the last one, are moderately
impressed. The umbilicus is wider. The diameter is the same in both
species, but P. humzl7s is flatter. ‘The last whorl is bluntly keeled.

Measurements : height 1:1-1°5 mm., diameter 2°6-2°9 mm.

Cther localities : Chur near Simla, Landour, Murree (Peshawar),
‘Thandiani.

2, Pyramidula rupestris salimalii subsp. nov.

Diagnosis: Pyvamidula r. rupesiris Dr. is distributed over large parts
of Western Europe and the Mediterranean region and has been found also
in the countries surrounding the Caucasus, in Syria and Western Persia.
The new race from the Western Himalayas is higher in relation to the
diameter. Ehrmann in ‘ Die Tierwelt Mitteleuropas’ vol. II, 1937, p. 57,
states, that P. ruZestvis Shows much variability in the relation of height to
diameter. But the greatest height is 1°75 mm., whereas the race of the
Himalayas has a height of 2 mm. or more. The maximum diameter
of P. x. rupestris may be 3 mm. ‘The largest diameter of the new
race is only 2°09 mm. ‘The shells are nearly conoid. Colour red-brown
like in the nominate race. 44-5 whorls instead of 4-44 in P. r. rupestris.
Both races have a very fine, irregular sculpture. ‘The aperture is more
circular than in P. r. rupestyis. The last whorl is descending.

Type: Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt a.M., No. 153491.

ON SOME INDIAN LAND SNAILS 167

We collected a series in the Western Himalayas (Chakrata—Deoban,
ca. 8,000-10,000 ft... Measurements: height 2:0-2°5 mm., diameter
2°5—2°9 mm.

I name the race in honour of our friend Salim Ali, the well-known
Indian ornithologist, who was so helpful during our expedition.

3. Truncatellina cylindrica himalayana (Benson).

Pupa himalayana Benson, Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, XII, p. 428, 1863.
Orig. measurements : height 2 mm., diameter 1 mm. Orig. localities : Simla and
Mussoorie.

The measurements (height 1:9-2°1 mm., diameter 0°7-0°9 mm.) of the
series from Deoban (ca. 10,000 ft. W. Himalayas) are the same as those of
the shell described by Benson. Gude pointed out that 7. hkimalayana is
related to Columella edentula Dr. But I believe that there exists a much
closer relationship with the widespread 7. cylindrica, only the number of
whorls of the two species is different. 7. hzmalayana has 63-7 whorls,
T. cylindrica has 5-6, the measurements being the same. The sculpture
is also alike : 7. Aimalayana has 58-62 ribs on the penultimate whorl.
Ehrmann (in ‘ Die Tierwelt Mitteleuropas’, p. 44) mentions ca. 65. ribs
in 7. cylindrica. The shape of the aperture is also the same. Upto the
present the distribution of 7. cylindrica is (after Ehrmann) Morocco,
Tunis, Portugal, Asia Minor, Crimea, Caucasus to, Transcaucasia. 7. h%ma-
layana is also found in Kashmir (Pir Panjal Range). Perhaps there
exist also connecting forms in Afghanistan. The relationship of these
two species is so convincing that I believe that 7. himalayana can well
be considered a geographical race of 7. cylindrica. :

Type: Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt a.M., No. 153492.

4, Boysidia plicidens (Benson).

Pupa plicidens Benson, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2, IV, p. 126, 1849. Orig.
measurements : height 2 mm., diameter 1:5 mm.

Six specimens from the Western Himalayas (Chakrata-Deoban, ca.8000-
10,000 ft.) among dead leaves and moss. The measurements are the same
as those of the type : height 1:9-2°0 mm., diameter 1:4-1-7 mm. The eight
folds in the aperture (3 parietal and 5 palatal) are variable. One specimen
corresponds exactly with Gude’s description (p. 295). Aoysidia plicidens
and B. landurenszs, which Pilsbury described from the same locality, are
very similar. It would be necessary tocompare both species to confirm
the alleged differences. Up to the present 2. Alictdens and B. landuren-
sts are the only Indian species of this genus. &. salwiniana Theobald is
known from Burma.

5. Ena arcuata Kuster.

Bulimus arcuatus (Hutton) Ktister, Conch. Cab. Pulimus, 1845, p. 56, pl.
17, fig. 1, 2. [Other localities (Gude, p. 239): Kashmir, Mahasu, Simla and
Narkanda—W. Himalayas. |

Five sinistral shells of this relatively large species from Deoban
(W. Himalayas, ca. 10,000 ft). All shells are more or less bleached. They
were collected together with Jarge series of a dextral form which I had
identified as Ena hanleyanus (Kob.) after comparison with shells in the
Senckenberg Museum. But now I believe that this dextral Ava may also
be &. arcuata, for the shape of the sinistral species seen in a mirror 1s
absolutely like the dextral species, However, the type locality of hazley-

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

anus—the Nilgiris—is geographically so far away, that this species is pro-
bably not quite identical with avcuata.
Measurements : height 13:4-15°8 mm., diameter 5*4—6°8 mm.

6. Ema vibex Kiister.

Bulimus vibex (Hutton). Conch. Cab. Bulimus, 1845, p. 57, pl. 17, fig. 5, 6.
West Himalayas: Simla, Landour, Mussoorie.

A large series of this slender sinistral Aza from the Western Himala-
yas near Chakrata and Deoban (ca. 8,000-10,000 ft.) shows the characteris-
tic hyaline white lines on the dark horny-yellow shell, already mentioned
by Gude (p. 237). The relation of height to diameter is variable. Height
of the shells from Deoban: 11°8-15°1 mm., diameter 4°3-5:0 mm. Gude
(p. 237) gives similar measurements for 27 specimens from Simla (height
11-12 mm., diameter 4-45 mm). ‘The figure published by Gude seems
to have too large a diameter in relation to the height.

7. Rachisellus praetermissus (Blanf.)
Bulimus praetermissus Blanford, J.A.S.B. xxx, p. 360, 1861.

We found only juvenile animals of this species near Byrankuppe
(ca. 3,000 ft., southern Mysore) on the bark of small orange trees planted
round the forest bungalow. The shells have 6-64 whorls, a height of
16°8-18-1 mm. and a diameter of 9°7-10°5 mm. As I could not compare
my specimens with typical A. praetermissus, I only checked them with
Blanford’s description (Gude, p. 275). On the underside the chestnut
brown bands are continuous, whereas the two bands on the upperside of
the whorls are interrupted. ‘There is also a very fine spiral sculpture.

8. Rachisellus punctatus (Anton).
: Saas punctatus Anton, Verz. Conch., p. 42, 1839 (Height 10 mm., diameter
mm.

Four not quite adult specimens of this widely distributed species
correspond with Anton’s description: a small brown band on the periphery
of the last whorl, apex black, shell whitish horn coloured with irregular
hyaline brown points.

Measurements : height 14:1-14:2 mm., diameter 6°8—7:1 mm. (not quite
adult). Gude (p. 279) gives similar variable measurements.

9. Cylindrophaedusa cylindrica Pfr,
Clausilia cylindrica Pfr., Symb. Hist. Helic. III, p. 93, 1846.

Smali series were collected in the Western Himalayas (Chakrata-
Deoban, ca. 8000-10,000 ft.). One of four specimens from Chakrata and
all specimens from Deoban are more strongly costulated. But as all the
other characters are alike, I believe that all specimens belong to the same
species.

Measurements : height 12:0--16°4 mm., diameter 2°7-3:0 mm. Other
localities (Gude): Landour; Mussoorie; Dharmsala, Nainital ; Simla;
east of Ravi; Thandiani and Mori (Punjab) ; Tezpur (Assam).

10. Glessula beddomei (Blanford).

_ <dchatina beddomei Bilanford, J.A.S.B. xxxv, p. 41, 1866 (Height 30 mm.,
diameter 11:5 mm., Anamullai Hills).

ON SOME INDIAN LAND SNAILS 169

We collected this species near Bhimashankar (Bombay State) at
ca. 3,500 ft. The partly bleached specimens were found on the dry grass-
slopes together with Cyclobhorus stenomphalus and Macrochlamys pedina.
Shells of this species in® the collection of the Senckenberg Museum
are identical. But Blanford mentioned only 74-8 whorls, whereas
the specimens from Bhimashankar have 10-10 whorls although thé
measurements are alike: height 30-°7-34-0 mm., diameter 11:5 mm.
(Blanford gives height 30 mm., diam. 114 mm.). Our specimens also
show an acute apex leaning a little bit to the right side.

11. Glessula pseudoreas (Nevill).
Stenogyra (Glessula) pseudoreas Nevill, J.A.S.B. 1, p. 136, 1881.

Two of the 4 specimens collected near Byrankuppe are adult and have
74-8 whorls. Specimens in the collection of the Senckenberg Museum
from the ¢erva typica, Nilgiri Hills, are identical: height 11-12:2 mm.,
diameter 4:1-4°8 mm., The two smaller specimens have 7 whorls, and a
height 8:5—8°8 mm. and a diameter of 3°6-3°9 mm. According to Nevill
the typical Nilgiri specimens with 6 whorls have a height of 11 mm. and
a diameter of 5 mm. Only larger series will show the real variability of
this species. :

12. Glessula pulla Blanf.
Glessula pulla Blanford, /.A.S.B. Xxx1x, p. 21, pl. 3, 1870.

Three adult specimens from Bhimashankar (Bombay-State) ca. 3,500 ft.
Terra typica of this species is ‘Torna near Poona’, not far from the loca-
lity where we found this small, brownish, corneous Glessula.

Measurements : height 6°4—-8 mm., diameter 2°6-3°:0 mm. with 7 whorls.

13. Kaliella bullula (Hutt.)

felix bullula Hutton, J.A.S.B. March 1838, p. 218 (‘ Found among dead
leaves at Simla’).

Two adult shells among dead leaves near Chakrata and Deoban in the
Western Himalayas at ca. 8,000 ft. together with other Aalzella, Sztala and
Diplommatina species. They correspond with the figure given by
Godwin-Austen (Pl. V, fig.4). Sheli bluntly conoid, pale whitish horny’
with very fine regular spiral sculpture. 5-54 whorls a little rounded,
the last bluntly rounded at the periphery, a little umbilicated, aperture
semilunate. A. dullula cannot be confused with AK. fastigzata, the latter
being more stout and roundish.

Measurements : height 2:9-3:2 mm., diameter 3°1—-3°3 mm.

Kaliella nana, the third Kaliella from the same locality, is smaller
and narrower wound. The last whorl is not much broader than the
penultimate, in contrast to K. bullula which has a more inflated last
whorl.

14. Kaliella fastigiata (Hutton).

Helix fastigiata Hutton, J.A.S.8. vol. vu, pt. 1, p. 217, 1838.

We collected this Aadzella together with other species of Kadlzella,
Sitala and Diplommatina among dead leaves near Chakrata (Western
Himalayas, at ca. 8,000 ft.) The shells correspond with the figure given by
Godwin-Austen Pl. II, fig. 8 (Mussoorie). My shells have 73 whorls,

170 _ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

being a little flat below. The umbilicus is covered by the margin of the
spire. The last whorl is carinated, horny coloured, with regular fine
ribbed sculpture. ‘The aperture is nearly quadrangular.

Measurements : height 3:8 mm., diameter 3°7 mm.

Compared with K. barrackporensis Pir., K. fastigzata shows a relative-
ly smaller diameter and is therefore conspicuously slenderer. Other loca-
lity: Landour.

15. Kaliella nana (Hutton).
Helix nana Hutton, J.A.S.2. vol. vit, p. 218, 1838.

As already mentioned by Benson (cf. Godwin-Austen, Land and
Freshwater Moll. of India, Pt. II, p. 21, 1882) Kadlzella nana was found in
great numbers in the same locality as A. dullula and K. fasligiata.,
K. nana is well distinguished from other species by smaller size and glo-
bosely conoid shape. It has 6 roundish whorls, the apex is blunt, the
suture is impressed and the last whorl is hardly broader than the last but
one. ‘The shell is horny coloured and shows a fine regular sculpture, a
narrow umbilicus and a semilunate aperture. Godwin-Austen gives the
following measurements : height 2:0 mm., diameter 3°0 mm. The largest
specimens which we collected between Chakrata and Deoban (about
8,000 ft.) are relatively broader: height 2°-1-2-3 mm., diameter 2‘5-2°8 mm.
Other localities: Simla, Mussoorie. Godwin-Austen believes that speci-
mens from localities in Bengal are not determined exactly.

16. Macrochlamys petrosa Hutton.

Macrochlamys petrosa Hutton, J.A.S.£B. vol. 111, p. 83(1834) (cf. Godwin-Austen
p. 78: J.A.S.&, pl. lll, p. 83, Feb. 1832.)

Two specimens were collected together with 17. pvona Nevill near
Deoban (W. Himalayas, ca. 10,000 ft.). These two species are conspi-
cuously Cifferent. JAZ. petrosa has nearly 6 whorls. The embryonic
whorls are not wound so narrowly as in J%. prona. The first three
whorls have a width of 5:6 mm. The umbilicus is extremely narrow and
resembles 47. prona in shape and size. Both species show a. horny
colour, but the sculpture is quite different. The growth lines are crossed
by a stronger regular spiral sculpture, partly forming fine spiral ribs.
Further on there are fine oblique lines, being rather faint on the last
whorl. ‘Thus the sculpture resembles a fine wickerwork.

Measurements : height 14:2 mm., diameter 25-4 mm. (Godwin-Austen :
height 10.8 mm., diameter 24:2 mm.)

17. Macrochlamys prona Nevill. |

Macrochtamys prona Nevill, Moll. Yarkand Exp. p.17, 1878. (Zerra typica:
‘Masuri’, NW. Himalaya). :

A series of 7 adult and some juveniie specimens was collected near.
Deoban (ca. 10,000 ft.) and one specimen near Chakrata (ca. 8,000 ft.).
The specimens from Deoban correspond with the description (p. 103) and
figures published by Godwin-Austen. A later comparison with the type
would be necessary. In Northern India so many species of A/ucrochlamys
are found that a general revision with special regard to the geographical
distribution is urgently needed. Our shells may be characterized by the
following description: very narrowly umbilicated, 6 narrowly and regul-
arly growing flat whorls (the first 3 together have a width of 4 mm.),

ON SOME. INDIAN LAND SNAILS 171

shell horny brown, a little lighter on the underside. The growth lines
are crossed by very fine spiral lines. The figure of the sculpture given
by Godwin-Austen corresponds with our shells from Deoban.

Measurements: height 10-4-11°0 mm., diameter 20°5-21°7 mmm. (God-
win-Austen: height 7-0 mm., diameter 18:2 mm.).

18. Macrochlamys pedina (Benson).

Helix pedina Benson, A. M7. Nat. Hist. Ser. 3, vol. Xv, p. 13, 1865. (Bombay
and Ahmednagger. Height 14 mm., diameter 32 mm.),

A large series from dry grass-slopes near Bhimashankar (ca. 3,500 ft.,
W. Ghats) two specimens from Deoban (ca. 10,000 ft., W. Himalayas).
Two living specimens from Bhimashankar copulated and laid eggs in a
terrarium in Munster. Unfortunately the eggs did not develop. Two
copulations took place, one on the 3rd of August 1953 from 9 till 9-50 a.m,
and the other onthe 3rd of September at about 6 p.m. At first each animal
touched the tail of the other or crept over the end of the tail. Under the
little horn of the tail was a little lump of secretion. Then the animals
pressed their genital apertures together. At the same time the stimulus
organ was stretched out (about 2 cm.) touching and seeking around.
Alternately it was slack or puffed up. This act lasted about 45 minutes.
During this time both penes were introduced for a couple of minutes.
Then one penis was drawn back, a few seconds later the other one. Both
stimulus organs were still swollen but hanging down. One minute later
these organs were drawn back, too (cf. fig. 1).

2 stimulus
aoe se
: 8 Mie \- . fool

Fic. 1. Copulation of Macrochlamys pedina (Benson) Both animals connected
by the two penes. Below them, to the right, the much thicker stimulus organs.

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Godwin-Austen already published a figure of the genital organs
(pl. Lxxxu1). It resembles my own figure of the organs of the animals,
which had copulated in Minster (fig. 2).

The radula (fig. 3) had 115-120 rows of teeth. After the pointed
middle-tooth follow 16-18 teeth with a large point, then 36-38 teeth with
one larger and one smaller point.

Measurements : height 17°3-22°8 mm., diameter 28°4—34°7 mm.

AAY

Fig. 2. Genital organs of Fig. 3. Radula-teeth of
Macrochlamys pedina (Benson). Macrochlamys pedina (Benson).

19. Macrochlamys splendens (Hutton).
Nanina splendens Hutton, J.A.S.B. vol. vu, Ppt. 1, p. 215, 1838.

A series from Chakrata and Deoban (8,000-10,000 ft.) W. Himalayas.
The greenish horny coloured shell has 73 closely wound flat whorls,
the last of which is rounded. The shell is narrowly umbilicated, the
aperture semilunate. Godwin-Austen’s figure (pl. XXII, fig. 4, 4a), shows
well the typical convexity of the shell and the brownish yellow line behind
the aperture, which our shells also have.

Measurements : height 7-4-10 mm., diameter 13:1-18°2 mm. (diameter
of the type 16°4 mm.). =

Alllocalities of JZ. splendens are situated in the Western Himalayas :
Nag Tibba ridgenear Mussoorie; forest of Mahasu, Fagu and Nagkunda
(10,000 ft.), and Hattu (11,500 ft.) (places in the surroundings of Simla)
and Chakrata-Deoban. |

We could also preserve some living animals in alcohol. The radula
has 76-80 rows (fig. 4). The middle tooth has a main point and two

Fig. 4, Radula-teeth of
Macrochlamys splendens (Hutton).

ON SOME INDIAN LAND SNAILS 173

smaller points on both sides. The 12 following teeth have a smaller point
on the outer side, and the 26-28 marginal teeth are two-pointed. (Godwin-
Austen’s numbers: 32-12-1-12-32).

The genital organs are typical (fig.5). The receptaculum is long

Fig. 5. Genital organs of Macrochlamys
splendens (Hutton).

pointed and without a clearly separated bursa, the long amatorial organ
-has the shape of a sausage and is pointed at the end. The hind part of
the penis bears a spiral container for the retractor muscle. In other
Macrochlamys species a similar flagelium-like appendix at the end of the
vas deferens is considered by Godwin-Austen to be a lime sack.

20. Eplecta indica (Pfr.)

Helix indica Pfeiffer, Symb. 111, p. 66, 1846. (Syn. Helix shipleyi Pfr., P.Z.S.
p. 327, 1856).

We collected a large series of this nice species, characterized by their
special sculpture, near Byrankuppe (ca. 3,000, feet, Southern Mysore),
Specimens with 6 whorls measure: height 13°3-16.3 mm., diameter
21:4-24°5 mm. (Pfeiffer: height, 12 mm., diameter 22mm. The num-
ber of the spiral ribs, crossing the fine growth lines is 16-20.

Distribution : Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Palni Hills, Wynaad and Western
Mysore as far north as the Kadur district, the lower country of Malabar,
Travancore, Ceylon, Mahlos, Maledive. —

21. Ariophanta laevipes (Mull.)

Helix laevipes Mull., Hist. Verm. 11, p. 22, no. 222.

We collected 3 adult shells near Bombay (Bandra and Kanheri Caves).
One shell is chestnut-brown, the second one is greyish white, the 3rd
specimen has brown bands.

Measurements: height 14:2-15. mm., diameter 23°6-26°7 mm.

22, Ariophanta bajadera (Pfr.)
flelix bajadera Pfeiffer, Zischr. f. Malak. p.69, 1850. (Bengalia).

’ We collected a large series on the dry grass slopes near Bhimashankar
(3,500 ft., Bombay State) together with Cyclophorus stenomphalus, Mac-

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

vochlamys pedina and Glessula beddomez. Blanford described (Contr.
Ind. Mal. no. VII, /.4.S.2. p. 32, 1866) a similar species, A. ztumescens,
from the Western Ghats (Mahableshwar). The measurements are -the
same as those of 4. bajadera. Blanford wrote: ‘I long doubted the distinct-
ness of the species now described as WV. bajadera, but although I have
specimens of the latter from many different places, they are all easily
distinguished from /V. intumescens.’ Unfortunately I had no opportunity
of comparing with A. zntumescens, but I believe that our specimens
belong to A. bajadera because the sculpture is rather strong and the last
whorl not blunted, especially not near the aperture asin A. zztumescens.
Measurements. height 20°5—25:5mm., diameter 22°5-29:0 mm.

23. Sitala infula (Benson).

Helix infula Benson, A.M.N.H., p. 160, 1848 (Terra typica: Murshidabad,
(Bengal) Patharghata (Behar).

Two specimens from Byrankuppe (3,000 ft. Southern Mysore). Benson
described this species from the erstwhile Province of Bengal, Behar and
Orissa, and Godwin-Austen (Land and Freshwater Molluscs of India, Pt.
1, p. 26) added Poona and Balarampur in Southern India. The adult
shell has 64 whorls ; height 6°9 mm., diameter 7°0 mm. It is light horny
coloured. The spiral lines are faint. The third whorl before the aperture
shows 6 elevated spiral lines, whereas a juvenile specimen has rather faint
spiral ribs. The adult specimen does not show very much periostracum,
but may have had 7 spiral lines too.

24. Helicarion stoliczcanus Nev.

Helicarvion stoliczcanus Nevill, Yark. Miss. Moll. p. 15, fig. 19-21. (Syn. Hw-
austenia cassida Hutton, J.A.S.B, vu, p. 214, 1838).

Godwin-Austen places stoliczcanus Nev. in the genus Auaustenia

Fig. 6. Genital organs of Fig. 7. Radula-teeth of Melicarion
Hlelicarion stoliczcanus Nev. stoliczcanus Nev.

Cockerell 1981 (Land and Freshwater Moll. of India, p. 273) together with
assida Hutton from Simla, monticola Pfr. from Mussoorie and Landour,

ON SOME INDIAN LAND SNAILS 175

theobaldi Godwin-Austen from Chenab Valley, Kashmir, and scutella
Benson from Chamba and Murree (Kashmir). Godwin-Austen believes
that these species, being distributed over an area of 750 km. ‘ prove to be
closely allied’, The figures of movticola (Mussoorie) and sfoliczcanus
(Almoral) (published by Godwin-Austen PI. 52, figs. 2 and 3) show a very
similar shape to my rather variable specimens from Chakrata and Deoban
(8,000-10,000 ft, W. Himalayas). I suspect that Godwin-Austen’s
Hi. cassida from Kashmir and from Simla belong to the same species.
But on the other hand it does not seem impossible that all the species
mentioned are geographical representatives of the same ‘ Rassenkreis ’.
In any case a revision of all these so-called species would be important.
Measurements : height 12°4-14°0 mm., diameter 20°8-25:1 mm.

The genital-organs are similar to those of Macrochlamys splendens.
(Fig. 6). The radula (fig. 7) has 110-114 rows. On the middle tooth
follow 16 with one main point and an outer small point, and then 41
bifurcated teeth.

25. Landouria huttoni (Pfr.)
Helix huttoni Pfeiffer, Sym. Hist. Helic. Il, p. 82, 1842,

We collected a small series between Chakrata and Deoban, West-
Himalayas, 8-10,000 ft. All shells have only 5 whorls, height 4:6-6 mm.,
diameter 7°4-9°1 mm. (Pfeiffer mentioned : height 5-5 mm., diameter 10
mm., but 6 whorls). It may be that our specimens are not quite adult.
The sculpture on the upper and underside is very striking. The ribs are
not continuous, but interrupted in such a way that the surface is covered
With irregular long wrinkles and with short small! knots.

Distribution : Himalayas (Simla, Landour, Darjeeling) and Kashmir.
A revision of species from other localities such as Burma, China,
Ceylon is desirable, as perhaps there exist different geographical races.

26. Bradybaena similaris (fér.)
Helix ( Helicelia) similaris Fér., ‘Table Syst. Limacons, 1822, nom. 262, nom. nud.
Helix (Helicigona) similaris Fér., Hist. Nat. Moll. liv. XV, 1822, pl. 25 B,
fig. 1 (var. <), fig.4 (var. 8), liv. XXIII, 1832, pl. 27 A, figs. 1-3.

I collected one adult and one juvenile shell of this widely distributed
species near Mysore. Deshayes (Gude, p. 201) mentioned: height 12 mm.,
diameter 16 mm. My adult specimen from Mysore is smaller: height 8°8
-mm., diameter 14°55 mm. The sculpture is not only ‘ minute striata’
(original description) but shows fine squamiform points, which are best
preserved in the umbilicus.

APPENDIX

27. ‘Xestina’ vitellina (Pfr. )
Helix vitellina Pfr., P.Z.S. 1848.

Unfortunately the literature about ‘ Xestzna’ vitellina (Pir.) was
inaccessible (= Ariophanta belangeri Desh ?). We collected a series, also
in alcohol, near Byrankuppe (3,000 ft. S. Mysore). In the collection
of the Senckenberg Museum are specimens from Madras, Malabar and
Travancore. The globose shell has a brownish upperside and a lighter
underside, becoming whitish near the aperture. The coarse growth-lines

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

on the upperside are crossed by 10-12 spiral-lines. The umbilicus is half
covered. Measurements: height 15°4-21:5 mm., diameter 20:6-27-2 mm.
It is very remarkable that the genital organs (fig. 8) show two kinds

Fig. 8. Genital organs of ‘ Xestina’
vitellina (Pfr.).

of amatorial organs. One is similar to the amatorial organ of Macro-
chlamys species. Stretched out, but reduced in size by preservation in
alcohol, it measures 20 mm. The other organ is more tubiform, covered
With many warts and has a length of 16mm. in alcohol. In the interior
there are strong longitudinal muscles. Besides there is a receptaculum
seminis and apparently a thick gland at the beginning of the epiphallus.

FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE DAILY ROUTINE AND
SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF COMMON INDIAN MONKEYS,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BONNET
MONKEY (4/ACACA RADIATA GEOFFROY)

BY
ANGELA NOLTE
(Zoological Institute of Minster University, W. Germany)

(With a plate)

CONTENTS
Page
1. Introduction ... ca a 6d0 a 177
2. The Bonnet Monkey oa bas a ee 177
3. The Rhesus Monkey cae ae i fee 180
4, The Common Langur oes es Sale 181
5. Some problems which could easily be worked out in India ... 182
6. Literature Ses oie ee a ot 183

I IGNCTSR OLD UCT OSN:

In spite of the excellent opportunity for field observation of Indian
monkeys, especially near temples and villages, very little is known and
published of their habits and social behaviour. Contrarywise, there are
exact observations on monkeys of other countries in the wild state, e.g.,
on howling monkeys (C. R. Carpenter 1934, N. Collias and Ch. Southwick
1952), on red spider monkeys (C. R. Carpenter 1935), on gibbons (C. R.
Carpenter 1940), and on baboons (S. Zuckermann 1932). We therefore
took the opportunity during our trip through India under the leadership
of Prof. B. Rensch in spring 19531 to collect some more information
about Indian monkeys. We had particularly good facilities for observation
at Byrankuppe, about 45 miles south of Mysore City, where two troops of
Macaca radiata lived close io our forest bungalow.

For kind help during our stay in India I wish to express my
gratitude to Mr. Salim Ali (Bombay) and to the Forest Departments of
Mysore and other States of the Indian Union for permitting us to use the
forest bungalows. Special thanks are due to Prof. B. Rensch, who gave
me his field notes about Indian monkeys, and to the other members of our
scientific party, Mrs. I. Rensch, Dr. K. W. Harde and Dr. R. Altevogt,
for their co-operation.

2. The Bonnet Monkey, J/acaca vadiata Geoffroy

The Bonnet monkey is the geographical representative of the Rhesus,
which lives northward of its area. So far as I know, there are no publish-

1 Aided by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Kultus-
ministerium of the land Nordrhein-Westfalen.

178 : JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

ed field observations concerning this species. I studied two troops near
Byrankuppe, Mysore (A. Nolte 1955). Observation was facilitated by
the light terrain, a forest with little undergrowth in which bamboo clumps
dominated. During our stay in Byrankuppe (in April 1953) I usually
tried to find the monkeys at their sleeping places early in the morning,
before dawn, and followed them for several hours till 10 or 11 o’clock ;
once till 14:00 o’clock. In the afternoon I looked for them again in their
usual feeding places (fruit trees), and accompanied them to their sleeping
trees.

Troop No. 1 consisted of 32 individuals and 2 babies, while there were
33 individuals and 5 babies in troop No. 2. There was a proportion of
1:6-1°7 adult females to one mature male. I got these data by noticing
the sex and the probable age of the monkeys when they crossed a path
or jumped from tree to tree (average of 6 observations). The adult males
were easy to distinguish by their stouter build and larger size. A full-
grown male weighs 13-19 lb., a female 7-8 lb. only (S. H. Prater 1948).
But I had some difficulty in distinguishing the females from the younger
males especially if they moved fast. The composition of the two troops
was nearly as follows :

Troop eites 22 Q+ J II Total
1 3 5 (2) U7 7 32
2 5 8 (5) 12 8 33

(2+ = females with babies ; J = juveniles ; 1 = infants).

Among the first three categories, leading the troop when on the move
there were relatively more males. A similar fact was noticed by
C. R. Carpenter (1934) in howling monkeys, but some years later N.
Collias and Ch. Southwick (1952) found twice as many females in front of
the same troops as males. It would be of interest to observe one troop
over a prolonged period, perhaps with marked individuals, to see if and
how often leadership may shift.

The daily movement took place within an area of about 1 square mile.
But there was no evidence of defending this ‘ territory ’ against other troops.
On several occasions, at different hours of the day, both troops were seen
feeding on the same tree—and once troop No. 2 was observed spending
the night right in the middle of the ‘territory’ of troop No. 1 and only
about 125 yards apart from the sleeping tree of No. 1. Unfortunately, I
never observed the moment when both troops met each other.

The monkeys used to sleep in the bamboo thicket at the edge of the
Kabbani River, every night at different spots within a distance of 900-1200
yards (they spent only one night 250 yards away from the river in the
forest). Average sleeping time during the night was about 114 hours.
The monkeys woke up early in the morning, about 6 o’clock, as soon as
the luxmeter deflected a littie. They began the daily routine with mutual
grooming, defecation and urination. It was remarkable that during the
first quarter of an hour they behaved very noiselessly. I never saw them
feeding at their sleeping place, About 15 minutes after rising they
suddenly went off to one of the fruit trees nearby, not always using the
most direct way. Here they fed for 1—14 hours, at last filling up their cheek
pouches. The bonnet monkeys in Byrankuppe ate fruit (mangoes, wild
figs, lantana berries), young shoots (especiaily of bamboo), buds, seeds
and insects. After their early morning feed, the monkeys moved forward,

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Kw
\

KX

A. Nolte

Photos

Macacs during the noonday siesta

OBSERVATIONS ON COMMON INDIAN MONKEYS 179

mostly on the ground (also in dense teak thicket). Their speed was nor-
mally very slow. From time to time they used to rest in the shade, busy
with mutual grooming, nursing babies, eating the contents of their cheek
pouches, and looking for insects and seeds by turning over old dry bark
or leaves. The young were mostly playing during this time. One day I
spent a longer time with the troop No. 1 (till 14:00 o’clock). At about
the half time between rising and going to sleep (11°30 till 12°50) there was
a short siesta (not during the hottest daytime!). The monkeys were
sitting on different trees in the shade, some in crotches, others lying on
thicker branches. All members of the troop kept silent and quiet, even
the young. Some ofthem shut their eyes and seemed tosieep. A similar
nap was described by C. R. Carpenter for the howling monkeys (1934)
between 11:00 and 14:00 o’clock, for gibbons (1940) between 11°30 and
15:00 o’clock.

Arriving at the sleeping place about 18°00 o’clock, the monkeys usually
first went to the river to drink. They drank with the mouth from the
water surface without using their hands. I never saw them drinking
after rising in the morning, but sometimes during the day out of a small
pool, or they put their hands into the water gathered in hollow stems of
bamboo after a shower of rain and licked the droplets from their arms and
fingers. In the evening, before the beginning of darkness, the monkeys
sat near the sleeping place, ate shoots of bamboo or leaves, here and there
and groomed each other. As soon as the night began they disappeared
into the bamboo thicket and remained there quietly.

Mutual grooming occupied a considerable part of the day. Here no
influence of dominance relations could be observed, as A. H. Maslow
(1936) found among rhesus monkeys in the laboratory. Maslow put two
monkeys, which had been separated some time before, together in a cage
to find out which was the dominant animal, and whether the dominant
individual would groom the subordinate one, or vice versa. No self-
grooming was observed among bonnet monkeys in the wild state, but I
have seen it among two individuals caged together in the Mtinster zoo.

In neither troop could I observe any real mating behaviour. ‘This
would agree with C. G. Hartman’s finding (1931) that bonnet monkeys
in zoological gardens did not conceive from March till July. Only one
part of the mating behaviour, the mounting, could be seen by me several
times, but this took place not only between the different sexes, but also
between two males, two females or two juveniles. The active partner pulled
the tail of the other monkey who looked back over its shoulder, but re-
mained passive during the mounting that followed, which never lasted more
than halfa minute. ‘Thereafter the two monkeys went their ways without
taking any more notice of each other. Mounting without sexual signi-
ficance has been described by C. R. Carpenter in the rhesus colony near
Puerto Rico (1942), by A.H. Maslow (1936, dominance experiments), and
by 8. Zuckerman in Hamadryas (1932). ‘The male position in mounting
seems to be a part of the behaviour of a dominant animal.

During the first days of observation the babies of troop No. 1 were
already able to move about independently among the branches. But at
first the distance from their mothers remained about § a yard only. At
this time the mothers were extremely attentive towards their babies. If
there was any kind of alarm they rushed towards the babies and grasp-
ed them quickly. Some days later, they seemed to be less attentive and
careful. They climbed away from their babies without looking after them

2

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

but came back at any tumult. The babies seemed to be more dependent
on their mothers in that state. When left alone they cried violently and
tried to follow their mothers. Concerning bonnet monkeys there is no
information about the length of the dependence-phase of the babies on
their mothers in the wild, so faras I know. I saw last year’s juveniles
leaning towards females and females grasping such young ones and trying
to carry them without any alarm situation. But these juveniles were too
heavy and they struggled to get away. It seems therefore that even after
becoming independent some relationship between mother and baby
persists for about one year.

The play of the juveniles occupied a great part of theday. Normally
they used to play in flocks of four and more individuals. There was a sort
of chase from tree to tree or on the ground, mostly ending with play-
fighting. When highly excited, they sprang up into the air with all four
legs, or they shook branches violently. Three times I saw such play-
fighting end in a subordinate position of one partner: he pressed himself
flat on a branch and crawled slowly backward to withdraw himself.

The routine behaviour of the bonnet monkeys was not disturbed by the
roaming in their territory of domestic animals (fowls, goats, cows, sheep)
tame elephants, and birds of different sizes. But dogs caused a panic flight to
nearby trees or termite mounds. The monkeys never ranalong the ground,
when a dog had caused the flight. From their high position they chattered
at the dog, bared their teeth and shook branches. Some time after the dog
was out of sight they climbed down very cautiously. A jackal (Cazzs
aureus), however, was put to flight by the joint attack of the whole troop
on the ground. ‘This social instinct of joint attack or joint flight is very
strong. Once I saw the whole troop rushing off together (I could not
discover the cause) while a helpless baby cried on a bamboo for its
mother, whose mother-instincts were apparently not as strong as her social
ones.

3. The Rhesus Monkey, A/acaca mulatta (Zimmerman).

The rhesus is found throughout northern India as far as the Tapti
River in the west and the Godavari in the east. We know very little
about the exact number of individuals inthe troops. There are smaller
and Jarger groups. Weare much better informed in regard to an artificial
rhesus colony on a small island off the coast of Puerto Rico (C. R. Car-
penter 1942). In 1938 about 400 rhesus monkeys from India were releas-
ed there. Fifteen months later Carpenter found most of them orga-
nized in 6 heterosexual groups, ranging from 13 to 147 individuals
(an average of about 70 animals per group). ‘These data are not com-
parable with those in India because individuals of many troops were
put together in a different environment. In addition Carpenter saw 12
sub-adult males living in unisexual groupings. Among the adults the
proportion was six females to one male. A preponderance of females
over males seems to be the rule in old and new world monkey troops
(H. W. Nissen 1951, 5. Zuckerman 1932).

In India we did not have an opportunity to observe rhesus troops for
a sufficiently long time, but we never saw such large groups as Carpenter
did in the artificial colony. At Kansrao (Siwalik Hills) there was one
troop of about 17 individuals and another of 19, As there was no village
nearby, the animals were rather shy, and when disturbed they disappeared
into the dense underwood. So I could not determine the sex ratio.

OBSERVATIONS ON COMMON INDIAN MONKEYS 181

There was no newborn baby with them (beginning of March), but some
of the females were surely pregnant.

Whether there is a definite breeding season in rhesus monkeys or not,
is not yet ascertained. Most observers believe that this is the case, but
they do not agree with regard to the month, in which the babies are born.
R. W. G. Hingston (1920) and W. Heape (1897, at Muttra) mentioned
March as the main month of birth. In the rhesus colony of the Baltimore
Zoological Garden most of the babies were born in March and April, but
a few inthe other months too (C. G. Hartman, 1931). In the colony near
Puerto Rico, C. R. Carpenter found most newborns from June till August.
In Simla W. Heape (1897) saw babies from August till September. On
the basis of his own observations and of the information from the Calcutta
Zoo, where the rhesus reproduced at any time of the year, he drew the
conclusion that this species breeds at different times in different parts of
India. Weneed more exact data about the breeding season all over India
for deciding whether Heape is right, or perhaps S. H. Prater (1948) who
mentions that the rhesus breeds at any time of the year.

About the behaviour of the babies and the maternal

care there are many observations from laboratories and zoological
gardens which need confirmation from the wild state (K.S. Lashley and
J. B. Watson 1913, O. L. Tinklepaugh and C. G. Hartman 1932, J. B.
Foley 1935, O. L. Tinklepaugh 1942 etc.). The gestation lasts about
6 months. One or two days after birth, the babieS are already able to
climb upward when frightened. The incisors are well out during the 15th
week and then the molars begin to appear. The babies begin to unloose
from their mothers after 9 weeks, but thereafter the mothers still take
care of the young ones and carry them about at any tumult, some-
times for more than one year, even after the birth of a new baby
(O. L. Tinklepaugh 1942).
The sexual behaviour has been studied by C. R. Carpenter
(1942) in the colony near Puerto Rico. There is no harem system as
among baboons. During the oestrous period (average of 9:2 days) the
females are very aggressive to other females. Normally they turn over to
the males. In this colony Carpenter found 2 pure male groups (one with
7 ho, the other with 12 3"). With the beginning of maturation the
young males separate from the parent group and live in male troops
until they reach the adult stage. Then they try to get into a heterosexual
group where they normally have to begin with a low dominant rank.

4. The Common Langur, Semnopithecus entellus (Dufresne).

The langur or Hanuman monkey, one of the sacred animals of the
Hindus, is often found near temples and villages or in the jungle. In
spite of this fact there is scanty, partly contradictory information about —
the size of the troops, their composition as to males, females and young
ones, and their social hierarchy. Langurs have been observed in
troops of various composition. The largest assemblages were promis-
cuous ones. In the literature I do not find any exact numbers given. At

- Sikandra near Akbar’s Tomb, we saw about 50 or more specimens; in the

Western Himalayas near Chakrata a troop with about 50 individuals was
seen. ‘There was another troop near Kansrao (Siwalik Hills) consisting of
17 monkeys. In these large troops there are males and females of all
ages together with young ones (see W. T. Blanford 1888-1891, T. Hutton
1867; S. H. Prater 1948). There is no conformity in the proportion of

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

males to females in such troops. Some observers saw one or two adult
males only (T. C. Jerdon 1867, T. H. Hughes 1884). At Sikandra, one
of the tomb chaukidars (guards) told us that there was one single very
bold male (overlord) besides many younger males, females and young
ones. It isa pity that we could not stay longer than an hour in Sikandra
to get more exact information about this troop, which was half tame,
being fed by the guards and visitors.

Besides these large promiscuous troops there are many reports of
small groups of males (E. Blyth 1843; T. C. Jerdon 1867, S. H. Prater
1948), of lone males (W. T. Blanford 1888-1891), and of small family
parties (W. T. Blanford, A. C. McMaster 1870). The animals in male
groups are supposed to have been driven out of the harem on attaining
maturity. ‘TY. H. Hughes (1884) reported a battle between a male troop
and a promiscuous one. ‘Three males chased the single overlord of the
mixed group, while the other males tried to separate some females from
the harem. It may be that new troops are founded in such a way. One
of the disadvantages of extreme social grouping is the strong inbreeding.
This would be avoided by separating males from the harem so that they
can go over to other troops later, or can establish a family with a
female taken from a heterosexual troop.

We saw small groups of langurs near Bhimashankar (W. Ghats) and
Byrankuppe (Mysore). Most of them contained 4-5 individuals only.
But we were not able to determine if they were family or male groups.

We also know very little about the size of the ‘ territory ’ and about
the daily routine of langurs. Apparently there exist distinct territories.
We saw the same troops for several days in the same part of the forest,
especially near Kansrao in the Siwalik Hills. And S. H. Prater (1948)
noted that Jangurs return to the same roosting place every night.
But there is no information as to how far they wander during the day
and if they use the same feeding grounds day after day. Another ques-
tion has still to be answered: Do the male groups have special territories,
or do they move through the territories of the mixed troops ? The same
problem has to be solved for the small family troops.

During the hottest time of the day, the langurs were seen resting
in the shade often near water courses (C. McCann, 1928; S. H.
Prater 1948). When alarmed while running, they raise themselves to
their full height to look around, and when sitting on the tops of the trees
they will cleverly conceal themselves by grasping and drawing branches
together, thus becoming completely hidden (C. McCann, 1928). If
they are chased by dogs, they sometimes seem to lose their heads, and,
although an aerial crossing from tree to tree may appear quite simple,
they will often descend to the ground, where they run with great bounds
(F. W. Champion 1928; S. H. Prater 1948). At Sikandra we observed
the flight caused bya dog. The langurs were sitting on the ground so
that we could feed them. ‘They were grooming and playing when the
barking of a dog caused the guttural alarm note of the male overlord.
At once all monkeys climbed the nearby trees or house roofs.

5. SOME PROBLEMS WHICH COULD EASILY BE WORKED
OUT IN INDIA

Our review shows that rather little is known about the natural life of
Indian monkeys. For Indian zoologists it would perhaps not be too

OBSERVATIONS ON COMMON INDIAN MONKEYS 183

difficult to solve many open questions. The most important of them
seein to be the following: |
1. Exact counting of individuals in monkey troops near villages
and temples, and also in the jungle far away from human influence.
2. Statement of the number of adult males and females, juve-
niles, infants and babies per troop.

3. Determination of the months in which babies are born all over
India.

4. Analysing of large troops to ascertain if they consist of
stable family parties.
5. Investigation of the size of the territory of monkey troops.

6. Correlating the size of the territory with the size of the troop
and perhaps with the amount of food available. |

7. Observation whether there is any defending of the territory
against troops of the same or different species.

8. Observing whether monkeys move more or less from tree to
tree or on the ground.

OF Noting how often the monkeys drink during the day.
10. Observing how long they sleep during the night, and whether
the sleeping place is more or less permanent.

6. LI?tERATURE

BLANFORD, W, T. (1888-1891) : The Fauna of British India. Part I, Mammalia.
Taylor and Francis. London.

BrytH, E. (1843) : Remarks on the Zoology of the Tenasserim Provinces.
Calcutta.

CARPENTER, C. R. (1934): A field study of the behavior and social relations
of howling monkeys (dlouwatta palliata). Comp. Psychol. Monographs \0, 1-168.

CARPENTER, C. R. (1935) : Behavior of red spider monkeys in Panama.
J. Mammalogy 16, 171-180.

CARPENTER, C. R, (1940): A field study in Siam of the behavior and ‘social
relations of the gibbon (H7y/oéates lar). Comp. Psychol. Monographs 16, 1-212.

CARPENTER, C. R. (1942) : Sexual behavior of free ranging Rhests monkeys
(Macaca mulatia). J. Comp. Psychol. 33, 113-162.

CHAMPION, F. W. (1928) : With a camera in tiger-land. London.

CoLiiAs, N. AND SOUTHWICK Cu. (1952) : A field study of population density
and pe organization in howling monkeys. Pyoc. Amer. Philosoph. Soc. 96,
143--156,

HARTMAN, C.G. (1931) : The breeding season in monkeys, with special reference
to Pithecus (Macacus) rhesus. Journ. Mammalogy, 12, 129-142.

Heapr, W. (1897) : The menstruation and ovulation of Macacus rhesus, with
observations on the changes undergone by the discharged follicle. Phil, Trans.
Roy. Soc., London, B, 188, 135-166.

HinGston, R. W. G. (1920) : A Naturalist in Himalaya. Witherby. London.

HucuHEs, T. H. (1884) : An incident in the habits of the Semunopithecus entellus,
the common Hanuman Monkey. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Calcutta, 147-150.

Huron, T. (1867) : On the geographical range of Semmnopithetus entellus.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 944-952.

JeRpDoN, T. C. (1867) : The mammals of India, ‘Thomason College Press.
Roorkee.

LASHLEY, K.S. AND Watson J. B. (1913) : Notes on the development ofa
young monkey. Journ. of Animal Behaviour, Boston, 3, 114-139.

McCann, C. (1928) : Notes on the common Indian langur (Pzthecus entellus).
JBNAS., 33, 192-194.

McMaster, A. C. (1870) : Notes on Jerdon’s mammals of India, Higginbotham.
Madras. .

Mastow, A. H. (1936): The role of dominance in the social and sexual
behavior of infra-human primates: IV. The determination of hierarchy in pairs and
ina group. Journ. Genet. Psychol, 49, 161-198,

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Nissen, H. W. (1951) : Social behavior in primates. In ‘Comparative Psycho-
logy’ by C. P. Stone, Chapt. 13, 423-457.

Notts, A. (1955) : Freilandbeobachtungen tiber das Verhalten von MWacaca
radiata in Siidindien. Z. f. Tzerpsychvlogie, 12, 77-87.

PRATER, S, H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

TINKLEPAUGH, O. L. AND HARTMAN, C. G. (1932) ; Behavior and maternal
care of the new born monkey (Macaca mulatta—‘ M. rhesus’). The Pedagogical
Seminary 40/41, 257-286.

TINKLEPAUGH, O. L. (1942): Social behavior of animals. In ‘ Comparative
Psychology ’ ed. Moss, New York, 366-393.
ZUCKERMAN, 8. (1932) : The social life of monkeys and apes. London.

THE BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF THE KRISHNAGIRI
NATIONAL PARK, BORIVLI, NEAR BOMBAY ~—

BY
H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.L,
AND

ABAN J. RANDERIA, M.Sc.
(With two maps, one coloured and two black-and-white plates)

INTRODUCTION

The Krishnagiri National Park is one of the many developments that
have taken place in our Bomhay State after Independence. Being so near
Bombay, the Park is a centre of great attraction to picnickers and visitors,
who can now visit the renowned Kanheri Caves in relative comfort. It is,
however, of much greater interest to students of botany who find, within
the confines of the Park, everything that is best in the botany of Bombay
State. Among the non-botanical visitors there are many, too, who feel
greatly attracted towards the flowers and trees that cover most of the
ground from Borivli Station to the Caves themselves, and on the rocky
ground above the Caves. ‘To help either group of visitors the present
work was undertaken ; this paper is but a summary of our results.

In view of the small area of the Park, it was at first suggested that a
single research worker be put to work out the whole flora of the Park ;
but it soon became evident that the task was much too great for the 2-3
years at our disposal. For this reason our attention was concentrated on
the flowering plants of the Park, with special emphasis on the Gamopeta-
lous Phanerogams of the same. To help in the concentrated study of the
flora of the National Park, the junior author was given a scholarship by
the Bombay Naturai History Society ; it is in token of recognition that
this summary of the work is offered to the public through the pages
of this journal.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF THE KRISHNAGIRI NATIONAL
PARK

The Park covers an area of roughly 12 sq. miles (19°2 sq. km.). Itis
situated in Salsette Island due North of Bombay City, and at a distance
of 20 miles (32 km.) from Flora Fountain in Bombay.

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Access may be had to the Park by the Western Railway, via Borivli
Station ; by road, it is possible to go from Bombay City to Borivli via
Andheri along the Ghodbunder Road. From Borivli, if going by train,
one leaves the station and moves due East ; about half a mile from the
station is the entrance to the Park ; thereafter there is a good road that
traverses the Park from W. to E. through its almost entire length. It is
also possible to go by train up to Kandivli, and then by a footpath that
crosses the low range of hills that form the South boundary of the Park,
one may go up to the Caves ; there is no motorable road from Kandivli.
For those desirous of a fine walk through the hills, there is another and
more difficult path from Bhandup Station, on the Central Railway, and
then across the hills that flank Tulsi Lake, to Kanheri Caves. At any rate,
the walk from Borivli Station or from the other starting points to the ~
Caves themselves is only about 6 miles long. .

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TERRAIN

The Krishnagiri National Park consists of that part of the country
in Salsette Island which lies on either side of the Dahisar River ; the latter
with most of its affluent streams is almost entirely enclosed within the
Park boundaries.

The district is made up of a central valley along which the main
road and the main channel of Dahisar River run almost parallel to
each other, at least for some distance. On the other side of the road
the country is hilly, there being 2 main chains of hills running in
the same general direction, W. to E., as the road and the river;
at the farthest eastern part of the Park boundaries, the southern
chain of hills turns upwards and joins the northern one, so that the
Park is almost completely enclosed within a horse-shoe shaped range
of hiils.

Kanheri Point is the highest part of the district, rising up to
1516 ft. (455 m.) above sea level; on the hills there are a number of
plateaus and vantage points, which, in the accompanying map have
been marked with (A.

CLIMATIC DATA

For the climatic data herein given, we are indebted to the Director-
General of Observatories, Poona, by whose kind permission, the data
are here reproduced. We have not been able to obtain, either personally
or from official sources, data directly concerning the National
Park. ‘The metereological station nearest to Borivli is the one at Santa
ae Bombay North, which is only about 9-10 miles south of Kanheri

aves.

The climatic conditions, however, differ little between Borivli and
Santa Cruz, except perhaps at the higher parts of the Park where the
temperature may be slightly lower and the wind velocity together with
the rainfall, slightly higher. The difference, however, seems to be small
and for practical purposes negligible. |

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"209 ‘ISI ‘3@N Avquiog ‘uunor

BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF KRISHNAGIR] NATIONAL PARK 187

The climatic data incorporated in this paper cover a period of 7 years,
from 1946-1952. In our outings we have occasionally taken readings
for temperature, wind velocity, light intensity etc. ; our readings, however,
are not mentioned here because they are too sporadic to be of any scien-
tific value ; nevertheless on checking our readings with the official data
here reproduced, we find them in very close agreement, and this further
prompts us to leave our insufficient readings out of the picture,

RAINFALL

The rainy season in Borivli, as well as in Bombay, lasts roughly from
about the middle of June to the end of September. The advent of the
SW. monsoon is heralded by some severe local thunderstorms from the
end of May onwards. ‘The monsoon proper sets in at about the middle of
June and continues, usually with great force, up to the end of August.
Thereafter there may be a short break of clear, sunny days. The NW.
monsoon starts about the ena of the first week in September and con-
tinues more or less regularly till the end of the month. Occasionally a
few heavy showers come down at the beginning of October. From about
the middle of October onwards, till the next monsoon, the rainfall may
be reduced to just an occasional light shower particularly towards the end
of December.

Of the total amount of rainfall recorded for the district, the greatest
percentage belongs to the period June—October. The rainfall for the
rest of the year may go up to about 5% of the total yearly figure.

The following table gives the total annual rainfall for the years 1946-
1952 in inches and cm.; the highest rainfall was that for 1949 with a
total of 108°51” (271 49 cm.), and the lowest that for 1950 with only
61:50” (153°75 cm.). The average for the period 1946-1952 is 75:95”
(189°87 cm.).

APA TBaBID ae

TortaL ANNUAL RAINFALL

1946-1952
Year | Total in inches | Total in cm. Remarks
1946 | 79:14 OV SOP mnen! |e LONE x coaeos
1947 77:08 | NOR) =. i eee
1948 71:74 179:35 | OY ae ree
1949 108°51 | 271°42 Highest in 6 years.
1950 61°50 | 153°75 | Lowest in 6 years.
1951 70°41 | WBOD bebe
1952 | 63°33 56832 A areca...

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. &3
The following table gives the average monthly rainfall for the years
1946-1952 in inches and cm,
TABLE 2

AVERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL

1946-1952
eS
Month | - Rainfall ins. | Rainfall cm.

January a | 0°048 | 0°12
February

March oat | 0°016 | 0°04
April Mc 0:37 | 0°92
May | 0:43 1:07
June | 15°35 38°37
July | 25-08 | 62°70
August 500 | 12°40 31:00
September Aa | 18°63 46°57
October rs 1-93 4-82
November be. | 1°59 3°97
December 6c | 0-087 0°21

SUNSHINE

The length of daily sunshine varies according to the season and
weather. During the monsoon, which corresponds to the longest days
of the year, the amount of sunshine is the smallest due to the presence of
dense clouds. A study of the monthly record of sunshine from 1933-
1942 shows that July is the month with the shortest period, the length of
the sunshine period increasing gradually as we move in either direction
from July ; the maximum length of sunshine is that of May.

TWAGB SESE

MONTHLY TOTAL DURATION OF SUNSHINE
(Average for 1933-1942)

Month Jan.

Hours | 298'8 281'6 3021 303°7 321°6 159°4

‘ourN. BompBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Se S

1. View of the main road near the entrance to the
National Park.

| 2. The vegetation on the slopes of Gandhi Smriti
Mandir at the entrance to the Park.

(Photos: H. Santapau)

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BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF KRISHNAGIR] NATIONAL PARK 189

Month | July August Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec:
Hours | 67°4 | 93 +2 | 1727 268°5 | 282°3 | 287°9
| | !
TEMPERATURE

The hottest months of the year are April and May, October being a
close second. The maximum temperature recorded for the years 1946-—
1952 is 92°7°F. (33:7°C.). The hottest hours of the day are between
12 noon and 3 p.m. The coolest month of the year is January with an
average minimum of about 70°F. (21:1°C.). The lowest minimum
temperature registered for the same years as above is 65:2°F. (18°44°C.),
The range of daily temperature for any month of the year is about 15°F,
(8°3°C.) ; in the monsoon, however, the difference is scarcely ever more
thanmlOShe@roce.):

TABLE 4

MBAN MONTHLY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES IN °F,

1946-1952

Month Mean Maximum Mean Minimum
January ae 85:075 67°03
February oe 85°44 68° 24
March i 88°21 72°78
April 5 90-04 77°33
May ¥ 92°00 80°60
June fa 69:53 79°53
July | 85:94 77°65
August 00) 85°55 76°01
September a 86-01 76:18
October Aas 89°21 76°43
November st 89°54 | 72:80
December ‘id 87°43 | 69°18

Mean yearly temperature : Silos

Mean maximum temperature: 87°83°F.

Mean minimum temperature: 74:48°F.
Highest maximum temperature for 7 years : 92°7°F. in May 1952,
Lowest minimum temperature for 7 years: 65°2°F. in Jan, 1951,

199 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

HuMIDITY

Due to its proximity to the sea, the moisture content of the air at the
National Park remains fairly high throughout the year. There are slight
changes from season to season; in the monsoon, the moisture content
may reach close to 190 and seldom goes below 80%. In the dry season,
especially in the months of February and March, the moisture content goes
down to 60%. In addition to this seasonal change, there is a daily variation,
the relative humidity being high in the early hours of the morning,
decreasing to a minimum at about 3 p.m. and thereafter going up through
the evening and night to the maximum of early morning.

TABLE 5
RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Average for 1946-1952

Month = ggg rs 18.1. | 1700 brs LS."
January a UP ak | 63°4
February oat 74°) | 61:3
March ae Usx7 | 62:4
April 73°8 | 65:7
May a 73°8 | 66:0
June oe 81°7 | Use
July Son 86:8 | 82:7
August | 86:3 | 81°5
September at 86°4 | 79°0
October see 78°5 | 74:0
November be 73°8 | 68'3
December 83 Yor | - 63:7

|

Mean annual humidity at 08:00 hrs. LS.T.: 77°6%.
Mean annual humidity at 17-00 hrs. L.S.T.: 70:2%.

WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY
The general direction of the wind throughout the dry months of the

year is from North or the North-east. During the first half of the
monsoon, from June to about the end of August, the winds blow from

BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF KRISHNAGIR]I NATIONAL PARK i91

South-west to North-east, at times with considerable force; during
September and the early part of October, the winds change into a North-
west to South-east direction and are generally considerably slower than in
the early part of the monsoon. Occasionally we have had gales reaching
a speed of about 90 m.p.h. (November 22, 1948). During the dry
months of the year, there is usually a gentle breeze blowing from the sea
inwards and lasting from about 11 a.m. to about 3 p.m.

In general, climatic conditions in the National Park are very similar
to those in Bombay-with a few noteworthy differences. In the low-lying
ground along the river and road in the Park, the temperature may be
rather unpleasant at noon, the reason being that the hills forming the
boundary of the Park enclose the area and keep out much of the breeze.
On the other hand, the higher parts near the Kanheri Caves are
considerably cooler than Bombay, and during the monsoon receive a
larger quantity of rainfall than the plains or the rest of Salsette and
Bombay Islands. In spite of the high temperatures mentioned above, the
Park remains fairly covered with green plants through the greater part of
the year; the probable cause for this seems to be the abundance
of water in the district and the high moisture content of the atmos-
phere.

GEOLOGICAL DATA

There is little that can be said about the geology of the Krishnagiri
National Park that doesnot apply to most of Salsette Island. The general
type of rock of the whole area must be classed as ‘Deccan Trap’. Such
rocks are thought to have been formed as the result of volcanic action ;
they are generally rather dark, almost black, in colour and fairly hard.
However, in the area under consideration, three distinct types of volcanic
rocks have been observed :

(1) Volcanic breccia,
(2) Basic lavas or basalt,
(3) Acid lavas or rhyolitic.

The Kanheri Hills in which the Caves have been carved show a dome-
shaped structure and are chiefly made of volcanic breccia; this type of
rock is practically restricted to the part of the hills in the neighbourhood
of the Caves. ‘The soil cap on this type of rock is either very thin or
altogether absent. It is, therefore, impossible to have large trees on such
ground except in depressions where the soil has gathered, or in large
cracks in the rocks. The rocks are impervious to water.

The hills forming the arms of the horse-shoe, of which Kanheri is the
centre, are made of basalt or basic lava. ‘This type of rock covers the
larger portion of the area. Soil is fairly abundant specially in the low-
lying parts where soil brought down by the rains is gathered. The rocks
themselves are very dark, almost black, but the soil may at times be rather
reddish on account of the high concentration of iron.

The third type of rock is found from close to the railway station of
Borivli to Pavillion Hill and extends northwards up to Dahisar River. The
contrast between these two types—acid and basic lavas—can be clearly
seen along the channel of Dahisar River.

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

THE VEGETATION OF KRISHNAGIRI NATIONAL PARK

As stated above, the entrance to the Park is about § mile E. of Borivli
Station. Just within the Park, and near its entrance, is situated the
National Park Hotel and a little further into the Park, the Administrative
Offices, Recreation Ground, etc. The first hill encountered when entering
from Borivli is Pavillion Hill(No. 4 in the map) from which a good view
may be had of practically the whole ofthe Park. The slopes of Pavillion
Hili ate botanically very interesting ; the trees and shrubs are decidedly of
the Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous Type of Cham-
pion. Going further into the Park along the main road, the country is
intensively cultivated in spots, rice being the main crop; Bovassus flabelli-
fey Linn. is the most common tree in this part, in or near the cultivated
fields.

The central valley, along which the road and river run, is practically
bare of vegetation except in the immediate neighbourhood of the river.
The altitude of the valley is about 15 ft. above sea level. The banks and.
bed of the river show the vegetation typical of such habitats. The banks
of the river are often covered with woody plants such as WAolarrhena
antidysenterica Wall., Mangifera indica Linn., Woodfordia truticosa Kurz.,
Kirganelia reticulata Baill., Homonoia riparia Lour., Pongamia pinnata
Pierre, Syzygium cumini Skeels, etc. Pongamta pinnata Pierre becomes
particularly common along the river at the part where the ground begins
to rise, until in the higher reaches, it becomes a large tree and covers
the banks to the exclusion of almost everything else.

Climbing on the shrubs of the river banks we have noticed, among the
commonest, the following plants: Derris scandens Benth., Combretum
ovalifolium Roxb., Argyreta nervosa Boj., Smatlax zeylanica Linn., Jasmi-
num malabaricum Wt.

In the bed of the river, during the dry months of the year, the com-
monest plants are Rotula aguatica Lour. and Homonoia riparia Lour.
Near the water orin very moist places Polygonum glabrum Willd. grows
in great abundance. In drier parts, Glaus Jlototdes Linn., Argemone
mexicana Linn., Coldenta procumbens Linn., etc. grow in fairly good
abundance.

Scattered on either side of the main road, there are a number of pools
which show an almost constant composition in vegetation. JAomoea
aquatica Forsk. grows in water or in very wet soil; Utricularia stellaris
Linn, and Limnophila sessilitlora Blume grow submerged in water
except for the inflorescence ; Vymphaea pubescens Willd., Limnanthemum
cvistatum Griesb., Limnanthemum tndicum Thw., Azolla and others float
on the surface. After the disappearance of the water, but before the
ground becomes dry, one finds an abundance of Grangea maderaspatana
Poir., Coldenta procumbens Linn., Sphaevanthus indicus Linn., Polygonum
plebejum R. Br., Glinus lotoides Linn., Dopatrium junceum Buch.-Ham.,
tlydrolea zeylanica Vahl, several species of Lindernia and a large number
of Cyperaceae and Gramineae ; often semi- parasitic species of ‘ Scvophul-
avtaceaé grow on the roots of such grasses.

Vegetation along the Main Road

The vegetation on the road itself, during the dry months of the year,
is typically of a strongly xerophytic type and includes many of the weeds

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BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF KRISHNAGIRI NATIONAL PARK 193

seen in similar habitats in the neighbourhood of Bombay. Among the
commoner plants are the following :
Euphorbia hivta Linn, Phyllanthus stmplex Retz.
Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn.
and several species of prostrate Alyszcarpus and Desmodium.

On many occasions we have noticed several alien plants on the road,
showing thereby the means of introduction of the same into the district.
Such, for instance, are Gomphrena celosioides Mart., Acanthospermum
hispidum DC. and others.

Along the sides of the road one sees the same plants as on the road
itself, but growing more luxuriantly, and in addition are the following
plants given roughly in the order of abundance:

Fy ptis suaveolens Poit. Cleome viscosa Linn.

Celosia argentea Linn. Cassia mtmosoides Linn.

Sesamum indicum Linn. Aeschynomene indica Linn.

Vernonia cinerea Less. Martynia annua Linn.

Achyranthes aspera Linn. vat. Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad.
porphyristachya Hook. f. et Wendl.

Physalis minima Linn. Cassia tora Linn.

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees.

Among the foreign or cultivated plants being introduced into the
district, the following are noticeable :

Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Physalis peruviana Linn.
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Gomphrena celosioides Mart.
Xanthium strumarium Linn. Sesanum indicum Linn.
Hyptis suaveolens Poit. Martynia annua Linn.

Some of these plants, e.g. dcanthospermum, are now well established
within the entrance to the Park ; unless measures are taken to check it,
this weed, within a few years, may spread all over the National Park.

The Hills along the Main Road

_ The vegetation of the hills N. and 8. of the main Park road is clearly
of secondary formation; the original forest has almost completely dis-
appeared from the whole Park area. The regenerated forest has also been
subjected to much despoliation, so that, in consequence, it is very rare
now to find a tree over 50 feet in height.

_ The forest, or whatever is left of it, can be roughly classed in the
‘Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest’ or
‘Deciduous Monsoon Forest’ Type of Champion. In many
parts of the so-called forest, only shrubs of up to 8-10 feet remain.
Even in better parts of the forest, it is not easy to distinguish the various
storeys or layers which are so typical in other parts of the country.
Where such storeys can be distinguished, the following is their

composition :

(a) Top Layer (30-50 ft. in height) :
The commonest trees forming this storey are the following ;

Terminalia crenulata Roth. Tectona grandis Linn. f.
Gavuga pinnata Roxb. — Bridelia squamosa Gehrm.

194. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Butea monosperma Kuntze. Mallotus philippensis Muell-Arg.
Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. Adina cordifolia Bth. and Hk.
Ficus gibbosa Blame Oroxylum indicum Vent.

var. parasitica King. Kirganelia veticulata Baill.

(0) Middle Layer (6-15 ft.) :
This layer is made up of seedlings of the plants forming the upper

layer and of a few woody plants among which the following are
common :

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Morinda ttnctorta Roxb. vat.
Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. tomentosa Hook. f.

Zizyphus glaberrima Sant. Melanthesa turbinata Wight.
Helicteres isora Linn. Carvia callosa Bremek,

Pavetta indica Linn. Solanum indicum Linn.

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl. Antsomeles heyneana Benth.

Grewta microcos Linn.

(c) Ground Layer :

This is made up of grasses and a few herbaceous species none of
which, however, is sufficiently common in the -dry season to give a
distinctive appearance to this layer. The commoner plants are: AHfemi-
graphis latebrosa Nees var. heyneana Bremek., Haplanthus tentaculatus
Nees var. zcestana Sant., Orthosiphon glabratus Benth., and others.

(dz) Climbers :
Scattered all over the forest and going at times over the highest
trees are the following climbers :

Aspidopterys cordata A. Juss. Derris scandens Benth.

Dalbergia volubilis Roxb. Cylista scari9sa Roxb.

Jasminum malabaricum Wight. Zizyphus rugosa Lamk.

Combretum ovalifolium Joxb. Cansjera rheedii Gmel.

Cry ptolepis buchananit R. & S. Pueraria tulerosa DC.

Species of Czsswzs and <Anzpe- Argyreta nervosa Boj.
Loctssus.

Scattered ali over the forest one also finds a large number of bamboos
(Bambusa bambos Voss.) in massive clumps. On the southern hills, the
bamboos occur in relatively small clumps scattered more or less over the
hills. On the northern side of the road, large stretches have been taken
over by the bamboo to the exclusion of almost everything else.

Most of the trees forming the vegetation of the northern and southern
hills are deciduous. ‘There are, however, a number of evergreen plants
more or less restricted to the middle layer, which are not sufficiently
common or abundant to change the deciduous appearance of the forest.
Further, we have observed that although the individual components of
the forest may be deciduous, yet the forest never reaches that stage of
nakedness which one sees in the districts round Poona and further in the
Deccan, ‘The reason for this is that the trees on our hills shed their
leaves at different times so that, in general, all through the year one can
see plenty of green foliage even in the so-called deciduous forest.

BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF KRISHNAGIRI NATIONAL PARK 195

THE VEGETATION ABOVE THE CAVES

The vegetation above the Caves is scanty owing principally to the
scarcity of soil and water. ‘The ground is practically bare rock with but
a few cracks where a small amount of soil gives some hardy plants a very
precarious foothold. In the higher reaches, up to the very highest point,
the soil is also scanty and so is the vegetation. Among the trees or shrubs
noted on the higher parts above the Caves, the following may be
metioned ;

Sterculia uvens Roxb. Tectona grandis Linn.
Salmalia insignis Schott. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.
& Endl. floloptelea integrifolia Planch.
Lannea grandis Engler. Carvia callosa Bremek.
Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall. Barleria lawit Anders.
Flymenodictyon obovatum Wall. Haplanthus verticillatus Nees.

Gardenia luctda Roxb.

There are some common climbers growing on these trees, among them
the commonest being TZ znospora cordifolia Miers. and Smzlax zevlanica
Linn.

On the higher ground above the Caves, there are several natural or
artificial tanks or pools which keep some of their water well into the dry
season ; the soil in such tanks retains its moisture much longer. We have
noticed a number of hygrophytic plants growing in such pools in the dry
season, among which the following are among the commonest and most
abundant :

Portulaca olevacea Linn. Ageratum conyzoides Linn.
Mollugo opposttitolia Linn. Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl.
Gnaphalium indicum Linn. Cyperus pygmacus Rottb.
Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. Cyperus ivia Linn.

SLOPES BELOW THE CAVES

In the slopes immediately below the Caves, there are several densely
wooded spots some of which in character seem to approach the evergreen
forest. The height of the tallest trees in such spots is up to 45 feet
(13°5m.); the layers or storeys which we find in the wetter parts of
Bombay State are not clear in this locality. There is a mixture of
trees between about 10 and 45 feet, but the trees are not grouped or
divided in any way according to heights. The following list mentions
the commoner trees or tree-like plants found on the slopes below the
caves and the arrangement in roughly what we think is the order of
abundance :

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Salmalia malabarica Schott. &
Morinda tinctoria Roxb. Endl.

var. tomentosa Hook. f. Lannea grandis Engler.
Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Kydia calycina Roxb.
Helecteres tsova Linn. Bambusa bambos Voss.
Trema orientalis Blume. Zizyphus glaberrima Sant.
Bridelia squamosa Gehrm. Erythrina variegata Linn.
Tectona grandis Linn. f. var. orzentalts Merrill.

3

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Acacia suma Buch.-Ham. Melanthesa turbinata Wight.
Adina corditolia Bth. & Hk. Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wall
Butea monosperma O. Kuntze. Terminalia crenulata Roth.
Mallotus philibpensis Garuga pinnata Roxb.
Muell-Arg. Tamarindus indica Linn.
Trewia polycarpa Benth. Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.

Grewia microcos Linn.

The ground vegetation on the slopes below the Caves is practically
non-existent throughout the dry season. Among the smaller plants 1n
such spots the following are fairly common :

Solanum indicum Vainn. Hibiscus hirtus Linn.
Neuracanthus trinervius Wt. Anisomeles heyneana Benth.

The climbers on the large trees in these spots are showy either because
of their flowers or because of the size and shape of their leaves. The
commonest among them are:

Dalbergia volubilis Roxb. Cylista scartosa Roxb.
Jasminum malabaricum Wight Cansjera rheedit Gmel.
Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. Zizyphns rugosa Lamk.
Calycopteris floribunda Lamk. Zizyphus oenoplia Mill.

Cry ptolepis buchanani R. & 5S. Smilax zeylanica Linn.
Argyrveia nervosa Boj. Cissus repanda Vahl.
Dioscorea hispida Dennst. Ampelocissus latttolia Planch.

Coming down the slopes a little further, (No. 9 on map) there is a spot
where Acacia suma Buch.Ham. and 7J7vewia polycarpba Benth. are so
abundant as to be dominant at least along the road ; the forest is very thin
and much smaller than in the previous part but here we have noticed a
number of interesting trees which are somewhat rare elsewhere. Among
them mention must be made of

Adina covditotia Bth. & Hk. Trewia polycarpa Benth.
Salmalia malabarica Schott. Ovoxylum tndicum Vent.
& Endl. Wrightia tinctorta R. Br.
Butea monosperma O. Kuntze. Zizyphus glaberrima Sant.
Ficus glomerata Roxb. Grewia titiaefolia Vahl.
Ficus hispida Linn. Morinda tinctorta Roxb.
Bridelia squamosa Gehrm. var. tomentosa Hook. f£.
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Melanthesa turbinata Wight.
Cassia fistula Linn. Lantana camara Linn,
Lagerstroemta lanceolata Wall. var. aculeata Moldenke.
Sterculia foetida Linn. FTelicteres tsora Linn.
Bambusa bambos Voss. Calotropis gigantea R, Br.

Acacia suma Buch.—Ham.

Among the climbers we have noticed again Derrzs scandens Benth.,
Aspidoplerys cordata Juss., Dioscorea hispida CIEE Smilax acullnaian
Linn., Argyréta nervosa Boj. and others.

BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF KRISHNAGIR] NATIONAL PARK 197

Changes induced by the Monsoon

After the first few showers towards the end of May or the beginning
of June, several bulbous plants of the families Amaryllidaceae, Liliaceae
and Scztaminaceae come into flower, even before the leaves appear above
the ground. Commonest among such plants are Curculigo orchivides
Gaertn., Crinum latifolium Linn., Curcuma tnodora Blatt., Pancratium
parvum Dalz., Scilla hyacinthina MacBride and others like Dioscorea
oppostttfolia Linn. and Amorphophallus sp.

Soon after that, in about a week or two, the whole ground, in open
places, becomes carpeted with a variety of sprouting grasses which cover
the whole surface with a vivid green,

Throughout the rains, in the undergrowth of the forest, there are
hardly any changes except for a variety of fungi and occasional plants
of Aeginetia indica Linn., Curcuma inodora Blatt., Murdannia scapitlorum
Royle, Zacca pinnatifida Forst., Anorphophallus sp.

On the edges of the forest, however, numerous plants typical of the
rains begin growing, and by about the middle of the monsoon the follow-
ing plants are among the commonest :

Melothria maderaspatana Cogn. Astevacantha ltongttolta Nees.
Melothria heterophylla Cogn. Barlerita prattensis Sant.
Cucumts callosus Cogn. Haplanthus tentaculatus Nees. var.
Trichosanthes bracteata Voigt. neestana Sant.
Momordica dioica Roxb. Flaplanthus verticillatus Nees.
Lutta acutangula Roxb. Flemigraphis latebrosa Nees. vat.
var. amara C. B. Clarke. heyneana Bremek.
Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. Rungta pectinata Nees,
Thunbergia tfragrans Roxb. Rostellularia procumbens Nees.
Asystasta dalzelliana Sant. Costus speciosus Sm.
Sopubia delphinitolia G. Don. Rhamphicarpa longitlora Benth.
Stviga astatica Kuntze. Murdannia scapitlorum Royle.

Evanthemum purpurascens Nees. Linderniamseveral sp.

In open places, in addition to the grasses, the ground is covered by
species of Papilionaceae and other Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Compositae,
etc. Common among these are:

Desmodium—several spp. Sesamum indicum Linn.
Alysicarpus—several spp. Mariynia annua Linn.
Crotalarta—several spp. Anolis foetida Bth. & Hk.
Teramnus labialis Spr. Borreria stricta K. Schum.
Aeschynomene indica Linn. Borreria hispida K. Schum.
Smithia—several spp. Senecio grahamé Hook. f.
Cassta absus Linn. Tridax procumbens Linn.
Cassia tora Linn. Ageratun conyzoides Linn,

Fleurya interrupta Gaud.

On the rocks above the Caves, the commonest plants during the
rains are Dipcadi saxorum Blatt., Eulophia ochreata Lindl., Utricularia
striatula Sm., Begonia crenata Dryand., Ophioglossum sp., Eviocaulon sp.
etc.

198 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

On more or less vertical rock walls we have noticed some grasses and
other plants. Among them are 7Z7yvifogon sp., Arthraxon sp., and a
multitude of algae, fungi and bryophytes; vertical walls towards the end
of the monsoon are practically covered with a dense green mantle of
vegetation. The upper slopes above the Caves become very slippery on
account of such plants, particularly the cryptogams.

Even such parts of the forest as are apparently less affected by the
monsoon become covered with a luxuriant growth of climbers and other
large-leaved plants which finally give the forest the appearance of the
densely evergreen forest of the south of our State.

DISTRIBUTION OF OUR PLANTS

The following list has been compiled so as to show the origin of the
plants composing the flora of the Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli. As
is well known, Bombay State has three very distinct elements in its flora—
one coming from the Malayan region, another from North-eastern and
Central India and a third one from North Africa through Asia Minor.

It will also be observed that some plants are endemic to Bombay
State and so far have not spread to other parts of India. Other plants
are common to Bombay and South India, and so on. In tabular form,
our results may be summarized thus. The first column shows the
distribution of the plants in various parts of the world. The second
column gives the number of species for each group and the third column
gives the percentage of each group as compared with the total number
of species of gamopetalous phanerogams found by us in the Park.

WABI G

ORIGIN OF THE PLANTS OF KRISHNAGIRI NaTIONAL PARE

Plants of | Number Percentage
|
Bombay State ait a 4 2°13
Bombay and South India he Sat | 15 i 8°55
Bombay and other parts of India oe | 48. | 25°65
West Asia and North Africa ... a | 19 10°16
Bast Asia and Malaya a “alten ipa 7 25+13
‘Tropics... 500 aC a S4 | 28°87

SO ats Se

C.E.C. Fischer in the Flora of Madras, following Hooker f., lists the
10 most abundant families for Madras. We have drawn a similar list for

BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF KRISHNAGIRI NATIONAL PARK 199

the families of gamopetalous angiosperms, and our results are the
following :

AD N33 183 7
Order Family ReeNTetiulen oneninaa ores
| | Nine

1 | Compositae re | 36 7 7
2 Acanthaceae e. | 27 6 | 4
3 | Convolvulaceae ore | 22 |
4 | Rubiaceae sa | 20 4 3
5 | Scrophulariaceae Sn 13
6 | Solanaceae Sai 9
7 | Labiatae 8 9 9
8 | Verbenaceae 6
9 | Asclepiadaceae oh 6

10 | Apocynaceae 6

11 | Bignoniaceae 6 |

ae Te a a a TN SD

Our METHOD OF EXPLORATION AND RESULTS

Our work has been rather intense, in the sense that the Park was
visited at least once every week for three years. During the monsoon
mote frequent visits were paid, so as not to miss anything of interest in the
flora of the Park. The whole area was divided into five or six small
portions or areas; each one of these smaller areas was inspected at least
once every month, so that roughly the whole Park was studied every
month, and the various changes in the vegetation carefully noted in our
field books.

After collection of the plants, these were taken to the laboratory and
dissected carefully before mounting on herbarium sheets; the plants were
at once sketched from the living specimen, and a large number of accurate
drawings made of the individual plants and their important parts. Such
drawings will form an integral part of the complete flora of the Krishna-
giri National Park.

Although our work was mainly of a taxonomic nature, we paid great
attention to the various associations of the plants of the Park, to their
phenology etc. For our descriptions of the various plants we relied mainly
on fresh specimens, though we did make use of the many specimens in
Blatter Herbarium, Bombay. The data thus collected are all first-hand,
and in many respects differ from the details found in published books on
the subject,

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Our results have been most encouraging ; we have noted a number
of new records, plants that had never previously been recorded for
Bombay ; a very large number of data have been recorded by us that in
many respects differ from the published accounts of the plants under con-
sideration ; in all such cases of discrepancy we have made it a point to
study the plant in the field again and again until we were quite satished
that our observations were correct according to the actual facts seen
in nature. We have added a few new plants to the flora of India.

It is our hope that in the near future the other parts of the flora of the
Krishnagiri National Park will be worked out by other workers and that
in time we shall be able to publish a complete illustrated flora of the Park,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE MAP OF THE BOMBAY

HARBOUR & ITS SURROUNDING Up
AREAS.

THAW,

fTROMBAY I

4,

ayoewas TIMOG
gv

a)

big PAY
POND La

MAY BuubER,

MAZAGOR,

m wes IS
Ss k ELEPHRATA,
a
PRanee’s Beck, BUTCHER,
VICTORIA peck,

ALER deck.

NHAY
MALABAR

Cros Isiaus)

TUcKsas
PATER,

ANCH,
Va TEREDO

<== muo Bs BANKIA
—

Aen Ms: M Ti 1A
49202 ROCKS BETES
“aceee
Pi

RPO

MARINE ORGANISMS INJURIOUS TO SUBMERGED
TIMBER IN THE BOMBAY HARBOUR

BY
V. C. PALEKAR AND D. V. BAL
(Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay)

(With one plate, 12 figures, and a map)

Since ancient times, timber has been highly prized in marine con-
structions, particularly for ship-building, piles, fenders, bridges, ladders
etc. At the same time the colossal economic loss caused on account of
deterioration of timber structures through the action of marine organisms
is well known. Nevertheless, treated timber is now recognised as being
more suitable for certain purposes than metal or concrete by reason of
its high resistance to corrosion, its elasticity, light weight, and compara-
tively low cost, coupled with high salvage value. In the United States,
the United Kingdom and many other parts of the world, preservation of
timber by impregnation with preservative chemicals under pressure has
been practised to overcome the damage caused by marine wood borers,
and of late the problem has been receiving some attention in India also.
An investigation on ‘The Protection of Timber against the attack of
Marine Organisms’ has been recently undertaken at the Institute of
Science, Bombay, under the auspices of the Wood Preservation Branch,
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. The present account deals with
the observations made on the marine organisms and their destructive
activity on timber in the Bombay Harbour and other places in the
neighbourhood.

THE MARINE WOOD BORERS.

The marine wood borers in general belong to two main groups-
namely, the Mollusca and the Crustacea. The molluscan borers are
represented by two distinct families of the class Lamellibranchiata, viz.,
(i) Teredinidae and (ii) Pholadidae. The former represents the entire
group of ‘Shipworms ’—TZevedo spp. and Bankia spp.—while the latter
includes the ‘ Piddocks ’—Martesia spp. and the Xylophaga sp. Amongst
the crustacean borers some members of the family Sphaeromidae, of the
subclass Isopoda, are well known for their destruction to timber. These
are mainly Sphaeroma vastator and Limnoria lignorum, popularly known
as the Gribble.

A survey of the marine borers from Bombay, carried out during
1953-54 revealed four species of Zevedo, three of Bankia and two of
Martesia. The most common among them are 7. reynez, Bankia setacea
and Martesia striata. The other three species of Zevedo occasionally
recorded are 7. navalis, T. austint and T. pertingens. B. debenhami
and B&B. drevis are also obtained. The crustacean borers are found to be
practically absent.

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

THE SHrpworms. (Figs. 1 and 10)

These wormlike Lamellibranchs (figs. 1, 6) have long delicate body,
provided with specialized mechanisms for boring, respiration and pro-
tection, to suit the unique type of life they lead in timber. The boring
apparatus consists of a pair of shell valves (figs. 2, 3, 7 and 8) surroun-
ding the head region. The anterior and niiddle regions of each shell are
covered with sharp, pointed, parallel ridges of teeth, which serve in
scraping the wood surface, by the backward and forward movement of
the valves. At the hindmost extremity of the body, there is a pair of
delicate contractile tubes, the siphons (figs. 4 and 9) which project through
the minute opening of the burrow. The ventral or incurrent siphon
(SPH. IN) serves in intake of fresh water current for respiration, while the
excreta and fragments of wood taken in during the boring process are
discharged through the dorsal or the excurrent siphon (SPH. Ex). The
animal is afforded maximum protection by having a minute opening for
its comparatively large burrow and a pair of hard calcareous structures,
the pallets (figs. 4 and 9, pL), closing the opening against any external
injury. The forward and backward movement of the pallets is brought
about by muscular attachments in the collar region (CL). The two
genera, namely 7evedo and Bankia can be distinguished at a glance by the
structure of the pallets. They are paddle or spoon-shaped in Zeredo and
plume-shaped with cone-in-cone elements in Baxkia (figs. 5 and 10). The
pallets serve aS an important character in distinguishing the species of
Teredo and Bankia, considering the great variety in their shape and
structure.

It is interesting to note, that the shipworms have free-swimming larval
forms, which move about for some time in search of a timber material.
Soon after they settle on timber, the bivalve shell is developed. With
the help of this, they start scraping timber, and grow with the size of the
burrow into the worm-like adults. It is noteworthy that the burrows
generally run parallel to the grain of timber. The burrow is the home of
the individual, and once the shipworm is encased in it, it can never leave
it, as the opening of the burrow is as small as a pin’s head. After
attaining a certain growth, these borers line their burrows with a film of
pearly nacre, secreted by the mantle, and thus form hard calcareous tubes,
which afford additional protection to the delicate body of the individual.

Tue Pippocks. (Figs. 11 and 12)

The Piddocks of the genus JZartes‘a are much similar to small
mussels, and are pearshaped in appearance. They are highly destructive
to timber making pearshaped pockets running across the grain of the
timber. ‘The body of each individual is enclosed in a bivalve shell and is
provided with paired tubular siphons, serving the same purpose as in
shipworms. Similarly, they are capable of infecting timber only while
minute larval forms, which gradually excavate burrows in timber with
the help of their shells to accommodate the growing body.

Very little is known about the existence of the chief groups of marine
wood borers and their distribution in the Bombay Harbour. A coastal
survey of the Harbour was therefore undertaken with the object of
inspecting the remnants of some old wooden structures, fenders, ladders
and such other timber material, deteriorating by the action of marine

J] divig

*AVQUIOL J,
ye opasay, AQ paXOIjsap silopudy JO SUOT}IAS-SsOIZ)

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‘309 ‘ISIET ‘JUN Avquiog ‘uanor

2mm.

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MARINE ORGANISMS INJURIOUS TO TIMBER 208

borers (see map). Some of the observations made during the year
1953-54 are given below.

MARTESIA

LATERAL VIEW

y
DORSAL VIEW

Figs. 11 and 12.

Considering the damage done by the borers to many of the timber
beams left on the mud flats at Sewri, this locality appears to be favourable
for the growth and dispersal of the shipworms as they are predominant in
this area. Specimens of Zevedo, ranging from 5-350 mm. and of Bankia
from 5-410 mm. in length have been so far noted from this locality
(plate). It is interesting to note that a number of timber beams, as large
as 50 to 60 cu. ft. each, have been completely destroyed by these borers.
At Trombay, some discarded wooden fenders revealed the severe damage
by TZeredo (photo). Other localities where the shipworms, particularly
Teredo, were found to occur are Butcher Island, Uran, Worli shore,
Bandra shore, Versova and Madh Island.

The Piddocks (Martesia sp.) were also found to occur in certain
localities in the Harbour waters. A timber log of the size of about a
railway sleeper beneath the Pir Pau Jetty was heavily infested by these
organisms. Some pieces of timber lying about and an old ladder along
the jetty were also completely damaged by ‘the activities of the same
borer. The piles of an old wooden jetty at Madh Island were also infest-
ed by Martesta alone. Remnants of an old country craft on the mud
flat at Madh Island, however, indicated the existence of all the three types,
viz. Zeredo, Bankia and Martesia, in this locality. A few forms of
piddocks have been collected from some beams at Sewri Timber Pond
along with the shipworms and also from a stray scantling on the Bandra

204, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

shore. The deteriorated wooden fenders from the Naval jetty at Trom-
bay were also found to be attacked by Martesia to some extent. It is of
interest to note that A/artesia has been also noticed to bore in certain soft
rocks at Chaupati (Back Bay) and along the Bandra shore. The observa-
tions made during the survey seem to indicate that Martesta is commonly
found along Pir Pau and Madh Island. The size of the /artesta specimens
varied between 8 to 35 mm. in length.

It appears from the observations made so far that the marine wood
borers are to some extent confined to certain localities in their distribution.
The shipworms are vigorously active at Sewri Timber Pond, and
piddocks at Pir Pau and Madh Island. They are generally found to
occur on separate timber structures, though occasionally the three genera,
namely Martesia, Teredo, and Bankia, are taken from the same.

Further work relating to the distribution and movements of the
borers and the relative intensity of their attack on various species of Indian
timbers is in progress at this Institute.

The above work has been carried out with funds provided by the
Forest Research Institute, specially obtained from various sources for the
execution of the scheme on the protection of Indian timbers against the
attack of marine organisms.

REFERENCES

1. Bartsch, P. (1922) : ‘A monograph of American shipworms,’ U.S. Nat.
Mus. Bull. No. 122.

2. Calman, W. T. (1919) : ‘Marine boring animals injurious to submerged
structures.’ Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. Econ. Ser. No. 10, 34 pp.

3. Iredale, T., Johnson, R. A. & McNeill, F. A. (1932) : ‘Destruction of tim-
ber by marine organisms in the port of Sydney.’ Publ. Sydney Harbour Trust.

4, Kofoid, C. A. & Miller, R. C. (1927): ‘ Marine borers and their relation to
marine construction on the Pacific Coast.’ Final Report of the San Francisco Bay
Marine Piling Committee, Biological section, pp. 188-343.

5. Sigerfoos,C. P. (1908) : ‘ Natural history, organisation and late develop-
ment of the Teredinidae or Shipworms.’ Aull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 27, pp. 191-231,

THE ‘SLUG’ CATERPILLAR, PARASA LEPIDA
CRAM., AND ITS CONTROL

BY
K. P. ANANTHANARAYANAN
AND
E. V. ABRAHAM
Madras Agricultural Department

(With one plate)
INTRODUCTION

The slug caterpillars belong to the family Eucleidae (Limacodidze) of
the order Lepidoptera. Ayyar (1932) has recorded a few forms such as
Pazasa lepida Cram., Contheyla rotunda Hampson, Natada nararia Moore,
Thosea cervina Moore, and Beltppa laleana Moore, as occurring in South
India on various plants. Of these Pavasa lepida Cram., is the commonest
and most important, and is usually known as the Castor Slug. The insect
has appeared in pest form, twice in the College orchard, Coimbatore,
during the past dozen years. The studies on the life cycle and general
morphology of the larvae were made by the senior author during 1934
when the pest appeared in a severe form, defoliating mango trees. At the
second severe outbreak of the pest on mango and citrus, in the year 1953,
the observations were continued and some trials were conducted with
success on the control of the pest by use of synthetic chemicals, A
brief account of the pest together with observations on the control aspects
are recorded hereunder.

THE INSECT AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

The adult insect is a short stout moth (fig. 1) with forewings predomi-
nently green in the middle and brownish at either end. According to
Ayyar (1940), Burns ef al, (1921), Corbett (1932), and Venkatasubban
(1950), the insect is widely distributed in South India, Bombay and Bengal,
as well asin Malaya and Ceylon, outside India.

NATURE AND EXTENT OF DAMAGE

The caterpillar is known to infest a variety of plants. Citrus and
mango plants were found severely damaged and castor to a lesser extent
during 1953, as observed by the authors. The young caterpillars feed
gregariously on the lower surface of the tender leaves scraping the green
matter and causing the eventual drying up of the foliage. As the cater-
pillars grow in size, they scatter themselves and start feeding on the entire
leaves. Young mango and citrus plants get defoliated completely. Badly
affected castor plants bear only the skeletonized leaves, the entire leaf
blade being reduced to the mid-rib and a few veins. Corbett (1932)

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

and Venkatasubban (1950) have observed the pest causing serious damage
to coconut palm by the larvee eating the green matter of the leaflets, and
ultimately leading to the drying up of the fronds. Besides the above
plant, the insect has been recorded as infesting aiso Palmyra, Wood
Apple, Pepper, Pomegranate, Cauliflower, Tea, Coffec, Banana, Rose,
Country almond etc. (Barlow 1900, Fletcher 1914, and Lefroy 1909).
The insect is thus a polyphagous one, subsisting on a variety of plants.

Apart ,from its role as a serious pest, the caterpillar is dreaded by
man for the acute irritation and pain it causes at the slightest contact with
human skin.

Lirk History AND NATURE OF THE CATERPILLAR

Various authors have broadly indicated the general habits or life his-
tory of the insect. Corbett (1932) and Venkatasubban (1950) have
furnished more details. The bionomics were studied at Coimbatore by
the senior author in 1934. The’moths in captivity did not lay eggs.
As observed under field conditions, the moth is known to deposit flat
shining eggs in batches of 20-30 on the underside of the leaves. The
caterpillars hatch out in about 6-7 days and begin to feed on the green
matter of the foliage near about the site of eggs, all remaining together.
The caterpillars reared (figs. 2 and 3) become full grown, measuring
about an inch in length with stout body, in about 6 weeks. ‘The cater-
pillar has 4 rows of spiny scoli placed laterally and dorsally, (figs. 4 and 5).
The ventral surface is flat and fleshy, and the larva moves slug-like.
Coloration is white on the ventral surface and greenish above. The
spines on the scoli (fig. 5) are numerous, tipped red or black, and
they cause irritation and pain by glandular secretion. The full grown
larva pupates in a thick shell-like cocoon, (fig. 6). The pupal cocoon is
compact, elliptical, chocolate-brown in colour at first, later turning grey,
and hard. ‘The upper surface is convex and the lower surface flat, and
each cocoon is provided with a circular lid to allow exit for the emerging
moth. Sometimes thousands of these are found attached to the trunks
and branches of attacked trees. The pupal period lasts for about 3 weeks.
Even the cocoon is irritating to the touch. The life cycle is completed in
about 10 weeks. ;

PROBLEM OF CONTROL

(1) Natural Enemies

Ayyar (1934 and 1940) and Thompson (1946) make mention of
predators and parasites which are about a dozen. The following parasites
and predators are recorded in South India at Coimbatore:

(1) Apanteles sp. } :
(2) Chinocentrus sp. § penne es
(3) Stomatoceras ayyert G. Chalcidide.
(4) ALurytona parasae G, Eurytomidee.
(5) Phyctta atentinella A. Phycitidee.

But none of these seem to exercise any appreciable check on the pest.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Stim tithe SSS oy

SLUG
PARASA LEPIDA

}
Li .
YOUNG STAGE LARVA

RED SPINY HEADS
iN AEC OMINAL SEGMENTS

Say

<5

?

en.

BObY CONTOUR
IN DIAGRAMATIC SECTION

vad
LA
SPINES & SETAE
LATERAL SCOLUS DORSOLATERAL SCOLUS

COCOON COCcoOON
(Dorsal view) oe Side view)

LE

A MANGO LEAF WITH GREGARIOUS
YOUNG CATERPILLARS

CATER PILLAR

THE ‘SLUG CATERPILLAR AND ITS CONTROL 207

(ii) Older Methods of Control

Fletcher (1914), Ayyar (1940) and others recommended hand pick-
ing of caterpillars, destruction of pupae and spraying of arsenates or other
stomach poisons in bad cases. Mechanical destruction by hand picking
will be effective if it is done in the early stages, when the larvee are
eregarious and many of them are crowded in individual leaves. But in
tall trees infested by large numbers of caterpillars, hand picking becomes
impracticable and especially so when the larvze jhave scattered themselves.
Hand picking has to be ‘done with utmost care as the caterpillars are
highly irritating to the touch.

Sprays of lead arsenate or calcium arsenate have seldom given satis
factory results.

(iii) Trials with new Insecticides

On the occurrence of the pest in serious form on mango and citrus in
and around the College orchard, Coimbatore, during September to Novem-
ber 1953, investigations on its control by means of the synthetic chemicals
DDT and BHC, which are in large scale use for the control of various
other pests, were undertaken. The data gathered from separate trials
conducted on mango and citrus are furnished below.

(a) Trials on Intested Mango trees

Four heavily infested trees of medium size were selected for each
treatment and the population of caterpillars on 25 random leaves per tree
was counted before and after treatment.

TABLE I

Parasa lepida. Vreatment and population counts

|

een = : :
ay s | Population after treatment |
$ Qu} Ss = in “: :
o Bd goa om % ; ___| Percentage of
Treatments SES | Sel | | reduction in
| 998 Gs | a u o opulation
ee eee ee se
Zao 5 Parsar i aoa 3 a
Qu oom | 20 | nN
eer N =H ; ~~
1. BHC 0:905% | 100 SOV) | 38 | wee on 1100 in 43 hrs.
Spray | | | | |
2, DDT 0°16% | 100 | 282 148 | 82 54 (80.8 in 72 hrs.
spray | | | |
3. Control | 100 258 26u | 244 | 278 Nil.

(b) Trials an Citrus planis.

Trials were conducted on similar lines on malta lemon on which
also the pest appeared in severe form. ‘The following results were
obtained.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

TABLE II

Parasa lepida. Population counts on citrus trees

)
ne | § Population after treatment |
Senay ge in |
By A bee Oe thee Beh | Percentage of
Treatments oreo ene g | | reduction in
ogo | ae q Celia 2 | population
en waste fe 5 5 wack
' o Oo | oc G SG
! = a_i ¢ at
|
1. BHC 0°:05% 100 194 16 co | seh 100 in 48 hrs.
spray |
2, DDT 0.16% | 100 210 184 100 | 29 86:2 in 72 hrs.
spray | . |
3. Control 1€0 178 189 168 172 3°4 in 72 hrs.

From the above trials it is seen that BHC 0.05% can effect a complete
mortality of the caterpillars within 48 hours after treatment. In half an
hour after spraying, a number of caterpillars were noted falling down
paralysed, from the trees. DDT showed delayed action, and it did not
give as thorough a control of the pest as BHC used.

In the trials conducted, spraying was adopted in preference to dusting
as the former alone was found practicable for dealing with the caterpillars
which usually remain on the underside of the leaves. The advantage of
spraying is much more felt when tall and densely grown trees have to be

treated.
Cost of treating with BHC 0:05% (Gamma isomer)

Quantity of spray fluid per mango tree of medium size 4 gallons.

IRS ANG IB:

Cost of chemical for treating one tree sco «6
Labour charges (approximate) Bory nea be 2G}
Total oe Ole Ome”)

For preparing 0:05% BHC, 1 Ib. of the 50% wettable powder is mixed in
13 gallons of water. The cost may vary according to the size of the tree
and the volume of spray fluid used. ‘The cost of treatment is invariably

less for citrus plants.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Parasa lepida Cram. is a serious pest of sporadic occurrence on mango,
citrus, castor, coconut and other plants. Its life cycle occupies about
10 weeks. The caterpillar has tubercles and spines on its body, which
are poisonous and irritating to the touch. During heavy outbreaks the
insect defoliates the plants completely. Handpicking and mechanical
destruction are practicable in early stages when the larvae are gregarious,
and affected individual leaves can be clipped. Of the two chemicals,

THE ‘SLUG’ CATERPILLAR AND ITS CONTROL 309

DDT and BHC, tried against the pest, BHC 0:05% (gamma) spray proved
very efficient. The cost of treating a medium sized tree may come to
about six annas (Re 0-6-0) only.

LITERATURE CITED

AvvAR, T. V. R. (1934) : Hymenopterous parasites of economic importance in
South India. Madras Agric. Jour. 12 : 436.

Ayvyar, T. V. R. (194U) : Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India,
pp. 220-222. Government Press, Madras,

BARLow, E. (1900) ; Miscellaneous notes for the Entomology Section, Znadian
Museum Notes 4 (1): 21.

Burns, W. and PravacG, S. H. (1921): The book on mango. Aull. No, 103.
Depi.. of Agric., Bombay, p. 4.

Corsetrt, G. H, (1932) : Insect pests of Coconuts in Malaya, F. M.S. and Straits
Settlements.

FLETCHER, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects, pp. 410-411. Government
Press, Madras.

Lerroy, H. M, (1909): Indian Insect Life, pp. 500-501. Thacker, Spink and
Co., Calcutta.

lHomeson, W.R. (1946): A Catalogue of Parasites and Predators of Insect
Pests—Section 1, part 8, p 436.

VEN KATASUBBAN, C. S, (1950) : Some sporadic pests of Coconuts in Cochin,
Bull, Indian Central Coco. Committee. 3, (7): pp. 78-79.

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY--III

BY
H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I.
AND
C. SALDANHA, SJ., B.Sc. (Hons.)

(With tive plates)

This is a continuation of the series by the senior author, the last num-
ber of which appeared in this Journal (52: 661-663, 1955). Intensive
search of the flora of Bombay by the authors has produced a number of
new records, which so far have not been mentioned for the State of
Bombay in any of our provincial or national Floras. The illustrations are
all by the junior author, who for some time has been working on the
Systematics of the Personales of Bombay. Some of our plants have been
found by us in the field; others have been identified by us in Blatter
Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.

1. WLindernia pyxidaria Allioni in Misc. Taurin. 3: 178, t. 5, 1766;
Linn, Mant. 2: 252, 1771; Haines, Bot. Bih. and Or. 634;
Pennell, Scroph. W. Himal. 28; Mukerjee in Journ. Ind. Bot,
Soc, 24: 131, 1945 (Plate I). Scrophulariac.

Gratiola integritolia Roxb. F1. Ind. 1: 138, 1820.

Vandellia evecta Benth. Scroph. Ind. 36, 1834; FI. Brit. Ind.
4; 281.

Vandellia pyxidaria Maxim.: Prain, Beng. Pl. 769; Gamble, FI.
Madr. 960.

We have followed Hooker, Haines, Pennell etc. in considering the
Indian plant as identical with the European one; further we have taken
Gratiola integrifolia Roxb. to be the same as our plant although Roxb.
includes his plant under Diandria and not under Didynamia.

The present species is supposed to be widespread all over India;
so far, however, it has only been found in Khandala by Santapau in 1953;
it is therefore extremely rare in Bombay State, but further careful search
will probably give more complete data about its distribution in Bombay.

Description: Annual, slender, glabrous herbs. Stems divaricately
branched from the base, rooting at some of the lower nodes. Leaves
opposite, decussate, sessile, elliptic, entire or shallowly and obscurely
erenate, up to 1°5 x 0:7 cms. ; nerves 3-5, parallel.

Flowers solitary, axillary; pedicels slender, longer than the leaves or
sepals, exceeding 1'5 cms. long; calyx 5-lobed, divided almost to the
base ; lobes linear or lanceolate, 2 mm, long in flower, elongating to 3 mm,
in fruit ; corolla 2-lipped, 5 mm. long; stamens 4, fertile, didynamous ;
anterior filaments larger, arched, appendiculate, pubescent at the base ;
the posterior ones shorter, inserted at lower level ; anther-cells entire, con-
nivent at the apex; ovary ovoid, glabrous; style filiform, 2 mm. long ;

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prart |

5mm.

4 A CME.

Lindernia pyxidaria All.

A, Entire plant; B. Calyx with ovary, style and stigma; C, Corolla with
stamens; D, Capsule; E. Seed, highly magnified.

Jourh, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soé. Pyare It

flee oreemrenneeneee i aepeeneenneeennnee Leaner nartememenee S

a n £ Cms,

Utricularia smithiana Wight

A. Entire plant; B. Bracts and bracteoles; C. Flower; D. Calyx with ovary,
style and stigma; E. Upper lip with stamens; F. Seeds highly magnified,

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY—III 211

stigma forked. Capsule subglobose to ovoid, slightly exceeding the
calyx ; seeds oblong, sparingly covered with hyaline hairs.

This plant was collected in Khandala by the senior author in May 1953
(Santapau 12749-12750 of 3 May and 12781-12784 of 23 May), grow-
ing in moist ground near the railway line. It was quite abundant locally ;
the colour of the corolla was noted at the time of collection as bluish or
whitish.

2, Utricularia smithiana Wight, Icon. t. 1577, 1850; Gamble, FI.
Madr. 982, 1924 (Plate II). Lentibulariac.

U. caerulea Linn. var. smithiana Clarke in Hook.f. FI. Brit. Ind.
4: 33], 1884.

Slender annual, insectivorous herb. Rhzzome filiform, bearing bladders.
Leaves linear-spathulate, 7 mm. long. Scafes erect or twining, up to 30
cms. long; scales few, ovate, pointed, 1 mm. long. Flowers pedicellate ;
bract broad, ovate, acute, 1-1:°5 mm. long; bracteoles 2, narrower,
lanceolate, equal to the bract in length; pedicels slender, filiform, 7
mm. long in flower, 155 cms. long ‘in fruit; calyx-lobes 2, slightly
unequal, posterior one broader, ovate, 4 mm. long; the lower one
narrower, 3°5-4 mm. long, shorter than the pedicel, slightly decurrent
in fruit; corolla 2-lipped, ‘ blue shaded mauve lilac’ (Gamble) ; upper lip
obovate, longer than the calyx lobe, 6 mm. long; lower lip broadly
orbicular, pubescent near the throat, 7 mm. long in the North Kanara
Specimens; spur conical, curved outwards, about as long as the lower
lip and larger than the calyx lobes. Stamens 2, on the upper lip;
filaments broad; anthers 2-celled, connivent; ovary lenticular; style
short. Capsule lenticular, enclosed by the enlarged calyx lobes, 2-3 mm. °
long ; seeds subglobose, scrobiculate.

Sedgwick 4469, collected in Oct. 1918 at Devarayi, near Londa in
North Kanara.

The flowers in Sedgwick 4469 are decidedly smaller than those shown
in Wight’s Icon No. 1577 ; the seeds in Wight’s picture are more reticu-
late than scrobiculate. It was probably this that Jed Clarke to reduce
this species to varietal rank ; a careful examination of the seeds has shown
to us that the reticulate ridges do surround scrobiculations.

3, Chirita hamosa R, Br. var. wunifolia Clarke in Hook. f. Fl.
Brit. Ind. 4: 361, 1884 (Plate III). Gesneriaceae.

There has been a good deal of discussion regarding the validity
ofthe genus Chzrita Buch.-Ham. as distinct from Didymocarpus Wall.
The latter was said to possess an entzve stigma and the former a Jdzlobed
one. ‘The variations that appear with advancing age of the flower and
the ambiguity of the terms have created much difficulty. Clarke
acknowledged the distinctions between the two genera as unsatisfactory,
but refrained from fusing them into one. Otto Kuntze in 1891 fused the two
genera into one, under the name of Aoettlera Vahl. The problem has
been reconsidered by B. L. Burtt, who advocates the retention of the two
separate genera. He has redefined the ‘entire’ stigma of a species of
Didymocarpus sect. Eudidymocar pus as a robust capitate structure, whilst
the ‘ bilobed ’ stigma of a typical CAzrzta is oblique, bifid and thin; the
emphasis seems to be on the oblique and slender nature of the stigma

4

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

rather than on its bilobed appearance. We have followed Burtt in keeping
the two genera separate. (Burtt in Votes R. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 21:
185-209, 1954).

The variety untfolta described here is quite unlike the typical Chirita
hamosa in that it possesses a single leaf; the floral structure is the same
in both plants.

Annual herbs. Steves slender, erect or curved, glabrous or sparingly
pilose, 3-6 cm. long. Leaf solitary, shortly petioled, ovate, entire or
slightly crenate, weakly hairy on both surfaces, penninerved, 6x4 to
15x 8 cms.; secondary nerves 10-16 pairs. Jnflorescence of about 6
flowers in the leaf axil; pedicels all connate at the base for about 1mm.,
then fused in pairs for about 3 mm.; their free portions 1 cm. long, his-
pidulous ; calyx 7-8 mm. long, tubular, hispiduious; lobes 5, linear-
lanceolate, free for about half their length, persistent ; corolla 1°5 cms.
long, 2-lipped; tube slender; mouth ‘pale blue or rosy’ (Clarke);
stamens 2 or rarely 3 fertile, epipetalous ; anther cells entire, oblique,
connate at the apex ; staminodes usually 2, filiform ; ovary hispid, 3 mm.
long ; style slender, 7 mm, long, hispid ; stigma bifid. Capsule glabrous,
except at the tip near the persistent style, straight or highly curved ;
seeds many, small, ellipsoid.
~ TR. D. Bell 3171 in Herb. Sedgwick, collected in North Kanara in
1917. The specimen is preserved in Blatter Herbarium, but bears no
further indication of the exact locality where the plant was collected.

4, Didymocarpus pygmaea Clarke in DC. Mon. Phan. 5(1): 82,
1883, et in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4 : 345, 1884; Haines, Bot.
Bih. and Or. 648; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 988; Burtt in Votes R. Bot.
Gardn, Edinb. 21 : 202, 1954 (Plate IV). Gesneriac.

Roettlera pygmaca O. K. Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 476, 1891.

The name Dzdymocarpus Wall. 1819, is nom. cons. against Roettlera
Vahl, 1805, and is listed in the Intern. Code of Bot. Nomencl. under
No. 7810. |

Annual pubescent herbs. SZems slender, curved or straight 3-7 cms.
high. Leaves usually solitary, rarely two or more smaller ones are borne
on a prolongation of the stem, sessile, ovate to ovate-oblong, penninerved,
membranaceous, glistening and hairy on the upper side, hairy along the
nerves on the lower side, 3-9 cms. long; apex obtuse ; base shallowly
cordate ; secondary nerves 6-9, prominently arched. /lowers 4 or more,
fascicled, arising from the base of the leaf ; bracts usuaily small, near the
outermost pedicel, sometimes larger and leaf-like, up to 4 cms. long;
pedicels free, 1-3 mm. long in flower, up to 5 mm. in fruit, hairy ; calyx
tubular, hairy; 5-lobed, divided almost to the base, 3 mm. iene in flower,
up to 5 mm. long in fruit ; sepals linear-lanceolate, 3 mm. long, some-
what enlarged in fruit; corolla tubular, white, 4 mm. long, pubescent
externally in the limb, unopened in our specimens. from Pavagadh.
Stamens 2 fertile; anther cells oval, oblique, confluent at the top;
filaments in the unopened flowers flexed near the base; staminodes 2,
inserted -a little lower than the stamens, filiform, 1 mm. long ; ovary
oblong, hairy, 1 mm. long ; style reflexed in the unopened flowers, 3 mm.
long, hairy; stigma funnel-shaped, not oblique. Capsules straight
elongated, cylindrical, hispid, surmounted by the remnants of the style,
2-valved, 15-2 cms. long; seeds ellipsoid, punctate.

UN aLvig

KAIED °° SOPOUIUIeJs puv SUSTIR]S GUM BI[OIOD "A :yuvid anjogq ¥Y
dyIP[.) pyofiun "IBA DSOUDY VDItALY)

"gun Z t
nen nana.

"208 “ISIHD “Ven Avquiog ‘uanor

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate IV

2 ems.

WE E

Didymocarpus pygmaea Clarke:

A. Entire plant; B, Corolla with stamens and staminodes; C.:Calyx “with
ovary, style and stigma; D, Seeds (highly magnified); E. Stigma (highly
magnified),

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

1/2,

IG

(eee th ee
| oy LG ms:

Jerdonia indica Wight

_ &k Entire piant; B. Corolla with stamens (Adapted from Wight); C. Calyx with
disc, ovary, style and stigma (Adapted from Wight); D. Capsule; E, Seed with funicle,

han cle ar
f i ad ett
Si wa Woh ee ite ae

BN a

ba

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY—III 213

A peculiar floral structure was observed in two flowers of a specimen
collected from Pavagadh on the 29th December 1954. One of the
flowers had 6 epipetalous stamens with small dehisced anther cells.
There were three ovaries. Of these one was completely free while the
other two were slightly adnate at the base. The styles were entirely free.
The stigmata, although basically of normal structure, were split in the
middle so as to appear bilobed. ‘The other flower of the same plant had
4 epipetalous stamens and 4 others slightly adnate to the two distinct
ovaries. ‘The plant bore 3 fruits which, though stunted, appeared to be of
normal structure.

A careful search on two different occasions has yielded only cleistoga-
mous flowers ; this confirms the observations of Haines; but we have
failed to find the bulbils mentioned by the same author.

Saldanha 1782-1786 of 13th October 1954, and Saldanha 2200 of 29th
December 1954; collected from the fort walls at Pavagadh near Baroda.

5. Jerdonia indica Wight, Icon. t. 1352, 1850; Clarke in DC. Mon.
Phan. 5 (1): 164, 1883 & in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 368, 1884 ;
Gamble, FJ. Madr. 991, 1924 (Plate V). Gesneriac.

Perennial, acaulescent, scapigerous herbs. Aoofstock thick, scarred,
bearing numerous secondary roots, 6-25 cms. long. Leaves crowded at the
base ; petioles long, grooved, rusty-villous, 4-13 cms. long; leaf-blade
elliptic to ovate, sparingly rusty-villous on the upper side especially when
young, prominently rugose-pilose along the margins and along the nerves
on the lower side, reticulately veined, 4 x 3to9 x 6cms.; secondary
nerves about 8 pairs. Scapes few, slender, sparingly rugose-pilose ; bracts
sublinear, rusty-villous, 2 mm. long ; pedicels hairy, often in pairs, 5 mm.
long in flower, 7 mm. long in fruit ; calyx -t 5-partite, 5mm. long; lobes
lanceolate, rusty-villous; corolla ‘ pale lilac marked with red lines,
(Gamble), 1:7 cms. long ; tube elongate, swollen upwards; limb oblique,
2-lipped ; upper lip 2-lobed, emarginate; lower lip 3-lobed; stamens 4,
all fertile; anterior filaments dilated, spurred, sparingly hairy; posterior
pair also ‘dilated and hairy but not spurred; anthers 2-celled, cohering. at
their apices so as to cover the stigma; disc-cup-shaped; ovary ovoid,
_ glabrous; style linear, glabrous ; stigma peltate. Capsule ovoid, puberu-
lous, loculicidal, 2-valved, 5 mm. in diameter; seeds small, ellipsoid,
laterally grooved, sub-umbonate at the apex; funicle prominent and
white.

Wight’s. figure shows a number of adventitious roots arising from the
base of the stem. All the specimens in Blatter Herbarium, however,
have a prominent rootstock giving rise to secondary roots. We have
adapted the description of the corolla, stamens and ovary from Wight,
since all our specimens are only in fruit.

Haliberg and McCann 34539, 34540, 34542 and Sedgwick 6786
from Sampkhand, North Kanara; collected in Oct,1919. Sedgwick and
Bell 7224 from Malemane Ghat, North Kanara, October 1919.

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY--IV

BY
H. SANTAPAU, S.J.

(With four plates)

This is a further continuation of the series of new records of plants for
Bombay State. In the course of the last few years we have been conduc-
ting a very intense exploration of various parts of the State. A good
number of research students have been helping in this investigation, and
have helped in the preparation of this note; their names are appended
after each plant mentioned in the body of this paper, so that credit may
go to them for the good work they have done. The line diagrams have
been drawn from the fresh plants, and represent what to our mind are the
typical characters of the plant in question.

1. Uraria hamosa Wall. Cat. 5681 B, 1831-32; Wight et Arn.
Prodr. 222, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 284; Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 156
(Plate I).

Hedysarum hamosum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 57, 1814, nom. nud.

Doodia hamosa Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 367, 1832.

Desmodium hamosum “Loud. Hort. Brit. 310, 1830.

Uvaria desmodioides & U. lanceolata Grah. in Wall. Cat. 5682-
5683, 1831-32.

Erect shrubs or undershrubs, 122-275 cms. high, branching profu-
sely ; stems woody, solid, angled, minutely hispid, the hairs slightly hook-
ed. Leaves uni- and tri-foliate on the same plant; leaflets 4-11°5 x 2:2—
6°5 cms., elliptic or broadly ovate, acute, mucronate or emarginate, base
cordate or rounded, nerves 9-16 on either side of the central main
nerve, upper side of leaflet glabrescent, lower one densely pubescent
especially along the midrib ; stipules 0-4—2:1 cms. long, deltoid-cuspidate,
densely hairy persistent ; stipels 0°3-0°6 cms. long, hairy, lanceolate ;
petioles 1°8-3°8 cms. long, grooved on the upper side, hispid; petiolules
0:2-0°4 cms. long, slightly swollen, hispid. Flowers in racemes, which
are 10-30 cms. iong, axillary, lateral or terminal, hispid, panicled. Flowers
2-4 in distant fascicles; bracts ovate, cuspidate, pubescent, caducous ;
pedicels 0°2-0°5 cms. long, incurved at the apex, hispid. Calyx 0°2-0'3
cms, long, not longer than the first joint of the pod, campanulate, hairy ;
teeth 5, subequal, deltoid-cuspidate, the lower 2 joined and short. Covolla
mauve, exserted, 0°3-J'6 cms. long. Stamens 9 +1, alternating long and
short ; anthers uniform. Ovary sessile; style nearly twice as long as
the stamens persistent in fruit ; stigma broad. fod twisted, 4—7-jointed,
joints alternate brown and black, minutely hispid.

The pod is the most typical part of the plant, and in every respect
resembles the other species of Bombay. It is indeed: remarkable that the
plant has not been described before for Bombay ; it seems to be widespread
in the State, as the following list of herbarium specimens examined by us
will show: North Kanara, 7. 2. D. Bell 2520, May 1917 ; Salsette Island,
Santapau 995, 997 from Makal Caves near Andheri, Sept. 1942; Dangs

rn, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate |

. 7 Uraria hamosa Wall.
A, Fruiting branch; 3B, Flowers, front and side view; C. Fruit.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pratké IT

Merremia quinquefolia Hall. f.

A. Branch with inflorescence; B. Sepals showing the outer surface; C. Corolla with
stamens; D. Ovary with pedicel and bracts; E, Fruit; F. Seed from the inner surface.

NEW PLANT BECORDS FOR BOMBAY—IV 215

Forest, Saztafau 17338-17339, Nov. 1953; Waghai in the Dangs,
Panthaki 1726-1729, 19th Oct. 1954; Sasurda, Panthaki 1748, 20th Oct.
1954.

The plant has been found to be common in clearings in the Dangs
Forest, and along the railway line. It has been seen nearer Bombay in
the undergrowth of thin deciduous forest.

(Miss) D. P. PANTHAKI, B.SC.

2, Merremia quinquefolia (Linn.) Hall. f. in Bot. Jahvb. 16: 552,
1893; Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 324, 1939 et in FI. Males.
4 (4): 446, f. 28, 1953. (Plate IL).

Ipomoea guinguefolta Linn. Sp. Pl. 162, 1753.
Convolvulus guinguefolius Linn, Syst. ed. 10, 923, 1759.

A herbaceous climber. Stems slender, twining, terete, glabrous or
sparsely hairy, not thickened at the nodes. Leaves alternate, petiloate,
palmately compound; petioles 3-5 cms. long, slender, glabrous and
faintly grooved on the upper side; leaflets sessile or subsessile, glabrous,
narrowly oblong to lanceolate, 2-6 x 0:5-1°5 cms., attenuated at the base
and apex; apex acute to subacuminate or often obtuse; margins irregu-
larly serrate, coarsely dentate or undulate or nearly entire. Inflorescence
axillary, cymose, 1- or often 3-5-flowered ; peduncles about as long as the
petioles, but elongating in fruit, 3-5-7 cms. long, branching, glandular and ~
slightly hirsute towards the apex, the branches also glandular. Flowers
pedicellate, bracteate, creamy yellow in colour; floral buds ovate, acute ;
pedicels glabrous, 3-7 mm. long, extending to 10 mm. and becoming
somewhat thicker at the apex in fruit ; bracts triangular, acute or acumi-
nate, about 1 mm. long. Calyx tubular; sepals 5, narrowly ovate, elon-
gated, acute, mucronulate, glabrous, subequal, the outer 2 slightly shorter
than the inner ones; outer sepals 4-6 mm., inner ones 8-9 mm. long,
somewhat enlarged in fruit. Covolla creamy yellow, 16-20 mm. long,
infundibuliform, 15 mm. in diameter, with lineate, glabrous corolla bands
and shallowly lobed; corolla tube glabrous. Stamens 5, subequal,
epipetalous, inserted about 3 mm. above the base of the corolla ; filaments
dilated and hairy at the base ; anthers some times spirally twisted. Ovary
glabrous, style 1 cm. long; stigma 2-lobed, the lobes globose. Capszle
straw-coloured, globose, 4-celled, 1 cm. in diameter. Seeds 4, each about
4 mm. long, brown or black, covered with short, appressed, curly hairs.

This plant is being reported now for the first time from Western
India. In point of fact, however, it is quite a common plant, though in
Blatter Herbarium many of the specimens of this species have been
placed under 17. tridentata Hall. f. or 17, aegyptia Urban, or under various
species of /Aomoea, particularly 7. dzssecta, which it much resembles.

We have examined the following specimens from Western India:
SAURASHTRA: Sasangir, in the Gir Forest, Sani/apau 15152 ;
Dwarka, Dhruna 12; Rajkot, Santapau 13559 and 16885.
RAJPUTANA: Abu Road, Blatter 22133.
SoutTH GUJERAT: Baroda, Patel 1176-1180; Pavagadh Hill, near
Baroda, Patel 1190-1192.
KonxAN: Thana, from a garden, Patel 1323-1328 ; noe ue
Ackland 1447 and Blatter 14550.
(Miss) V. PATEL, B.SC.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

3: gaa repandum Willd. Sp. Pl. 3 : 1767, 1804 ; DC. Prod.
: 45, 1836 (Plate III).

F ae Compositae. An annual, erect undershrub, 50-75 cms, high.
Szems branched, terete, pubescent. Leaves opposite and decussate, shortly
petiolate, lanceolate-elliptic or ovate-elliptic, acute or shortly acuminate,
4—7 x 1°5-3°5 cms., glabrous on the upper, silky pubescent on the lower
side; the lower leaves deeply sinuate-dentate, the upper ones shallowly
serrate-dentate ; base tapering into the short petiole. Heads homogamous.
about 1 cm. long, cylindric, arranged in terminal corymbs; peduncles
1-5 cms. long, hairy. J/zvolucre multiseriate, the innermost series of
bracts the longest ; all the bracts oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, 3-nerved from
the base, scarious, varying in length 2-7 mm.; receptacle convex, pitted,
naked. FVorets all bisexual. Pappus 1]-seriate, consisting of numerous
setose hairs about as long as the corolla tube. Covollas tubular, white to
pale violet ; tube 4-5 mm. long, narrow ; lobes 5, triangular-ovate, acute,
pubescent outside, 1-2 mm long. Stamens 5; anther bases sagittate ;
auricles narrow, obtuse. Siyle arms 2, very long and far exserted,
subulate and hairy. Achenes black, hispid on the angles, 4-5 mm. long,
crowned with the pappus. |
_ This is a Central American plant, that has been found growing
probably as an escape near gardens at the entrance to the National Park,
Borivili, near Bombay. Aanderia 577, collected in flower on December
12th, 1943.

(Miss) A. J. RANDERIA, M.Sc.

4, Hymienatherum tenuifolium Cass, Dict. 22 : 313, sete ep
7 DC. Prodr. 5 : 642, 1836. (Plate IV).

Family Compositae. An annual erect herb, 15-20 cms. high. Stems
cylindrical or subquadrangular, simple or hrenchedl obscurely ribbed,
finely pubescent with short minute hairs. Leaves sessile, the upper ones
aiternate, the lower ones more or less opposite, all deeply pinnatisect,
2-5x1-3 cms., lobes opposite, more or less filiform, glabrous or
puberulous. //eads heterogamous, rayed, about 2 cms. in diameter,
terminal ; peduncles bracteate or naked, 5-9 cms. long, generally glab-
rous; bracts 2-3 mm. long, lanceolate-subulate. Jnvolucres uniseriate ;
involucral bracts partially connate at the base, oblong-cuneate, 3-lobed
at the apex, 6-7 x 3-4 mm., ciliate at the margins, reticulateiy veined ;
receptacle naked. Pappus copious, l-seriate, consisting of setose unequal
hairs about as long as the corolla tube. Covollas yellow; those of
hermaphrodite florets tubular, their tubes uniformly dilated upwards,
glabrous, 2-3 mm. long; lobes 5, ovate, acute, spreading, more or less
1 mm. in length ; corollas of female florets ligulate, 3-notched at the apex,
6-9 x 1:5-2°5 mm. Stamens 5; anther bases obtuse or slightly tailed.
Siyle arms 2; those of hermaphrodite florets ciliate and truncate at apex;
those of female florets subulate, glabrous. Achenes oblong, angled and
ribbed, black, hispidly hairy, 3-4 mm. long.

This herb is original of Central America, and has been found in the
Krishnagiri National Park, Borivili, near Bombay, growing not far from
the entrance to the Park; it has been seen in flower and fruit during the
rains and seems to be well established on Pavilion Hill of the Park.

Randerta 57, collected on 23rd August 1951, and Randeria 441,
collected on.7th October 1952.

(Miss) A. J. RANDERIA, M.Sc,

Pirate III

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

‘

Eupatorium repandam Willd.

Achene.

C,

B. Floret ;

A. Flowering branch ;

Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Hymenatherum tenutfolium Cass.

Prate IV

A. Flowering branch; B. Involucral bract; C. Disc floret; D. Ray floret; KE, Acheue.

TROUT FISHING IN KASHMIR

BY
PuHiItie K. CrRoWE

It was difficult to improve on the fabulous Himalayan pleasure land of
Kashmir, but two men succeeded in doing it. The Mogul Emperor
Jehangir built the lovely Shalimar, and an Englishman named: Mitchell
imported brown trout. The result is that today one can wander among
the flowers and fountains of the famous garden by the Dal Lake or, as
I prefer, angle along some of the world’s most sporting and spectacular
streams and rivers.

Simply getting to Kashmir from the Island of Ceylon, where we now
live, took a bit of doing. The distance from Colombo at 6° north latitude
to Srinagar, capital of Kashmir, at 34° north is 1,848 miles but, as we were
tied to commercial air travel, the trip was nearly a quarter longer. Flying
first to Bombay and then to Delhi, where we spent the night as guests of
Ambassador Cooper and his attractive wife, we finally took off on Indian
Airlines for the flight to the Vale of Kashmir. From Jammu, the last air-
field in the plains of India, we climbed rapidly (without pressurized cabin
or oxygen) and sailed over the nine thousand foot Banihal Pass. On
either flank snow-capped peaks towered over us, while below, like the teeth
of a vast brown shark, lay other jagged summits. Our enjoyment of this
superb vista was somewhat lessened by the knowledge that if the pilot
found fog at the end of the pass he would have to turn around and return
to Jammu. We were lucky, and, though we coasted through a white
blanket of cloud for a few minutes, it soon tore apart and we looked down
on the sparkling valley that is the Vale of Kashmir. Emerald green
paddy, and fields of crimson poppies and yellow mustard, lay spread below
like some gorgeous tapestry. Well did the Mogul Emperor cry, -‘ If
there be paradise on earth, this is it, this is it, this is it.’

We—my wife Irene and my daughter Rene and I—were met at the
airport by G. M. Butt, a cordial white-bearded Kashmiri whose house boat,
the Clermont we were to make our base during our 17 days stay in
Kashmir. I might add that Mr. Butt specializes in Americans, having had
Adlai Stevenson and George Allen, former Ambassador to India, as his
guests. What is more, his boats, moored on the edge of the Dal Lake, are
extremely comfortable and his food excellent. Said Mr. Stevenson in
the guest book ‘ an enchanted. interlude that mended body and mind.’

Kashmir has some three hundred miles of trout water ranging from
altitudes of above eight thousand feet to about five thousand. Most of
these streams are within sixty miles of Srinagar and are laid out in ‘ beats’
or two-mile stretches, which can be rented from the Government. There
are other streams, however, that were formerly the private preserves of
Maharaja Hari Singh and are now reserved for State guests.

The best of these—the Tricker, the Nambal, and part of the Liddar—
are located in the lovely Liddar Valley and provide some nineteen miles
ofsuperb fishing. There are also certain very good streams such as the
Kukernag and the Kotsu, in the Liddar Valley, and the Verinag in an
adjoining valley where the fishing, open to the public on a limited basis, is

218 HORCDRIN AE, IOV BYVAL S INCA ICO geal, Jalil, SOUCINB IY, Wolk, (683

very good. ‘The last category of streams are those open to the public at
all times and include most of the Liddar, and the Bringhi in the same
general area—about fifty miles southeast of Srinagar—as the streams
mentioned above. Northwest of the capital is the famous Sindh River
where there ate a number of good public beats, and near the mountain resort
of Gulmarg, twenty miles from Srinagar, is the Tanmarg, which holds
some good fish even though the altitude is over eight thousand feet. The
Kuragbal district in the far north of the state is closed as it runs along the
Pak-Indian cease-fire line and the Madmatti and Erin streams, which lie
south of it and empty into Wular Lake, the largest fresh water lake in
India, have not yet recovered from the disruption following the invasion
of the tribesmen during the partition troubles of 1947. There is also said
to be some good public fishing near Vishensar, but the trek to it takes
several days on ponies.

Through the kindness of His Exceliency Sri ‘Chakravarty, High Com-
missioner of India in Ceylon, a wire was sent in my behalf and, when I
called on Mr. G. M. Malik, chief of the Fish Preservation Me paremene of
Kashmir, I was told that I would be allowed to fish in some of the reserved
waters as well as the public ones. Col. Harry Nedou also wrote for me to
Wazir Amin Chand, Controller of the Household of His Highness the
Yuvaraj. Another friend who went out of his way to help me arrange
my Kashmir fishing was F. C. Badhwar, former Chairman of the Indian
Railway Board and one of the keenest fishermen I know. Also most
useful from a fishing standpoint was a book called ‘Kashmir Cameos’
written by my friend H. C. Hockley of Ceylon.

On the crystal clear morning of Friday, May 13, 19 55, we took off in
an old Chevrolet station wagon for Verinag, a stream some forty-seven
miles south of Srinagar. Wehad been unable to book the government
rest heuse there so decided to camp out, and our tents and camp fur-
niture were piled on the roof of the car. Momdu, Mr. Butt’s number one
servant and a shikari with a great deal of camping experience, was in
charge. There was also Sultana, the cook, and Mohamed, the chauffeur.
The road to Verinag is the road to Jammu and runs straight down the
Vale of Kashmir to the Banihal Pass where we swing left instead of
continuing over the pass into Jammu. Fora great deal of the way pop-
lars line the road and the fields on either side were ablaze with poppies
and blue and white iris marking Moslem graveyards. We passed herds
of sheep and goats, tended by wild-looking men from the mountains,
and once a gypsy encampment with the curious little igloo-shaped felt
tents that are the homes of gypsies in this part of Asia.

As we passed through the mountain terrain just below the Banihal
Pass we saw some dangerous washouts. Twenty years ago when I
made the trip over this pass in a model T Ford the road was so bad that
we took three days to do the trip and barely crawled around the corners.
It is because it is so difficult to maintain the road in avalanche country
that the Indian government is now engaged in building a tunnel under
the mountain that will allow year-round surface access to the Valley. <A
German firm has the three-year contract.

Verinag, the source of the Jhelum, is a spring-fed stream born in a
great fifty-four foot deep chasm around which is constructed a circle of
Mogul arches, ‘The stream is then led by canals through a lovely garden
built by the Emperor Jehangir and finally spills out into its own bed
where it provides a series of fast runs and deep pools.

TROUT FISHING IN KASHMIR 219

There are some huge fish in the spring itself, which, over the centuries,
have come te have religious significance to the Hindus. I watched an old
man feeding them with rice, and, looking down into the green depths, saw
submarine sized fish turn lazily to accept the offering.

Abdul, the old watcher, met us at the edge of the stream and after
examining my permits carefully—he was apparently amazed that anyone
was allowed to fish there as the stream had been closed for two years—
beamed at me and immediately supplied me with Rishu, his best shikari,
I noted in his fishing book that the last person to fish the Verinag
before it was closed in 1953 was our friend the Maharaja of Indore who
enjoyed some fine sport, his best catch being a thirteen pounder that
he will undoubtedly remember for many years to come.

I had been advised by Mr. Ogden, the British manager of Lloyds
Bank in Srinagar that big gaudy hires hooked the big fellows in Kashmir,
and accordingly I had purchased a dozen monsters made of peacock
feathers. Rishu had shaken his head sorrowfully when I tried to tie on an
Alexander, one of my favourite Ceylon flies, but broke into a broad grin
and nodded his head savagely when I finally produced a peacock. Tying
this to a 2-X gut leader and adding a little lead wire near the fly, I was
set to attack.

It had rained for several days and the water, even though it came from
a spring, was so coloured that it seemed impossible that a trout could
see even my whiskbroom-sized lure. My first cast, however, showed me
that the fish of Kashmir have better eyes than they do in America. A
lively one-pounder broke water, curved over the fly, and dragged it under
With a jerk. Iplayed him for a while and then let Rishu net him, an
operation he performed with skill. ‘The second cast also hooked a trout
but he did not rise and it was not until I started to put strain on him that
I realized that I was on toa big fish. I found that I could not lead him
but kept all the strain on him I dared while he went where he liked.
Starting at the head of the pool, which was about fifty feet long, twenty
feet wide, and perhaps ten deep, the trout swam rapidly to the foot,
hesitated a moment, and then ran down the swift water into the next
pool. [had only thirty yards of tapered line but luckily had my waders
on so was able to plunge after him despite the icy water. In the next
pool he played the same game and, after swimming around lazily for a
few turns, took off again down the river. It was during his second run
that I first saw him—a flash of yellow belly and a great beak of a
mouth. He was visibly tiring and at the head of the third pool Rishu
got his net under him and with a two handed scoop brought my prize to
shore. He tipped the scales at 34 pounds, a nice trout if I say so myself.

It was only after the trout was landed that I happened to look around
and realize that I had an audience. There were a good fifty Kashmiris
observing the proceedings from either bank and a mutter of approval
broke from them as we triumphed over the big fellow.

I caught eight more fish averaging two pounds, but iet them go.
There was no point in keeping more than we could eat and four and a
half pounds of fish is a good breakfast for six in any country. At noon
rain clouds gathered and I quit for the morning. While I had been fish-
ing, camp had been pitched and a better location would be hard to find.
Behind the tents a forest of fir trees climbed toward the snow peaks and
before them lay the sweep of the river winching away between the poplars
to the village of Verinag.

220: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol- 53

In the late afternoon, when the shadows were beginning to creep
down from the peaks, I fished again; this time taking Momdu as shikari.
We were interested only ina really big fish and accordingly tried only
one pool, the one below a long race where the roots of a huge
Chinar tree formed a subterranean chasm through which the white water
thundered. I allowed the fly to drift under slowly, and then pulled it
back to me with short jerks. The fly was almost out from under the
roots when there was a surge and a big trout sucked it in and made
off up the pool. This pool was long and deep and the trout had no.
desire. to leave it. For ten minutes he wore himself out against the
current and then came in nicely to the net. Weighing in at 3 pounds,
he was a prize worth having.

Back at camp, we sat before the tents, admired the light of the
setting sun on the snow fields and sipped well-earned scotch whisky
and spring water. My wife and daughter who are not particularly
fond of fishing informed me that they had put in a happy day. Irene
sketched and Rene rode one of the little Kashmiri ponies. Sultana’s.
dinner was a triumph of culinary art. He gave us fish soup, fried trout,
sishkababs and_ rice, carrots, new potatoes, spinach, toast, fritters and
coffee ; all of which was produced on a wood fire converted by a sheet of
metal into a semblance of a stove. Furthermore Momdu encircled. his
waist with a blue cummerbund, added a turban, and served us with great
pomp and ceremony. I confess I never miss the ‘ come-and-get-it-school ’
when something better is available. .
_ Night came and the air, which is always brisk at six thousand feet,
turned icy cold.. We piled on blankets, closed the flags of the tent and
slept. ‘The last thing I heard were the drums beating in the nearby
village for the end of the day’s fasting. It was Ramzan and good
Moslems could not partake of food or water until nightfall.

The first day’s fishing had been on the Number One beat of the
Verinag and the second day I went several miles down the river to the
Number Two beat. ‘The river down there, having been fed by numerous
freshets from the snows, carried a far heavier head of water and I had to
add lead to my leader in order to sink the fly. The scenery also changed.
Instead of the villagers’ gardens through which the head waters ran, the
stream now wound between endless fields of paddy whose brown waters
reflected the snow peaks like so many copper mirrors. It was a lovely
sight and for a few minutes I almost forgot to fish.

' My first strike was in fast water and the fish, which I never saw,
broke:me with ease. Fitting another leader and trying on the proverbial
peacock at the tip and a brown hackle on the dropper, I cast again into
the wild water. Hardly had the flies sunk out of sight when two fish hit
them and, even though one shook itself off, I netted a fine two pounder.
And.so it went during the long clear Kashmir morning. I kept four fish,
all over a pound and my best was two anda half pounds. I lost four fish,
all, of course, monsters, and threw back sixteen fish. The smallest trout
I caught was ten inches long, and I threw him back to grow up.

In the late afternoon we broke camp, drove thirty miles to the Lid-
dar Valley, to camp on the Tricker River near the burned out ruins of the
late Maharaja’s Rest House. It is a beautiful location and has the
added advantage of being several miles from the nearest village so
that we were spared the crowding of the curious. However, the head
watcher, Kudusmere, appeared as if by magic from the middle of a

TROUT FISHING IN KASHMIR 221
field of bright yellow mustard. In no time a working gang of five
had been recruited to get up the tents, provide Rene with a pony, and
erect my collapsible chair and desk so that I could write this log. As I
mentioned above, the Tricker used to be one of the Maharaja’s per-
sonal streams and is still reserved for guests of the government. The
record brown trout caught on beats number 5 and 6, which were allotted
me, was ten pounds.

As the sun set I took Rene out for a little practice and she hooked and
landed two good trout at once on her first cast. The stretch of stream
in front of camp fairly teemed with fish but they were not above a
pound and small for the Tricker. ‘The next day was Rene’s thirteenth
birthday and Momdu celebrated the event by having the cook bake
a magnificent fish cake, replete with candles—which he borrowed from
a nearby shrine.

The snow water is so cold that fishing is not good until the sun
has warmed the stream a bit and it was nine-thirty. before Kudusmere
and his two retainers—one for carrying my kit and one for carrying
the fish—led me down to the confluence of the Tricker and the Liddar,
where the waters of the two streams meet in a great pool.

At this point I must say a word about tackle. Some years ago I bought
an Orvis ‘ Battenkill’ fly rod. Made of impregnated bamboo, weighing
32 ounces and 74 feet long, the rod has served me well under conditions
ranging from the tropical heats of the low country rivers of Ceylon to the
Himalayas. I have used it for seer fishing in the Indian Ocean and for
bass in Maryland. For trout I fit it with a British made Young Beaudex
reel and tapered casting line.

The Peacock lure, which proved such a killer on the Verinag, did
not please Kudusmere and he insisted on a Golden Lion lure with a
Watsons Fancy on the dropper. ‘The Golden Lion, I might add, is just
as fantastic looking an affair as the Peacock, only more so. A medley of
tawny colored feathers tied to two golden bound hooks, it is a device to
tempt a shark. Kudusmere also objected to my 2—X leader. ‘ All right
little fish of Verinag’ he said but here ‘ him bust quick.’

However, I decided to try with the 2-X and accordingly cast out over
the pool and drew the line in slowly, allowing the flies to sink about six
inches below the surface. ‘There was a surge, a sharp pull and the new
Hardy gut leader parted with a ping. Changing to 1-X I was soon on to
another fish, and after a good battle Kudusmere netted a fine three
and half pounder. By noon the coolie carrying my kreel was stagger-
ing under 184 pounds of fish (presents for friends in Srinagar) result-
ing from a grand morning’s sport; the total included a 4 pounder
which was netted just as the leader parted, a 32 pounder that led me
into a pool above my waders, a 34 pound rainbow, the only rainbow I
caught on this beat, and four good fish ranging from 2 to 23 pounds.

After a succulent lunch of fish and duck curry we slept for several
hours, and it was not till four that I invaded the stream again. This
time we went directly to the Liddar with the intention of bettering my
erstwhile record of four pounds. Starting to fish at the foot of along run
of heavy water, I caught several two pounders which I released, and was
just about to move on down stream, when my dropper fly, which was
dancing along the water, was suddenly sucked under with a splash. That
the fish was a big one was obvious when I tried to check him. Paying
no more attention to me than a runaway horse, he took off up stream and

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

churned his way against the current like an ice breaker. Before he breast-
ed the white water into the next pool I saw his dorsal fin and the square
of his tail. It was a shattering experience.

This was a great fish and the thought of losing him nerve-wracking.
Even Kudusmere, who has been a shikari for forty years and head
watcher of the Tricker for ten, was moved to excitement andimplored me
to be careful. I was as careful as one could be with a limited footage of
line and a plunging whale at the end of it. My main worry was the
leader ; would it take the strain ? Once the line went dead and I feared
the fish may have thrown the fly but the line had caught on a rock, and
was soon freed. Then, all of a sudden, the fish tired and I was able to
move him slowly towards the bank where Kudusmere waited, net in hand,
Creeping up behind the weary giant, he slid the net under it and then, ©
using both hands, lifted it from the water. Superlatives should be saved
for someone else’s fish so I will simply say that it was a fine trout and
weighed 54 pounds.

Back in Srinagar I lunched with His Highness the Yuvaraj, the consti-
tutional head of the government, and thanked him for his permission to
fish the state streams. Fformeriy a keen angler himself he was interested
to hear of my luck. In recent years, however, he has given up both hunt-
ing and fishing as they are inconsistent with the Hindu religion.

The closest trout stream to Srinagar is the Sindh River, some thirteen
miles out, and even though it is open to the public and is therefore over-
fished, I decided to have a day there. It was a glorious clear morning
when we drove up the Sindh Valley. This is the road to Leh and I
was amazed to see how much it has been improved since I last travelled
over it by pony in 1935. In those days it took several days to reach the
border of Ladakh at Sonamarg, and today one can drive the 52 miles over
a good metalled road in an hour and a half. Near the village of
Ganderbal we were met by the watcher, a fine old shikari named Ramon,
and a pony for Rene.

The Sindh is a big river, and since spinning is allowed there, I had
little hopes of a decent bag. Ramon told me, however, that, as most
people did spin, they only fished the long deep pools and he advised me
to try my flies—the old favorite Peacock and Watsons Fancy, on the fast
water. I did just this and caught six fish in the course of the morning.
The largest was only a pound and a half and the smallest just over half a
pound, but in aggregate they made a good mess for lunch, There are
some big fish in the Sindh. The son of Sheikh Abdullah, the former
Prime Minister of Kashmir, caught a 12 pounder there a month previously.
Mr, Butt, who had come along with us for the day, supervised the cook-
ing of the trout and we ate them in the shade of an old mulberry tree.
There is a small silk industry in Kashmir and the leaves of these trees are
used to feed the silk worms. Then, as I was feeling a bit tired, Mr. Butt
advised a massage and I was surprised to learn that most fishing
shikaris have been trained to give their sahibs a reviving pummelling.
Ramon gave mea fine one and [ soon fell asleep.

In the afternoon we fished for an hour more and then called on
Madelaine Slade, the British Admiral’s daughter, who under the name of
Mira Ben was one of Gandhi’s most cherished disciples. She now runs
a cattle-breeding farm for the Kashmir Government. Being a vegetarian,
she refused my offer of trout but gave us tea and 'several hours of fasci-
nating reminiscence. She was not greatly changed from the time I first

TROUT FISHING IN KASHMIR 223

saw her twenty years ago with Gandhi in the Untouchable settlement
outside of Delhi.

Our next outing was to last five days and take us back to the Liddar
Valley where we had permission to fish the Nambal, the favourite streain
of the old Maharaja and the number one trout stream of Kashmir. We
also intended to fish the Kotsu and Kokernag. The station wagon we
had used on our last trek was not up to this trip and Mr. Butt produced
a sturdier, even though older, vintage of Chevrolet. There was also a new
driver, who gloried in the unusual name of Mohamed, was 20 years old
and wore a green shirt that was dirty even for a Kashmiri driver. He
could drive, however, and manipulated his top heavy jalopy through the
sheep, donkey caravans, and army convoys as if it were a Cadillac town
car. Momdu was again in charge, and Sultana cooked.

Since the 1947 troubles, the trail to the Nambal had been allowed to
deteriorate, and soon after we turned off the main road to Pahlgam we
found ourselves facing a washed out bridge. There was only one alter-
native and that was to build up the bed of the stream. ‘Thank God it
was dry, and, a tribe of Kashmiris having appeared from the fields,
enough stones were added to allow us to negotiate the hazard. Four
rickety bridges and some six miles of terrible road later, we arrived by
the banks of the Nambal. Behind a wooden fence we saw the Maharaja’s
rest house, but had decided to camp and pitched the tents on the edge of
the stream.

We were situated only some ten miles from our former camp on the
Tricker, and had the same horse-shoe of snow peaks on three sides, The
nearby mountains, however, were densely wooded with pine, and as the
sun set I heard the cry of chakor partridge. The old rest-house keeper,
who told me with pride that he had been with the Maharaja for thirty
years, said there were bears on the mountains and when the corn was ready
for harvesting they came down to the fields and sometimes attacked the
villagers. I told him that if by chance one of the bears mistook the
season and appeared early, I was ready for him. It always pays to be
ready for emergencies and I had brought along my 8 mm. Mannlicher.

The Nambal is not really a river with a source of its own; it is merely
a branch of the Liddar, which runs for some five miles on a loop from
the main stream. For those five miles, it carries the best head of trout
in Kashmir. In addition to this Nambal, however, there is a Little or
‘Chhota’ Nambal, whose origin was duly explained to us.

‘ The Chhota Nambal,’ said Kudusmere, who was head watcher for that
stream as well as the Tricker and had galloped over on his pony when
he heard we had come back again to his bailiwick, ‘was made by the
Maharaja, not like the Tricker, which was made by Allah,’ and even a
casual survey of this perfect trout stream would reveal that a power other
than nature had laid it out. Every hundred yards there were man-made
dams of stone which stretched part of the way across the stream only
leaving a race-way in the middle. The result was some five miles of
pools which could be fished with the greatest of ease. There was no
underbrush nor trees to catch one’s fly on the back cast, and a grass trail,
as smooth as a tennis court, followed along the sides of the pools. An
invalid in a wheel chair could catch trout on the Little Nambal. The
Little Nambal was laid out as to dams, channels, pools and runs before
the water from the Liddar was diverted to it. When it was finished some
fifteen years ago and His Highness caught his first trout in it he, like the

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Moguls contemplating their gardens, must have sat back and murmured
words about a fish paradise. -

Tempting as the Nambals were, I decided on our first morning’s
fishing to eschew them and return to my old love the Liddar. My fishing
diary of May 20th records:

Weather—Clear, warm in the sun but crisp in the shade, white
clouds over the snow peaks. .
Streams—Gin clear in places, but green-grey from snow water
where feeding streams come in,
9.30 a.m.—3 pounder. Time from strike to netting seven minutes.
Fly-silver doctor lure. At the same time my daughter
Rene caught a two pounder.
10.30 a.m.—Two one and a half pounders on Watsons Fancy.
11.30 am.—On the run just below the Tricker confluence, a very
heavy fish. Netted after fifteen minutes and tipped
scale at 6 pounds. Length 23 inches and my best
fish to date.
12 noon— As artificial minnows are allowed in the Liddar, I tried
a Golden Deven and immediately caught a two-
pounder. There is no charm in casting this object,
however, and I quickly returned to flies.

In the afternoon I had my first whack at the Big Nambal and every-
thing I had heard about it was an understatement. I really believe that
it maintains more trout per square foot than any river, outside of Alaska,
that I have ever fished. The second my fly hit the water there was a
surge, and, if that fish missed, there were a series of other surges before
I retrieved it. I only fished two hours that afternoon. The total number
I caught was fifteen and I weighed them to find a total weight of 40
pounds. There were no fish over three pounds. I threw them all back.

Late in the afternoon the weather turned menacing and a wind
suddenly sprang out of the mountains and blew so strongly that I had no
control over my fly. At the same time a grey mass of rain clouds piled
up in the East but for some reason hung above the snow peaks so that
for a little while the shining mountains, bathed in sunlight, were visible
as if through a window. Later I learned that Irene and Rene had had a
bad time at camp. The tents were only saved from blowing down by
Momdu who piled stones all around the edges. The cook tent did blow
down twice and Sultana had to retrieve it before he could start our dinner.

All food seems to taste good on a camping trip, but the cooking often
derives its praise from hunger rather than skill. Incidentally menus in
Kashmir are limited; the Hindus wont kill cows or allow beef to be im-
ported, and the Moslems feel the same way about pigs. Sultana was a
really good cook and, unlike some of his ilk, was only too pleased to
tell me how he did it. His basic equipment would drive most chefs
wild ; it consisted of a flat piece of iron with four holes in it for pots. It
was up to Sultana to find stones and firewood to complete his stove.

Sultana’s fried fish, which we usually had for breakfast, was particu-
larly delicious. He filleted the trout, fried them in deep ghee (butter) and
added powdered chili, pepper and salt. My wife pointed out, however,
that fried fish was not an art but that Sultana’s baking of a great trout
(the six pounder), without an oven, was. He put the trout in the largest
pot he had and covered it over with an iron plate on which he kept piling

TROUT FISHING IN KASHMIR 225

' live coals. The whole process took upwards of three hours. Onion,
garlic, lemon, salt and pepper were added at the right times. His receipt
for Rene’s birthday fish cake was first to boil three two-pound trout, take
out all bones, chop up the meat, mix six eggs with it, and the usual spices,
No one could appreciate the conventional birthday cake of flour after one
of Sultana’s fish cakes. But of all his fish dishes, my favourite was. fish
pilau, a speciality of Kashmir cooking. The fish were boiled, boned, and
cut into small pieces, then fried in deep butter in a curry mixture. that
included cinnamon, cardamom, and various unpronounceable spices.
Served with the white hard rice of the country, it madea meal that induced
a solid two hours of sleep.

St. Anthony was tempted, as we all know, but no one but a fisherman
knows that a fisherman has frequently to face temptations of magnitude.
I refer, as all fishermen will immediately realize, to the temptation of bait
for the big ones. The fly fisherman, like the good Christian, has a certain
code of morals and it does not jinclude the taking of trout or salmon on
any other lure than a fly, preferably a dry fly. Imagine, therefore, the
crisis I had to face when, under the bridge at the place on the Little
Nambal where the first beat ends and the second begins, I saw a sub-
merged battleship of a trout cruising in five feet of clear water. All
around me on the swampy ground were myriads of little frogs, the steak
and potatoes of big fish. Furthermore, in my kit I had a wide variety of
metal, cloth, and wool contraptions which would be hard for any monster
to ignore. I looked at the trout and he looked at me and we both shook
our heads: I just couldn't sink to the unspeakable (I might add here that
nothing but flies are allowed on the Little or the Big Nambals) and he
couldn’t bring himself to bite on my flies. This was the impasse, when
the watcher came along and tactfully suggested that I try a pool a little
further on. He was a fisherman and knew my dilemma.

While on the subject of really big trout, I would like to express the
opinion that in Kashmir, America, Alaska, Ceylon, and even perhaps in
England few if any whoppers are caught on flies. In some thirty years
of fishing—I caught my first worthwhile trout, a three pounder on a worm,
when I was fifteen—I have never been able to tempt a really big trout with
a fly. I have often managed to get their interest, but have never been able
to induce a trout of over ten pounds to take a fly. Furthermore, the
shikatis of Kashmir become strangely silent wiien pressed as to the exact
lure on which the Maharaja of this, or Lord that, actually caught their
record fish.

But I could not complain. My last evening on Nambal resulted in
seven really good fish ranging from 34 to 54 pounds, all of which I
returned.

The following morning I was called at six neal set off with nase mere
for the fifteen mile drive to the Kurtsu. How Mohamed managed to guide
the old Chey along those goat-trails I do not know. Kudesmere and I
dismounted at all bridges, commended the car to Allah, and watched
fascinated while it bucked over them. The Kurtsu is also in the -Liddar
Valley but at the far end of it, so I was able to get a broad impression of
the country. Most of the land is dedicated to rice, and, with an adequate
water supply, this is logicaJ. There is also considerable grazing land and
I noted herds of tough ponies, wiry goats and sheep and some of the
thinnest cattle I have ever seen.

The Kurtsu is one of the prettiest and certainly the. least rewarding

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIIBIN’, Wol, 83

trout stream in Kashmir. Flowing between groves of Walnut, Chinar -
and Poplar which filtered the amber sunlight, the stream is an artist’s
dream but a fisherman’s despair. The trees effectually prevent casting
and the village, which marches just behind the line of greenery, contri-
butes some unappetizing odours to the scene. Despite these handicaps
I managed to catch six trout of about a pound each, releasing all but the
biggest which I presented to a smail girl. I also caught several Chushu,
a fish esteemed by the villagers but looking exactly like our suckers. The
largest Chushu weighed in at four pounds and gave me quite a tussle
before he was netted.

The watcher, one Shirkari, told of a great trout. ‘ This long, Sahib’,
said he stretching his arms apart to their greatest extent. The giant was
reputed to inhabit a pool under an old Chinar tree, and while I dangled a
fly in it, I learned something of poaching. According to Kudesmere and
Shirkari a lot of it goes on, not on their beats of course, but on virtually
all others. And there is adequate economic incentive for it. A five
pound trout brings three rupees, about sixty cents, in the market, with
smaller and better eating trout appreciably more. Furthermore the fines,
which in the days of Hari Singh, used to be rigorous, have been greatly
reduced. But quite aside from illegal netting, the criminally inclined
fisherman can make a profit quite legitimately. He pays three rupees for
a day’s license, allowing him to catch six trout. He then sells the trout
for an average of a rupee each making a net profit of three rupees on the
day’s ‘sport’. Since a common labourer gets somewhat less than this,
there could be considerable appeal in the profession.

There were many birds in the trees along the stream and I noted the
minivet, a little red breasted bird, and also hoopoes; and far up in the
sky hawks sailed. Falconry still goes onin Gilgit and the Frontier borders,
but no longer in Kashmir.

Last stream on our fishing itinerary was the Kokernag and we drove
to the Kokernag Valiey some twenty-five miles from the Liddar, in the
golden light of late afternoon. The road, which I remembered from my
former trip as a trail of the most primitive sort, had been made into a
first class gravel highway with stone and solid timber bridges. Quite
aside from other considerations there is no question but that the occupa-
tion of the Vale of Kashmir by the Indian Army has resulted in a vast
improvement in transportation. I understand this is true also of Pakis-
tan occupied Giigit and Baluchistan.

In contrast to the open, almost treeless, plain of the Liddar Valley
where we camped for the previous three nights, our tents on the Kokernag
were pitched in a grove of willows and sheltered from the winds by pro-
tecting hills on all sides. Allemere, the watcher, and Kadra, the shikari,
arrived soon afterwards and assured me that their stream while not
‘special’ like the Nambal and Tricker, did have good fish and they
would show them to me. Like the Verinag, the Kokernag is a spring-
born stream and is famous for the purity and mineral content of its
waters. Tasting it, I found this boast to be quite true; the water was
delicious. There are very few places East of Suez where one would
dream of drinking out of a stream.

The Kokernag was the best ‘ public’ stream I fished. It is not only
beautiful scenically, but held plenty of fish. They are not large; my best
being only two pounds and the average about a pound, but I caught five
in an hour during the first evening, eight the following morning, and six

TROUT FISHING IN KASHMIR 227

my last evening. I used a green Highlander lure and a March Brown on
the dropper. The beat I had rented, the lower Kokernag, was two miles
long and included many good pools and only a hundred yards or so of
‘village fishing’. Most Kashmir trout streams flow at times through
villages and trout were especially plentiful in these stretches; perhaps
because the watchers could keep a better eye on them there and: perhaps
because of the constant washing of clothes, there was more for the trout
to eat. I invariably returned these village trout.

All of the trout recorded in this account were browns except one, a
rainbow, which I caught on the Verinag. All three of the hatcheries—the
two outside of Srinagar and that at Achibal—breed rainbows as well as
browns. I was particularly impressed with the Achibal hatchery.
Situated as a kind of annexe to a Moghul garden, the trout enjoyed the
same fresh spring water as the flowers, and the same keeper, who showed
us the pansies, showed us the trout pens. He fed the fish on dried silk-
worms; a diet they seemed to thrive on. The browns I caught were
all in the pink of condition and without exception put up fine battles.
The stomachs of several browns, which I personally examined, showed
they had fed on frogs, fresh water cray-fish, little trout and other small
fish.

At various times I tried American and British standard wet flies with
very little success. One or two of my Scotch salmon flies were effective
but nothing duplicated the killing power of the Peacock, Golden Lion and
Green Highlander lures. Dropper flies I found superfluous and caught
only about ten per cent of my total on them. On most streams the fish
are big and the water is fast so that strong leaders are necessary. I broke
four 2-X and three 1-X leaders and certainly would not attack any Kashmir
trout on leaders of less strength. On several occasions in the evening,
when there was no wind, I tried dry flies and did induce a few small trout
to rise tothem. I understand that it is only in September that they are
really effective.

The fishing on the public waters in Kashmir did not seem to me to be
exceptional. Streams like the Lower Sindh, the Kurtsu, and the Kokernag
provided good fishing, but it was really no better than the fishing on good
public streams in America and Canada. I did not, however, fish the two
best public streams—the Bringhi and Upper Sindh—which are said by old
timers in Kashmir to provide some really spectacular sport, especially in
the Fall months. The reserved streams, of course, rank with the best in
the world.

Some of the rest-houses are quite good, but none have the charm of
tenting. With canvas you are free to choose the location of your home
and in Kashmir you can find some supremely beautiful camp sites. As
I have often mentioned in this account, good and industrious servants are
a blessing on a fishing trek. All of our three boys doubled in brass. The
chauffeur helped pitch the tents, carried water for the cook and acted as
an auxiliary butler, bringing the food from the cook tent to a serving
table when it was ready to be served by Momdu. Momdu, himself, not
only butlered but often went along with Rene as fishing shikari and every
evening gave my weary frame a strong massage. ‘The cook gave us really
first class meals with three course lunches and four course dinners. He
made savory curries, delicious desserts, and was able to serve trout in
five different ways.

We went to Kashmir in May and even though the days were bright

5

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

and warm, the nights were very cold. We slept under three blankets and
wore flannel pyjamas. Baths— wonderful affairs in a tin tub—were taken
at high noon. The girls wore blue jeans and sweaters and I wore wool
shirts. Good heavy coats were necessary in the evening. The streams
are freezing and unless one likes to wade in ice water I strongly advise
fishing in waders. Sun glasses are also useful as there is a lot of glare
on the stream at an elevation of over a mile. Whisky is obtainable in
Kashmir only at an exorbitant rate so bring it with you from India.

TROUT CAUGHT IN KASHMIR

No. Total

Date Stream caught aueileane Best fish
May 13 ... Werinag (No. 1 beat) 11 243 |b 31 Ib
May 14 aa Verinag (No. 2 beat) 20 37 jlo 24 lb
May 15 S08 Tricker (No. 5 and 6 7 183 lb 4 lb

beats)

May 15 ae Liddar (No. 5 beat) 3 2 Ib 53 Ib

May 18 see Sindh Lower 7 4% |b 2 Ib

May 20 exe Liddar 5 12 \b 6 lb
(Morning) )

May 20 S00 Big Nambal 10 17 1b 2 |b
(Afternoon)

May 21 ae Little Nambal 12 29 1b 3 Ib
(Morning)

May 21 bot Liddar 6 27% |b 5 Ib
(Afternoon)

May 22 ies Kirtsu 6 94 1b 2 Ib
(Morning)

May 22 ih Kokernag Panes 64 Ib li lb
(Evening)

May 23 es Kokernag 8 123 Ib 7 No)
(Morning)

May 23 Be Kokernag 5 63 Ib 12 1b
(Evening) _————

Total ee 105 2564 Ib

eed ee ee

Only the fish we wanted for eating were kept. Al/ others were
veturned. Limits on streams range from four to six fish per day, far
more than a party of three can consume, especially as the average is
better than two pounds.

The taking of trout tonnages, however, is to my mind only a part of
the fun of fishing in the Himalayas. ‘There is the camping, the beauty of
the scenery and the sense of space. The mountains of Kashmir are the
‘roof of the world’ and as Kipling so aptly said ‘ he who has smelt the
snows will return to them to die.’

COLOMBO,
June 6, 1955.

GAME PRESERVATION IN KASHMIR

REPORT AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE BoMBAY NATURAL
History SOCIETY'S DELEGATION
OcToBER 19521

BY
R. C. Morris AND SALIM ALI

INTRODUCTION

The Director-General of Shikar and Tourism in Kashmir having
requested the Bombay Natural History Society to make certain reeommen-
dations for the protection and preservation of game animals, in particular
the Kashmir Stag or Barasingh (Cervus hanglu), we arrived in Srinagar
on the 17th and- 18th October 1952 for this purpose. Between the 19th
and 28th October visits were made tothe sanctuary of Lower Dachigam
(between 6 & 7000 ft. elevation) and other Rakhs or Reserves, and to
Gratnar (9800 ft.) in the sanctuary of Upper Dachigam.

The visits to Lower Dachigam gave us opportunities to see not only
this important sanctuary for the Kashmir Barasingh, which come down to
these lower altitudes in the late autumn and winter, but also some of
these grand creatures themselves. Two stags were seen, with good heads
of about 38” and 42”, the latter with a number of hinds, We also saw
Black Bear, including a pair, and a bear with 2 cubs. It is obvious
from tracks and droppings that Black Bear are in abundance in this area.

It is the policy of the Game Department that the Dachigam Sanctuary,
Upper and Lower, should serve as a stock breeding ground for Barasingh,
forming the main pool from which these animals find their way to other
connected Rakhs or Reserves. We consider this a wise policy, but
under the circumstances we strongly feel that the Dachigam Sanctuary

is under-staffed and that the present staff is not adequate to prevent
poaching.

SOME OF THE APPARENT CAUSES OF POACHING

(1) Considerable increase of guns.
(2) Decrease in game protection staff and low salaries of subordinate
staff.
(3) Food shortage, hitherto, and high cost of mutton; the demand for
venison thus bringing in considerable profit to poachers.
(4) Withdrawal of magisterial powers of Game Wardens and difficulty
in securing adequate punishment of poachers in the ordinary lawcourts.

With the advent of a democratic form of Government a jarge number
of gun licences were issued for the protection of crops etc. There was a

1 This report was originally not intended for publication but, though belated;
it is now considered desirable to putit on record. In spite of enquiries, the Society
has no official information whether any of the recommendations of its representatives
have been given effect to.—EDs,

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

period of lawlessness prior to this, and the tribal raid occurred subsequent-
ly. It is estimated that very considerable poaching of the Barasingh
occurred during these periods and their numbers were greatly diminished.

From figures supplied to us it would appear that the Game Watchers
and the Jemadars are inadequately paid. They cannot live on ‘the salaries
they receive, and the result cannot but be an indirect encouragement to
poaching. Once a subordinate finds that only by corruption can he
obtain the means of livelihood, corruption will become a second nature to
him and he will encourage rather than try to stop poaching. For com-
parison it may be pointed out that the Game Watchers in the Ceylon Game
Department earn Rs. 45 to Rs. 65 per month; and in the Mysore State
Rs. 45 to Rs. 60, including dearness allowance. Game Supervisors in
Mysore, who may be said to be the equivalent to the Kashmir Game
Jemadars, get up to Rs. 85p.m.; and in Ceylon ‘Game Guards’, of a
similar status, receive up to Rs. 86 p.m. The Dachigam Sanctuary isa
long and large area, and however conscientiously the present staff might
patrol it, their numbers are, we consider, quite inadequate for efficient
results. .

For the efficient administration of the Game laws and centralised
supervision, we consider that the Rakhs or Game Reserves now under
the administration of three Departments (Game, Tawaza, and Forest)
should be amalgamated under a single Department.

At present it would appear that the GAME DEPARTMENT controls the
following :—

I Overa.

2. Khiram.

3. Dachigam.

4. Half of Khunmuh (Chukor).

5. Cheshme-Shahi.
6. Bren (Chukor).
7. Kishat (Chukor).
8. Dara (Chukor).
9. Mirgund (Duck).
10. Hygam (Duck).
11. Shalabug (Snipe).
12. Pampur (Duck).

The TAwAzA DEPARTMENT appears to control :—~

1. Khrew and Khrewshar.
2. Khunmuh.

Greta.

4. Aripal.

5. Hokra (Duck).

The Forrest DEPARTMENT controls the following :—

1, Achibal.

2, Razpariyni.
Oy | AMES

4. Chatragul.
5. Wangat.

6. Kazinag.

GAME PRESERVATION IN KASHMIR 231

Although at present the Director-General of Shikar and Tourism is
the head of both the Game and Tawaza Departments, it is considered
that the whole could be more efficiently administered if brought under a
single unified executive control with the staff of each receiving the same
terms of pay and pensions. We are informed that the Watchers of the
Tawaza Department receive pensions on retirement, but not those of the
Game Department. This is, we feel, an additional encouragement to
corruption in respect of Watchers of the latter department. Unless the
Rakhs now under the control of the Forest Department are commercially
essential to that Department for timber or other forest produce, we con-
sider that in the interests of effective fauna preservation they should be
transferred to the unified control of the Game Department.

BLACK BEARS

From all accounts Black Bear have increased very considerably in the
last few years and are rightly regarded as a pest. It would appear that
quite a number were shot in the past by villagers with crop-protection
guns and by holders of Rs. 15 Black Bear licences, thus securing the
reward paid for Black Bear by Government. It is probably correct to
assume, we consider, that with the high prices now secured for venison,
slackening of the enforcement of the Game laws, and insufficient staff,
those who previously shot Black Bear for the government reward and/or
its pelt have now swelled the ranks of the poachers and concentrate on
slaughtering the Barasingh. ‘This would account for the present increase
in the number of Black Bear, which, in turn, are known to prey on the
fawns of Barasingh.

Lower Dachigam stzzks of Black Bear, and their droppings and tracks
cover the whole area.

The following Rakhs were visited in company with a member of the
Director-General of Tourism’s staff :

Ovra; Khiram; Khunmuh and Khrew-Khrewshar; and also some
exclusively small game reserves, e.g. Hokra, Shalabug.

As in other parts of India, it appears that difficulty is experienced in
getting poachers convicted in the ordinary Criminal Courts or, if convicted,
in getting adequate sentences imposed. For example, a poacher with a
licensed crop-protection gun may be fined a sum for killing a Barasingh
which is considerably less than the amount realised by the sale of its flesh
and hide ; nor is the gun confiscated. Thus the punishment is no deter-
rent to the poacher. Many others, even with unlicensed guns, are
acquitted, the offenders denying their guilt and the court demanding
independent eye-witnesses whom the Game Department cannot produce.
Enforcement of the Game laws thus becomes not only difficult but a
farce. The only curbs to poaching, as has been proved elsewhere, are:

(i) A well-paid subordinate staff of an adequate strength.

(ii) Proper enforcement of the Game laws by a co-operative judiciary
prepared to inflict deterrent sentences on offenders. Or preferably the
Game Warden should be vested with the power to compound offences and
to confiscate the guns of offenders, and generally placed in a position to
inflict deterrent punishment,

23

Li)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

(1) It is our opinion that Black Bear should be declared vermin for a
period of 5 years initially and subject to review thereafter, and the reward
tor the destruction of the same should be increased to Rs. 15, payable to

both sportsmen or others.

(2) We would further make the following recommendations :

(a) Crop-protection guns should be withdrawn from the licensees
during the bear hibernation period (December to March) when the Bara-
singh descends to lower elevations and is vulnerable to poaching.

(6) Guns should be issued to Jemadars and Head Watchers to
ensure efficient patrolling of their areas and to enable them to destroy
Black Bears and other vermin. The number of Black Bear is so great
now that the subordinate staff cannot be expected to patrol their areas
properly if unarmed. In any patrolling they now do they are likely to
declare their position and approach to poachers by talking loudly to
scare away bears and so also disturbing the other game. If single-handed
and unarmed, the patrols cannot reasonably be expected to tackle armed
poachers without help within call.

(c) Licensees should have the power to arrest poachers and to hand
the latters’ gun over to the Game Warden, as in South India.

(d) The penalty for poaching should be increased to Rs. 300, since
the present maximum penalty of Ks. 100 is considerably less than the
value of a dead Barasingh.

(e) Suitable and keen persons should be appointed Honorary Game

Wardens to assist the Game Department.

(f) Licensees should be asked to report the existence of machans oF

hides over salt-licks and paths to salt-licks and water.

(g) The number of Game Watchers in Dachigam (Upper and Lower)
should be increased to 18 or 20 (from the present 11), including a sepa-
rate Head Watcher at Gratnar.

(“) The total emoluments of both Game Watchers and Jemadars
should be brought into line with those of South India and Ceylon, and
the Watchers of the Game Department should also be entitled to pensions
on retirement, same as in the Tawaza Department.

(¢) The Game and Tawaza Departments should be amalgamated
forthwith, and if possible the Game Rakhs now controlled by the Forest
Department transferred to their unified control.

(7) The credentials and antecedents of those applicants for Big Game
Shooting Licences who reside in the State and who are not well-known to
the authorities should be carefully scrutinized before such applications are

granted.

(3) It is suggested

(a) That for the sake of precision the scientific names of species
listed in the schedules of the Game Preservation Act should be noted
against the English names.

(6) That the gate leading into the Lower Dachigam Sanctuary should
be repaired and that it should be kept padlocked at night.

(c) That licences for trout and other fishing in the Dachigam and
other Rakhs be not withheld from sportsmen, since fishing does not cause
any disturbance to game animals and the presence of sportsmen within

GAME PRESERVATION IN KASHMIR 233

the sanctuaries and reserves will act as a deterrent to poachers of Bara-
singh and other game.

(4) The Director-General of Tourism and Shikar had asked for clarific-
ation on the source of supply of the Kashmir wool known as ‘ Shahtoshah’.
All the data we have procured indicate that although the soft undercoat
of the Ibex, Tibetan Antelope and Tibetan Gazelle forms (or did in the
past) a part of the supply, this wool is for the most part obtained from the
Tibetan Goat and imported into Kashmir from across its northern
frontier.

(5) Finally, we were also asked to advise on the question of im-
porting other species of animals which would be likely to thrive in
Kashmir—the Elk and Red Deer being mentioned. We do not consider
this to be a wise course. From experience of the consequences of import-
ations of foreign animal species in other parts of the world, we feel that it
would not be advisable to adopt such measures, at any rate in the present
state of our knowledge concerning their ecology etc.

BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES
(ISOPTERA)

No. 3. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON J/Veotermes gardnert
(SNYDER) | FAMILY KALOTERMITIDAE]

BY
M. L. ROONWAL, M.Sc.,Ph.D., F.N.I., F.Z.S.I.
AND 7a
P. K. SEN-SARMA, M.Sc.
(Entomology Branch, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun)

(With a text-figure and 2 plates)

ClOINEEGESNGLS

Page

I, INTRODUCTION ee sha ain bint ie w. 234
II. OBSERVATIONS ac ee

1. Host-plants ne ze vee an 555 OB5

2. Nature of damage ae ann as 500. a8

3. Faecal pellets ere abs aa We soo ORS

4, Castes so far known Pod as ty 500 CRM

5. Emergence of alates in laboratory and field at sno Oke)

1005 SYOpNOWYNIEAY odo ne ce a we ws 290

IV. REFERENCES nae te aa aa a0 CON)

[SEN RIOsDsUEC GON,

The large and primitive termites belonging to the family Kaiotermi-
tidae often bore into dry wood and rotten wood in standing trees, houses
etc., and cause considerable damage. The galleries are large and go
deep into the wood, not excluding the heartwood, and look like the
galleries of beetle borers but are distinguishable from the latter by
the fact that portions of the irregular galleries are filled with brownish
masses made up of the small, semi-cylindrical and rugose excretory pellets
cemented together by salivary or other secretions into irregular masses.
Sometimes, as in the dry wood form, C7yAlotermes spp., the loose pellets
may lie outside the bored part of the wood.

Only a few species of Veotermes are known to attack living trees, the
rest attacking dead or rotten wood. Among the former are the following :
Neotermes tectonae (Damm.) of Java bores living teak trees (7ectona gran-
dis) in Java and is a serious pest, causing swelling and canker forma-
tion on the trunk ; it occurs on several other hosts also (Dammerman,

BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES 235

1915 and Kalshoven, 1939). MVeolermes greent (Desn.), WW. milétaris
(Desn.) and 4. mdlétaris var. unidentatus (Kem.) of Ceylon bore the
heartwood and even roots of the tea plant, Camellia sinensis ( Linn.)
O. Kuntze, eating the plant hollow and ultimately killing it. (vzde Pinto,
1941, pp. 80-81).

Sometime ago we found the Indian species, Mcolermes gardneri
(Snyder), which has already been recorded as boring dead, rotten branches
of mango, vzde Snyder 1933; Beeson, 1941 boring lvzzg portions of trees
in Dehra Dun (U.P., ca. 2,000 ft.) in addition to the dead ones. As nothing
is known of the biology and ecology of the species, some observations
made on the nature of damage, the season of the emergence of alates etc.,
are described here; records in the ledger files pertaining to the earlier
collections are also summarised. |

II. OBSERVATIONS

1. Host-—plants (Table 1)

The five host-plants so far recorded, all at Dehra Dun (U.P.), are
mentioned briefly in Table 1, and fuller details are given below;

TABLE 1—HostT-pLAnts oF (Neotermes gardnert (SNYDER)

SES SPE ES TENE OS TILLY A KES ET EET
ri c

|

ere ITE a OE REE GEES SEY BEY PEE PATA

| _, | Vernacular
Botanical name and Enelish | | ‘
: | | name | Locality Remarks
Family | name | (Hindi ete.)
1. Artocarpus lakoocha —— Barhal ; Dehra Dun | In dead wood.
Roxb. (Fam. Urtica- dehti, (Western
ceae). Himalayas,
Wks) uaa
| 2,000 ft.
2. Litsaea polyantha — Karkawa ; oF In rotten log,
Juss. (syn. TZetran- Singram
thera monopetala

Roxb.) (Fam.
Lauraceae).

3. Mangifera indica Mango, Am.
Linn. (Fam.
Anacardiaceae.)

In dead branches.

4, Pterospermum acervi-, — Kanak-

0 In both dead
folinm Willd. (Fam. | champa ; wood and adjoin-
Sterculiaceae), mayeng. ing diving wood

| | in thick (24-
| inch girth)

| | branches.
5. Woodfordia frutti- — _ -Dhaula a In dead trunk of
cosa(L.) Kurz. (syn. | | | fallen tree, at ca.
W. floribunda | | | 18-inch girth,
|

Salisb.) (Fam. |
Lythraceae).

236 IRONGH SINAC TE OLBVALY INL INCU ROA, Ie Ih, SOXEINR IE SZ, Well, 3

The initial specimens (alates and nymphs) from which Snyder (1933,
p. 4) described the species, were collected in April, 1931, in Dehra Dun
(U.P.) from a rotten branch of mango, A/angifera indica Linn., about 12
feet from the ground. More specimens (soldiers, alates and nymphs)
were collected from mango trunk in Dehra Dun on 4th July, 1932,
when a field note was recorded that ‘the main trunk of tree was
apparently healthy’. Again, specimens (including the queen, some soldiers
and several nymphs) were obtained from the same place on 19th April,
1953, inside the wood of a half dried branch of living mango tree.
On 4 February 1940, some soldiers and nymphs were obtained from
galleries in a rotten log of Lztsaea polyantha Juss. in New Forest, Dehra
Dun. On 3rd March, 1940, a soldier and some nymphs were obtained
from a dead log of Artocarpus lakovcha Roxb. in Dehra Dun, and later on
(no date recorded) some alates were obtained from the same source. On
26 February 1954, in New Forest, Dehra Dun, a dead branch of a large
healthy tree (height 100 ft.; girth at 44 ft., 15 in.) of Plerospermum
aceritolium Willd. was found heavily bored by the species, several soldiers,
alates and nymphs being collected. ‘The infested branch was about 2 ft.
in girth; when cut it was found that the healthy, /zvzxg portion of the
branch adjoining the dead portion was also attacked by the termite; the
tree did not show any sign of weakness. Again in New Forest, Dehra
Dun, on 27 January 1955, a one-foot girth main trunk of a fallen, dead
tree of Woodfordia ftruticosa (L.) Kurz (syn. W. floribunda Salisb.) was
found ‘attacked, at about 2 feet from the ground, and some soldiers,
alates and nymphs were obtained.

pe Were Om IDemeaee CHS, IL aac! 2)

As stated above, while generally dead or half-rotten wood is attacked,
when this portion adjoins the healthy living portion of the branch or trunk
the attack passes into the healthy portion also. No death of host trees
has so far been reported. In the laboratory a part of the bark of
Pterospermune aceritolium branch was also eaten up.

The termite makes an irregular network of large interconnected,
flattened galleries which lie mostly in the centre (i.e. in the heartwood in
some species), leaving the peripheral sapwood comparatively unaffected.
In a Pterospermum piece the network consisted of flattened galleries of
diaineters in cross-section about 50 mm. or over x 2-4 mm. (PI. 2,
figs. 1 and 2); sometimes, larger excavations are made.

3. Faecal Pellets
(Pl. J, fig. 6; and text-fig. )

The galleries are usually filled with brownish masses composed of the
tiny pellets of excreta cemented together, along with a little wood dust,
probably with the aid of the salivary secretion. ‘These masses are bored
through with a few small galleries for the passage of termites and can be
easily crumbled to a powdery, granular mass if gently rubbed between the
fingers and the thumb. The masses are sometimes as large as 3 « 4:5 cm.
in size, the actual size depending upon the dimensions of the gallery or
cavity in which they are lodged. .

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BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES 237

It is probable that these masses, being hygroscopic, function as reser-
voirs of moisture and thus serve to condition the humidity inside the
galleries,

I iii .

Trxt-FIG. 1. Faecal pellets of Meotermes gardneri (Snyder). The pellets
form masses which fill the cavities in wood made by the termite.

(a) A mass of faecal pellets cemented together. Note that some pellets have
not completely disintegrated but have retained the original form. (6)-(d@) Surface
views of three faecal pellets. (e) Transverse section of a faecal pellet.

d. f. m. disintegrated faecal mass; f. p. faecal pellets adhering to each other.

The faecal pellets are tiny, reddish brown and sub-cylindrical and with
6 weak but distinct longitudinal ridges on the surface, giving a distinctly
hexagonal appearance in cross section. The size of individual pellets
varies considerably— length ca. 0-°9-1:14 mm.; diameter ca. 0°5-0°7 mm,

4. Castes so far known
(Pl. 1, figs. 2-5)

The castes so far recorded are: soldiers, alates (fully-winged males
and females, and queen), and nymphs. As in the other Kalotermitidae,
the worker caste is wanting, the function of workers being performed by
the older nymphs, |

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIETY. Vick 153

5) Wimenoven ce) ot Avia tes! inal biokal tomyaraniGesrntenicl

Infected wood pieces were caged in the laboratory and the following
records of emergences obtained:

(i) A*mango branch (Jlangifera indica) was caged in a room in
New Forest, Dehra Dun, on 19th March, 1931 (Forest Entomologist’s
files), and the following emergences occurred, none occurring after 15th
May :

Date Alates emerged
9th April: <i
10th i)
Sth,
W7Adey «95
AVGay = 5p
26thien,,
2nd May
G0) op
ithe
Isth ,,

Oownrnnmwwrun

tt

(41%)

| et pe

les
i)

(ii) An infected piece of the trunk of Pterospermum acerifolium
similarly caged on 26th February, 1954, gave the following emergences ;
none occurred after 8th June although the cage was kept under observation
up to 17th September :

Date Alates emerged
llth May 500 1
14th ,, Pa 3
25 thwens me 1
27th ;; 3
SISter ie 10
ist June sae 12 | (48%)
2nd, 0 8
SN 65 4
Schima, 4
46

In addition, alates were collected in the field on the following dates:
26th February, 19th April and the 4th July.

From the above data it would appear that at Dehra Dun the alates
emerge from the last week of February to the first week of July more or
less continuously. In the 1931 rearing 41 per cent emerged on the 2nd May,
while in the 1954 rearing 48 per cent emerged on two days, 3lst May and
1st June. This feature is in contrast to the higher termites, eg., Odonto-
lermes Spp., where virtually all emergences of alates usually occur e2 masse
during a short period of a few days at certain stated seasons, once or twice
a year, and almost none at other times.

IlII—-SuMMARY

1. Neotermes gardneri (Snyder) has been recorded as boring into the
heartwood and sapwood cf the following 5 species of trees: Ayfocarpus
lakoocha Roxb., Litsaea polyaniha Juss., Mangifera indica Linn., Pteros-
permun acerifolium Willd. and Woodtordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (syn, W,
floribunda Salisb.) in Dehra Dun (U.P., ca. 2,000 ft.).

BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES 239

2. Generaliy dead wood is attacked, but where this adjoins living,
healthy wood, the attack spreads to the latter. No death of hosts have
so far been reported.

3. It makes a network of large irregular galleries, preferring the
heartwood, though the sapwood is not altogether avoided. ‘The galleries
are filled with reddish brown lumps of matter composed largely of the
excretory pellets cemented together.

4, Each excretory pellet is tiny, reddish brown, and sub-cylindrical,
and is ridged longitudinally with 6 ridges. Length ca. 0:9-1:14 mm. ; dia-
meter ca. 0°5-0°7 mm.

5. The castes so far known are: soldiers and alates (1, 2, queen).
Workers are absent.

6. The emergence of alates occurs from the last week of February
to the first week of July, mostly from early May to early June.

IV. REFERENCES

Beeson, C.F, C. (1941): The Ecology and Control of the Forest Insects of India
and the Neighbouring Countries. Dehra Dun, (p. 541).

Dammermatn, K. W. (1915): Ona new species of Calotermes (Cal. tectonae nov.
sp.) which attacks living teak trees.—77jds, Ent., 58, (suppl.), pp. ¥8-100, 1 pl.

Kalshoven, L, G. E. (1939): De biologie van de djatitermiet (Kalotermes tectonae
Damm.) in verband met zizn bestrijding- (Thesis). Wagennigen, Holland (H.
Veeman and Zonen). Alsoas: Meded. Inst. Plantenzielkien, Buitenzorg (Java),
No. 76, 154 pp., 19 pls.

Kalshoven, L. G. E. (1950): Die Plagen van de Culturgewassen in Indonesie.
Part I. (Isoptera, pp. 146-177).—The Hague and Bandoeng (W. van Hoeve).

Pinto, M. P. D. (1941): Some observations on the biology of the Ceylonese Caloter-
mitidae. Jxdzan J. Ent., New Delhi, 3, pp. 73-105.

Roonwal, M. L. and Pant, G. D. (1953): A systematic catalogue of the Main
Identified Entomological Collection at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
Part 9. Order Isoptera. Judian For. Leaflet (Ent.), Delhi, No. 121 (3), pp. 40-60.

Snyder, T. E. (1933) : New termites from India. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Wash-
“jngton, 82 (art. 16), pp. 1-15, 1-pl. ie bh .

REVIEWS
1. SAMPON KI DUNIYA (in Hindi). By Ramesh Bedi. Pp. 330

(4” x 6$”), 13 photographs, 3 text-figures and 6 line drawings. Vidnyan
Parishad, Prayag (U.P.), 1951. Price Rs. 5.

‘Sampon Ki Duniya’ (Serpent World) is interesting to a layman, as well
as to a specialist. The author, a naturalist himself, is particularly familiar
with snakes and their habits. He has recorded in this small work his per-
sonal observations, giving a fund of scientific and otherwise interesting
information collected from different sources.

The book deals with many aspects of serpent-life with copious refer-
ences about snakes in Indian mythology and the ancient Sanskrit litera-
ture. The noteworthy feature of the publication is the right perspective
in which the author has presented the information. He states clearly that
the so-called antidotes to. snake poisons referred to in the Ayurvedic liter-
ature, and the ones claimed by many persons, have not stood the test at the
Haftkine Institute, Bombay, although over three thousand such medicines
were tried.

There are 21 chapters in all; the first few describe some common
snakes, and the rest deal with general information about snakes, their
classification, identification of poisonous snakes, the poison apparatus
consisting of the poison gland and fang etc., snakes used as food and
freaks in snakes.

In the last few chapters the author has described the role of snakes
in nature, and in conclusion has justly appealed for the protection of snakes,
mentioning many instances where harmless snakes have been slaughtered
in large numbers. |

IMIG TRG do

2. BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA, INDIA. By R.S. Dharmakumar-
sinhji, F.z.s., M.B.o.U. Pp. liii+561 (114” x8”). 34 coloured and 18
photographic plates, 16 maps. Published by the author, Bombay 1955.
Price Rs. 50.

Here is a sumptuous volume truly reminiscent of the vanished pomps
of yesterday. The author, a younger brother of the Maharaja of Bhav-
nagar, is a seasoned ornithologist and the book is proof of the good use he
has made of his exceptional opportunities to study the bird life of Sau-
rashtra in its native setting. His keen interest in falcons and falconry, and
in game breeding and wild life preservation, and his competence in bird
photography have all contributed to the value of the work.

Saurashtra is a particularly interesting area for the bird student since
it lies on the migration route of a large number of European and north
Asiatic birds which winter in India or pass through on their way to
Africa.

It is unfortunate that when writing up his notes the author did not
have the benefit of reference to Salim Ali’s comprehensive report on the
Birds of Gujarat, which appeared whilst the book was in the press.
Thus, a large number of common species, presumably not collected by
the author, remain unnamed racially in the book, while there is nothing

REVIEWS 241

to indicate on what material many of the other races have been deter-
mined by him.

In a supplement, which covers a considerable portion of the book,
birds which have been recorded from Gujarat and/or Kutch but not yet
from Saurashtra are listed and described. This portion of the work is of
necessity incomplete, and suffers particularly from lack of reference to
the Gujarat bird paper. :

Statements sprinkled here and there in the body of the work are not
always very clear or convincing. For instance, it is said that Charadrius
hiaticula was also recorded (presumably at Jamnagar). Why then has
this not been listed ? Mumentus arguata arguata is said to be a migrant
to India and Ceylon, but we are not aware of any definite identification of
this race south of Sind. It is stated that the Purple Sunbird ‘can fly
backwards. ‘The tremendous speed of the wing-beat at times reaching
200 per second...’ This reads exceedingly like the description of some
humming bird, the only bird capable of this feat by virtue of its rather
differently constructed wing. And the estimate of the stroke-frequency
is surely conjectural, and surely much exaggerated. One of the smallest
humming birds, namely Phaetornis rufus, with a wing length of about
36 mm. (as against the sunbird’s 55), which perhaps also has the tastest
wing beats among birds, nas been proved, with the aid of the stroboscope,
to have only 50-51 beats per second. As far as we are aware the
Housefly has the fastest ascertained wing beats, namely about 200 per
second.

The reviewer has been quoted for a method of distinguishing the
Pintail from Fantail Snipe in flight, but the diagnostic characteristics of
the two species have unfortunately been reversed !

Among the many observations recorded which are original, and some-
times surprising, are that Green Pigeons feed also by moonlight; that the
call of Frankiin’s Nightjar is reminiscent of that of the Rufousbacked
Shrike; that the female Blacknaped Flycatcher resembles the Whitebellied
Drongo; that a male Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike can be confused with
a male Magpie Robin at a distance; that Mahratta Woodpeckers are so
intelligent that they ‘will nest in other kind of trees if [they find] a
particular species is being felled in an area’. ‘The Common [ora (de. 7.
tiphia) and the Central Indian Iora (de. 4. humez) are both recorded,
the latter as confined to Gir Forest and Girnar ‘ where it is common.
and resident’. One would like to know if this statement is based on
specimens collected. Those obtained by the Gujarat Survey in the
immediately adjoining areas of Kodinar and Amreli districts were cer-
tainly hamer.

The practice of translating English names into Gujarati /zfeval/y does
not always produce happy results, particularly in the case of names
associated with persons. Marshall’s Iora as ‘ Marshall-no-Shobinga’ or
Pallas’s Fishing Eagle as ‘ Pallas-no-Machhimar-Garud’ have sureiy less
to commend them than Gujarati names indicating something character-
istic in the appearance of the birds, such as the white fringe in the tail
of the former and the broad white band in the tail of the latter whence it
gets its alternative English name of ‘Ringtailed Fishing Eagle’. However,
bird names in the local languages are essential and indispensabie if the
study of birds is to progress in the country, and the sooner they can
be stabilized and put into currency the better.

The coloured illustrations, though they help to supplement the text

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

as regards field identification, are unfortunately of the ‘too artistic’ type.
Many of them, particularly of the Passerine birds, are stiff and unconvin-
cing. The absence of a measurement scale on the plates is a serious
omission, especially in cases where the size differences of the species
depicted are great, e.g. on Piate 20—Peacock and Desert Lark. The
bird photographs include some good examples of the work of the
author, the Yuvraj of Jasdan and others, particularly interesting being
those of the Great Indian Bustard and the Lesser Florican. All bird
students in India are of course familiar with the excellent field studies of
R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji on the breeding habits and migration of the
latter species, published in the Society’s Journal.

The 40-page supplement ‘Some Notes on the Birds of Gujarat and
Kutch ’, which follows the Saurashtra list, is succeeded by 5 Appendixes.
One of these, which contains extracts from the Bombay Gazetteer, Gujarat
States, relating to the physiography of Saurashtra, is of particular useful-
ness. Of much interest also is Appendix IV giving details of recoveries
of florican ringed in Bhavnagar by the author some years ago. The signi-
ficance and relevance of the 5th Appendix describing the Knot is not
obvious, and not understood. A glossary of some local terms and
abbreviations is given, and a species index completes the text.

This is a highly commendable contribution to the ornithology of a
particularly fascinating area of the Indian Union. ‘The author is to be
felicitated upon the perseverance with which he has pursued a study which,
despite an encouraging increase in recent years, still finds but few serious
adherents in our country.

And lastly, great credit must go to the printers, the Times of India
Press, Bombay, for demonstrating that really high class bookmaking caz
be done in India, comparable with the best anywhere in the world. ~

H. A:

3, AFRICAN HANDBOOK OF BIRDS, Series One: Birds of
Eastern and Northeastern Africa, Vol. II]. By C. W. Macworth-Praed.
MAL, NZS M.B.O,U,, and Capi ©) Hebe Grant. Fez.s.eM.b.OnUe eek:
viii + 1099+54 pp. index unnumbered (84”x5$”) 42 coloured, and 13
plates from pbotographs; marginal distribution maps and drawings,
London, 1955. Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., Price 45s. net.

The main features of this excellent series were noticed in these pages
when reviewing Vol. I (JA@NAS, 51 (3): 709-711, August 1953), and
need not be repeated here. ‘This second volume deat with a further 825
species covering the remaining 22 passerine families, giving in concise,
compressed form all that is known of their general and local distribution,
habitat and habits, breeding, food and calls.

The reviewer is glad to find that two of the blemishes he drew atten-
tion to in the case of Volume I, namely absence of a list of coloured
plates at the beginning and the use of unnecessarily elaborate vegeta-
tional backgrounds on the much-reduced plates at the sacrifice of space
and clarity in printing, have been removed. All the coloured figures on
the plates in this volume are printed on plain white ground. The figures
thus not only stand out clearer, but it has been possible to include many
more species on each plate (10 to 16 in many cases), thus enhancing the
usefulness of the book. Unfortunately a measurement scale on the plates

REVIEWS 243
is still lacking, and the absence of a good physical map of Africa
continues a major handicap in a work that has so much else to com-
mend it.

The coloured plates in Volume II are chiefly the work of D. M. Reid-
Henry and Miss C. E. Talbot Kelly with a few by N. C. K. Lighton.
Those by Henry are of the usual high standard we have come to expect
of this gifted artist. Miss Talbot Kelly is a comparative new comer to
the field, and the reviewer feels that many of her drawings are excellent
examples of modern scientific bird portraiture, deserving of the greatest
commendation and encouragement.

The 13 plates of photographs of birds at the nest by Dr. V. G. L. Van
Someren at the end of the volume, and the many black and white
marginal drawings add much to the attractiveness of the book, as the
marginal distribution maps do to its usefulness.

The authors in a prefatorial note apologize for the unavoidable size and

weight of the volume, which is now indeed half an inch fatter and several
ounces heavier than its plump predecessor! Considering, however, the
very good value the two volumes together offer in covering all the 1500
odd species of birds found in the area in such a comparatively portable
compass, no one will seriously grudge the slightly increased inconveni-
ence in handling the present one.
_ The dust jacket announces that the 2 volumes of the Second Series of
this Handbook by the same authors, covering the birds of the southern
third of Africa, are now in an advanced state of preparation. Bird students
will await their appearance with pleasurable anticipation.

ble

4. FLEAS, FLUKES AND CUCKOOS—A study of Bird Parasites.
By Miriam Rothschild and Theresa Clay. Pp. 84” x 53” With plates.
Collins’s The New Naturalist Series, London, 1952. 12s. 6d.

With the increasing number of books that have been written on bird
behaviour, we are now quite accustomed to think of the ‘bird as an indi- -
vidual. Not so familiar is the idea of the bird as a community. Birds
provide food, warmth and shelter to so many different organisms that
Shipley exclaimed: ‘They are not only birds but aviating zoologicai
gardens.’ This is an account of how the dwellers in this peculiar habitat
feed, reproduce and cling tenaciously to life, and of their relations with
each other and with their hosts.

The importance of the study of parasites need scarcely be stressed.
Insects and ticks, to quote our authors, are the makers of history, the
moulders of man’s destiny, and one of the real enemies of the human
race, Studying the parasites of other animals is often a short cut to
knowing ottr own. For example ducks and gulls have in their veins a
blood fluke with a life cycle like that of the human fluke, the cause of -
bilharzia, a serious disease in the Middte East. Had _parasitologists
known their bird parasites better, they would have found the study of the
human fluke a great deal simpler than they did.

The book is divided into three parts. Part one deals with the kinds
of relationships possible between different species, a proper understanding
of which must form the basis of the study of any animal community.

6

24,4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

In part two, each author discusses her particular branch of bird parasito-
logy. Miss Rothschild is an authority on fleas, while Maliophaga or
feather lice are Miss Clay’s special field. ‘The two groups form an
interesting contrast to one another. Fleas are primarily nest dwellers
and come on their hosts’ bodies only to feed. They are therefore little
affected by changes in their hosts, and oniy 14 species are found in
Britain. Mallophaga, on the other hand, spend their whole lives among
the feathers of their hosts and soon die when separated from them. So
intimately are the two associated with each other that every change in the
bird has brought about a parallel change in its lice. As a result about
1,500 species are known in Britain, and almost every group of birds has
lice peculiar to it and found on no other. ‘This makes it possible for an
expert to tell what group a bird belongs to by a study of its Mallophaga,
and parasitoiogists have helped to unravel many a knotty problem of
bird systematics in this way. Fiamingos have been variously included
among ducks and geese or among storks and herons. ‘They are para-
sitized by 3 genera of feather lice, Avatoecus, Anaticola and Trinoton, found
only on ducks and geese. The most likely explanation is that flamingos
are more closely related to this group than to storks and herons.

Part three is a general account of all other classes of bird parasites.
It is a mine of interesting facts and scientific knowledge, and is written
ina delightful style. We discover, among other things, that the male
roundworm has ‘a saucy curl to his tail,’ and that the duck leech is an
aumirable parent carrying her 300 odd young attached to her underside.
Dermatobia, a warble fly, has solved the transport probiem in a better
way ; she finds a mosquito and attaches her eggs firmly to its abdomen.
The young, when they hatch, siip on to the mosquito’s next victim.
Another ingenious insect uses a sort of Davis apparatus to escape from
the bottom of the pond where it is born. As the time approaches, air
accumulates in the pupal skin and on emergence the insect is carried
upwards in the bubble ‘ without even getting its feet wet.’

As with other books of the New Naturalist series, the plates are
excellent. It would, however, be easier to find them if, when they are
referred to in the text, the number of the page opposite is mentioned.
Apart from this the book is an admirable up-to-date popular account of a
fascinating world which, until now, was known only to a few specialists.
Many thanks are due to the authors for having thrown open the gates to
a wider public and it is to be hoped that a great deal of active interest
and research will be stimulated in a field where much remains to be done.

R.R.

5. BIRD NAVIGATION. By G. V.’T. Matthews. Pp. (vii+141).
33 text-figures. Cambridge University Press, 1955. Price 12s 6d.

In the last 5 years the experimental approach to the probleth of bird
navigation has made rapid strides. The author of this book, who has
carried out so much of the important research, has done a further valuabie
service in sumimarizing, in a book of convenient length, the present state
of knowledge on this central problem of bird migration.

In the first chapter Dr. Matthews shows what taxonomy, ringing and
field observation have contributed to our understanding of the problem.

REVIEWS 245

These techniques have shown that many long-distance migrations are a
sort of shuttle service to and fro between more or less restricted breeding
and winter quarters. The journey is frequently complicated by obstacles ;
it may be on a broad front over featureless country or over the sea, or
concentrated along narrow fronts by the now well-known ‘leading lines’
such as coastlines or escarpments. But for this kind of migration it
seems generally sufficient that a bird should be able to fly in one or more
fixed compass directions for a certain distance, compensating if necessary
for displacements due to wind or physical cbstacles. (Only for some
species, such as the Great Shearwater, which nests only on the Tristan
da Cunha group, spending the rest of the year scattered over the North
and South Atlantic Oceans, it seems that simple bearing and distance
navigation wouid not suffice. )

In Chapter 2 are reviewed the displacement experiments that have
thrown more light on these bearing and distance migrations. Such
experiments, which have been carried out on such birds as White Storks,
Hooded Crows, Sparrowhawks and Starlings, have shown that young birds,
migrating for the first time, do in fact fly innately in certain compass
directions (for most European species, SW. in autumn and NE. in
spiing). If they are caught while on migration and transported to one
side or the other of their route, they stay displaced, proceeding in their
normal compass direction and taking up winter and breeding quarters
to one side or the other of their normal quarters. (Unless carefully
devised, these experiments tend io be complicated by the fact that some
young birds, for example White Storks, will accompany older birds.)
Old birds, caught on migration and transported away from their migration
route, have been found to behave differently : a proportion of them regain
their normal breeding and winter quarters. These experiments, then, have
provided valuable information confirming and amplifying what can be
found out from field observation alone. In brief, birds innately fly in
certain compass directions for certain more or less fixed distances, but,
once they have had experience of a breeding or a winter home, they learn
some characteristic or characteristics of these homes which enable them
to return to them from unusual directions, or in other words, to ‘ home ’
to them. |

The author next goes on to examine the earlier homing experiments
with pigeons and some other birds. The usual practice was to remove
a bird from its home (often from its nest), take it away to a distance,
release it, and see if it returned to its home, and if so how long it took.
From all these early experiments it was possible, as little as six years
ago, to doubt whether a true homing faculty really existed. For instance
Dr. Wilkinson, a Cambridge mathematician, showed that, if certain not
unreasonable assumptions were made, all the successes in these experi-
ments could be accounted for on the hypothesis that the birds simply
searched at random until they reached known country, and this method
could also be used to explain the results obtained with old birds in the
displacement experiments described above. It is interesting to note that
the well-known sport of pigeon racing did not throw much light on the
problem, and pigeon fliers usually train their birds from fixed directions,
gradually increasing the distance from the loft, so that a simple ability to
fly in a fixed compass direction, which we have seen that birds possess,
coupled with the learning of landmarks, is sufficient to account for the
high success obtained in pigeon races.

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

It was in 1951 that Dr. Matthews showed that pigeons possess a true
homing ability—that is to say, if taken to unknown country, in a direction
from which they have never previously returned home, they can find their
way back in a much shorter time than would be required by a random
search. Almost at the same time Dr. Kramer, a German biologist, in-
dependently obtained the same results; then a little later, Matthews showed
that Manx Shearwaters also possess this ability. Matthews established
the further important point, that his pigeons were orientated shortly after
release. While still in sight, they were starting to fly in the home direc-
tion. ‘This has since been amply confirmed, and observation of the direc-
tion in which the bird is lost to sight at the point of release has become
the standard method for assessing orientation in homing experiments. It
is in fact a rather more reliable, as well as quicker, indicator of homing
ability, as a bird may start in the right direction but may not always
atrive, owing to hazards on the way or even, if the bird is not well settled,
to a disinclination to go back to the loft.

The remaining five chapters of the book are concerned with the
possible methods by which homing may be achieved. The author first
deals with experiments, largely carried out by Dr. Kramer and his col-
leagues, which have shown that migrants kept in cages, from which they
can see the sky but no landmarks, are able to orientate themselves by the
sun. By a number of ingenious experiments Kramer showed that they
are able to allow for the movement of the sun through the sky. If, for
instance, they have taken their direction from the sun and then, after a
period in which the sun has been obscured, are shown an artificial sun in
the same position, they take up a new direction differing from their previ-
ous direction by the amount that the sun should have moved in the
interval. Wecan thus understand how, at least in fine weather, migrants
can fly in fixed compass directions. This does not, of course, show how
a bird might home from a strange direction in strange country, which is
the central problem of homing, but it gives two clues—it suggests that,
as the sun is important for one sort of navigation, it may also be for
another, and it shows that, once the homing bird ‘ knows’ (by whatever
means) in which compass direction it should fly, it has the ability to
do so.

At this point the author considers some theories of bird navigation that
have been put forward in the past, but which now appear to be quite
ruled out. These theories depend on the bird’s ability to perceive various
forces, magnetic or mechanical, whose value varies in different places.
For the purpose of this review it need only be said that theoretical con-
siderations and experimental evidence are now firmly against such ideas.
It seems certain that the eye is the chief sense organ involved. Visual
clues, coupled with the other faculties that birds are known to possess,
must provide the data on which the iioming faculty 1s based.

In the last two chapters Dr. Matthews expounds the theory which he
himself has developed to account for homing. Before describing it, it
is as well to go a little more fully into the facts that need to be explained
—facts that have been established in a succession of experiments by
Mathews, Kramer and others over the last four years. First, untrained
pigeons can home successfully from unknown country ; in good condi-
tions they are well orientated before they are lost to sight. The ability
does not depend on the birds’ previous experience : even birds that have
been kept all their lives in an aviary can home. Secondly, the sun must

REVIEWS 247

be visible ; the more overcast it is at the point of release, the poorer the
homeward orientation. Thirdly, there is evidence that orientation is not
so good at short distances from home ,as it is at greater distances: at
distances of 30 miles or less, the birds seem to find difficulty in
orientating. —

Now, seeing that the sight of the sun is important and the various
‘unknown ’ senses seem to be ruled out, Matthews suggests that the birds
navigate by the sun in the way that, under the circumstances, we should
be forced to navigate—the only way in which, given the sight of the sun
for a minute or so, it is, as far as we know, possible to navigate. Mat-
thews’ hypothesis is this: During the time that the birds are kept at
home, they learn the characteristics of the stin’s path through the sky, in
particular its height at noon, and their time sense (which is known to be
highiy developed) becomes ‘ geared to’ the sun’s revolutions. This means
that at any moment the bird will ‘know’ at what height the sun should
be, in which direction it is moving, and how far it is from the noon posi-
tion. If the bird is now removed from its home, transported some
distance away, and then released, it will ke able, by watching the sun for
long enough to judge its path through the sky, to find out in which direc-
tion its home lies. If the sun’s path at the place of release indicates that
its noon altitude is lower than at the home (these details are of course
applicable only to the northern hemisphere outside the tropics), the bird
has been displaced northwards, so must fly with the southerly component,
and vice versa. If the sun’s path indicates that it will reach the noon
position later (as judged by the bird’s internal time sense) than it would at
home, then the bird has Leen displaced westwards, so must fly with an
easierly component, and w7ce versa. Thus if the bird can judge accurately
enough in this way its iatitudinal and longitudinal displacement , it will be
able to orientate itself towards home.

The author admits that his hypothesis is not proved yet, but there are
a number of points in its favour. It depends on senses that are known to
be especially weil developed in birds. In particular, it is known that
birds not oniy have acute vision but also are able to detect very small
movements; and it has keen found that they hold their heads extraordin-
arily steady in flight, so that the inner ear, the organ of balance, could
provide the ‘ artificial horizon’ necessary for accurate assessment of the
sun’s path. ‘These are general points in favour; there are also some
special points in favour of the theory. The fact that orientation is not so
good at short distances from home would be expected, as a small dis-
placement in the sun’s are will bé more difficult to detect than a large
one. Then Matthews has found that his pigeons make the sort of
mistakes that they would be expected to make on his hypothesis. For
example, the proportion of gross errors in orientation was found to be
highest in releases in early morning, when the sun was farthest from its
noon position and the extrapolation of its course consequently most diffi-
cult. Further, he has experimented with means of disrupting the birds’
time sense and resetting it to a false time, and he has reported that after
this treatment pigeons tend to fly in a false direction that was predictable
from his theory.

Kramer, however, has raised some objections to this theory. These
are mentioned by Matthews, but one could wish that he had given them
fuller treatment. Kramer, for example, claims that his pigeons are orien-
tated within 40 secs. of.seeing the sun, in which time it has moved so

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

little that it is very difficult to believe that they could extrapolate its path
accurately enough to obtain the information needed. Further, Kramer
has repeated some of Matthews’s experiments without always getting the
same results. A full discussion of these conflicting points is outside the
scope of this review ; certainly it appears that different stocks of pigeons
behave rather differently. But it must be emphasized that no aiternative
theory has so far teen suggested that fits the facts so well as Matthews’s.

Dr. Matthews’s book is remarkably up to date, containing references to
papers published in 1955. The field is a rapidly developing one, and it is
most useful to have an authoritative statement of the present state of the
subject. Ornithologists, and indeed all biologists, will watch the fate of
the sun navigation theory with great interest. Unlike many hypotheses,
there is nothing vague about it. If Matthews, Kramer and others continue
with critical experiments on a large scale, it seems likely that within a
few years we shall see the theory, so ably expounded in this book, super-
seded, or perhaps only modified, or perhaps even confirmed in all its
essentials,

D. W. SNow.

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

The following books have been added to the Society’s Library since
January 1955:

Review copies:
1. INDIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES, Vol. I Nos. 1 and 2. By
Editorial Committee, Indian Journal of Fisheries, 1954.
2. Common INDIAN HERBS. By N. A. Watts (The First Calcutta
Local Association, Bharat Scouts and Guides).
3, FLorA oF AGRA District. By N. A. Watts.
4. Brrp Lire. By Niko Tinbergen (Oxford University Press,
955):
5. THE WATERFOWL OF THE WORLD. By Jean Delacour (Country
Life Ltd., 1954).
6. THE TEMFLE TIGER AND MORE MAN-EATERS OF KUMAON.
By Jim Corbett (Oxford University Press, 1954).
7. Brrps oF ARABIA. By Col. R. Meinertzhagen (Oliver and
Boyd, 1954).
8. THE BIRDS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, Vol. III. By David Banner-
man and George E. Lodge (Oliver and Boyd, 1954). .
9. A WANDERER IN THE WIND. The Odyssey of an Animal
Collector. By Cecil S$. Webb (Hutchinson, 1953).
10. A FreLD GUIDE TO THE BiR»S OF BRITAIN AND EuROPE. By
Roger Peterson, Guy Mountfort and P. A. D. Hollom (Collins, 1954).
11. Porsonous Prants oF InpIA, Vol. I. By Sir Ram Nath
Chopra, Rattan Lall Badhwar and Sudhamoy Ghosh (Central Government
Publication, Deihi, 1949).
12. THE BirDS OF TRAVANCORE AND CocHIN. By Salim Ali (Ox-
ford University Press, 1953),

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 249

13, BIRDS OF THE SUDAN: their identification and distribution.
By Colonel Francis O. Cave and James D. Macdonald (Oliver and Boyd,
1955). |

14. SomE BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By Ethelbert Blatter and
Walter Samuel Millard (Second Edition, Revised by William T. Stearn).
(Bombay Natural History Society, 1954).

15. Somk BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. By N. L.
Bor and M. B. Raizada (Bombay Natural History Society, 1954).

16. THe Boox oF INDIAN BiRbs (Sth Edition) By Salim Ali
(Bombay Natural History Society, 1955). }

17. NATURE PARADE. By Frank W. Lane (Fourth Edition revised
and reset, Jarrolds Publishers (London) Ltd., 1955).

18. BrrpDsS or SAURASHTRA: INDIA. By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji
(Published by R.S. Dharmakumarsinhji at Dil Bahar, Bhavnagar, Saurash-
tra and printed by Pyarelal Shah at the Times of India Press, Bombay).

19. SAampon Ki DuniyA. By Ramesh Bedi (Publishers, Vijnayan
Parishad, Prayag, 1951).

Purchased:

1. Witp Company. Prefaced by T. V. Bulpin (London: The
Bodley Head. )

2, ANIMALS OF THE U.S.S.R. By G. M. Vevers, F.R.C.S., B.Z.S.,
(William Heinemann Ltd., London: Toronto. First Published (1948).

3, WiLpD Lire THE WORLD Over. By Nine Distinguished Worid-
travelled Specialists. (Wise & Co. Inc., New York).

4. MAn Meets Doc. By Konrad Z. Lorenz (Methuen & Co. Ltd.,
36 Essex St., Strand, London, W.C. 2).

5. THe MATING INSTINCT. By Lorus J. and Margery J. Milne
(Robert Hale Ltd. 63 Oid Brompton Road, London, $.W. 7).

6. Goinc WiLp. By Colin Wyatt (Hollis and Carter, London:
NOS):

7. ESCAPE FROM THE City. By Homi J. H. Taleyarkhan (Popular
Book Depot, Lamington Road, Bombay, 7 : 1954).

8. THE INNOCENT ON EverREST. By Ralph Izzard (Hodder and
Stoughton, London: 1955).

9. LEoparDs IN THE Nicut. By Guy Muldoon (Rupert Hart-
Davis, Soho Square, London: 1955).

10. THE FLORA OF KHANDALA ON THE WESTERN GHATS OF
InprA. Records of the Botanical Survey of India Vol. XVI, No. 1. By
H. Santapau (Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1953).

11. BirbDs OF THE WORLD—Their life and habits. By Paul Barruel.
Translated from the French by Phyllis Barclay-Smith. (George
G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., London, 1954).

12. MANUAL oF INDIAN Forest Botany. By N. L. Bor (Oxford
University Press, 1953).

13. ANIMALS—My Adventure. By Lutz Heck. ‘Translated by E. W.
Dickes( Methuen & Co. Ltd., London, 1954),

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, - Vol. 53

14. MAN AND VERTEBRATES, Vols. I and IJ. By A. §. Romer
(Pelican Books, 1954).

15. A DicTIONARY oF BroLtoGy (Enlarged and Revised Edition)
Penguin Reference Books. By M. Abercrombie, C. J. Hickman and
M. L. Johnson (Penguin Books, 1954).

16. Horn oF THE HUNTER—The story of an African Safari. By
Robert C. Ruatk (Hutchinson, 1954).

| 17. AFRICAN Fury. By George Michael (Michae! Joseph, London,
1954).

18. WiLp ANIMALS OF THE WORD, By Mary Baker and William
Bridges (Duenewald Printing Corporation, New York, 1948).

19. OppiTIES or NATURAL History. By Eric Parker (Seely, Service
_& Co.-Ltd., 196, Shaftesbury Avenue, London).

20. Raymond L. DitTMARS—His exciting career with reptiles,
animals and insects. By L. N. Wood (Robert Hale Ltd., London,
1951):

21. THe NATURE OF NATURAL History. By Marston Bates (Chap-
man & Hall, London, 1951).

22, ODDITIES OF THE ANIMAL WoRLD. By Gladys Davidson
(Blackie & Son Ltd., London & Glasgow).

23. THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN ADVENTURE. By Ralph Izzard
(Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1955).

24. STRANGEST CREATURES ON EARTH. Edited by Edward M.
Weyer Jr. (George G. Harrap & Co., Ltd., London, Toronto, Wellington,
Sydney, 1955).

25. PurFFINs. By R. M. Lockley (J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., London :
1953):

26. Brirps As INpiIvipuALs. By Len Howard (The Scientific Book
Club, London).

27. INSECTS OF THE PACIFIC WoRLD. By C. H. Curran (The Mac-
millan Co., New York, 1946).

28. REPTILES AS Pets. By Ian Harman (Blanford Press Ltd.,
London, 1950).

29. REPTILES OF THE PACIFIC WorRLD. By Arthur Loveridge (The
Macmillan Co., New York, 1946).

30. NINE MAN-EATERS AND ONE RoGusE. By Kenneth Anderson
(George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1954).

31. ANIMAL ForRMS AND PATTERNS. By Adolf Portmann (Faber and
Faber Ltd., London).

32. THE Huntinc Wasp. By John Crompton (The Scientific Book
Club, London).

33. NATURAL HISTORY OF MARINE Iemma. By G. E. MacGinitie

and Nettie MacGinitie (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.. New York, London,
Toronto, 1949).

Presented:

1. Mosovurrors oF THR ETHIOPIAN REGION 1—~Larval bionomics
of mosquitoes and taxonomy of culicine larvae (2nd Edition with notes

AD DIMMMONS hO> RHE SOCTEDY:S ELBRAR Y. 251

addenda by P. F. Mattingly). By G. H. E. Hopkins (British Museum of
Natural History, 1952).

2. A CRICACAO DE ABELHAS INDIGENAS SEM FERRA (MELIPO-
NINAE)—The rearranging of stingless Bees, Meliponinae (in Portuguese).
By Paulo Nogueira Neto (Editorial Chacaras e Quintias, Sao Paulo, Brasil, ‘

9 S))
| 3. EXPLORATION FawcetTT. By Lt-Col. P. H. Fawcett (Hutchinson,
seventh impression, 1953).

4. THE PocKET GUIDE TO BirDS— How to identify and enjoy them.
By Ailan Cruickshank (Pocket Book Inc., New York, 1954).

5. I Planted Trees. By Richard St. Barbe Baker, For. Dip.
(Cantab.) (Lutterworth Press, London and Redhill). 7

6. YELLOW FEVER. Edited by George K. Strode, m.p. (McGraw-
Hiil Company, Inc., Bombay, New York, ‘Toronto, London, 1951).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1, A NEW SPECIES OF LANGUR IN ASSAM
(With a sketch map)

For many years a golden-coloured langur has been noticed on the
eastern bank of the Sankosh River in Assam, near the Bhutan border.
It had been seen by several tea-planter naturalists in the Bengal
Dooars, and was known to them as the ‘Sankosh Langur’.

In particular, H. E. Tyndale and A. V. Pullan mentioned the
existence of this langur to me several years ago, and they referred
to the extraordinary fact that it had never been seen on the Bengal
side of the Sankosh River, which forms the boundary between Assam
and Bengal. Nor had it been seen near the Raidak River, which
is the next river to the west of the Sankosh.

4 BH ur WN

z RK KuRAKSRAN

NS

Scekel-ca7Mites
Known RANGE of PResaymss Geer

I looked for this golden langur while I was up the Manas River
in November 1949, and again in February/March 1952, but without
success though I found a troupe of Capped Langurs, Trachypithecus
pileatus (Blyth), on the 1952 trip and was able to cine film them.

In November 1953 I made a trip with friends to the rivers Aie and
Sankosh. While staying at the Jamduar Forest Rest House on the
Sankosh, near the Bhutan border, I was able to observe and film in
colour these golden or ‘Sankosh’ langurs on November 17th, 20th and
2st. On 17th I came across a troupe of them rather suddenly on a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 253

hillside near the river, about two miles north of the bungalow, and
saw about 12 langurs though there may have been more.

On 20th and 21st a troupe of them was encountered about one
mile north of the bungalow numbering 30 to 4o, feeding on the fruit
(and leaves?) of Terminalia belerica—local names bohora and bhamra.
They were shy creatures and usually kept some 70-80 feet distant,
often remaining in the shade. At one time I told my two men to
wait motionless while I tried to film two or three of these golden
langurs a short distance away. Then followed a great commotion,
and I saw a very large langur, possibly the leader, swing down branch
by branch till it was only a few feet away from my men, who were
very scared but remained in the same spot. Apparently this was a
‘sabre-rattling’ or feint attack, as the langur quickly returned to the
tree-tops.

Two of my companions on this trip, while fishing on the Sankosh,
told me they saw another troupe of these golden langurs some four
or five miles downstream, actually on the river bed crossing from a
chapori (island) as they bounded across the stones and disappeared
into the forest.

I have been informed by B. Mitchell, who has camped in many
parts of that district of Assam, that he has seen a troupe of 40-50
of these golden langurs close to the Jamduar bungalow, and smaller
troupes about five miles to the south, and very small troupes of 10-15
still further away to the south-west, near the Raimona Forest Rest
House. He has also, he says, seen a troupe of about 25 of them on
the west bank of the Ranga River, but none to the east of the
Ranga.

All the places referred to above, which comprise the known range
of this golden langur, are within an area of not more than about 56
square miles, extending from the east bank of the Sankosh River to
the west bank of the Ranga River, and from the Sankosh-Raimona
road in the south to the Bhutan border (or further?) in the north.

As for a general description, these golden langurs appear to be
similar to other langurs, except that the tail is longer and slightly
tassellated and the coat is an almost uniform deep cream colour in dul!
light and bright golden in sunlight. The face is black. The coat
down the sides, where the hair is longer, appears sometimes to be
darker, almost red in colour. The young appear to be similar to the
adults, though perhaps a little lighter in colour.

I was not able to secure any still photographs of these langurs,
but succeeded in taking about 7o feet of 16 mm. colour cine film of
them as they moved about the tree-tops.

In August 1954 I reported the existence of these golden langurs
to Dr. W. C. Osman Hill of the Zoological Society of London, a
leading authority on the Primates, and he considered that they might
be a new species. Again I reported their existence to the Zoological
Survey of India in January 1955, and I suggested that their Survey
Party, then working in Bengal, should visit Jamduar in order to collect
specimens for identification.

This Survey Party led by Mr. H. Khajuria duly visited the area
and collected six specimens in April of this year, and the description

254 JOURNAL, VBOMBAY NATRU RAL ETSI “SOCIED Ya. Viola 53

and report of this Party is now awaited with interest, as this golden
langur may be a species entirely new to science.

OaTING P.O.,
ASSAM, Do IP, (GIB IN
August 11, 1955.

[We understand from Mr. Khajuria of the Zoological Survey of
- India that his description of this new species of langur, which he has
named Presbytis geei, will shortly be published in Annals and Magazine
of Natural History—Eps. |

2. MONKEYS AND PANTHER

With reference to the first Miscellaneous Note in Volume 52, No. 4,
the following extract from an account in my diary of what appears
to be another good example of ‘mass hysteria’ amongst langurs in
ithe presence of panther may be of interest to readers of the Journal.
It refers to an incident near Tanakpur which I recorded in November
nO39:

‘Late one afternoon I was sauntering quietly down a jungle path
near the forest edge. Suddenly I froze in my tracks, for meandering
towards me was a really fine chital stag. I hadn’t the slightest wish
to shoot him; rather did I feel like bursting into laughter for he was
mooning along the path seemingly without a care in the world, occa-
sionally inclining his aristocratic head to one side or the other as if he
were aware of its beauty; occasionally he nuzzled a strand of grass
leaning across his path. He was not forty yards away, yet quite oblivious
of my presence and so taken up with his dreaming that he performed
a little sideways dance, lowered his head in mock battle, and then
walked on as nonchalantly as before. His preoccupation was quite
ludicrous to see, but it might well have proved his undoing.

Some fifteen yards to his left was a narrow belt of shisham trees,
near the summits of which a dozen or so langurs were nibbling the
young shoots and watching my movements with but little concern.
On the chital’s immediate right was a wall of tall thatching grass
seven or eight feet high and stretching back some fifty yards to the
edge of the sal trees. Without a moment’s notice pandemonium broke
loose amongst the monkeys. Never was such unbridled panic, and
why they forsook the safety of the shisham trees God alone knows.
With volleys of grunts, squeals, and frenzied chatterings they burst
in all directions like a startled covey of quail, surged across the path
and through the tall grass in an effort to reach the main forest. So
taken up was I with this amazing stampede that for an instant I
forgot the stag. When once more I glanced down the path, he had
melted from my ken. But even as I pondered on his disappearance,
from out the elephant-grass there burst through the clamour an awe-
inspiring sigh. I can only describe it as a sigh, a sigh which was
indeed all breath and little noise and yet seemed to shake the air.
[t was followed (or was it preceded?—in the confusion I forget which)

= dh

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 955

by the agonized scream of a dying langur. In the excitement of the
moment I pushed a little way through the cover in the direction of
a tall anthill. Discretion quickly sent me back to the path, for a low
growl, too imperative to disregard and too near for comfort, warned
me not to interfere.

Much had been enacted before my very eyes, and even more had
come to my ears, yet the correct interpretation of those crowded
moments probably eludes me. Is it not possible that one of a pair
of leopards, from beyond the shisham trees, caused those foolish
monkeys to run in terror from his presence while his mate lay ready
in the concealing grass? At any rate, I like to think that the chital
stag had no place in the violence of that scene; he was far too happy
and beautiful.’

HAYBARN,
THURSLEY, Reon heb AMES,
SURREY. Tneut.-Col., 1.4. (Retd.).

September 25, 1955.

> Wiplls, IBIKEVCIL IB, ADIKE BIR

On a nearby tea estate there have been, recently, two unusual
cases of a tiger attacking people on bicycles in daylight. The first
occurred some two months ago when a Dispenser of the estate was |
‘knocked off his machine by a large tiger which sprang out from the tea
which borders the road. He was virtually unhurt, but the cycle tyres
were ripped—presumably by the animal’s claws.

The second ‘assault’ took place on t1oth September, 1955. The
Manager was peacefully riding along a road which borders some
abandoned tea, 1.e-, the bushes have been allowed to grow unpruned
and unplucked, when he was startled by a squeal which came from
the other side of the road. He stopped to investigate and at the
same: instant, ‘a huge tiger emerged from the abandoned tea and
approached me at a crouching run. I pedalled off as fast as I could
with the tiger effortlessly keeping pace behind. After going a few
yards I began to shout. Then I fell off. I don’t remember anything
more until I “‘came round’’ to see some labourers bending over me.
Apparently, on hearing my shouts, they came in my direction and the
tiger made off.’

The Manager was also almost unscathed, but the cycle tyres were
again ripped by the animal. The only really satisfactory explanation
for these two attacks appears to be of a psychological nature. That
the tiger harbours a phobia against cycles seems likely—in particular
against the admirable products of M/s. Dunlop, Firestone, etc.,
for in both instances he could have killed both men with very little
trouble, yet he seems to have concerned himself solely with the machine.
His actions were, apparently, unprovoked as the source of ‘the squeal’
was not discovered. In the case of the Dispenser, the only sound
emanated from himself!

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

There is another explanation, however, which should be taken with
raised eyebrows, I’ think. Ten years ago the previous Manager of
the estate, a man of generous proportions, was reported to have
bumped into a tiger whilst riding his cycle. Elephants are said to
never forget, but tigers, well... ?

KHARIKATIA T.E. & P.O.,
ASSAM, J. H. BURNETT

September 12, 1955.

4. WILD ANIMALS IN THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS

The only wild animals in the Andamans at present are Chital and
Pig. Chital were introduced in the Andamans some 25 to 30 years
ago with the object of creating a source of meat for those who have
to live and work in the forest. They are now, however, classed as
pests, as they have increased and multiplied beyond all measure and
are destroying the seedlings of valuable commercial trees in our re-
generation areas. To counteract them, two female panthers were intro-
duced in the Andamans during the year 1952-53, but their activities
‘cannot so far be judged.

Port BLarr,
ANDAMANS. J. BANERJI, 1.F-s.,

August 3, 1955. Chief Conservator of Forests.

5. GREAT INDIAN ONE-HORNED RHINOCEROS
(R. UNICORNIS LINN.) COW WITH (PRESUMPTIVE)
TWIN CALVES

On July 24th 1955 at about 2.30 p.m. I set out from Kaziranga
village on the elephant ‘Deokali,’ accompanied by Choudhuri, the
Forest Guard. It was my intention to visit the nearest part of
Kaziranga Sanctuary, which is about one mile away at this point.
As we approached the Mora Difloo stream, which forms the southern
boundary. of the Sanctuary, we observed at a distance two or three
rhino grazing in the Sanctuary beyond, in a grassy clearing locally
known as a ‘doloni’.

We eventually arrived at the bank of the stream, and at a distance
of only about sixty yards gazed at the rhino. There were three of
them: a mother with her calf close to her, and about twelve or fifteen
yards away to the left another calf—presumably without its mother.
We looked around for the mother of the lone calf, but there was no
other rhino in that place.

As we discussed the problem of how this lone calf came to be
there, the young creature itself solved it for us. It heard us talking,
looked up and then immediately ran to join the mother and the other
calf. Then it dawned on me that this must be the first case of an
Indian rhino ever being seen with twin calves.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 957

We had ample opportunity of closely observing the cow with her
two calves, for they remained in the same spot for some fifteen minutes.
The calves were about three years old, and were of identically the
same height and shape. They roamed together round the mother as
she continued to graze, and we were able to observe them facing us,
side view and rear view. As there was no other rhino in the place
at that time, there can be little doubt that it was in fact a case of
twin calves.

Most unfortunately it had been raining slightly all day, and so I
had come out for once without a camera. In order to obtain more
witnesses, if that were necessary, we called up several villagers who
were fishing and herding their cattle nearby, just outside the Sanctuary.
They came along, looked and confirmed without hesitation what we
had noted—that here was a cow rhino with twin calves.

Eventually the mother rhino became a little nervous at the sight
of so many of us, and walked away into the tall elephant-grass. The
two calves followed close at heel and disappeared from view. I advised
the Forest Guard to keep a careful look-out for further appearances
of this unique family party.

Several cases have been recorded of twins being born to an Indian
elephant; but as far as I am aware no case has hitherto been reported
of the Indian rhino, or of any rhino of either Asiatic or African origin,
having twin calves. The above occurrence, therefore, must be the first
ever to be observed and recorded.

OaTinG P.O.,
Assam (INpiA). 1D, IP, dale:

July 28, 1955.

6. A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON THE STATUS OF
RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF BURMA—1955

THE SMALLER ONE-HORNED OR JAVAN RHINOCEROS.
Rhinoceros sondaicus.

Extract from a letter dated 2nd September 1954, from the Deputy
Commissioner, Tavoy (U Kyaw Thant):

‘On my recent tour to the newly occupied area which was under
insurgent domination for some time, I came across a piece of rhino
hide and a tip of rhino horn about a couple of inches in length cut
from the horn. According to the person who was in possession of
these things, a single-horned rhino was seen at Taungnyo range (a
local name for the Tenasserim Yoma) in Natkyizin village tract by
Mon insurgents. Natkyizin village tract is in the northern part of
Tavoy District bordering the Amhurst District. This was some time
in January 1954, and the animal had to be stalked for about half a
day before it was shot. According to this person the horn was about
9 inches in length and’ about 3 inches in diameter at its base. It ts
said there was only this one rhino when it was seen.’

ho
Or
(ea)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

It is possible that this rhino is the same animal as mentioned
in the Annual Report on Game Preservation in Burma for the year
ending 3ist March 1940. Below is the relevant extract.

‘In the Man-Aung and Yechaung Reserves of Ataran Division recent
tracks of two rhinoceros were seen and a search by the local beat
officer in the adjoining area of Tavoy Division produced another track.’

THE SUMATRAN TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis.

Extract from a letter dated the 18th May 1955 from the Divisional
Forest Officer, Minbu Forest Division (U Su):

‘It has very recently been reported to me that there are some
rhino in this division. Very recently some villagers from Nga-pe
area had seen a rhino in the Pa-aing Reserve while collecting canes
for their use, and also stated that some tracks were frequently seen
in the Mon West Reserve and Kyetmauktaung area. From the reports
it seems that there are not less than 3 to 5 rhinoceros in this division,
probably Rhinoceros sumatrensis. I think they must have been
wandering across from the Arakan Yoma.’

Mr. J. N. Martin, Superintending Engineer, who has been supervis-
ing the construction of the Padaung-Taungup motor road over the
Arakan Yoma was informed by local trackers that there are rhinos
in the Nga-pe area, three days’ march from Yebawgyi-Mile 70. This
coincides with the report received by U Su. Nega-pe area is near
An Pass, and is lower down the area marked some 50 miles SSE. of
Myohaung in Lieut.-General Philip Christison’s map (JBNHS, Vol. 45
(4), pp. 605—1945). Ey eggs.

According to Mr. Martin’s informants, rhino tracks are no longer
seen in the area about half-way between Sandoway and Prome.

25, Inya Myarine Roap, =
University P.O., | ; TUN YIN
RANGOON, BURMA.

July 4, 1955.

”. WILD BOARS BEING USED AS BLOOD HOUNDS

I wonder whether the readers of this journal have ever known a
case of wild boars being used as blood hounds. |

There is a place called Badnor in Rajasthan where the Thakur
Sahib of this place used to keep a couple of tame wild boars some
years ago. ‘These wild boars were so trained that whenever a panther
was wounded and required following up, these boars used to be let
loose on him. They would at once pick up the blood trail, and on
encountering the wounded panther would hold him at bay until the
shikaries came and despatched the panther.

On enquiry I was informed that these boars while young were first
taught to lick the blood of a goat and later to follow its trai! laid
for the purpose.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 259

Since no accidents were reported while following a wounded panther
in this novel way, it would certainly appear to be a very safe method
of following up wounded carnivora.

BANERA P.O.

RAJASTHAN. K. GUMAN SINGH,
August 19, 1955. Colonel, 1.A.

8. MALFORMED MUNTJAC. HEAD
(With a photo)

In connection with my recent reference to an abnormal Sambar
antler another abnormal deer skull has come into my possession. In

this case the skull is that of a Barking Deer—Muntiacus muntjak:
Malay—Kijang.

This deer was shot on licence during the past open season and
is of a fully mature male. It was in excellent condition.

The abnormality is in the left pedicel which, instead of growing
upright has grown downwards and backwards past the left ear. This
abnormal pedicel measures 34 inches from the angle of the skull
above the eye socket, and the horn from the burr only Br: inches.
The horn is very worn and stubby.

At the base of the abnormal pedicel, where it joins the front of
the skull, there are two projections. One is half an inch long and
the other, slightly above the first, is merely a small knob of bone.
There ave no signs at all of damage or injury to the abnormal pedicel
or the bone structure at the Base and the small projections appear
to be projections from straight clear skull bone.

7

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The normal pedicel measures from the base at the back 3+ inches,
and the horn from the burr 3} inches.

In view of the absence of damage to the pedicel and the bone
tissue in that region it would seem that this abnormality was present
before the animal was born and that the projections on the skull
near the base of the abnormai pedicel are the indications of one—if
not two, additional pedicels which failed to form. |

Hg. GAME DEPARTMENT,

FEDERATION OF Mataya,

SEREMBAN, H. J. KITCHENER, F.z.s.
NEGRI SEMBILAN,

MALAYA.

May 25, 1955.

9. THE STATUS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR OR ‘IBEX’
(HEMITRAGUS _ HYLOCRIUS BLYTH)

As a result of letters appearing in the Press to the effect that
Nilgiri Ibex in these hills were on the verge of extinction owing to
poaching and indiscriminate shooting, it was decided to hold a census
ef these animals in order to ascertain the exact position. An attempt
to carry this out in May 1954 had to be abandoned owing to the un-
usual prevalence of horse-flies which had driven most of the Ibex into
the sholas during the daytime, and to the persistent rain and low-lying
cloud. The census was therefore deferred till April 1955, by which
time the young grass on burnt areas would bring the Ibex up from
the cliffs, and it was hoped that other conditions would prove more
favourable. The result was most satisfactory.

Along the great 20-mile sweep of the cliffs from Nilgiri Peak
to Sispara and Ankinmalai no less than 296 Ibex were counted in
17 different herds, while an outlying herd of 42 was enumerated in
the Billithadahalla area. The grand total actually seen was therefore
338, and this takes no account of others which may have been over-
looked or were out of sight down the cliffs. The figure given may
be accepted as accurate, since great care was taken to ensure that
no herd was counted twice over. This was not difficult as the lure
of the fresh grass kept the animals located. The result of this census
shows how far from the truth is the idea that Ibex on the Nilgiris
are on the verge of extinction.

Only in the small isolated Glenmorgan area on the northern side
not a single animal could be found, nor any droppings, and it would
appear that this herd, which in 1947 numbered some 30 head, has
been wiped out by poachers, in spite of the fact that the area has
been closed to Ibex shooting for some 20 years. Elsewhere, on the
main Ibex grounds between Nilgiri Peak and Bangi Tappal, poaching
is mostly confined to gangs of Estate workers armed with spears and
accompanied by packs of dogs. It will be appreciated how difficult
it is for an unarmed Watcher or Forest Guard to deal with these,
though the presence of sportsmen does act as some deterrent. Licence

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 261

holders on an average account for only two Ibex per annum, and
those are ‘Saddle-backs’, i.e., old males, of doubtful utility for breeding
purposes.

It would be interesting to know how Ibex are faring in other
hill ranges of the South—the Anaimalais, Palnis, High Range, etc.
Perhaps our members could give information.

KALHATTI,
NILGIRIS. EK. G, PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, Lieut.-Col.,
Jiine 14, 1055. Hon. Supdt., Nilgirt Game Association.

to. THE FAMILY LIFE OF A FIVE-STRIPED SQUIRREL—
(FUNAMBULUS PENNANTI WR.)

In 1953 October I found a young squirrel by the wayside which
had dropped from her nest. The crow and the- kite had missed her.
I reared her on warm milk which she sucked from a piece of cotton
dipped in it, and then gradually as she grew up she fended for herself
but still insisted on a daily ration of delicacies such as top of the
milk, coffee and sweets. I have watched her make a dash for a
resting honey-bee or a fly and devour it with relish, wings and all.

By June 1954 she was full grown and had a wooden box lined
with cottonwool in which she slept at night. This box of hers was
kept in a small almirah built in the wall. To come out in the open
she had to jump on to the frigidaire, then on to a curtain, rope-dance
along a wire to another almirah, and finally come down by the wire-
meshed door on to the courtyard. There was an easier route along
the casing but it never seemed to appeal to her.

On June 8, 1954 while I was immersed in a book, my pet squirrel
came into the room and sat on the top of the door. The next
moment she gave one of the sweetest calls I have ever heard, followed
by a second and a third call, at short intervals. There was an
answering call at a distance, not as musical though certainly appealing.
The calls became more frequent and more in number as they came
nearer, and it seemed to me they were far too many to belong to
one since there was such a wide range and variety in pitch.
Bewildered, I peeped out from behind the curtains on to the
courtyard, and imagine my surprise when I saw trooping down the
stairs of our double storeyed house, not one, not two, but as many as
eight squirrels of different shapes and sizes. One was certainly old
and tottering, another with just half a tail, and a third sleek and
debonair. For the first time I realized that the female of the species
takes the initiative to let the squirrel world know that she is ready.
But one factor, I am certain she had not bargained for, was the
terrific onslaught that followed, because the next moment she was
hotly pursued up the casing, down the curtain and behind the couch.
The suitors fought among themselves for supremacy, but for her
there was a constant urgent appeal in the voice as each pursued her.
Finally at an opportune moment the debonair suitor, handsomest of
the lot, softening her by his coaxing call, quickly caught her in a

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

clasp and mated. She struggled at first to unloosen the grasp, and
on failing to do so, submitted quietly. For about 15 minutes they
remained thus until disturbed by another inquisitive squirrel. The
female squirrel came to life as it were, and with a turning bite freed
herself and ran, followed closely behind by the surprised mate. He
caught her up again but now she was not unwilling. They mated a
third time in the course of the day and quietly, because the other
squirrels had quit the field, so to say.

The love life of a squirrel lasts but just one day. The next and
the following days not a single squirrel could be seen, nor did the
female send out her urgent calls again. Alone and unaided she makes
her nest and rears her young, the male being but a day’s visitor.

Soon after, she brought in strips of cloth, a ball of thread she
had managed to slip out of the sewing bowl, and finally, unseen
by me, a handkerchief of mine to line her already lined wooden
box. Before long she turned plump and- round, and on the
morning of July 18, exactly one month and ten days after mating,
she came out of her box as slim as ever. I was certain she had
been delivered the night before, and I was keen to see the litter.
She who was such a pet to let me handle her became so possessive
that she turned ferociously on me the moment I went up to her
almirah. Outside it she let me feed her. |

That night tragedy overtook her family. Early next morning !
was surprised to find her, not in the box suckling her young ones,
but constantly getting in and out of the box. She was letting
out the most pathetic squeaks, and she would not allow me to
find out what was wrong. Unable to stand her sorrow any longer
I drove her out of the almirah and out on to the courtyard and locked
the doors. I took down the box and looked in and only then couid
I understand the cause of her pain, for it shook me to find just a
few pieces of meat, the remnants of her first-born.

I threw out her nest, cleaned the box thoroughly, aired it and
put fresh cotton wool for her, then let the doors be opened. She
went straight for the almirah, and finding her old nest and everything
thrown away, went on with her squeaks that were nothing less than
wailings for her lost litter. Fortunately she calmed down by late
evening and was normal the next morning. I was still wondering |
who had destroyed her family when I heard a commotion. On entering
the room | saw a huge sewer rat on the casing and my pet squirrel
appealing for help at the top of her voice. Then it struck me that
these rats enter homes during monsoons when their own burrows {i!!
with rain water. The night before, he had come down the casing,
found the almirah open, frightened the mother squirrel out of the
box and then had made a meal of the young ones. I learnt my
first lessori. Since then I close the doors of the almirah at night
and open them early every morning.

Within a fortnight of that tragedy my squirrel had so recovered
that she again advertised the fact that she was ready for her suitors.
On August 5, 1954 she went through the whole drama of June 8,
but I cannot tell for certain whether the mate she chose the second
time was the same as the first, because there is no way to tell them

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 25M i: 263

one from another unless there is a tail missing. This time they mated’
twice in the course. of the day, and on each occasion for a longer
period, 20 minutes at a time.

_ On September 16 she turned ferocious again, and when I went to
feed her she ran down the almirah, up my dress, took hold of my
middle finger, gave a sharp nip and went back to her box. I looked
foolishly at my bleeding finger, and learnt my second lesson. Now,
every tune she becomes a mother I give her the widest possible berth.

The first thing she did each morning was to leave the nest for
half an hour for fresh air, food and exercise. I took that opportunity
to peep in, and found three very small, blind and absolutely hairless
young ones. To suckle those fast growing, hungry mouths the mother
squirrel had to have ample milk in her four teats, so that now she
consumed double her normal diet with short intervals between feeds.
When once full she went to suckle her young ones until they slept
on a full stomach. Then she would come out of the box and keep
watch, stretched out on the lid, and there take forty winks herself.

In three weeks their eyes opened, squirrel markings appeared on
their now. furry backs, and it was at this stage that I took one of
the litter to bring up myself. When the two young ones grew ir
size and the box became uncomfortable for suckling, the mother would
bring them out of the box, and in the almirah curl herself like a dog
while the young ones held furiously on to the teats. Even when they
could fend for themselves they would insist on being breast-fed now
and then, and the mother made no objection.

Gradually she brought them out and taught them the way to the
courtyard, but there was always a fall or two when the mother would
show remarkable. patience. On one occasion I watched her from rz
in the afternoon to 8 at night trying to induce a young one back
into the almirah after he had accidentally fallen out through sheer
inquisitiveness. With her success I learnt my third lesson, - that
perseverance knows no failure.

The moment she taught them to go free she refused to have them
in the box, though out in the courtyard she fondled them once or
twice. One great difficulty | came up against was that I could not freely
bring up the young I took from her box. She refused to recognise
her offspring because the human hand had obliterated the original
smell and she would chase him about and bite, with the result that to
this day I have failed to bring up a single young one. Invariably
she would so chase them about that the ones she reared as well as
the one I brought up would disappear, thinking it better to live a
squirrel’s life of freedom than a dog’s life in a courtyard!

One characteristic that I noted in my squirrel was that she spurned
male attention while the young ones suckled. I have seen the male
making advances with soft calls, but she would turn round, attack
and so chase him that he thought it wiser to run for his life and
leave the territory in her possession.

The moment she showed hard-heartedness towards her own
offspring I knew she was getting ready to bring up another family.
Thus on December 4, 1954 she conceived for the third time and one

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

month and twelve days later brought into the world, a litter of three
on January 16, 1955.

I do not know if squirrels are as prolific in the wild state as in
captivity, because on March 10, she mated again and gave birth on
April 20, 1955 to three young ones, her fourth litter.

One from this litter I brought up, and one day when he was alone
he went to investigate a table fan in motion. Fortunately, I had just
come into the room to find him on the ground twitching his legs,
and the nose was bleeding. Quickly I took him up and sat through
the whole afternoon rubbing his nose and body with ice while he lay
limp in the palm of my hand, whimpering. That night I just could
not put him down fearing to find him stiff and cold the next morning.
I lay under the starlit sky with the injured body against my heart
to keep it warm, and time and again my hand felt for its heart-beat.
For the next two days he was in a comatose condition taking very
little milk, and that little with great difficulty, but from the third
day onwards he recovered enough to lead a normal life.

There was certainly a slight concussion of the brain, for he walked
in circles and had lost the use of one hand. In spite of this he
flourished but his mother gave him no peace and chased him up and
down. One day I lost my temper and drove her out of the house
though I knew she was carrying, for she had for the fifth time mated
on June 15, 1955. In retaliation she too refused the hospitality of
the house, and for the first time made a nest for her future litter in
a crevice of a wall in the compound next to ours. In the meantime
the maimed youngster, a month after his accident, vanished into thin
air. He chose the road to freedom.

Now ard then I would see my squirrel come to the courtyard for
food since her hunger had sharpened as her days were drawing nearer
the delivery. Then on July 26, 1955 she came down slim and famished,
a proud mother again. She ate voraciously, then went through her
box which had not been removed, and returned to her young ones.
She came every day for her ration, investigated her almirah and
then went back.

Then came a terrific downpour lasting two days and I hoped that
the mother would see sense and not let pride ruin her litter. On
August 17, 1955 during a brief respite from rain I looked up to see
the mother coming down the stairs with her young held by the nape
of the neck. She dropped her burden in the box and made trip after
trip bringing her litter of three, and the nest as well.

Yesterday, August 19, I took a young one out, and while I was
typing this article he started bawling for milk bringing the mother
down to investigate! She coolly looked at me, came to my lap, sniffed
at her offspring and lay down to suckle him. When he was full
she rolled him into a ball, gathered him up and carried him back to
her box while I sat and watched, and inside me there was such
peace and happiness that I decided to let her keep her family.

SuNNy VIEW,
SAHARANPUR, U.P. (Mrs.) ARUNA BANERJI
August 29, 1955.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 265

[As will be seen, the period of gestation in every case above was
between 4o and 42 days, and the size of the litter 3 young, which
seems to be the norm.—Eps. |

11. ATTACHMENT TO WINTER QUARTERS IN
MIGRATORY BIRDS

On the night of zoth March 1953, Shumoon Abdulali drew my atten-
tion to a female redstart (Phoenicurus ochrurus) which had spent the cold
weather in his garden at Thana, Salsette Island) Bombay. It was
roosting on the stem of a banana leaf about 5 feet above ground
when we caught it by hand and placed a red plastic ring upon its leg.
The bird was not seen again, possibly having migrated northwards
soon after; but on 16th October 1953 it was back in the garden
and spent the winter in the same area. It was last seen on 23rd
March 1954.

On 23rd October 1954, a female redstart flew into the house and
was captured. It was presumably the same individual, but the ring
had been lost. A fresh ring was placed on its leg and the bird stayed
in the area till the end of March 1955. A look-out will be kept for
its return in autumn.

In the Journal Vol. 47, p. 161 Salim Ali has recorded a Grey
Wagtail which visited his lawn at Bandra for several consecutive
years. It 1s well known that birds commonly return to the same
place for nesting purposes, but it would appear that this habit of
individuals spending their winter in the same area is also not uncommon
and applies to many species. What is it that makes one bird stop
in Bombay while its mate, or perhaps others from the same brood,
go right down to Ceylon?

c/o Faiz & Co.,
75 ABDUL REHMAN ST.,
BomBay. HUMAYUN ABDULALI

May 30, 1955.

12. ADDITIONS TO THE BIRDS OF THE PALNI HILLS,
SOUTH INDIA

I recently sent to the Bombay Natural History Society a list of
birds collected by mein the Palni Hills and now in the Shembaganur
Museum. Subsequent to this the Society prompted me to collect some
additional specimens, and I append a list of the species which I understand
have not been reccrded from the Palnis, together with such short sups
plementary information as is available.

The parenthesis immediately after the name indicates the place and
date where the specimen was collected. Those of my specimens now in
the Society’s collection are marked with an asterisk. The latter were
identified by Mr. Humayun Abdulali, and his notes are included in square
brackets.

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

- Copsychus saularis ceylonensis Sclater. 1 27-4-54, 2 2-1-55 Shem-
baganur. <A few of these birds are present throughout the year at Shem-
baganur, though more rarely seen during the winter months. They are
common in the foothills where a specimen was obtained on 19-5-55*. 1
have also seen it at Kodaikanal (7,200’) on 1-5-55, where it is rare.

Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine and Selby). and 2 Perumal-
malai Coffee Estate, 5,000’, 1-5-55*.

Lalage sykesi Strickland. 9 5-2-55, jf 10-2-55 Shembaganur. Pairs
may be seen at Shembaganur in February and March. I have seen them in
the foothills in May. This year I saw one on 19-5-55.

Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus Jerdon. 17-11-53 Shem-
baganur. Common at Shembaganur from October to March. A specimen
3 was collected on 5-3-55*,

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. Foothills 22-2-55. Another specimen
was obtained at Shembaganur (6,000’) on 8-3-55*. It may be seen occa-
sionally at Shembaganur during the winter months and is absent at other
seasons.

Galerida malabarica Scopoli. 20-5-54 Perumalmalai. I came across
flocks of these birds on 20-5-54 on the stony slopes of Perumalmalai
(5,000), but when I returned to the identical spot this year on 1-5-55,
there was not a single specimen to be seen there nor elsewhere within a
radius of one mile. Not seen at Shembaganur. —

Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus). 25-10-53, 2 27-10-53*, of 28-10-53.
Shembaganur. During a fortnight of heavy rain in the latter half of
October 1953, six crashed into the walls of the verandahs at Shembaganur
beteveen 7 and 9 p.m, and disabled themselves. ‘Two of these specimens
were sent to the Society. One more was picked up in a similar manner
the following year, and another shot in December at Perumalmalai.

Dinopium javanense malabaricum Whistler. 2-3-54 Perumaimalai.
My only record is a nesting pair shot at Perumalmalai on 2nd March 1954.
The nest, which was inaccessible, was situated in a hole made ina dead
tree, about 30 feet from the ground in a dense ‘shola’. I have not seen
this bird at Shembaganur.

Taccocua leschenaulti leschenaulti escort © 19-5-55* Palni Hills,
1,000’.

Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin). <1 7-5-55 Palni Range*.

Otus bakkamcena subsp. ? 31-12-54 Kodaikanal, 7,200’ 2 9 8-5-55.
Manaiur Cardamom Estate, 4,000’. At Manalur on 8-5-55 there were four
in the hollow of a dead tree, the entrance hole being about 30 feet from
the ground. The first one on being shot, fell into the hole and could
not be retrieved. ‘The report of the gun brought three more out of the
hole, of which two were collected. One of them is a juvenile.

[There is no specimen from South India available for comparison, but
the juvenile differs from one from Chikalda, Berar, and ‘from the descrip-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 267

tion in Salim~Ali’s ‘ Birds of Travancore and Cochin’ (p. 283) in not
having the head grey but rufous, as also the upper back. In both the
present specimens the second and subsequent primaries are rufous as
compared with white in the others. |

_ Galaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell). 3 @ 8-5-55", Manalur
Cardamom Estate, 4,000’*.

[ Malabaricus occurs in the moist forests of Travancore and Cochin
and in the Nilgiris, northwards to Ratnagiri in South Konkan. A series
from North Kanara contains specimens which can be placed with both
vadiatum and malabaricus, but those from Bombay, Khandala and Mysore
are vadiatum. It would be interesting to determine the factors that con-
trol the distribution of these two races. |

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). 17-9-54 Perumalmalai. I have
seen patties of about six birds over Shembaganur in February and March.
One more was seen at Perumalmalai on 1-5-55.

Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Stuart Baker). 2 12-5-55 Kodaikanal,
7,000’*.

[The Kestrel has been recorded from the Palnis, but it is worth while
recording the present specimen, since it determines the race. The type
locality of ebjurgatus is the Nilgiris.]

Spizactus cirrhatus (Gmelin). 27-2-55 Perumalmalai. A female was
collected at Perumalmalai on 27-2-44. I have no other record of this
bird.

Circus macrourus (S.G. Gmelin), 28-2-55 Perumalmalai. Two
females shot at Perumalmalai on 28-2-55 and &-3-55 were sent to me, I
have not come across it myself.

Astur badius badius (Gmelin). Q Foothills 7-9-54. Not seen at
Shembaganur, but two Q specimens were obtained in the foothills on
7-9-54 and 19-5-55*.

Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon. 6-3-55 Shembaganur. A female
was obtained at Shembaganur on 6th March 1955. No other record.

Pernis ptilorhynchus Temminck 9 20-11-54 Shembaganur. Com-
mon at Shembaganur in winter, mostly in December.- I once saw 6 at
one time at 4 honeycombs on a eucalyptus iree. As the branches
overhung the road, passers-by were stung by clusters of angry bees which
fell from the combs as the birds pecked at them.

Turnix tanki tanki Blyth. 2 15-10-53 Shembaganur. This was
brought to me alive. I have no other record.

LovoLaA COLLEGE,
Mapras. — | NORMAN A. FULLER, s,s.
September 21, 1955. -

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

13. TRAPPING BIRDS FOR RINGING
(With eight text-figures)

Mr. Zafar Futehally’s Miscellaneous Note (Vol. 52, p. 936) on
‘Trapping Birds for Ringing’ leads me to suggest the trial in India
of a trap I constructed in 1946 shortly after arrival in England pending
retirement. With other enthusiastic members of a newly formed
Natural History Society I helped to work two of the usual large
'eligoland traps and also ringed young birds in the nest. These two
methods by no means tapped all sources of supply of the iocal
avifauna and we found ourselves wanting to get at large numbers
of wagtails, sandpipers, redshank and other waders which frequented
the local sewage works. I tried a yard square box-trap put down
on the muddy margins of the beds, but in general the birds avoided
it and the few we did catch in it proved hard to remove as they
often refused to find the right way into the collecting box at one
end of the back. They seemed loth to enter this trap anyway, but
when I tried sloping the front so that they were virtually past the
entrance before they had a roof over their heads we had some success.
Cogitating on this and other modifications which suggested themselves,
I eventually constructed a highly successful trap which captured 140
birds in a six weeks try-out in my own and a friend’s garden, the
first recovery amongst which, a blackbird, was effected in Denmark
a fortnight after being ringed. Incidentally, I captured 5 starlings
together, but starlings are exceptionally strong birds and I lost two
of them through waiting to see if, en masse, they could push the
door open. The species caught were of course common garden birds,
Great and Blue tits, robins, dunnocks, starlings, blackbirds,
thrushes, chaffinches, a single Coal Tit (the only one seen in either
garden), and a single mistle-Thrush. The last was unconcernedly
preening inside the trap after feeding on the bright red mountain-ash
berries I had used as bait, and only seemed mildly surprised when
the gate was dropped.

There appear to be two main advantages in this trap over the
more conventionally shaped square or oblong affairs. Firstly, birds
seem less shy of entering than they do those with upright fronts.
Secondly, once inside with the ringer approaching from the front,
they automatically go straight into the box and often stay there.
There are perhaps one or two other points worthy of mention. It
is easy to make and at low cost. Although fairly bulky, it is quite
light and two or three can be stacked one on top of another for
‘ransport, taking up little more room than a single trap.

It is hardly necessary to mention that this is not an automatic
trap; it is in fact necessary for the ringer to be somewhere near the
end of a long string ready to let the gate fall when a bird is well
and truly inside. I see little disadvantage in this as it is really

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 269

necessary to remove trapped birds from any trap, automatic. or
otherwise, within as short a time as possible if they are not to come
‘co harm. In any case I am sure an automatic version could very
quickly be devised. The release string should be attached near the
bottom of the release rod and should not be too loose. If slack has
to be taken up the bird, startled prematurely, may be flying out and
so be hit and injured by the falling door. On the other hand, don’t
leave it so taut that it is just off the ground and swinging in the
breeze. Many birds will be frightened by it in such a position and
most will refuse to cross it.

The baits tried here have at different times consisted of mixed
canary seed, pinhead oatmeal, barley, bread crumbs, fat, cheese rind,
and lastly coconut. Of these, barley proved unacceptable to all species !
Bacon fat, coconut, and cheese rind attracted tits, the latter being
particularly effective, while rape seed proved almost irresistible to
iinches. But pinhead catmeal is perhaps the most useful bait of all,
being eaten by nearly every species in the garden including both
tits and finches. Starlings were attracted by some larger pieces of
bread amongst the crumbs, but tits have a habit of nipping into the trap
and carrying these off as well as any other loose bait. It is advisable
therefore to hang up most of the larger things in a deep basket
made from a piece of the half-inch wire-netting. This has resulted
in a great saving of bait and has stopped piracy on the part of
starlings and Jackdaws awaiting their chance in the neighbouring trees.
For India many other forms of bait will suggest themselves, more
suited to the differing forms of bird-life. Millets, for instance, for
finches; ants’ eggs, termites, etc. for insect eaters. In fact I see no
reason why this trap should not prove as effective in India as it has
done in England. Here then are the details of its construction,

CONSTRUCTION

Stages. Cut a strip of $ inch mesh, 3 ft. wide wire-netting
to the dimensions shown, and thread a 17 ft. length of 8 gauge
galvanized wire through its leading edge. It will slide quite
easily if worked through the mesh at about 6 inch intervals,
beginning and ending one inch from each end of the netting.

Stage 2. Bend the wire along the converging ends of the
netting. This will enable you to wrap about one inch of the

La)
wT

ra JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 53

netting round the wire to make firm straight bottom edges to
the trap.

Stage 3. Holding the leading edge of the netting centrally,
bend the wire so that you get an isosceles triangle with a base
of approx. 3 ft. 8 inches. Bend the back edge of the netting
so that you have an 8 inch square hole.

Stage 4. Bend two short lengths of the galvanized wire like
this :

(a) holds the front of the trap together and provides the
support for the main drop-gate, the short 3 inch ends being
threaded into the mesh. Distance from apex approx. 9 inches.

(b\ strengthens the rear hole by being threaded down the sides
of the netting and bound along its top with binding wire.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 271

When (0) is in position, turn the 3 inches of protruding ends
upwards and inwards. These projections form ‘stops’ for
the door of the ‘box’ to fall against.

(9)

“

Stage 5. The protruding ends of the long wire should now be
bent to form a firm bottom rim to the box, the two ends being
soldered or bound together with binding-wire, any surplus being
cut off.

Stage 6. To make the box, (a) take a 2 ft. 10 inch length
of 1 ft. wide $ inch mesh wire-netting and bend it so that it
will form two sides 13 inches long with an 8 inch end. Fix
its top edge on each side flush with the top of the rear hole
of the trap and overlapping the sides of the trap so as to leave
no space at the sides by the bottom of the trap hole: (b) fold

the 6 inches or so of netting below the wire frame inward and
underneath to form a bottom to the box, and bind the edges
which overlap with binding-wire. There is no need to do any
cutting. Also bind the forward edges to the trap netting. This
forms a three sided box with an open top. 5

~I

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Stage 7. To close the top of the box, take a double strip of
cloth approx. 9 inches by 12 inches (i cut off the bottom 12 inches
of the leg of an old pair jf grey flannel trousers). In the
middle of the underneath layer cut a 44 inch circular hole. Stitch
this layer to the rim of the box all the way round. The upper
layer should also be stitched down except along the back edge.
This enables the hand to be inserted between the layers and
through the hole in order to extract trapped birds for ringing.
The cloth should not be stretched tightly across the top; it should,
in fact, sag a little otherwise difficulty will be experienced in
getting the hand in and out. The last few inches of the open
end will be found to fall over the back of the box, and may
be caught in a loop of elastic tied round the end of the netting.
This will ensure that strong birds, such as mynas, will not force
their way out between the layers.

(I suggest this closing of the box be done last)

Stage 8. For the drop-door to the box, use a piece of board,
3-ply, or, as in our case, a sheet of asbestos-cement, measuring
7% inches square. Drill two holes near its top edge and hinge
it with binding-wire to the top of the rear hole of the trap.
Drill a hole, or screw in a hook, about an inch from its bottom
edge to take a string passing through the top of the netting
to the front of the trap, so that the door may be lowered or
raised when the ringer is standing in front of the trap. Birds
can then be driven very easily into the box.

Stage g. To complete the front of the trap, (a) cut a triangular -
piece of netting an inch larger on all three sides than the area
above the stay-wire. Fold the bottom edge round the stay-wire ;
bend over and bind the other two edges to the sides of the trap.
(b) bend a length of the galvanized wire to form the frame of
the drop-gate, so that the completed frame is longer at each side
than it need be to close in the front by about 3 inches. In
depth the bottom edge should be nearly flush with the ground.
Cover this frame with a strip of the } inch netting and hinge it
to the stay-wire in two or three places with binding-wire. The
advantage of the overlapping ends of the gate is that when the
ground is slightly uneven a flush fit with the ground can often be
attained by bending the sides of the trap slightly inwards or
outwards.

The gate is best propped up by a rod. It may be hooked to
a wire projecting from the apex of the trap, but its release
from this is apt to result in the whole trap being moved.
It is better to have the string attached to the bottom of
the rod to eliminate movement in a wind. A sharp tug can
then be used to release the gate without fear of pulling the
drop, and quick birds like tits will then beat it and get

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 273

have the rod too long. The gate requires to be held only
a little above the horizontal, otherwise it takes too long to
drop, and quick birds like tits will then beat it and get
away, or be hit by it and possibly be injured. When food
is hung up inside, it should be placed as near the rear as
possible, just clear of the drop-door.

WES DS SSS soso
Ce EEN
RS

IZAYBARN,

THURSLEY, Io So. 15 JBYAMIN BSS
SURREY, Lieut.-Col., 1.4. (Retd.)
ENGLAND.

September 22, 1955.

14. FOOD OF THE RUDDY SHELDUCK,
CASARCA FERRUGINEA (VROEG)

I see that on p. 238 of ‘The Abominable Snowman Adventure’ by
R.W.B. Izzard, the author, after a meal of the Brahminy Duck, which
he disliked, quotes Dr. B. Biswas’s ‘academic dissertation’ to the
effect that these ducks’ diet is ‘chiefly composed of dead bodies floating
down the rivers of India’. Quite probably the author’s leg was being
gently pulled by Dr. Biswas (it was not the first tall story he had
assimilated on this trip!). But it would be interesting to know on
what field-observations, if any, this oft-repeated statement is based.

Few zoologists in the last 50 years support it. The most careful
of: all, C. B. Ticehurst, in ‘Birds of Sind’ (p. 444), wrote: ‘The
popular belief that it is a foul feeder is very largely exaggerated, if
not entirely false—at any rate as regards Sind and the Punjab. Its
chief food appears to be grass and I have found it quite eatable.’
Planford (Fauna of British India, IV, 428) describes the food as
grass, mollusca and crustacea. ‘The story that is told of its eating
carrion 1s very improbable, but it may visit carcases in order to feed
on insects.’

Stuart Baker (Indian Ducks and Their Allies, I, p. 148) after
noting, as Oates did in Burma, how much they like ‘clean, clear water’

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

says they are ‘almost omnivorous, including fish, flesh, grain, water-
weeds, seed and growing crops. There can be little doubt that they
sometimes fall so low as to take offal.’

Certainly the distribution of the Ruddy Shelduck in parts of
Northern India and Burma is such that if their food is ‘chiefly com-
posed of dead bodies’ they must go hungry over a great part of
their range for two-thirds of the year. In many years’ observation
en the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin I never had occasion to suspect
them of carrion-feeding, nor did Smythies who described the bird ‘as
in the main a vegetable feeder.’ I put the story on a par with that
of the carrion-feeding habits of the Burmese hare (Lepus peguensis)
which was often repeated to me by sportsmen who had never attempted
to dissect one in their lives.

The only field-observation against these which I can trace is in
Meinertzhagen’s ‘Birds of Arabia’ (p. 417) where after saying that
their food ‘is mainly green weeds . . . grain, crustacea ... and
small water molluscs’ he adds: ‘In Ladak I have seen them lopping
up bits of a putrid horse, and on the Ganges near Delhi as many as
twenty birds gorging on the much macerated corpse of a Hindu.’

The fact that their flesh is poor eating is not necessarily proof
of depraved tastes as the Common Shelduck (T’adorna tadorna L.) is
also very poor eating though it has never been accused of carrion-
feeding. It must also be remembered that maggots from rabbits’
guts are an attraction at times to three of our most highly-esteemed
and edible game birds, the pheasant, the snipe and the mallard, in
Great Britain, two of which eat a great deal of grain, grass etc.

It would be very interesting to know how far the old volumes ot
the journal of our Society support this story of carrion-eating in the
Ruddy Shelduck. I have been unable so far to trace any reference,
but my series is incomplete.

CONEYBURY HOUSE, os SILAUN SOUR
West AMESBURY,

WILTS.

September 9, 1955.

| There are no records in the Journal to support the allegation. In
reply to our request for details regarding his alleged statement con-
cerning the food of the Ruddy Sheldrake, Dr. Biswas writes ‘I mest
strongly deny ever making such a fantastic statement to Izzard, or
for that matter to any other person, that the Ruddy Sheldrake’s diet
‘is chiefly composed of dead bodies floating down the rivers of India’’.
I have never seen such a thing, nor have I ever heard or read about
it. Evidently Izzard’s statement originated from some misunder-
standing. Sometimes we used to talk about birds, and I might have
mentioned birds that eat carrion in India. Unfortunately,’ the
journalist in Izzard remembered the dead bodies (they havé news value
in England) but forgot the name of the bird !’—Eps. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 275

15. THE PYTHON’S FOOD

In the Journal, Vol. 21, p. 460-461, Major F. Wall writes of the
food of the Python: ‘The most curious meal that I have had reported
to me was a double handful of earth-worms, and a handful of the
berry called by natives Jaman. My informant was Mr. J. H. Mitchell,
a planter in Assam’.

Mr. Ramesh Bedi, Gurukula Kangri, Hardwar, writes that a python
kept in his house passed out fifty grains of wheat in its dung after
swallowing a pigeon. The digestive juices of the python’s stomach
had no effect on the wheat while they had totally dissolved the pigeon’s
bones. Mr. Bedi pertinently suggests that Major Wall’s record of the
handful of berries found inside the python in Assam was in all pro-
bability the food of another animal which had been swallowed and
digested by the python.

BomBay NATURAL History Society,
114 APOLLO ST. EDITORS
September 15, 1955.

16. ANASMIA CAUSING MORTALITY AMONG BROWN
TROUT AT THE ACHHABAL FARM, KASHMIR

While carrying out certain faunistic investigations at the Achhabai
Trout Farm, on the evening of the 27th July 1955, the Jamadar of
the hatchery brought to me a dead Brown Trout to ascertain the
cause of its mortality. The staff of the Farm is familiar with fungus,
lipoid degeneration of the liver, Blindness and Fin Rot as diseases of
the Farm trout, but the specimen under report did not show any of
the usual symptoms of these diseases. Outwardly it appeared normal
and healthy but when the gill cover was lifted the gills were found
to be pale white. On opening the specimen the liver, the heart and
all structures were found to be of a whitish pale colour, except the
deranged ovaries which were of a yellowish-orange colour. The
heart had a small quantity of reddish watery fluid. The stomach and
the intestines were empty except a few inches towards the end which
contained greenish faecal material. The eggs were small in size
about mm. in diameter. No internal parasites were noticed. All these
features indicated the extreme anaemic condition of the trout and
death was attributed to anzemia.

The dead specimen was found floating near the outlet of Tank
No. 19, in which 198 Brown Trout of 2-3 lb. in weight and 5-6 years
of age are kept for breeding purposes. This tank is 53 ft. long,
6 ft. wide and 5 ft. deep. The depth of water in it is maintained at
3 ft. The specimen under report was not noticed when the fish in this
tank were fed with fresh pieces of country fish about 45 minutes
earlier. The dead specimen was 1’ 9” long and weighed 3% Ib.

A second specimen, a male Brown Trout 15” long and 1} lb. in
weight, was brought to me about midday on the 28th. It showed no
outward signs of any disease except that there were 3 broad black

8

976. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

patches along the back. The gills were of a pale pink colour, the
liver and heart were of a reddish colour, but all other organs had
turned white except the gall-bladder. The stomach and the intestine
were empty and no internal parasites were noticed.

This specimen had been picked up by a watcher from the bottom
of Tank No. 17, where 210 Brown Trout of 14 lb. to 24 lb. are
kept for breeding purposes. This tank is 44 ft. long and 8 ft. broad
with a depth of 5 ft. but the depth of water is 3’-10”.

According to Davis’ (p. 283) aneemic trout are not uncommon under
hatchery conditions. Anzmia may be caused by lipoid degeneration
of the liver or may result from heavy infection with animal parasites.
Dietary deficiencies are also stated to be the main cause of anemia.
Underfeeding may also result in anemia. To my mind, the cause of
aneemia in the two fishes under report is underfeeding though they are
daily fed on pieces of fresh country fish. Nearly 15 to 20 seers of
country fish is given to over 1,000 fish ranging in weight from 12 oz. to
6 lb. Even for the largest fish of 6 lb. or over on an average the supply
is less than 2 oz. per day. I think this is inadequate and therefore
the weaker fish have to starve. The practice of feeding is that handfuls
of fish-meat pieces are thrown in each tank where the healthy and
more vigorous fish take more than their normal share while fishes
suffering from general debility may remain underfed. If this is
“repeated day after day then the weaker fish in a tank have no chance
to rehabilitate themselves and through underfeeding may become anzemic
and die slowly and gradually while ‘resting at the bottom. This
practice of feeding needs serious consideration, for fishes suffering
from general debility must be segregated and looked after properly in
a separate tank. It follows from the above that the stock kept in
the hatchery must be proportional to the food supply which should be
calculated on some rational basis if the hatchery is to be run on
economical principles.

This short note is published to elicit more information on this
disease from other trout hatcheries in India and abroad.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF: INDIA, SUNDER LAL HORA
CALCUTTA.

August 6, 1955.

17, OCCURRENCE OF THE EEL (ANGUILLA BENGALENSIS)
IN SULEKERE RESERVOIR AND MARKANDEYA STREAM
IN MYSORE STATE

On 22-9-1952, an adult eel measuring 44” was hauled in a drag
net in the Sulekere reservoir. Sulekere reservoir is in one of the
Northern districts of Mysore state, constructed across one of the
streams of the Thungabhadra river. The reservoir is on an elevation
of 2,000 ft. and over 600 miles from the mouth of the Krishna River.

1 Davis, H. S. 1953. Culture and Diseases of

Game Fishes (University of
California Press; Berkeley and Los Angeles).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 277

After the construction of the Thungabhadra dam, the migration of the
eel from the sea to the upper reaches of the Thungabhadra is prevented.
Consequently, in recent years, the eel fishery. in Sulekere has dis-
appeared. The adult eel is one of the many eels which will never
get back to the sea to propagate.

On 17-4-1955, an 11” advanced eel fingerling was caught in the
Markandeya stream whichis in the eastern part of Mysore State
and in the Palar drainage system. During 1952-53, there were heavy
rains and during the floods the eel fingerlings must have migrated
up the Palar River. The stray occurrence of eels in the northern
and eastern drainages of Mysore State in recent years is of significance.

FISHERIES SECTION,

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL . H. D. R. YYENGAR
HUSBANDRY SERVICES K. VENKATESH
IN MysorE, BANGALORE: D. R. KRISHNA MURTHY

June 25, 1955.

18. THE THATTA-KHONDAA—A SCREEN TRAP OF
THE CHILKA LAKE

(With a diagram)

Trapping was probably the earliest method that man tried for
capturing fish, long before other tackle like nets was used. It is indeed
a simple as well as an effective method since most traps, being fixed, do
not require constant attention by the operator. They can be left to them-
selves to function, while the operator is engaged elsewhere.

Fishing gear of the Chilka Lake, including traps have been described
by Devasundaram (1951 and 1954), Jones and Sujansingani (1952 and
1954) and Job and Pantulu (1953) in fair detail. The Fish-marketing
Reports of the Government of India (1941 and 1946) and Mitra (1946)
also mention briefly a few varieties of fishing tackle operated in the Lake.
A method of fish trapping with bamboo screens set in a particular way
to form a trap was observed by the author during the survey of the fishe-
ries of the Lake. ‘This method does not appear to have been recorded in
any of the above reports. eon

The operators of the screen traps described in this note are Kandaras
and Kartias, the latter being a minor fisherman caste confined to a few of
the many fishermen’s villages scattered in and around the Chilka Lake.
Kandaras, who form the second largest fisherman community of the Chilka
area, are 14:3% of the total population (Mitra and Mohapatra, unpublished).
The fishermen of Barrokudi and Baghananji, two Kartia villages situated
on the northern shore of the lake and many of the Kandara villages of
the south western shores have been observed to operate such traps in their
localities.

BAMBOO SCREENS. THATTA

Several small bamboo screens, varying from 20 feet to 30 feet in
length and from 4 feet to 6 feet in height are joined together to form a
trap. Each screen is made of small bamboo pieces, measuring .4 inch to

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

4 inch in width and of the above height, are tied to each other with jute,
hemp or ‘ noi’ strings along the upper and lower margins, as well as at
regular intervals. Such bamboo screens are termed ¢hattas in Oriya, and
cost about Rs. 10 each. ‘The thattas are either made by the fishermen
themselves or purchased from neighbouring villages.

THE SCREEN TRAP. THATTA-KHONDAA

The diagram shows the ground plan (i.e. as seen from above) of the
different screens in such a trap, which is known locally as Thatta-khondaa.

A long screen or leader line, a forming a sort of barricade is set up
at about right angles from the shore. ‘This screen extends for a distance
of about 50 feet into the lake, the length varying in different sets, and
finally terminates at c. On both sides of this terminus are fixed two
screens. 6, functioning as secondary leader lines. The proximal ends of
these screens set about a foot beyond the end ¢ are folded opposite each
other at d, leaving a small passage of about 2 to 3 inches’ width between

(

\ - x
— £ <n
-C -- == ( o-=7" A
me ewe em -~ ee ee ee et me me eee wee ee 3

Shove

Diagram showing ground plan of a typical Screen Trap.

each. The other ends of these secondary screens which are set like two
arms of V, at acute angles to the long screen, diverge and extending
towards the end, terminate at a distance of about 10 to 15 feet from
the foldings d. ‘The gap between the long screen and the terminus of
such a secondary leader line may vary from 5 feet to 8 feet in different
traps.

Two outer screens, é, are fixed on both sides to cover the main length
of the trap. ‘The shore-ends of these screens are curved inwards, and
are attached to the outer walls of the secondary screens, about one and a
half feet from the foldings d, while the other ends tapering forward
terminate without any curves, leaving a small gap at 2, measuring about
an inch between the two extremities of the right and left outer screens.
This portion is finally encircled by another screen 7, forming an enclosed
cylindrical cavity open at one side, which may be termed the trap-
chamber. ‘The extremities of the screen forming the chamber are attached

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 279

to the outer faces of the screens e, ¢ about a foot behind the extremities
h. The efficiency of the trap is further increased by two pairs of
additional screens (f and g), which serve as valves. ‘The free ends of the
valve screens point towards the trap chamber, leaving small vertical
openings for the one-sided passage of fish. The other ends are curved
and attached to the inner faces of the outer screens.

All the bamboo screens, which are fixed vertically, are supported at
short intervals of 3 feet to 4 feet by stout bamboo poles. The average
length of such a screen trap, excluding the long screen or leader line,
usually varies from 15 feet to 20 feet. In many instances, a trap may be
extended further towards the lake, by fixing a new secondary leader line
from the outer extremity of the trap-chamber of the original trap. This
new leader line ultimately leads to another trap set 20 feet to 30 feet
away.

WORKING OF THE TRAP

The fish and prawns that strike the leader line or the inner sides of the
secondary leader lines follow these lines and enter into the trap. Once
they get into the trap-chamber, it is difficult for them to escape. The
operator visits his trap in his dug-out and empties the catch at short
intervals. A four-pronged iron spear, termed 7ez¢a in Oriya, is usually
used by the fishermen to find out if any fish has been trapped.

Prawns, cat-fishes, muilets, and other medium and small size fish are
usually captured in these screen traps, Which are fixed practically through-
out the year.

The author is indebted to Sri G. N. Mitra, Director of Fisheries, Orissa
for his kind interest during the survey tour. Thanks are due to Sri
B. C. Das, Inspector of Fisheries, Kuhuri, for assistance.

MARINE SECTION,
DEPT. OF FISHERIES, ORISSA, P. MOHAPATRA

BALUGAON.
August 15, 1955.

me

REFERENCES

Devasundaram, M. P. (1951): Fishing Metheds for Chilka Mullets, 7d. Fmg.

12 (1-2) ; 22-25.
Bee uaa M. P. (1954) : A report on the Fisheries of the Chilka Lake from

1948 to 1952. Orissa Government Press, Cuttack.

Government of India (1941): Preliminary guide to Indian Fish, Fisheries,
Methods of Fishing and Curing, Government of India Press, Simla.

Government of India (1946) : Report on the Matketing of Fish in India, Govern-
ment of India Press, Calcutta.

Job, T. J. and Pantulu, V. R. (1953) : Fish trapping in India, J. Asiatic Soc,
Science 19 (2) : 175-196.

Jones, S. and Sujansingani, K.H. (1952): Notes on the Crab Fishery of the
Chilka Lake, /BNA'S, 51 (1): 128-34.

Jones, S. and Sujansingani, K. H. (1954): Fish and Fisheries of the Chilka
Lake, with statistics of fish catches for the years 1918-1950, /ud. J. Fish 1; 256-344.

Mitra, G. N. (1946) : The Development of the Chilka Lake, Orissa Government
Press, Cuttack.

Mitra, G. N. and Mohapatra, P: Report on a Survey of the Fishermen villages
of the Chilka Area (unpublished).

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

19. GROUP FISHING WITH CAST NETS IN THE
CHILKA LAKE?

Cast nets, which are common to the local fishermen, are operated by
whirling them round the head like a lasso. A small loop at the apex is
held by the operator while casting the net into water. The bottom is
weighed down by over 200 lead rings, and a bag is formed along the
circumference by raising the lead line by about six inches with the string
passing through the lead and a row of mesh about 14 feet from the
bottom line. The weight of the lead drags the bottom to the ground
enclosing all the fish in that area. The height of the cast net varies from
10 to 20 feet and the circumference from 35 to 90 feet. The mesh may
vary from 3 inch to 2 inches depending on the types of fish to be caught.

Devasundaram (1951) in his paper on the ‘ Fishing Methods for Chilka
Mullets ’, published in /zdian Farming, Vol. 12, No. 1-2, describes a
method where seven to ten boats with 15 to 20 fishermen take part in
group fishing. Here the boats diverge in a circle, and then converge
towards each other casting their nets simultaneously, so that most of the
fish in the locality are captured.

A different form of use of larger cast nets has also been observed
along the western shores, where 5 to 10 nets are operated by 15 to 20
fishermen. ‘The nets are spread in an acute angle from the shore and the
peripheral ends of the connecting nets are held together. The heavy lead
rings make the lower. portion of the net touch the bottom, while the
portion above the water line is stretched open by the fishermen. One
fisherman is usually made to hold the ends of two connecting nets. Other
fishermen moving about in boats drive fish towards the nets. As soon as
the fish.enter the area, the ends held by the fishermen are allowed to fall,
and all the fish within the nets are captured.

Similar group fishing with drag nets instead of cast nets is also pre-
valent in the Chilka lake.

MARINE SECTION,

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES, P. MOHAPATRA
OrisSA, BALUGAON.

September 22, 1955.

20. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE MANI-JAL
OF THE CHILKA LAKE?

Jones and Sujansingani have described the J/ani-jal on p. 288 of
JBNFIS, 51 (1)—December 1952. This light surface drag net made up
of a series of bags is specially devised to catch the gar fish (7 yloszras
strongylurus), and the half-beak (Hemirhamphus gaimarat), locally
known as Gania and Saragara respectively.

The above authors have stated that the use of this net is restricted to
within a few miles distance of ‘Chandraput village, and that though it has
been in existence for generations it has not been copied elsewhere on the

1 & ? Published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Orissa.

~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ? 281

vast lake which spreads over an area of 400 square miles. From a recent
survey of the fishing villages of the Chilka area, it has been observed
that the net is also used by the Keuto fishermen of Pathara village situated
about 5 miles south of Chandraput. Statistical reports show that the
fishermen of Chandraput possess 377 such nets, and those of Pathara 51
nets. The Manz-jal which is pronounced correctly as Mzmnt-jalo is also
known as Ganza-jalo (from Gania the Oriya name of . gaimard7).

MARINE SECTION,
DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES, P. MOHAPATRA
ORISSA, BALUGAON.

August 26, 1955.

21. THE CAST NET

In the course of the preparation of a monograph on the world distri-
bution of the cast net (Sanskrit 7@/a, Arabic shabaket, Indian continent
khebla jal, khepa jalo, sounké jal, west dela, vichcha valat, vichu vala etc.)
in its different forms, I have been unable to obtain any reliable informa-
tion regarding the following areas: Tigris, Euphrates and Persian Gulf;
Iran; Afghanistan ; Baluchistan ; those areas of U.S. S. R. and Tibet
north of Afghanistan and the Himaiayas. In contrast, the occurrence of
the cast net in the Indian sub-continent is well documented.

I would welcome records, either first-hand accounts or references to
literature, from these areas, and particularly wish to know the local names
of the net, and the type of cast net. ‘There are three types of cast net, all
represented in India and Pakistan. The simplest is a cone of netting
with a weighted circumference used mainly in inland hill-streams. The
second and most widespread has the circumference tucked up a few inches
and tied to the net at intervals, while the third has an apical hole through
which the throwing cord runs; this cord splits up into a number of radial
cords running to the lead line. This last, the true pursing cast net, is
recorded in the Indus delta, and on the Malabar and Coramandel coast.

A peculiar type is recorded from the Gujarat area (Agricultural
Marketing in India. Preliminary Guide to Indian fish, fisheries, methods
of fishing and curing. Marketing Series, No. 24, Delhi, 1941). It is called
mang, and is 35 ft. long by 7 ft. deep, of 4 in. mesh. 6-9 pieces are linked
together and thrown by hand to form a semi-circular enclosure. If the
description is indeed of the cast net, and not of an ordinary perpendicular
set or wall net, the matter is of extreme interest, as rectangular cast nets
are otherwise only known from Samoa and the Solomon Islands, in the
Pacific. I would be glad to have this observation confirmed.

FISHERIES OFFICE,

IP, Qs 7B, UGINEA, P.I. R. MACLAREN
NORTHERN RHODESIA.

March 7, 1955.

22. A TANK-FISH MALADY

Here at Lucknow on 20th January 1955, after a night shower, it had
suddenly become very chilly and foggy in the morning; and in an old
tank nearby known as Suraj Kund it was observed that the fishes were

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

floating briskly at the surface of the water since the very eariy hours say
4 a.m. The fishes were of normal size, about 14 ft. to 2 ft. in length.
Smailer fishes were also present. People seeing this got into the tank
armed with sticks and killed fishes in hundreds. Some persons even
- collected as many as two full gunny bags within 10 to 15 minutes and
left the place with a good harvest. The killing of fishes by sticks iasted
for more than six or seven hours, and to witness this a huge crowd had
assembled round the tank.

The tank about 150’ x 160’ is now almost katcha, as all the old small
brick walls have fallen in and only at a few places pucca structures such
as the steps remain, giving it an irregular shape. .

The average depth of water in itis 8 to 10 feet. The tank as usual
has some algae and mosses attached to its sides. It also gets dust and
pieces of old leaves and newspaper with otker organic matter by wind from
the neighbourhood. The tank is not connected with any outside source
of water and whatever water it gets is from the rains. Nor does it. get
any jaggery thrown in as in the South. This condition requires the
attention of experts as such sudden losses of fish from tanks can affect
considerably the fish industry of a State. The local people have only one
explanation to give and that is somebody must have poisoned the water.
If so, however, no fish should have remained while now hobby fish
catchers have started to visit the place again.

NATIONAL BOTANICAL GARDENS,

LUCKNOW. V. CHANDRA, M.Sc. (BOT.)
March 1955 Senzor Sctentitic Asst,

[Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Bombay, comments on the
above as follows :

‘The author mentions that the day was foggy and chilly. On
account of lack of sunshine the photosynthetic activity of the green algae
resulting in carbon assimilation is reduced, with the result that the libera-
tion of oxygen does not take place sufficiently. At night when the
photosynthetic activity is nil, there is more accumulation of carbon
dioxide at the bottom and depletion of oxygen. Many times the condi-
tion is accentuated by accumulation of other putrefying debris at the
bottom. The cumulative effect of these conditions results in considerable
increase of the carbon dioxide tension in the water adjoining the bottom
of tanks. ‘The fish, therefore, approach the surface to obtain oxygenat-
ed water and in some cases actually gulp in surface water. It is at this
time that the fish are exposed and are attacked by people. Such
instances have been recorded on many occasions ’\—Ens.]

23. BUTTERFLIES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE—
ADDITIONS

With reference to my list published in your Journal, Vol. 50, No. 2
of December 1951], I had another spell in Bombay from April 1952 to
January 1953, during which | was able to spend more time in the north-
eastern and central portions of the Island, as a result of which I have to
record five more species of Lycaenidae, and also a Pierid and Danaid not

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 283

previously noted by me. I also give additional notes on a few other
species, as under :;

Papilio helenus dakhsha

Several seen and taken in the hills behind Ghodbunder in August and
September. ‘These were not reported by me in the previous list though
Mr. Alfrey’s footnote recorded that he had seen them. They are by no
means common.

Papilio polymnestor polymnestor

Two more seen on the path between Tulsi Lake and Kanheri Caves.
This species must be very scarce on the island.

Colotis danae

One male taken in May in the low scrub jungle-clad hill near Marve
beach,.and another seen.

Euploea crassa koilari
Several at Tulsi Lake in August and at Powai Lake in September.

Lethe rohria nilgiriensis

This occurs commonly from June to September in the bamboo forests
on the path between Thana and Ghodbunder.

Euthalia lubentina lubentina

Three males observed on three successive Sundays during September
and October at the highest point of the range of hills immediately north
of Kanheri caves.

Kallima philarchus horsfieldii

A number seen singly at various places on the path from Tuisi lake
to Kanheri and on the path from Thana to Ghodbunder.

Tarucus nara
Two on hili-top to the east of Tulsi lake.

Zezius chrysomallis

A ° taken near the bund on Vihar Lake early July anda # seen but
missed the same day and place. Not seen elsewhere.
Tajuria jehana

A single 1 taken at the north end of Powai lake in August. There
were others out of reach on the same mango tree,
Virachola isocrates :

Several in the hills behind Ghodbunder, also at Powai and Tulsi lakes.
This is quite common:
Rathinda amor

Quite common near Ghodbunder in July and August.

Syntarucus plinius
Several taken on path between Tulsi and Kanheri in July.

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Spalgis epius
Fairly common at the Thana end on the path between Thana and
Ghodbunder in July and August.

Horsfieldia anita anita

This is quite common in the hills behind Ghodbunder from August to
October.

6, LYONS RANGE,
CALCUTTA. | A. E.G. BEST
June 17, 1955.

24, GENITALIA, AND REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF
MONANTATA GLOBULIFERA WLUK.
(HEMIPTERA—TINGIDAE)

(With a plate)
INTRODUCTION

The internal anatomy of Tingid bugs has not been at all studied.
This appears to be due to their small size and possibly they are obscure
insects found rarely in common field collections of crop insects. _Mozan-
thia globulifera Wlk. is the common Tingid bug found on different
species of Oczmum and Mentha plants throughout India. The des-
-eription of genitalia and reproductive organs of this species would thus
“be a representative description of the structures found in other Tingid
bugs and this would form a basis for comparison with the structural varia-
tions found in other species.

Male Genitalia. (Figs. 5 and 6)

The ejaculatory duct (eg) opens in a large bulbous chitinous structure
(fig. 4). This bulbous chitinous structure appears to be composed of
three regions, namely the posterior part, the middle bulbous part and the
anterior tubular part. The anterior tubular chitinous part forms the
aedeagus (Aed). The wall of the aedeagus is provided with a pair of
thick chitinous sclerites situated about the middle of the tube. Posterior
to the aedeagus there is a pair of chitinous wing-like structures (fig. 4 (2)).
The posterior part is a large swolien bulb-like structure into which opens
the ejaculatory duct. This is provided with a thick chitinous sclerite
(Cs). The external genital structures consist of a pair of pincer-like
chitinous structures (cl) arising at the terminal segment which is the
fused 8th and 9th abdominal segment. ‘These claspers are used for
ciasping the female during copulation (fig. 7).

Female genitalia. (Fig. 2).

The female genitalia consist of two pairs of valves arising from 7th
and 8th abdominal sternites of the female abdomen (fig. 3.). The oviposi-
tor is a pointed bristle-like somewhat conical structure consisting of a
pair of outer valves and a pair of inner valves. ‘The inner valves are flat
and end in a needle-like point terminally. The dorsal and? ventral edges
are provided with serrations (fig. 2). ‘These serrations arise from the
very tip and are continued up to four-fifth of the valve. ‘These valves are

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

O’25 mm

Genitalia and Reproductive Organs of :Monanthia globulifera Wk.
(For explanation see , text)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | | 285

closely fitted in the inner groove-like depressions of the outer valves.
Transverse lines are also visible between the serrations in these valves.
Posteriorly the valves are continued as thick rod-like powerful chitinous
structures which are curved downward. The outer valves are smooth on
the dorsal edge and possess serrations on the ventral side only. ‘These
have groove-like depressions on the inner surface into which the inner
valves are fitted. All the two pairs of valves of each side are close to
each other and lie hidden underneath the abdomen. The vaives form
a drill-like structure for making slits in the tender stems of the host
plants, After the slit has been made the ovipositor works also as a
guide for the deposit of eggs (figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4).

Male reproductive organs. (Fig. 5.)

The male reproductive organs consist of paired testes (Tes), paired
vasa deferentia (Vd), paired accessory glands (Acgl), an ejaculatory duct
(eg), and the intromittent organs or aedeagus (Aed). The testes are long
tubular structures lying on the sides of the alimentary canal and reach up to
the second abdominal segment. ‘The testes open into a small canal which
is the only indication of vasa deferentia. ‘The paired accessory glands are
closely applied to the sides of testes as can be seen in fresh dissection.
These accessory glands are bifurcated into two small arms at the distal
blind ends. The accessory glands open into the bulbous part of the ejacu-
latory duct at the junction where the common duct formed by the joining
of each vas deferens also opens. The accessory glands have cellular
structures with prominent nuclei. The ejaculatory duct leads into the
chitinous aedeagus. The spermatozoa are long, thread-like in form and
can be even seen in unstained specimens vibrating in the tubular testes.

Female reproductive organs. (Hig. 1)

The female reproductive organs consist of a pair of ovaries, oviduct
(Ovd), a pair of accessory glands (Acgl) and the vagina (Vag). The
ovary consists of 14 ovarioles of acrotrophic type divided into 7 ovarioles
on each side. Hach ovariole is an elongate tube with several oocytes
when mature and few oocytes when immature. Each ovariole ends in
a terminal filament and the filaments of 7 ovarioles of one side unite
together to form a common filament and finally the two common fila-
ments of each side of 7 ovarioles unite to form a common median
filament. This is attached anteriorly to the intestine which keeps the
ovary lying dorso-laterally to the alimentary canal. When the ovary is
mature it reaches up to the thoracic region. Posteriorly each ovariole
opens into a common oviduct. The two oviducts are enlarged posteriorly
at the place where they meet the two accessory glands. The vagina
is formed at the juncticn where two sac-like structures called accessory
glands open into the dorsal wall of the vagina. The accessory glands are
large, prominent and sac-like structures and show prominent nuclei when
Stained. The accessory glands are concerned with the secretion of a
fluid which after egg laying is discharged by the female in the plant
tissue slits for gluing the eggs. The vagina leads into the ovipositor
(Ovp) which guides the eggs for deposition in the slits made by the saw-
like paired ovipositor. No spermatheca is visible.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, U. S. SHARGA.
KANPUR, M.Se,, Ph D, (Edin.).

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

REFERENCES:

Butler, (1923): <A biology of British Hemiptera—Heteroptera. London.

Comstock, J. H. (1940): An intrcduction to Entomology. Ithaca, N. Y.

Essig, E. O. (1912): College Entomology. Macmillan, N. Y.

Imms, A. D. (1951): A General Text Book of Entomology. Methuen, London.

Lefroy H. M. & Howlett, F.M. (1909): Indian Insect Life. Thacker Spink,
Calcutta.

Lefroy, H. M. (1923) : Manual of Entomology with special reference to econo-
mic entomology. Longmans, London.

Malouf, B.S. R. (1933): Studies on the Internal Anatomy of the ‘Stink Bug’
Nezara viridula L.— Bull. Soc, Roy. Ent. d. Egypt. Fase. 17,

25. LIVING CREEPER OR NWE-SHIN

Subsequent to his note in the Journal (Vol. 52 : 566) Mr. H. G. Hun-
dley sent in specimens of the Living Creeper or Nwe-Shin. These have
been identified at the Indian Museum as Gordius fulgar Baird. This
worm belongs to the Phylum Nemathelmenthes which includes Round
and Threadworms. ‘The genus Gorvdius passes through three distinct
stages of which the first two are larval and parasitic. In the third or
adult stage, it is agreatly elongated thread-like worm which lives in or
near water.

BomBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
114, APOLLO STREET. EDITORS
July 28,1955.

26. OBSTRUCTION IN A FOWL’S STOMACH

Once a large domestic cock was provided with balls of ‘ Atta’ one of
which had an anna coin and another a two pice coin embedded within.
The cock swallowed them readily. As it did not show any ill effects up
till ten days later, it was thought that both the coins had duly passed out
with the feces. ‘Three months later the cock was killed for the table.
The stomach was examined to ascertain if the coins were still in it. To
out astonishment both the coins were found lying at the pyloric end of the
stomach. The coins had been partially affected by the gastric juice; all
the markings from them had vanished and their thickness was also
reduced. On cooking, the bird was found to have a strong metallic
flavour.

It was a lucky coincidence for the cock that the coins caused no
obstruction of the pyloric, which must certainly have resulted in its
death.

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY, ISHWAR PRAKASH.
JASWANT COLLEGE, Ss. C. SHARMA.
JODHPUR.

September 1, 1955,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 287

27, DEPREDATIONS OF THE GIANT AFRICAN LAND
SNAIL, ACHATINA FULICA (FERUSSAC)
IN BALASORE (ORISSA)

The Giant African Land Snail, Achatina fulica (Ferussac), a native of
East Afiica, has spread by means of human agency to nearly all countries
in the tropical and sub-tropical lands of the Indo-Pacific region during
the last decade and a half (Ray, 1943; Rees, 1950). It has become a
great pest of gardens, vegetable fields and rubber, tea and coffee planta:
tions in all countries where it has got introduced (Jutting, 1934; Rees,
1950). Hence, during recent years, it has drawn the attention of various
workers in different countries, eg., Allan (1949), Rees (1950), Williams
(1953) and many others. However, little is known about its status and
habits in India.

The migration of A. fulica from East Africa to India through human
agency dates back to 1847 when Benson carried living specimens from
Mauritius to Calcutta where they were naturalised (Ray, 1943). Although
Hornell (1951!) reported that 4. fudica was confined to Bengal and had -
failed to spread elsewhere in India, Dr. H. C. Ray of the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, reported (zm /7/¢.) that it had spread to Bihar,
Orissa and Nagpur.

Practically nothing was known about the spread of this snail to Orissa
until it appeared in the form of an epidemic in the town of Balasore for
three consecutive years from 1946-1948. During this period, the local
Municipality, aided by the Government of Orissa, spent Rs. 1,900 for the
control of this pest and it is estimated that 6,000 kerosene tin-fulls of all
stages of A, fu/zca were collected and destroyed. ‘The pest is believed to
have entered Orissa at Amarda in Balasore district in 1939 from the
adjoining district of Midnapore in West Bengal. In the State of Orissa
Achatina is so far confined to the Balasore district where it continues to
be a major pest of vegetable gardens, especially during the rains.

GENERAL HABITS

With the advent of the rainy season, 4. fulica coine out of their hid-
ing places and are active till the end of winter after which they take cover.
They aestivate during the dry summer weather. They breed during the
rainy season and the various stages of the snail are found from July to
September. ‘The snail being very prolific gives rise to large populations,
almost in an epidemic form, thus becoming a pest to agricultural fields.

The Giant Land Snail, as the name implies, lives on land and avoids
water. During the rains, as water enters the sheltered habitats of the
snails, they come out. When thrown inio deep water, they get drowned.
This is more effective during winter.

The snails are very voracious. ‘They eat up almost all types of garden
crops during the rainy season and winter. ‘Their favourite food-plants
are cabbage, cauliflower, pumpkin and various types of leafy vegetables.
Bigger trees are not attacked. |

A. fulica is nocturnal in habit. During the night, when they forage
about, they move along the pathways and roads. During the years of

1 Although published in 1951, Hornell’s MSS was received by the Society at least
2 years earlier, i.e., before the Second World War started.—Eps,

288 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

epidemic, 1946-48, they literally covered the roads and pathways of
Balasore town after dark. At daybreak they take cover in crevices, under
stones, and decaying leaves. ‘They also rest on the trunks of trees up to
a height of about 6 to 7 feet. While foraging and taking cover, the snails
sometimes enter dwelling houses.

The local aboriginal people of Balasore, the Santais who hail from
the neighbouring hilly areas, although they take other species of snails, do
not use Achalina as an article of food. Also its economic uses are
unknown in the locality.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author’s best thanks are due to Sti P. N. Mahanti, LAs, Dis-
trict Magistrate, Balasore (now Special Officer, Home Department,
Orissa Secretariat) for much valuable information incorporated in the
body of the note and to Dr. H. C. Ray, Zoological Survey of India
for invaluable advice and a jist of references. ‘hanks are also due to
ori G. C. Sengupta, State Entomologist, Government of Orissa;
- Sri U. C. Panda, Lecturer in Zoology, Fakir Mohan College, Balasore ;
the Bombay Natural History Society and Sri B. C. Das, Principal,
Ravenshaw Coilege, Cuttack for their kind collaboration and the Director,
Zoological Survey of India for the loan of literature.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

RAVENSHAW COLLEGE, BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA
CUTTACK (ORISSA, ).

March 28, 1955.

REFERENCES

ALLAN, J, (1849) : ‘The Giant African Snail—A crop devastating traveller’,
Aus. Mus. Mag. 9 (11): 374-377.
HORNELL, J. (1951) : Zudian Molluscs, : 43. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay. Hg Si
JuTTinc, T. V. B. (1934): ‘ Achatina fulica (Fer.) in the Netherlands East
Indies’. Journ. Conchol. 20 (2): 43-44.
Mour, J. C. Van der Meer (1949): ‘ On the reproductive capacity of the African
or Giant Snail, Achatina fulica (Fer.)’. Yveubia. 20 (1): 1-10.
~ Ray, H.C. (1943) : ‘Report on a collection of Molluscs from Santal Parganas,
Bihar’ Jouwru. Royal Asiatic Soc. Bengal, g: 66-67.:
Be BEES W. J. (1950) : ‘The Giant African Snail’ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 120 (3):
7-598.
WiLLiaMs, F. X. (1953): ‘Some natural enemies of Snails of the genus Achatina
in East Africa’. Proce. 7th Pac. Sc. Cong. (4) Zoology : 277-278.

28. LEAF VARIATION WITHIN A SPECIES—CADABA
TP RIFOLIATA W. & A.

(With a plate)

In the course of examining the herbarium sheets of Cadaba trifoliata
W. & A. (Capparidaceae) in the Madras Herbarium, an unusually high
degree of variation was noticed in the number of leaflets in this species,
and their shapes. ‘The variation was remarkable not only by its exist-
ence in the same species but in its occurrence in different parts of indi-
vidual plants also. ‘There are instances of the occurrence of variation in
the leaf shape due to varied edaphic conditions under which a particular

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

a)

Leaf variation in Cadaba trifoliata W. & A

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 289

species happens to be distributed. It was interesting to observe the
variations in- the same branch, and a single sheet exhibited as many as
three variations. All the specimens examined were collected in Tinne-
velly District of S. India. The variations did not occur infrequently but
were noticed in most of the sheets.

The variations in leaflet number and their shape differed considerab-
ly from the description given in the floras to identify the species. ‘The
species, as the name suggests, has normally palmately trifoliate leaves
(Hooker and Gamble). The seven variations can be described as follows
and the Herbarium sheet numbers are indicated as M.H.

1. Palmately trifoliate, central leaflet bigger, oblong-lanceolate leaflets,
3-4 inches long with a petiole 15-2 inches long (M.H. 1491).

2. Palmately irifoliate, central leaflet nearly reduced to half the
length of the accompanying leaflets on the sides; petiole 14 inches long
(WiLIsk Jase)

3. Bifoliate leaf with one inch petiole. Leaflets oblong-lanceolate,
2-24 inches long (M.H. 1503).

_ 4, Palmately trifoliate leaflets 4 inches long, lanceolate with a long
petiole as much in length as the leaflets (M.H. 1487).

5. Palmately trifoliate with a tendency in one of the leaflets to show
forking to one third or halfits length (M.H. 1491).

6. Quadrifoliate leaflets 3—4 inches in length, starting from the same
point, Leaflets oblong-lanceolate with a petiole attaining a length of
three inches (M.H. 1491),

7. Pentafoliate, the leaflets varying in shape and size and arising
from the same point; petiole shorter, up to 14 inches (M.H. 1495),

The venation was uniform in all the variations. These variations,
however, serve to emphasize the necessity of making a full study of the
range of variability of leaves and other piant organs, and indicating the
limits of variation in any species, before the appropriate descriptions
are incorporated in the regional Floras.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE & RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

COIMBATORE. J. SAKHARAM RAO.
May 25, 1955.

REFERENCES

1. Gamble J. S, (1914): The Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Part I, page 42.
2. Hooker J. D. (1872): The Flora of British India. Vol. 1, page 172.

29. A NEW SPECIES OF WMARS/LEA FROM AJMER, INDIA
(With three plates)

After the discovery of Marsilea aegyptiaca in Jodhpur (Gupta, 1955)"
efforts were continued to collect as many species of the genus as are

1 Gupta, K. M. (1955): On the occurrence of MW.aegyptiaca in Jodhpur, Rajas-
than, India. J&NALS, 52, (4), April 1955.

Gupta, K. M..& Bhardwaja, T. N. : ‘On the Investigation of Indian Marsileas :
their morphology and systematics.’

1. Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. with remarks on the present systematic position
of the Indian species (in press).

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

available in Rajasthan, including the centrally situated small state of
Ajmer, for the purpose of a detailed systematic study of the Indian species
of Marstilea. While some investigations on the ecology and morphology
of the I. aegyptiaca were in progress, some material resembling it was
collected in Ajmer. ‘The latter was sent to Kew for examination and was
found to be identical with 47. aegyptiaca by Mr. F. Ballard. Cursory
examination of the anatomy of its sporocarps by the author, however,
created some doubt about the identity of the two materials, namely J/.
aegyptiaca of Jodhpur and Ajmer respeciively.

Further material was therefore collected and grown in flower pots in
the botanical garden of Jaswant College and subjected to a detailed compa-
rative systematic study, particularly with reference to the three other
Indian species: M7. aegyptiaca from Jodhpur, JZ. condensata from Sind,
and M/. guadrifolia from Ajmer and other places in Rajasthan for the
following reasons :

(a) Marsilea aegyptiaca and Ajmer material had been considered
identical by Mr. F. Ballard, the expert Pteridologist at Kew.

(6) M. condensata which occurs in the neighbourhood of Rajasthan
in Sind also resembled JZ. aegypiiaca in some important respects.

(c) MZ. guadritolia was growing in very close association with the
new species at Ajmer and resembled it in some respects.

As a result of this examination and comparison, I am convinced that
the Ajmer material is quite distinct from these or any other Indian
species. A few important characters that might form ‘the basis of classi-
fication of the various species of J/arsilea in the future have been
tabulated below with reference to only the three species with which we
are concerned at the moment. Plates I-III illustrate the specific identity
‘of the species.

It is quite clear from the study of the characters briefly enumerated
above that the Ajmer material differs from 47. guadrzfolza in its relation
of the pedicel to petiole, pedicel to pedicel, shape and outline of the
sporocarps, attachment of the pedicel to sporocarp, number and nature of
horns, andthe number of sori in the sporocarps. Similarily it differs from
M. condensata in the shape and size of the sporocarp, nature of the horn,
number of sori, etc. In the same way it is distinct from JZ. aegyptiaca in
the disposition of the sporocarps (always single in JZ. aegypliaca and one
or more, i.e., slightly connate in the new species), size and shape of the
Sporocarp, nature of the horn, number of sori, etc. My examination
reveals that the new species seems to combine characters of more than
one species and particularly 17. aegyptiaca and MZ. guadrifolia. 1 wonder
whether this new species is a sort of hybrid between these two latter
species of MJarstlea that are found in Ajmer. ‘The material is being
subjected to cytological and other types of examination by research
students in my laboratory and it is hoped to clarify the position in the near
future. It may not be out of place to mention that a study of an abnormal
type of Marsilea to be described as a new species, 47. abnormalts (in MS.)
by Prof. P. N. Mehra and his students at Amritsar has shown that their
material may be a hybrid. It may be noted that the latter produces only
abnormal type of sporocarps (Mehra, 1938)*. The Ajmer material, how-

A ne ome a

* Mehra, P.N. (1938) : Abnormal sporocarps in JZ. minuta L. —Proc. Ind. Acad.
Scz., Vol. VII, No. 1 and the MS. of his full paper yet to be published.

~

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

HEREARION

Xo Mr3OR pan. 10% May
Riots 23MARSILEACE AE. S
cos Sones 2 _MARSILEA
S Sueres — BALLARD «NOV.
Poy AIMeR Oe oe
Unkit Sus-Terrestriat
< J.C. COLLEGE , GARDEN
' \ Calleewel by K.M. Guera
Be

GM ABLE, fe
BOTANY DEPARTMENT
JASWANT COLLEGE, JODHPUR.
BERBARUM py
Ho. M-19R Date 20° NOY.54.
rami 54 MARSILEACEAE |
% S Geaus MARSILEA sa
gps AEGYPTIACA. P
D) ; s - Lovatity AIMER :
sd Habit DEYMUD.

Colleied by "TAM BRARDWAS

Marsilea ballardit sp. nov.

1. Photograph of the herbarium sheets No. a preserved in the Botany
Department, Jaswant College, J ies i caren i i |
iy Eee Gone ege, Jodhpur, showing the general habit of the new

2, Same, bearing an older herbari ; TEN OAT TP ae
M, degyptiaca Willd. Fi um label when it was thought to be similar to

Species

PLATE

if

,

aules 94} uo Sdivdolods alom 10 se1q} ‘Oo

“SpIVMYOPq OUWIOZIYI 9Y} Jo dr
MA} ‘uO JO 9dMeIIND00 ey) BJON “AON “ds mp4y770q_

"aou ds Up4nyzng “JY JO Sjopea] yo odey
(aeUUIvIseIp) € pur |T ‘sory
‘Aou ‘ds ipsvjjog vapisavyyr

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‘W ut Sdivooiods jo u01}

pesuvlle Jeymouos ued
sodsiq *¢ ‘31g

S oY} Ul peojou suojenen -q per Sig

a

a ~~ >. }, mal: ‘ oe

ATX ° Py

& 28

——— a) — " a

Of ab of dle

*90@ -asIEy -away fLeauiog ‘uanoe

0} jeolped ey} Jo JuemYORNe pue uIOg SI jo oINIvU OU} fozIs y odvys sit Moys 0} ‘sou ‘ds pAvIIDg “TAT jo dxeoor0d
"So 'SYy “Upsévyqvg “YY JO yeu} YUM wvostedurod Joy divo0lodS ‘vIvy¢hsav vajisivpyY “GQ Be F SIA
‘MpAanqqvg “PT UM UOSIIVdUUOd 1OF *PIIAA VIVIZG Asan “PF Jo Sjopee] jo odvys 943 UI suOI]eNeA °"Z “SIA

O1193S 1

(oneuUIeIselp) ¢ pue F ‘Z ‘sold
“AOU “dS 2/p4v]]Vg VIJWADIY

UI] aLv1g ‘009 “SIRT ‘gen Avquiog ‘uanor

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Important distinguishing features of the four Indian species of Warsilea

TABLE 1

MM. quadri-

M. aegy pt-

291

M. ballardii

M, conden-
S. No. Characters sata folia daca sp. nov. Gupta
1. | Nature of leaflets. Crenate. Entire. Entire in aq-|Crenate, deep-
uatic ; cre-| ly lobed.
natein sub-
terrestrial.
2. | Disposition of sporo-| In tufts. Generally 2,| Solitary. Solitary, 2, 3
carps. sometimes 3. and small ©
tufts.
3. | Relation of pedicel) Free from | Adnate. At the base.| At the base,
to petiole. the base.
4, Relation of pedicel | Slightly con-| Connate. xX Free or con.
to pedicel. nate. nate.
5. | Size and shape of} ¢”, suborbi- oe Oe ts’ —-qy”. 4” Squarish
sporocarp. cular and) Ovoid. Square with; without
horizontal. prominent | grooves or
groovesand) depressions.
depressions.
6. | Pedicel to sporocarp| 2: 1 Ho GET WU] Ges ws 2
ratio. :
7. | Attachment of pedi-| Adnate. Partially ad-| Adnate. Adnate.
cel to sporocarp. nate.
8. | Number and nature) Only upper) Similar up-| Only upper | Only upper
of the horn, but not |perandlower.| blunt. but pointed.
pointed.
9. | Soral number. 10. 16-20. Generally 4,| 6-8,
sometimes
5 or 6. |

ever, produces quite healthy and normal type of sporocarps and may not
' bea hybrid but a true species.

I have great pleasure in naming this Marsilea from Ajmer after
Mr. F. Ballard, the expert Pteridologist at Kew. His constant help and
interest in our work at Jodhpur has been very valuable.

The new species may be diagnosed as follows :—

Marsilea ballardii sp. nov.

Herba aquatica vel subterrestris.

Foliola crenata, marginibus alte

incissis, deltoidea, sparse serica ; petioli 10-20 cms. longi in formis .cultis,
4—7°5 cms. longi in formis terrestribus naturalibus. Pedicelli singuli,
bini, terni vel plures simul, connati’; pedicelli adnati integrae basi concep-
taculorum ; ratio pedicellum inter et sporocarpum est 2: 1. Conceptacula
horizontalia, plus minusve quadratiuscula, absque sulcis vel . canalibus

9

293 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Marsileae aegyptiacae, 5 mm. magnitud., dense pilosa, dente superiore
prominente ; sori 6-8.

Typus lectus a 'T. N. Bhardwaja mense novembri 1954, prope vicum
Gugra vocatum, ad viam quae ducit ad Kishangarh, in Statu Ajmer,
in India.

I am grateful to the Director, Roy. Bot. Gardens, Kew Mr. F. Ballard,
the Pteridologist, Mr- A. H. G. Alston of the British Museum, London,
and. Prof, P. N. Mehra for their kindness, help and encouragement. My
sincere thanks are due to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau for very kindly rendering
the diagnosis of the new species into Latin.

BoTANY DEPARTMENT,
JASWANT COLLEGE,
JODHPUR.

September 9, 1955.

kK. M. GUPTA

30. UTILITY OF THE FOREST PRODUCTS OF ORISSA
IN THE FISHERIES OF THE CHILKA LAKE?

INTRODUCTION

Well-balanced economy in every trade requires the maximum utiliza-
tion of the raw materials available in the locality. The fishery trade of the
Chilka Lake is well balanced in this respect, drawing all its raw materials
from the hills and jungles spreading on the western shore of the lake.

No consolidated record at present exists of the forest products made
use of in preparing the varied fishing implements of the Chilka Lake.
These products have helped to develop cottage industries, such as boat-
making, mat and basket weaving, and leaf stitching, in addition to provid-
ing livelihood for hundreds of villagers who collect barks, plants, leaves
etc.

A list of plants made use of in the fisheries trade is given below:

.-Local Oriya name
Chani or Kaunria

Kanta or Pili or Dandi Bauns

Karada
'Khadi siju
* Kharua noi
Paldhua
Sahanja
Sal
Shalimba Baunsa
Shiali
Sunari
Sundarkania Bauns
Shuli or Bhuduka

Scientific name

Crotalaria juncea I..
Bambusa arundinacea Willd.
Cleistanthus collinus Benth.
Euphorbia tirucalli L.
L[chnocarpus frutescens R. Br.
Erythrina indica Lamk.
Termtinalia tomentosa W. & A.
Shorea robusta Gaertn.
Dendrocalamus stvictus Nees.
Bauhinia vahlit WV. & A.
Cassia fistula Li:
Bamobusa vulgaris Schrad.
Kydia calycina Roxb.

1 Published with the kind permission of the Deputy Director of Fisheries, Orissa.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 293

CRAFT AND TACKLE

The various fishing implements used for fishing in the lake may be
erouped under five major heads :
1. Boats 2. Nets 3. Traps 4. Jano or enclosure 5. Rods and

spears.

Boats

Four types of boats are in operation in the Jake. Devasundaram
(1951) while describing them has mentioned that the dug-outs are made
of Shorea robusta. All the other three types of boats mentioned by him
are also constructed out of the same wood. ‘The different parts of these
boats are made exclusively of materials available from the local forests
and the jungles surrounding the villages. To mention a few, the mast or
gula of the boat is made of the lower portion of Bambusa arundinacea ; the
sail or fole¢ is a mat woven out of thin and broad strips split from 2.
arundinacea or Dendrocalamus strictus ; bamboo mat or chancha or akhdi
too is a mat consisting of thick strips made from the lower portion of 2.
avundinacea which are tied together by coir rope. The boats are parti-
tioned into compartments by such mats also. For punting bamboo or
kado the upper portion of Bambusa vulgaris or D. strictusis used. To
the lower portion of B. arundinacea or B. vulgaris or D. strictus a sal plank
is fixed with nail and used as a rudder or danda.

Besides these, for other minor parts of the boat, bamboo is very

essential.

Nets

Devasundaram (op. cit.) has described four nets in his study of the
fishing methods for mullets in the lake. Jones and Sujansinghani(1952a)
have recorded another net, A/anz-jal (better known as munz jal or gania
jal), to catch the beloniform fishes. Devasundaram (1954) has given the
detailed description of three more nets while dealing with the fisheries of
the lake.

All the above nets can be divided into two groups with reference to
the material out of which they are prepared: those made of yarn
and the rest made of Cvotalaria juncea, Cast net (Khepa jal), drag
net (Gania jal, Khoinga or Kabala jal, Menjia jal and Khadi jal),
seine net (Patwa jal) and gill net (Bhzda jal) are prepared of yarn. The
last mentioned net may also be prepared of hemp, but hemp is mainly
used in preparing Bhekta jal and Nolz jal which are also gill nets. The
wood of Arythvina indica and Kydia calycina is utilised as floats for
nets like Bhida jal, Bhekta jal, Patua jal and Nolz jal.

Young shoots of B. arundinacea with 1” diameter or below are em-
ployed as spreader sticks for Khadz jal, Khoinga jal and Menjia jal.

The decoctions of the barks of Clezstanthus collinus and Terminalia
tomentosa are employed to dye the nets. One pound of bark is boiled for.
nearly two hours in approximately three gallons of brackish water with
bits of Euphorbia tirucallt. As the extract of C. collinus bark soon
wears away the yarn nets, the decoction of the bark of Z. tomentosa is
used to dye them ; but for the hemp nets no restriction is observed.

Dyeing the nets with Cassza fistula bark extract is not practised in the
Chilka area. And contrary to other parts of Orissa where nets are tanned

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

at intervals of 2 to 3 months (I. P. F. C., 1954) here the dyeing of nets is
done once a fortnight. :

Traps

Two main types of traps are used in the lake exclusively for catching
prawns and crabs. Jones and Sujensinghani (1952b) have given the des-
cription of the box-trap, locally known as konkara kharia used for catch-
ing crabs. A slight modification of the box-trap is the Boja with which
prawns are caught. The 7zar community of the fishermen make these
two kinds of traps, but the other main type, known as Dhoudz, described
by Devasundaram (op. cit.) is prepared by the Kondara community. The
hard basal part of a full-grown bamboo (local name: 4/u/z) is split into
strips which are fastened together by a wild climber, /chnocarpus trutes-
cens. Normally this climber is about half an inch in Circumference, rusty
brown in color and possesses strong fibres. It is soaked in water before
use and the epidermal layer is sometimes scraped off as required. .

The leader line of these traps is generally made out of the same por-
tion of bamboo described above, but it is splitinto thicker slats than those
used in the traps.

Jano or Enclosure

Bamboo mats used in the Jazo are of the samme type and material as
the leader line of the traps.

Rods and Spears

In rod angling D. strictus is used as a rod and for the handle of 7ezta
or spear strong &. avundinacea is employed.

Other Articles

Fish is despatched to different places in rectangular baskets, the
photo of which appears in the paper, ‘ Hiisa Fishery of the Chilka Lake ’
(Jones and Sujansinghani, 1951). These baskets are prepared out of B.
vulgaris as that species of bamboo is durable and is quite easy to split
into splints. Before packing the fish, a layer of sewn leaves of Bauhinia
vahlit is spread inside the basket.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Sri M. Peter Devasundaram of the Central Marine
Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam, for his kind help in preparing
this note.

CHILKA BIOLOGICAL STATION,

BALUGAON, J. C. ROY.
ORISSA.

April 30, 1955.

REFERENCES

Devasundaram, M. P. (1951): Fishing Methods for Chilka Mullets. Jud. Fmg.,
12 (1-2): 22-25.

af me — (1954) : A Report on the Fisheries of the Chilka lake from 1948 to 1952.
Orissa Govt. Publ. : 1-34.

GLEANINGS 295

I.P. F.C. (1954): Report of Technical Committee II to the Sth Meeting. :
98-101.

Jones, S. and Sujansinghani, K. H (1951): The Hilsa Fishery of the Chilka
Lake. JBNA'S, 50 (2): 264-280.

— — — (1952a) : The Mani-jal of the Chilka Lake-—A special net for Beloni-
form fishes. ibid.': 287-288.

— — — (1952b): Notes on the Crab Fishery of the Chilka Lake. ibid, 51
(1): 128-134,

GLEANINGS

FEF. R. Fosberg in Northern Marshall Islands Expedition 1951-52
(Atoll Research Bulletin No. 38 (1955)) page 33:

‘The Pzsonza forest, which covers the greater part of this islet, is
dense and contains some great trees, though it is uneven and shows the
usual effects of typhoons in the form of fallen trees. Ordinarily these
take root wherever they touch the ground, but a number seen here on
Bikar were dead. Probably they were biown down during the severe
dry spell. The Pisonta forest contained two remarkable things—white-
tailed tropic birds nesting in holes in the tree trunks, and water collected
in cavities and irregularities in the large tree bases containing swarms of
ostracods. Where these fresh-water animals came from on an island that
has absolutely no other fresh-water is indeed a mystery.’

Adapted excerpt trom the IL.U.P.N. Bulletin for June 1955.

Detorestation. Lesson for India. ‘Ten years ago, when it rained
heavily in the Estereland Alpilles of Provencein the south of France, the
water took three to four days to reach the Mediterranean coast. Today,
due to the increased deforestation on the slopes, and to fires—one hun-
dred million pines have been lost in this period—the inhabitants of Saint
Raphael watch torrents of muddy water rush past them only three hours
after the rainfall.’

Charles McCann, F-L.S. in *‘ The Lizards of New Zealand—Gekkonidae
and Scincidae ’. :

‘Waite (1929) in his ‘‘ Reptiles and Amphibians of South Australia,”
narrates the exploits of two members of the South Australian Museum
when trying to coilect geckos on the tinned roof of a hut which was out
of reach. One of the party suggested the firing of a blank from a gun
inside the hut in the hope that the shock would dislodge the geckos.
The suggestion was carried out with the result that there was a‘ shower
of geckos ’ from the roof. On collecting the spoils, the collectors found
that the shower consisted of geckos’ tails alone !’

From ‘A Book of Spiders’. By W.S. Bristowe. King Penguin Books,
1947,
‘ A census in a Sussex field of rough grass showed a maximum
_ spider population in late sumer slightly in excess of 24 millions to the
acre... The spider population of England and Wales can, of course, only
be guessed at. My guess is an average of 21 billions. At avery con-
servative estimate each spider destroys insects at the rate of a hundred
per annum, so we atrive at a yearly insect consumption in England and
Wales of 220,000,000,000,000 (two hundred and twenty billions). Let
me also say quite definitely that spiders eat many times the number of

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

insects consumed by birds, whose destruction rate has probably now been
exceeded also by those modern enemies, the motorists, who squash
insects in millions on their windscreens and radiators. Birds get a good
reputation, partly because people like them. Spiders have a bad reputa-
tion because people either actively dislike them or fail to realise the huge

part they play in insect. destruction.’

From‘ World Wool Digest’ 22 December 1954.
© Rabbits still a Problem in Australia’

_. €It is generally believed that, in the normal course of events, what-
ever expansion takes placein Australian wool production in the near future,
it will not be of the magnitude of the increase in 1952/53, when total
output rose from 1,080 to 1,281 million lb. in a year. This was a ‘once
for all’ increase due primarily to the first successful application of myxo-
matosis in the destruction of millions of rabbits. The myxomatosis cam-
paign has been kept up in subsequent seasons and much valuable infor-
mation has been collected as to the effects and incidence of the disease.
It has recently been suggested, however, that rabits are no longer a serious
problem in Australia and that farmers can now safely discontinue such
expensive precautions as netting properties and digging out and ripping
watrens.

‘This point of view has been severely criticised by officers of the
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, which
has been responsible for directing intensive experiments and research in
myxomatosis. The Pastoral Review, of 16th October, publishes a letter
on this subject by Mr. F. N. Ratcliffe, Officer-in-Charge of C.S.I.R.O.’s
Wildlife Survey Section. After studying all scientific and field evidence
available, Mr. Ratcliffe is of the opinion that myxomatosis will
not provide the final solution to the rabbit problem. He quotes Dr,
J. M. Rendel, Officer-in-Charge of the Animal Genetics Section, as giving
an ‘emphatic warning ’ that ‘ the development of a rabbit population with
some degree of intrinsic resistance to myxomatosis is inevitable’. The
building up of this resistance, although slow at first, will increase in
tempo and may become significantiy apparent within ten years, in areas
where annual outbreaks of myxomatosis have occurred.

‘Two additional factors that may possibly contribute to the reduced
efficacy of myxomatosis must also be taken into account—they are:
inadequacy of insect vectors and a decrease in the virulence of the virus,
In these circumstances the official policy is quite clearly to encourage the
intensification of control by standard methods and to consolidate gains
already made by ‘ mopping up ’ surviving rabbit infestations. This policy is
the outcome of the most careful consideration of all the facts and probas
bilities and has the support of the representatives of all the States and is
endorsed by the virologists and geneticists who attended the recent myxo-

matosis conference in Melbourne.’

Trees.
Allan C. Garrard writes in the journal of ‘The Men of the Trees’

(Vol. xviii, No. 2, Autumn 1954) :—

‘... . Timber still forms the major portion of the wealth of Jugo-
Slavia;.... All the children attending primary and secondary schools
are encouraged to plant trees—and the large majority do so regularly.’

GLEANINGS 297

Fledges.
In the same journal at p. 129 J. Gunston writes :—
ae . Farming from the artificial manure bag is undoubtedly
reducing the Stability of many soils ; the obvious answer to this danger is
that instead of reducing the hedges and enlarging the fields, the reverse
process will have to be resorted to in the very near future.’

This is written in regard to conditions in England, but can be applied
to India in many parts of which the establishment of hedges of suitable
design is an urgent need. Many of the existing practically useless ‘ hedges’
merely sketchily demarcate boundaries of cultivated plots and are just a
remnant of what they should be for the purpose of protecting crops from
inroads by cattle and the force of the wind which constantly removes the
valuable top-soil from the ploughed land. Hedges ofthe many suitable
plants, such as Evythrina suberosa and others with leguminous properties,
do not cast heavy shade on the growing crops and obviate the heavy and
recurrent labour of making thorny barriers against roaming cattle. Such
hedges are permanent wind-breaks and erosion barriers, attract birds
useful to the cultivator, and generally useful in other ways also.
(R. W. Burton). |

Extract trom All-India Khadi and Village Industries Board, Bombay,
Circular letter No. PG—II—24]54 dated 11-10-54 :

GUR (JAGGERY) FROM PALMYRA PALMS

‘ Palms as a source of sugar supply are gaining wide importance in
all the palm-growing countries of the world. World population is increas-
ing by 68,000 per day, and in India the annual increase in the population
is about 38 lakhs. In view of this alarming increase in the population,
a time may come when we shall have to release most of the land where
sugar-cane is growing today and use it for growing foodcrops. The
demand for sugar will have to be met from cheaper sources such as
palms, which can grow in a waste strip ot land. With the existing
number of 5crores of tap-able palms, it is estimated that we may be able
to make 1 to 14 million tons of Palm Gtir per annum. At present 20 to
23 lakh acres of fertile land are under sugarcane cultivation meant for
cane gitir manufacture. The estimated production of Palm Gur will
release 10 lakh acres of fertile land for other foodcrops. In all, the
industry can give seasonal employment to 25 lakh rural workers and thus
can relieve unemployment to a considerable extent.’ 4

NOTES AND NEWS

The Society is now in a position to offer some amounts for the carry-
ing out of field work in natural history, which includes the collection of
specimens or data, or the investigation of specific problems.

Applications should be addressed to: The MHonorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society, 114, Apollo Street, Bombay, stating (1)
the nature of the problem ; (2) the experience and qualifications of the
candidate and (3) the amount required, with itemized details of how it is
proposed to be spent. i

Applications should be received before 31st January, 1956.
Applicants may be asked to interview the Committee in Bombay, if
considered necessary.

it & % %

As we go to press, news has come of the death (on 8 December)
following an attack of coronary thrombosis, of Dr. S. L. Hora, Director
of the Zoological Survey of India and a valued member of the Society’s
Advisory Committee. <A fuller obituary will follow.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst DECEMBER 1954
President
Dr. HAREKRUSHNA MABHTAB, Governor of Bombay

Vice-Presidents

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR SAHIB SINGH SOKHEY, I.M.S. (Retd.)
Rev. Fr. H. SANTAPAU, S.J.
Mr. SAtim ALI

Executive Committee

Prof. S. P. Agharkar, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.N.I. ... Poona |

IMG Ue, We cher, TLIC EASE 7 ode od a.
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, 1.C.S. —..- iv 2
Mr. R. E. Eeering |
Dr, C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.D. Bombay
Mr. D. N. Marshall .
Mr. D. J. Panday
Mr, D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.) =
Mr. J. A. Singh, 1.F.s. ... Poona |
Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Hon, Secretary) 300} FPareoph |
Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) Ad ; Ge
Advisory Committee

Mr. H. G. Acharya, B.A., F.R.E.S. .-. Ahmedabad
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kite Caleb ols C. S. New Delhi
Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Become M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D. Mysore
Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. ey ... Assam
Dr. S. L. Hora, D.SC. wide aut w- Calcutla
Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. ... Attikan
Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- ‘Adams, O.B.E., OAS ILA

(Retd.) 605 se sha! PNOSSEADS
Dr. Baini Prasad, D.sc. ia .. New Delhi
Dr. M. L. Rooawal, M.SC., Ph.D., F.N.I., 'FAZ.8.1. ... Dehra Dun

List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees elected
for the year 1955:

Vice-Presidents

_ Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.
Mr. Salim Ali

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Executive Committee

Prof, S, P. Agharkar, M.A., Fh.D., F.L.S., F.N.I. .-. Loona
Mr. J. I. Alfrey, F.R.E.S. ;
Mr. G. V. BedeKar, I.c.s.

Prof. F. R. Bharucha, D.Sc., F.N.I. gee
Mr. R. E. Hawkins Se ee
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, m.sc., Ph.D. Py | Bombay
Mr. D. N. Marshall oes wes; ea
Mr. D. J. Panday
Mr. D. E. Reuben, 1.cs. (Reta) ee
Mr. J. A. Singh, I. FS. a --- Poona
Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Hon. Secretary) cco | fern
Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) a MALY)
Advisory Committee

Mr. H. G. Acharya, B.A., F.R.E.S. x .--. Ahmedabad
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.I.E., I. C. S. .- Mew Delhi
Rey. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M-A., L. T., Ph.D., D. D. Mysore
Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S.... ae .-. Assam
Dr. S. L. Hora, D.sc. oe Ree EO ALCHLILG
Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., PLS. Be .. Atttkan
Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- -Adams, O.B.E.)°RsZ0S.5. cA

(Retd.) S00 560 ... Vilgiris
Dr. Baini Prasad, D.Sc. f .. Dehra Dun
Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.SC., ph. D., F.NeI., F.Z.S.1. wee Dehra Dun

HONORARY SECRETARY'S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1954

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL -

Parts 1, 2 and 3 of Volume 52 (the last two numbers being
combined due to unavoidable printing delays) and the Index to Parts
1 and 2 of Volume 51 were published during the year.

MAMMALS

Two papers by M. R. N. Prasad on the Natural History and Food
of the Indian Gerbille—Zatera indica cuviert (Waterhouse) were
published. Mr. Prasad was able to conduct these activities with the
aid of a financial grant from the Education Ministry, Government of
India. The information regarding the habits, habitat, food and
reproduction, with some observations on the animal’s importance to
agriculture, serves to draw attention to the great paucity of data
concerning even some of the commonest species of animals in India.

‘A Note on the position of Rhinoceros in the Union of Burma
(1953) ’ together with a supplementary note on the same subject ‘by
U Tun Yin is an attempt to bring up-to-date the information presented .
by W. F. H. Ansell in 1947 (JBNAS, 47: 258, et seg.). From
the scattered evidence which has been brought together, it appears
that a few individuals of both RAznoceros sondaicus'and Dicerorhin us
sumatrensts still exist in Burma. He believes: that the Thamin is on
the increase in the Union of Burma thanks to the scarcity of shot-gun

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1954 301

ammunition during the war years when these deer, together with other
game, increased to some extent.

BIRDS

Salim Ali who carried out the ornithological survey of Gujarat some
years ago has now reported (Vol. 52) on the extensive collections
made in the area which covered Kutch, parts of Saurashtra and the
north-western part of Bombay State down to the Surat Dangs, a little
north of Nasik. The northern part of this area, particularly Kutch,
is of great interest from the point of view of bird migration. and the
author has drawn attention to the possibilities it offers for the
study of migration to and from India by the establishment of a chain of
observation posts manned by competent observers. A large amount of
the guess work which necessarily attaches to our records of bird
migration in India could be eliminated by actual observations in
this way.

M. D. Lister gives an account of the different species noted in the
Darjeeling area during periods of leave from war service in the
years 1943-45. It includes a commendable attempt at recording the
calls of various birds.

Some interesting records of the stomach contents of the Greater
and Lesser Flamingo at the ‘Soda’ lakes in Kenya are provided by
M. W. Ridley in his ‘Observations on Diet of Flamingoes’. While
the larger species was found to take insect larvae, a few Copepods and
seeds, the diet of the Lesser Flamingo seems almost entirely restricted
to blue-green Algae.

In ‘ Petrels, Shearwaters and other Oceanic Birds in the North
Indian Ocean’, W. W. A. Phillips supplements information recorded in
an earlier paper on the birds of the Indian Ocean [JBNAS, 49 (3)].
The present contribution contains extracts from his diary of two voyages
from Colombo to Aden and back. They indicate the scarcity and
abundance of both Petrels and Shearwaters at different seasons, and
throw some light on the migrations of these birds.

In the third and concluding part of ‘Some Breeding Birds of
Singapore’, W. T. Loke maintains his usual high standard of bird
photography and furnishes many useful notes under each species.

S. Dillon Ripley offers ‘Comments on the Biogeography of Arabia
with particular reference to Birds’. ‘The several relict forms of
partridge and woodpecker among birds and the Arabian tahr among
mammals are considered in discussing the climatic history of Arabia,
The mountain ranges of Southern Arabia still hold out much promise
to the diligent field worker.

C. Vaurie and K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji describe a new race of
Sandlark from Saurashtra. This, Calandrella saytal krishnakumarsinhjz,
is distinguished from other Indian forms by being more heavily
streaked and much darker in all its plumages.

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

No paper on either Reptiles or Amphibians was received during the
year, but our Miscellaneous Notes show a continued interest in these
subjects, and it is to be hoped that the interest will grow and become

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

more general. Since the days of Col. Wall the study of snakes
unfortunately appears to have fallen completely in the background.

FIsH AND FISHERIES

Charles McCann discusses the paper by E. W. Gudger published
earlier in the /ourvnal and asserts, from his observations, that the
Whale Shark is essentially herbivorous, feeding almost entirely on
marine algae. The Basking Shark, Cetorhinus maximus, on the other
hand, states McCann, is a zoo-plankton feeder having its mouth parts
adapted for this type of food.

P. I. Chacko and B. Krishnamurthi published the results of their
study of the Cichlid fish—T7zlapia mossambica Peters, a native of Africa
which was introduced into Madras in 1952 on account of the ease with
which it is cultivated as a source of food. They give notes on its
food and feeding, growth, association with other fish, breeding, develop-
ment ete: ;

E. R. A. de Zylva in his ‘The Development of Ceylon’s Fishing
Industry’ indicates that the industry in Ceylon is at a low level of
efficiency chiefly due to the use of primitive craft, the absence of
capital for investment, the social prejudices against the trade and the
lack of incentive in general. De Zylva recommends inclusion of a
course of fishery studies in the University of Ceylon as a means of
improving the island’s fishing industry.

INVERTEBRATES

Invertebrates appear to have found an increasing number of
adherents and during the year ten papers were published in this
section. M. L. Roonwal contributed three, two of which dealt with the
‘ Biology and Ecology of Oriental Termites’, the first referring to the
species Odoutotermes parvidens which was found to damage the bark of
standing teak trees in Uttar Pradesh. The second paper dealt with
the natural ecological adjustment between the two species, Coptotermes
heimi and Odontotermes vedemanni. His third article on the Common
Indian Tree Ant, Crematogaster dohrnt rogenhofert Mayr, describes in
detail with illustrations, the structure and composition of the nest and
its population.

The habits of MWyrmarachne plataleotdes Cambr. and Amyciaea
forticeps (Cambr.)—two well-known spiders which mimic the Indian
Red Ant, Occophylla smaragdina (Fabr.)—were studied in detail by
A. P. Mathew and the results were recorded in his ‘Observations on
the Habits of two Spider Mimics of the Red Ant, Oecophylla smaragdina
(Fabr.)’. The two spiders belong to two unrelated families and it is
interesting to see how each, with its particular characteristics, has
effected this simulation of the same model.

A second paper on the Arachnids entitled ‘ Ecology and Behaviour
of the Scorpion—Falamnaeus bengalensis C. Koch’ was contributed by
M. S. Kanungo.

Following up several Miscellaneous Notes on Land Leeches, Mr.
J. L. Harrison of Kuala Lumpur submitted a comprehensive article re-
garding the species, distribution, food habits and other aspects of Land

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1954 303

Leeches. ‘The question ‘ What are the normal hosts of Land Leeches ?’
however, still remains unanswered.

P. J. Sanjeeva Raj in ‘A Synopsis of the Genus Ozobranchus (de
Quatrefages 1852)—Hirudinea, Annelida’ examines the nomenclature and
validity of the six species which have been recorded from different
hosts, all as ectoparasites on marine turtles and freshwater tortoises.

A. E. G. Best collected butterflies between April 1950 and February
1952 from the Nagalapuram Hills near Madras City, which form the
outer spur of the Eastern Ghats. He lists the species with information
regarding frequency and seasons of occurrence in his ‘ Notes on the
Butterflies of the Nagalapuram Hills, Eastern Ghats’.

‘Growth-Rate of the Pearl Oyster, Pzvctada pinctada, in the Gulf of
Cutch with a note on the Pearl Fishery of 1953’ by §. V. Gokhale,
C. R. Eswaran and R. Narasimhan is of both scientific and commercial
value and embodies the results of investigations of the growth-rate of
the Pearl Oyster under the Pearl Oyster Research Scheme sanctioned
by the Government of Saurashtra.

BoTANY

Many papers on botanical subjects were offered and twelve have
been published during the year. 5S. L. Nayar completed his annotated
list of ‘ Poisonous seeds of India’ in two parts. One hundred and six
species are alphabetically arranged and, in addition to the Indian and
English names, information regarding the distribution of the plant and
the constitution of the seed together with remarks on the nature of the
poisoning are listed.

Among regional floras are papers on ‘ Backwater Flora of the West
Coast of South India’ by Rajasekhara Mudaliar and Sunanda Kamath,
‘A Contribution to the Flora of Mussoorie’ by N. A. Watts and ‘ The
Vegetation of Pilani and its Neighbourhood’ by T. S. Bakshi.

Of taxonomical interest are the following :

1. ‘Critical Notes on the identity and nomenclature of some
Bombay Plants’ by R. Fernandes and H. Santapau.

This is a continuation of a series of papers by the senior author
dealing with a considerable collection of plants made in the Krishna-
giri National Park, Borivli, Salsette.

2. ‘The Genus Cyathula Lour. in India’ by T. S. Bakshi.

The author concludes that the density or sparseness of hairy out-
growth, on which the identity of the two species Cyathula tomentosa and
Cyathula capitata has been based, depends upon the altitude at which
the plants grow. ‘Thus the two names are merely synonyms.

3. *A New Species of Avthraxon from Purandhar, Bombay
State’ by F. R. Bharucha and Y. Satyanarayan.
4. ‘New Species of Indian Plants’ by R. Seshagiri Rao.

R. Seshagiri Rao described two species of Pavagrewia poilanez
and Chonenorpha pedicellata in the earlier numbers of the journals of
the Bombay Natural History Society and Indian Botanical Society,
but omitted the Latin descriptions. ‘These are now appended,

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

5. With ‘The Genus Cymbopogon Spreng. in India, Burma and
Ceylon’ N. L. Bor completes his exhaustive paper which includes des-
criptions of several new species of Indian grasses.

6. In ‘On the Occurrence of Hphedra in the Indian Desert’
M. M. Bhandari identifies as this species some plants which have been
wrongly attributed to Calligonum polygonotdes in earlier literature.

7. In‘ Periodicity of the Plankton Diatoms of the Chilka Lake
for the years 1950 and 1951’, J.C. Roy records the results of collec-
tions made in three different zones on the Chilka Lake and tabulates
the periodicities of the species collected. The article is a useful
contributicn to the sparse literature on the diatoms of brackish and
estuarine waters of India.

FORESTRY

‘Report on the Forests of the Northern Triangle, Kachin State,
Northern Burma’ by F. Kingdon-Ward is a continuation of the author’s
observations recorded in the Journal earlier—‘ A Sketch of the Botany
and Geography of North Burma’. It is a report on his 84 months
expedition along the upper reaches of the Irrawaddy River and
discusses the climatic conditions and economics of the vegetation in
that area.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION

With a view to give to members an idea of well-organized national
parks in other countries we published a note on the Kruger National
Park by A. St. J. Macdonald, This account illustrated with some
excellent photographs kindly supplied by the South African Railways
indicates how tame and fearless some of the animals have become. It
is hoped that it will be possible to attain similar conditions in the
several national parks that are now being set up and planned in differ-
ent parts of India.

We also published the ‘Annual Report for 1953 on the Eastern
Region’ by Mr. E. P. Gee, Regional Secretary of the Indian Board for
Wild Life. This zone comprises Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Manipur,
Orissa and Tripura. Mr. Gee offers remarks on the several species of
animals, birds and reptiles which require special protection and gives
a short summary of the activities and legislation in the various units
relating to the State Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks. He
stresses the need for educating children in the value of preserving
wild iife by means of suitable text books and in other ways.

U Tun Yin in ‘ Wild Life Preservation and Sanctuaries in the
Union of Burma’ describes eleven wild life sanctuaries existing in
different parts of Burma and covering 914.87 square miles.. A short
history of each sanctuary together with its principal animals is
included.

K. M. Kirkpatrick describes with excellent line drawings some of
the methods used by aboriginals in different parts of India prior to the
introduction of fire arms. Many of these are still employed by
aboriginals in parts of Bihar and Orissa for killing even large animals
like tiger and panther. :

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1954 305

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ninety-two notes covering all branches of natural history were
published. This section is always popular with readers, and more
contributions would be welcome.

SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS

‘The Society was unfortunately not in a position to undertake any
major scientific expedition during the year, but has now at its disposal
some small amounts of money which could be made available to
members and others to assist them in carrying out minor field trips for
some specific collecting or investigation.

NATURE EDUCATION

The Society’s nature education scheme has now been running for
8 years with the aid of yearly financial grants from the Government of
Bombay. Unfortunately we have not yet succeeded in persuading
Government to make it a permanent feature of the State’s educational
programme. Under the present uncertain year-to-year arrangement it
is not possible to undertake any long-term schemes or planning, and
thus the full usefulness of the work is somewhat vitiated. An illus-
trated booklet entitled ‘Our Birds’ was published simultaneously in
English, Hindi, Marathi and Gujarathi and has had a very favourable
reception. The English edition is sold out; Marathi and Gujarati
have a fair demand, but curiously enough the Hindi edition has
provoked very little interest, in spite of the fact that it was commended
by the Union Education Ministry to the educational departments of
such Hindi speaking States as Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Two more books in the same series are now under preparation.

PUBLICATIONS

The following books were published during the year :—

1. Some Beautiful Indian Trees by Rev. E. Blatter, s.s., and
W. S. Millard. 2nd edition. Revised and brought up-to-
date. With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome plates, and
numerous text-figures.

2. Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. L. Bor and
M. B. Raizada. With 31 coloured and 99 half-tone plates, and
numerous text-figures.

_REVENUE ACCOUNT

The total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 37,593-6-8,
which includes a grant of Rs. 4,000 from: the Government of Bombay,
as compared with Rs. 46,317-1-8, during the previous year. It will be
noted that this decrease in the total revenue is due to the Society not
receiving the Government of India’s usual grant-in-aid for 1954-55.

Sales of the Society’s publications remained practically on much
the same level as last year. Although calendars were in good demand,
there was an appreciable reduction in-the sales of the Journal.

306 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The following is a comparative statement showing the different
sources of revenue received in 1953 and 1954 :—

Revenue Revenue Increase Decrease
in in in in
1953 1954 1954 1954
Rs. a. p. Rs. a. p.| Rs. a. p. Rs. a. p.
Subscriptions .. | 20,635 0 QO] 20,418 0 0 es 217 0 0
Entrance Fees oe 1,135 0 0 1412 0.0]; 277 0 0 ——
Publications :

Books Ges 4,801 0 0; 5,691 0 0]; 890 0 0 —

Journals a 3,374 0 0 1,634 0 0 — | 1,740 0 0
Sundries, Taxidermy,

Advertisement, etc. 388 0 0 346 0 0 —= 42 0 0
Interest on Investments 3,984 0 0 0 0 ———
Grants :

Govt. of India 8,000 0 0 — — 8,000 0 0

Govt. of Bombay 4,000 4,000 0 0 —— oe

Total 45,317 0 0) 37,593 0 01,275 0 0}] 9999 0 0

The net decrease in 1954 as compared with 1953 was Rs. 8,724, ..

The total number of members on our books as at 3lst December
1954 was 1,110 of whom 227 were life members. Subscription for
1954 have so far been received from 668 members. During the year
54 new members joined ; 4 life members and 10 ordinary members died ;
5 ordinary members became life members and 21 ordinary members
resigned.

STAFE

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing
co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson who
continues to look after the Society’s interests in the U.K.

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT
COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO AUGUST 1955

This is a supplementary report embodying the activities of the
Society from January to August this year.

‘Natural History Award: No fresh application for the year .
1955-56 was entertained, but the one granted to Mr, K. K. Dixit of
Poona for work on colour perception and sensory physiology of Indian
Honey Bees has been extended to December 1955.

During 1955, up-to-date, forty new members (including one life
member) joined, against which 4 died and 17 resigned and one ordinary
member became life member, bringing the number of ordinary

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1954 307

members on our rolls to 900. In addition we have 299 life members.
Only 600 ordinary members have so far paid their subscriptions
fOr 95D.

The fifth edition of Salim Ali’s ‘The Book of Indian Birds’ has at last
been published and it is hoped that it will be possible to have Wynter-
Blyth’s ‘ Butterflies of the Indian Region’ ready before Christmas.
The Society’s Nature Calendar for 1956 is under preparation and
should be available by the middle of October, well in time for despatch
to foreign countries.

Active preparations are under way for bringing out a revised
second edition of S. H. Prater’s ‘The Book of Indian Animals’ in
which it is intended to replace several of the unsatisfactory coloured
plates by better ones.

The Wall Chart on how to identify poisonous snakes has also been
out of print for some years. This publication has proved its useful-
ness and is in great demand by Government hospitals and dispensaries
all over the country. Steps are being taken to publish the new edition
in English, Gujarati and Marathi.

In the matter of wild life preservation, the Government of Bombay
have appointed R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, an active member of our
Society, as the first full-time Officer. Several members of the Society
are also acting as Honorary Game Wardens and it is hoped that this
effort, with which the Society was initially actively associated, will be
successful. The most serious menace to game and wild life is the
great increase in the number of Arms Licences issued for the alleged
purpose of crop protection.

It was not possible to arrange for lectures or scientific film shows
during this period. On 19th July, however, Prof. J. Berlioz of the
Natural History Museum, Paris, now on a visit to India, gave an
interesting talk to members and their friends on Humming Birds and
Sunbirds. Prof. Berlioz is a world authority on the Humming Bird
group.

Mr. Loke Wan Tho, a vice-patron of the Society, and one of its
constant benefactors, financed a continuation of the Sikkim Ornithologi-
cal Survey to enable further field work to be carried out and data
relating to a different season of the year to be obtained.

Mr. Loke has also donated to the Society the cost of reproducing
two coloured plates from his own Kodachrome transparencies of
birds, thereby adding considerably to the attractiveness of the Journal.

The following 62 members have joined since the last Annual
General Meeting:

from 23rd August to 31st December 1954

Wt Col Ano bediuc/On New) Delhii56,A.P-©.) Mr. P. PY Sehgal;
New Delhi; The Divisional Forest Officer, North Kheri Division,
U.P.; The Principal, Jaswant College, Jodhpur; Sirdar Bhupendra
Kumar, Dholpur, Rajasthan; Mr. P. B. Biswas, Tribeni Tissues, Ltd.,
Hooghly ; His Highness the Maharaja Fatesingrao Gaekwad of Baroda,
Baroda; Mr. Roderick W. Mackay, Kurseong P.O.; The Divisional
Forest Officer, East Thana, Nasik; Mr. G. A. Stewart, Bombay 1; Mr.
P.S. Daver, Bombay 1; Mr. W. Wally, Calcutta ; The Principal, College

10

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83

of Science, Raipur; Mr. Bernard C. Bowker, Miami, U.S.A; Dr. Telford
H. Work, Virus Research Centre, Poona; Mr. G. R. Iredale, Calcutta ;
The Librarian, Birla Central Library, Pilani; Mr. G. W. Fairhurst,
Calcutta; Mr. Dwight Platt, Sambalpur; Mr. J. N. Onial, Dehra Dun ;
Mr. Everett W. Neely, Los Angeles, U.S.A.

from 1st January 1955 ¢o 16th August 1955

Mr. W. R. Duffin, Calcutta; Mr. Aamir Ali, Geneva, Switzerland ;
The Commandant, National Defence Academy Wild Life Club, Khadak-
vasla; Mr. Robert King, Kingston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.; The
Principal, C.M.S. College, Kottayam; Shri Dinkar Desai, Bombay 4;
‘The Principal, Brooks Agri. ILE.M. School, Bilaspur; Mr. Charles Cyril
Roy Goodwin, Bombay ; The Conservator General of Forests, Calcutta ;
Mr. Akbar Hatim Badruddin Tyabji, c/o. Pakistan High Commission,
Calcutta; The Registrar, Shri Venketeswara University, Tirupati ;
The Secretary, Wild Life Club, Indian Forest College, Dehra Dun;
Mr. K. K. Neelakantan, Palghat; The Hydrologist, Fisheries, Bhavani-
sagar; Mr. Eric Ernest Fennell, Kotagiri; Mr.G. Seshappa, Bombay 5;
Mrs. S. Kumar, Bombay 6; The Director, National Botanical Garden,
Lucknow; Mrs. Usha Ganguli, Delhi 8; The Librarian, Niedersachsische
Staat und Universitatsbibliothek, Gottingen, Germany; The Principal,
Scottish Church College, Calcutta 6; The University Librarian, M.S.
University of Baroda, Baroda 2; The Principal, Kamala Raja Girls’
College, Gwalior; The Principal, Mahakoshal Maha Vidyalaya,
Jabalpur; His Highness the Raja Bahadur Shivaram Sawant Bhonsle,
Belgaum; Mr. Saul Blickman, U.S.A.; The Head, Department of
Biology, St. Joseph’s College, Darjeeling ; The Director of Agriculture,
Bangalore; Shri Hare Krushna Mahatab, Governor of Bombay;
Mrs. Julia Allen Field, Florida, U.S.A.; Dr. Henry Field, Coconut
Grove, Florida, U.S.A.; Rev. Fr. C. Massot, Yercaud P.O.; His
Excellency Philip K. Crowe, U.S. Ambassador in Ceylon; Mr. H. G.
Fennell, Valparai P.O.; Raj Kumar P.S. Jung, Sahanpur; Dr. Oscar
T. Owre, University of Miami, Florida, U.S.A.; Mr. J.P.K. Martin,
Nazira P.O.; Mr. Jaiwant Achutrao Gaitonde, Bombay 1; Mr. James
A. Harvie, Kanpur ; Group Capt, E.M.T. Howell, Kirkee.

309

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1954

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AWA HIS NOILVINWTH HANLIVN

ALHIDOS AYOLSIH TVYALVN AVEANOG

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE
HALL OF THE BOMBAY BRANCH OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC
SOCIETY, TOWN HALL, HORNIMAN CIRCLE, BOMBAY,
ON MONDAY THE 29th AUGUST 1955 AT 5-30 p.m.
WITH REV. FR. H. SANTAPAU, s.., IN THE CHAIR.

1. The Honoraty Secretaries’ Report for the year ended 31
December 1954 having been circulated was taken as read. ‘The Jt.
Honorary Secretary then enumerated the activities of the Society during
the period January to August 1955.

2. ‘The balance sheet and statement of accounts presented by the
Honorary Treasurer were approved and adopted.

3. The Committee’s nominations to the Executive and Advisory
Committees, as previously circulated to members, were accepted.
After the normal business of the meeting concluded, Mr. Humayun

Abdulali, the Hon. Secretary, moved the vote of thanks to the
Chairman. 5

a nO ne DT TOES —

a ey ene Veer 5

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MANDRAS—20-1-1956, C4256 46

EDITORS: SALIM ALI, AND H. SANTAPAU
114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

nw

=~; =

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for
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3.__All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-
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letter of the genus is capitalized. The preci and sub-specific _
names Ne oe small letter even & ae to a
person or a place, e.g. A hodgsoni hodgsoni or trepto ‘a chinensis
suratensis or Dina blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to eh should only be peed
where identification has been authentically established by comparison
of specimens actually collected. Raed AC TI atte
fication is based cele on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than SK 2} ies Nb

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. i
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ink, preferably on Bristol board. : |
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Be , alphabetically pureed under author’s name with the abr
es of journals or periodicals aged (italics), and titles at books
ae "underlined (roman type), th
Roepke, 24); The Genus Nyetemers Heber nel
Soc. Lond., 100 100 (2) 47-70. :
Prater, S. H. (1948) ; The Book of Indian Animals Bom We
Titles of papers should not be underlined.
icfenen ce to literature in the ct Ana be sng |

Tt oa also ae eee cheer facts) the method a Sea
of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new
finding, theory or technique. It dacnis be concise and normally not
ext 200 words. |

When the synopsis is completed it shoul’ Hee cclaNre i ise
the author to clarify obscurities, and further cc ed
possible without detracting from its usefu Iness.

Bombay 1 en daitin oF THE ee: vinden
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mit S 4

JOURNAL OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Vol. 53, No. 3
Editors
SALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU,s.}.
A\THSO .
eA Nilay

oe 24 1299 }
LIBRARLA

APRIL 1956

Rs. 15

a cc>vecmnocseecaonee ea0c: ODN INCINN J) a0c300 I

eis i

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY C DIA.
Published bi-annually, oth: Bee dapieait 1 ones on?
eneviews) in all branches of Pure and ee

i ctu

- Annual Subscription 1 per Vo sume of Two Issues : 2
Rs. 22 [> Foreign ; Rs. 20 i - Inland.

A few back numbers are also available. Aare Be .
A few pages are reserved for advertisements at rates available from
the Honorary Treasurer. ay? arte mt is

Pas

Publication of the Government. of India and Zeatecent Survey of
India, specially those dealing with Zoology, like Records: ofthe Indian Ky
Museum, Memoirs of the Indian Museum, Fauna of: India (new volumes), ae
etc. and reprints of a few papers of the Indian Helminthologist, Oh
the late Dr. G. D. Bhalerao, can also now be had from Office of
the Honorary Treasurer, Dr. B. S. Chauhan, Zoological Society

ES00cv Se pee Sunes

of India, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Caleutta-12, India, ? pee
All orders, remittances and communications regarding above should i 4
6 MPS
0 be addressed to the Honorary Treasurer. Pe en
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©

o@=300C300C>00C D000 — ak iecsnenee nearer ae
ft \ ; 3 r4 , ae a an ik ve v8 ey ue Ps

* ; :

RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE Bownay Natura “History Society a ;
Some Beautiful Tadian } Trees ne Rev. E Blatter, s : S.J.5 “anc
W. S. Millard. Second edition. Revised and brought upt iis a
With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome Plates, and ‘numerous | xt-
figures, Price Rs. 20. ay ae “sgn

; (to members Rs. 16). tk ss

Some Beautiful India Climbers and Shrubs by N, mor Dae ml a q
M. B. Raizada. With 31 coloured and 99° halftone | Pies. and

numerous Lee nee | Winice Rs. 22 eh
“(os members Rs, Fen

chrome from photographs. ‘Price Rs. 20. | oe ve
; to members Rs. 16).

Ma ee
y : ra *y ey *
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y ob ie tah 7) »)
a Ass ge Pay te
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io ? ’ me, cay :%
14s Fil a a ys 4 yt J ey
4 a a] T i
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53, NO. 3

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAI. By K, S. Lavkumar
(With a map and two plates)

BIONOMIcS OF THE GIANT WooD SPIDER, Nephila maculata FABR. By
M. kK. Thakur, M.Ssc., and V. B. Tembe. M.se. (With iwo plates)

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE HALOPHYTIC PLANTS OF BOMBAY
AND SALSETTE ISLANDS. By B.S. Navalkar (With five plates) 56

KASHMIR—A FISHING HoripAay. By A. St. John Macdonald (With two
plates ) 500 cas *

OBSERVATIONS ON THE Post-EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF WMachaerota
noctua Dist. 1916 (INSECTA : HOMOPTERA : CERCOPIDAE). By A. P,
Mathew, M.A., PH.D. (With one plate)

' HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN, PART II. FOOD AND FEED-
ING Hapits. By Daya Krishna, D.PHIL. (Alld.), PH.D, (Cantab.) and
Ishwar Prakash hee oe :

THE MALAYVAN GREAT Tit. By James Cairns, M.C., M.B.0.U. (With one
plate)

SOME ZOOLOGICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH ALTITUDES OF THE
HIMALAYAS. By Biswamoy Biswas (With a map)

NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BirD, Ploceus philippinus Linn. By Salim
Ali and Vijaykumar C. Ambedkar (With one plate)

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE TROUD FARM AND HATCHERY AT ACITHABAL,
KASHMIR. By Sunder Lal Hora (Deceased)

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM. By F. N. Betts (With
a map and one plate) 500 aie eae eas

NoTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CarcurTa, Partl. By D. G, Sevastopulo,
F.R.E.S. eoe eco eee eGe eae ese

INDIAN MaARSILEAS : THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS. By K. M.
Gupta and T. N. Bhardwaja (Wath 3 plates and 8 text figures)

In MEMORIAM :—

1. Sunder Lal Hora (Wzth a plate) uae aig
2. Lt.-Col, K. G. Gharpurey, I.M.S. (Retd.) ... ae

REVIEWS :—
1. The World of Small Animals (J.C.D.)
2. The Natural History of Mammals (S.A.)
3. Mammals of the World: Their Life & Habits (8,A.)
4, Plant Ecology of Arid Regions (G. S. Puri)

5, A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon (S.A.) eee Bp bes

PAGE

315

330

335

346

381

390

397

415

423

445
447

448
448
448
450
45]

li CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53, NO. 3—(contd.)

6. Budgerigars for Pleasure and Profit (Shumoon Abdulali)
7. Dwellers in Darkness (M. L. Roonwal)
8.. Ants (D.J.P.)

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Accidents to Tiger and Panther. By Frank Nicholls (p. 459). 2.
Sleeping Dogs. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 459). 3. The Brow-antlered
Deer or Thamin (Panolia eldi thamin ‘Thomas) in the Union of Burma
(1955). By U ‘Tin Yin (p. 460). 4. The Leaf Monkey of Kashmir
Valley. By H. Khajuria (p. 463). 5. Longevity of the Ceylon Ruddy
Mongoose (HHerpestes snitht zeylanicus) in captivity. By W. W. A. Phillips
(p. 464). 6. Tufted Deer in Burma. By B. E. Smythies (p. 464). 7. Ex-
periments in implanting African Lions into Madhya Bharat. By Col. Kesri
Singh (p. 465). 8. Western limits of two East Himalayan birds. By
Salim Ali (p. 468). 9. A Dabchick is born. By Loke Wan-Tho (p. 468).
10. Crows and Weaver Birds—Ratiocination or What? By SAalim Ali
(p. 470). 11. Colonization of islands by White-eyes (Zosterops spp.) By
F. N. Betts (p. 472). 12. The duck season in North India, 1955-56. By
O. H. de St. Croix (p. 473). 13. A Large Indian Kite, Milvus migrans
lineatus (Gray), with a split bill (With a text figure). By Biswamoy Biswas
(p. 474). 14. Anote on newly hatched chicks of the Slatybreasted Rail,
Rallus striatus Linnaeus. By R. K. Lahiri (p. 475). 15. Hawk drowning
wounded duck. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth (p. 476). 16. A jumping snake.
By D. E. Reuben (p.477). 17. A note on fishes of the families Syngna-
thidae and Pegasidae and the order Heterosomata in the Colombo Museum.
By P. H. D. H. De Silva (p. 477). 18.. Food of the Whale Shark, Rhineodon
typus (Smith): evidence of a Jataka sculpture, 2nd Century B.C. (With
a plate). By Sunder Lal Hora (p. 478). 19. Additions tothe Aphid Fauna
of India. By S. Kanakaraj David (p. 479). 20. Some insects attracted
to light—III. By S. Usman (p. 482). 21. Note on the life-history of Lema
semireguiaris Jac. (Coleoptera, Chrysomeloidea, Crioceridae). By G. C.
Sengupta and B.K. Behura (p. 484). 22. Behaviour of Butterflies before
oviposition. By Dora Ilse. (p. 486). 23. Termites from near Baghdad,
Iraq. By Henry Field (p. 488). 24. Sheep as a new host of the tick,
Dermacentor auratus Supino (Family Ixodidae). By G. Mathai (p. 489).
25. Appendix masculina of Palaemon lamarret H. Milne-Edwards (With a
teat figure). By Krishna Kant Tiwari (p. 490). 26. Reproduction of the
Notostraca. By Krishna Kant Tiwari (p. 491). 27. Branching in Areca
Palm, Avecacatechu L. (With a photo). By B. N. Narayana Rao, K. H.
Krishna Murthy and. B. S. Venkatakrishniah) (p. 492). 28. Pteridophytes of
Cooch Behar. By K.C. Biswas (p. 493). 29. The taxonomic value of the
androecium in the genus Cassza. By C. S. Venkatesh (p. 496). 30. Name
changes of a few Bombay plants. By (Miss) D, Panthaki and H. Santapau,
s.J. (p. 499). 31. Extensive loss of water by forest trees in the Dangs
forest. By H. Santapau, s.J. (p. 501). 32. Dolichos bracteatus Baker. By
H. Santapau, sz. and (Miss) D. Panthaki (p. 501). 33. Flowering of
‘Banga Raj’ night flowering cactus (Witha plate). By Tun Yin (p, 502).
34. Petaloid filaments in 7pomoea rubrocaerulea Hook. (With a plate). By
J. Pallithanam, s.5.(p. 503). 35. The name Hoya pendula. By H. Santa-
pau, sJ. (p. 504). 36. Tobacco without nicotine. By H. Santapau, s.s.
(p. 504). 37. A petrified monocotyledonous inflorescence from the Deccan
intertrappean beds, Chhindwara, M.P. By J. K. Verma (p. 505). 38. Ona
new petrified flower Sahnipushpum shuklai sp. nov. from the intertrappean
beds of Mohgaonkalan in the Deccan. By J. K. Verma (p. 505). 39. Model
miles on roads. By Lt.-Col..R. W. Burton (p. 506). 40. Duties of members
of the Society. By Lt.-Col, R. W. Burton (p. 507).

GLEANINGS

NOTES AND NEws ... Ne Wee nes

508

‘JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1956 VOL 53 No. 3

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL*

BY
K. S. LAVKUMAR

(With a map and two plates)

In this essay I propose to deal with the Alakananda Valley above
Rudra Prayag, the Mandakini Valley and the Dhauli Ganga Valley which
drains a large portion of eastern Garhwal. The southern regions of Garh-
wal and the Rishi Ganga flowing down from the Nanda Devi Sanctuary are
not included since I have not had the opportunity of visiting them. The
Sanctuary being a remarkable valley, surrounded by a formidable ring of
snow mountains, requires considerable time and effort to visit, and
merits a paper all to itself. Southern Garhwal consists of the foothills
south of the Alakananda River and would not differ very appreciably from
the Mussoorie hills. It is the three valleys mentioned above that are
interesting, leading as they do to the high regions below the perpetual
snows and the red hills of the Zasker Range on the border of Tibet.

It is obvious that to be able to comprehend the status of bird life in
any region properly it is necessary to consider the ecological factors that
so predominantly influence the biological world. The geographical posi-
tion, topography, the annual precipitation etc. are all very important. How-
ever, it is not possible to go into all the aspects of the ornithology of a
region like Garhwal in the limited scope of this paper and without a more
profound study than I can claim to have made. This article is just a
preliminary, and I hope that some readers may find it interesting enough
and an incentive to follow up the study of Himalayan birds along any
paths it may suggest. Since the entire area was covered in such a short
period, namely May and June, and most of that time spent on the march,
many species have got left out which otherwise would have made my list
of birds more compiete.

Although the dividing line between the drier West Himalayan and
the more humid East Himalayan sub-specific regions lies somewhere in
Nepal, Garhwai is favourably enough placed near the transitional zone

+ See also the very useful complementary paper ‘A Note on the Nidification
and Habits of some Birds in British Garhwal ’ by A. E. Osmaston. /BNAS, Vol.
28: pp. 140-160, December 1921— Eps.

AUG 7 1956

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

between the two. Laughing-thrushes which in the Simla hills are not
common except in the thickest forest are very frequent here. The Red-
headed Trogon, formerly believed to occur as far west-as Almora only,
Was seen by me in fair numbers in forest at the base of Tungnath
mountain, and there 1s no reason to believe that more examples of this
kind cannot be revealed by a careful survey.

From geographic and climatic considerations, the region under mention
can be most conveniently divided into three zones, viz., the Mandakini
Valley to the west, the Alakananda Valley and the Dhauli Ganga Valley
to the east. These three valleys, due to the configuration of the mountain-
ranges, have a rainfall heavier in the west and less so in the east, which is
absolutely at variance with the general trend in the Himalayas. The
reasons will be clearer when each zone is discussed individually. Another
very important factor is the great difference in altitude met with here,
giving climatic types ranging from tropical heat tothe frigid cold of the
perpetual snows. In the lower Mandakini a traveller will find fine
topes of mangoes ringing to the calls of koels and Indian orioles with a
backdrop of snow mountains over 20,000 ft. high. The whole effect is
stupendous, and with one sweep of the eye I saw a slope of cultivation
ranging from fields in the grasp of a parched summer, through ripe
winter wheat foliowed by those still green with spring wheat, to those
just released from the frosty hand of winter. ‘Thus in the span of a few
miles live spotted doves of the Indian plains and snow pigeons of the
glacier edges, and whereas a king vulture of the lowlands may soar
abreast of the observer at 10,000 ft. the lordly lammergeier of lofty crags
will course down a ravine, Below one, at 3,000 ft.

Tur MANDAKINI VALLEY

Draining a section of the southern face of the main Himalayan axis,
the Mandakini and her tributaries quickly flow down to Six thousand feet,
being less than three thousand feet elevation at her confluence with the
Alakananda at Rudra Prayag. ‘Till Gupta Kashi the pilgrim track passes
through dry subtropical deciduous forest and is shaded by gracious
mangoes and peepal trees. The birds here met with are golden orioles,
koels, ring doves, spotted doves, Franklin’s wren-warblers and the
like. At Gupta Kashi the path rises suddenly and zig zags up to six
thousand feet ; keeping between the six thousand and seven thousand foot
contours for most of the way, it rapidly ascends within nine miles to reach
Kedarnath at 11,790 ft.

The general trend of the valley is from north to south giving free
access to the rain-bearing winds. Consequently the rainfall is very high
and the forest biotope from six thousand upwards is of broad-leafed trees,
oak being the dominant. Above 7,000 ft. the red flowering Rhododendron
arboreum and above 8,000 ft. spruce (Picea morinda) constitute the chief
co-dominants. .A sombre spruce forest covers the watershed range of the
Mandakini and the Bhagirathi river systems, Pendant moss drapes the
tree trunks, and ferns form arank undergrowth. The chir (Pinus lougt-
folia) grows on certain spurs, exposed to the sun at lower heights.

The Tungnath mountain to the east rises to 12,500 ft. above the lesser
foothills providing a sweeping view of the snowy mountains of the entire
Garhwal. Warm air from the tropical valleys at its base quickly melts the
snow and athick oak forest clothes the slopes right up to 11,000 ft.

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ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL Si

Undergrowth is very dense providing shelter to innumerable pheasants ;
and trogons are fairly plentiful in the branches overhead. The tree-line
is girt by lilac-flowering bushes of Rhododendron campanulatum. ‘This
lovely rhododendron is scarce around Kedarnath, though in all the side
valleys to the east it is common.

Toe ALAKANANDA VALLEY

The Alakananda River for most of its length from Joshimath to
Rudra Prayag flows in an east-west direction, and the valley has a close
resemblance to the Sutlej Valley. The northern slopes are steep and
devoid of any forest except in the narrow side-streams, while those to
the south are more gentle, bearing fine stands of conifers consisting of
deodar (Cedrus deodara), blue pine (Pinus excelsa), and, on the lower
slopes, chir pine. ‘Till Pipalkoti, the bus terminus, however, there are
few trees and it is difficult to find shade from the mid-day sun.
There is a great need for reforestation on these lower slopes. At Joshi-
math there is very intense cultivation, but good oak exists higher up. Near
here is Vishnu Prayag where the Dhauli Ganga meets the mother
stream. Almost till Badrinath the road runs along the river through a
deep, narrow gorge, what the geographers call a re-entrant. ‘The valley
floor now rapidly gains altitude and wherever the cliffs recede there are fine
forests of deodar, horsechestnut and maple. A mile below the shrine,
the track climbs what must be the terminal moraine of an extinct glacier.
The valley floor from here on is very broad and the three miles to Mana
village pass through cultivated fields surrounded by stone walls. Rain-
bearing clouds fail to push up the re-entrant, and thus it is very dry and
dusty. Desiccating winds from the Tibetan plateau force the snow-line
higher than at Kedarnath. The alps at 12,000 ft., however, provide good
pastures as do the meadows at the snout of the Satopanth Glacier and
the scriptural! source of the Alakananda—the Vasudhara Falls, where the
valley is strewn with debris from crumbling cliffs, and thickets of wild
rose, give security to rosefinches and shortwings. Juniper appears for the
first time to be common on the mountains at 13,000 ft. Monals and
snowcocks are plentiful above the shrine, and great flocks of both species
of choughs wheel about in the sky overhead.

THE DHAULI GANGA VALLEY

This river system drains some of the noblest snow mountains in the
world: Kamet, Mana, Hathi Parvat, Lampak, Hardev, Changabang,
Dunagiri, Nanda Devi and Trisul to mention a few of the highest. The
main gorge, for most of its length, is deep and steep-sided : a fantastic
creation in rock. ‘Till the Rishi gorge the forest is a continuation of the
Alakananda type: oak, deodar, and blue pine. It progressively starts
getting driér with the great Nanda Devi group of mountains to the south
barring passage to the monsoon winds, and the forest is of weathered
Thuja sp., a conifer of very untidy growth. Bird life igs scarce, and for
birds the middle reaches of the Dhauli are very uninteresting. Some
very fine side-streams, however, flow into the Dhault within this stretch,
the largest of which is the Dunagiri Ghad. A trail leads up
through excellent deodar and blue pine timber to the village ot
Dunagiri at 12,000 ft. situated in meadows filled with flowers and edged by

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

thickets of . campanulatum and birch (Betula utilis). Ail around
are breath-taking views of great mountains. The villagers .raise a fine
quality of potato, which are transported down to Joshimath on goats and
sheep.

At Malari 10,000 ft. the main axis of the Himalayas is left behind and
the traveller finds himself in the red mountains of the Zasker Range.
The contours recede giving wide views of arid juniper-studded slopes
scarred by landslides. A few deodars at Malari, a mixed stand of deodar
and blue pine along the bend of the river near Bampa, and some biue
pine at Temmersain are all that remain of the forest that once shaded
these mountains. Wild roses grow in profusion around the fields. Rose-
finches are common, andthe screes abound with accentors. Snowcock
and wild sheep inhabit the fringe of the snow.

West of Gamsali is a beautiful valley calied the Amrit Ganga. On its
shingle fed a pair of ibisbills, and among the rocks wagtails had nests,
while Hodgson’s pipits soared in nuptial flights. Red, orange and yellow
pontentillas carpeted the turf and, protected from the dust raising gaies of
the main valley, snow lingered on longer than elsewhere. Though
summer had been heralded by the Asiatic cuckoo at 14,000 ft. on the
Kalla khal, here at the same height male blue-fronted redstarts had just
arrived, and were staking out territories among snow-filled gullies.

There are clearly marked differences between the forest biotopes
of the Mandakini and Alakananda valley systems which reflect directly
upon the respective bird distributions in the two. On more sunny
features birds will be found higher than on shaded slopes, much
as snow lingers considerably more on the latter than on the former.
The precise relationship of the various factors of altitude, slope etc.
requires a vety careful investigation. In addition to these there is the
intrusion of man at all heights where cultivation is possible, and this
introduces a new factor in the ecological set up. For the most part, it
proves a destructive element affecting the delicate balance arrived at by
nature through thousands of centuries of evolution. Erosion, resulting from
faulty terracing, causes very severe damage to the steep slopes which are
a characteristic feature of these mountains, and in time these have
become not only useless for cultivation but the exposed parent rock
renders them incapable of bearing the former vegetation, and at best
they now carry only tangled shrubs of a thorny nature. Fortunately the
very softness of the Himalayan rock, which accelerates the rate of erosion,
appears to be of great value in rapid reforestation if properly undertaken
as has been done in several places in the Mandakini Valiey by the forest
department. On the great rivers of the Himalayas depend the millions
of people living inthe Gangetic plain. Severe deforestation permits quick
flow of water down the slopes, gathering momentum to create havoc,
spreading floods in the low-lands at the foot of the mountains. The
prime need therefore is to stop this despoiling of Himalayan forests.
There is little doubt that an enlightened reforestation programme
would solve the problem of erosion that is systematically making
these hills sterile and incapable of sustaining anything valuable to man or
animals,

I am greatly indebted to Mr. Gurdial Singh of the Doon School,
Dehra Dun, for having introduced me to the truly Alpine heights above
12,000 ft. This has opened up a sphere far beyond limits I had ever
hoped to explore.

JouRN. BoMBAY Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

N
S

THE DHAULI GANGA BELOW JUMMA:

A fierce gorge, very dry and devoid of much tree-growth. The side valleys,
however, have fine forests.

( Photo: K. S. Lavkumar )

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ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL 319

GAS) Ly

Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow.

Common throughout the area in all types of country. Saw some
circling overhead at 14,000 ft. in the Amrit Ganga Valley. It is likely
that birds above 6,000 ft. may be the Carrion Crow, C. corone. They
appeared to be larger with a distinctly wedged tail.

Urocissa erythrorhyncha. Redbilled Blue Magpie.

Common around edges of cultivation and in forest from 5,000 to 8,000
ft. A pair building nest near Ukhimath, May. ‘These magpies are great
mimickers, and one very realistically copied the challenge call of the
Whitecrested Kalij Pheasant.

Urocissa flavirostris. Yellowbilled Blue Magpie.

Distribution almost identical with that of the last species, only that it
keeps to higher country and thicker forest.

Dendrocitta formosae. Himalaya an Treepie.

A bird of cultivation and oak forest from the level of the plains to
about 6,000 ft.

Garrulus lanceolatus. Blackthroated Jay.

Very common in broad-leaved forests of the Mandakini Valley and on
the Tungnath Mountain. Several birds flew down to pick up insects from
the surface of the water at Deohra Tal in company with the next species.
A pair with food in bill in dense forest at 7,000 ft.

Garrulus bispecularis. Himalayan Jay.

Keeps to thicker forest than the last species, but common in suitable
forest especially in rhododendron thickets around the Deohra Tal.

Nucifraga caryocatactes. Himalayan Nutcracker.

Only a single bird seen in chir pine at about 4,009 ft. near Pipalkoti.
These are birds of coniferous forests and must be very scarce in the
Mandakini Valley, though they may prove to be common in the other two.

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. Redbilled Chough.

A bird of the rugged mountains above 10,000 ft. though it comes down
much lower to feed. Common at Kedarnath, Badrinath and in the
Dhauli Valley, where a few pairs were seen near Lata. Also Dunagiri.

Pytrhocorax graculus. Yellowbilled Chough.

Same as the red-billed species. Very common near the Vasudhara
Falls and in the upper Dhauli at Bampa, and on the Chor Hoti pass,
17,850 ft. and the Marchok La, 18,250 ft.

Parus monticolus. Greenbacked Tit.

Scarce in the Mandakini Vailey, but common in the other two above
6,900 and up to 8,000 It.

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Lophophanes melanolophus. Crested Black Tit.

Very common in both broad-leaved and coniferous forest above
7,000 ft., almost up to tree-line. Freely breeding at 9,000 ft., at Vanya-
kund on the Tungnath Mountain in holes of gnarled oaks. Young in nest,
May. Parents followed by young at Bampa, June.

Machlolophus xanthogenys. Yellowcheeked Tit.

Common in the lower Mandakini and in forest around Ukhimath, up to
5,000 ft. ;

Aegithaliscus concinnus. Redheaded Tit.

Not common in the Mandakini, but frequently seen with hunting ~
parties of small birds, chiefly in deodar and blue pine forest in the other
two valleys. Not met above 8,000 ft. — -

Sitta himalayensis. Whitetailed Nuthatch.
Sinely or in small parties in forest on Tungnath Mountain. Common.

Sitta leucopsis. Whitecheeked Nuthatch. °
A single specimen in deodar forest, Dunagiri Ghad, at 9,000 ft.

Garrulax leucolophus. Whitecrested Laughing-thrush.

Fairly common in the dry deciduous forest of the lower Mandakini, in
small parties.

Garrulax albogularis. Whitethroated Laughing-thrush.

Common in forest undergrowth above Trijugi Narayan, around
Deohra Tal and Tungnath Mountain right up to the very tree-line. Very
confiding as they rummage among the mulch on the forest floor.

Trochalopteron erythrocephalum. Redheaded Laughing-thrush.

Not uncommon among undergrowth and in shrubs along streams,
from 6,000 ft. to the edge of the tree-line. Singly and in pairs.

Trochalopteron lineatum. Streaked Laughing-thrush.
Common in cultivation at medium altitudes. Scarce at 8,000 ft.

Grammatoptila striata. Striated Laughing-thrush.

A bird of thick under-shrubs in dense forest at 6,000 ft. in the
Mandakini Valley. Not uncommon, but difficult to see due to its skulking
habits.

Turdoides terricolor. Jungle Babbler.
A small party in the Mandakini Valley in a field hedge at 6,000 ft.

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys. Rustycheeked Scimitar-babbler.

Fairly common in forest at 6,000 ft. in the Mandakini, where its liquid
call can be heard everywhere.

Leioptila capistrata. Blackheaded Sibia.

Its loud trilling call heard in all types of forest at medium heights,
Carrying food for young, May—at 6,000 ft.

ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL 321

Microscelis psaroides. Himalayan Black Bulbul.

Noisy flocks in all types of forest in the Mandakini Valley at medium
altitudes. Seemed to prefer the chir and oak interfacies.

Molpastes cafer. Redvented Bulbul.

Met with upto 6,000 ft., in cultivation and in light forest at the edges
of terraced slopes. Not common.

Molpastes leucogenys (leucogenys). Whitecheeked Bulbul.
Generally distributed up to 7,000 ft. throughout Garhwal, except in
very dense forest.

Certhia himalayana. Himalayan Tree-creeper.

Apparently absent in oak forest. Seen only at Vanyakund in mixed
forest. Not met with elsewhere in the Mandakini. In the other two
valleys fairly common in conifer and temperate broad-leaved forest. A
bird carrying nesting material at 9,000 ft. on Tungnath Mountain, May.

- Tichodroma muraria. Wall-creeper.

— Common on cliffs and rocks above Mana at 13,000 ft., and above
Bampa. Haunts precipitous country.

Cinclus pallasi. Indian Brown Dipper.

Common on all the rivers and streams up to 11,700 ft. at Kedarnath,
and at 12,000 ft. on the Amrit Ganga at Daldungi camping ground.
Breeding was progressing at various stages on the Mandakini. Juvenile
birds seen at 6,000 ft., young with their parents a little higher, and birds
carrying food to nestlings at 9,000 ft., May.

Hodgsonius phoenicuroides. Hodgson’s Shortwing.

Common in thickets at 10,000 ft., and higher, both in the Alakananda
and the Dhauli valleys. A great skulker, and rarely seen unless followed
up by the loud whistle of the male.

Saxicola caprata. Indian Stonechat.

Generally distributed in cultivation and on grassy slopes from 3,000 to
7,000 ft. Breeding around Joshimath in June.

Rhodophila ferrea. Dark-grey Bushchat.

Common in Garhwal up to 10,000 ft., in cultivation and forest clear:
ings.
Microcichla scouleri. Little Forktail.

Seen once on the Mandakini at 9,090 ft.

Phoenicurus frontalis. Biuefronted Redstart.

A redstart of the high Himalayas common above 10,000 feet in the
Alakananda and the Dhauli Valleys, where they are met with right up to
14,500 ft. Breeding above Badrinath and at Bampa, where a pair had
nested under the eaves of a house. A single male flitting over snow drifts
at Kedarnath,

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Phoenicurus erythrogaster grandis. Giildenstadt’s Redstart.

A single bird at 16,000 ft. below the Bamlas La in the Dhauli Valley.
A redstart of great heights.

Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus. Whitecapped Redstart.

A familiar bird of Himalayan streams above 8,000 ft. Breeding under
eaves of a house in Badrinath, June, and in the Amrit Ganga Valley at
12,500 ft.

Rhyacornis fuliginosus. Plumbeous Redstart.

Common at all heights above 3,000 ft. and up to 12,000 ft. on the
Amrit Ganga. Breeding in progress in the Mandakini Vailey ; young in
nest under eaves of a house at Gaurikund 6,000 ft., and a nest under con-
struction in river bank at 9,000 ft.

Calliope pectoralis. Himalayan Rubythroat.

A bird of the boulder-strewn Himalayan slopes above 10,000 ft. Com-
mon in the upper Alakananda, at Temmersain, and around the village of
Dunagiri. The male sings perched exposed on some large boulder.

Tarsiger brunnea. Indian Blue Chat.

Keeps to dense cover in forest and in open shrubberies at its edge,
above 6,000 ft. Very difficult to see, but the male has a loud and intriguing
whistle which gives away his presence.

Tarsiger chrysaeus. Golden Bush-robin.

A pair at 11,000 ft. in the Mandakini Valley, restricted to a patch of
scrub, where I saw the magain after four days on the return from Kedar-
nath. Very confiding.

Adelura caeruleocephala. Blueheaded Robin.

A pair in deodar forest at 8,000 ft. in the Dunagiri Ghad. Very agit-
ated at my presence and undoubtedly had young in the vicinity. June.

Copsychus saularis. Indian Magpie-robin.
Not uncommon in the lower Mandakini up to Gupta Kashi.

Turdus albocinctus. Whitecollared Blackbird.

Common above 7,000 ft. in the Mandakini. Breeding at Vanyakund
on the Tungnath Mountain at 9,000 ft. The male sings before and after
dawn and dusk respectively. :

Turdus boulboul Greywinged Blackbird.

A bird of lower altitudes than the last species. Common in the broad-
leaved forest of the Tungnath Mountain where it was breeding at 6,000 ft.

Turdus viscivorus. Himalayan Mistle-thrush.

Very numerous above 8,000 ft. both in forest and on meadows. Also
on high alps at 12,000 ft. on Tungnath Mountain.

Monticola erythrogastra. Chestnutbellied Rock-thrush.

A male singing in high oak forest near the tree-line at 11,000 ft., below
Tungnath shrine.

ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL 323

Monticola solitaria. Blue Rock-thrush.

A single male seen by Gurdial Singh at over 16,000 ft. above Tem-
mersain in the Dhauli Valley. To me this bird seems to have a very
erratic distribution in the Himalayas. .Both here and in Nepal [v7de
JBNAS, Vol. 53 (1): 32] it appears to live at great altitudes on the driest
of slopes or cliffs, whereas in the Simla hills I found it very common
on the cliffs overhanging the Narkanda road between Fagu and Theog.

Monticola cinclorhyncha. Blueheaded Rock-thrush. -

A bird of the chief forest and rocky grass-covered slopes between
Pipalkoti and Joshimath. Common. Perching freely on the telegraph
wires. Male’s display song heard throughout the day.

Myiophoneus temminckii. Himalayan Whistling-thrush.

One of the few birds impartial to heights, from the foot of the mountains
to the snow slopes of Kedarnath at 11,500 ft. On all rivers and streams
as well as in oak forest bordering flowing water of any size. A _ bird
carrying food to nest just above the swirling waters of the Dhauli near
Jummagwar, June.

Laiscopus collaris, Alpine Accentor.

Common on the inner Himalayas above 13,000 ft. on the edge
of snow fields. Seems to prefer scree-covered slopes to smooth alpine
meadows.

Prunella strophiata. Rufousbreasted Accentor.

A bird cf juniper and scree slopes at and above 12,000 ft. Apparently
breeding at Temmersain, June.

Hemichelidon sibirica. Sooty Flycatcher.

Very plentiful in oak and conifer at 9,000 ft. on the Tungnath
Mountain. A bird incubating, May. Nest: a small cup placed on a
branch in a very exposed position, high up in a spruce.

Muscicapula superciliaris. Whitebrowed Flycatcher.

In all types of forest from 7,000 ft. to 10,000 ft. A pair had young
in nest at Vanyakund, May. The nest was high up in a spruce, in a
cavity draped with moss.

Eumyias thalassina. Verditer Flycatcher.

Generally distributed in forest from 6,000 to 9,000 ft., commonest at
7,000 ft. Seems to prefer broad-leaved forest.

Cucilicapa ceylonensis. Greyheaded Flycatcher.

Met with in all types of forest below 8,000 ft. ; Commonly associates
with mixed hunting parties of small birds.

Tchitrea paradisi. Paradise Flycatcher.

A pair seen bathing at dusk in the cold water of the Mandakini at
5,000 ft. near Gupta Kashi; the male in fuil adult plumage,

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 53

Chelidorhynx hypoxantha. Yellowbellied Fantail Fiycatcher.

A family party of this beautiful little bird was seen at 10,000 ft. in
rhododendron thickets on Tungnath Mountain.

Lanius schach. Rufousbacked Shrike.
A pair at 10,000 ft. near Malari, and another pair in the Pipalkoti dak
bungalow compound.

Pericrocotus brevirostris (or ethologus ?). Shortbilled Minivet.

A familiar bird of the Himalayan forest up to 9,000 ft. Appears to be
commoner in mixed forest. A pair building high up in a blue pine at
Vanyakund on Tungnath Mountain, May.

Dicrurus macrocercus, Black Drongo.
Seen in the Mandakini up to about 5,000 ft. elevation.

_Dicrurus leucophaeus. Grey Drongo.
A slim drongo of the hill forest and cultivation edges up to a little
above 7,000 ft. Very common.

Phylloscopus affinis. Tickell’s Leaf-warbler.

From 9,000 ft. up to any height where there is sufficient shrub cover
this little bird is common. Dome-shaped nests in thickets at varying
heights from the ground. Building at Bampa, June.

Phylloscopus occipitalis. Large Crowned Leaf-warbler.
_ Freely breeding in gnarled oak trees at Vanyakund, May. Most nests
had young.

Phylloscopus. spp.

A large number of other species of this difficult genus occur in the
Himalayas at all heights and in all types of forest and cultivation. <A
very careful study is required to diagnose the various species accurately.

Seicercus xanthoschistos. Greyheaded Flycatcher-warbler.

Very common up to 7,000 ft. in undergrowth in coniferous as well as
broad-leaved forest, in all three valleys. Forms cheerful hunting parties
with redheaded tits that are such a feature of these Himalayas.

Suya criniger. Brown Hi!l-warbler.
Common on grassy slopes and in cultivation at medium altitudes.

Oriolus oriolus kundoo. [ndian Oriole.
Plentiful in mango groves of the lower valleys. Its melodious call is
the most familiar bird call of these parts.

Saroglossa spiloptera. Spottedwinged Stare.
Flocks in cultivation and forest at 6,000 ft. in the Mandakini Valley.
Heard of flock at 10,000 ft. near Malari.

Acridotheres tristis. Common Myna.
Seen in cultivation up to 6,000 ft. in the Mandakini Valley.

ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL 39%

Pyrrhospiza punicea. Kedbreasted Rosefinch.

A small flock of both sexes at Kedarnath. ‘The birds showed little
fear at being watched, and permitted a very close approach. On rising,
they flew only a little distance to settle behind some boulders. Kept to
the edges of small streams from the meiting snows.

Propasser rhodochrous. Pinkbrowed Rosefinch.

Kedarnath, Badrinath and in the Dhauli Valley at Bampa, where they
freely entered the villages and in all respects replaced the house sparrow
of the lower altitudes. This finch seems more free in its habitat than the
last, being found along moist turf as well on the driest grass-covered
slopes. Freezes on approach, and only if the intruder stands quite still
will it start feeding again. Once on the wing, however, it flies fast up the
slope for a considerable distance before alighting.

Carpodacus erythrinus (roseatus). Common Indian Rosefinch.

Saw none at Kedarnath, though in late July there were quite a number
of males in brilliant plumage among the briar thickets above Mana. They
had obviously just arrived from their winter quarters and were very shy.
In late July, the males were singing beautifully at Bampa and showed
little fear of the observer. On the whole they are shier than the last two
birds. A party of females at Mandal Chatti in late May. On passage ?

Metaponia pusilla. Goldfronted Finch.

Very common in the Dhauli Valley between 8,000 and 12,000 ft.
These birds are very much on the move all the time and seldom does an
observer get a chance to view them properly in the forest zone. How-
ever, at Bampa they settled to glean grass seeds along streams and then
could be carefully stalked. At such times they behaved as though
completely oblivious of the observer's presence and permitted a very close
approach indeed.

Hypacanthis spinoides. Himalayan Greenfinch.

A few birds in the Mandakini Valley at about 6,000 ft. in May. They
were very common in the Dhauli Valley from Malari to Joshimath in late
July, on our return from Tibet.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis. Yejlowthroated Sparrow.
Below 5,000 ft. in the Mandakini Valley.

Passer domesticus. [Indian House-sparrow.

Common at most chattis below 6,000 ft. Possibly extending its range
into the mountains as it has done in other parts of the Himalayas.

Passer rutilans. Cinnamon Tree-sparrow.

In cultivation at 6,000 ft. in the Mandakini Valley. Not very com-
mon.

Montifringilla sp. Snowfinch.

A single bird seen in flight over snow at 16,000 ft. on the Chor Hotj
Pass.

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Fringillauda nemoricola. Mountain Finch.
Large flocks of sparrow like birds in fields around Mana, but identity
as this species unconfirmed.

Emberiza stewarti. Whitecapped Bunting.
Males singing from exposed branches in the lower Dhauli Valley.
Prefers grass slopes.

Emberiza cia. Eastern Meadow Bunting.

Common in the Alakananda Valley in the fields from Dadhtaetin to
Mana; also in the Dhauli Valley around Bampa. Not noted elsewhere.

Melophus lathami. Crested Bunting.
Met with in the lower reaches of the Alakananda,in the hot deciduous
scrub.

Delichon urbica. House Martin.
Solos over Kedarnath at 13,000 ft. in May, at Badrinath at 14,000 ft.
and a pair in the Amrit Ganga Valley at 15,000 ft. in June.

Riparia rupestris. Crag Martin.
In the Dhauli gorge above Bampa.

Hirundo smithii. Wiretailed Swallow.
Noied in the lower Mandakini.

Hirundo daurica. Redrumped Swallow.
Common throughout the Himalayas up to 10,000 ft. Breeding in the
Mandakini at 5,000 ft. in May.

Motacilla lugubris. Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail.
In both the eastern valleys above 6,000 ft. Breeding at Daldungi
12,000 ft. in the Amrit Ganga, June.

-Motacilla cinerea. Eastern Grey Wagtail.
Common in the Dhauli Ganga above Lata. Also above Badrinath;
perching freely on the roofs of Mana houses. Males in full song in early

June.

Anthus roseatus. Hodgson’s Pipit.

Breeding in the Amrit Ganga at 12,000 ft. Common. The male soars
up into the air and spirals down to earth singing very much like the red-
winged bush-lark. A nest under rocks containing three fledgelings, June.

Anthus spp.

Many species of pipits seem to inhabit the grassy slopes above the tree-
line and a careful analysis is desirable. The birds so common on the edge
of snowfields, both at Kedarnath and Badrinath, were possibly Indian
Tree Pipits (4. hodgsonz). Nest with three eggs in a tussock of grass at
12,009 ft., Kedarnath, May.

Zosterops palpebrosa. Indian White-eye.
Common in the lower Mandakini and at Rudra Prayag.

ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL 327

Cinnyris asiatica. Indian Purple Sunbird.
Seen along the Mandakini below Gupta Kashi.

Dicaeum agile. Thickbilled Flowerpecker.

A few birds in rhododendron clumps at 10,000 ft. on Tungnath
Mountain.

Picus squamatus. Scalykellied Green Woodpecker.
Birds seen in oak forest at 7,000 ft.

Dryobates himalayensis. Himalayan Pied Woodpecker.

Common in mixed forest at Vanyakund. A bird flushed by a small
hawk and then chased right across a valley.

Dryobates auriceps. Brownfronted Pied Woodpecker.

A common Himalayan woodpecker below 8,000 ft. throughout
Garhwal.

Vivia innominatus. Himalayan Speckled Piculet.

In rank shrubberies at 8,000 ft., Dunagiri Ghad. The birds kept to the
slender branches only, and uttered the sfzf-sfzt call all the while.

Megalaima virens. Great Himalayan Barbet.
Common everywhere up to 8,000 ft. Its wailing call is a famiilar
bird sound in the Mandakini forests.

Megalaima lineatus. Lineated Barbet.
Apparently common in the Mandakini, in forest, at medium altitudes.

Cuculus conorus (telephonus). Asjatic Cuckoo.
Its deep musical call is heard on the highest Himalayan meadows.

Cuculus optatus. Himalayan Cuckoo.
A coucal-like call, familiar at 9,000 ft.

Cuculus poliocephalus. Small Cuckoo.

The shrill cries of this bird were not commonly heard in Garhwai.
It keeps to forest on very steep hill-sides.
Cuculus micropterus. [Indian Cuckoo.

This is a bird of medium altitudes in all types of forest. The call is
a high-pitched double cuckoo-cuckoo.

Hierococcyx varius. Common Hawk-cuckoo.
Common on the hot slopes of the lower valleys.

Eudynamis scolopaceus. Koel.
Very common in the lower Mandakini.

Psittacula himalayana. Slatyheaded Parakeet.

Large flocks wheeling over forest in the Mandakini at 6,000 ft. Also
at Malari at 10,000 ft.

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Harpactes erythrocephalus. Redheaded Trogon.
birds flitting in dense forest at 6,500 ft. on Tungnath Mountain.

Micropus apus. Eastern Swift.
Large flocks gracefully sweeping over Tungnath Mountain.

Micropus pacificus. Blyth’s Whiterumped Swift.
Seen over forest on Tungnath Mountain.

Chaetura caudacatus. Whitethroated Spinetail.

Huge flocks of large swifts seen over Tungnath Mountain forests were
presumably of this species.
Torgos calvus. King Vulture.

Common from the foothills to about 7,000 ft. In flight seen even
higher up.
Gyps himalayensis. Himalayan Griffon.

Up to the highest elevation in the Himalayas. Birds on the Chor Hoti
pass 17,859 ft. were very light coloured.

Pseudogyps benghalensis. Whitebacked Vulture.
From the level of the plains to 7,090 ft.

Neophron percnopterus. White Scavenger Vulture.
Sparingly up to 10,000 ft. at Bampa.

Gypaétus barbatus. Bearded Vulture. pect
Common at all altitudes. Singly orin pairs gliding along mountain
slopes. A pair gave a wonderful display of diving etc. over the summit of
Tungnath Mountain.
Falco severus. Indian Hobby.
Singly or in pairs throughout Garhwai.

Falco tinnunculus. Himalayan Kestrel.
Fairly common along the Badrinath track.

Aquila chrysaétus.. Golden Eagle. pe
An immature bird in flight over Joshimath, and a mature one at
14,000 ft., above Badrinath.
Ictinaétus malayensis. Black Eagle.
A solo at 7,000 ft., in the Mandakini Valley.

Milvus migrans (lineatus). Blackeared Kite.
Common at Joshimath. A solo seen in the Amrit Gaus at 12,000 ft.

Dendrophassa bicincta. Orangebreasted Green Pigeon.

é epee heard in broad-leaved forest at 6,000 ft. in the Mandakini
alley

Columba livia. Blue Rock Pigeon.
Pairs in cliff faces. Highest seen at 7,000 ft.

ORNITHOLOGY OF GARHWAL 329

Columba leuconcta. Snow Pigeon.

Large flocks above 10,000 ft., throughout Garhwal. Commonly
seen feeding in fields at Mana and Dunagiri. Breeds in the great cliffs
ktelow the snows, and in the river gorges in their upper reaches.
Streptopelia orientalis. Rufous Turtle Dove.

Common in hill forest between 5,000 and 8,000 ft, Not seen in culti-
vation.

Streptopelia chinensis. Spotted Dove.
Common along the pilgrim track in the lower Mandakini.

Streptopelia senegalensis. Little Brown Dove.

Found at about 3,000 ft. in the lower valieys.
Streptopelia decaocto. Indian Ring Dove.

In cultivation in the Mandakini Valley up to 6,000 ft.
Gennaeus hamiltonii. Whitecrested Kalij.

~ A common pheasant of oak forest at medium altitudes. Very confid-
ing along the pilgrim track up Tungnath Mountain. Severai other
pheasants were heard in thick undergrowth in the Mandakini Valley, but
I was unable to sight them satisfactorily enough for correct identification.

Lophophorus impejanus. Monal. .
Numerous along the tree-line on Tungnath Mountain and above the

shrine of Badrinath, and on the slopes above Dunagiri Village. Not met

with in the trans-Himalayan valleys of the Zaskers.

Alectoris graeca. Chukor.

A bird flushed from a scree at 13,000 fr. above Badrinath.

Francolinus francolinus. Black Partridge.

—~ Common in hill cultivation as high as 6,500 ft. Its call is the most
familiar bird sound at this altitude. 3

Tetraogallus himalayensis. Himalayan Snowcock. aa}

_ Plentiful in western Garhwal above Badrinath, and on the higher
slopes of the Dhauli Valley, from 12,000 ft. to the very snow-line. A hen
with five downy chicks flushed at 15,000 ft. on EHO Call a wailing
whistle.

Burhinus oedicnemus. Stone Plover.
Heard calling at dusk near Mandal Chatti at about 3,500 ft.

Ibidorhyncha struthersii. [bisbill.

A pair of these uncommon birds haunted the shingle beds of the
Amrit Ganga at 12,000 ft. Very wary. While feeding it walks with a
crouching gait and on the whole resembles a very large edition of the
Common Sandpiper.

Podiceps ruficollis. The Little Grebe.

A couple of pairs on the Deohra Tal. Very confiding. Couttship dis-
play in progress on a mound of earth in the water close to the shore,
March.

BIONOMICS OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER, NEPHILA
MACULATA FABR.

BY
M. K. THAKUR, M.Sc. AND V. B. TEMBE, M.Sc.

Institute of Science, Bombay
(With two plates)

In 1953 the author submitted a thesis on the Anatomy and Bionomics
of the Forest Spider, Nephila maculata Fabr., to the University of
Bombay for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology, under the
guidance of Shri V. B. Tembe at the Institute of Science, Bombay.

Work was started in 1950 and completed in 1952, during which
time many visits were paid to Borivli and Bassein at the proper season
to study the animal in the field. During 1951 and 1952, the author
was aided with an annual monetary award by the Bombay Natural
History Society for field work in natural history. The present paper
is a summary of the thesis submitted to the University, but deals only
with the natural history aspects of the animal. The work done on the
morphology and anatomy of the spider is omitted here, since it is
chiefly of a too technical nature.

Nephila maculata, known as the Forest Spider or Giant Wood
Spider, is the largest orb-weaving spider in India. It is dense black
in colour with brilliant yellow spots and lines on the abdomen. It
is quite commonly seen in the forests of Bombay clinging to the
centre of a large circular web woven across an opening through the
trees, which may be as much as 6 to 8 ft. in diameter. These webs -
are stretched vertically between large trees or across a jungle path,
at heights varying from 2 to 20 ft. from the ground. The webs may
face in any direction of the compass.

A few individuals of this spider may be seen in the last week
of August when they first appear; their numbers increase in September,
and they are abundant thereafter through the first half of November.
They begin to decrease from the second half of November and through
December, becoming very rare by the end of the latter month. By
the end of January hardly one or two can be seen during a morning’s
walk where hundreds were present in September and October. No
specimens at all were observed near Bombay during other months of
the year, though Fischer once noted it near Coimbatore at the end of
May, recording it as a very rare instance.

The young of both sexes first appear with their tiny webs towards
the end of August and early in September. Their bodies then measure
about 1 cm. in length, and the legs have a span of 4 to 5 cm. Their
webs, though strikingly similar to those of the adult female, are less
than a foot in diameter. The colour of the adult female is dense
black with a few whitish patches which gradually turn to bright
yellow as she grows. The growth is rapid, and after about four
moults the spider reaches its adult size by the end of September when

(anyoyl “M ‘W :sojoyq)

MOIA JTeIJUIA—OJTeUIO er MOIA JTeSIOD—Od)TRUIS 7
I @ I H

PLATE II

Journ. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc.

NEPHILA MACULATA

2. Young male

Female with a male on her back

We

i

BIONOMICS OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER 331

the body measures about 4 cm. (1 in.) in length, and the legs have

a span of about 15 cm. (6 in.). In the young female the tibia of the
first, second and fourth legs, and the metatarsus of the fourth leg,
are covered with tufts of long black hairs. These tufts are never found
on the legs of adults, either female or male.

The adult male, which has already been recorded by various workers
(Hingston, Gravely, Fischer) as red in colour and inhabiting the web
of the female, is very similar to her when young. The young male
also constructs a web similar to that of the young female. In size
and colour the young male resembles the young female except that
his palpus is slightly differently shaped. The male does not increase
in size as he grows to maturity, but merely changes in colour from
black to brownish red. The palpus, which is somewhat like the beak
of a duck, gradually swells at the base, the apex becoming elongated
and pointed. At this stage moulting takes place, and this is probably
the final or pre-final moult. An adult male kept in a cage in the
laboratory was seen to moult during the first week of November,
though the above-mentioned changes normally occur at the end ot
September or early in October.

The male thereafter abandons his own web and wanders forth in
search of a mate. Finding the large web of an adult female, he takes
up a position in an upper corner of the periphery and waits for a
suitable opportunity for copulation. Usually two or three of such
‘waiting-on’ males are present in each web, but their number may
sometimes be as high as seven or eight. The female reaches maturity
by the end of September or beginning of October. It is only when

she is ready for copulation that the male, for the first time, approaches

her. A premature approach may lead to his death. Copulation. con-
tinues at irregular intervals for a day or two. The male is the active
partner in the process, while the female remains passive and seems
to have very little interest in the act. The male hardly survives for
two or three days afterwards. In many spiders the female devours
the male after the sexual act, but in the case of Nephila maculata

he just dies a natural death, apparently due to exhaustion.

Even when copulation has not taken place, the male normally dies
by the beginning of November. It is generally believed that the male
spins a delicate web, upon which he emits the seminal fluid, which is
afterwards taken up in his own palpus and inserted into the female

(Comstock and Savory). This phenomenon was not observed by us

in the Giant Wood Spider. The male does construct a web on the
back of the female, but this is not used for the transference of the

-seminal fluid from the genital organs to the veceptaculum seminis
situated in the palpus. The palpi of several males examined before

the construction of this web already had seminal fluid in the receptaculum

-seminis. The exact process of transference of the fluid from the
seminal vesicle to the palpus could not be observed. It appears that
the tip of the palpus (embolus) is applied directly to the external

aperture of the seminal vesicle and the fluid sucked in.
~The gravid females can be seen in their webs during October and

November. When the eggs are ready for laying the female abandons

the web and the cocoon is deposited in some well-concealed place.

2

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

We never succeeded in finding the eggs in the field, though they are
well known from individuals kept in captivity.
The female toils for about two days to construct an egg-sac round

her mass of eggs. After completion of this sac, the female sometimes.

spins a web of a few untidy strands for herself, or she may return
to her original web. Thereafter she takes no food, and slowly shrivels
up and dies after two or three days, leaving the cocoon to the care of
Mother Nature.

In some cases, when the female matures too late in the season and
does not find a mate, the unfertilized eggs are laid and the female dies
after a couple of days. The fertilized eggs are yellowish white in
colour and invariably enclosed in a cocoon, while the unfertilized eggs
are black and always left uncovered.

The food of this spider consists almost entirely of butterflies, moths,
dragonflies and grasshoppers which are all caught in the web. The
spider is otherwise sedentary in habits.

The male, when young, constructs his own web and secures his
food independently. After attaining maturity, and after taking up a
position in the web of the female, he generally feeds upon small flies
and mosquitoes which are entangled in the same web but are too
insignificant to attract the female’s attention. According to Hingston,
the male sometimes snatches away an insect after the female has already
entwined it with silk.

If sufficient prey in the form of flying insects does not regularly
come to the web, the female migrates to an alternative site, where a
new web is constructed. Sometimes a new web facing a different
direction is constructed in the same spot. A migration of this kind
may be of over 200 yards, though most often the new site is only a
short distance away. When a site is thus abandoned, all the silk of
the old nest is collected and rolled into a ball which is transported
between the chelicerae to the new site. It is said that this is eaten
up after the completion of the new web.

The small spider, Argyrodes nephilae, of the family Theridiidae is
commonly associated with the Giant Wood Spider. From a distance
this spider looks like a drop of mercury due to the silver-white of
the dorsal surface of its abdomen. It does not appear to spin a web
of its own, and habitually feeds on the minute flies and mosquitoes
which get entangled in the Giant Wood Spider’s snare, but are too
insignificant to attract the owner’s attention. This spider has a
universal distribution, and owes its specific name to the fact that it
generally lives in the webs of Nephila,

The Garden or ‘Bloodsucker’ Lizard (Calotes) appears to be the
commonest natural enemy of this spider. From a near-by twig it jumps
on to the web and brings down the spider to the ground where it
devours it. Under laboratory conditions these spiders are eaten by
geckoes (Hemidactylus). The naked unfertilized egg masses were
destroyed by ants, but those properly encased in the cocoons appeared
safe.

As no details appear to have been published regarding the nature
of the silk used by Nephila for its web, and on the manner of its
production, our observations may prove interesting.

BIONOMICS OF THE GIANT WOOD SPIDER 503

Members of the sub-family Nephilinae, to which N. maculata
belongs, are well known for the large quantity and the strength of
their silk. This spider has five types of silk glands, and the secretion
of each gland has a specific use. The silk of the spider can be
classified according to its nature and use.

The Web:

The web consists of the following parts: (1) foundation, (2) radii,
(3) hub, and (4) viscid spiral thread. The nature and origin of the
first three parts is common, while the viscid thread differs from the
rest in origin and nature. The foundation lines, radii and the hub
along with the temporary spiral are products of the ampullate glands.

Foundation lines:

The foundation line is generally made of about six fibres and about
19 thick. The colour is slightly yellowish.

Radit:
In origin and colour the radius resembles the foundation line.
Each line consists of two fibres and is about 9.5 w thick.

Hub:

The silk that is used for the hub is the same as that employed
for the radii (‘spokes’).

Spiral thread:

The spiral thread is the line placed in spiral fashion across the
radii—connecting the spokes of a wheel, as it were. It is due to
this thread that the prey gets entangled in the web. The line consists
of two filaments attached together to form the axis, and a series of
droplets borne by it at regular intervals. The thread is of an elastic
nature, and hence the web does not break when the prey falls against
it and struggles to escape. The thread is white in colour and measures
7.5 4 in thickness. The sticky nature of the thread is due to the
droplets borne by the thread. It is probable that the axis is the product
of the aggregate gland while the viscid drops are produced by the
nodules borne by the duct.

ihe Dragline:

The spider, as it moves from place to place, puts out a line of
silk to mark its course. This line is termed the drag-line. By means
of this line the spider lets itself down from an elevated position to
a lower one, or to the ground when disturbed, and also climbs back to
its original place. It consists of two fibres and is similar to the radius
in colour and origin. It probably comes from the spigots of the fore
spinnerets, and, as already stated, is a product of the ampullate glands.

The Attachment disc:

At intervals the dragline is fixed to some object by means of white
disc-like structures known as the attachment discs. They are also

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 53

used for fixing the foundation lines to the support. For making~an
attachment disc the spider applies the fore spinnerets to the surface,
quickly spreads them apart and brings them together again. The
disc consists of numerous delicate threads obtained from the spinning
tubes of the fore spinnerets. The secretion of the pvriform glands
is used for these discs.

The Swathing band:

The spider envelops its prey with a thin sheet of silk. This sheet
consists of numerous fine fibres placed one over the other, and is known
as the swathing band. The origin of the swathing band has not yet
been definitely determined. It is probable that the silk comes from
the middle and the hind spinnerets, and the secretion of the aciniform
glands is used for them. But according to Comstock the band comes
from all the spinnerets and is the product of both the pyriform and
aciniform glands.

The Egg-sac:

The mass of the eggs is covered over by a cushion of silk. The
silk used for the egg-sac is obtained from the cylindrical glands and
is pink in colour. The line is simple and consists of a single thread
about 6 yw thick. 2

REFERENCES

Comstock, J. H. (1948): The Spider Book. Revised by W. J. Gertsch. Comstock
Publishing Company Inc., New York. 7

Fischer, C. E. C. (1910): Pairing of the Spider Nephila maculata. JBNHS, 20:
(2): 526.

— -— — (1910): Further note on the Spider Nephila maculata. JBNHS, 20
(2): 528; (8): 887.

Gravely, F. H. (1922): Common Indian Spiders. JBNHS, 28 (4): 1045.

Hingston, R. W. G. (1922): The Snare of the Giant Wood Spider (Nephtla
maculata). Part I. JBNHS, 28 (3): 642. Part 11 & III. JBNHS, 28 (4): 911
and 917.

— — — (1923): — — —. Part IV. JBNHS, 29 (1): 70.

Savory, T. H. (1928): The Biology of Spiders. Sidwick and Jackson Ltd., London.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE HALOPHYTIC
PLANTS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS}

BY
B. S. NAVALKAR

Biology Department, M. N. College, Visnagar, North Gujarat
(With five plates)
LEE NEDRIO:D WC eOIN

While studying the ecology of the mangrove vegetation from several
places in and around Bombay and Salsette Islands, it was thought that it
would be interesting to study the geographical distribution of the halophy-
tic plants and the factors governing it. Previously Blatter (2 & 3) studied
the mangrove vegetation of Bombay and its biology and Biswas (1) made
a comparative study of Indian species of Avicennza. Similarly Cooke (5)
as well as Talbot (8) have described some of the species in the Flora
of the Presidency of Bombay, and in the Trees, Shrubs, and Woody-
Climbers of Bombay Presidency respectively. But sofar no attempt has
been made to record the geographical distribution of the hajiophytes of
Bombay and Salsette Islands. Due to earlier detailed study of rocks, soil-
salinity, soil-humidity and biotic factors (6 & 7) it has been possible to
study the distribution of these halophytes.

In the present case the mangrove vegetation was studied from severai
places in and around Bombay, from Colaba reclamation, Vadala, Sewri
salt-pans, Worli and Mahim. In Salsette the mangrove vegetation was
studied from the foilowing places: ‘Thana, near the creek and along the
railway lines on both the sides, marshy places near the creek of Bandra,
Bassein, Mire, Ghodbunder, Mumbra, Diva along the railway lines
towards the east, and Ghatkoper. Also the marshy piaces near the islands
of Uran, Mora, Dongri, Elephanta and Mudh (near Versova),(Plate I).

The distribution of the mangrove vegetation is chiefly composed of
Avicennia alba Blume, which seems to be very prolific in growth and
germination. It is only in a few places, where the intensity of human
influence is not very marked, that we find Azzcennta alba Biume mixed
with other mangrove species such as A. officinalis Linn., Acanthus
ticttolius Linn., Certops candolleana Arn., Aegiceras majus Gaertn.,
Bruguiera gymnorhiza Lam., Sonneralia species, Rhizophora species,
Salicornia brachiata Roxb., Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn., Lumnztzera
racemosa Willd., E:xcoecavia agallocha Linn., ete. This can be clarified
from the vegetation between Diva and Mumbra, and along Vadala, Ghod-
bunder, Bandra, Mahim ete.

1 This paper was read in the Botany Section of the 40th Session of the Indian
Science Congress, held at Lucknow in 1953.

2A

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

2. NATURAL VEGETATION AND EFFECT oF BIOTIC FACTORS

Animals such as cattle use the marshy vegetation as a source of food
supply. Buffaloes and bulls like the young leaves of Avicennzta species as
well as the flowers of Acanthus tlictfolius. ‘These animals devour the
flowers with relish. ‘The effect of eating the growing shoots of the trees
is that the trees begin to spread branches from the sides, and when the
young shoots of these branches are again browsed then other branches
are spread out of their sides. ‘Thus the plants, instead of growing straight
and high, constantly give out branches from the sides to form small
bushes. Such bushes are seen near Ghodbunder, Thana, and Mumbra
creeks where the young plants are browsed by animals. The poorer resi-
dents of these neighbourhoods use the trees or bushes of the marshy
vegetation for fuel. (In Karachi it was a regular practice to rent out the
mangrove vegetation for fodder for cattle). They generaily cut the older
plants leaving the younger ones to mature. It has been shown that due
to this biotic influence the valuable species of the mangrove vegetation
are fast disappearing from the coast of Bombay and Salsette Islands.
Lummnitzera vacemosa Willd., observed on the shores of Bandra in 1933,
had disappeared completely in 1934.

3. DiIstTRIBUTION IN BomBAy ISLAND

Colaba

Avicennia alba Blume is found growing on the western side from the
Colaba Parsi Sanatorium to the end of the rocks southwards (Plate II).
The plants mainly occur as large bushes, though a few smal! trees are
met with where human influence is not marked. On the south-west,
towards the Colaba Barracks, a very few bushes are found. From the
B.I. Barracks as one goes up as far as Sewri, the south-eastern coast is
without vegetation as there are many docks all along it and the sea is
deep. The Back Bay Reclamation coast on the west does not bear any
vegetation ; nor is any mangrove to be seen from Charni Road to Govern-
ment House. Between Malabar Point and the Breach Candy Baths, the
mangrove vegetation consists only of small and sparse bushes of Avicennia
alba, as the coast is full of big rocks. This species is again found at Worli
near Haji Ali’s Tomb and at New Worli. From Worli to Mahim there is
a sandy beach.

Mahim

From Mahim fort as one enters the Mahim creek towards the east,
Avicennia alba is found in plenty along the coast, together with small
bushes of A. officinalis. Here also near the railway lines, there are a few
clumps of Acanthus ilictfolius and two or three of Cervtops candolleana,
Bruguiera caryophyllotdes and Sonneratia apetala. Along the railway
lines from Mahim towards Bandra on the left, Clerodendrum tnerme is
found on the edge of the creek, and on drier soil patches of Sesuvdemne
portulacastrum with Suaeda fruticosa. The grasses that are found on
still drier soils are Sporobolus glauctfolius, Fimbristylis polytrichotdes,
and Aeluropus villosus. Except for the presence of a couple of Rhzzo-
bhora mucronata, the vegetation on the right side of the line is the same as
that on the left (Plate IIL).

gourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe : Prate |

nen Ae 8 at SRA NTRS AEN RN STA ET NRL NOME EE WET NEN A OP

MAP OF BOMBAY & SALSETTE ISLANDS
2 Scale 1" = 4 Mileg. Colaba —
; Vadala —
Sewri -
Mahim —
Bandra —
Versova
Mua@h Island
Maiad Creek
Maneri
Manori Creek —
Borivali
Dahisar
Mire
Dinanath Khar Farm
Bhavandar
Bassein Creek
Ghodbunder ~
Ulhas River
Thana
Thana Creek
Bhandup
Vikhrolt
Ghatkope
Kurla
Chembur -
Blephanta. Island
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HALOPHYTIC PLANTS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 337

From Mahim to Sion following Dharavi Road along the shore where
there is a dry soil, patches of Aeluropus villosus are found with Cleroden-
drum inerme on, the left hedge. Near the Municipal drainage may be
seen Avicennta alba and A. officinalis with little patches of Aeluropus
villosus, and further mear the roadside, patches of Acanthus clictfolius.
Small bushes ot Avicennta alba are found up to Sion railway station.
West of Sion railway station and near the creek on the two sides of Poona-
Agra Road, Acanthus tlictfolius is found profusely with little patches of
Avicennia alba. While further down towards Kurla, on the opposite bank
of the Mahim river, the picture is reversed, duicennia alba becoming
more and more prominent up to Kurla railway station, where it grows
abundantly with a few bushes ot Acanthus tlictfolius.

Wearcraplea

The harbour is very different from the areas so far investigated in that
the vegetation is a constant mixture of Avirennia alba, Acanthus ilict-
folius, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Salvadora persica, Clerodendrum inerme
and grass. with Salzcornia brachiata invariably present at the edges near
the bund.

Towards the land in the salt-pan area where the creek water comes in,
Sesuztum portulacastrum and Suaeda fruticosa grow on the drier land,
while Aeluropus villosus is confined to the banks of the water inlet.

From Sewri to Trombay via Vadala, Avicennia alba grows abundantly
along the shore. Here again on the drier soils near the Port Trust
railway lines, Aeluvopus villosus forms patches together with Seszuéuim
portulacastrum and a little Swaeda fruticosa (Plate IV).

Near about Sewri Koliwada, Avicennia alba grows profusely in bushes.
From the Bulk Oil Installation along the Vadala shore, Avicennia alba
grows thickly in bushes. Here, on drier soil, Ae/uropus villosus grows
widely. Practically the whole of Vadala shore is full of Avicennia alba.
Near the Port Trust railway bridge over the creek <Auvicennia alba is
found abundantly on both the sides, with little patches of Szaeda fruticosa
and Clerodendrum inerme in bushes on the banks as well as Sesuvium
portulacastrum. On the east of the bridge, Avicennia alba is in full form
as small trees. Salvadora persica is found near the bridge.

Along the oil pipe line towards the pier on the right eastern side
Avicennia alba covers practically the whole area. Mainly trees are found
and they are at a distance of 15 to 20 feet apart. Lots cf bushes are cut
for fuel on the right side of the pipe line. Here also on the drier ground
Aeluropus villosus is found together with Sesuvium portulacastrum and
Acanthus tlicttolius further down towards the pier. Some Salvadora
persica trees are found on the left of the pier line.

Towards the Customs Tower near the mouth of the creek, first a big
patch of Aeluropus villosus is foand on drier soil ; then further from the
pipe line near the sea, small bushes of Avicennia alba are seen which
further down are replaced by trees. Beyond the Customs pier, going
south-west, inside the mouth of the creek, Avicennia alba, Aeluropus
villosus, and Acanthus tlictfolius are found together on the right. On the
left, near the pipe line, Avicenna is found as far as Pir Pau’s Tomb.

From Vadala towards Sewri along the coast on the drier soil,
Aeluropus villosus grows in big patches, and near the shore Avicennia alba

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

completely occupies the area. Nearer and in Sewri docks in Koliwada,
there are Avicennia alba trees growing on the muddy ground. Also at
Sewri Bunder towards the north bank, Avicennia trees abound, but only
small bushes are found where human influence is felt near the Dry-fish
Wharf.

The western coast of Trombay Island is practically without mangrove
vegetation. As one goes up from the pipe line northwards Kurla via
Anik, Vasi and Maraoli, salt-pans are evident everywhere. As one reaches
neat Kurla from the light tramway line (now discontinued), one comes
across little bushes of Avicenna on the right.

Avicennia alba is also found south of Chembur along the railway lines
near the salt-pan areas, and on the eastern side of Trombay hill near the
shore. (Recently, due to the installation of the iets esta refineries, much
of this vegetation is destroyed.)

4. DISTRIBUTION IN THE SALSETTE ISLAND

Bandra

From Kurla to Bandra along the bank of Mahim river, mangrove
vegetation is poor both in quality and quantity. There are patchy bushes
of Avicennia alba near the high water line right up to Bandra railway
station, and thicker bushes on the other side of the station near the water
pipe line and the siaughter house up to the vehicular traffic bridge (cause-
way). Along the railway lines near Bandra station eastwards, Auicennia
aloa isalso present. This vegetation of Avicenniais inter-mixed with bushes
of Clevodendrum itneryme on the bund and patches of Aeluropus villosus
on drier soil. Sesuvzunz portulacastrum also occurs in patches. Besides
there are a number of Gramineae and Cyperaceae, such as Sporobolus
glaucitolius, S. palitdus, S. orientalis, Panicum glabrum, Faspalum
distichum, Fimbristylis terruginea, F. polytrichotdes, Setarta glauca,
Cyperus votundus, C. compressus, growing on the drier soil in patches,
especially near the railway lines.

From the causeway along the shore there are a few Avicennza bushes
in the bay, but towards Bandra Point the shore is rocky. From Bandra
Point right up to Danda, on account of the rocky shore no mangrove
vegetation is found. Near Danda on the shore, and in the creek there
are a few bushes of Avicennia. From Danda to Versova (Vesavé) the
coast is of a sandy nature and therefore no mangrove vegetation is to be
seen there.

Versova

Versova is at the mouth of the Malad Creek, which opens with a large
tract of mud and marsh covering about 4 sq. miles on the right. The
area contains a few scattered bushes of <Avrcenniza, with patches of
Aecluropus villosus and Sporobolus species on drier soil.

Opposite Versova there is an island called Mudh, on the eastern coast
of which there is mangrove vegetation consisting mainly of Auicennza
trees. The southern cgast is full of rocks and the western coast is covered
or interrupted with rocks up to Erangal. From Ezangal right up to Marve
and still further, there is a fine sandy beach which one meets as one
enters the Marvé Creek.

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HALOPHYTIC PLANTS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 3a9

Manori Creek

On the right side of the bank and near the main road from Malad,
there are a few Avicennia trees but, beyond that, the whole place
is practically devoid of any mangrove vegetation as far as Shimpaoli,
where Avicennia reappears and spots the area as far as Mandapeshwar
and still further along the shore of Manori Creek. Similarly, on the left
bank of Manori Creek (while entering from Manori) and near Manori
village, mangrove vegetation can be noticed with Avicennza and also grass
like Sporobolus glaucitolius, Aeluropus villosus, etc. on the drier patches
of soil. The mangrove bushes are scattered as far as the salt-pan area
up to Mira Road railway station, where again the grasses are to be found.
Going further in the Manori Creek near Mira Road station beyond the
railway lines, Avicennia alba grows profusely together with Cerzops
candolleana and Acanthus tliczfolius in small groups. On the bund banks
towards the south-west, Salvadora persica is also found, and Aeluropus
villosus and Suaeda fruticosa are to be seen on the drier land. Cleroden-
drum inerme is in evidence in the bund (hedge). In the Dinanath Khar
Farm Land, as well as just near Mira Road station, these mangrove and
marshy plants can also be marked.

Then again when one goes northwards from Manori along the coast
there is hardly any mangrove on the western shore, as the whole coast. is
sandy, interrupted with rows of rocks as far as the light-house. On
entering Bassein Creek one comes across Avicennia and Rhizvphora,
mainly between the low water line and high water line, as far as Bassein
bridge. From Bassein bridge as far as Ghodbunder no mangrove vege-
tation is seen.

Ghodbunder

Near Ghodbunder there is a profusion of Rhizophora mucronata,
Avicennia alba, A. officinalis and Sonneratia apetala. There is an
abundance of ARkzzophora and Avicennia near the Ghodbunder Temple
(Plate V). Still further beyond the Temple and the Tank, Rhizophora
mucronata, Avicennia alba, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Ceriops candel-
leana grow near the water, while Acanthus tlictfolius, Salvadora persica,
S. oleotdes, Salicornia brachiata, Aegiceras majus and Aeluropus villosus
are found near the land which is comparatively dry. It is to be noted
that Avicennia grows abundantly in spite of being browsed by animals,
but near the land the plant occurs in stunted bushes. The same man-
grove vegetation occurs up the Ullhas River up to Gaimukh Bunder, and
at the mouth of Kamdevi River there is a big tract of marsh land, which
consists of Avicennta and Rhizophora on the muddy ground and
Acanthus and Aecluropus on drier soil. Further south, mangrove is seen
from a village Bagvilpada to a mile further on the coast, where vegeta-
tion ceases as far as Kasheli bridge.

Wingina Greek

As one enters Thana Creek from Kasheli bridge, Salvadora, Sesuvium,
Acanthus, Sporodolus and Aeluropus can be found especially on the left,
that is on the opposite bank of the creek. This continues as far as Thana
Traffic bridge. Between the latter and Thana railway bridge there are
‘small islands on which Avicennia, Acanthus and Sesuvium are found,

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

From the railway bridge as one goes south, the vegetation on the island
consists mainly of Avicennia alba, Acanthus ilicifolius on the muddy soil
and the grasses like SAovobolus glaucifolius and Aeluropus viilosus on
drier soil. A few furlongs from the railway bridge towards the south
there is a large marshy tract with Avicennia alta, Acanthus tlicttolius
and grasses in heaps on the drier soil, such as Aeluropus villosus, Sporo-
bolus glaucifolius. ‘The marsh tract extends as far as Chembur, covering
Kopri, Naughar, Nanapada, Bhandup, Kanjur, Vikhroli, and Ghatkoper.
The vegetation chiefly consists of dvzcenn7a alba with occasional bushes
of Acanthus ilicifolius and large patches of grasses and cyperaceae such
as Aeluropus villosus, Sporobolus glaucitolius, Fimbristylis species and
cyperus species. Here it is to be noted that the vegetation does not
extend to the low water line. This marshy tract stretches about 2 miles
towards the east near the railway lines from Bhandup to Ghatkoper. At
Ghatkoper the tract still goes further a mile, reaching about 3 miles east

from the railway station.

Ghatkoper-Kurla

Ghatkoper, Kurla and Chembur form a triangle in which no mangrove
vegetation is found, except a few bushes of Avicenna officinalis and
A. alba that are found along the main road from Ghatkoper to Chembur.
Otherwise this triangle is full of grasses such as Aeluropus villosus,
Sporobolus glaucttolius, Fimbristylis species, Paspalum distichum,
P. vaginatum, Cyperus compressus, C. votundus.

Chembur

From Chembur to Mandaié, the mangrove vegetation is of Avicennia
alba, a few A. offrcinalis and lots of grasses as well.

From Mandalé to Trombay the condition of the vegetation remains the
same. At Trombay the mangrove becomes more prominent towards the
south-east near the beacon. From the beacon towards the coast as far as
Pir Pau’s Tomb it consists mainly of Avicennta officinalis. The grasses
are few except near Pir Pau’s Tomb, where Aeluropus villosus and
Sporobolus glaucifolius are seen near the shore. It is to be noted here
also that whatever vegetation is found from Trombay to Pir Pau’s Tomb
lies only between the high water and low water lines. From Pir Pau’s
Tomb to the Oil Pipe line, it has been already seen that the mangrove
vegetation consists of Avicennia alba only, with little bushes of Acanthus

zlicttolius.

5. THE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION SHOWING
CHARACTERS

The distribution of the mangrove, vegetation in the Bombay and
Salsette Islands shows the following characters :

(1) The Clerodendrum tnerme is always confined to bunds that
surround the hedges of the areai.e., it is found on the highest places
where the sea-water does not reach and influence the salt content of the
soil; therefore, from this point of view this plant might be considered as
the poorest of the halophytes, though it may be pointed out that it deve-
lops halophytic characters when it is grown in soils rich in sodium-
chloride, This plant is now extensively used as garden hedge-plant in

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ST RCE.

CHENE@e— GHOPBUNDER <——— From BORIVALI

79

2

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SKETCH OF A TYPICAL SPOT
aT GHODB-BUNDER.

Avicennia alba

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HALOPHYTIC PLANTS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 3A1

Bombay and its suburbs, where the soil contains a normal amount of
sodium-chloride.

(2) Along with Clerodendrum inerme, on the dry soil, grasses of
the types /imbristylis polytricoides, F. ferruginea, Sporobolus glaucitolius,
S. pallidius, S. orientalis, Panicum glabrum, Paspalum disticum,
Cyperus compressus, C. rotundus are found.

(3) The next plants in succession, which grow on a soil moister and
slightly richer in sodium-chloride than the soil of Clerodendrum inerme,
are Aeluropus villosus, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Suaeda truticosa.

(4) In the next of the soil conditions, the following plants are
found: Aeluvopus villosus and Sesuvium portulacastrunt.

(5) The next stage is entirely covered by Aeluropus villosus.

(6) The final stage is formed by the mangroves consisting of the
following species: Avicennia alba, A. officinalis, Rhizophora mucronata,
Certops candolleana, Sonneratia acida, and <Acanthus tlrcttolius.
Amongst these plants (a) Acanthus tlictfolius occupies the farthest posi-
tion from the sea; (6) then comes the group of plants consisting of the
following: Avicennia alba, A. officinalis, Certobs candolleana and Sen-
nevatia acida ; and (c) finally comes Ahizophora mucronata which covers
the soil nearest the sea-water and therefore probably the soil richest in
sodium-chloride content.

6. COMPARATIVE DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION IN OTHER
PLACES

The following is an alphabetical list of halophytic plants of Bombay
and Salsette Islands, Sunderbans, Malay Peninsula and South Africa,
with their geographical distribution. It may be mentioned that the names
of the plants have been brought up to date according to the International
Rules of Botanical Nomenclature.

TABLE 1

(Nolte: Presence = plus sign; Absence=minus sign)

Pe Oneal st hy |
Tae] bao} 5) n | > oD | as ‘4 :
Names of Plants ae aaiug |e Eee Geographical
Scale | Gis coe Distribution
q nA| on ao | #
Ay
1. Acanthus ilicifolius Linn. + + + +t | Tropical Asia,
Australia.
2. A. ebracteatus Vahl. — — + — | Tropical Asia.
3. A. volubilis Wall. ; — + _ -— | India.
4, Acrostichuim aureum Linn. —_ _ + + | Tropical Coasts.
S. Aegiceras majus Gaertn. ... + ap si + | Old World Tropics.
6. Arthrocnemum indicum |
Mog. + F — + |India, Tropical
= Africa.
7, Atriplex stocksii Boiss. + — ~ — |India, (Coasts of
Saurashtra).
8. Avicennia alba Blume* + ate + — :
9. A. intermedia Griff.* — — “+ — as
10. A, lanata Ridley* — --- + — |Malaya Peninsula.
11. A. marina Forsk.* ~ — _ ro sd
12. A. officinalis Linn. + 4 + — | Tropical shores.

342

TABLE 1—(Continued)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63

Names of Plants

13. A. nitida (alter) Sesse & |

14,

48.

. Bruguiera caryophyllacoides

. B. eviopetala Wight & Arn. |
_ B. gymunorhiza Lam. a
. B. parvitlora Wight & Arn.
. Carapa moluccensis Lam.

. Cerbera odellum Gaertn. ...
. Ceriops candolleana Arn. ...
. C. roxburghiana Arn. 000
. Clerodendrum

. C. nereifolium Wall. cee
. C. siphonanthus (R. Br. in

. Cressa cretica Linn.
. Cycas rumphit Miq.
. Daemonorops leptopis

. Hugenia corymbosa Berg..
. E. fruticosa Roxb.
. Excoecaria agallocha Linn,

. Lumnitzera

. Podocarpus neritfolia

. Rhizophora mangle Linn. .
. Rk. mucronata Lam. AC
. Salicornia brachiata Roxb.

Moc. |

Brownlowia lanceolata
Benth.

. B. vetdelli Hemal

Blume

qnery me
Gaertn.

Ait. Hort. Kew).

Mart.
Derris uliginosa Benth. o.

Heritiera littoralis
(Dryand. in Ait.
Kew).

Hort,

Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn.

Intsia (= Afzelia) retusa
Kurz.

. Kandelia Rheedit Wight &

Arn.
Kochia indica Wight
coccinea
Wight & Arn.

; ib, racemosa Willd.
. Nipa truticans Thunb.

. Onocosperma filamentosum

Blume

. Pluchea indica Less.

D. Don.

S. herbacea Linn. ane

|

| seaP |

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a}
o =
a
(op) ZS

Sunder-
bans

+
+

Malay
Peninsula

pt++tt+t++ ++

J+ ++] |

P|

Geographical
Distribution

Tropical America,
Tropical Africa.

India, Burma,
Spicy Islands.

India, Malaya,
Tropical Asia.

Old World Tropics.
India, Malaya.

Old World Tropics.
India, Malaya.
Tropics.

Tropics.

India.
Malaya.

India, Malaya.
Cosmop. Tropics.
Malaya, Australia.

Malaya.

Old World Tropics.

Peru.

Burma.

‘Tropical
Malaya,
Islands.

Asia,
Pacific

Old World Tropics.
Both Tropics.

Malacca. ©

| India, Malaya.

India,

Tropical Asia and

Australia,

/Old World Tropics.
| East

of Ganges,
Malaya, ~

| Malaya.

Tropical Asia and

Australia.
Himalayas.

Littoral Tropics.
Old World Tropics.
India.

Europe,

oi) et) aa

POET PTT TSE ATS IPE TT NEN IE TT IE TET EE TIT ET TTY

HALOPHYTIC PLANTS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 343

TABLE 1—(Continued)

Name of Plants

49,

50.

oll

52
53.

34.
30.

36.
o/.

58.
59.
60.

61.

62.
63.

64,

Salsola foetida Delile =
S. kali Linn.

Salvadora persica Linn.

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
Gaertn,

Sesuvium portulacastrum
Linn,
Sonneratia acida Linn.

S. alba Sm.

S. apetala (Buch.-Ham. in
Syme Emb. Ava.)

S. griffithiz Kurz. aes

Suaeda fruticosa Forsk. .«.

S. linearis Mog.

S. maritima Dum.

S monoica Forsk.

S. nuditlora Moq. A
Tamarix gallica Linn. ...

Thespesia populnea Corr. oe.

anc
Salsette

>
3
Q

a

e)

AQ

a

1
rT

+

a

Islands

Malay
Peninsula

Geographical
Distribution

Tropical Africa,
Arabia, India.
North region and
Temperate Aus-

tralia.
The Orient, India,
North Africa.
Islands of Spices.

Tropics.

India, Malaya.

Old World Tropics
(India, Burma,
Andamans).

India, Burma.

Burma.

North ‘Temperate
Regions.

North America,
Cuba.

North ‘Temperate
Regions, Aus-
tralia.

North Africa, West
Asia, India.

India.

India, Burma,
Ceylon, Africa,
Europe, Siberia,
China, Japan.

India.

* According to Index Kewensis all the 4 species of Avicennia mentioned hete
and marked with? asterisk are one and the same, that is Avicennia officinalis
Linn.

344

10,

els

. Cyperus compressus Linn..

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

TABLE 2

Alphabetical list of Gramineae and Cyperaceae found in marshy places near

Names

Bombay
and |
Salsette

Sunderbans,
Bengal

Islands |

GRAMINEAE

. Aeluropus villosus Trin. «.
. Panicum glabrun Gaud. ...

. Paspalum distichum Linn.
. P. scrobiculatum Linn.
. Setaria glauca Beauv.

S. verticillata Beauv.

. Sporobolus glaucifolius

Hochst.

. 9S, ovtentalis Kunth.

. S. gallidus Boiss. aes

S. virginicus Kunth.

S. tvemulus Kunth. ves

+
+

+
ip

—

+

CYPERACEAE

C. exaltatus Retz.

C. tnundatus Roxb, ee

C. malaccensis Lam.

. C. votundus Linn. oes
. C. Scariosus R. Br.

. C. tegetiformis Roxb.

. Fimbristylis

ferruginea
Vahl.

. E. monostachya Hassk.

. F. polytrichoides R. Br.

. &. subbispicata Nees. .
. Scirpus articulatus Linn....
. S. grosses Linn. sist
. 9S. littoralis Shrad.

. 9S. trigueter Linn.

+++{++ +

+t tt

1
i

—

Bombay ard Salsette Islands and Sunderbans, and their geographical distribution.

|
Geographical
Distribution

| North Africa, Greece.

North temperate and
Tropical Regions.

Tropics and Subtropics,

Old World Tropics.

Europe, Temperate
Asia.

Cosmop. (In all parts of
the world).

Punjab, Sind, Tropical
Africa.

India, Punjab, W. Penin-
sula, Ceylon.

Punjab, Waziristan,
Rajputana Desert,
Afghanistan, Baluchis-
tan, Arabia.

India, Ceylon, Africa,
America, Australia,

i eebropics:

\India, Ceylon, Burma,

Tonkin, Cambodia.

All parts of the world
Tropics.

Tropical
Australia.

| India, China.

Tropical Asia.

All parts of the world.

India, Australia,

Tropical Asia,

Both Tropics.

Asia and

Tropics of both worlds.
Tropics of old world.
Tropical Asia.

Africa, India, Australia.
India, Malaya.

Europe, Asia, Egypt.
Europe, Australia.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) In Bombay and Salsette Islands six stages of different halophytic
plants can be marked according to (a) the extent of the nearness of the
plant to sea, and (4) consequent richness of sodium-chloride in the soil.

HALOPHYTIC PLANTS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS 345

(2) On comparing the number of halophytes of Bombay and Salsette
Islands with those of Sunderbans, Malay Peninsula and South Africa, it
~is found that Malay Peninsula is richest in the species having 35 out of
62 of the total list, ie. 56°4% ; Bombay and Salsette Islands stand second,
i.e. they possess 27 species out of 62. The percentage comes to 43°5%.
Sunderbans and South Africa have only 24 and 21 species respectively
out of total 62, ie., 38 7% and 33:9% respectively.

(3) Sunderbans seems to be richer than Bombay and Salsette Islands,
in Gramineae and Cyperaceae that are found near the salt marsh places.
The former has 17 out of total 26 species, i.e., 65°4%, while Bombay and
Salsette Islands possess only 11 species out of total 26. This amounts to
42°3% of the species.

8. SUMMARY

It is noticed from this investigation that the distribution of the man-
grove vegetation is chiefly composed of Avicennia alba which seems to
be very prolific in growth and germination. Further in Bombay and
Salsette Islands six stages of different halophytic plants can be marked
according to (i) the extent of the nearness of the plant to sea, and
(i1) consequent richness in sodium-chloride content of the soil. A com-
parison of the number of halophytes of Bombay and Salsette Islands is
made with those of Sunderbans, Malay Peninsula and South Africa,
and the percentage of different species is calculated.

9, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the University of Bombay for the award of the research
studentship to carry out these investigations and Dr. F. R. Bharucha,
the Director of the Institute of Science, Bombay, for his help. I also.thank
Professor 8. P. Agharkar for his keen interest and suggestions from time
to time and Rev. Fr. H. Santapau for aly going through the MSS.
cmt inl na critical suggestions.

10... REFERENCES

1. Biswas, K. (1934): A comparative study of Indian species of Avicennia
Notes. R. B.C. Edin. 18: 159-166, tt. 243-246.

2. Blatter, E. (1905): The Mangrove of Bombay Presidency and its Biology.
JBNHS, 16: 644-656. |

Bo Blatter, EH}. and McCann, C. (1934-1935) : Cyperaceae. /BNHS, 37: 1-
_ 4, — — — (1935): The Bombay Grasses. 1.C.A.R., New Delhi, Scientific
Monograph No. 5. J

Si, (COOKS, IN (1908) : The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. (Taylor and
Francis), London. .
_ 6, Navalkar, B.S. and Bharucha, F. R. (1942) : Studies in the Ecology of
Mangroves. III. The chloride content of the sea-water, soil solution and leaf cell
sap of the Mangroves. Jour. Uni, Bom. 10 (5): 97-106.

7, — — — (1949): Studies in the Ecology of Mangroves. V. Chemical
Factors of the Mangrove soil. Jour. Uni. Bom. 18 (3): 17-35.

8. Talbot, W.A. (1902 & 1949); The Trees, Shrubs and Woody-Climbers
of the Bombay Presidency. The Government Photo-zincographic Press, 3rd Ed.
(Reprint), Poona.

KASHMIR—A FISHING HOLIDAY

BY

A. St. JoHN MAcbDOoNALD
(With two plates)

A holiday in Kashmir had always remained an unfulfilled ambition
of mine for 20 years or more. In the earlier years when I was more
robust for the privations of seeking mahseer in hitherto unfished waters,
I always gave choice to such exploits, being also influenced by the
crowds of army officers who booked beats well in advance and with
whom one had to enter into competition. But now, with a softening
with age, the desire to search out the unknown has passed and monster
mahseer no longer an ambition. The fly and fly rod aided by the
salubrious climate at 6,000 ft. are a relaxation more fitting to my mood
and fancy.

It was in this state of mind that I decided on a two months’ holi-
day in May and June of this year (1955) to the trout waters of. the
Bhringi and Lidder rivers in Kashmir, and I was not disappointed,
indeed surprised at the excellent fishing available and the variety that
went with it, from raging torrents under a canopy of conifers to wide-
open valleys planted out with rice where almost every variety of fishing
was in abundance: the big water of the main streams; the side channeis
overgrown with willows; the mill streams where the large cannibals
lurked under a briar or cut-under bank; calm pools where dry fly could
be used to good purpose; the big water in the lower beats where
spinning is permitted and where good trout have been caught. Last
but not least the trained and built-up streams, the Kokarnag and Kotus,
presenting the angler with a series of pools and falls with weed beds
and side vegetation, where only expert roll casting could get a fly to
the hide-outs of the large trout—the reason why I failed.

A blank day was a rarity, even with log floating in full force, and
two trout on at the same time by no means uncommon. This happened
to me not once but a dozen times, crowned by my getting my largest
fish 3 pounds 5 ounces on the tail fly, and one of 1 pound 13 ounces
on the dropper.

The Bhringi was far the most popular, and most beats were fished
on most days except for only short periods of a day or two by indi-
vidual anglers. These, I was glad to see, were mostly army officers
who are maintaining the old fidelity to past army traditions with
growing enthusiasm, Those I saw in action worked hard with 1li-
chosen or hired rods and tackle, frequently using a stiff bamboo rod,
twisted undressed line, all of which made it hard work, but they seemed
to relish the experience—and they caught fish!

KASHMIR—A FISHING HOLIDAY 347

I myself did not use the spinning outfit much, as I found I got
all the sport I needed on fly and caught all my larger trout in this
way. But there is plenty of water and scope for the enthusiast with
level-wind or threadline outfit. .

For the seeker of big fish, he must concentrate on the mill streams
unless he is fortunate enough to get permission to fish on one of the
Trikker beats—formerly the Maharaja’s reserved waters, now generally
reserved for V.I.P’s. But with plenty of fish from half a pound to
two pounds and more, one can be well satisfied with a day’s sport,
especially since no beat is less than a mile and a half, and some are
as much as three miles long.

If one has caught game fish like mahseer, or even the sporting little
Barilius bola in trout fashion—that is, with fly rod and fine tackle—it
is difficult to enthuse over fishing out Salmo ferio or Brown Trout——
a silly poor-fighting fish, and by habit poor compensation by comparison.
The big trout takes up his abode, like a python, under the exposed
roots of a tree or a cut-under bank, where food comes to him to
gobble up; only very rarely does he rise to fly or chase a lure or
spinner. Quite often they are found in a hole in a mill stream no
larger than a billiard table, full of frogs, so that when they are hooked
they give little or no sport. They are certainly not elegant to look
upon; and poor by comparison with the young active fish for the table.
To catch them one must deviate from the fine art of fly, lure, or
spinner, and dangle a fly with a few feet of line out, under bushes,
trees and rocks. But it is the angler’s vanity, I suppose, that makes
him yearn for size—a big one is something to talk about—and holding
a record singles you out from others. Or perhaps is it just a sense
of achievement ?

I personally got all my enjoyment from casting a long line across
to the other side under some bush or rock to draw out a hiding’ fish,
and the Naubug in this respect provided the most delightful fishing.
It was wide, shallow, slow and clear; you saw your fish, and tried to
prevent him seeing you by long casts and fine tackle.

Most of the beats I fished were at 6,000 feet elevation or over.
There were always plenty of friendly jackdaws, a cuckoo somewhere
about, and on the slopes near cultivation chukor; but bird life was
not in the same prolific abundance as found when fishing for mahseer
in the foothills.

But I have digressed from my purpose, which is to give a note for
the benefit of others on conditions prevailing at present, with sugges-
tions on fishing in Kashmir today.

Let me assure all those interested in trout fishing in Kashmir that,
contrary to common assumption, instead of deteriorating the fishing
has actually improved and has passed pre-war standards, certainly in
the Bhringi and Lidder Valleys.

From a study of the remarks in the Fishery Watchers’ books it
would appear that round about 1942 the fishing in the Upper Bhringi,
Bidhar and Dyus was hardly worth a visit. This was also the case with
the Lidder after the big landslide when most of the fish died from some
toxic deposits brought down by the flood,

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

I fished in all 14 beats for 41 days, from the 2nd June to 17th
July 1955, and caught in all 565 fish of which 186 were retained,
weighing 1854 pounds. This total was made up as follows:

3 pounds and above ... 2

2 to 3 pounds Seige, 1/4
1 to 2 pounds cape ala,
Below 1 pound antes)

186 (all weighed to the nearest ounce,
and no selection or keeping only
large fish).

My best fish was 3 pounds 5 ounces, and best day 6 fish weighing 13
pounds 12 ounces.

I have given tabulated details later on to show how the various
beats fished, and weights and lengths of some of the larger fish with
their locations.

Bic Trout: In the 41 days I fished I saw only one trout of
about 5 pounds that jumped my hook, and lost three in big water
that ran down cascades where it was impossible to follow with most
of the line out when they either broke the cast or slipped the hook.
These I never saw and may have been larger mountain barbel.

Having set out briefly the results 1 had, I will, for the benefit of
of members, set out in detail conditions as I found them.

FORMALITIES AND TRAVEL: To enter Kashmir an Entry Permit is
necessary. Foreigners from overseas can obtain them at the port of
entry from the Tourist Bureau. Those resident or working in India
must apply to the Ministry of Defence (Kashmir Permit Section),
New Delhi, either direct or through the High Commissioner’s Office,
and for Indian Nationals the District Magistrate of the District of
residence. Fourteen clear days’ notice is required, but one is well
advised to give a month.

Travel from Delhi is well organised and can be done in the lap of
comfort by air or air-conditioned coach and fast train to Pathankote,
where again there is the alternative of air or road. The distance by
road to Srinagar is 267 miles and takes a day and a half by bus or
motor coach. Cars can complete the journey in a day. By air it is
only one hour’s journey.

The approach from Lucknow via Jullunder is not well organised—
in fact neglected—and train accommodation and timings are bad.

Srinagar is 5,200 ft. above sea level, but the road from Jammu
rises to 7,000 and 9,000 ft. to cross the watersheds of the Ravi/Chenab
and Chenab/Jhelum. So it is a good run and a full day’s work for
a car; speeding is not possible as there is very heavy traffic on the
road. The road distances from the following places are as follows:

Bombay ... 1,441 miles
Delhi ey 564 _,,
Lucknow Se BUT PE
Patna A ISOS 5.

Calcutta eels £9 Oi es

(pjpuocpony “[ ‘35° "w :80204q)

‘nyeg ye AgTTeA IeppryT Vy], ‘IEppr]T Py} Wo, no jo seq su vy

Yyy

Y fy

Journ. Bomsay Nar. Hist, Soc. PLATE IT

The built-up Kotus showing one of the large pools formed by stone bunds at
intervals throughout its course.

A nice bag of trout caught at Wahdan.

(Photos: A. St. J. Macdonald)

KASHMIR—A FISHING HOLIDAY 349

There are good dak bungalows and petrol pumps all along the route,
but for your own comfort take gammexane or flit as both flies and
bugs are bad at all halting places. On the way up we did not reach
our resting place for the night until 1 a.m. owing: to engine trouble,
and the only accommodation available was a room in the bazar in
a place glorying in the name of Royal Hotel. I had hardly got un-
dressed when I saw some 17 bugs on and about my pillow. I spent
the night seated on a step by the bus stand, for I would face any
discomfort rather than be feasted on by ‘pahari’ bugs. If going by
bus, as I did, it is advisable to take a sandwich lunch with you as
meal halts are more for Indian tourists than for European, and the
stand is often a long distance from the Rest House.

Suggestions: If going for a short holiday with limited
kit, air travel is the quickest and most comfortable; if going, as I
did, for a fishing and hiking holiday for 6 weeks, take your own car
for choice, or send your heavy kit on ahead by servant and follow
by air. There is an out-agency of the N.R.Y. in Srinagar should you
care to risk booking your heavy luggage. Taxi fares are high in
Srinagar: small cars 12 annas a mile, big cars Re. 1, station wagons
Re. 1-4 and, as most of the beauty and fishing places are 50-60 miles
away, your Car soon covers its own expenses.

Accommodation: Do not allow any Agency to run your
affairs, or they will most certainly rook you on a first visit. There
is more than sufficient accommodation for Europeans in Srinagar in
hotels and house-boats. Here is a list with charges.

Hotels (European style) Single room Double room
Nedou’s RS, All Rs. 39 per day
Palace yy (xe 7m) 40 ”
Park . Feel Canes
Boulevard op de mp OG 95
Golf View 39 12 ”) 22 ”

House Boats (5 room and fully furnished).

Special Class ... Rs. 800 per month.
‘A’ Class 500 ” 650 9
618)” (lags SON RAR OW ¥

NotEe.—These can be obtained much cheaper on the spot by bar-
gaining.

_ Licences and permits, bus fares and tour trips etc. can all be
obtained through, and with the aid of the Government Tourist officials,
always ready to help. There are also many brochures available which
are full of information for the tourist.

Supplies and Provisions: Shops are all well stocked
with all forms of stores at reasonable prices and nothing need be taken
up from below. Scotch is Rs. 28 a bottle, English and Dutch beer
Rs. 3-4 per bottle. Meat and fowls, milk and ghee are available at
all the fishing beats, and good cooks and servants obtainable in Srinagar.

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Subhana, the man JI had, made excellent scones and bread in camp
and cooked a good meal besides generally managing moves and porters.
Fishing tackle is available from three or four good shops, but it is
very expensive owing to the 80% duty charged on imports; but they
have everything. Camp kit and tents can be hired at reasonable charges.

Ir Siime WeAS kine! OClarewess Ine rae tor trout
fishing are :—

Rs. 400 per rod for season (1st April to 30th Sept. ).

,, 200 ,, 4, 5, half-season (3 months to run consecutively).
2 300s ay) peel week
ry) r ” » » a day.

Changing of beats and dates are permitted provided one week’s notice
is given, and provided they are available. A weekly beat can pe
changed with a weekly, and a daily with a daily one. A beat is
deemed to be available under the rules if found vacant 3 days before
the commencement of the second period of fishing.

Season licence holders are entitled to fish all the trout waters open
to fishing once in the season, provided they are available. A beat or
beats may be allotted a second time provided they are available. Half
Season licence holders are entitled to fish sel the beats once in the
season.

Weekly licence holders are not entitled to book weekly streams
more than once, but a beat may be allotted a second time if available.

Daily licence holders will not be allotted during the season any daily
beat more than twice in advance, but they may, at the discretion of
the Director of Fisheries, be permitted a second spell. Kulgam streams
and spring streams are allotted only once in the season to any one
angler.

The size limit is to in. in most beats, and 12 in. in the built-
up streams. A to in. fish weighs only 6 ounces and there are so
many of these that they are a menace, and the limit could well be
fixed at 12 in most of the beats I fished, while the quota is kept
at 6 fish. This could also be fixed at 9 on the Bhringi and Lidder
beats, if anglers cooperate.

Communications: Most of the beats can be reached by car
over good roads, running for most part along the streams. Travellers’
huts or rest houses are conveniently situated if you have your own
car; otherwise a tent is more mobile and saves the forward planning
of obtaining permission to use the bungalows which may have to be
vacated at short notice for officials on tour.

Below is a summary with notes of results on the beats I fished.

There is charm and variety in fishing the various beats. The Upper
Bhringi, and Bidhar its upper tributary break up into several channels,
and the lightest tackle and small flies can be used in the side streams,
with excellent dry fly water in places.

The Dyus is the upper Bidhar ‘and is a beat of two mountain
torrents running through heavy conifer forests in parklike surround-
ings, where one has literally to feel round and under boulders for fish,
but what fish there are are of good size.

KASHMIR—A FISHING HOLIDAY 351

The Naubug, I found a delightful stream. It is slow flowing,
wide and shallow, running through an open valley planted out with
rice, where casts had to be long and tackle fine to keep out of sight
of the fish, and in many respects was the nicest fishing I had in
Kashmir. Here I ‘caught the bird’! A sparrow took the fly on the
backward cast.

The Middle and Lower Bhringi, with the Mahdan, Yenyer, and
Batkut beats on the Lidder, is all big water, with four times the volume
of water coming down the Lidder to that in the Bhringi. Most of the
best fish are taken here by spinning.

The Kokarnag and Kotus are built-up streams and hold plenty of
good trout. The Kokarnag (lower beat) is spoilt by running through
villages for most of the way, though there are plenty of fish. I
caught my two best fish in this stream, one in the midst of a mother’s
meeting by a bridge, and the other among washermen busy flogging
clothes on stones !

The Kotus I found the most difficult to fish because of being planted
out with willows to such an extent that there 1s not room to swing
a cat in many of the best places, in fact I spent most of the day
recovering my flies and cast from overhanging branches, but here too
there are plenty of good trout.

Tue Burrnct is divided into 4 beats of approximately 2 to 3 miles each.
Upper (56)' All excellent water to suit all tastes; the main channel
is fast heavy water, the side streams are small and wadeable,
and full of fish but mostly small. There is plenty of water for
two rods for a week.

Middle (54). I found it most disappointing, it is mainly flowing in
one fast channel and had few fish. The Ahlan is also in this
beat, and though it has a number of excellent pools, there are
very few fish.

Lower (52). This is all big water in a series of large pools and
runs, and some good fish of 6 and 7 pounds have been recorded.
I only fished it for one day in July and did no good owing
to a snow water flood.

Lowest (49). I did not fish this water, but it too holds good fish
in April and May.

NausuG, BrpHar, AND Dyus. These are all the upper tributaries of
the Bhringi.

Naubug Lower (59). Is all excellent water traversing rice fields
in an open valley, it is wide, slow and shallow, with some nice
pools, and is the most fascinating fishing, where a long cast is
necessary and water in places slow enough for casting up stream.
There are plenty of fish and of a rich golden colour.

Naubug Middle (62). From the Larnu Bridge to a point 3 miles
up the road to Guridramer and is similar to the lower, running;
in an open valley and holds plenty of fish. It leaves the road

* Miles from Srinagar,

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 53

some distance on the right bank for the first two miles. A
really delightful beat.

Naubug Upper (66). This is about 5 miles in extent; the lower
portion is through rice fields, but the valley closes in and the
upper reaches are through fir forest and exquisite scenery,
where it is a series of falls and pools and should be excellent in
September. I found no fish high up, but they were plentiful
in the frog area among the rice fields. This is all excellent water,
above 6,o00 ft. elevation.

Bidhar (58). This fast flowing and clear stream carries more water
than the Naubug, and has more fish, and is very popular with
anglers. It runs in a number of channels and has good water
all the way and is near the road.

Dyus (60). Is an upper tributary of the Bidhar which is joined by
the Mantar a slightly smaller stream. Both are mountain
torrents falling fast from the delightful evergreen forests where
giant firs keep the water in shade most of the day. It
is not the form of fishing I fancy, searching with a short line
round boulders and swirls for hiding trout, but the parklike
surroundings more than SoLapemeeite for these limitations, and
the trout are large.

THE LippER VaLLEy. This is a large river with four times the
quantity of water in the Bhringi and flows down a valley 3 or
4 miles wide, up which is Phalgam a favourite holiday resort
at 7,000 ft.

Batkut (54). The river in July looks more like a hold for 4o-pound
mahseer than for trout, difficult going and the whole volume
of water runs down in one fast channel. I caught only one
fish and only saw two others. It is reported to be better in
September. ‘There was in progress heavy timber floating which
I fancy sent the trout to ground.

Yenyer (50). This is the next beat down the river and is peter
water as it breaks up into three channels and should be good
fishing, but I did no good. I spent 18 hours flogging the water
to catch 9 fish, 5 of which I returned. I was too late as the
snow melt was at its peak. It is I believe good in the early
Spring and Autumn.

Wahdan (50). This is the next beat down stream and the river
opens up very considerably and about half the water is taken
off by canals and irrigation channels and the fishing is really
excellent when the water is not discoloured or swollen from
melting snow. I found the fish here very strong and game,
the best in fact I had struck anywhere.

Kotus (38). I was permitted by the kindness of Mr. Malik, the
Director of Fisheries and warden in charge, to fish this
stream for a day. The allowance is only 4 fish of 12 in. in a
day, but it is a most interesting little stream built up and trained
into a series of pools and falls through villages and rice fields
overgrown for most part by willows. It needs expert casting,
plenty of wading, and the utmost skill in dropping a fly under
bushes, briars, and over weed beds and washed roots of trees.

———eooorrrrr

KASHMIR—A FISHING HOLIDAY 353

-I caught more willows than fish but enjoyed every moment of
the experience. Big trout have been taken and many others
are reported to be still in hiding, but they were too skilful
for me. ; ‘

Kokarnag (46). This small stream in the lower Bhringi valley
is divided into two beats and like the Kotus is trained and built
up but without the willows to hamper the use of a rod. The
upper is in open rice country but the lower for most part is
through villages, and though the fish are large and plentiful the
environs do not appeal to the taste, as dhobi ghats, bathing
places and mother’s meetings are hardly conducive to trout
fishing. I caught my largest fish under a bridge in the village
with a dozen women and children on the opposite side but 7 ft.
away! But it lends variety to the many forms and conditions
under which trout are caught in Kashmir.

Suggestions: Undoubtedly the seasons and waters must
be studied and selection made accordingly. When it gets warm
and water is reduced the fish move up stream, and it is a fairly
safe bet to find the best fishing in the upper reaches in September,
and in April/May in the middle and lower beats. June is also
good but at the end of the month snow water begins to come
down and the afternoon fishing is often spoilt. July is a poor
month in the snow-fed rivers, when fish are temperamental and
will feed one day and not move the next, and sleeper or log
floating is then in full swing.

INeavGaeieaeltOLOndmarneas Ciusl tiuce: i ViTw Malike and. his) statt
are to be congratulated on the fine job they have done in
restoring stocks in the face of great difficulties and an unen-
lightened public unaware of the time and labour involved in
maintaining stocks of fish both in size and numbers, and the
irreparable damage that is done if fish of all sizes are removed
and limits exceeded. This leaves the Department working in
the dark, and statistical data based on the entries in the watcher’s
books are not representative of the true facts, so that stocking:
is upset and fish suddenly become scarce. Watchers and
Government shikaris are licensed to accompany anglers on all
beats, but it is sad that a number of cases of these shikaris
using frog and worm to make up the quota of disappointed
anglers have been reported. This is a great shame as anglers
should be the best field workers of the Fishery Department, and
on them and their reports the warden should be able to improve
the lot of all. We can only hope that, as the young school of
anglers becomes conscious of these facts, conditions will improve.
It was pleasing to see the old fidelity to past traditions growing
among young army officers who are taking up fishing, and may
we soon see camps as in the old days, dotted about over the
beats and full notes of their observations in the watcher’s books.
There are no natural enemies—or at least I saw no traces of
otter or eagles or fish hawks, except only the small kingfisher—
and with the abundance of food in the form of frogs and tadpoles

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

in their millions, willow moth, mayfly, beetles and grasshoppers,
and fish breeding freely, we can look for better days than now.

Ropvps & TACKLE: A nine-foot fly rod and reel to suit with
30 yards of tapered dressed line and 50 yards of backing is
enough. 1 and 2 tapered casts for one dropper, and flies and
lures as suggested later. A Threadline outfit or casting rod
and levelwind reel for the big water should meet all requirements.

Baits & Lures: I found that dark rather than light flies
were favoured at this time of year; at least this was my ex-
perience. Even the popular Coachman was disdained for Zulu,
Watson’s Fancy, Dunkeld, and Mountain Lady. The local
shikari will press you, I suspect on a commission basis
with dealers, to use Peacock lures, March Brown, and on some
beats Teal and Green, but with the host of young anglers only
beginning and all using these flies, I intentionally avoided as far
as possible using these as every trout of size must have been
pricked frequently by these roughly made lures on heavy tong
barbed hooks. I make my own flies to suit local conditions.
At this time of year frogs and tadpoles are in their thousands
and almost jump into your cup of tea; they certainly will share
the tent with you, and the young rice is full of tadpoles making
up the chief diet of trout. On several occasions I shook frogs
and tadpoles out of the mouths of hooked trout, finding as many
as 3 frogs at a time, and handfuls of black mess that was once
tadpoles. I used a peahen wing feather for the wing and a
silver or yellow body that worked well, and as a dropper a black
body and tail with heavy black hackle and no wing. These
took well in the rice areas. In the forest areas I found Alexandra
and Mountain Lady most taking presumably because of the
presence of beetles, both green and black, large numbers of
which I found dead in the water or in the mouths of hooked
trout. ‘

There were of course days and reaches where anything would have

been acceptable but, on the days when fish were off, these flies served
me well. Lake and sea trout sizes are the best on a No. 8 hook, and
lures on two hooks with body covered with lead foil to give weight.

Spinning is allowed on some beats in pools and in snow water,

and the golden reflex minnow is most popular. I only used the spinner
when I had to, and in all only caught 18 fish in this way on a brass
fly-spoon or 14 in. gudgeon, so cannot offer any suggestion, but there
are plenty of large deep pools that will tolerate a heavy spinner as
the water is big and fast.

Conclusion: This, then, is the picture of fishing in Kashmir
today in the months of June and July. I fancy September would be
even better, and have the additional attraction of excellent and easy
chukor shooting in October, with monal and, snowcock and koklas and
kalij in the upper forests.

355

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE POST-EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT OF MACHAEROTA NOCTUA DIST. 1916
UNSECTA: HOMOPTERA; CERCOPIDAE)

BY
A. P. MATHEW, M.A., PH.D.
University College, Trivandrum
(With a piate)

A few species of this curious cercopid (Homoptera), whose nymphs
live in calcareous tubes out of which they emerge only for moulting,
were described by Westwood (1886) and Distant (1908, 1916) from
Ceylon and India. The developmental stages of one species (M.
plamtae) are sketched by Leiroy (1909). Distant (1908) has given
valuable bionomical notes relative to a closely allied species (M.
guttugera) trom Ceylon sent by S. Green to Westwood. Interesting’
as these accounts are, there are many details left unstudied. During
the last year [ noticed a heavy infestation by an ailied species, M..
noctua, on a small tree of Phyilanthus emblica in my garden in
Trivandrum and the following is a summary of the observations I
have been able to make on this during this period.

Adults, and eggs and nymphs of all stages in their tubes can be
seen throughout the year, there being a reduction in numbers when
the plant sheds its leaves and a maximum when the new leaves are
put forth. The egg is a tiny oval body with a lateral compression
at the broad end. By this end it is inserted into the axil of a leaf so
that only the other half is seen outside. Examination of ovarian egg’s in
mature females showed that this lateral compression is present in
them too—perhaps due to mutual pressure as the eggs enlarge.
When the egg is laid, it is this compressed region that comes out
foremost and naturally it is the part inserted into the leaf axil (fig. 1, °)
like a wedge.

The egg is 720 microns long (fig. 5, a). When the young is
about to hatch out, the upper part of the egg lifts off as a hinged lid
and the tiny nymph comes out (fig. 5, b). It moves on the twig a little
but immediately inserts the rostrum into the leaf stalk or tender twig,
and in a short time it is seen surrounded by a tiny frothy mass. It
protrudes and withdraws the posterior part of the abdomen and the
frothy mass is slowly increased. When the twig with the frothy
mass is put in a corked tube, this mass remains without hardening
for several hours. But if exposed, the outer surface of the foam
hardens in a few minutes forming a shallow minute turret on the
twig surrounding the nymph. The turret is filled with a clear fluid
in which the nymph fies immersed.

Tue Newty Harcuep Nympu (Fic. 6, a and b).

It is of a dark brown colour anteriorly while its abdomen is yellow.
On the ventral side of the abdomen the 5th and 6th sternites are of a

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

bright orange coloration. The nymph is 0.7 mm. long. Its eyes
are ruby red and the antennae are rudimentary, lying glued io the
side of the head. In ihe abdomen the hinder 3 segments are narrow
but capable of great extension and contraction. They can be
_ telescoped under the preceding segment or protruded considerably
backwards. When protruded it can make lateral and _ rotating
movements. At the hind end are two broad flaps or lateral valves
united dorsally but free ventrally; these flaps surround the anal
aperture. These extensile segments bear on their ventral surfaces
a few highly transparent minute filamentous structures which
however are seen better in the more advanced stages. They will be
dealt with separately.

More and more of the frothy mass is formed, and by semicircular
movements of the hind region of the abdomen it is daubed over the
free edge of the turret, which soon takes the form of a tube. Thus
a narrow tube is formed. It is of a dirty white colour. As the
nymph grows and elongates, the tube also increases in length corres-
pondingly by the addition of material at the free end. Each iresh
addition, as it dries and sets, forming an integral part of the tube, is
nevertheless separated by a distinct line from the part already existing
—these serial circular lines may be called the ‘lines of growth’.

THE First MouLt; Seconp InstTarR (fig. 7).

In about 8 to 10 days the tube has elongated to 2 mm. It 1s
slightly curved and in some tubes there is a marked spiral curvature
(tiie, “Ag ore ba)

The nymph comes to the mouth of the tube covered by a mass of
foam and undergoes the first moult. The moulted skin remains at
the edge of the mouth of the tube and as the tube elongates, its
fragments may be seen glued to the sides of the latter (fig. 1, r.m.).
The newly mouited nymph gets back into the tube and takes up its
position at the bottom with the rostrum thrust into the twig as
before, and soon becomes bathed in a watery fluid.

The second instar nymph grows rapidly in size still retaining the
appearance of the previous instar. The dark coloration however is
lightened and the orange yellow patches have become. intensified.
The abdomen is proportionately longer. Soon after the moult it is
1 mm. long but rapidly grows to 1.8 mm, in length.

‘As it grows it adds on to the tube till the latter is 3 mm. long.
The nymph which has evidently outgrown the dimensions—especially
girth—of the narrow tube leaves the tube and undergoes the second
moult, 8 to 10 days after its 1st moult.

Tue Turrp Instar (fig. 8).

The nymph after the second moult does not re-enter the original
tube to continue life but moves along the twig a few paces and at a fresh
spot, which may be just by the side of the original tube or a few
millimetres or even centimetres away from it (figs. 1-4), fixes itself
afresh thrusting its proboscis into the shoot and secreting the foany

1 All measurements are of specimens preserved in spirit.

DEVELOPMENT OF MACHAEROTA NOCTUA DIST. 809

substance around it. Solidification of the outer part of this foam soon
forms a turret around the nymph. The circumference of this turret
is much more than that of the earlier tube and the base of this turret
is seen to almost completely encircle and grasp the twig.

The nymph is about 2 mm. long. Rudiments of the wings
have become discernible in the thoracic region. The abdomen is
proportionately longer and freely mobile; its wide sweeps rapidly add
on layer after layer, as before, to this newly forming tube, which may
be distinguished as the ‘secondary tube’. The original ‘first tube’
Or ‘primary tube’, as already mentioned, is discarded.

The nymph grows rapidly and correspondingly the tube also
elongates (fig. 9). In 6 to 7 days the tube has elongated to 4 iin.
The nymph comes to the mouth of the tube and undergoes its 3rd
moult. As noticed before, the remnants of the exuvia remain glued to
the side of the tube. ‘The nymph after the moult re-enters the tube
and continues to grow and add on to the tube.

THE Fourru INSTAR.

The nymph is 4 mm. long. Pigmentation of the body has become
much lighter. The thorax is decidedly longer than in the previous
stage. The head and thorax now measure 1.1 mm, whereas in the
previous stage they measured only 0.7 mm. The abdomen is enlarged
—segments 3, 4 and 5 being particularly large. The intersegmental
grooves in this region of the abdomen are very distinct. On the sides,
in the intersegmental grooves 2/3, 3/4, 4/5 and 5/6 are characteristic
depressions. Of these, the depressions in the grooves 4/5 and 3/6
are much larger and more conspicuous than the others.

The nymph grows rapidly in size. In 3-4 days the nymph is
about 4.5 to 5 mm. in length and the tube 6 mm. (fig. 10) long’. In
another 4 days the tube has become g mm, long and the nymph is
6.5 mm. in length. Further growth is rather slow. In 7-8 days the
tube has attained its maximum length 10.5-11 mm. ‘The nymphs
are at their maximum length now—6.5 to 7 mm, (fig. 11).

It is ready for the final moult. Prior to this moult however a
reduction in the length of the abdomen is seen. The hinder abdominal
-segments get contracted efiecting this shortening of the body. It
leaves its position and, still covered by a mass of foam and froth,
slowly moves to the mouth of the tube. Here it takes up its position
on the rim at right angles to the length of the tube and undergoe
the final moult’. The adult that emerges is very soft bodied—the
wings are very short and unspread, and the spine soft and flexible.
Its coloration also is very light. It remains for a considerable time
on the edge of the tube, till the body hardens and the wings spread.
The nymphal exuvium remains glued to the mouth of the tube by the
hardened foam, declaring that the adult has emerged from the tube.
The emergence has been noticed taking place in the early hours of
the morning, and the adults fly only when the morning is well advanced

* The pronotal spine is quite distinct at the stage.
* This is the 4th moult. It is possible that there is a moult prior to this which
I have missed. :

4a

*

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

(figs. 1 and 3 m.). The adult is figured by Distant in Fauna ot
British India, Rhynchota, Vol. VI (agi6)!

The interesting nymphai stages of this homopteran are thus seen
to be spent in two successive “tubes—the first, termed the primary
tube (figs. i-4, pr.t.), is a smail tube which houses the early tiny stages
and the secona—the secondary tube (figs. 1-4, sec.t.)—a larger tube,
enclosing the later larger stages. Since the nymphs do not move
much, getting out of one and beginning the other, these tubes are
often seen close together and sometimes groups of small and large
tubes can be seen arranged side by side on the same twig (Hig. 1).
In view of this observation some of the early interpretations of the
function of the smaller tubes (Lefroy 1909) may have to be discarded.

In the morning hours and towards evening copious drops of a
clear liquid are seen exuding from these tubes—actually the rectal
secretion of the nymphs. At other times also these secretions may
be noticed dropping out of the tubes but only to a lesser exient. The
secretion is a clear watery fluid, sweet to taste. It may be kept for
hours but does not solidify. Examining a tube when the secretion
has begun to drop, it is seen that this fluid fills it and that the nymph
inside is completely bathed in it. As more fluid is excreted by the
nymph, the excess naturally flows out through the opening of the
tube. When the sky is clear in the evenings the continuous drops
that fall from the innumerable tubes appear like drizzling rain.
When the foamy secretion hardens to form the case around the nymph,
this watery fluid bathing the body appears to keep the nymph safe
from being entombed within the hardening mass. ‘The secretion
forming the frothy mass is produced at intervals and, as it is produced,
it is spread out or daubed as a layer at the edge of the tube by the
skilful manipulation of the extremely mobile hinder segments of the
abdomen. Here it soon solidifies, adding to the length of the tube.

This addition of materiai at regular intervals gives rise to the
characteristic transverse annulations clearly seen on the tubes and
called above, ‘the lines of growth’. Ina fully formed ‘secondary tube’,
there are 40 to 45 lines of growth and a study of the life history has
shown that this tube has been completed in 20 to 22 days. This
indicates that twice every day the nymph adds on tube-material causing
its ‘elongation’. There must evidently be an interval between these
two daubing’s, for the first must dry before the second can be applied
along its edge. The nature and origin of these secretions is being
studied in detail.

The brittleness of the tube is due to the calcareous matter it contains,
This can be dissolved out in acid and then the organic matrix remains
retaining the original shape of the tube. This however is now quite
flexible and may be formed of mucoid or cuticular material. |

SUMMARY

The Cercopid genus Muachaerota has several peculiarities. The
adults differ from all other Cercopids in possessing a disproportionate
pronotal spine like the Membracids, while the nymphs have the most
curious habit of making calcareous tubes in which they live. The
successive stages in the life history of M. noctua are traced and the

Journ., Bombay

Nat.

Hist. Soc.

MACHAEROTA NOCTUA DIST.
(EXPLANATION OF FIGURES AT END OF ARTICLE)

Vie AAA Of
Cry ee Nye ay

. } & On PE
*

8) ’ oa ”
Votes Pata EY tee ee he

Lomulwia a eidte

DEVELOPMENT OF MACHAEROTA NOCTUA DIST. 361

relation of the instars to the tubes in which they live is shown. The
tube material is ‘the spittle’ so characteristic of the Cercopids, but used
in a remarkable way. ‘The life-cycle is completed in two tubes—ihe
‘primary tube’ being a slender narrow tube lodging the tiny early
nymphs, and the ‘secondary tube’ secreted by the enlarged nymphs of
the advanced stages. Usually these two tubes are found side by side
and older observers, perhaps failing to understand the role otf the narrow
tube (primary), suggested that it may be for aeration. The nymphal
instars of which there are four, last as follows:—

ist instar 8-10 days; znd instar 8-10 days: (In primary tube).

3rd instar 6-7 days; 4th instar 15-18 days: (In secondary tube).

REFERENCES

Distant (1908) :- Fauna of British India, Rhynchota Vol. IV. p. 80.

% (1916): Fauna of British India, Rhynchota Vol. VI. pp. 183-184.
Lefroy, M. (1909): Indian Insect Life, pp. XII-+1-786. Plate Lxxxrix, p. 733.
1 Westwood (1886): Trans. Ent. Soc. London, p. 329.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

Fic. 1. A twig of Phyllanthus emblica with tubes of the nymphs of Machaerota
noctua. Fics. 2, 3 & 4. Twigs of Phyllanthus emblica showing different arrangements
of the primary and secondary tubes. Fic. 2 shows these tubes at some distance
while in Fics. 3 and 4 they are close together. Fic. Ea. An egg removed from the
leaf-axil (lateral view). Fic. 5b. Empty egg case after the emergence ofl the nymph.
Fic. 6. Newly hatched nymph. a—side view. b—ventral view. Fic. 7. 2nd instar
nymph. Fic. 8. 8rd instar nymph. Fic. 9. 8rd instar nymph—late stage. Fic.
10. 4th instar nymph. Fic. 11. Same, prior to the final moult.

ABBREVIATIONS USED

e—egg in the leaf axil. m—moulted skin of the last nymphal stage attached to
the end of the secondary tube. pr.t.—Primary tube. r.m,.—Remnants of the first
‘moult persisting on the side of the primary tube. sec.t.—Secondary tube.

1 Not seen in the original.

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN

BY
Daya KRISHNA, D.PHIL. (Alld.); pH. bv. (Cantab.),
AND
IsHWAR PRAKASH
Jaswant College, Jodhpur.

Part II. Foop AND FEEDING HABITs
INTRODUCTION

This is the second paper of the series' on the habits of the hedge-
hogs, Hemiechinus auritus collavts Gray and VFaraechinus micropus
micropus Blyth, found in the desert of Rajasthan. ‘These animals are
popularly believed to destroy vegetation, especially modified stems
‘and roots (Adams, 1899), but are generally seen under light posts at night
feeding on insects. This contradiction between popular belief and observed
fact led us to plan an investigation and study of the feeding habits of
these curiously unsocial animals under various conditions in nature, in
semi-captivity and captivity. The contents of the stomachs of many
hedgehogs were examined soon after they were captured. Care had been
taken to catch them after their feeding time. The conditions of semi-
captivity were the same as described in the first part of this paper. Under
these conditions they were presented with a wide variety of substances,
both of animal and of plant origin. These substances were offered
separately and also together in various combinations to find out their
food preferences. A good number of animals was taken for each experi-
ment.

Hedvehogs being nocturnal remain hidden in their burrows through-
out the day, but at dusk they come out for feeding. After trotting about
for five to six hours in search of food, they again cease their activities
and roll up to sleep. If food is available they can take it in large
quantities. Some of the alimentary canals which were examined were
completely packed with the chitinous remains of the oneness of the ‘ Dung-
Roller’.

Foop IN NATURE

To ascertain their food in nature a number of both /7. a. collaris and
P.m. micropus were dissected immediately after their capture. ‘The
following were. the undigested remains of food in the stomachs of the
hedgehogs :

1. Wings resembling those of Bucephalus helicopris.
2. Elytra of several beetles (unidentifiable).
3. Hard ey pieces (pt opal ae

——— — ———————————— — ee

1 Part 1, JBNAIS, 53 (1) : 38-43—Aug. 1955.

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN 363

4. Pieces of skin, amphibian as well as mammalian.

5. Thread-like flexible tendon.

6. Chitin pieces, of which those from Dung-Roller and 17. bucephalus
could be identified.

7. Spiny hook of some insect, leg.

8. Small pieces of spines of 4. a. collaris. (Only in one stomach of
FI, a. collaris). .

9. Complete, slightly disintegrated beetle, Helicopris bucephalus.

Contents of the alimentary canals of hedgehogs did not show any
traces of vegetable matter, although the contents were thoroughly exami-
ned under the microscope.

Foop IN SEMI-CAPTIVITY AND CAPTIVITY

In semi-captivity the food was provided to them in the evening, and
n captivity in early morning. For capturing an animal, it was observed
that they chased it with appreciable speed and attacked it, usually on its
head. After eating the prey, its remains were generally taken to the
burrow for future use. The following substances were tried in different
conditions. 25 hedgehogs, 13 7/7. a. collaris and 12 P. micropus, were used

for the experiments.

]

i Ba a nS

No. of

SEES AL

ES

Expt. | animals | Conditions Food given | Observations Remarks
ss e ~ Pe
dee 85) a, col= Captivity | Earthworms, ee Not taken
laris and | | ingand chloroform- |
om. Mmic- redk |
vropus
2. |13a@.col-| Captivity | Beetles, locusts, Taken The actual
lavisand | and semi- | crickets, mantis, food in nature,
12m. mic-| captivity larvae of many in- Helicopris,
vopus | sects, neuropter- bucephalus was
ous and lepidopter- preferred to
|ous insects and all other in-
termites etc., living sects,
and chloroformed,
3. |13a@.col- | Captivity | Ants, bees, wasps | Not accepted
lavisand| and semi- jete., killed with
12m.mic-|- captivity | KCN bottle.
rOpPUs
4. | 2a.C€olla-| Captivity Scorpion,
v1S (a) living (a) Not ac-
cepted Even the sting
| (6) killed. (oO) taken was taken.
|
5. | 95a. col- Semi-
laris and| captivity Snail, living. Not taken
9 Mm. Mic-
vOpUus
}
6. |10 a. col- | Captivity | Toads (Bufo are-| Caught, kill- | Even the bones
laris and | and semi- | zariws) and Frogs |ed and eaten | were taken.
| 10 7. captivity | (Raza tigrina),
_ maicropus | living.

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 53

|

|
NOs Os Food given Observations Remarks

: > iti
i IAle Conditions

Expt.

}

———

to | GUE | Captivity Uromastix hard-\ Not attacked

laris wicktit, living.
andSm.
MIcvopUus
8. | 5a. col- | do. Uromastix hard-\Viscera and
luris and wckiz, chloroform- | the tail taken
5 ml. mic- ed with ventral in-
Sopus cision,
9. |1 a.col- do. Varanus mnionitor,; Nottaken {The tail of the
laris | living. Varanus was
caught firmly
by the hedge-
hog between
its jaws. The
lizard attacked
the hedgehog
furiously and
in doing so its
mouth was in-
jured severely.
10. | 5a. eol- do. Varanus monitor, Viscera
laris and chloroformed with taken
5. Mm. MiC- a ventral incision.
vopus
11. | 1a. col- do. Eryx johnit (Nine| The entire
larts inches long), liv-{ animal was
ing. taken
12, | 1a. col- do. Plyas = wiucosus Taken The hedgehog
laris (13” long), living. caught it by

the tail and
rolled over it,
to give chance
to the snake to
strike against.
its spiny ar-
mour. In doing
so the snake
succumbed to
injuries & was

was broken by
pressing it bet-
ween the jaws.

devoured.

13. |5a. colla- | Captivity Pigeon (Columba Viscera The main
vis and 5 livia), living. (Its taken point of attack
mM. nUCYO- wings were broken) was the anus.
pus,

14. |13 a.colla-| Captivity Eggs. (a) Not (2) ‘he’ con
vis and 12} and semi- (a) Hen, taken tents were
m.'micro-| captivity - |sipped when
pus. provided in a

plate.
(6) Pigeon. (6) Taken (6) The egg

HEDGEHOGS OF THE DESERT OF RAJASTHAN

365

Pee eR ET

y |
Bp pe | Conditions | Food given omeeetations Remarks

15. | 5a@.colla- | Captivity Rats, (Rattus One was Prey was kill-
vis and 5 vattus), living. caught, kill-| ed by biting its
72. MICYO- ed and its |legs and face,
| pus. viscera was | and was shared
taken by all the in-
mates of the

cage.

16. | 13a@.colla-| Captivity | Rats chloroform-| Viscera

vis and 12} andsemi- |ed, with ventral taken
mt.micro- | captivity | incision.
pus.

17. | 10a. colla- do. Gerbilles (Merz- do,

vis and 10 ones hurrianae and

m. micyo- Tatera indica),

pus. chloroformed, with
a ventral incision.

18, do. do. Squirrel (Funam- do.
bulus pennant),
chloroformed, with
ventral incision.

19, do. do, Rabbit (Lepus day- do. Very often the
anus), chloroform- living animal
ed, with ventral | was attacked.
incision. Once the hed-

gehog injured
it severely on
the medial side
of the thigh.

20, 113 a. colla- do. Bats (Ahinopoma| ‘The entire ee

rts and 12 _kinneart), living, janimal was)

m micro- taken except

DUS. the patagi-
um

21. 13 @. colla-| Captivity Meat of goat, Taken In captivity

visand 12) and semi- | fresh. it was the most
m. micro-| captivity relished food
pus, and pieces of
lungs and liver
were preferred.

22, do, do. Milk of cow and do. Less preferr-
buffalo, fresh, boi- ed in captivity
led and sugared, but in semi-

captivity the
hedgehogs sur-
vived inainly
on milk.

23, (10 a. colla- Captivity Gram, wheat, bar-| Not taken When mixed

ris and 10 ley, millet and rice, with cow-dung

(Mm. micyo- etc. | some grains

pus. were picked
| up.

366 | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

No. of are

| -
Expt.| snimals | Conditions | Food given Observations Remarks
24. (13 a. colla-
vis and 12) Captivity 20 common ve-| Not taken.
m. micro-| and semi- | getables.
pus. | captivity
25. do. do. 10 entire plants | do.
found in the same
locality where the
hedgehogs were
collected.

The interesting feature of the ae habits of these heaeeP ee was
that they developed a cannibalistic tendency in the presence of a dead com-
panion. Whenever a dead hedgehog was placed in the cage its inmates
rushed to the carcase and started feeding on it, beginning with the viscera
(Prakash, 1953). They were observed to be very fond of their own young
ones ; even the mothers fed upon their progeny (Prakash, 1955). They
also showed remarkable resistance to hunger and thirst. In cages they
could be kept alive without food and water for four to six weeks. At
one time two of them (A. a. collaris) were locked by mistake in the.
laboratory. On reopening after 10 weeks the hedgehogs came out alive.

SUMMARY

1. A wide variety of substances was presented to captive and semi-
captive hedgehogs to find out their food preferences.

2. Alimentary canals of freshly caught hedgehogs were examined
to investigate their food in nature; which was mainly non-vegetarian.

3. Hedgehogs, Hemiechinus auritus collaris Gray and FParaechinus
mitvropus micropus Blyth prefer insects and fresh goat meat in cap-
tivity and milk in semi-captivity.

4. Hedgehogs did not take any plant or vegetable in captivity
and semi-captivity ; moreover no plant tissue was found in the contents of
their alimentary canals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to uNEsco and Shri S. D. Pande, Secretary, Birla
Education Trust, for financial help in this investigation.

REFERENCES —

Adams, A. (1899): The Western Rajputana States. London.

Krishna, D. & Prakash, I, (1955) : Ecological studies of the Mammals of
Rajasthan Desert: Distribution. Proc. 42nd. Ind. Sci. Congr. Part II. 310.

Krishna, D. & Prakash, I. (1955) ; Ecological studies of the Mammals of
Rajasthan Desert: Hedgehogs: Fossorial habits. ibid.

Krishna, D. & Prakash, I. (1955): Ecological studies of the Mammals of
Rajasthan Desert. Hedgehogs : pene habits. ibid.

Krishna, D. & Prakash, I. (1955): Hex dgehogs of the Desert of Rajasthan
Part 1. Fossorial habits and Distribution, JBNHS. 53 (1): 38-43.

Prakash, I. (1953) : Cannibalism in Hedgehogs. JBNHS, sr: 730-731.

Prakash, I. (1954) : Swimming and locomotion of captive hedgehog.
IBNHIS. 52 (2 & 3) : 534-5.

Prakash, I. (1955) : Cannibalism in Hedgehogs. JBNAHS, 52 (4) : 922-3,

THE MALAYAN GREAT TIT

BY

JAMES CAIRNS, M.C., M.B.O.U.
(With a plate)

The Malayan Great Tit (Parus major ambiguus) is so severely
limited in local distribution that, for this reason alone, it must pe
considered a very rare bird; and as far as I am aware it never has been
recorded from any Malayan island large or small. Nevertheless for
the past thirty-five years, to my knowledge, it has been a resident
and breeding species in Penang Island. Malay residents of venerable
age with whom I frequently converse have known the bird since
boyhood, back to 1885. Its home is the seven-miles-long mangrove
forest reserve on the west coast, the width of which varies from one
hundred yards to half a mile. After years of intimate association with
this reserve I estimate that the Great Tit population is, at the very
least, in the region of 50 pairs per mile and is probably twice this
number. The bird also has inhabited for a similar length of time the
vast mangrove forest which engulfs the estuary of the Sungei Merbok,
West Kedah, where it is equally numerous; and it is indeed surprising
that no ornithologist past or present ever has reported its presence
from either habitat. The published annals of distribution areas are
therefore woefully incomplete:

The Malay name of the Great Tit is chiak bengala bakau, the
probable origin of which could be the bird’s white-cheeked resemblance
to the Java Sparrow, whose Malay name is chiak bengala subang.
The two, however, have no further similarity.

One of my perennial habits has been to visit the tits’ reserve
once every week and through such persistent continuity I have amassed
considerable information concerning the life, domestic economy, habits
and ecology not hitherto known or recorded. This paper is a collated
and correlated presentation of important essentials and characteristics
of a wonderful little bird.

Methods of food-searching are typically tit-like: hanging inverted
from sprays and twigs; stretching out from very slender perches;
carrying dead leaves sometimes much larger than themselves to any
convenient place and standing on them with both feet while they
probe every curl and curve. ‘They are particularly partial to exploring
dead leaves on the ground itself, and tangles of storm-broken boughs
strewn about the glades, making many trips from this debris up to
the canopy and from the canopy back to the ground during their
feverish restless rummaging. They drink rain water from holes high
up in trees. In this forest paradise they have no fear of man and
feed without the least concern at very close range. They may on
occasion be seen in young mangrove saplings, but their real love is
the older trees. They constantly associate in due season with

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Arctic and Crowned Willow Warblers (Phylloscopus b. borealis and
P. 1. inornatus), White-eyes (Zosterops p. williamsoni) and Fly-eaters
(Gerygone sulphurea) feeding and singing and moving together: the
first two species often in great numbers. On such occasions, and in
such mid-March gatherings, the tits utter what I consider to be their
true nuptial song. The forest rings with these wild, clear, tempestuous
phrases te-bet-chu, te-bet-chu, te-bet-chu (accent on the middle syllable)
repeated over and over while glancing through and gracing the
canopies. Prolonged experience and accumulated evidence have
convinced me that pairs occupy definite territories and zones of activity.
They have their feeding circles and cycles. They have their favourite
glades where one may see aS many as 20 pairs at a time communally
preening, singing, feeding and flirting: and again there are glades
where no tits ever come. The bird is not what I call an early morning
exhibit. The best hours of the day for viewing it are between noon
and 5 p.m.

Like all tits our bird occupies a favourite nesting site year after
year so long as it lasts. One of many known to me is a small api-
api stump only about 3 ft. high and 5 in. in diameter, which has been
eccupied by a pair for the past seven consecutive seasons, and it still
stands. The cavity walls have become smooth and shiny from long
use. The stump, semi-decayed, stands in a transept of scattered tall
trees and the sun shines on it only for one short hour of the long day.
At this spot on 16th January 1955 a beautiful male Great Tit suddenly
appeared some 20 ft. to my right, greatly agitated and uttering a
continuous stream of rapid notes rrrr-chi-chi chi-chi-chi followed by a
running churrr and flirting its tail and wings in unison. Presently it
flew to the nest stump which has a three-way split top. After some
tilting and testing it disappeared by sliding down the entrance funnel
head first. In about_a minute it was out again, then in again, thea
out, calling incessantly. At this point the female appeared from
nowhere and joined the male on the stump. The male’s notes then
changed to pe-lay pe-lay pe-lay pe-lay. (All the black of the female’s
plumage is less intense than the male’s and her central under-body
band is narrower; but each sex has a small grey-white notch inset at
the base of the black nape.) She slid into the cavity without hesitation,
emerged, went in again and then out. Both birds appeared to enjoy
themselves thoroughly by wriggling upwards through the narrowest
of the three exits. Eventually they drifted off together down a corridor
of green light. This is typical of the site-prospecting and frolicking
that begins in December and goes on through January, February and
early March.

It is positively amazing how these birds start bustling and building
almost to the day —the third Sunday in March— year after year. On
20th March, two pairs of tits were seen in mixed leafy and dead scrub
at ground level. Both females were collecting what appeared to be
shredded bark or fine fibres while the males attended but did no
collecting. The take-off was awaited with quiet concentration for it
is no easy matter to follow, even with binoculars, the fast flight of
such small grey birds through sun-and-shadow-dappled forest. A
second factor which increases the difficulty is that the birds change

hree-foot high stump.

.

it int

Nest site of the Great T

Mangrove home of the Great Tit.

(Photos: J. Cairns)

THE MALAYAN GREAT TIT 369

their relative positions during flight. The first pair to depart were
almost immediately lost in transit behind massed foliage but the second
pair, travelling through older forest, were successfully marked down
150 yards from my viewpoint. Both birds stopped on the same bough
of a leafy tree, then some moments later the female flew to the apex
of an isolated tree-stem standing in a glade, and at once dived vertically
down a cleft just below the summit with her crowded beakful of fibres.
On emerging both flew off in a direction away from me. The normal
routine of all building pairs I have ever seen is the same. Females
- collect. materials and shape the nests while males accompany their
partners on all flights at this period; but later on males spasmodically
help to construct second nests. The stem on closer examination proved
to be very decayed indeed. For this reason it could not be climbed
nor could it be successfully viewed from any adjacent height. The
entrance to the nest was on the north side about 1 ft. below the summit
which was judged to be 13 ft. high. It was not a site which, without
preknowledge, one would examine in casual passing. There being no
necessity to inspect at this stage, withdrawal was made without
disturbing tree or nest.

On 27th March my Malay climber and I returned with a 15 ft.
ladder. The stem, however, was too frail to support even the slight
weight and so I held the ladder erect close to the tree while Rali
gingerly eased his way upwards. With the aid of a torch he was thus
able to peer into the cleft without touching the tree. He reported the
nest held no eggs but appeared to be complete and made of soft
substances which could not be identified in the meagre light. It was
73 in. down the stem from the lower lip of the entrance and completely
filled the width of the cavity bottom.

We returned again on 3rd April and on reaching the tree stem
tapped it gently and out came the female tit immediately. She flew
off without any undue protest. This order of things is completely
reversed when incubation is advanced. Some birds refuse to leave the
nest and may be lifted out; but from those that do, scoldings are
eruptive and vehement. Repeating last week’s procedure I held the
ladder upright and in due course Rali reported the nest contained five
beautiful eggs. These were chalk white, slightly glossed, thickly
freckled with liver brown over the large ends, while the lower halves
of the shells bore few spots. The grouping on one egg was dense
enough to form a cap. They measured 17X13, 17X12, 17X14,
16x13, 18x14 mm. The nest was shaped like two-thirds of a
saucer, this being the shape of the hollow it filled, and along the
‘straight’ third which was actually a flat curve, measured 3 in., and
the diameter 22 in. The whole structure was amazingly shallow, 3/10
of an inch only at the deepest centre of the interior, and only a 4 in.
thick at the thickest part of the material which in places was less
than a + in. thick. Like all tits’ nests previously seen, this nest was
unique in these respects, and also in the composition of its fabric.
The interior was completely black; composed of a uniform layer of
very fine hair-like fibres probably collected from tidal debris, overlying
and woven into a lower layer of beige-coloured vegetable felt probably
collected from swamp sedges. Below the felt was a second layer of

370° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

black fibres, and below these a second discontinuous layer of cinnamon-
coloured felt. Throughout, the lower layers and nest rim were stiffened
with fine wiry grass threads. At one point on the edge of the structure
were two small tangles of white spider silk; and the eggs lay on tufts
of dark-tipped grey rat’s fur. The presence of wiry grasses and
vegetable felts denotes journeys outside the forest to obtain them.
Wood chips, if any, below a nest are entirely fortuitous. Nests are
always very simple, very shallow, neatly moulded by the sites con-
taining them, and have burnished black interiors.

While at the nest I recorded several new song and call phrases.
If separated in flight or in different trees the notes were tee-hoo-hee,
tee-hoo-hee, followed by chiky chiky chiky chiky chiky. Constantly
uttered was a swelling phrase sounding exactly like te-pel-weetyu, te-
pel-weetyu. Pray-tayv-tay-tay-tay was a rapid alarm: a soft choorip-
choorip-choorip never ceasing when entering or leaying: and when
food hunting the call became a double syllable, the first accented —-
teehu-teehu-teehu— very like the see--saw notes of the European Great
Tit. On the point of leaving I saw the female take fresh material into
the nest which may have been to repair minor displacements; while the
male, idling in thin foliage, sang —tay-cheetsaway-cheet, tay-cheeis4
away-cheet— softly and sweetly to himself.

A week later I was astonished to discover a second pair of tits
building in the south side of the same tree stem, just 2 ft. below the
occupied nest. Great Tits were everywhere and their loud clear calling
wheest-tu-wheest, wheest-tu-wheest made the forest resound. In one
hour I saw 12 pairs.

Although I visited the reserve as usual on 17th and 24th April
I did not go near the nesting tree on these dates; but on my rst of
May visit I saw the male feeding his full-fledged family. While the
parent was away foraging, the young also foraged on their own but
were not observed to collect anything. The male fed each young bird
in turn and on his every approach there was great agitation: fluttering,
gaping and fluffing of feathers. After being fed they continued to
explore leaves while the male preened. ‘Ihe female did not once appear.
Young birds are strikingly different from adults. The whole head,
nape, throat, breast and under-body band are grey not black. The band
itself is very narrow and runs down only as far as the lower breast,
fading out altogether before reaching the position of the legs; whereas
in the adult it runs right along the abdomen, between the legs and
over the vent to the tail. The edges of both mandibles in the young
are pale yellow-white; the inside of the mouth is flesh-coloured, and
the white cheeks are filmed with grey. Near this family I found
myself surrounded by a party of six adult tits. In a phase of a fracas
between two males one bird, which was hanging by its feet head down
and swinging up to peck at the other perched immediately over it,
was visibly surprised when the upper bird dropped below it and hung
itself by its feet from the hanging bird’s legs. The added weight
broke the grip of the latter and the falling birds almost hit the mud
before they separated and flew off,

THE MALAYAN GREAT TIT O71

May 8th was a day of monsoon rains and violent winds. While
sheltering in a pondok’ quietly enjoying a pipe two male tits came
out of the mangrove and perched on high, half dead trees standing
in an open swamp close by. From these stormy heights they sang a
song-phrase, new and unforgettable, for a continuous period of twenty
minutes before returning to the rain drenched forest. In a wilderness
so wet the song itself had a liquid, storm-tossed quality: wet-it will
wet you-will wet you-will wet you: wet-it will wet you-will wet you-
will wet you is an almost exact rendering. At any rate by repeating
it I can relive the rapture and sense the storm.

Throughout May the mangrove is rich with flying first broods,
but in the first week of June second clutches are being laid in the
same nests, or second nests are being built in new sites. Incomplete
nests, complete nests without eggs, fresh eggs, incubated eggs or
newly hatched young may be found through June and well into July
on the same day. ‘This necessarily means late July nests provide
discoveries of incubated eggs in August, but I have never known a
single instance of a clutch being laid entirely in August or, at the
inception of the season, in February. Egg-laying occurs from March
to July inclusive with some incubation overlapping into August; and
so the forest remains clamorous with fledglings into September.

Confined as it is strictly to the mangrove belt one naturally expects
all nests of the Great Tit to be in the mangrove belt. This, however,
is not the case. In recent years a phenomenon has developed which
is fantastic but true. Many pairs breed outside the forest altogether
though adjacent to it. These nests are at comparatively great heights
from the ground in holes of isolated dead trees which have been left
standing in a felled area. On 5th June I watched a male for half an
hour as it made a wide circuit of such trees before entering a hole
in one only 60 ft. from where it started and from where I was standing.
This detour appeared to be a deliberate attempt at deception. Measured
exactly by rope the site was 71 ft. from the ground on the south
side of the hole. The nest was an oblique 7 in. from the entrance
which was very narrow indeed, a mere 1.6 in. in diameter. Thirty
ft. higher in an adjacent tree was an old Serpent Eagle eyrie. Both
tits were seen to enter the hole with materials, one waiting till the
other came out. At such a height in such a tree standing in denuded
land one would never dream of looking or expect tits to breed. The
whole width of the male’s chest was black and the central body band
very black and broad. This is usual in full breeding plumage. Flight
is fairly fast, somewhat jerky but more or iess straight and lacks the
erratic side-slipping of the sunbirds. A week later—12th June—the
nest contained one egg, and five eggs two weeks later—igth June.
There were, however, only three newly hatched chicks on 2nd July.
I suspect a lizard which I saw come out of the hole, of having eaten
two. The three flew on 16th July. Also on 5th June, two miles
further north, a second nest was located. A male in fine fettle and
plumage was seen coming out of the mangrove with materials which

oe re

—————$s

+ A small thatch hut for shelter from rain and sun.

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63

it carried to one of a group of trees standing in the open. The chosen
hole was again facing south and was g2 ft. from the ground. On
26th June it contained seven eggs, five of which hatched on oth July
when 2 addled eggs were removed. The young flew on 23rd July.

Again on 12th June in the same region two more nests in similar
situations were marked down in the same way. The first of these
was in the extreme end of a broken bough curving south at a height
of 40 ft. up a roo ft. dead tree. When my Malay climber was out
on the limb, just 6 ft. behind the entrance, the female flew out and
perched close to his head, bobbed and curtsied, wove from side to
side, flirted her wings, spread her tail and uttered a plaintive chi-choo-
it, chi-choo-i1t continuously. The total length of the horizontal hollow
was 52 in. and the nest was half way in and not at the end, lying
in mid channel as it were, with the outer rim 24 in. from the entrance
which was 2¢ in. in diameter. Strangely enough the nest though
complete held no eggs. When Kali was 8 ft. below the limb on his
way down, she was back hanging inverted by both feet to the lower
edge of the entrance. From this position, like an acrobat on a trapeze,
she levered herself up and in with a single thrust. During the descent
the tree vibrated with heavy movement but she did not come out.
In the circumstances I can only assume that her anxiety to return to
the nest may have been due to the imminent expulsion of her first
egg. At any rate there were five eggs on 18th June. Oa account of
the frail state of the tree it was not climbed again, but I saw a
family of five young with the parents on 16th July. Later in a storm
the limb broke off. From it I recovered the nest and found it to be
an abnormally compact unit of rats’ fur lightly laced with the usual
fibres and felts. The male of this pair was observed to catch a medium
sized butterfly with sand-coloured underwings. which was carried in
the bill to a high branch. Pinning the insect under its feet the tit
pulled off both wings and dropped them, then proceeded to devour
piecemeal the whole of the inch-long thickish body. On 24th July
this experience was repeated. A friend and I saw a male tit pull
the wings off a pale yellow and brown-winged butterfly and pass the
body to a fledgling. The second site was at a height of 85 ft. on
the inevitable south side and contained a half made nest. On 26th
June it held five eggs which were successfully hatched and the young
seen on 31st July. New call phrases uttered by this pair and carefully
recorded were a soft anxious chee-pee, chee-pee, a cheery yur-tu-erly,
yur-tu-erly and a_ spirited chi-cher-o-ki-kee, chi-cher-o-ki-kee when
screened from each other.

To appreciate fully the significance of this exodus from the forest
for nesting purposes it is, I think, necessary to state these facts. Up
to 1947 the mangrove was 100 to 500 yards wider than it is today
throughout its whole length. In the years following, these widths were
felled after a bund had been constructed to cut off the sea from the
planned reclamation. But for reasons unknown many single trees and
groups of trees were left standing in the great denuded areas of now
rotting stumps, prostrate trees, tangled scrub and rank grasses, and
with the passage of time are slowly dying, or have died, from lack of
salt water. It is therefore probable that the pairs now nesting in the

THE MALAYAN GREAT TIT 373

open are instinctively returning to nesting sites which were once deep
in the forest. It might well be that, as the result of the encroachment
of man, the tits may soon spread eastwards to the kampongs! which
are not so very far removed from their present secluded sanctuary.

SUMMARY

The Malayan Great Tit is a resident breeding bird in Penang island.
This is supported by the writer’s personal knowledge of the fact
covering a period of 35 years and by statements made by reliable local
Malays who can remember the bird since boyhood as far back as 1885.
The combined sources of evidence thus account for a period of 70 years.

The bird is confined to the west coast mangrove belt where the present
population is estimated to be between a minimum of 350 pairs and a
maximum of 7oo pairs. But in recent years many pairs have bred in
cleared areas adjacent to the mangrove.

Diet includes butterflies taken on the wing.

Indifference to danger and extreme curiosity are inherent charac-
teristics.

Nuptials begin in December; and the egg-laying season extends
from mid-March to mid-July with some incubation overlapping into
August. :

At least two, sometimes three, broods are reared by one pair in a
single season. The full clutch of eggs is normally three, five or seven
(in not a single instance out of more than 300 nests examined has
a bird been found brooding two, four or six eggs). Incubation lasts
14 days; and the young fly on the 14th day after hatching. Nesting
sites vary in height between 3 ft. and 92 ft. above the ground. Call
and song phrases present great variety in tempo, quality and character,
and those recorded are probably far short of the full range.

1 Habitations.

SOME ZOOLOGICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
HIGH ALTITUDES OF THE HIMALAYAS!
BY
BiswAMoy BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutia 13
(With a map)
INTRODUCTION

Any form of life, at a given time, represents the product of the inter-
action of its environment and heredity. The environment has indeed a
key-role in the process of evolution. A correct appraisal of the mecha-
nism of evolution cannot, therefore, be made without a thorough study
of the environmental factors through which life passed and is passing,
and their effects on the living things.

For the purpose of biological studies, the earth is divided into a.

number of ecological zones, each of which has its own distinctive charac-
teristics. The zones have, moreover, similarities with one another.
Though for various reasons one cannot delimit such zones into water-
tight compartments, yet it is perhaps possible to define certain geo-
graphic areas possessing certain specific attributes and supporting a
certain type of life. High altitude is one such ecological zone, and its
environmental factors differ substantially from those of lower elevations.

DEFINITION OF HiGH ALTITUDES OF THE HIMALAYAS

From the point of view of physical geography it is possible to define
a particular elevation limit above which everything may be termed as
‘high altitude’, but as a biologic environment the definition of high
altitude should not depend entirely upon the elevation of land above
mean sea level for reasons set forth below.

The Joint Commission on High Altitude Research Stations in its
report (see Korif, 1954) has defined ‘high altitude’ as regions ‘in excess
of about 7,500 ft., or about 2,c00 meters.’ Unfortunately, nowhere
does the report give any basis for this definition. This report reveals
that most of the high altitude research stations listed in it are solely
or mainly for the study of the physical sciences; that the few stations
where biological investigations are or can be conducted are situated
between 10,000 and 14,000 ft., the only three exceptions being estab-
lished at fairly northerly latitudes (34°N 47° 19’N); and that the only
station of the Himalayas viz. Gulmarg Research Observatory, Kashmir,
is located at about 9,000 ft. at 34°N. These would tend to show that
factors for researches in the physical sciences have been mainly con-
sidered in adopting the above definition by the Commission. Besides,
many people, including some biologists, have a rather vague conception
of what constitutes the high altitude zone for biological purposes, and

OP rt tt a tf a

* Published by permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

ZOOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE HIMALAYAS 375

different altitudinal figures ranging between 5,000 and 10,000 ft. have
often been quoted as the lowest limit of ‘high altitude’. From my
personal acquaintance with animals at high altitudes in Sikkim’, and
in the Mount Everest area of Nepal as a member of the Daily Mail
Himalayan Expedition 1954 (Biswas and Khajuria, 1954; Izzard, 1955;
Biswas, 1955), I find, however, that the Commission’s definition seems
hardly tenable in so far as the Himalayas are concerned. And, I am
sure, biologists with first-hand knowledge of animals and plants of the
high Himalayas and the environment in which they live will agree
with me.

The ‘high altitude zone’ as a biotic environment possesses certain
attributes which have a definite and understandable effect on the life
that exists there. The most obvious physical factors of high altitudes
are reduced atmospheric pressure, low temperature, and high lght
intensity. There is no doubt that they have an important bearing on
the physiological processes of organisms living there.

While the fauna of high altitudes of India is only perfunctorily
known, the floristic studies demonstrate interesting gradations in the
forest types as we go above the temperate coniferous zone. It has
been seen that the ‘Alpine Fir-Birch Forest’ zone as defined by
Champion (1936, p. 269) is the uppermost limit in the Himalayan
region, beyond which there is a sharp transition of flora with
rhododendron shrubs predominating. This transition obviously corres-
ponds to the different biotic environments met with in the two zones.
Champion’s ‘Alpine Fir-Birch Forest’ zone may, therefore, be taken
as the lowest limit of high altitude as a biotic environment. The
limit of the alpine fir-birch zone varies from west to east, being about
3,000 meters (ca. 9,840 ft.) in the western Himalaya, and 3,800 m.
(ca.. 12,500 ft.) in the eastern.

It is apparent that the physical elevation alone does not give rise
to high altitude conditions. Lurthermore, it is apparent that the limit
differs widely according to the local conditions of geographical position
and direction of the mountain ranges, moisture-content of the air,
velocity of the wind, ice formation, avalanches, landslides, solifluction,
composition of soil, etc. (Griggs, 1946). Thus, in the Rocky Moun-
tains, Washington, the tree-line is about 3,300 m. (ca. 10,800 ft.),
while on different slopes of Mount Washington, New Hampshire, it
varies between 1,200 and 1,740 m. (ca. 3,900 and 5,700 ft.), and at
Bay of Islands, Newfoundland, it is only 300 m. or about 980 ft.
(Clarke, 1954)! Likewise, there is indeed a sharp difference in the
altitudinal figures for tree-lines on the northern and southern faces of
the Himalayas.

ZOOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

In an area as interesting as high altitudes of the Himalayas, the
animal and plant lives should also be highly interesting, since they
tend to pose a number of important biological problems of a funda~
mental nature. But, unfortunately, we know so little about the animals

2

1 See JBNHS, 54: 530 (1953).
bs)

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAE HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

of high altitudes that we are unable to make any headway. Not very
long ago the ounce or snow leopard (Pantera uncia) used to roam
about the high Himalayas in fair numbers, but it is rather scarce now--—
so much so that it has been included in the list of protected Indian
animals (prohibited for shooting and export). It follows, therefore,
that proper measures ought to be taken soon to prevent its extinction.
But, so little is known about the ounce — its status, its life, its habits
and habitats — that no effective measures, however genuine, seem possi-
ble immediately for its preservation. India has a substantial trade in
fur of high altitude animals, but the possibilities of expanding the
trade by scientifically rearing these animals cannot be explored, because
nothing very much is known about them.

We are better acquainted with game mammals and game birds of
the high altitudes because of their value as sport, but nothing is known
about the adaptive adjustments that have enabled them to. flourish
under such highly specialized conditions.

_IJt would then appear that there are a number of zoological problems
associated with high altitudes of the Himalayas, which require our
urgent attention. The more important ones are briefly discussed below.
It is, however, necessary to state that most of these problems are so
interlinked that they are grouped together under certain general
captions.

FAUNAL STUDIES

_. Faunal. studies are the first prerequisite for any type of detailed
zoological researches. Although a number of Expeditions (mostly politi-
cal !) made. collections of animals at high altitude areas of the Himalayas,
no systematic faunistic survey has as yet been conducted. there. A
thorough survey .of animal life of the high altitude area demands,
therefore,. our first and foremost attention. Faunal studies may be
conducted roughly along the following lines ;_

Systematics and Zoogeography: Studies on syste-

matics of animals and zoogeography should provide faunal lists of
the various groups of animals, a knowledge of their horizontal and
vertical distribution, the proportion of palaearctic and oriental elements,
and other relevant topics.

Ecology: A study of the physico-chemical and biotic elements
of environments and their effects on animal life is also in demand.

These investigations are likely to be of far-reaching consequence
in understanding the process of organic evolution. They may also
throw light upon many palaeogeographic problems, so little understood
at present, and on the spread of. pests. and diseases.

Bronomics or ANIMALS

High altitudes present certain specific environmental conditions that
require special adaptations. Limited amount of vegetation, extreme

- aye Pear? 41 r. . A an in 3 y 9
temperature condition, strong wind, freakish weather, low oxygen-

and moisture-content of the air would normally make it. difficult -for

ZOOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE HIMALAYAS 377

animal life to survive and flourish under such conditions. In spite of
this, it is amazing that the Himalayas support a great variety of fauna
in the higher domains. How these animals live, breed and flourish
there is indeed one of the most fascinating problems.

Studies of the life-histories of different animals — their modes of
reproduction, various stages of development and growth — all involve
observations both in the field and in the laboratory throughout the
year. Furthermore, various physiological processes, such as respira-
tion, circulation, digestion and metabolism, and food and breeding
habits, call for extensive studies, experimental and otherwise.

Severe weather conditions of high altitudes are either resisted or
escaped by animals through migration to more favourable areas, or they
induce a spell of dormancy. These phenomena may be studied under
the following heads:

Hibernation: This state of dormancy is so far known to be
brought about by gradually decreasing temperature, inadequacy of
heat regulating mechanisms, shortage of food, dryness of food, con-
centration of carbon dioxide in the hibernacula, accumulation of fat,
glandular disturbances, etc. Though some work on the hibernation
of some animals has been done in Europe and America, it is not
known how far the factors mentioned above induce hibernation under
the prevalent Himalayan conditions.

Aestivation: This is another state of dormancy, but is
brought about by drought instead of by low temperature. With the
increase in altitude, there is an increase in the rate of evaporation,
thereby causing loss of water-content leading to aestivation. The
question of aestivation has, therefore, a direct bearing on the water-
relation of animals.

Overwintering: This involves passing through severe
winter conditions. So far as is known, animals resist the cold of
winter by the development of protective covering, by. decreasing
physical and metabolic activities, by developing cold-hardiness, or by
a combination of some or all of these measures. Aithough the pheno-
menon of overwintering has been known in insects as well as in
vertebrates occurring in other parts of the world, it is as yet unknown
for the Himalayan animals.

Migration: The escape from severe weather conditions in-
volves an orderly movement of animals. In some groups, such as
birds, this takes place on a geographic scale, that is, they migrate
from one country, even from one continent, to another. In certain
other groups, such as insects, geographic migration is rather rare.
In typical cases, it may be noted, the migrated animals return to
their original homes when conditions become favourable.

PARASITOLOGICAL STUDIES

_ The incidence of parasitism among animals dwelling at high alti-
tudes is very little known. There is a large scope for investigation

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

of ectoparasites and endoparasites of animals living in this zone, espe-
cially of the warm-blooded vertebrates. Studies on the seasonal
fluctuation in the frequency of parasitic infection, though known for
some of the parasites at lower altitudes, have not been conducted for
high altitude areas. The usefulness of such studies in relation to
human and animal diseases is obvious and need not be underlined.

STUDY OF VARIATIONS

It is a well-known fact that no two individuals of the same
species look exactly alike. This is due to the biological fact of varia-
tion. The study of variations is one of the most important aspects
of evolutionary biology, and is one of the main pivots on which the
process of organic evolution, as understood today, turns.

Variations are of two types, phenotypic and genotypic, the essen-
tial difference between the two being that the latter is heritable though
not always perceptible, while the former is detectable but may not
be heritable.

Low temperature is known to bring about certain interesting varia-
tions in animals, two of which are mentioned below:

Cyclomorphism: This is the phenomenon of phenotypic
changes in structure brought about by change in the season. Such
structural changes are usually transitory and reversible, and the animals
regain their original structure on the return of normal season. The
phenomenon has been observed in certain crustaceans, and is believed
to be caused largely by low temperature. It is, however, likely that
some other factors, unknown at present, may have contributory réles
in producing cyclomorphism. |

Jordan’s Rule: This is the relationship between the tempera-
ture and the number of vertebrae in closely related species of fishes.
Fishes of colder waters tend to have more vertebrae than those
occurring in warmer waters. This phenomenon is an instance of
genotypic variation. Although verified for different latitudes, one does
not know to what extent Jordan’s Rule is applicable to fishes residing
in higher altitudes where water is sufficiently cold. This principle may
be of use to fishery biologists in ascertaining the origin of populations
among the species of fish that exhibit this phenomenon. It is also
worthwhile examining how far this phenomenon is applicable to other
groups of vertebrates.

CoNCLUDING REMARKS

It will have been noted from what is detailed above that the high
altitudes of the Himalayas have received less than their merited share
of attention, although they are pregnant with possibilites for some
outstanding zoological researches of a fundamental nature. There is
no gainsaying the fact that the bearing of such researches on man is
far reaching. Studies of the adaptation of animals to extremely low
temperature, low atmospheric pressure, low oxygen-content of the
atmosphere, limited food supply (qualitative and quantitative), high

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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Map 1.—Part of the eastern Himalayas showing the suggested locations* of the
‘High Altitude Biological Research Stations.

ZOOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE HIMALAYAS B79

rate of evaporation, high light intensity, high ultraviolet radiation, etc.
are of paramount importance in understanding human reactions to
similar environments, which are helpful not only in war but also in
peace.

In a country like India where the whole of the northern frontier
is bounded by the Himalayan ranges for some 1,200 miles, high alti-
tude areas may be found anywhere along this length. In spite of this
rich, varied and vast field, there has never been any organized attempt
to study the fauna or animal life of these areas. The establishment
of an institute for such studies seems imperative, and will certainly
prove worthwhile. With increased attention to the biological sciences
during the Second, Five-Year Plan period, the establishment of a High
Altitude Biological Research Institute will be quite in keeping with
the march of time.

The institute should be located either in the eastern Himalaya or
in the western, the central portion that lies between Garhwal and the
Sun Kosi Valley (this is, however, outside the Indian territory) not
being particularly suitable, because the majority of vertebrates, and
possibly many invertebrates, of this area are ‘intergrades’ between
the eastern and western Himalayan forms.

Accessibility and safety, in addition to high altitude, are the obvious
requirements for a good site. From this point of view Thanggu in
' North Sikkim appears to be an ideal place for the institute (see
map). It is situated in the Tista Valley at 13,000 ft., that is, about
the tree-limit, and only five marches from Gangtok, from where it
can be reached by foot or pony. Gangtok may also be easily con-
tacted in emergency through wireless from Chungthang, two
marches below Thanggu. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that the
Indian Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, in their proposal
to establish a High Altitude Research Station, had this place in view.
There may also be a station at Chhangu (ca. 13,000 ft.) in East Sikkim
(see map), on the main Indo-Tibetan Trade Route (one of the Indian
National Highways), about two days’ march from Gangtok, but which
may now be reached by jeep. Gangtok itself is connected with the
railhead at Siliguri, some seventy miles away, by a regular bus service.
Both Thanggu and Chhangu offer reasonable access to glaciers, lakes
and scrub forests at fairly high altitudes without demanding special
mountaineering skill or imposing undue hazards. Accommodation and
catering at both these places are, however, difficult. The State Rest
Houses there are small and unsuitable for permanent laboratory pur-
poses. Suitable accommodation for laboratory and residential purposes
would have to be built when the institute is set up. Food supplies may
be easily arranged from Gangtok.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A draft manuscript of this article was read by Shri Salim Ali of
the Bombay Natural History Society, Dr. J. L. Bhaduri of the Calcutta
University Zoological Department, and Dr. K. K. Tiwari and the late
Dr. S. L. Hora of the Zoological Survey of India. I am grateful to
them for their criticism and advice.

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

REFERENCES

Biswas, B. (1955): Zoological results of the ‘Daily Mail’ Himalayan Expedition
1954. Two new birds from Khumbu, eastern Nepal. Bull. Brit. orn. Cl. 15: 87-38.

— — and Khajuria, H. (194): Zoological results of the ‘Daily Mail’ Himalayan
Expedition 1954. Tour new mammals from Khumbu, eastern Nepal. Proc. zooi.
Soc., 8: 25-390.

Champion, H. G. (1936): A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and
Burma. Indian For. Rec. (n.s.), Silviculture, 1: 1-286.

Clarke, G. L. (1954): Elements of Ecology. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.

Griggs, R. F. (1946): The timberlines of northern America and their interpreta-
tions. Ecology, 27: 275-289.

Izzard, R. (1955): The Abominable Snowman Adventure. Hodder & Stoughton,
London.

Korff, S. A. (1954): The World’s High Altitude Research Stations. New York
Univ. Press, New York.

NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD, PLOCEUS
PHILIPPINUS LINN.

BY

SAtiIm ALI AND VIJAYKUMAR C. AMBEDKAR
(With a plate)
INTRODUCTION

During the past three breeding seasons of the Baya (June/July to
September/October 1953-1955), we have kept several nest colonies
under fairly close observation and study in the environs of Poona City
(Bombay State). The present is merely an interim report of some of
our findings, and is published in the hope that other bird students with
suitable opportunities for observation and experiment may be enabled
to contribute to the meagre knowledge we possess concerning the life
history of this common and interesting bird, and allied species of Indian
Ploceinae. The field work has been carried out chiefly by V.C.A., a
resident of Poona, under the advice and direction, and with the
intermittent participation of the senior author.

A broad outline of the breeding biology of the Baya was originally
published by Salim Ali in 1931 (/BNHS, 84: 947-64). A large amount
of confirmatory evidence has accumulated since, and it now seems
reasonable to consider the basic pattern as established. However,
many fundamental facts regarding the life and movements of the Baya
in the non-breeding season, and precise statistical data relating to its
nesting behaviour were, and still are, completely lacking, and the
object of our investigations has been to collect as much further detailed
information as practicable.

One of our major handicaps so far has been the impossibility of
studying the same colony uninterruptedly from the commencement of
the breeding season right through to the end. The most populous
and easily controlled colonies in the Poona area are usually those built
around irrigation wells situated within the various ‘wadis’ or market
gardens. Owing to the damage bayas do to the surrounding bajra
and jowar crops, the farmers are in the habit of pulling down ail
accessible nests from time to time. These holocausts usually take
place just when a colony is at the peak of activity, namely when the
majority of the eggs have hatched. It is disconcerting to find one’s
observations suddenly broken off thus, often at the most crucial stage.
We have been compelled, on this account, to divide our attention
between several widely scattered colonies, and to piece together bits
of data collected as opportunity offered. |

Another difficulty which has seriously hampered our work and
prevented the procurement of unequivocal data concerning individual
birds in a breeding colony is the want of a workmanlike technique for
marking nesting bayas without catching them and thereby possibly
upsetting their normal behaviour patterns. Yet for statistical precision

882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

it is obviously essential that individual birds in a colony, at least
the control ones, should be unmistakably identifiable.

Squirting liquid dyes on to the bird with a water pistol was un-
successful, since the jet, apart from being too thick and conspicuous,
was not of sufficient velocity to reach the bird before it could move
away. Latterly we have used a large hypodermic syringe, such as
is employed for inoculating cattle, which, discharged from within an
observation hide at the range of a few feet, has given better promise.
The jet is finer and more powerful, carries a longer distance without
spreading out too much, and its trajectory can be controlled. The
larger capacity of the barrel enables the aim to be corrected while the
jet is in action, without alarming the bird unduly.

In squirting liquid dyes the object is to mark a bird while it is
clinging to its nest, so that both bird and nest get sprayed simultane-
ously, making them thereafter readily recognizable as belonging to
each other: It is only by marking in this manner that the social
behaviour and inter-relationships of individuals within a colony can
be satisfactorily studied. ‘The aniline dyes used in the 1954-55 experi-
ments were crimson, green, yellow and blue. We are grateful to the
German dye manufacturing firm of Cheka Ltd. of Bombay, for their
interest in the problem, and for their valuable advice and generous
co-operation.

Marking Bayas.

During the breeding season, when recognition of individuals within
a colony is of the utmost consequence, it is not easy to devise a
technique that will enable catching of the birds at the colony without
disturbing their normal behaviour and rhythm. For males, the only
feasible method seems to be to spray them with quick-drying liquid
dyes, fast to rain and sun, which will identify them at least until the
post-nuptial moult; therefore, throughout one complete nesting season.
But it is also desirable that the males should be marked in some more
permanent manner so that their migratory local movements and their
inter-flock behaviour during the off season, and their colony-forming
and sexual activities on the approach of the next breeding season
can be properly studied. For catching the males at a colony for
ringing, we have as yet found no practicable method.

However, accidentally we hit upon a successful method of catching
nesting females for marking with dyes as well as with coloured and
aluminium rings. While incubating, and for the first 6 days or so
after the eggs hatch, the female sleeps in the nest at night. The
slightest jerk to the nest after dark causes her to slip down the
entrance tube and make off in a flash. We found that a butterfly net
held quietly over the mouth of the tube, before the nest is touched,
secures the escaping female without difficulty. In the same way it
it possible to secure, during daytime, full-fledged young that try to
escape from the nest prematurely on its being handled.

How and why a particular tree, or group of trees, is initially
selected from amongst others which to all appearances are equally
suitable, is a moot point. Once a nest colony has been established,
however, there is no doubt that the old nests, or their battered

NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD 383

remnants, serve to attract the birds in successive seasons. We know
colony sites that have been in yearly occupation for at least 3o years,
and they doubtless continue longer under the requisite conditions.
Even after the periodical wholesale destruction of the colonies by
the local farmers, the birds resort to their traditional nesting sites
year after year. Whether, and to what extent, the members of one
particular colony return to the same spot in successive years, and to
what extent, if at all, the young return to their birthplace for nesting,
in what manner and on what pattern dispersal of the young occurs,
whether some males and some females (or all females?) breed in their
first year, and the factors that alter the sex ratio by the time the
birds become adult, are some of the points which challenge investi-
gation. 3

One striking feature about the colonies is the definite limit to which
an individual colony seems capable of expanding. The number of nests
in a colony remains more or less constant from year to year so that
there is apparently some factor or factors that govern annual fluctua-
tion of numbers, and also control expansion above an optimal upper
limit. That some colonies are larger than others is, as far as can be
observed, not due to progressive annual growth: thus a colony con-
taining, say, 60 completed nests will hold approximately the same
number year after year. Small colonies are more apt to be abandoned
(i.e., they are of a more ‘shifting’ nature) than large, old-established
ones which presumably began as large colonies in the first instance.

From the data collected it appears that, although a few isolated
females become physiologically mature and begin laying in some of
the earliest nests, the majority of females arrive much later, at all the
scattered colonies in the area more or less simultaneously, in search of
eligible nests. They come, as it were, in a great wave or irruption,
all in a matter of a couple of days. The exact period of such irrup-
tion, in a normal monsoon, is between the latter part of July and
the third week of August, as soon as the weather breaks after several
days of heavy and continuous downpour. During such wet spells
there is a lull in the building operations of the males, to be followed
by a spurt of intense activity immediately drier weather intervenes.
Accompanying these feverish building activities is a good deal of
excited flapping and fluttering of wings, and loud lively choruses which
can be heard over enormous distances in the countryside, and which
no doubt serve to orientate the prospecting females. Thus the larger
colonies, by virtue of their louder vocal advertising, have an advantage
over the smaller and less noisy ones. It would, therefore, be of
advantage for smaller colonies to be built close to large ones, and
this, in fact, is very often the case.

The arrival of sexually mature females en masse ensures the virtual
synchronization of laying and hatching. The chicks also leave the nests
more or less simultaneously—perhaps within the span of a week or
so. The colony, thereafter, becomes silent and deserted except for an
odd belated nest or two in which the females alone continue to feed
the young. These foraging females are now very shy and circumspect,
usually flying up rather surreptitiously straight into the nest, and away,

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

with no tell-tale loitering. The change in their behaviour is due, no
doubt, to the removal of the collective vigilance of the colony.

Apparently the flock instinct is so strong that in a few nests in
almost every large colony one may actually find an entire clutch of
partly incubated eggs, or even a mummified brood of nestlings which
have been abandoned to their fate by the parents in their hurry to
leave the colony with the rest of the birds. The frequency with
which such abandoned nests are found at the tail end of the season,
particularly in the larger colonies, leaves little doubt as to the circum-
stances.

The peak period of the nesting activities synchronizes with the pro-
gressive ripening of the adjacent jowari crops upon which the adults
and freshly launched young so largely subsist, and to which they cause
such considerable damage.

In the earlier stages of a colony, before the main body of prospect-
ing females arrives (‘pre-irruption’ period) there is naturally much
greater competition and rivalry among the individual males for winning
the few hens that are ready to nest. The felonious practice of cutting
down the nests of rival cocks, while the owner has gone to fetch
building material, is much more in evidence during the earlier stages
of nesting than after most males have secured mates and are occupied
in further building. Whether the early breeding females are double
brooded, i.e., whether they raise a second family during the same
season, remains to be shown.

Eggs are laid at 24-hour intervals, in the early morning. Incuba-
tion apparently starts from the second egg, and takes 14-15 days.
Full-fledged young leave the nest 13-14 days after hatching. The
female occasionally feeds them outside at first, but they mostly fend
for themselves.

Siemon RuaatoinO;

The sex ratio of adults in the colonies is found to be invariably 2
females (occasionally 3) to 1 male. This has been ascertained by
repeated counts and rechecking of completed, occupied nests, and of
the working males.

A normal brood in the Poona area consists of 3 or 4 young. It
is desirable, therefore, to determine whether this disparity in the sexes
is present from the time of hatching, or comes about at a later stage
possibly due to some mortahty factor selective against the males. We
hope to devote special attention to this problem during the 1956 season.

Abnormal Nests:

Abnormality in the structure of baya nests takes a variety of forms.
The commonest and most frequent one is the double or ‘tandem’ which
consists of one nest suspended from the end of the entrance tube of
a completed upper nest. Occasionally it may be a 3-storeyed affair
with the middle nest in different stages of completion. Two adjacent
nests are sometimes conjoined exteriorly by a woven fabric, and in
other ways. Some types of abnormal nests are shown in the plate.
In all examples of double or triple nests, we found only a single
chamber—the last built—to be in current use, the others being blocked

dJourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i

i
| i
>‘
\
anne? \
See

Figs. 1, 4, 5. Abnormal baya nests.
Figs. 2, 3. Experimental mutilations.

NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD 385

ap and unoccupied. In most cases, however, the lowest nest remained
unfinished. We have found no suggestion that such multiple nests
were ever intended for contemporaneous habitation, e.g., by a ‘harem’,
or that it may be an experiment in ‘apartment housing’—the rudiment-
ary beginnings of a composite community-nest as in the Sociable
Weaver (Philetairus socius) of Africa.

In all the closed-up and sealed-off chambers of the multiple nests
examined by us, there has invariably been evidence of some disaster
to the contents. Such evidence usually consisted of dried matted yolk.
or cracked eggs—the result of some accident or felony(?). In one case
a desiccated chick, perhaps 5 days old, was found partially but deli-
berately buried (woven over) in the fabric of the lining of the egg
chamber, as the damaged contents usually are.

It seems obvious that the hyperstructures to a normal nest are
added by the original builder himself. But whether the second
chamber, if occupied, is by the original female or a_ different
one, needs to be determined. When two completed, occupied nests
hanging side by side are conjoined into one unit, it is definite proof
that they both belong to one and the same individual, since no cock
baya will tolerate a neighbour or stranger tampering with his property.

As a result of our observations it can unreservedly be stated that
W. Jesse’s account (Ibis 1897, p. 558) of a 7-storeyed nest 1s inaccurate,
especially in regard to the storeys being added year after year. The
last 3 chambers in this nest are said to have contained 3, 3 and 2 eggs
respectively. If this is to suggest that these chambers were in con-
temporaneous occupation by 3 different females — e.g., in the nature
of an apartment house or a ‘block of flats’ — then the statement is open
to serious doubt. Baya nests are strictly annual structures; they are
built afresh each season, the remnants of the previous year’s nests
being torn down to make room for the new ones. We have not found
any evidence that the same nest is ever used in a second season.

V.C.A. recorded one double-storeyed nest in which the sealed-off
upper chamber contained 4 fresh and apparently undamaged eggs, while
the lower chamber was at the early ‘pre-bell’ or ‘helmet’ stage. Ia
this case it is conceivable that the female concerned had, for some
reason, deserted the nest (maybe killed?). And since cock bayas
do not incubate, the owner commenced adding the lower nest in order
to attract another hen. When the eggs in a nest get accidentally
broken the hen naturally deserts the nest, whereupon the male seats
it off and often adds a lower chamber. In the above case, since the
eges were undamaged, the female may have failed to turn up for a
different reason.

(mt ellie ome,

In earlier field work, in order to inspect the contents of controlled
nests in a colony, S.A. had cut a vertical incision in the woven fabric
opposite the egg chamber. On visiting the colony again on the
following day he had observed the incision to be neatly darned with
fresh green strips of grass, producing the appearance of a zip fastener.
Repairing such incisions in this clever manner is so foreign to what
the bird would ever be called upon to deal with under natural condi-
tions, that the behaviour suggested something higher than a purely

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

instinctive reflex. At the suggestion of Prof. Bernhard Rensch of

Minster we therefore planned a series of experiments to test the extent

of the baya’s capacity to deal with unaccustomed and unnatural situa-
tions. Windows of various shapes and sizes—round, oval, square,
rectangular, triangular etc.—between 1 and 2 inches across, were
cleanly cut out with a pair of scissors in the walls opposite the egg
chamber of selected nests. Only nests containing chicks were used
for these experiments. in order to minimize possible desertions. ‘The
windows were usually cut in the forenoon while the female was away

foraging. On return with food for the young, the usual reaction of.

the hen to this sudden transformation in her abode was, curiously
enough, one that can only be described as indifference; there was

certainly no perturbation on her part, though sometimes she did seem)

mildly puzzled.

In one instance the hen flew up the entrance tube of her nest,
as usual, and fed the chicks apparently before she realized that there
was anything amiss. After feeding, she poked her head out of the
newly erupted window, looked surprisedly this way and that, and
actually made her exit through the opening. She clung to the nest
above the window, head downward, peering within through the opening
repeatedly, and ‘nibbling’ at the jagged edges. The bird then flew
off but returned 5 minutes later, again clung outside the nest, peered
into it repeatedly, and tugged undecidedly at the loose ends. She then
hopped across to a neighbouring half-built nest, but made no attempt
to pull out any strips from it for the repair; she then hopped back
on to her own nest behaving in the earlier inane fashion for another
5 minutes or so. She flew off once more and returned 20 minutes
later with a soft white contour feather of some bird in her bill.
Employing the same technique as she would in lining the egg chamber,
she attempted ineffectively to block the hole by pressing the feather
on the jagged rim. After this token repair the bird flew off. She
returned ro minutes later with food for the chicks. Instead of flying
up the entrance tube, she now clung to the outside of the nest and,
in quite a matter-of-fact manner, passed the food to the chicks through
the window, like a flowerpecker !

Thereafter she removed the feather from where it had been pressed
in, and tried refixing it at several different points. It was quite obvious
that not being familiar with the weaving technique she was completely
at a loss about how to set about repairing the damage.

During all this interval the cock was nowhere to be seen. One cock,
perched on a bush 3 ft. away, seemed completely unconcerned and
presumably was not the owner of this nest.

In the above case, as in the many others experimented with, the
damage was found fully repaired when the nest was visited again about
g o’clock next morning, although usually by sundown the previous
evening there had been no sign of activity from the cocks in this
regard.

In a second nest, containing 3 well-grown young, a triangular
window was cut with 14” base and 24” sides (fig. 2). When revisited
at 10 next morning there was a flimsy woven criss-cross triangular mat
of green grass strips covering the hole, fixed to the nest along two sides

a

NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD 387

of the triangular window, but loosely flapping along the third
side. The mat looked as though it had been prepared separately and
then fixed in situ! The repair was uncompleted.

Square, rectangular and oblong windows were ail darned over with
equal speed and skill, suggesting a degree of true intelligence quite
above what is ordinarily conceded to the average bird.

In one nest the entire entrance tube was snipped off from its base,
at the level of the egg-chamber. By 10 o’clock the following morn-
ing, 3 inches of the tube, in the form of a collar, had been rebuilt
with fresh green grass strips. All fresh repairs stand out prominently,
even at a distance, by contrast with the yellowish brown colour the
nest has acquired after many days of exposure to the sun.

The cleverest repair, in our opinion, was where the entrance tube
had been transversely bisected or slit all along its length leaving
merely a vertical channel on one side (fig. 3). By next morning the
mutilation had been repaired by the addition of the complementary
half channel, thus restoring the original circular tube. The speed and
neatness with which this intricate repair was executed, and the
precision with which the new half was curved and channelled were
quite remarkable.

All repairs, in every case, were made entirely by the cocks who
normally started serious work on them soon after daybreak on the
following morning. On one or two occasions we found a few strips
of the darning already in position the same evening before the males
left for their nightly roosts.

In one case the hen flew up the tube with food for the chicks as
usual, but promptly went out through the round window again, flying
up the tube a second time and repeating the window exit, as if trying
to believe her eyes! But later, through the rest of that afternoon,
she freely used the window for her exits after feeding the young.
The cock, who was actively employed on a second nest near-by which
a second hen was prospecting, paid no attention to repairing thie
damage despite the fact that from time to time he alighted on the
mutilated nest and had obviously realized that repair was necessary.
By noon on the following day, however, he had completely repaired
the hole. To observe further reaction, this repaired patch was excised
a second time leaving the round open window as before. The cock
visited the nest several times thereafter, but did not commence repair
work till 75 minutes later, bringing fresh green grass strips as his
darning thread. The repair work was fitful since the cock’s attention
was diverted by the new hen of his second nest whose frequent
comings and goings caused him to leave off and give amorous chase.
It was clear that just then he was more concerned about the new
hen than about repairing his damaged first nest. In spite of the inter-
ruptions, however, the repair was fully completed in 2 hours after
commencement.

V.C.A. has recorded that when he excised the newly repaired patch
he left the round wad of woven strips lying on the ground below
the nest. He was surprised to see that, after completing the repair
the second time, the cock picked up this wad and attempted to utilize
it as such on the second nest which was as yet unfinished. He tried
to fix the wad into this place and that, but finally jettisoned it!

388 | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Next morning, the entire entrance tube —7” in length— of this twice-
repaired nest was amputated, exposing the ‘cross-bar’ which forms
the rim of the egg chamber in the completed nest. The visiting hen
was completely unperturbed by this sudden and unexpected transforma-
tion in her dwelling and showed no hesitation in flying up to the nest,
settling on the now-exposed cross bar, and feeding the young. She
thereafter flew off with the chicks’ excreta in her bill as usual. The maie
looked more surprised. He accompanied the hen to the nest 3 times
when she brought food, and then visited it by himself several times.
He sat about on the nest, and laconically examined the damage, once
tapping on the portion he had repaired the previous day. The first
fresh material for replacement of the tube was brought 30 minutes
after the amputation. Work was slow and frequently interrupted, as
yesterday, by the claims of the second nest and female. Seven hours
after the repair work commenced, a firm foundation of the new tube
had been laid, and a fresh green coilar 13” broad marked its progress.
This collar had broadened to 24” when the nest was visited the follow-
ing afternoon, and no further extension of the tube was made there-
after.

Between the third day after hatching and the fifth, while the cock
was busy with the repairs, he had remained indifferent to the begging
of the young for food each time he arrived at the nest, and had gone
right ahead with the work in hand. He fed the young for the first
time when they were 6-7 days, and only after he had finished his second
nest and completed repairing the first. Once started, he continued
to feed the chicks’ regularly thereafter, and even more assiduously
than the hen, e.g:, 6 times m 24 minutes as against the hen’s once.
From the sixth night after hatching, it was observed that the hen did
not sleep in the nest with the 3 well-grown young, presumably owiny
to pressure of space. -

When a large hole was cut once again in the same much-repaired
nest after the young were 6 days old and the male had commenced
feeding them, he paid no attention to repairing the damage any more,
and even made a convenience of it, for feeding the young through the
‘opening and for his entries and exits. One full-fledged young leit
this nest on the 13th day; the other 2 on the 14th day after hatching.

Enemies and Mortality.

On one occasion V.C.A. found a brood of naked young of the
Long-tailed Tree Mouse (Vendeluria oleracea), together with a parent,
within the upper storey of a double nest. A passage had been bored
through the ceiling of the lower half-built (‘bell’) nest for entering
the tube leading to the upper chamber. One of these mice was found
in another nest also. This nest was empty then, though when examined
a few days earlier it had contained baya eggs. The nest was later
taken possession of by a pair of Whitethroated Munia (Uroloncha
malabarica) and in time held 6 eggs. When inspected again the next
day the eggs had vanished and. in their place was their presumptive
despoiler. Circumstantial evidence suggests, therefore, that this mouse
may be responsible for some of the mortality among bayas in the
Poona area. }

NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD 389

On 20 September, 1.e., near the close of the nesting season, when
most colonies in the Poona area held young of various ages, one fairly
populous colony was found to have most of its nests bored with
circular holes of ca. 1” diameter opposite the egg chamber (above the
base of the entrance tube). The contents had been rifled. The predator
was undetermined, but from the presence of a halo-like depression
around the holes, it was evident that the culprit was some large bird
like a crow or coucal whose breast had dented the fabric while it
forced its head through the holes to reach the contents.

But the heaviest mortality certainly results from the widely pre-
valent practice of farmers of pulling down baya nests en masse and
thus devastating entire colonies at the time when they contain helpiess
young or hard-set eggs. These pogroms take place when the season
is well advanced so that there is no possibility of a second brood.
Entire colonies are wiped out, the nests being torn down and the
nestlings often left to starve to death. Many flightless fledglings wander
away from the ravished nests, hopping on the ground or clambering
amongst the undergrowth, and soon fall a prey to mongooses, cats,
crows and other predators.

Under the circumstances only isolated nests or small colonies high
up in trees and out of easy reach have a chance of survival. Crowded
colonies scattered amongst the fields, in and around irrigation wells,
are especially vulnerable. There is no denying that bayas are highly
destructive to ripening jowar and bajra crops, and were it not for this
ruthless control by humans, the species could possibly become a major
pest of local agriculture as some of its close relations in Africa are
known to be. int eee

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE TROUT FARM AND
HATCHERY AT ACHHABAL, KASHMIR

BY

SUNDER LAL HoRA (DECEASED)
The Trout Farm and Hatchery at Achhabal were started in
1906-1907 and adjoin the Mogul Gardens. They are thus a. great
attraction for thousands of visitors and tourists. Unlike two other
trout farms and hatcheries at Harwan and Laribal, the water supply
at Achhabal is from a flowing spring directly to the farm without
any protective works. No precaution is thus taken to prevent trash
and debris from being carried into the water supply line. Though
normally the water is only slightly turbid, at times it becomes muddy
also. The observations recorded here were made during two short
stays at the farm during June 1954 and July 1955. I am grateful to
the authorities for supplying the data and to Mr. G. M. Malik, Director,
Fish Preservation Department, Jammu and Kashmir State, for going
through the article and offering comments.

STOCK POSITION

Both Rainbow and Brown trout are kept at the farm of sizes
varying from 2 oz. to 5 lbs. The stock position during the last six
years was as follows:

Year 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 © 1954-55
Rainbow 485 585 509 442 393 419
Brown 2,552 2,520 SYA PDI 1,958 1,907

Total 3,037 3,105 2,761 2,669 2,356 2 SG)

The quantities of trout sold from this hatchery for the same period
are given below:

1950-51 1951-52. 1952-53

Ween 1949-50 1955-54 1954-55
Rainbow ae 4 5 10 3 5 14
Brown ; 94 161 165 202 109 119

Otel ees 98 166 175 205 114 133

Year 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55

Weight 484 lb. 795 lb. 844 Ib. 836 lb. 415 lb. 487 lb.
14 oz. 9 oz. 8 oz. NZ @Ao 7 OZ. 4 oz.
Amount Rs. 749-7-3 1,278-3-3 1,302-4-3 1,521-8-0 964-14-6 1,507-8-0

realised,

THE TROUT FARM AND HATCHERY AT ACHHABAL 391

The quantity of diseased fish of different sizes that had.to be
destroyed during the same period was as follows:

Year 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55
Rainbow Ae: 53 94. 67 64 59 72
Brown eee 294 171 272 223 188 179

ARO tales 347 265 339 287 247 251

Calculating the mortality figures against the stocks in the corres-
ponding years we get the following percentage of mortality for each
kind:

Year 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55

Rainbow ~ nee 11.0 16.0 13.1 14.5 1.0 WB)
Brown crs. acai 6.7 12.0 10.0 9.6 9.4

It will be seen from the above statement that the rate of mortality
is generally higher in the.case of Rainbow than that of Brown trout.

Besides the sale of trout, which .is insignificant, the main function
of this hatchery seems to be the stocking of trout streams with eyed
ova and fingerlings. The figures in this respect for the last 6 years
are as follows:

Year 1049250) 1950-51 1951-52. 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55
‘Eyed Ova ... 1,50.0°0 1,50,000 1,50,000 1,00,000 2,50,/0) 1,95,090
Fingerlings ... Bae 3,310 1,328 4,177 2,340 3,500

In 1954-55, a total number of 481,000 eggs were obtained. Of
this number, 247,000 became ‘eyed’, while the others had to be thrown
away, thus showing a survival 51.3%. This survival rate seems to
be good when it is learned that old antiquated hatchery methods are
followed. The eggs once laid in trays are not touched and even the
dead eggs are not picked and eS: out, thus allowing fungus to
take a full toll of the healthy egg

In 1954-55, 72,000 eyed ova were retained in the hatchery for
cultural purposes and the fingerlings developed out of them will be
counted at the time of next breeding season.

DISEASES AND OTHER CAUSES OF MORTALITY

In 1939, Malik? reported on an epidemic among Rainbow trout in
the Harwan Hatchery during 1934 and also made some observations
on certain other cases of mortality in that hatchery. He attributed

a ce ES FE TY

2 Mr. G. M. Malik informs me that ‘In Kashmir daily removal of dead eggs
before eyeing used to cause more loss than removal of dead eggs after eyeing.
The practice therefore continues and no dead eggs are removed till the eyes appear
‘when the ova can withstand disturbance or shocks’.

---.* Mr, G. M. Malik informs me that the records of diseases should be taken
with caution as they are kept by semi-literate persons without making any post-
mortem examination of the dead specimens.

6

3592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the epidemic to lipoid and fatty degeneration of the liver through
feeding the fish on fatty fresh-fish diet. He observed!:

‘Normally the disease would have never occurred in the form of
an epidemic but it was accentuated owing to unfavourable conditions
that prevailed for several months preceding the epidemic. These were
—shortage of water, insanitary conditions of the pens and over-crowding
that resulted in abrasions, and subsequent attack by fungus. Ine
malady was further aggravated by the breeding season when the
vitality of the fish is naturally reduced as the epidemic was noticed
just at the close of the breeding season.’

Of the 251 fishes that died in the Achhabal Farm during 1954-55,
the following is the analysis of the causes of death as recorded in the
Mortality Register by the Jamadar of the hatchery:

Fungus (white patches) ae soo ke
Lipoid degeneration of the liver Bagr e nee
Blindness Pie ee 17
Injuries through otters Sao Bigg
Spawn-bound Seo 00 506 9
Muddy water S00 ooo 3dé 4
Fin rot : 3

It will be worthwhile to examine the causes of these diseases against
the layout of the Farm and the cultural practices that are followed.

Fungus Infection: Though all freshwater fishes of vari-
ous ages are liable to be attacked by the fungi or water-moulds
(Saprolegniaceae), it is doubtful whether the fungus is the primary cause
of the trouble. The fungus attacks only when it can obtain a foothold
on an injured part of a fish—physical injury or that caused by external
parasite. Susceptibility to infection is greatly increased if the fishes
are suffering from general debility or are living under untavourable
conditions. Eggs are also subject to attack by the fungus and in most
hatcheries the heaviest losses are in the egg stage.

The heaviest loss of adult fish occurs after stripping, in the months
of December and January. In tank No. 19, where males and females
of Brown Trout are kept for stripping, 17 males and 1o females died
from fungus infection. The loss to the hatchery through stripping
operations was about 200 lb. of trout from various tanks. In the
handling of fish incidental to stripping, it is almost impossible to
avoid injuring some of the fish slightly. As at the spawning season
the vitality of the fish is usually lower, they are especially susceptible
to infection by the fungus. According to Davis (1953, p. 279), ‘fungus
infection can often be prevented from developing in spawned fish by
dipping them in a 1:15,000 solution of malachite green, or in a 3 per
cent salt solution after they have been stripped.’ They should be kept
in the solution until they show signs of distress. _

After stripping, the practice at this hatchery is to return the fish
to the same tank which is usually crowded with other fish. I wouid
suggest that they should be put in a special tank where greater care
could be taken of them for a few days uritil they regain strength and

i

’ Malik, G. M., Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44; (2) 397-408, 1939.

THE TROUT FARM AND HATCHERY AT ACHHABAL 393

vigour. Sometimes fish, particularly Rainbow Trout, bite off portions
of caudal fin of other fishes and the injury thus produced gives a foot-
hold to the fungus.

At other periods also fungus infection accounts for a large number
of deaths mostly among the yearlings, but the bigger fish are not
immune from it. If the infection is detected in the early stages of the
disease, one such treatment as indicated above is usually effective, but
if the fungus is well established, even several successive treatments
may not etiect a cure. It is, therefore, most essential to prevent the
development of disease. |

I have already referred above to a loss of nearly 44% of ova,
probably through the fungus infection, and suggested that dead ova
should be picked out and removed as soon as detected. For still
better results reference may be made to Davis (1953, pp. 280-281).

Lipoid DSSSeMmSrAtnOm Cul Wins Inigo Ghecries
is caused by malnutrition resulting from overfeeding or the use of un-
suitable diets. At the Achhabal Hatchery fishes of over a pound in
weight are fed on small pieces of country fish freshly collected each
day from certain reserve streams. Few fishes of over a pound in
weight die from this disease during the months May-June to Augusi-
September. During these months three Schizothoracine fishes, Khout
(Oreinus plagiostomus), Zoobo and Kontgad or Choozge (Schizothorax
spp.), run up the streams for breeding and are full of mature gonads.
It is known that roe of these fish cause intestinal trouble in man
(Annandale 1920, Rec. Ind. Mus., xviii, p. 192). It is likely that
some fish overfeed during that period and suffer from lipoid degenera-
tion of the liver.

Some yearlings fed on dry meals, consisting of silkworm pupae
and fish, have also suffered from this disease. These meals are con-
centrated fatty food and there are, therefore, more chances of getting
a fatty liver when oa this diet. :

On the first appearance of the disease, it is better to isolate the
fish and control its feeding till it fully recovers. Unfortunately, there
is no serviceable isolation tank in the hatchery at present so it would
seem difficult to save such fishes from death.

Blindness: Out of 17 cases, 8 occurred during August-
September and most of the diseased fish were taken out from tank
No. 12. I have found a large number of the Lymnaea snails in the
hatchery tanks and have therefore presumed that the blindness may
have been caused by the Eye Fluke (Strigeidae). The metacercariae
of this fluke occur only in the lens of the eye and when abundant
cause it to become white and opaque, so that the fish becomes partially
or totally blind. For the control of this disease, the best thing will
_be to eliminate snails from the pond by first draining the pond, removing
plants, and then the sides and bottom should be thoroughly cleaned
and chlorinated to kiil the hiding snails.

Depradation by Otters: Otters entered tank No. 16
from the spring side one night during October-November and injured
several fish of which 14 died on subsequent days. On an inspection of

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the site it seems a proper fencing of the farm on the spring side may
prevent such losses in future years.

Spawn-bound: Some female fish are unable to liberate their
eggs and therefore die spawn-bound. ‘There seems to be no remedy
for it. Mr. G. M. Malik is of the opinion that spawn-bound conditioa
is associated with high calcium content of the water, high temperature
and accumulation of fat in the viscera.

Muddy Weater: — Rhough onlya4y cases) of mdeatheatanoucnh
muddy water have been registered, I am informed heavy mortality
among fry, which are kept separately from the main stock, occurs
as a result of the muddy water. The tank bottoms get covered with
silt and these are cleaned only once a year. It will greatly improve the
sanitation of the farm if a settling tank could be put up at the head
of the stream feeding the farm and hatchery channels*. It may also
help to check the fungus and liver diseases.

Fin Rot: This isa bacterial infection which usually first appears
in the dorsal fin but may occasionally start in the caudal fin. it is
noticeable as a distinct white line along the outer margin of the fin
and then moves inwards and destroys the whole fin. This can be
controlled by dipping the fish for one or two minutes in a 1:2,000
solution of copper sulphate. This is good treatment in the early stages
of the disease. Several treatments at intervals of 24 hours are required
before the spread of the disease can be effectively checked. If the
fish is in an advanced stage of infection, it should be taken out and
destroyed to save other fishes from getting infected.

Foop AND GROWTH

Up to a weight of 12 oz., the trout are fed on dried silkworm
pupae and fish powdered to various grades of fineness for feeding young
of different sizes. In Tank No. 12, 138 fish of 12 oz, to 14 |b. are
kept on a mixed diet of silkworm pupae and small pieces of fresh
country fish about a seer in weight. In Tank No. 15, 182 fish of
12 oz. to 14 lb. are fed on fresh fish about 14 seers in weight once
a day. In-Tank No. 16, 176 fish of 14 oz. to 1% lb. in weight are
given about 2 seers of fish. In Tank No. 17, 210 fish of 13 lb. to
24 lb. are given 4 seers of country fish. Seventy-six fish in Tank
No. 18 of 3 to 6 lb. in weight are given 4 seers of country fish, while

198 fish of 2 to 3 lb. in Tank No. 19 are given 5 seers. In’ Mank®

No. 20, 64 fish of 2 to 3 lb. are given 2 seers of country fish while
8 trout of 2% to 34 lb. in Tank No. 20B are given half a seer.
These figures are all approximate as the person who feeds the fish
takes handfuls of chopped country fish from a bucket when feeding’
fish in each tank. The amount thrown in each tank cannot be accurate
and it cannot be stated whether or not each fish had a feed.

pent en eternennnngeeeee tan smeenanenn aeeenennceennendrnte imap pe armel a ey ene Ste ty ne RE RR te

1 Mr.°G. M. Malik informs me that ‘Plans for setting up a filtration system
have already been approved and it is hoped that sedimentation troughs for hatcheries
will be constructed next year’.

THE TROUT FARM AND HATCHERY AT ACHHABAL. 395

Three or two fishermen, according to seasons of scarcity or abundance
of country fish in the reserve streams, are employed for catching
local fish and naturally the quantity procured by them varies from
day to day. Accordingly the ration of food given to fishes also varies.
From the data collected by me for some other investigation, it appears
that approximately 16 seers of country fish is brought to the hatchery
daily by three fishermen from the middle of June to the middle of
November, thus the ration for each tank given above is reduced to
4/5 for these months. From the middle of November to the end of
March, only 2 fishermen are employed but they bring in an average
of 22 seers every day. From the first of April, a third fisherman is
employed and the quantity brought in increases to 26 seers on an
average up to middle of May. ;

This system of feeding has one obvious defect. During the summer
months when the fish are generally more active, the supply of food
is less. When the food supply increases in winter, the fish are not
so active and overfeeding may result in the lipoid degeneration of liver,
It: will be seen from the above that heaviest mortality occurs among’
the adult fish in December and January from fungus infection after
stripping and this reduces tine stock to be fed when the SUEY) iS
abundant.

From what is stated above, it would seem highly desirable that
the system of feeding should be rationalised for the health and proper
growth of the fish. During winter months when Rapat, Labeo
diplostomus (Heckel), is plentiful even in farm and hatchery streams,
efforts should be made to collect large quantities and dry them up in
a small drier to be used during the months of scarcity of food. This
proposal involves only a small outlay but ensures equitable food supply
throughout the year.

Feeding of trout with fish of the coarser and cheaper prades has
certain disadvantages as pointed out by Davis! (p. 77). He says:

‘Fresh fish of the coarser and cheaper grades have been used rather
extensively for trout foods, but the results have not been entirely
satisfactory. It usually requires about twice as much fish as meat to
produce an equal growth. . . As already pointed out, the use
of fish in trout diets frequently results in a vitamin B, deficiency,
which may have disastrous results. If this is guarded against, fish
may be safely included in the diet. In general, however, it is believed
that the percentage of fish should not be higher than 20 to 25 per cent.’

The deficiency of thiamin, source of vitamin B,, results from fish
diet for there is some substance in the tissues of the fish which destroys
vitamin B, on contact (Davis, p. 73). Loss of balance results from
this disease at first occasionally but in course of time it develops
into a complete inability to maintain a normal position, although the
fish may live for weeks in this condition. To correct B, deficiency,
wheat products, such as middlings, and livers are the best sources of
thiamin. The plant meals are also stated to be fair sources of this
vitamin.

* Davis, H. S., 1953—Culture and Diseases of Game Fishes, University of
California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

__ Up to 3 years, the growth of trout is stated to be very slow, for
during this period it only attains a weight of 14 oz. to 1 lb. After
the third year, the growth may be a pound a year, for a 5 year fish
may be 3 |b. in weight. How far this growth rate is associated with
food supplied to the fish below 12 to 14 oz. and to those over a
pound is difficult for me to say, but it is evident that a pound of trout
costs several times more to the Government than the so-called exorbi-
tant price of Rs. 3 per pound at which it is sold from the hatcheries.
No commercial concern could possibly maintain a trout farm on this
basis and it is necessary, therefore, that the working of these farms
be reviewed and brought in line with modern developments and
techniques, so as to make them a source of revenue and encouragement
for private enterprise.

° CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In view of what is stated above, it would be clear that some drastic
changes in the layout and management of the Farm and Hatchery are
called for. In the layout, sanitation of the premises and ponds should
receive early consideration. A boundary wall, a small concrete reservoir
at the spring, a good settling tank and filter beds for the hatchery,
thinning of stocks with the building of more ponds among other
measures are necessary to improve sanitation. An analysis of the
spring water, analysis of the food values of country fish, ecology and
biology of the fauna and flora of the trout ponds and channels are
some of the basic scientific problems that need attention. The rational
feeding of the fish, both qualitatively and quantitatively, is of the utmost
importance. The practices of stripping, care of eggs and fingerlings
should be modernised. In view of natural reproduction in the streams,
the practice of stocking streams with eyed ova should be examined.
There is need to produce more trout to meet tourist demand and i
feel sure that the existing farms with suitable improvements can do
the job.

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NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM

BY
F. N. Betts

(With a map and one plate)

The area under consideration is portion of the NE. frontier district
of India bounded on the east by the Subansiri River, on the north
by the Himalayan Range, and on the south by the North Lakhimpur
District of Assam. On the west it adjoins the Balipara Frontier Tract.

TOPOGRAPHY

The area comprises a complete cross-section of the southern slopes
and foothills ot the Himalayas, rising abruptly from the Assam plain and
extending northward in a succession of steep and steadiiy heizhtening
east/ west ridges, terminating in the snow-clad summits of the main range
running up to over 20,000 tt. The principal rivers run ia deep gorges
between the ridges and flow eastward, either debouching into the S iban-
siri, as dues the Kamla, or, as in the case of the Par and Panior which are
nearest the plains, turning sharply southwards at the termination of their
course and cutting their own passages through the outermost range.

Tue Apa TANI VALLEY

This is quite the most remarkable teature of the district. It lies at a
height of 5,0V0 ft. surrounded by a ring of hills rising to 7,900 ft. and is a
flat oval plain of about 24 sq. miies, probably the bed of a dried-up lake,
and is the oaly considerable area of flat land in the whole district,

Population

The Apa Tani Valley is thickly populated by a settled tribe practising
permanent agriculture of an intensive type. The rest of the area is
sparsely inhabited by Daflas, a primitive and savage people, who exist by
hunting and shifting ‘jhum’ cultivation.

Vegetation and Climate

‘The outer ranges rising steeply from the Assam plains to a height of
4/5,900 ft. receive the full force of the SW. mons on and experience a very
heavy rainfali. ‘They are covered from foot to summit by dense tropical
rain forest. This also éxtends along the bottom of the gorges of the
principal rivers far into the hills, gradua‘ly chanzing into a drier type,
often deciiuous and much mixed with giant bamboo. Ihe interior ranges
have a much drier climate, and u.» to 5,000 ft. hive b2en denuded of their
original forest by Datla‘ jhuming’. Where the population is low there
is a regenerated growth of secondary wocdland of a more temperate
character, mostly evergreen oak and chestnut, but over wide areas, as in
the Pein Valley, the trees have gone for good and the hillsides are covered

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

in long, coarse thatching grass. The Daflas do not live or cultivate much
above 5,000 ft. and the summits of the ridyes above this altitude are again
covered in heavy evergreen forest though of a less tropical type than that
of the outer range.

This description holds good for the country to a depth of 50-69 miles
north from the plains, which is as far as exploration has gone. Further
in, no doubt, as in the neighbouring Balipara Frontier Tract, one reaches
the truly temperate zone characterised by Pzus excelsa and deciduous
oak at the foot of the main range merging into rhododendron and alpine
flora at higher altitudes. In the part of the area under consideration in
this paper, however, there is no natural coniferous forest.

The Apa Tani Valley is a complete contrast to the rest of the district.
The flat floor is cultivated throughout with terraced paddy fields wherever
irrigation is possible, and millet in the drier parts. Round -the large
villages are carefully fenced and tended vegetable gardens and plantations
of Pinus excelsa and a species of bamboo which are grown for use in
building and as firewood. Neither pine nor bamboo are locally indige-
nous and were brought with the tribe on their criginal immigration
which must have taken place many hundred years ago as some of the
pines are of enormous size. ‘! he comparatively small area which remuzins
uncultivaied consists of low, bra ken-covered hummocks which in spring
are a mauve sea of Primula dfenticul ita.

The winter climate is severe as a heavy mist settles each evening and
does not disperse until ten o'clock in the morning; and in December and

January there are hard night frosts. The Valley lies on a main migration

route between the Indian plains and Central Asia and in the spring,
particularly, the fallow paddy land is a favourite halting place for a great
variety of waders and waterfowl. .

The list which follows probably includes less than 30% of the species
which actually occur in the area. I spent eighteen months there, but had
very little time for serious ornithologica! work, while the high evergreen
forest with its tangled undergrowt!: of bamboo and cane which covers so
much of the country is extremely difficult to work thoi1oughly. The
specimens I obtained are in the British Museum of Naturai History,
South Kensington. The nomenclature and sequence are mainly those of
the Fauna o: British India, Stuart Baker, as corrected in Vol. 8 of that
work. I have used trinomials only where specimens have been collected
and identified.

List

], Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow.

Dafla name: oa.

Numerous in the Apa Tani Valley and in the big permanent Dafla
villages of Talo and Jorum on its outskirts. Elsewhere scarce. It breeds
in May in the pine trees round the Apa ‘Vani viliages, and also on the
fringes of the forest bordering the cultivated land. No specimens were
obtained so that it is unknown whether the Himalayan or Burmese sub-
species is the form which occurs.

2, Urocissa flavirostris. Yellowbilled Magpie.
Not encountered in the part of the Subansiri area proper which I was
able to visit as suitable biotope was absent. On a tour to the Tibetan

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM 399

frontier in the neighbouring Balipara Frontier Tract, however, I found it
common in the Ceciduous oak—/znus excelsa woods from 8,0U0-12,000 ft.

3. Cissa chinensis. Green Magpie.

Scarce. Seen at Pite, 2,000 ft , in bamboo and mixed forest and once
at Kore, 4,590 ft., in evergreen forest. it is a noisy bird but keeps to the
canopy of high forest and is hard to observe.

4, Dendrocitta formosae himalayensis. Himalayan Tree-pie.

Occurs throughout the area but is most numerous in the tropical rain
forests of the outer ranges, particularly at low elevations in bamboo and
riverine woodland. Usually one or two are seen in mixed hunting parties,
but sometimes one encounters family parties of five or six alone. ‘Two
specimens obtained at Pite, 1,5V0 ft., on the Panior River on 10-10-46 were
in moult.

5. Dendrocitta frontalis. Blackbrowed Tree-pie.

I believe I saw this bird on one occasion on Lasser Puttu on the outer
range in heavy evergreen jungle at 4,500 ft. ‘Lhe back of the crown and
occiput were almost white.

6. Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila. Nutcracker.
This nutcracker was common onthe Se La in the Balipara Frontier

Tract near the Tibetan border in the alpine woods and meadows -near
villages from 8,0V0-12,000 ft. Sr

7. Parus monticolus monticolus. Greenbacked Tit. |

_ Fairly common in open woods and secondary jungle from 5,000 ft.
upwards. It occurs in cultivated land in the Apa Tani Valley. A speci-
men was shot at Kore, 5,000 ft. and a pair were seen there on May 20
carrying caterpillars to a hole in a tree-branch at a height of 25 ft.

8. Machlolophus spilonotus. Blackspotted Tit.

Seen at all seasons in light forest on the hills round the Apa Tani
Valley, 5-6,000 ft., usually in mixed flocks with other insectivorous birds.
9, Aegithaliscus concinnus iredalei.t Redheaded Tit.

Frequents lightly-wooded country at Kore, 5,000 ft., and the Apa
Tani Valley in cultivation, pine and bamboo groves and the scrubby
firewood reserves. Usually in family parties of 7 or 8, often with other
species.

10. Melanochlora sultanea. [Indian Sultan Tit.

Widely distributed and fairly common in evergreen forest from the
lowest elevations up to 4,000 ft. Usually seen in small parties of 3 or 4
in company with other insectivorous species. Keeps to the tree tops.

lull Suthora poliotis daflaensis. Dafla Suthora.

Not uncommon in flocks in secondary scrub in the Apa Tani firewood
reserves at about 6,000 ft. A specimen was obtained.

1 or rubricapillus ?—EDS.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

12. Sitta castaneiventris. Cinnamonbellied Nuthatch.
Not uncommon at medium elevations, 2-5,000 ft. in light or secon-
dary forest.

13, Sitta formosa. Beautiful Nuthatch.

Rare. Only seen twice, on both occasions in the canopy of high-
elevation forest. A specimen was obtained at 7,0uQ0 ft. between Kore and
the Apa Tani Valley.

14, Dryonastes ruficollis. Rufousnecked Laughing Thrush.

Occurs in the plains at the foot of the outer range, but -lso commonly
in the Pein Valley, 4,00 ft., haunting the ‘sholas’ and scrub in the
hollows of the thatch-grass clad downs. Also seen on the borders of the
Apa ‘Tani Valley in the scrubby firewood reserves at Hapulia, 5,000 ft.
A noisy species with sweet whistling calls.

15, Garrulax leucolophus. Whitecrested Laughing Thrash.

Common in the river vaileys in bamboo and mixed forest but not seen
above 3,000 ft. A specimen was shot out of a Jarge flock on the Pein
River at 1,500 ft. 7

16, Garrulax moniliger. Indian Necklaced Laughing Thrush.
Distribution similar to the last. Occurs in very large parties of thirty
or forty birds and is extremely noisy.

17. lanthocincla rufogularis. Rufouschinred Laughing Thrush.
A flock was seen in secondary scrub jungle at Kore, 5,016 ft., in April.
They were making a great noise and weie apparently pairing off.

18. Trochalopterum erythrocephalum. The Redheaded Laughing
Thrush.
Occurs in flocks in ‘sholas’ and scrub in the valleys of the Pein River
downs. ‘Iwo specimens were obtained on the Kale River at 4,50u ft.

19, Trochalopterum phoeniceum phoeniceum. Assam Crimsonwinged
Laughing Thrush.

Uncommon, A specimen was shot out of a flock feeding with a large
mixed hunting party in dense bracken and scrub on Kore hill at 5,00t ft.
Also seen in the undergrowth of high evergreen forest between Kore and
the Apa Tani Valley at 6,000 ft.

20, Grammatoptila striata. Striated Laughing Thrush.

A specimen was shot out of the tree-tops in high evergreen forest
above the Apa Tani Valley at 6,0L0 ft. It was the only one ever seen in
the district.

21. Pomatorhinus ferruginosus ferrugincsus. Coralbilled Scimitar Bab-
bler.
Dafla name: Zv chuvrz.
Uncommon, Specimens were brought in by Daflas caught locally at
Kore, 5,900 ft,

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM 401

99. Xiphiramphus superciliaris. Slenderbilled Scimitar Babbler.

A solitary specimen was seen in thick evergreen forest on Tasser
Puttu at 4,000 ft. on the plains slope. A mixed insectivorous hunting
flock was feeding in the trees above, but this bird went bounding away
over the ground in long ratlike hops, making such a raucous screaming
that I suspected a nest but could not find one. It was a big, chestnut
brown scimitar babbler with an astonishingly long, slender, curved bill,
quite unmistakable.

93. Stachyris chrysaea. Goldenheaded Babbler.

A common bird in the scrub of the firewood reserves round the Apa
Tani Valley at 5-6,000 ft. Usually seen in mixed flocks with 4lzppe
nipalensis and other ‘small birds. It is an active and restless species,
slipping through the bamboos and undergrowth, seldom ascending high
trees, and rarely, if ever, dropping to the ground. I saw a pair carrying
bamboo leaves in May but failed to find the nest. This was in the Apa
Tani woods at 6,000 ft. |

24, Alcippe nipalensis. Nepal Babbler.
Common in the Pein Valley in scrub and light jungle. A specimen
was shot at Kore, 5,0U0 ft.

25. Pseudominla castaneiceps castaneiceps. Chestnutheaded Babbler.
A specimen was obtained. Exact locality not recorded.

26, Heterophasia picaoides. Longtailed Sibia.

I saw one at Lichi in the valley of the Panior River at 3,000 ft. in tall
scrub in a clearing in evergreen torest.

27, Leioptila gracilis. Grey Sibia.

On Donko [uttu, a hill above the Apa Tani Valley I saw a sibia with
a black head, grey uprer parts and whitish underparts which looked like
this bird and not ZL. annectens. ‘This was in evergreen forest at 7,000 ft.
but only just beyond the pine belt. LI also believe I have heard its distinc-
tive, melancholy call round the Apa Tani Valley. I was unfortunately
unable to shoot a specimen, and as this species is not recorded north of
the Brahmaputra, the identification must remain subject to confirmation.

28. Leioptila annectens annectens. Elyth’s Sibia.
I shot a specimen in an alder coppice at Kore, 5,000 ft.

29, Leioptila pulchella pulchella. Peautiful Sibia.

Not uncommon in high, evergreen forest on the crests of the higher
hills at 6—-7,000 ft. They go about in pairs or small parties, feecing
mostly on the moss-grown trunks of the trees and not in the canopy.
They hop actively along the big boughs, stopping abruptly at intervals,
and at first sight with their jerky movements may quite easily be mistaken
for one of the small tree squirrels also found there. I shot two specimens
ie ac Puttu, 7,000 ft., aud on the divide between Kore and the Apa Tani

Valley.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

30. Sibia nipalensis daflaensis. Austen’s Barwing.

Found in the high evergreen forest on the summits of the highest
ranges above 7,0/0 ft. Here it is common, going about in parties of 5
or 6, and is very noisy with most peculiar call notes. They feed largely
in the tree-tops and upper mossy branches, but are extremely tame and
curious, and when I was camping on Pad Puttu in a snowstorm, several
came down to wiihin a few feet of me to have a look, ‘Two specimens
were shot on Pad Puttu and Donko Puttu.

31, Siva cyanouroptera cyanouropiera. Hodgson’s Bluewinged Siva.

A common bird in the bramble and secondary growth round Kore.
It is also one of the few species fairly common in the cultivation and pine
and bamboo plantations of the Apa Tan: Valley. It is usually seen in
considerable flocks in company with Lezotirix and esta.

32, Yuhina gularis. Stripethroated Yuhina.

I saw a flock cf largish, brown-crested yuhinas on Donko Puttu
above the Apa Tant Vall ley in the tree-tops at 7,010 ft. which I doubt-
fully identified as this species. 1 have also seen the same birds among
rhododendron growth on the divide belvean Koie and the Apa ‘Lani

Valley.-

33, Yuhina nigrimentum nigrimentum. Blackchinned Yuhina.

Not uncommon in flocks in the high evergreen woods of the Apa Tani
hunting ground, 6,0U0 ft.

34, Ixulus occipitalis. Chestnutheaded Ixulus.

35, Ixulus flavicollis flavicollis. Yellow naped Ixulus.

Both the above were common all round the Apa Tani Walle in the
forests on the hills, also in the open bramble and alder growth round
Kore. ‘They pecnnied in considerable flocks, feeding both in the tree-
tops and in the undergrowth. A specimen | obtained of /. flavzcollis was
identitied as the typical subspecies and not daz/eyz.

35. Leiothrix lutea. Redbilled Leiothrix.

Common round every Dafla village in recently abandoned ‘jhum”
land. Very common round Kore and in the scrubby Apa Tani firewood
reserves, but not seen in ihe cultivated area inthe Apa Tani Valley. The
male has a sweet little song of half a dozen notes. It is very like Wesia
argentauris in habits and frequently consorts with that species. I found
a nest (c/2) on May 20 at Hapulia, 5,000 ft., beside a path in dense
scrub.

37, Cutia nipalensis. Nepal Cutia.

Only once encountered when a pair were seen in the canopy of high
forest on ‘lasser Puttu, 4,500 ft., the crest of the outer range.

38, Pteruthius erythropterus. Redwinged Shrike Babbler.

Only twice seen. I shot a solitary specimen at Kore, 5,000 ft. it was
feeding on a leafless tree and was slow and sluggish in its movements.
A small flock was encountered on another occasion in scrub at the edge
of the Apa Tani firewood reserves. .

NOTES ON. BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM 403

39. Chloropsis hardwickii hardwickii. Orangebellied Chioropsis.

Occurs all over the hiils in forest both in the mixed bamboo and deci-
duous riverine jungle at 2,000 ft. and the high evergreen forest at 7,000
ft. or more.

40. Mesia argentauris argentauris. Silvereared Mesia.

Very common in large flocks in scrub and light jungle throughout the
Pein Valley and in the Apa Tani firewood reserves and bamboo planta-
tions. They pair off in April and retire to scrubby nullahs where they.
become shy and hard to see, but can be detected by their long-drawn
call note. A specitnen was shot at Kore, 5,0u0 ft.

4], Minla ignotincta. Redtailed Minla.

Dafla name: Pobhum dastn.

Quite common in the winter all over the hills from 3,000 ft. upwards
but most numerous at about 4—-5.00U ft. They are sometimes found in
separate flocks in scrub and light tree jungle but are generally in mixed
parties, and work the tree-trunks like a tree-creeper or piculet.

42, Criniger gularis. Indian Whitethroated Bulbul.
Occurs in evergreen jungle in the lower foothills up to 4,500 ft.

43, Microscelis psaroides. Black Bulbul.

One of the commonest bulbuls all over the higher hills, descending to
lower levels in winter. Usually seen in noisy flocks in the tree-tops.
Specimen not obtained, and it is not known whether the form occurring is
psaroides or nNLZVescens. |

44, Ixos flavala. Himalayan Browneared Bulbul.

Common in mixed flocks in the secondary woodland and sholas of the
Pein Valley. Specimens shot on Oct. 10, were in moult.

45, Ixos macclellandi macclellandi. Rufousbeilied Bulbul.

This large bulbul is not uncommon in secondary ‘jhum’ scrub with a
fair proportion of larger trees, such as is found around Kore. Usually seen
‘in twos or threes in mixed flocks. ‘The white throat of loose, lanceolate
feathers is very noticeable in the field.

46, Alcurus striatus. Striated Green Bulbul.

Not common, but was seen in various places at fairly high elevations,
usually in high tree-tops on the edge of evergreen forest. ‘They are
usually in pairs and are very noisy.

47. Mbolpastes cafer. Bengal Redvented Bulbul.

Dafla name : Vielz betom.

Very common in open country such as the Pein River downs up to
5,000 ft. A specimen was shot at Yatchuli, 4,000 {t., and a nest with 2
incubated eggs was found at the same place in an isolated bush in grass-
land on 25th May.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST-> SOCIETY, Vol. 53

48. Otocompsa jocosa emeria. Bengal Redwhiskered Bulbul.

Dafla name: Vakshoh,

Very common everywhere in the open country of the Pein downs,
gathering at times into considerable Hocks.

49. Certhia discolor discolor. Sikkim Tree-creeper.
A specimen was obtained, but the locality not recorded.

50. Tesia castaneocoronata. Chestnutheaded Wren.

A wren which I believe to be this species is not uncommon in the
scrubby firewood reserves on the hillsides bordering the Apa ‘Tani Valley
at 5-6,000 ft.

51. Cinclus pallasi. Indian Brown Dipper.

Coxnmon on all the larger rivers and streams from 2,000 ft. upwards;
at the lower elevations only ia winter,

52. Saxicola torquata. Indian Bushchat.

Common in winter in the open country of the Pein River downs and
the Apa Tani Valley. I saw a pair in April on the downs at Jorum. The
male was in full plumage and I suspect they were breeding.

53, Rhodophila ferrea ferrea. Western Dark-grey Bushchat.

Occurs al! over the hills in ‘jhum’ cultivation round Dafla villages and
is one of the few species permanently resident and breeding in the highly
cultivated Apa l'ani Valley. A nest with four eggs was found at Duta
on April 20. It was a cup lined with hair in a hole in one of the thick
brushwood fences which surrounded the bamboo groves which the Apa
‘lanis cultivate. The eggs were immaculate Hedgesparrow blue.

54, Enicurus maculatus. Spotted Forktail.

Occurs on the smaller rapid streams in heavy forest at all elevations
and to a lesser extent on the larger rivers. It is not numerous.

55. Enicurus schistaceus. Sjatybacked Forktail.

Distribution as the last species but commoner—the commonest forktail
of the area. I found a nest being built on May 28 on the Petti Pobhu
stream in the Panior Valley at 2,000 ft. It was on a large boulder two
feet above water level in the stream bed. It was a solid cup of moss,
soaking wet, and was being lined with blackish roots.

56, Enicurus leschenaulti. DLeschenauit’s Forktail.

Found along the larger rivers and their tributaries in heavy forest up
to 2,000 ft. but not common.

57. Microcichla scouleri. Little Forktail.
Seen once on the Kale River at 3,500 ft.

58. Phoenicurus frontalis. Bluefronted Redstart.
Seen at Kore, 5,000 ft. in December. A winter visitor presumably.

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM 405

£9, Phoenicurus hodgsoni. Hodgson’s Redstart.
A pair once seen at Kore. Winter visitor.

60. Chaimarrhornis leucocephala. Whitecipped Redstart.
A common winter visitor on ali the larger rivers at all heights.

61. Rhyacornis fuliginosa. Plumbeous Redstart.

To be seen on all the rivers and streams in the area in winter. I
strongly suspect it of breeding in the district at higher elevations. A
pair on the Pein River below Kore at 4,500 ft. appeared from their
actions to have a nest, though [ failed to find it.

62, Copsychus saularis. Magpie-Robin.

Rare in the hills. The only ones s2en were a pair which were feeding
young on April 30 in a hole JU feet up in a tree in the open grassland
of the lower Pein Valley.

63. Turdus merula albocinctus. Whitecollared Biackbird.

A small party were seen in January on Pad Puttu, 6,000 ft. in thick
forest.

64, Turdus boulboul. Greywinged Blackbird.
One was seen at 4,500 ft. in ‘ jhums’ on the edge of forest.

65, Turdus ruficollis. Redthroated Thrush.
66, Turdus atrogularis. Blackthroated Thrush.
67. Turdus unicolor. Tickell's Thrush.

68. Turdus obscurus. Dark Thrush.

All these thrushes are common winter visitors in open country and
secondary scrub all over the hills. ‘They wander about in large flocks and
the species mix freely.

69, Geokichla citrina. Orangeheaded Ground Thrush.

Not very common but resident in heavy evergreen jungle at moderate
elevations. I found a nest almost certainly of this species on May 27.
It was a sturdy cup, largely made of moss and lined with rootlets, 10
feet up in a low tree overhanging the path in thick forest at 3,500 ft. on
the north slopes of Lasser Puttu.

70. Oreocincla dauma. Smallbilled Mountain Thrush.
Once seen in November in a wooded ravine below Kore, 4,500 ft.

71. Greocincla mollissima. Plainbacked Mountain Thrush.

I shot one of a pair in December at 5,0U0 ft. above Kore in the Apa
Tani woods.

72, Myiophoneus caeruleus. Himalayan Whistling Thrush.

Not very common. One cr two were seen on hill-streams on the
slopes of ‘Lasser Puttu, 4,500 ft.

406. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

73, Siphia strophiata strophiata. Orangegorgeted Flycatcher.
A fairly common winter visitor. A specimen was obtained at Kore.

74. Muscicapula melanoleuca. Little Pied Flycatcher.

Atrives in the hilis above 4,500 ft. in considerable numbers in March,
presumably to breed. They haunt fairly open country and cultivation.
I have seen them at Kore, the Pein Vailey ‘sholas’ and the Apa Tani
Valley.

75, Eumyias thalassina. Verditer Flycatcher.

Occurs in fair numbers all over the hills at all times of the year. I
have seen it up to 7,000 ft. It is usually found in cultivation or secon-
dary jungle. A tall dead tree in cleared ‘jhum’ jand makes a very
favourite look-out. It has a sweet little song.

76, Anthipes monileger monileger. Hodgson’s Whitegorgeted Fly-
catcher.

A specimen was obtained and others seen in scrubby ravines in broken
country below Kore, 4,500 ft. :

77, Culicicapa ceylonensis. Greyheadced Flycatcher.

A regular member of the mixed hunting flocks in evergeen forest all
over the hills. It is a permanent resident and the commonest flycatcher
of the district.

78, Niltava grandis grandis. Large Niltava.

Seen on several occasions in undergrowth and low trees under high
forest on the borders of the Apa Tani Valley at 6,000 ft.

79, Niltava macgrigoriae. Small Niltava.
Uncommon. Similar im habitat and distribution to WV. grandis.

80, Tchitrea paradisi. Indian Paradise Flycatcher.

Only seen in the ‘ terai’ forest belt at the foot of the hills adjoining
the plains at 2—3,000 ft. The subspecies occurring was not ascertained. —

8]. Rhipidura albicollis. Whitethroated Fantail Flycatcher.

Occurs all over the hills. Usually seen as single birds accompanying
mixed insectivorous flocks in forest.

82. Lanius nigriceps. Indian Blackheaded Shrike.

Common in open country such as the Pein Valley downs, and is one
of the few species breeding in numbers in the highly cultivated Apa Tani
Valley. It nests throughout May im the small patches of scrub in the
hollows of the bare, bracken-clad grazing grounds. ‘The nest is in any
' conspicuous thorny bush. Almost every patch of scrub has a pair, The
clutch is 4-6. :

83. Hemipus picatus capitalis. Brownbacked Pied Shrike. |

~ Quite common all over the hills up to 7 000 ft., usually in pairs or sinall
family parties.

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM 407

84, Pericrocoius brevirostris affinis. Assam Shortbilled Minivet.
A specimen was obtained but locality not recorded.

85, Lalage melaschista. Dark-grey Cuckoo-shrike.

Occurs fairly commonly in riverine bamboo jungle and the oak and
chestnut woods of old abandoned ‘ jhum’ land, but not seen in the virgin
evergreen forest of the high hills.

86, Graucalus macei. Large Himalayan Cuckoo-shrike.

Occurs sparsely all over the hills in secondary open jungle and aban-
doned ‘jhums’.

87. Dicrurus macrocercus. Black Drongo.

88. Dicrurus leucophaeus. Grey Drongo.

Both these drongos occur commonly at low elevations in the river
valleys.

89, Chaptia aenea aenea. Northern Bronzed Drongo.

Fairly common around Dafla villages and new ‘jhum’ clearings.
Birds seen at Selsemchi, 1,509 ft., on the outer range in October were in
moult with the tail feathers growing. It occurs in the Apa Tani Valley
and may well breed there in the pines as I have seen a pair in May
chasing a crow out of a grove.

90. Chibia hottentotta. Haircrested Drongo.

Fairly common at low and medium elevations in the forest bordering
on ‘jhum’ clearings. A specimen was shot at Lichi, 3,000 ft., on May
27. I saw two pairs building in this neighbourhood at Petti Pobhu in
evergreen jungle. One nest was in the outer branches of a high tree, but
the other was not more than 15 ft. up in a tree overhanging a streain.
Both were hammocks of bark and rootlets like that of Déssemurus, and
lacked the cobweb plastering used by the smaller drongos.

91, Bhringa remifer. The Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo.

Seen on several occasions up to 4,000 ft. in heavy forest on the
outer ranges. :

92, Dissemurus paradiseus. Large Racket-tailed Drongo.

Not common but occurs, usually in pairs, in mixed flocks with tree-
pies and other birds up to 7,000 ft. in dense forest.

- 93, Franklinia gracilis. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.

Common round Kore, 5,000 ft. on the bracken-clad hillsides in small
parties.

94, Seicercus affinis. Allied Flycatcher-Warbler.
A specimen was obtained, but the locality not recorded.

95, Seicercus poliogenys. Greycheeked Flycatcher-Warbler.
Very common all round the Apa Tani Valley in the scrubby firewood

reserves at about 6,000 ft. A constant member of the mixed hunting
parties. ;

7

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

96. Abrornis schisticeps. Blackfaced Flycatcher-Warbler.
I saw a pair on one occasion in the Apa 7J’ani firewood reserves in a
mixed hunting party.

97, Abrornis albogularis albogularis. Whitethroated Flycatcher-Warbler.

A low elevation species. I shot a specimen, one of a pair, in bamboo
and deciduous forest on the river bank at Pein, 3,000 ft.

98. Horornis pallidipes. Blanford’s Behe Warbicn

I found a nest which must have belonged to this species (or
Hi. tortipes ®) at Likha, 4,000 ft. by a path running through abandoned
‘jhums’, overgrown with thatch-grass and brambles. It was three feet
from the ground, a very deep and buiky cup of dead leaves, lined with
feathers, some of them green, and contained 4 eggs of a uniform deep
purplish chocolate.

99, Prinia flaviventris. Yellowbeilied Wren-Warbler.
Occurs in grassland in the Pein Valley round Yatchuli at 3,500 ft.

100, Irena puella. Fairy Bluebird.

Occurs somewhat uncommonly in the river valley forests up to
3,000 ft.

101, Oriolus traillii. Maroon Oriole.

Not uncommon in the forest on the hills round the Apa Tani Valley
at 6,000 ft. Unlike the golcen orioles it is a very silent bird.

102, Saroglossa spiloptera assamensis. Assam Spottedwinged Stare.

Only once encountered when three specimens were shot from a large
flock on the outskirts of a ‘shola’ on the Pein River downs at 3,500 ft.
on October 10. One of them, a female, was in moult,

103. Munia atricapilla. Northern Chestnutbellied Munia.
An inhabitant of swamps at low elevations at the foot of the hills.

104. Uroloncha striata. Hodgson’s Munia.

Common all over the hills in secondary ‘jhum’ cultivation in small
flocks.

105. Passer rutilans cinnamomeus. Cinnamon Tree-sparrow.

Dafla name: P2chz.

Occurs round the Apa Tani villages and cultivation in fair numbets.
I found them breeding at Duta, 5,000 ft., in May in holes in wild pear
trees, several nests in one tree. ‘The nests are pads of pine needles. The
usual clutch was 4 and the eggs were very variable.

106. Emberiza pusilla. Little Bunting.

A fairly common winter migrant in open country, particularly in the
Apa Tani Valley.

107. Melophus lathami. Crested Bunting.

In winter occurs in flocks all over the hills in open thatch grass
country. It is apparently a breeding visitor to the Apa Tani Valley where

i

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM 409

it is one of the few birds inhabiting the bare, bracken-covered grazing
grounds. From late April on they are numerous there in pairs, but up to
the end of May I failed to find a nest and even then some of the males
were in winter plumage.

108. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit.
A specimen was obtained, but the locality not recorded.

109. Aethopyga saturata saturata. Blackbreasted Sunbird.

Widely but sparingly distributed at all elevations both in open
‘jhum’ land and the dense forests round the Apa Tani Valley up
to 6,000 ft.

110. Pitta nipalensis. Bluenaped Pitta.

Once seen. A femaie was shot on the ground at 6,009 ft. in dense
forest on the border of the Apa Tani Valley.

111. Pitta cucullata. Greenbreasted Pitta.

I saw a pair in the Kimin Nullah at 500 ft. in the foothill ‘ terai’
forest on 25-5-47. ‘They were flying about together in a purposeful
manner as though nest-building or feeding young.

112, Serilophus rubropygius. Hodgson’s Broadbill.

Once seen. A Specimen was shot in bamboo jungle on the banks of
the Panior River at IETS, Ih SOO) site,

113, Psarisomus dalhousiae. JLongtailed Broadbill.

Occurs in flocks in riverine jungle along the Panior River and its
tributaries up to 3,000 ft.

114, Dryobates darjellensis. Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker.
A specimen was obtained, but the locality not recorded.

115. Dryobates nanus. Pigmy Woodpecker.

Seén in woodland patches on the Pein River downs, usually in mixed
flocks with other insectivorous birds.

116. Blythipicus pyrrhotis. Redeared Woodpecker.

Heard and seen on a number of occasions in riverine evergreen and
bamboo forest.

117. Mulleripicus pulverulentus. [ndian Great Slaty Woodpecker.

A bird of low elevations, only seen in the tall evergreen forest of the
‘terai’ at the foot of the hills near the Kinin River.

118. Vivia innominatus innominatus. Speckled Piculet.

119. Sasia ochracea ochracea. Rufous Piculet.

Both these piculets were seen together in company with minlas, sivas
and mesias in mixed hunting parties in patches of woodland on the Pein
River downs.

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

120. Megalaima virens magnifica. Great Himalayan Barbet.
Common all over the hills at all elevations.

121, Megalaima asiatica asiatica. Bluethroated Barbet.
Common all over the hills at all elevations.

122. Megalaima franklinii. Goldenthroated Barbet,

Not uncommon in the tall evergreen forest.of the Apa Tani hunting
ground at 5-6,000 ft.

123, Cuculus canorus. Asiatic Cuckoo.

A form of the cuckoo, probably subspecies ¢elephonus, occurs
not very commonly on the higher hills above 4,000 ft. during the breed-
ing season.

124, Cuculus optatus. Himalayan Cuckoo.

Very common in the high woods of the Apa Tani hunting grounds
above 5,000 ft.

125. Cuculus poliocephalus. Small Cuckoo.

A common summer visitor to the hills. One was shot at Kore, 5, 000 tes
in April.

126. Cuculus micropterus. Indian Cuckoo.
Very common indeed all over the hills.

127. Surniculus lugubris. Drongo Cuckoo.
Seen once in ‘ jhum ’ cultivation at Likha, 4,000 ft.

128, Clamator coromandus. Redwinged Crested Cuckoo.

Seen once or twice in April and May in secondary jungle at fairly low
elevations.

129, Centropus bengalensis. Lesser Coucal.

Common in the thatch-grass covered downs of the Pein Valley at
3—4,000 ft. One which I disturbed on a very dewy morning was so
soaked that it could scarcely fly.

130. Eurystomus orientalis. Broadbilled Roller.

Not uncommon at low elevations in ‘ jhum ’ clearings along the Panior
Valley. Its favourite hunting stances are the tall dead trees left after the
forest has been burned for clearing.

131. Ceryle lugubris. Himalayan Pied Kingfisher.

Found all along the Panior and other large rivers of the district,
though thinly distributed as each pair seems to occupy a long stretch of
water.

132. Alcedo atthis. Common Indian Kingfisher.

The only kingfisher seen in the Apa T’'ani Valley where it occurs on
the Kale River at 5,000 ft.

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM Ald

133. Alcedo hercules. Blyth’s Kingfisher.

Seen once on May 27 on the Petti Pobhu, a small stream running
through dense evergreen forest at 2,000 ft. A bird passed me three times
in an hour carrying a fish in its beak and evidently feeding young. I
was unable to find the nest, however.

134. Dichoceros bicornis. Great Hornbill,

Only seen at comparatively low elevations up to 2,000 ft. in the ever-
green forest along the Panior River.

135. Rhyticeros undulatus. Malayan Wreathed Hornbill.

Common in small parties in evergreen forest throughout the hills
from plains level up to 6,000 ft. The call is a loud croak but it is not
nearly so vociferous as most hornbills. They are very shy and wary,
being, like the other large members of the family, much hunted by the
local tribesmen not only for food but for the sake of their casques and
tail-feathers which are worn as head-dress ornaments.

136, Aceros nipalensis. Rufousnecked Hornbill.

Not common. A pair were seen on Tasser Puttu, 4,000 ft., in heavy
forest.

137, Harpactes erythrocephalus. Redheaded Trogon.

Not common. One was. seen in a mixed hunting party in riverine
bamboo jungle at Pite, 2,000 {t., and a specimen was shot at Talo, 5,000 ft.,
in evergreen forest.

138, Harpactes wardii. Ward’s Trogon.

Only once encountered. A party of a male and two females was seen
in evergreen forest above Kore, 5,500 ft. and one of the females was
collected. |

139, Cypsiurus batassiensis. Paim Swift.

Seen round the Dafla village of Selsemchi, 1,800 ft. They probably
breed in the thatched eaves of the houses as they do in Naga villages in
the hills where the normal nesting sites are not available owing to the
absence of palm trees.

140. Hirundapus giganteus. Brownrumped Spinetail.

I watched a large flock of fifty or more flying up and down a stretch
of the Panior River, 2,000 ft., one evening. A dozen or so at a time
‘would swoop down and dip in the river simultaneously raising a series of
longitudinal splashes like a shoal of flying fishes taking wing.

In April I have seen isolated pairs hawking round clearings where the
swamps of the Apa Tani Valley run up into the forest at 5,000 ft., and I
suspect that they were breeding there.

141. Ictinaétus malayensis. Black Eagle.

The only large raptor at all common in the hills. I once saw a flock
of over twenty circling together over the Pein Valley. Usually they are
‘Solitary. One was shot at Kore while raiding a chicken-run.

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

142. Spilornis cheela. Crested Serperit Eagle.
Not uncommon in river valleys and ravines at fairly low elevations.

143, Bazajerdoni. Blyth’s Baza.

A pair were seen soaring and mewing over the ‘ terai’ jungle at Dejoo
on the edge of the plains.

144. Dendrophassa pompadora phayrei. Pompadour Green Pigeon.
A specimen was obtained, but the locality not recorded.

145. Sphenocercus apicaudus. Pintailed Green Pigeon.
A specimen was obtained at Selsemchi, 1,5U0 ft.

146. Sphenocercus sphenurus. Wedgetaiied Green Pigeon.

Numerous round Kore, 5,000 ft., in April when a certain berry was in
season. ‘Two were collected.

147. Ducula badia. Hodgson’s Imperial Pigeon.

Large numbers were szen on the outer ranges between Selsemchi,
1,890 ft., and Lichi, 4,000 ft., where they were feeding on truiting trees in
heavy forest.

148, Columba pulchricollis. Ashy Woodpigeon.

Dafla name: Pukurr.

Occurs in the high-level evergreen forest between the Pein Valley and
the Apa Tani Plateau. I shot one out of a small flock in pine trees at
Soro, 6,000 ft. It is a silent and sluggish bird.

149, Chalcophaps indica. Emerald Dove.
Wicely spread all over the hills, but nowhere common.

150 Streptopelia orientalis orientalis. Rufous Turtle Dove.

Generally not common. Seen occasionally in pairs in paddy fields and
woodiand patches on the Pein Valley down. Much more numerous in
the Apa Tani Valley w here they ‘eed in the cultivation and breed in the
pine plantations. ‘Their numbers are greatly augmented aiter the harvest
when there is a big influx to glean the stubbles.

151, Streptopelia chinensis suratensis. Indian Spotted Dove.
Found in the gardens round Dafla villages, but not common.

152. Macropygia unchall. Bartailed Cuckoo Dove.

Scen at Kore, 5,000 ft. They were resident but not numerous and |

were unobtrusive, haunting nullahs choked with secondary jungle, and
feeding much on the ground. ‘The specimen I shot had its crop stuffed
with small black berries. “They ascend the highest hills at certain times
of year and I encountered flocks on top of Donko Puttu, 7,000 ft.

153. Polyplectron bicalcaratum. Peacock Pheasant.

Only encountered on the outer range from plains level up to the
sumiit of Tasser Puttu, 4,000 ft., in heavy evergreen forest.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Blacknecked Cranes on Apa Tani paddy stubbles.

(Photos: F. N. Betts)

NOTES ON BIRDS OF THE SUBANSIRI AREA, ASSAM 413

154, Gallus bankiva. Common Red Junglefowl.
Occurs everywhere throughout the hills, though nowhere numerous as
it is much hunted by the Datlas.

155. Gennaeus horsfieldii. Blackbreasted Kalij Pheasant.
Occurs though not in large numbers all over tke hills.

15S. Arborophila torqueola torqueola. Common Hill Partridge.

Jeo

A specimen was obtained, but the locality not recorded.

157. Grus nigricollis. Blacknecked Crane.

A flock of 30-40 of these Cranes winter annually in the Apa Tani
Valiey, arriving in mid-December and leaving in March. They frequent
the open paddy stubbles and marshy fields and are extremely wary of
anyone except the Apa Tani villagers who never harmthem. Their
numbers appear tou be very constant and the villagers informed me that
they had been coming every year within human memory. A male was

shot for identification.

158. Vanellus vanellus. Lapwing.
A flock was seen on the fallow fields near Data in the Apa Tani
Valley on 2-12-47 and a specimen was shot.

159, Tringa ochropus. Green Sandpip2r.
A fairly common winter visitor to the Apa Tani Valley.

160. Tringa hypoleucos. Common Sandpiper.
A winter visitor found along the Panior River and other large streams
and rivers at all elevations. Usuaily seen singly.

161. Capella gallinago. Fantail Snipe.
Numerous in the swamps and fallow paddy fields of the Apa Tani
Valley in winter.

162. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis. Indian Shag.
Often seen on the Panior River as a wanderer from the plains,

163. Butorides striatus. Little Green Heron.
Occasionally seen usually solitary on the Panior River,

164, Anser indicus. Barheaded Goose.

A visitor to the Apa ‘Tani Valley on the spring passage, but not seen
in the autumn. ‘I hey are not seen in large flocks but two or three birds
at a time may rest for several days in the fallow paddy fields.

165, Casarcea ferruginea. Ruddy Shelduck.
The remarks under the last species apply to this one also,

166, Anas crecca. Common Teal.

414° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63

167. Spatula clypeata. Shoveller.

Visitors to. the Apa Tani Valley on passage. Specimens of both
species were shot on the Kale River on 2-12-47. j

168, Aythia ferina. Common Pochard.

A male was captured alive in the Apa Tani Valley on 30-10-47. It
was on migration and very exhausted.

169. Mergus merganser. Goosandet. |
Fairly common in winter on the Panior and other large rivers of the
area.

170. Podiceps cristatus. Great Crested Grebe.
A bird on passage was caught alive in the Apa Tani Valley in April
in a very exhausted condition.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA

BY
D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

PART I

The following notes are based on series in my collection caught in
Calcutta between 1930 and 1946 and, from 1945 to 1946, on records of
monthly occurrences. Specimens were obtained by breeding, by attraction
to light, and by beating herbage and shrubs. Unfortunately the use of
Mercury Vapour light was not introduced until after I had left India for
good;Iam certain that its employment in Calcutta would have added
considerably to the following lists.

The following figures, supplied by the Alipore Meteorological Station,
are interesting :

Temperature Percentage Relative Total Rainfall
Maximum Minimum Humidity (mean of in inches
(mean) (mean) hourly values) (average)
One DE

Verena, sso SO 54°6 73 0:37
February ... 83°7 59-4: 69 1-17
March Soe NIZE) 68°8 68 1:36
April son SORE: ISS 71 175
May sce GOO Tae) 74 5°49
June son Se 78°6 81 11°69
July sao + aS) 78:6 85 12°81
August «. 89:0 Viste) 86 12°92
September... 89:9 78:0 86 S915
OGM? ~ Gog eR 73°8 82 4°48
November... 84:2 63°7 76 0°81
December ... 79°4 55:0 72 0:18

I have followed the Fauna of British India (Hampson, i-iv and Bell
and Scott, v) as regards nomenclature as these books are fairly easily
available.

SATURNIIDAB

Actias selene Hbn.—I have included this species, although I have
never met it personally, on the assurance of several. non-entomolo-
eical friends that they had seen it. It is quite unmistakable and
could not be confused with anything else.

BOMBYCIDAE

Ocinara varians Wlk.—Common throughout the year, both nomino-
typical and f. adbzcollis Wlk. Larva on peepul and other Ficus spp.

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

EUPTEROTIDAE

Eupterote undata Blanch—Fairly common in vi, I have no record for any
other month. ‘Ihe very hairy, very slow-growing larva appears to
be polyphagous.

E. geminata Wlk.—Common from v to ix. The larva is gregarious, feed-
ing on various trees and shrubs, and its hairs cause an intense irri-
tation when they come in contact with the human skin.

SPHINGIDAE

Acherontia lachesis F.—Faitly common from viii to xi. Ezgs can be
found on Jasminum samobac.

A. styx Westw.—Fairly common in all months except i, ti, v and xii.
Eggs on Jasminum samobac.

Herse convolvuli L.—Common, recorded in i, ii, ix, x and xi. Larvae on
Convolvulaceae spp.

Cephonodes hylas L.— Common at flowers 1n sunshine. Recorded for i,
iii, V, Vili, x1 and xii, ‘Larvae common on Gardenia.

Deilephila nerii L. —Common, recorded for all months except ili, iv and
x, Larvae common on oleandex.

D, hypothous Cr.—A single male in vii.

Nephele didyma F.—Common, also f. hespera F. Recorded for iii, iv, vi
and viii, Larvae on Carissa carandaus (Apocynaceae).

Macroglossum gyrans Wlk.—Uncommon at flowers in sunshine. Recorded
for ili and iv.

M, affictitia Btl.—Uncommon at flowers in sunshine. Recorded in v.

M. belis L.—Fairly common at flowers in sunshine. Records for viii
and 1x.

M. sitiene Wlk.—Rare at flowers in sunshine. Recorded in iv.
Hippotion celerio L,.—Common. Records for i, x, xi and xii.
H. echeclus Bsd.—Fairly common. Records for x and xi.

H. boerhaviae F.—Common. Records for i, v, vii, ix, x and xi.
Theretra nessus Drury—Fairly common. Recorded for x only.
T. clotho Drury—Common. Records for vii to xi.

T. latreillei Mac,, lucasi Wlk.~~A singie male in x.

T, alecto L.—Uncommon. Records for ii and v,

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 417

T. oldenlandiae F,—Common, recorded in vii, viii, ix and xi. Larvae
common on arums and very varied.

T. pinastrina Mart.—Common. Recorded from viii to xi. Larvae com-
mon on cultivated balsam and very conspicuous.

Rhyncholaba acteus Cr.—Common. Recorded from vii to x. Larvae
very common on Caladium and other arums.

NOTODONTIDAE
Turnaca acuta Wlk.—Rare. Recorded in viii and ix.
Antheua servula Drury—A single female in vi.

Stauropus alternus W]k.—Bred in iii from larvae found on Cassza fistula
and castor.

Ichthyura restitura Wlk.—A single male in ii. Now Pygaera.

I, ferruginea Moore—A single female in vi. Now Pygaera.

SYNTOMIDAE
Syntomojdes imaon Cr.—Common. Recorded fromitoiv. Now Ceryx.

Syntomis cyssea Cr.—Common. Records for i, ii, iii, iv, viii and xi.
Now Azata.

S. passalis F.—Fairly common. Records for vi, vili, ix and x. Now
Amata.

S. confinis Wlk.—Fairly common. Records for ii, v and vi. Now
Evessa.

ZYGAENIDAR
Thyrassia subcordata Wlk.—Two females. Recorded in vii.

Trypanophora semihyalina Ko]].—Not uncommon. Records for i, ii, iii
and xi. Larvae on many shrubs.

Chalcosia thallo L.—Rare, recorded in xi. Now auwxo L.

PSYCHIDAE
Clania crameri Westw.—Fairly common. Bred in i, v and vi.
C. variegata Snell.—A single male at light ini.
Amatissa cuprea Moore—Fairly common. Ered in x.
Psyche fusca Hamps.—Two males at light in xi.

Chalioides vitrea Hamps.—Fairly common, Bred in vi and vii,

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53 .

COSSIDAE
Cossus acronyctoides Moore—Rare. Recorded in vi and Viii.
C. cadambae Moore.—A single female in iii.

Duomitus leuconotus Wik.—A single female in ii. Pupa cases of what I
think are this species quite common protruding from trunks of Cassza
fistula. Now Xyleutes.

Azygophlebs scalaris F.—Uncommon. Recorded in vii and xi.

Zeuzera coffeae Nietn.—A pair recorded in x.

ARBELIDAE (now INDARBELIDAE)
Arbela quadrinotata Wlk.—Not uncommon. Recorded in iv. Now
Indarbela.
DREPANULIDAE (now DREPANIDAE)
Phalacra vidhisara Wlk.—Uncommon. Recorded for iii and xii.

Drapetodes mitaria Guen.—T wo femaies in xii.

THYRIDIDAE

Striglina scitaria Wlk.—Not uncommon. Recorded in i and x. Larva
on Phaseolus sp.

Rhodoneura myrsusalis Wlk.—Fairly common. Recorded in vi, x and xi,

LIMACODIDAE

Thosea cana \W1lk.—One female bred from a larva from Cassia fistula
ix

T. tripartita }foore—Common, recorded in iv and vi to x. Larvae on
Ricinus communis and Zizyphus jujuba.

T. loesa Moore—Uncommon, recorded in viii and xj. Larvae on areca
palm.

T. cervina Moore— Fairly common, records for v, vi, viii and ix.

Natada nararia Moore—Bred in i, iii and x from larvae found on
Lagerstroemia indica. Now Macroplectra.

Parasa lepida Cr.—Very common. Recorded from v to x. Larvae
common on mango and less so on Gardinia.

P. hilaralis Westw.—Bred from larvae on an unidentified food-plant in
ii and x.

P, bicolor Wlk,—Uncommon. Recorded in v and vi. (1

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 419

Cania bilinea Wlk.—Not uncommon. Records for vi, viii, x and xil.

Altha nivea W1k.—Common, records for viii, ix and xi. Larvae on
Tinospora cordttolia.

Narosa doenia Moore—A number bred in iii and iv from larvae found on
Ricinus communts.

LASIOCAMPIDAE ~

Taragama siva Lef—Common. Recorded in ii, iii, iv, v, ix andx. Now
Nadiasa.

Metanastria hyrtaca Cr.—Common. Recorded in all months except iv,
ix and x. Larva on Mimusops elengi (Sapotaceae).

Trabala vishnu Lef.—Very common. Recorded for all months except ii,
iii, ix and x. Larvae on various plants.

Estigena pardalis Wlk.—Common. Recorded in i, il, iii, vi, x, xi and xii,
Larvae on Carissa carandas.

LYMANTRIIDAE

Orgyia postica W1lk.—Fairly common. Recorded ini and ix. Larvae on
Lagerstroemia tndica.

Aroa plana Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for ix and xii.
Laelia exclamationis Ko]].—Bred from larvae found on coarse grass in x.

Dasychira mendosa Hbn.—Common. Records for i, ii, iii, xi and xii,
Male forms dzvisa Wik., bdasalzs Wik. and an unnamed one in addition
to the nominotypical. Larvae on Lagerstroemta indica, all with
grey dorsal tufts. Ihave never seen the yeliow-tufted form described
by Hampson.

D. securis Hbn.— Not very common. Only record for viii. Larvae on
coarse grass. I have found it very delicate in captivity. Now Psalzs
pennatula F.

Lymantria ampla W1k.—Very common, records for all months except iv,
vii and viii. Males assemble freely to the wingless females. Larvae
on many plants, Cvolalarvia, Lagerstroemia indica, mango, palms and
many others.

L. nigra Moore—Commop. Records for ii, iv, viii, ix, x, xi and ‘xii.
Larvae on Mango. Hampson’s omnibus species beatrix Stoll. has

- been split up into several.
L, obsoleta Wlk.—Common. Recorded for all months except v, ix and xii.

Euproctis subfasciata Wlk,—-Uncommon. Records for iii and vi.. Larvae
on Ouisgualis indica.

4.20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

E. bimaculata Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for iv, vi, ix, x and xii.

E. lunata Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for ii, iii and x. Larvae on
Carissa carandas.

E. howra Moore—Common. Recorded in i, vii, ix and xi.
E. flavinata W1k.—A single male in vi.

E. varians Wlk.—Common. Records for i and ii.

E

. guttata Wlk.—Common. Records for i, iii, vii, viliand x. Larvae on
Lagerstruemia indica, Carissa carvandas and Zizyphus jujuba.

E. fraterna Moore—Common. Records for ii, iv and v.
E. plana W1k.—Uncommon. Records fori and x.
E. discinota MIoore—Uncommon. Recorded in xii only.

E. scintillans Wlk.—Very common. Records for i, iii, viii, ix, x, xi and xii.
Larvae on many shrubs and also on Sunflower. Now Porthesia.

Porthesia xanthorrhoea Koll.—Common. NRecords for vii, ix and xi.
Larvae on Lagerstroemia indica, also recorded on maize, Jowar and
other Monocotyledons.

Perina nuda F.—Common, the males fly by day and the females come to
light. Recorded for all months of the year. Larvae on Fzcus spp.

Leucoma submarginata Wlk.—Common. Recorded for i, x, xi and xii. I
have two unnamed Leucoma species from larvae found on Lagerst-
roemta tlos-reginae.

ARCTIIDAE
Hypsa paphos F,—A single male in ii. Now Asofa.

H. caricae Bsd.—Common. Records for i to iv and ix to xii. Larvae on
Ficus spp. Now Asota.

H. ficus F—Common. Recorded from v to ix. Larvae on Ficus spp.
Now Agazais.

Digama hearseyana Moore—Not uncommon. Recorded for x only.
D. insulana Fld.—A single female in ii.
D. marchali Guer.—A single female in x.

Spilosoma obliqua Wlk.—Common, records for i, ii, iv, ix, x, xi and xil.
Larvae on numerous low plants. Hampson’s dalbe:giae Moore isa
form of this species, with yellow abdomen instead of red.

Pericallia ricini F,—Common. Recorded from iv to xi. <A single male
of the yellow hind-winged form zevah Cr. Larvae on castor and
many low plants. Hampson calls this Avciza.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA |. 421

Creatonotus interruptus Gmel.—Common. Recorded in Vii, viii, ix and xi.
Now gangits L.

C. emittens Wlk.—Common. Recorded from viii to xi. Now Amsacta
lincola F,

Phissama transiens Wlk.—Common. Records for ii, iii, iv, vii, viii,
ix and x. Larvae on grasses. Now Creatonotus.

Pelochyta astrea Drury—A single female in iv. Now Rhodogastria
eugenia F,

Argina cribraria Clerck—Fairly common. Records for iv, vii, viii and x.
Deiopia lotrix Cr—Common. Recorded in iii, iv, vi, vii, x and xi.
Larvae will feed on dahlia but the natural food is Heliotropium

indicum. Now Utetfictsa. Hampson treats Jotvix as a form of
pulihella L.

Utetheisa pulchelloides Hamps., vaga Jord.—Common. Records for iii,
iv and vi. Found amongst its food-plant Heliolropium indicum.
The Fauna omits this species.

Lithosia natara Moore—Common. Recorded from ix to xii.

L. auriflua Moore—Uncommon, records for x and xi. Apparently this
species in spite of Hampson’s localities of Kulu and Manipur.

L. pentaspila Hamps.—A single female in xi. The Fauna omits this
Scecies.

Aemene guttulosana Wlk.—Common. Recorded in viii, x, xi and xii.
Now Szceza.

Siccia minima Hamps.—Not uncommon. Recorded from ix to xii. Not
included in the Fauna.

Trischalis dulcicula Swinh—Not uncommon. Records fori, x, xi and xii.
Now included in Hemonza.

Miltochrista rubricosa Moore—Common. Recorded in i, ii, vi, vii, ix,
xand xi. Now Asura.

M. congerens Feld—Uncommon. Records for x, xi and xii. Now
ASUY A,

Thumatha fuscescens Wlk.—Not common. Records for vii, x and xi.
Schistophlebs bipuncta Hamps.—Common. Recorded in i, x, xi and xii.

Chamaita trichopteroides Wik.—A single male in x. This species is
omitted from the Fauna.

Nola fragilis Swinh—Common. Records for i, fi, iii, x and xi. Now
Celana taenzata Snell.

4.22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

N. pascua Swinh.—Common. Recorded in i, ii, iii, iv, x, xi and xii. Now
C. tnternella W1k.

Celama cretacea Hamps.—A single female in vy. Not in the Fauna.
Nola major Hamps.—Fairly common. Records for iii, iv, vi, x, xi and xii.

N. fuscibasalis Hamps.—Bred from Jarvae found on Zizyphus jujuba in xi.
Not in the Fauna.

Roeselia fola Swinh.—Bred from larvae found on Quzsgualis tndica in xi.
Not in the Fauna.

Zia ectrocta Hamps.—Common. Recorded from vii to xii. Not in the
Fauna.

(o be continued)

INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND
SYSTEMATICS

1, MARSILEA AEGYPTIACA Witty. Witt REMARKS ON THE
PRESENT SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF INDIAN SPECIES

BY
K. M. Gupta anp T. N. BHarpwayja
Jaswant College, Jodhpur

(With 3 plates and 8 text figures)

CONTENT:

Pace
INTRODUCTION ae Ae ao San wai 508 GE

MorPHOLOGY :
General wee ve “SS Sen aes »» 428
Vegetative Organs = 680 500 ‘ile w» 431
Sporocarp 608 550 $00 te Ps ve 432
SYSTEMATICS OF INDIAN SPECIES ees aa are ... 4388
DIScUSSION Lf ee ren vee ae ... 444
SUMMARY a bar bes Ors see ... 446
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ie <i BA Set ». 446
REFERENCES Se Aone a ae A si oo. §=6446

ENCE RO DIUIC TIO N

The presence of a new type of Maysilea was suspected by the
senior author in October 1953, in the aquatic flora of Jodhpur. its
reference to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, confirmed that
suspicion and Mr. F. Ballard, the expert Pteridologist there, identified
it as M. aegyptiaca Willd. A brief note on the occurrence of this
Egyptian species in the Indian flora was then sent for publication in
the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (Gupta, 1955).

The genus Marsiiea was founded by Linnaeus and named after
Count Luigi Ferdinando Massigli (1737); whereas Willd. now instituted
the new species M. aegyptiaca in 1810 on the material collected from
lower Egypt. The earliest collections of this species at Kew date as
far back as 1819 and 1826, while in India the oldest specimens at
Calcutta Herbarium were collected in 1835. Pl. 3, fig. 17 shows a
specimen collected by J. Schweinfurth from Tel-el-Kebir (lower
Egypt) in 1880, and presented to the senior author by the authorities
of the Kew Herbarium.

As far as we know, no detailed descriptions on the morphology
of M. aegyptiaca have been published; but there are some references
to its anatomy in the work of Russow (1872) and on its gametophytes
by Campbell (1888). Unfortunately these are not yet available to us
for consultation. Besides these, the original descriptions of

8

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISi?. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

M. aegyptiaca are very brief and are only of the nature of diagnoses
such as the following:

(a) Boiss. Ilor. Or, 5: 750 (1884). Marsileu aegyptiaca (W.
Sp. W. Sp. V, p. 540) ad petiolos et laminain pilosa saepe glabrata,
frondis segmentis anguste cuneatis emarginatis bilobis vel interdum
3-6-lobis, in formis natantibus apice rotundatis indivisis, sporocarpiis
singulis stipite eis multo longiore a petiolo libero sufiultis horizontaliter
ceflexis adpresse hirsutis obtuse tetragonis apice subretusis latere
dorsali sulcatis angulo basali unidentatis, adpresse pilosis tandem
glabratis ic. Del. Fi. Eg. tab. 56.

Hab. in totius Kgypti aquis profundis et inundatis tandem
exsiccatis (Del. Schimp! Boiss! Schweinf! etc.)

Forma ex locis tandem exsiccatis petiolos breviores habet,
segmenta minuta et apice lobata, haec sola fructificat. In aquis
profundis autem crescit forma sterilis petiolis saepe longissimis,
segmentis multo majoribus et apice rotundatis integris M. quadrifcliae
similis. nu We

(b) Baker. Handbook of Fern Allies p. 145 (1887) 30. M.
aegyptiaca Willd. Sp. V. 540; Delile, Fl. Egypt. 253, t. 50-—Sub-
terrestrial or aquatic, very variable in size. Petiole in the aquatic
form 4-1 ft., leaflets deltoid, $-? in. long, entire; in the sub-terrestrial
form much shorter; leaflets ¢- in. long, often thinly silky, deeply
crenate on the outer edge. Pedicels solitary, erect, 4-4 in. long,
adnate to the whole base of the conceptacle which is horizontal, nearly
square, 1-12th to 1-roth in, long, usually silky, not bordered, with
the upper corner of the base produced into an obscure tooth. | Sori
about 6. :
~ Hab. Lower Egypt and Astrakhan.

_. MorPHOLOGY

110 00k ea Bath Sotho seGse Me tan

_.. Under the circumstances it was thought worth while. to undertake
the morphological. investigation. of this species, particularly when it was
locally available. It. may be.mentioned that. two other well-known
species of Marsilea, M. minuta and M. quadrifolia, also occur abundant-
ly in various parts of Rajasthan (see map, text fig. 3) but Marsilea
aegyptiaca has so far been collected only in Jodhpur and Jaisalmer
besides Ajmer. The. possibility of its still wider distribution in
Rajasthan is not ruled out. <A closely related species, M. condensata
Baker occurs in Sind. A new species, M. ballardu, has now been
reported by the senior author from Ajmer (Gupta, 1955). .

As usual with the genus, the habit of the plants of M. aegyptiaca
varies according to the nature of the habitat. They flourish well both
in water and on land. The dorsiventral rhizome gets very much
condensed in sub-terrestrial or terrestrial surroundings, producing
solitary squarish sporocarps profusely {text fig. 1 a & b; Pl. 1,
fig. 1)... The external features of the vegetative organs resemble
essentially those. found in other Indian species like M. minuwta and
particularly so’ when the same are compared with plants of the latter
species. that may be growing in a_ sub-terrestrial. habitat. .-Some

INDIAN MARSILEBAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC. 425

sterile plants of M. minuta collected by the senior author from a
terrestrial habitat in Bharatpur were almost indistinguishable from
those of M. aegyptiaca. If sporocarps were available, the identity
of the two species could, of course, be determined at once. ‘The

TExtT FIG. 1. a, b, c.—Outline sketches of the plants of M. aegyptiaca Willd. from
Jodhpur (a and b sub-terrestrial and c aquatic habitat); slightly enlarged, diagram-
matic.

plants of Marsilea are notorious in exhibiting morphological plasticity
under different environmental conditions and present quite a different
appearance according to the season. It is not uncommon to observe
plants with different types of leaves on the same rhizome that may be
partly submerged and partly growing in the muddy margins of the
aquatic habitat. In Marsilea aegyptiaca the lengths of the internodes,

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

for instance, vary so greatly that a correlation of size and habitat
was almost impossible. On the basis of some ecological studies made
by the junior author, it was found that the size of the roots, petioles
and leatlets vary from 0.63 cm. to 9.52 cms., 0.93 cm. to 11.43 cms.
and 0.25 cm. to 1.52 cms. respectively. Similarly a size ratio between
the length of the pedicels and the sporocarps was worked out. It
was found that the pedicel was three or four times the size of the
sporocarp. Not only this but the sporocarps being almost squarish,
the stalks are naturally three or four times the breadth of the sporo-
carps too. This fact may be of some real significance for the species
and, if such a ratio were to be established in any other form of
Marsilea, the affinities of the two will have to be reckoned with. As
far as our observations go, no such relationship is noticeable in any
other species, much less in the Indian species except to some exent in
M, condensata Baker or M. ballardi: Gupta.

The study of external morphology shows that growing parts such

as the tips of rhizomes, petioles and young sporocarps are densely
covered with hairs. These hairs are longer in size and consist otf
more numerous cells than those which are present on the older parts
such as the ripe sporocarps. It is not uncommon to see that the
average Size of the individual cells of these hairs too is also bigger in
those hairs which are found on the younger parts. For instance the
average number of cells constituting the hairs on the apex of the
rhizome, petiole, leaf, young sporocarp and old sporocarp is 10, 4, 4,
5) 3, respectively. It may be indicated that such features might
provide additional data, though of a subsidiary nature, in distinguish-
ing the various species of Marsilea even on vegetative grounds. lt
is important when we realize that the vegetative plasticity of the
genus is so variable. Of Course, the diagnostic characteristics of the
different species of Marsilea are really provided by the sporocarp, a
fact that will be clear from the descriptions that follow in the present
paper. :
There are many places round about Jodhpur from -where Marsilea
aegyptiaca-has been collected, besides one or two places in Ajmer and
Jaisalmer. Formalin-acetic-alcohol or chromacetic acid was used as
fixative and usual methods were employed for preparing free hand
as well as microtome sections. Safranin and-fast-green cormbinatien
gave quite satisfactory results. In order to study the vascular
anatomy of the nodal region as well as the sporocarps, Debenham’s
technique of clearing entire organs was tried with success. his
consists in treating plant organs with 70-75% lactic acid at 50°-60°C.
for at least two weeks, then bleaching the material with Eau-de-
Javelle at 4o°C. and finally staining the material with ammoniacal
fuchsin for at least three days. After the usual dehydration process
they were mounted in Canada balsam for examination. Sporocarps
were kept for softening in hydroflouric acid for about three
weeks for all microtome work before sectioning. 10-12 micron
thick sections were found quite satisfactory for all anatomical
and morphological study. In order to take out the vascular skeleton
of the sporocarps, the latter were treated for about 20 minutes with
concentrated nitric acid.

INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC. 427

Vegetative Organs

Root: Roots are all adventitious. They arise in groups at the
nodes from the ventral side of the rhizomes; sometimes they may
arise in the internodal region, These are much longer and thinner in
the sub-terrestrial plants than those produced under aquatic conditions
and differ markedly in their colour : brownish when growing in the soil
and whitish when in water (text fig. 1. a, b, c). Anatomically, the root
is typically diarch with a thick inner cortex and a lacunar outer
cortex (Pl. 2, fig. 10). _We are unable to follow exactly what Puri and
Garg mean by the statement ‘Root traces are protostelic’ in M. minula
(p. 190, 1953). As far as. we know this term is used in describing a
simple stele, namely solid xylem surrounded by phloem in a rhizome.

Stem: The rhizome is dorsiventral and creeps along the ground,
producing nodes and internodes. The latter become much too short
under sub-terrestriai conditions giving the plant a tulted appearance
(Pl. 1, fig. 1). It branches in a dichotomous manner and is able to
grow indefinitely covering larger surface under aquatic conditions,
although the root system penetrates much deeper in sub-terrestrial
plants. The leaves are produced at the nodes alternately, so also the
roots in small numbers on the lower side of the rhizome.

A bud is usually associated with a leaf and placed adaxially in the
lateral or oblique position indicating, as Bower says, the dichotomy
of the axis with somewhat unequal division of the two shanks. Under
comparatively dry conditions solitary squarish sporocarps are produced
at the base of the leaves.

There is no serious departure from the other species in the anatomy
of the rhizome. It possesses an amphiphloic siphonostele (Pl. 2,
fig. 9). The protoxylem is distinctly mesarch and it is unlikely that
it should be exarch in a fern stem. The statement that there are
prominent masses of conspicuous protoxylems in the exarch position
in M. vestita (Smith, p. 328) may not necessarily mean that the very
first elements produced occupy such a position as to allow the sub-
sequent development of the entire metaxylem centripetally. At any
rate this is not the case in M. aegyptiaca, although the anatomy has
not yet been thoroughly studied by means of longitudinal sections.
The pith is sclerotic and the lacunar area much smaller in the terrestrial
forms. The branching of the rhizome in a dichotomous manner, the
development of the leaf on the node and the origin of the peduncle
further at the base of the petiole can be clearly seen in a transverse
section of the nodal region.

Leaf: The leaves are produced laterally from the dorsai side at
the nodes of the rhizome and remain floating in aquatic plants and
almost erect in the sub-terrestrial habitat. The leaf petioles in the
aquatic plants are thicker and flexible, whereas in the land forms these
are thinner, smaller and more rigid, keeping the leaflets spreading
by assuming an acute angle on the rhizome. There are four leaflets
produced in two successive stages, first the proximal pair separates
and then the distal pair. A section passing through the circinately
coiled young leaf demonstrates this quite clearly. The venation of

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 53

the leaflets is typically furcate, though the presence of the connecting
marginal vein makes it a simple reticulum.

The petioiar anatomy is quite typical of the genus (PI. 2, fig. 14);
but some points of interest have been noted in the structure of the

TExT FIG. 2. Diagrammatic representation of the leaf (a) and the sporocarp (b)
to indicate the relation of a/b as noted in the Table I given below.

leaflets of piants growing in different habitats. The palisade, the
mesophyll, the vascular bundle, the nature of the epidermis as well as
the presence of stomata on the upper surface only in the aquatic and
on both surfaces in the land forms (Pl. 2, fig. 7) are points worth
noting.. The epidermal cells in M. aegyptiaca are quite large with
sinuous outline and the stomata are irregularly distributed though
facing in the same direction. Every stoma is usually bounded by
three epidermal cells which are placed along the length of the guard
cells and the stomatal opening (Pl. 2, fig. 8). Some of the measure-
ments of the vegetative organs taken during an ecological study
(Bhardwaja, 1955) of M. aegyptiaca have been mentioned in Table I.

The Sporocarp

The disposition of sporocarps as well as their grouping is of value
as referred in the later part of the present paper under systematic
consideration; so also is their internal and external morphology
important from the point of view of classification of the genus
Marsilea. Enough stress does not seem to have been laid in the past
on the characters of the sporocarps in spite of the fact that vegetative
features in a plant like Marsilea may prove to be very deceptive for
diagnostic purposes. It will be seen from the descriptions of M.
aegyptiaca as embodied in the present work that the structure of the
sporocarp here is so different from that described for any other species
so far that its identity can hardly be mistaken, at. least from any
other Indian species.

External features: The stalked sporocarps are borne singly at
the base of the petioles (text fig. 1. a) and usually produced at the
end of the wet season (November and December) when the water is
receding from the margin of the tanks. But a much larger number
is produced in comparatively dry weather when plants begin to live
in subterrestrial or terrestrial habitat. Due to the extreme decrease
in the size of the internodes of the rhizomes and greater production

i]
BY ee!

‘THETR MORPHOLOGY, - ETC.

CG)

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‘ "Aa OO" a
ees pons MAP OF INDIA
§ \ KASHMIR 2,

a @ as! SHOWING DISTRIBUTION

oa, .

ki L Seer . OF MARSILIA SPECIES
5 oo,

¢° Arsritsar A:
Lahore ¢ cra vat ,
,outley y=? Chandigarh”: =.

CF fay XY ts, 3
a SIR Nt oe
A ¢ ee ., DEAL eee RUE Ae ees Osh
Jaisalmer ‘yb uta Bhagalpur .____. Ap
go AY s. Jedhpur rat: Link sow «= a (F
| r :Sind “4 Rise Sjmer hasta RY OW OR
od FX S ai Had
| @ Saugar H NG
3%. Chota Nagpur
| ex ; * OY
: nee dabac ! Singbhom CALCUTTA
| JE
&
V Pegu
| BOMBAY he, ee ‘
‘ 2 ee Noun AM. graciienta A. Br,
® M. * quadrifolia L, 3
% \ieeren wie M. coromendelica Burm,
¥& M. minuta L. eg eee
\ Coromandel XS M. poonensis Kolh,
xk M. condensata Bak. \ }
ub M. aegyptica Willd,

fa M. brachypus A. Br.
£S39M. brachyearpa A. Br.

aha
fe M. ballardi Gupta,
Tranquebar

Snes
. ~*~ MAP
{Gan ana an ;
pesnsear? SHOWING DISTRIBUTION
NA
= ‘vin OF MARSILIA IN RAJASTHAN
t
i ’
Sx ~
aN ie oh Bikaner cf 2 An Ws
se Ne a“ Pe
Oe i a ( raat LK OF] ce ww
4 Jun AS Alwar uC
( oh cede ay : «s ?
< N > ati om ty
iS peti: S&S eetees dure i
4 a oy @ } cry Jaipur Dhol weirs
a ates le
ew, Jodhpur RE Se?
L Legare ¢
} a f N
\ Yo * Bundi 2 at
‘\ ; a Jhalawar
\ Erinpura y¢/ Se = Org:
Na raya “ud ® » ct Kota \
t 2» ge . J ( (J
wv § Udaipur : +
@ M. * quadrifolia L, ee NG heat
a tA, ) cid
M. minuta L, ¢ j :
QDungarpur /
qb M. aegyptica Willd, ERs nadara
M. ballardi Gupta. NI

Text Fic. 8. Maps of India and Rajasthan showing the distribution of genus
Marsilea as far as known to the authors.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL VAHIST: SOCIEIYS \Volio3

of the sporocarps, the plants become tufted with bunches of sporo-
carps, of course, produced singly in the characteristic way
of the species (Pl. 1, fig. 1)... It is a common observation chat
amphibious forms living partly in water and partly on land usually
produce fruiting bodies under dry conditions, e.g. species of Riccia
such as R. nalans and R. fluitais. May be this shows that Marsilea
has acquired aquatic habit only secondarily.

The thin pedicel of the sporocarp arises laterally from the base of
the petiole, grows at an angle bearing the sporocarp at its end where
it becomes fully adnate to its base (Pl. 1, fig. 3). The lower horn is
absent. -The upper one is represented by a blunt one (Pl. 1, fig. 7).
The young sporocarps are densely covered with adpressed hairs (Pl. 1,
figs. 3 to 6); the older ones much less so.. As already described
(Gupta, 1955), the sporocarps are variously grooved, besides being
squarish in outline (Pl. 1, figs. 3-5); so that in section they present an
outline which may be quite characteristic of the species (Pl. 3, figs.
13 & 14). The most prominent external features of the sporocarp,
therefore, in M. aegyptiaca are its squarish outline, presence of only
one upper blunt horn, deep groove towards the ee encasing the end
part of the aadumale and prominent dorsal and ventral depressions

(Pl. 1, figs. 3-5).

Anatomy: Our observations are based on a few sections of the
adult sporocarps, the development in the young ones has not yet been
studied. Free hand as well as microtome sections (about 1o-12p. i
thickness) were cut-in-all the three important -planes-namely horizontal,
vertical transverse and vertical longitudinal as represented below
(text fig. 4).

Text Fic. 4. Diagrammatic representation of the planes in which the sporocarp
has been cut for anatomical studies.

The anatomy of the peduncle is. similar to the petiole, although
its vascular supply arises in the manner of a pinna trace from the
petiole. It may be a modified fertile segment of the leaf or similar
to the whole leaf, more probably the former. In Marsilea aegyptiaca
the inner cortex of the peduncle is not only thick-walled but much
wider than is usually found in other species (Pl. 2, fig. 12). _The

. INDIAN MARSILEAS; THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC. 433

vascular bundle of the peduncle passes into. the sporocarp without
showing any sign of a branch or a hump for the horn. After giving
two opposite branches on its entry into the sporocarp, this vascular
trace of the peduncle gives out branches alternately. and the latter
in turn divide and anastomose to supply the entire wall of the
sporocarp. Vascular supply is further given out from the ultimate
branches to the placentae of the sori. The main vascular bundle of
the sporocarp in transverse section shows the xylem typically arranged
like a V resembling that of a leaf trace bundle of the ferns and shows
an adaxial folding of the spore bearing organ of Marsilea.

There are usually four sori present in the sporocarps (PI. 3,
fig. 14); but the occurrence of five (Pl. 3, fig. 13) or six is not un-
common. This number is probably the lowest recorded for any
species of Marsilea, there being six present. in. M. brachycarpa.
There is, therefore, a clear reduction seen in M. cegyptiaca in this
respect. The entire mucilaginous mass with the placenta and the sori
was removed from the sporocarp for observation and it was found
that the distribution and development of both mega- and _ micro-
sporangia in the sorus seems somewhat advanced. The truly gradate
nature is somewhat disturbed. Not only this but the distribution and
number of mega- and micro-sporangia in a sorus is indefinite. It
was not possible to establish clearly the ratio between the number of
micro-sporangia and mega-sporangia present in a sorus. It is interest-
ine, therefore, to observe a reduction in the number of sori approaching
Pilularia on the one hand and development of the sorus with irregular
arrangement of the sporangia, an advanced feature, on the other.

The horizontal section (Pl. 3, figs. 13-15) shows clearly the right
groove and the dorsal and ventral depressions; the left groove which

TExT Fic. 5. Outlines of mega- and micro-spores of Marstlea aegyptiaca from
Jodhpur. a, megasporangium (S=stalk, SP.W.=sporangial wall, S.W.=spore wall);
b, single megaspore; c, microspores. x 40.

is shallow is here occupied by the peduncle seen in transverse section.
There are four or five sori, each sorus with micro- and mega-sporangia
in advanced: state of development (Pl. 3, fig. 16). The vascular

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. o3

bundles constituting the net work of veins have been transversely cut
towards the inner side of the wall of the sporocarp. The thick walls
of the sporocarp formed by the prismatic cells have been prominently
brought out in a photograph (Pl. 3, fig. 15) taken under poiarised
light. This section being the same as fig. 14 on the same plate taken
under ordinary transmitted light. When the horizontal section passes
through the wall of the sporocarp only, it reveals the behaviour of the
main vascular bundle quite clearly as described above.

The vertical longitudinal section on the other hand will pass
through either two or three sori of the sporocarp depending upon the
number of sori present in the two halves of the sporocarp. Not
only this, it passes generally either through the micro- or the mega-
sporangia only. And the vertical transverse section will invariably
pass through two sori and may show both the micro- and mega-
sporangia in section. Mega- and micro-sporangia in advanced state
of development are shown in fig. 16 on PI. 3. The whoie of the
mega-sporangium is filled with a single thick-walled megaspore
whereas the micro-sporangium is full of numerous microspores. The
megaspores and microspores are drawn in text fig. 5.

SYSTEMATICS OF INDIAN SPECIES

It may be mentioned at the outset that systematics of Marsilea is
a neglected subject. Since the revision of the genus by R. Braun
(1870) and later by Baker (1887) or Bossier (1834) there has been no
real attempt to classify the 60 or 70 species of Marsilea properly. The
following ten species of Marsilea have been recorded from the sub-
continent of India, but their authenticity needs a careful checking.
Their distribution as far as known has heen shown in the accompany-
ing maps of India and Rajasthan.

1. M. minuta L. India, etc.

2. M. quadrifolia L. N. India.

3. M. condensata Bak. Sind.

4. M. gracilenta A. Br. India.

5. M. brachycarpa A. Br. Pegu.

6. M. coromandelica Burm. India, etc.

7. M. brachypus A. Br. S. India.

8. M. poonensis Kolh. Bombay and Poona.
9g. M. aegyptiaca Willd. Jodhpur and ‘Ajmer.
10. M. ballavdii Gupta. Ajmer.

All these species except Marsilea poonensis and M. bullardi are
mentioned in Christensen’s ‘Index Filicum’ (1934). Baker in his
revision, however, considers that in India there are only four well-
defined species; of course, excluding M. aegyptiaca Willd. and AV.
poonensis Kolh. which have been reported after his revision. He
considers M. gyvracilenta A. Br., M. brachycarpa A. Br. and M.
byachypus A, Br., which were created by Braun in 1870, as only

INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC. 435,

varieties of M. minuta L. At the same time he created a new species
known as M. condensata on the material collected by Dalzell from
Sind (India). Sadebeck (1g02), however, considers this new species
of Baker as only a variety of M. aegyptiaca Willd.

It may be noticed that Baker in his revision did not recognise
M. quadrifolia L. as a distinct Indian species; but in turn mentions
M. quadrifoliata and this is regarded by Sadebeck (1902) as a variety
of M. minuta L. So that the position of M. quadrijolia as a distinct
species of India was thrown in doubt by the studies of these authors.
Mr. F. Ballard who has so kindly identified some of the authors’
collections recognises M. quadrifolia as a distinct Indian species.

It is evident from this brief indication that the systematic position
of the ten Indian species mentioned in the beginning needs careful
checking. Our investigation embodied in the present paper tells us
that better methods of identifying and delimiting the species should
be explored and the species well defined. As wil! be seen from our
brief study of the ’gyptian species from Jodhpur, the structure of the
sporocarp seems to provide features of real diagnostic value. An
attempt has been made in this paper io tabulate as clearly as possible
the known structural features found in the sporocarps of most of the
Indian species. These characters have been noted in the accompanying
Table II.

On the whole it is seen that the ten Indian species look distinct
from one another, although there is an overlapping of characters; for
instance there may be some justification for Baker to consider M.
gracilenta A. Br. and M. brachypus as varieties of M. minuta L. on
the basis of his examination of the pedicels of the sporocarps and their
attachment to the petiole. but other characters which are also of
diagnostic value seem different in W. gracilenta and M. brachypus. At
the same time Baker's determination of M. brachycarpa A. Br. as a
variety of M. minula L. can hardly be justified as is evident from the
grouping of the sporocarps in the former generally in twos as against
threes in the latter, their attachment of the sporocarps to the pedicels
and also from the number of the sori in their sporocarps, there being
only six in M. brachycarpa A. Br. and 10 to 12 in M. iminuta. (et

Similarly, if we had the advantage of fuller data on the species
M. gracilenta A. Br. and M. brachypus, perhaps it would be possible
to argue that there was some justilication for creating these two
new species by Braun. The known characters noted in the table
above for the two species seem to prove almost conclusively the ©
dissimilar nature of their sporocarps. The usefulness and systematic
importance of the structural features in sporocarps for diagnosis is
therefore clear. |

Let us now examine Table I (pp. 436-7) to see if it is possible to
distinguish one species from another or a group of species from another
group on any single character or a set of characters of the sporocarp.
It is seen that the relation of pedicel to petiole is an important and
fairly well-defined single character noticeable in Marsilea, on the

436

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

TABLE
MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SPOROCARPS
Disposition | Relation of | Relation of | Shape and
S. No Species of Pedicel to Pedicel to | Size
Sporocarps Petiole Pedicel | (in length)
|
1. |W. minuta L. | Generally 3, | At the base Slightly Bean-shaped, com-
sometimes 2; connate or} -pressed, ribbed
rarely free and bordered
solitary 1/10”
2 = LV guadrifolia IEqg | Alto) 33, Adnate Connate for | Oval, sub-compress-
. rarely about half. ed rarely margin-
solitary theirlength| ed, not ‘ribbed
1/15” to 1/3”
M. condensata Bak. | In tuits, may! At the base | Sub-orbicular 1/8”
be solitary
M. gracilenta At the base | Slightly Not ribbed. More
De5ii44 A.-Br. _ connate or or less rectan-
free - gular compressed
MM. bvachycarpa _ | Generally 2 Adnate S eae | Circular, wrinkled
~ ANG BRR ; ' or ribbed. 1/7164
| 2. coromandelica _| Solitary ‘| At the base Bean-shaped oval.
Burm, | : a” F Sab:
|. brachypus 2to3 Atthebase | Slightly | Rounded bat ‘not
5 deNe ENR | "| ~ eontiate er | ~~ bordered, distinct-
Pes Sean a ; . free | - ly ribbed. 3/16”
_ |W. poonensis Kolh. | Generally 2 |Atthe base | Slightly Pod-like oval, simu-
sometimes 3 connate | lating bi-convex
developed lens. 1/8”-1/5”
acropetally ribbed ia
9, | WM. aegyptiaca Solitary At the base Squarish 1/12”-
Willd. W/O Ms
19. | JZ. dallardii Gupta | One, two At the base | Free or oquarish 2”,
three or connate
more

|

}
ET TS RT TS a eT A ETI SE TNT TI TT ST SLT TT TT

-INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC: - 43?

{I

IN THE INDIAN SPECIES OF MARS/LEA lL.

|
Size ratio : | Attachment | Number and Sorell
Pedicel: | Wall-surface | of Pedicel to | Nature of NaGo rs Remarks
Sporocarp | Sporocarp | Horns | id |
|
2:1or |Strigose or | Partially 2, upper longer 10-12 | Prominent dorsa
38 2 glabrous adnate | Suture is present
, on the sporocarp.
{
|
2: 1lor |Strigose Partially 2, almost similar 16-20 | Pedicels decurved
ga adnate : and ascending.
| | |
% 8 Al | Densely silky| Fully adnate?| Very obscure ca. 10 | Pedicels stiffly
| haired upper one erect,
1:lor | Hairs erect Fully adnate | 2, upper blunt, -, || Pedicels erect.
CEES | ‘ lower obscure
23 3 | Hairy | Fully adnate , 2, similar blunt | 6 | Pedicels horizonta\.
| |
6:1 or |Strigose (?) | Partially 2, almost similar _as...../Pedicels somewhat
Des) Bal : .. adnate and prominent descending.
2/3:1 .}Long -erect.| Fully adnate | 2, -upper 7? | Pedicels horizontal
hairs prominent ‘ or steeply bent
; _ downwards from
i‘ the stalk.
2:3or | Strigose | Fully adnate |Only upper and) 10-14 | Pedicels reflexed,
1:1 , | prominent
38) Bae Silky haired Fully adnate | Bluntly pointed 4-6 |Pedicels erect ;
te upper one Sporocarps pro-
minently grooved,
23 i Strigose Fully adnate | Upper one pointed| 6-8 |Pedicels_ erect ;
: without grooves

or depressions.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 98 es
wd! AN. MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC.

436
Pa 437
TABLE II
MoRPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SeoROCARRS
: IN THE INDIAN SPECIES OF MARS/LEA L
ee ar 2
¢ j ee
Disposition Relation of Ren of | Shape and Size ratio :
S. No. Species of Pedicel to edicel to | Size ae Attachment | Ni |
Sporocarps Petiole Pedicel | (in length) epedicel Wall-surface | of Pedicel to j Nats ae | Soral
a= | intial ‘a Sporocarp Sporocarp | Horns Number | Remarks
|
|
1, | M. minuta L. | Generally 3, |At the base | Slightly Bean-shaped, com- Sol 4 7
| sometimes 2} connate or| pressed, ribbed ees |Strigose or | Partially Dapperila |
| rarely free and bordered VG glabrous adnate a meen 10-12 | Prominent dorsa
\ solitary 1/10” | | suture is present
i |) es the sporocarp.
2, -| M. quadrifolia L. |2 to3, Adnate Connate for | Oval, sub-compress- 2:1or_ |Stri |
rarely about half | ed rarely margia- , ne ta | Strigose Partially 2, almost simil R
solitary theirlength) ed, not tribbed s | adnate milar | 16-20 | Pedicels decurved
1/15” to 1/3” | and ascending.
|
3, | AL condensata Bak. In tuits, may | At the base ae Sub-orbieular 1/8" 2:1 Densely silk
be solitary me sely silky} Fully adnate?| Vi
haired ery obscure ca. 10 | Pedi “i
upper one ai as sey:
4, | 40. gracilenta oes At the base | Slightly Not ribbed, More l:lor |Hai |
"A..Br. connateor}| or less rectal 2:3 As airs erect -| Fully adnate | 2, upper blu
free gular compressed atawan ea «. | Pedicels erect.
z |
5, | M. brachycarpa Generally 2 | Adnate Connate Circular, wrinkled 2:1 H rE | i
Br. or ribbed, 1/16” airy Fully adnate ) 2, similar blunc 6 Pedicels hori:
jorizonta\.
6, .| Af. coromandelica _\ Solitary At the base Bean-shaped oval. 6: i or leet :
Burm. 7 hi abe | Strigose (?) | Partially | 2, almost similar Pedi
: | ' adnate and prominent “o ce aapennat
7,..|M. brachypus 2to3 At the base | Slightly Rounded but not 2/331 Lea
A. Br. af connate or |~~ bordered, distinct: ne erect | Fully adnate | 2, - upper 7 Dadi
> | free Ney ribbed. 3/16 airs prominent Pt ae)
| = ly bent
| | , ‘ - downwards from
8, | J. poonensis Kolb. Generally 2 | At the base Slightly | Pod-like oval, simu- 2:30r | Stri the stalk.
sometimes 3 connate | lating bi-conves 1:1 oe Fully adnate | Only upper and} 10-14 i
developed lens. 1/8"-1/5 BroMiene -14 | Pedicels reflexed,
acropetally ribbed
9, | M. aegyptiaca Solitary At the base ae Squarish 1/12" 33:1 r :
Willd. 1/10” Silky haired | Fully adnate} Bluntly pointed 4-6 | Pedicels
erect ;
upper one sporocarps oa
10. | Df. ballardii Gupta One, two At the base | Free or Squarish 4”. 2:1 Stri : minently grooved,
three or connate 1088, Fully adnate | Upper onepointed| 6-8 | Pedicels
erat erect ;
| ix without grooves
or depressions.

ee eS eS as

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

basis of which these ten Indian species can be segregated as follows
(text fig. 6).

TExT Fi1G. 6. Diagrammatic representation of the attachment of the pedicel to
petiole in the genus Marsilea with special reference to Indian species.

Relation of Pedicel to Petiole

Pedicel adnate Pedicel basai
M. quadrifolia L. All other species
| pL

connate or free. solitary.
M. minuta L. 1. M. aegyptiaca Willd.
M. brachypus A. Br. 2. M. coromandelica Burm.
M. brachycarpa A. Br. 3. M. condensata Bak.

. graciienta A. Br.

M. poonensis Kolh.

M. ballardi Gupta.

}

Sporocarps more than one, Sporocarps
}
|

Own po Ww
s

This idea is also in conformity with Baker. He has also given
great importance to this character in defining various groups of
Marsilea; but he has not taken into consideration other features of the
sporocarps in delimiting the various species of Marsilea. For instance
he considers M. brachypus, M. brachycarpa and M. gracilenta as only
varieties of M. minuta; probably noticing only the characters of the
pedicels. If this character alone is considered as of diagnostic value,
M. poonensis will have to be described as a variety of M. minuta. But
it should not be so unless other characters also point in the same
direction. Even a single character like the number of sori in the
peer may be an important argument against Baker's method
of delimiting the species.

Our information on Mursilea gracilenta is poor, yet unribbed nature
of the sporocarps, smaller size of the pedicels as compared to the size

INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC. 439

of the sporocarps and erect hairs on the sporocarps provide features
distinct enough for separating it from M. minuta. Sadebeck too
thinks of M. gracilenta as a distinct species.

The systematic position of M. brachycarpa and M.brachypus with
reference to M. minutu or their relationship between themselves must
also be considered doubtful for the present. This is due to the
deficiency of materiai and information available to us on the subject,
although it seems that Marsilea brachypus is more related to iM.
minuta than M, brachycarpa. In fact, we find that M. poonensis
resembles much more closely M. minuta than either of the species
created by Braun and described above, or any other Indian species.
The only difference that appears as of distinguishing nature between
these two latter species is the size of the pedicel and the nature of
the horn. Further, Mr. Baliard of the Kew Herbarium had identified
this material of Marsilea from Poona as a new species in 1938.
Although a clear diagnosis of the species has not yet been published
in spite of its detailed description (1937), we feel that on further
examination it may turn out to be only a variety of M. minuta.

The other group of Indian Marsileas with solitary sporocarps seems
well defined. Baker’s identification of Dalzell’s Marsilea from Sind

a

Text FIG. 7. Outlines of sporocarps of M. aegyptiaca (a & b Prescott coll. from
Astrakhan; d Figari coll. from upper Egypt; e Gupta coll. from Jodhpur.) and
M,. condensata (c Dalzell coll. from Sind.) for comparison, kindly drawn by Mr.

=

F. Ballard from herbarium sheets at Kew, London.

9

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
as a new species, M. condensata, seems justified and Sadebeck’s idea of
considering the same as only a variety of M. uegypliaca (1902) does
not seem to hold good for it is clear that sporocarp in M. cendensaiu
is much larger in size and differs in shape from M. aegypliaca (text
fig. 7 drawn by Mr. Ballard). Besides, the sporocarp in M. condensata
is densely covered with silky hairs, possesses a less prominent horn
and contains ro sori instead of only four, five or six of M. aegyptiaca.
M. coromandelica too seems quite distinct from the other two species in
this group, for it possesses a much larger pedicel! as compared with the
size of its sporocarp; in fact, the pedicel and sporocarp ratio in
this species is quite different from the rest of the Indian species.
Besides, this species is characterised by diferent type of leaves
namely in having pellucid streaks in the areolae of the leaves (Baker
1887). Our knowledge, however, of this species is also deficient in
many respects.

Thus, it appears that the ten Indian species may be regarded as
distinct from each other for the present, and final opinion deferred till
further data are collected on the structure of the sporocarps by examina-
tion of the original material. It may, however, be useful to investigate
some other details in the vegetative structures of these doubtful species ;
for instance, the orientation of the stomata, the distribution of ihe
stomata, and the size of the stomata, in the leaves; detailed information
on the size and shape of hairs on diiferent organs of the plant and
even minute examination of the internal anatomy of their vegetative
organs; so that these may provide subsidiary data for definite determina-
tion of the identity of these species.

DISCUSSION

The TOrpaeloey of the leaf aswell as the sporocarp in Marsilea
has been a matter of discussion among botanists. The present leaf
is no doubt a reduced structure, seers from the once pinnate leat,
and so also the sporocarp modified from some part of that leaf.

Again the petiole of the leaf and the peduncle of the sporocarp may
or may not be homologous but structurally they are organised on a
similar plan: one ends into the so called leaflets and the other in the
sporocarp. Whether the latter represents the former organs and is
comparable to the whole leaf or only the distal portion and represents
only some parts of the leaf cannot be easily settled. Our work on
the morphology of M. aegypliaca is yet incomplete but trom what we
have noticed, it seems difficult to reconcile, for instance, with the
statement: ‘If the sori are marginal in this sense they should have
obtained their vascular supply from the intersoral bundles rather than
from the commissurals, (Puri and Garg 1953).

Marsilea uegyptiaca produces a solitary sporocarp. Its position
with reference to the petiole is definitely lateral, its vascular supply
arises in the manner of a pinna trace and resembles the anatomy
of the petiole. There is, therefore, no doubt about its foliar nature.
From what part of the leaf it gets modified is a matter that has been
a long debated question. Braun and Goebel considered this as
modified from a single leaflet but the sporocarps formed artificially by
Biisgen from Site. leaflets were always abnormal. Chrysler thought

INDIAN MARSILEAS; THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC, 41

that the sporocarp represents two fused lateral basal pinnae. Some
others have compared the structure in Marsilea with Botrychium and
Ophioglossum. The double vascular supply in the latter as compared
with a single trace in Marsilea, however, should rule out this possi-
bility.

Johnson on the other hand based his conclusions on develop-
mental studies and showed that the peduncle and sporocarp are
equivalent to the petiole and the capsule of Marsilea is only a swollen
end of the petiole in which the marginal cells instead of forming the
leaflets produce the sporangia. Busgen holds quite contrasting views
and says that the peduncle is similar to the petiole only and leaflets modify
themselves into the sporocarp. ‘This is supported by similar anatomical
structures of both the petiole and the peduncle and similar venation
of the leaflets and the sporocarp, there being only a difference in
degree. There are two strong vascular bundles in the sporocarp
whereas four in the leaflets. The sporocarp may really represent only
two leaflets, the other two having been lost and may be represented
by the two horns. ‘The observations of Mahabale and Gorgi (1948)
in the production of horns in place of proximal leaflets in M.
quadrifolia seem to support this conclusion. Further in M,. quadri-
folia and M. aegyptiaca sometimes only two leaflets are produced
(text fig. 8) in the adult plant as an abnormal feature, resembling the
normal state of affairs in the allied genus Regnellidium diphyllum.
The structure of the sporocarps in the two cases is also essentially
similar.

a
a A -
’ t t
eo \ &
\? fe
Zz A

Text Fic. 8. Abnormal leaves of Marsilea. M. quadrifolia (a-g) after Mahabale
and Gorgi; M. hirsuta (h) after Biisgen; M. aegyptiaca (j & k) and a normal leaf
vf Regnellidium diphyllum (i) for comparison (Diagrammatic).

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS7. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The vascular supply of Pulularia sporocarp is also somewhat
similar to a four-parted leaf of Marsilea. Not only this, the reduction
in the number of sori as seen in M. aegyptiaca is such as to approach
Pilularia. ‘The latter certainly represents a more reduced type among
the Marsileaceae with its bladeless petiole, recalling the earliest
juvenile condition of the leaf in Marsilea (Pl. 1, fig. 2). Marsilea
uegyptiaca producing twe leaflets, though as an abnormal feature, in
absence of the lower horn without any trace of its vascular supply
(absence of vascular hump) and finally showing reduction
number of sori, becomes the most reduced species in the
Marsilea and comes closer to both Regnellidium and Pilularia.

The sporocarp of Marsilea is probably modified from the two distal
leaflets, the proximal ones being represented by the horns. There is
not much doubt that the original leaf of Marsilea must have been a
pinnate structure of some type.

iti the
genus

SUMMARY

A brief account of the occurrence of Marsilea aegypliaca Willd.
in Kajasthan was published by the senior author only in last April
(Gupta, 1955). It shows the usual ecological variations in its
vegetative parts that are found in the genus Marsilea and during dry
seasons the sub-terrestrial plants produce sporocarps very protusely,
giving the plarts a tufted appearance. ‘Lhe sporocarps are borne
singly and distinctly at the nodes and at the base of the petioles. ‘The
shape of the sporocarp is very characteristic It 1s squarish in out-
line, variously grooved and possessing a single upper horn which is
somewhat blunt. It usually contains only tour sori- but sometimes
five or six are also present. This number is the smallest among the
species of Marsilea and is approached only in M. brachycarpa among
the Indian types. In general morphology and anatomy of the vegeta-
tive parts, the plant appears more or less similar to other species,
Indian or foreign; but the structure of the sporocarp shows soine
interesting features in its organization.

An attempt has been made to review, if not ‘exactly revise, the
systematic position of the Indian species on the basis of the characters
of the sporocarp and it has been shown how our common species can
now be easily identified. The morphological nature of the vegetative
parts as well as the sporocarp, a subject of theoretical importance,
has also been dealt with briefly in the concluding part of the paper.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are. greatly indebted to Sir E. J. Salisbury and Mr. F. Ballard,
the Director and the Peteridologist respectively of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, for identification of the Indian species and clarifying
various points of systematic, nature that arose during the course of
the work. To them we are also grateful for some material of
Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. from their original collections at Itew and
for the camera lucida drawings of the sporocarps of M. aegyptiaca
and M. condensala. Our thanks are due to Prof, A. H. Montasir,
Ibrahim University of Cairo, for some Egyptian material of Marsilea

INDIAN MARSILEAS; THEIR MORPHOLOGY, ETC. | 443

aegyptiaca. We express our gratefulness to Dr. K. P. Biswas and
Mr. R. S. Rao formerly of the Calcutta Herbarium for help as well! as
for the facilities provided us to work in the herbarium during the
Christmas holidays. Yo Prof. G. G, Kolhatkar of Fergusson College,
Poona, we are indebted for the material of M. p2onensis; to Dr.
T. S. Mahabale of Poona University, Dr. P. N. Mehra of the Panjab
University, Dr. A. R. Rao of the Lucknow University and Prof.
P. Maheshwari of the Delhi University our respectfui thanks are due
for advice and references. For the entire work of photography in
connection with this investigation, we are extremely obliged to Dr.
S. Venkatachary and Prof. K. P. Rode who provided us with full
facilities in their respective laboratories at Maharana College, Udaipur.
Prof. B. Tyagi of Government College, Ajmer, gave us all help in
collecting M. aegyptiaca locally and its study in his laboratory. We
are indebted to Mr. A. H. G. Alston of the British Museum, London,
for photographs of the type specimens of some Indian species preserved
in Berlin.

It is our pleasure to record the assistance given us by the
ministerial staff of the Botany Department, Jaswant College, Jodhpur
during the preparation of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Baker, J. G. (1887): ‘Fern Allies’, London.

Bhardwaj, T. N. (1955): Some Ecological observations on Marsilea aegyptiaca
Willd. Rajputana University Studies (Biology Section).

Bossier, (?). (1884): ‘Flora Orientalis’, 5.

Bower, F. O. (1923-28): The Filicales. Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III.

— — — (1908): Origin of a Land Flora.

— — — (1935): Primitive Land Plants.

Braun, A. (1870): Revision of the genus Marsilea. Monats. Kon. Akad. Wiss.
Berl. S. 653 ff.

Biisgen, M. (1890) : Untersuchungen tiber normale und abnormale Marsilienfruchte,
Flora, 73: 169-182.

Campbell, D. H. (1888) : Einige Notizen uber die Keimung von Marsilia aegyptiaca.
Ber. der. deutsch bot. Gesellaschaft, v., 340.

Christensen, Carl. (1906-34): ‘Index Filicum’.

Chrysler, M. A. & Johnson, D. S. (1939): Spore production in Regnellidium. Built.
Torrey Bot. Cl. 66: 263-279.

Copeland, E. B. (1947): ‘Genera Filicum’. Waltham, U.S.A.

Debenham, E. M. (1939): A modified technique for the microscopic examination
of the xylem of whole plants or plant organs. Ann. Bot., N. S., 3: 369-374.

Eames, A. J. (1936): Morphology of vascular plants. Lower group.

Engler & Prantl. (1902): Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien. I., 4., 403.

Goebel, K. (1918): ‘Organographie’, 2 te. Aufl. ii. Teil. 1134. UN

Gupta, K. M. (1955): On the occurrence of M. aegyptiaca Willd. in Jodhpur,
Rajasthan (India). JBNHS 52: 954-956.

— — — (1955): A new species of Marsilea, M. ballardii, sp. nov. Gupta from
Ajmer, India. JBNHS, 53: 289-292.

Haines, H. H. (1924): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. VI. 1217-19.

Johnson, D. S. (1898): On the leaf and sporocarp of Marsilea quadrifolia. Ann.
Bot. 12: 119-145. :

Kolhatkar, G. G. (1937): Life-history of Marsilea species from Poona. Jour.
Univ. Bomb. 5: 19-37.

— — — (1940): A new species of Marsilea from Poona (M. poonensis). Proc.
27th Indian Sci. Congr. 132.

Mahabale, T. S. & Gorji, G. H. (1948): Some observations on the sporelings and
adult plants of Marsilea quadrifolia. Jour. Univ. Bomb, xvi, 27.

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Mehra, P. N. (1938): Abnormal sporocarps in M. minuta L. Proc. Indian Acad.
Sci. viii Sec. B. 8-10.

Puri, V..& Garg, M._L. (1953) : A contribution to the anatomy of the sporocarp
of M. minuta L. with a discussion of the nature of sporocarp in the Marsileaceae.
Phytomorphology. 8: 190-209.

Russow, E. (1872): Vergleichende Untersuchungen betreffend die Histologie
(Histiographie und Histiogenie) der vegetativen und sporenbildenden Organe und die
Entwicklung der Sporen der Leitbundel-Kryptogamen, mit Berticksichtigung der
Histologie der Phanerogamen ausgehend von der Betrachtung der Marsiliaceen. Mem.
Acad. Imp. Sc. St-Petersb., Ser. VII, xix. I.

Sadebeck, R. (1902): Planzenfamilien, Teil I, Abt. 403.

Smith, G. M. (1955): ‘Cryptogamic Botany’. II.

Williams, R. G. (1921); The anatomy and morphology of Marsilea, Thesis, Cornell
University.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES 1-3
Plate 1, figs. 1-6.

Fic. 1. Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. A single specimen showing tufted nature.
ca. natural size.

Fic. 2. Same. Showing the development of leaves from juvenile to the adult
form, slightly reduced.

Fic. 3-5. Same. Single sporocarp in three different views: 38, showing fully
adnate stalk and ventral depression; 4, dorsal depression and upper blunt horn; 5,
right groove and adpressed hairs. x 9.

Iic, 6. Same. Multicellular hairs with their pointed end cells and mosaic pattern
of the wall of the sporocarp. x 70.

Plate 2, figs. 7-12.

Fic. 7. Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. T. S. of the sub-terrestrial leaf showing organi-
sation of its tissues and stomata on both sides. x 200.

Fic. 8. Same. Upper epidermis with stomata and sinuous epidermal cells of a |
sub-terrestrial plant. x 200.

Fic. 9. Same. T. S. of the rhizome showing a typical amphiphloic siphonostele
with sclerotic pith characteristic of a sub-terrestrial plant. x 65.

Fie. 10. Same. T. S. of a root showing a diarch stele with thick walled broad
inner cortex. x 75.

Fic. 11. Same. T. S. of a petiole showing characteristic features. x 40.

Fic. 12. Same. T. S. of the stalk of the sporocarp showing a broad thick walled

inner cortex. x 100.

Plate 3, figs. 13-17.

Fic. 13. Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. Horizontal section of the sporocarp showing
five sori. x 20.

Fic. 14. Same. Showing the usual four sori, transversely cut V.B. of the wall
as well as the vascular supply to the sorus. Note its characteristic outline showing
its grooves and depressions. x 20.

Fic. 15. Same. Under polarized light. x 20.

Fic. 16. Same. Showing well developed mega- and micro-sporangia. x 100.

Fic. 17. Same. Photograph of one of the specimens collected by J. Schweinfurth
from Tel-el-kabir, Lower Egypt in 1880 from Kew (London). x 2.

PLATE 1

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Yi

YELL

age

ae,

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SSSA

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y

*

dA.

x Reduce

j
j
|
|

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igure

F

(For explanation see end of article)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 2 —

LEER BEN IEEE ERE BROLIN SES Q GG Wo vyrYyrRGdK{ NW WwFE

Figures 7-12.

(or explanation see end of article)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ss

LONE
Lo
SS

.,
—

Figures 13-17.

(For explanation see end of article)

IN MEMORIAM
SUNDER LAL HORA
(With a plate)

To most of us associated with the activities of the various scientific
organizations of the country, and latterly of the Indian Board for
Wild Life, the news of the death of Dr. Sunder Lal Hora, which
occurred on 8th December 1955, has, come as a grievous shock, and
to the many who knew him more intimately as the realization of the
loss of a dear friend.

This loss is all the more poignant when one’s personal bond with
him dating back to over three decades is irrevocably snapped by the-
cruel hand of death. There appears a tragic touch in it when I recall
the circumstances of our meeting in my house in May last under the
shadow of a bereavement afflicting me. Dr. Hora immediately on his
return from Madras, where he had gone to attend the All-India Zoo
Superintendents’ Conference, hurried to bring to me, with his over-
flowing kindliness, solace and comfort in my sorrow due to the loss
of my son who happened to be a distinguished pupil of his and asso
ciated with him in his researches. Alas, what an irony of fate that
before a half-year had ended he himself was to be no more!

My earliest contact with Hora was in 1923, when at the request
of Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, the then Director, I undertook the worl<
of rearrangement and overhauling of the bird collection of the
Zoological Survey of India. For quite a number of years thereafter
I was a regular visitor to the Indian Museum, and after the day’s
work when I had to pass by his room a broad smile from Hora would
welcome me in and we seldom failed to beguile ourselves in each other’s
company for a while. We had a common meeting ground in the hall
of the Asiatic Society as well, and my countryhouse with its extensive
fish tank and aviary was always a centre of great attraction for him,
which he made into a relaxing holiday resort.

Hora, who began his research career in t917 at the age of 22, was
recruited to the Zoological Survey of India as a research scholar in
1919 and appointed an Assistant Superintendent in 1921. While still
a student at the Government College, Lahore, he discovered the presence
of Haversian Canals in the limb bones of Fkana and discussed the
homologies of Weberian Ossicles of Labeo rohita. His work on the
fish and fisheries of India earned him the D.Sc. of the Punjab University
in 1922, and in 1928 his studies on the ecology, bionomics and evolution
of torrential fauna with special reference to the organs of attachment
secured him the D.Sc. of the Edinburgh University. For a period of
five years (1942-47) he was Director of Fisheries of undivided
Bengal, coming back then to the Zoological Survey of India as its
Director, which post he held till his death.

A believer in hard work, his output of scientific literature was
prodigious ; he published some 400 papers on various subjects in many
foreign and Indian journals, including the pages of the Journal of the

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Bombay Natural History Society. To celebrate the Silver Jubilee of
his first scientific contribution his numerous past students, colleagues
and admirers produced in 1951 a complete bibliography of his publica-
tions up to 1950’. The titles of his papers indicate the vast and varied
field of his activities, and the volume is a fitting monument to his
eminence and zeal as a scientific worker. He was, however, best.
known as an ichthyologist, though his contributions in other fields are
also of great importance. Primarily a systematist interested in fresh-
water fishes of the Oriental Region, he held a broad vision of this
branch of zoology and his papers are full of interesting observations
on the ecology and bionomics of the fishes he studied.His taxonomic
work, especially on the hill-stream fishes, led him to probe into the
problem of the changing river systems of India due to Himalayan
tectonic movements and to enunciate what is now well known as
‘Hora’s Satpura Hypothesis’, which attempts to explain the presence
of Malayan elements in the fauna of Peninsular India.

On the applied side, his studies on the pond culture of fishes for
increasing food production have aroused world-wide interest, and in
1949, at Lake Success, he was invited by the United Nations Organisa-
tion to open a discussion on ‘Pond culture of warm water fishes’.
He was interested in the conservation of fishes of economic importance,
especially the migratory species, and made notable contributions to
our knowledge of the biology of the Indian Shad, Hilsa, which was
subsequently taken up as an international problem for intensive investiga-
tions. In 1952 he was the chairman of the Hilsa Sub-Committee of
the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council.

Dr. Hora had always been interested in the sGautiit knowledge
possessed by ancient Hindus, especially in the field of fish and fisheries,
as revealed in Sanskrit literature and archaeological pieces such as the
edicts of Asoka and potteries of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Those who
have heard him speak either in the Indian Museum or in the Asiatic
Society, Bengal, will recall the great interest he aroused in his audiences.

Essentially a student of Nature he was deeply interested in the
preservation of wild life and in the establishment of National Parks
in India. He was the first Hony. Secretary-General of the Indian
Board for Wild Life.

Dr. Hora took a lively interest in the welfare of the Bombay Natural
History Society. He was an active member of the Society’s Advisory
Committee since 1945 and his valuable advice and suggestions were
always eagerly sought and freely given.

Among the many academic distinctions conferred on him by foreiga
and Indian scientific institutions, he was the recipient of the Asiatic
Society’s ‘Joy Gobind Law Memorial Medal’ (1944), the National Geo-
graphical Society of India’s ‘Jawaharlal Nehru Medal’ (1951) and the
Zoological Society of India’s ‘Sir Dorab Tata Memorial Medal’ (1951).

By his sudden death we sadly miss a personality of noble character,
and charming courtesy endowed with great qualities of heart and mind,
an eager willingness to help, and a wide knowledge generously placed

re

a ee eee 9

* A limited number of copies of the Bibliography is still available at the
Bombay Natural History Society.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist Soc.

Dr. SUNDER LAL HorA

IN MEMORIAM 4.47

at the disposal of all. For all those who, throughout the world, have
had contact with him and shared in any of his manifold interests, the
name of Sunder Lal Hora will remain as a symbol of what I should
like to term ‘biological humanism’ in the most noble sense of the
word,

S.C. LAW

Lt.-CoLt. K. G. GHARPUREY, 1.m.s. (Retd.)

We regret to announce the death of Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey at
Poona on March 6, 1956, at the age of 76. Col. Gharpurey was born
on July 28, 1880. He was educated at Nagpur and Calcutta, and the
Medical College at Lahore, and also attended the School of Medicine,
Edinburgh, and University College, London.

He entered the Indian Medical Service in 1906 and was posted as
Civil Surgeon in Somaliland between 109009 and 1914. In the First
World War (1914-1919) he did military duty in Africa and the Persian
Gulf, and thereafter served as Civil Surgeon in various districts of
the then Bombay Presidency, retiring as Surgeon-General in 1935.

Col. Gharpurey joined the Bombay Natural History Society in 1910,
since when his connection with it was intimate and fruitful. He was
particularly interested and specialized in the study of snakes, and the
Society constantly benefited from the valuable specimens he collected
and presented to it from the various districts where his duties took him.
He was a frequent contributor on snakes to the pages of the Journal,
the more important of his papers being:

Snakes of Sholapur: vol. 32, p. 224 (1927).

Snakes collected at Belgaum: vol. 34, p. 585 (1930).

Snakes of Nasik: vol. 34, p. 1,085 (1931).

Snakes collected in Ahmednagar: vol. 36, p. 272 (1932).
Snakes collected in Belgaum: vol. 37, p. 942 (1935).

Further list of snakes of Ahmednagar: vol. 38, p. 198 (1935).

In addition to these there are several useful notes by him from
time to time on individual variation in different species, habits, and
other aspects of snake study.

Col. Gharpurey’s interest in the Society did not end here. When
the new Natural History Wing of the Prince of Wales Museum
Bombay, was being planned he made a special donation of Rs. 5,000
to the Society to be utilized for the exhibition gallery of reptiles. The
beautiful habitat group of the Malayan Python and many of the smaller
snake groups, as also the superb anatomical scale-models for students
in the Museum’s Reptile Gallery, are abiding memorials to the deep
interest he cherished in the subject and to his public-spirited generosity.
The Society honoured him, and itself, by electing him a Vice-Patron
iN 1935.

Besides his papers published in the Journal, Col. Gharpurey has
to his literary credit ‘The Snakes of India’ (in English) now in its
4th edition, and the only book of its kind currently available. He
also wrote two books. in Mahratti, on ‘Snakes of Maharashtra’ and
‘Animals and Health’, which are of recognized merit and usefulness.

SA.

REVIEWS

tr THE WORLD OF SMALL ANIMALS. By T. H.. Savory.
Pp. 160 (83” x52”), 16 plates, 30 text-figures. London, 1955.
University of London Press Ltd. rss. net.

The author’s wide experience as a teacher makes available his.
intimate knowledge of Nature to students and amateur naturalists in
this very helpful guide. Though written mainly with the view of
helping beginners in Britain, it will be equally useful to students in
other parts of the World to learn the basic principles underlying the
study of any group of animals. The emphasis is on the study of
small animals, especially the obscure groups whose members, though
quite common, are still scarcely known either due to their apparent
dullness or economic unimportance.

The book is divided into two sections. In the first ten chapters
the methods of study are explained. A chapter each is devoted to
various aspects of study such as Collection, Preservation, Examuna-
tion, etc. Technical points are dealt with in simple and_ easily
understandable terms. The difficulties confronting the beginner are
fully explained. The author .lays stress on the value of field
observation, and would have his readers strive for a correct appreciation
of the value of being a naturalist as well as laboratory worker.

In the final thirteen chapters a selected number of common animals
are described in the light of the methods explained in the earlier
chapters. The value of these descriptions is much enhanced by the
beautiful photographic plates.

{.G:D?

2. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAMMALS. By Francois
Bourliére. Translated from the French by H. M. Parshley. Pp.
Xxi+ 3634+ xi (81” x 523”), 24 plates, 97 text-figures. London, 1955.
George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. 21s. net.

3. MAMMALS OF THE WORLD: Their Life & Habits. By
Francois Bourliéve. Pp. 223 (114% x 84”). With 16 coloured and 216
black-and-white photographs, and numerous. text-figures. London,
1955, George (Gy Harrap c Con tda Gos. snet-

Compared with the endless stream of bird books of every descrip-
tion—from inexpensive regional brochures to sumptuous, — lavishly
illustrated tomes—that pours out from the publishers of Europe and
America, the wavering trickle of literature dealing with mammals is
truly surprising. And this despite the fact that mammals, owing to
the bizarre forms and spectacular proportions of some of them,. are
far more popular with the normal run of visitors to zoos and circuses.

Scientific or quasi-scientific interest in wild mammals is less wide-
spread than in birds chiefly because most of them are of nocturnal
habits and difficult to observe. The smaller ones conceal themselves
during the day in holes and burrows, and the larger ones in remote

REVIEWS 44,9

forest recesses, or otherwise away from the normal haunts of man,
unlike birds which permit themselves to be heard and watched, and
enjoyed and studied without any such difficulty. The important
contributions made to ornithological science by intelligent bird
watchers are not possible to the same extent with wild mammals, because
of their innate shyness and predominantly nocturnal way of life.
That the study of mammals is so much less popular with amateur
naturalists than bird-watching, is thus easy to understand. Their
field study involves far greater ingenuity, patience and perseverance ;
and the collecting of vital data is a slow, often laborious, and some-
times disappointing process. However, if any one doubts that the
forms of mammals and the study of their ways and habits can be just
as enthralling and rewarding to a student of natural history, Prof.
Bourliére’s books will bring him cerrective conviction. The first
volume, as its name signifies, is a comprehensive account of all that
concerns the living mammal. For though less numerous than the
devotees of birds, there are nevertheless a great many ardent students
of mammals working on different aspects of their morphology,
physiology, psychology and ecology, in both laboratory and field, and
in many different corners of the globe. The results of their studies are
being published in many technical as well as popular scientific journals,
in many different languages. Such papers are often widely scattered
and usually not known to, or readily available—or perhaps even
intelligible, 1o0 the non-specialist. Therefore Prof. Bourliére has
done an immense service to biology in marshalling and synthesizing
so skilfully all the more important data in this pleasantly assimilable
form. The author is primarily an ecologist, and it is refreshing to
find the emphasis throughout the book on the ecological aspect of
wild mammals—their habits, their relations with, and their adaptations
to, their: natural environment.

The book is a masterly survey of the present state of our knowledge
of the bionomics of wild mammals. It covers the following topics:
Locomotion; Food and Feeding Habits; Home, Territory, and
Home Range; Defence and Protection; Sexual Life and Reproduction ;
Development and Longevity; Migrations; Social Life; Environment;
Structure and Dynamics of Natural Populations. The section listing
the General and Special Bibliographies at the end of the book gives
some idea of the vastness of the material drawn upon, yet it is the
harmony of the synthesis that makes the book such a pleasure to read;
and its usefulness and attractiveness are enriched by the carefully chosen
photographs, and by M. Paul Barruel’s beautiful line drawings in
the text.

All in all, it is a most welcome addition to mammalian literature,
and should go a long way towards popularizing interest in a group of
animals that is closest to us, not only in the matter of structure and
genealogy, but also by their vital impact upon almost every aspect of
human activity and endeavour.

The art of wild life photography is a comparatively recent innova-
tion, made possible largely by the advances in modern photographic
apparatus of precision. Not that some very good mammal _photo-
graphs were not existent before the advent of handy high speed
cameras and film. But most of those pictures were taken in zoos and

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

showed nothing of the animal’s native environment, or of its normal
movements and actions. Moreover, while many excellent books of bird
photographs have been published, there are hardly any comparable
cnes of wild mammals in their natural surroundings. But ‘Mammals
. of the World’ is now the answer. It is a worthy companion to Paul
Barruel’s ‘Birds of the World’ published a couple of years eartier.
One appreciates that the selection of a representative lot of pictures
cannot have been an easy task, since they cover not only all continents
but also all groups of mammals, including those that live inthe sea. The
coloured photographs are attractive, but by no means the last word
in colour reproduction, whereas the 216 black-and-white ones are truly
superb, and certainly amongst the finest work of that type we have
seen. Here again we have a number of M. Barruel’s charming
text-figures in ine to illustrate some species of which satisfactory
photos were not available, and it is no exaggeration to say that they
give just the correct finishing touch to the general get-up of this
sumptuous volume and to Dr. Bourliere’s facile text. The chapter
headings will indicate the book’s coverage: What is a Mammal?;
Mammals of the Tropical Forests; The Savannah and the Desert;
Mammals of Temperate Forests and Prairies; Mammals of the Great
North; Mammals of the Mountains; Aerial and Aquatic Mammals.

These two books together provide a sound and much-needed
general survey of modern mammal study and the living mammals of
today. In their own ways they complement each other admirably,
and one could not wish for a better combination for any one who
desires to consider himself, or be considered, well-informed about
mammals. And for all who would understand the basic problems
connected with wild life conservation and devise measures of practical
value, these volumes are absolutely indispensable.

SyolA\.

4. PLANT ECOLOGY OF ARID REGIONS. Proceedings of
the Montpellier Symposium. UNESCO, 19 Avenue Kleber, Paris
(1955).

This volume contains papers by specialists from different countries
in arid zone ecology and is designed to enable the UNESCO to prepare
its arid zone research programme. The papers are grouped in four
sections—(r) Structural and physiological nature of vegetation, (2)
Climatic and ecoclimatic and hydrologic effects on vegetation, (3) Soil
and vegetation and (4) Other factors—with an introduction by Dr. LE.
Emberger. These contributions are based on summaries of the present
state of knowledge of arid zone ecology in different regions. The data
provide a useful means of comparing conditions in arid regions of the
world for the development of flora and fauna. More important than
this, they bring out the urgent problems that need to be tackled in
arid countries.

The classification of vegetation of arid zones is attempted from
different angles. H. Boykoh gives methods to classify vegetation on
climate. Pich Sermolli’s method of classification is mainly physio-
enomical. Phylogenetic method for the classification of arid zone
vegetation has also been suggested. Special studies include A,

REVIEWS 45]

Giacobbe’s paper on the ettect of Mediterranean climate on forest
communities ; the role of trace elements on vegetation by W. A. Roach;
afforestation of arid aveas by S. Ahmed. EF. R. Bharucha has given
an interesting paper on ‘structural and physiological features of the
Rajasthan mur Soil conditions in arid regions are studied by
Creme cnanclay|e Albareda. Microbiology is “described by J. Nicot,
c. C. WKilhan ae a Vargues. The entomological part is dealt with
oxy del, Je erine.

The volume will be of immense value for ecologists in South-
east Asia for the study of arid zones.

(Seo LeU

5. .A GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF CEYLON. By G. M. Henry.
Pp. xl+432 (84x54). 30 half-tone plates (27 coloured), 124
black-and-white drawings. Oxford University Press, 1955. Ks. 25.

The geological evidence that Ceylon is a lately detached fragment
of the south Indian peninsula is fully supported by the general character
of its fauna and flora. The wet, hilly south-western parts of the Island
show close affinities with the humid portions of Travancore and Cochin,
and its drier north-eastern parts are almost identical with the country
lying on the opposite side of the shallow strait that now separates it
from the south Indian mainland.

There is evidence that at least twice after the initial separation of
Ceylon from southern India it was re-joined and again re-separated,
the final disruption being in comparatively recent times—-anything
between 109 and 25 thousand years. These periodic connections pro-
vided the land bridges over which sedentary forms of animals
immigrated from the Indian mainland. Evidence of successive ‘waves’
oer ‘invasions’ of such newcomers can be convincingly :traced in the
present-day fauna of Ceylon, particularly in its bird life which has
been critically analysed by recent investigators.

The result of thousands of years of isolation alternated by periodic
reinforcement by fresh arrivals from the mainland, the strong Malayan
element which the island shares with Travancore, and the well-marked
divisions in its physiographical features have all combined to make
the avifauna of Ceylon one of inordinate interest. It includes over
20 species of birds (6 genera) and something like 80 geographical
races peculiar to the island, in some cases further differentiated into
wet-country and dry-country forms. In the main, Ceylon races differ
from their Indian counterparts in being smaller in size and darker in
coloration, and also in the possession of heavier and/or longer bills.
This last characteristic, curiously enough, is common to island forms
‘in other parts of the world as well, but it has not been satisfactorily
explained.

Due to its geographical situation, so near the Equator, the island
possesses an equable climate, and such changes as occur in the seasons
are governed mainly by the two monsoons, SW. and NE., which
produce a wet season and a dry season in the areas under their
respective influence. In the absence of a definite summer and winter
the breeding seasons of birds are ill defined, and also seem to be
governed. largely by the monsoons.

ae JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

This brief general background will be sufficient to explain why
bird watchers in India no less than in Ceylon will welcome the long-
awaited appearance of Henry’s Guide, particularly now when there
is a marked growth of general ‘awareness’ about birds in both
countries.

The book is primarily oltered as ‘a means of identifying birds in
the field with the help mainly of illustrations and concise descriptions,
fuller in the case of some particularly interesting species’. We have
no doubt about its being able to fulfil its purpose admirably.
Henry’s established Fenueition for excellence and accuracy as a bird
artist, and his long familiarity with Ceylon birds in their native
setting are sufficient guarantees.

It is not a little surprising that the author considers the note-book
more important than binoculars as a ‘bird studying tool’. It may be just
a matter of opinion, but the reviewer feels this is rather like putting
the cart before the horse, since it is seldom that an unfamiliar bird
can be studied in sufficient detail with the unaided eye to make note-
taking worth while.

The Introduction gives a historical sketch of Ceylon ornithology
and a useful outline of the topography and vegetation of the island in
relation to its bird life. A conveniently placed glossary before the
descriptive portion, explains the technical terms and common Singhalese
names occurring in the text, and should be of great help to the
uninitiated peace

The systematic order followed is that of the Fauna of British India
and Wait’s Birds of Ceylon. This ‘anachronism’ is no doubt due to
the fact that W. W.-A. Phillips’s excellent Checklist was published
when this MS. was already with the printers. The new Checklist
follows the Wetmore arrangement which is now all. the vogue, and
claimed to be more up-to-date. While some may regret this accident
of chronology, ornithologists who have grown up with the ‘old-
fashioned’ order, in Ceylon as well as in India, will no doubt secretly
feel thankful for small mercies! , :

Many iof the author’s original observations are of great interest. For

instance, the female lore carrying. strips of the edges of green
leaves for lining her nest cavity, with one end tucked under the rump
feathers and flying off when a rumpful is collected, and the account of
the courtship display of this species are quite novel.
. The complete absence of vultures in Ceylon is difficult to understand
considering the nearness of the island to the Indian mainland and ihe
enormous cruising range and keen eyesight possessed by these birds
which must enable them to survey vast tracts of country from the air
and even to get a peep into Ceylon. Another curious anomaly is the
absence of the Common Sandgrouse, seeing that the dry country in the
north-east of the island is identical with, and practically adjoining,
the drier parts of the southern peninsula.

Some very good notes are furnished on the Ceylon Junglefowl,
including its nidification and the courtship display of the cock.
Unfortunately the question is left untouched as to whether the species
is monogamous or maintains a bevy. of hens, as for instance the peacock
does, or possibly in what has recently been termed ‘successive
polygamy’. This is still a moot question in regard to both our Indian

REVIEWS 453

species of junglefowl, and some definite information concerning’ their
next-door neighbour would have been illuminating.

The author’s remarks on the continuing deforestation of the island
for cultivation and plantations and its adverse reflection upon bird life
in general, and of the persecution for meat of all species large enough
to be worth powder and shot, are dismal reading, but not unfamiliar
in our own country. The increase of firearms, and the loosening of
religious taboos against killing are given as two of the chief factors in
the decimation of bird life to-day.

The replacement of inappropriate English bird names with more
descriptive ones is a commendable step. For example, Longtailed or
Jungle Nightjar for Horsfield’s Ceylon Highlnd Nightjar for Kelaart’s,
and Bluefaced Malkoha for Greenbilled Malkoha are certainly more
descriptive and rational.

309 of the 403 birds described in the Guide are illustrated, most of
them in colour. They are of the well-known Henry standard of
excellence, and form one of the chief features of the book. The more
sobre-coloured birds are depicted in black-and-white drawings in the
text, which are more variable in quality, some of them suffering from
rather too heavy lines.

The handy end-cover maps, showing the wet and dry zones,
orographical contours, and administrative divisions of the Island, are
of great usefulness for ready reference.

Considering the overali sameness in the bird life of Ceylon and of
the South Indian peninsula, the Guide will be found equally serviceable
by bird lovers in both the countries; and not only by bird lovers, but
it will be welcomed also by all who love well-illustrated and well-
produced ‘nature books that are a joy to handle.

Solé\

6. BUDGERIGARS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT. By Eric
Leyland. Pp. 156 (7” x 4$”). One black and white plate and rr line
illustrations. London, 1954. English Universities Press Ltd. 6s. net.

This is one of the series of ‘Teach Yourself Books’ and an
excellent example of how much intelligent interest can be provided by,
and work done in a hobby which to most people means little more than
just keeping ‘birds in a cage’.

Detailed instructions for suitable methods of housing budgerigars
are given, but tropical countries like India perhaps do not present the
same difficulties as in Europe. In India budgerigars are kept by
many people because they do not need much space, and are relatively
easy and inexpensive to keep. Little interest is taken here in scientific
breeding or purity of stock, and birds are available at Ks. 10 per pair
as compared with a price indication of £4 for stock birds.

These same birds can, however, be bred along more scientific lines,
and the book should prove a valuable guide to those who would try.
The diagrams and specifications of the cages are of particular

- usefulness, and Indian budgerigar fanciers wil] be enabled to derive

454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

much more enjoyment and profit from their hobby by following the
suggestions cftered in such simple and non-technical language. It 1s
interesting to learn that a Budgerigar Society exists in England. ,

SHUMOON ABDULALI.

rie AO NNIDIDIEIISES) JUN IONISINIBSS; ANin linirocuction ito the
Study Jot ermites:s Bis 5S tog. ical Cemseal 4) exe, Anu (lisp eam ernIy)
14 plates, 4o text-figures. London, 14955. Wongmans, Green & Co.
25Sen |

This little book, which is the result of several years of careful
study, deals in a very interesting semipopular style with the biology
of the South African black-mound termite, Amuiltermes atianticus
Fuller. It is divided into fitteen chapters and is illustrated with
several well-executed black-and-white drawings and some _ good
photographs. After dealing with the methods «¢;t collection and study,
the author gives the characteristics of the workers (called the ‘slaves
of the State’) and the soldiers (called ihe ‘guardians of the citadel’).
The latter constitute only about five per cent of the adult population
of the colony, and the workers the remaining ninety-five; in addition,
there are the king and the queen and, in certain seasons, several
winged reproductives which swarm out.

‘The mound, which is dome-shaped, attains a maximum size ol
about two feet in height and two teet in diameter. The maximum
population encountered in a mound was about 40,000 adult individuals
of all castes. |

The growth of the colony, the rearing of the young ones and the
mode of copulation are then briefiy described. Copulation occurs
only after the stimulus of the nuptial flight, without which the termites
fail to pair. Several experiments were conducted on the feeding
habits and it was found that the termites prefer decayed wood te all
other types of food.

Two chapters deal with the ‘guests’ of the termite. First, with
the so-called uninvited guests such as soine smali insects which
habitually live and breed among the termite population in the nest
without any apparent let or hindrance. Secondly, with the protozoa
and bacteria which live in the alimentary canal and are believed to
assist the ‘host’ in the digestion of cellulose; the protozoan species
commonly occurring in the black-mound termite is Nyctotherus
silvestrianus.

A chapter deals briefly with the various theories of caste forma-
tion in termites, and another describes the various types of ‘observation
nests’ devised by the author for the study of living termites. At the
end there is a short bibliography of the more common books on
termites, mostly in the English language, and finally, an index.

Taken as a whole, the book is a welcome contribution not merely
to the semipopular literature on termites in general, but also to the
serious study of certain aspects of a species about which little was
hitherto ‘known. Perhaps the best sections of the book are those
dealing with the popuiation-structure of the colony, the nuptial
-processes and the food-preferences, and the weakest sections those

REVIEWS 455

concerning caste-formation and allied subjects where one wishes for
more precise information.

The get-up and the printing of the book are excellent, but the
price of 25 shillings appears to be excessive for so small a book. We
nevertheless recommend the book to all students of social insects.

M. L. ROONWAL.

8. ANTS. By Derek Wragge Morley, M.A., F.L.s. Pp. xii+179
(8” x 64”). 15 black-and-white plates, 50 line illustrations and maps,
and a key for the identification of British Ants drawn by Alison Birch.
London, 1953. Collins. The New Naturalist series. 18s. net.

How the author of this book became an authority on ants makes
a remarkable story. Protracted illness and long convalescence reduced
him as a boy of rq to lonely inactivity in a garden chair, and the living
ants around began to fascinate him. His interest grew and he started
seriously studying the subject with remarkable success. In school his
special talent was fortunately recognized and he was given opportuni-
ties to carry on what amounted to original research on ants, and at
the age of 18 he had the unique distinction of reading papers before
the 7th International Congress of Entomology at Berlin in 1935.

The first and third chapters, together about half the length of the
book, are mainly concerned with the 27 species of British Ants, with
short accounts of appearance, behaviour, habitat and food. The
appendices contain maps showing the distribution of each species in
the British Isles, as also a very useful diagrammatical key for the
identification of each species, and forms within the species. It-should
not be supposed that the book will not be of interest to readers outside
Britain. In India we who lack even a short book of Indian insects,
leave alone of ants, are thankful for such a publication which is. of
interest to the general reader anywhere. There are chapters on ‘The
Growth of the Ant and its Anatomy’, ‘Ant Guests’, ‘Experimenting
with Ants’ and ‘Collecting Ants’.

The naturalist interested in animal behaviour will find information
scattered all over the book which will fascinate him, and will probably
find the temptation irresistible {even at the risk of being shunned py
the respectable as an anthropomorphist) to see in insect behaviour
much that is of significance to our own social setup.

The varieties and aberrations of ant societies are many and
instructive. On p. 39 we read about the Thief Ant. ‘hese tiny
creatures build their minute galleries in the nests of larger ants. They
live by stealing food from their large hosts, who cannot enter the tiny
galleries and make reprisals. Look to the ant, thou sluggard !

On p. 73 one learns the depressing fact that some nests of the Blood-
red Slave-making Ant contain a large number of workers of the
Large Black Ant. These workers ‘are acquired by the Blood-red
Slave-makers by means of slave raids on the neighbouring nests of
the Large Black Ant, in which they steal the cocoons of the Large
Black Ant. The cocoons then hatch out into workers of the Large

10

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Black Ant which never having known any other nest odour ~- . . quite
happily. accept the mixed nest as their true home. These Large
Black Ant workers will even take part in slave raids on their own
mother colony, fighting fiercely beside their colleagues, the Slave-
makers’. ~~

The integrity of nests is maintained by distinctive nest-odours
which help individuals to reject others even of their own species belonging
to alien nests. Yet it happens that species differing conspicuously in
appearance and habits are found together in a common nest most often as
parasite and host. ‘lhe Jet Black Ant is a large dairying tree dweller ;
the Yellow Ant is a dark-loving troglodyte. Yet the fertilized queen
of the Jet Black Ant by somehow simulating the nest-odour of the
Yellow -Ants insinuates herself into their nest and starts. producing
young which are tended by the yellow hosts who gradually dwindle
in numbers. Most strangely the dark-loving troglodyte hosts change
their instinctive behaviour, and in association with their dominant tree-
dwelling guests are ‘found happily climbing high on the sycamore
trees exposed to the full glare of the sun in order to milk the green flies
and other plant lice which are pastured there’.

_ One may however refuse a pang of pity for the poor obliterated
Yellow Ant, for often in turn it is itself parasitical upon a third species,
the Common Black Ant. The queen of the Yellow Ant celebrates
her nuptials by capturing a worker from a nest of the Common Black
Ant. She goes off on her marriage flight with the half-dead worker
in her jaws and ultimately devours it. This strange marriage custom.
is. not just. a Coarse untimely manifestation of an over-exuberant
appetite. It has a subtle, sinister purpose, for thereby the fertilized
queen acquires the nest odour of the Common Black Ants, and enters
their nest to live and multiply on the labours of the hosts, which are
then gradually supplanted.

The author has experimented on the learning abilities of ants by
running them through mazes, | and has. incidentally discovered that
even:a. lowly ant ali collapse in convulsions symptomatic of a nervous
breakdown when a maze pattern “that: it has mastered is changed by.
unexpected | and insurmountable: obstacles. ‘It has been found. that
there is much individual variability in learning behaviour, and that the
better-learning ants are more prone to such nervous breakdowns. It
is believed that. these better learning ants are the ones that initiate
the various operations in an ant colony. In most worker ants there is no
instinctively set division of tasks. But these exceptional individuals
start doing a particuiar job and their activity excites others immediately
round them to do likewise.

_ The author concludes the book with the hope (p. 118) that the
reader may not find himself ‘lost and forlorn in his brief excursion
into an alien world’. One is afraid this hope is not quite fulfilled as
the general reader feels he is rushed into a wild, strenuous whiz rlwind
tour of the ‘alien world’ and wishes the penned author had been
more considerate and taken him on a gentler and more methodically
conducted excursion.

“Dye

a ICH VPI Steet ale eben hax ©, 457

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S: LIBRARY. _
2 oh rats | ehauAS
_ The following books have been added to the Society’s Library
since December 1955:

Review copies:

1. AFRICAN HaNDBOOK oF BiRDS, Series One: Birds of Eastern
and North-eastern Africa, Vol. I. By C. W. Macworth-Praed and
Capt. C. H. B. Grant (Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., London, 1952). :

2. AFRICAN HANDBOOK OF Birps, Series One: Birds of Eastern
and North-eastern Africa, Vol. I]. By -C. W. Macworth-Praed and
Capt. C. H. B. Grant (Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., London, 1955).

3. \Birp NavicaATION. By G. V. T. Matthews” (University Press,

Cambridge, 1955).
4. A GUIDE To THE Birds oF CreyLon. By G. M. Henry (Oxford

aie! Press, £955). 3
‘BUDGERIGARS FOR PLEASURE AND PRoritT. By Eric~ Leyland
(The Teach Yourself Books—English Universities ‘Press Lid., Licrnieton,
US Sy/o s.
ie “Tue WORLD OF SMALL ANIMALS. “By T. H.. SavGne (Unite sits
of Landon Press Ltd., 1955). Vo
“Pus NaTuraL History or Mammats. By Francois Bourlitre.
Translated from the French by H. ile Parshley (Seems G. HareD &
Co. Ltd.; London, 1955). :
8. THE MamMats OF THE Wortp—Their Life and Franien: By
Francois Bourliére. Translated from the French Any H.- M. Bareniey
(George G. eiaeyp & Co. Ltd., PED 1955) ot Nu

Purchased:

-. 1. TRAILING THE-TIGER. By Mary Hastings Bradley (D. eee
& Co., New York: London, 1929). i
a Ae BULLErF AND SHOT IN INDIAN FOREST, -PLan AND Hits. By
Crees nusselll (Wee ithacker deCa,,eondony 1900)-18)) ) @n.600 3

Bet -Niverr1 Sportinc .REMINISCENCES. _ By. An Cld_ Shikarri
: (Higginbotham & Co.,.Madras, .1880).. BCs iakiss 18

4.. [ELEPHANT AND SELADANG HUNTING IN Matava. By MK:
Hubback (Rowland Ward Ltd., London, 1905).

“Bo JuNcLe TRAILS AND JUNGLE PEOPLE. By Caspar - Whitney
(Tr. Werner Laurie, London, 1905). |

6. Witp MEN AND WILD BEASTS—Scenes in Camp and Jungle.
By Lt.-Col. Gordon Cumming (Edmonston & Douglas, Edinburgh,
1871).
: A SOLDIER’s SHIKAR Trips. By Brig.-Gen. H. G. Mainwaring’
(Grant Richards Ltd., London. 1920).

8. Past Days IN INDIA OR SPORTING REMINISCENCES OF THE
VALLEY OF iHE SOANE AND THE BASIN OF SINGROWLEE. By A Late
Customs Officer (Chapman & Hall, London, 1874).

g. SIR VICTOR BROOKE: SPORTSMAN AND NATURALIST. By Oscar
Leslie Stephen (John Murray, London, 1894).

10. Forest LIFE AND Sport 1N Inpta. By Sainthill Eardley-
Wilmot (Edward Arnold, London, 1910). |

11. LETTERS ON SPORT IN EASTERN BENGAL. J3y Frank B. Sinison
(R. H. Porter, London, 1886).

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

12, THE FOREST AND THE FiELD. By H. A. L., The Old Shikarri
(Saunder, Otley & Co., London, 1867).

13. Bis Game SHootine in INpIA, BURMA AND SOMALILAND. By
Col. V. M. Stockley (Horace Cox, London, 1913).

14. INCIDENTS OF FOREIGN SPORT AND TRAVEL. By Colonel Pollock
(Chapman & Hall Ltd., London, 1894).

15. Bic Game HunTiInG 1n Mancuuria. By N. Baikov. Adapted
from the Russian by Serge Ivanoft and Gertrude Mack. [| Hutchison
& Co. (Publishers) Ltd., London, 1936. |
. 16. Mopern Pic-stickinc—II Edition. By Lt.-Gen. Sir A. E.
Wardrop (Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London, 1930).

17. My Bie-camE Huntinc Diary. By Count Henrik Apponyi
(Selwyn & Blount, London, 1937). :

18. THE RiFLE 1n InpIA. By Lt.-Col. L. L. Fenton (W. Thacker
& Co., London).

19. On Hitt AND PLain. By Lord Hardinge of Penshurst (John
~ Murray, London, 1933).

20. ‘TIGERLAND—Reminiscences of Forty Years’ Sport and Adven-
ture in Bengal. By C. S. Gouldsbury (Chapman & Hall Ltd., London,
1915).

THE OUT-STATION OR JAUNTS IN THE JUNGLE. By James
Williams Grylls (Chapman & Hall Ltd., London, 1848).

22. IBEX SHOOTING ON THE Himarayas. By Major Neville Taylor
(Sampson Low, Marston & Co. Ltd., London, 1903).

23. SPORT IN BENGAL AND How, WHEN AND WHERE:‘TO SEEK It.
By Edward B. Baker (Ledger, Smith & Co., London, 1887).

24. SPORT IN JHEEL & JUNGLE. By K. N. Chaudhuri (Thacker,
Spink & Co., Calcutta, 1918).

25. THE Lire or an ELEPHANT. By S, Eardley-Wilmot (Edward
Arnold, London, 1912).

26. THE Diary OF A SPORTSMAN NATURALIST 1N INDIA. By E. P.
Stebbing (John Lane Co., The Bodley Head, New York, 1920).

27. Bres. By [. Khalifman (icreign Languages Publishing
House, Moscow—Translation from the Russian. 1951 edition: 1953).

28. Birps or THE NortH. By Bengt Berg (P. A. Norstedt &
Sénner, Stockholm, 1925).

29. THE PRESERVATION OF NATURAL HisToRY SPECIMENS, Vol, IL—
Invertebrates. By Reginald Wagstalie & J. Havelock Fidler (H. F.
& G. Witherby Ltd., London, 1955).

30. RecENT STupiEs In AviAN BioLocy. Edited by Albert Wolfson
(University of Hlinois Press, Urbana, 1955).

Fresented:

1. Notes oN THE AnimALS (Mammals, Birds and _ Reptiles)
or Mesopotamia. Bombay Natural History Society, 1916 (Photo-
static copy sent by Robert T. Hatt, Director, Cranbrook Institute of
Science, Bloornfield Hills, Michigan, U.S.A.).

2. STUDIES ON THE GAMOPETALOUS PHANEROGAMS OF KRISHNAGIRI
NaTionaL Park, Borivir. By Miss Aban Jehangir Randeria, St.
Xavier’s College, Bombay, 1954 (Thesis for the Degree of Master of
Science in Botany of the University of Bombay).

SS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. ACCIDENTS TO TIGER AND PANTHER

The following two incidents will undoubtedly interest your readers.
I think they are well worth recording.

-Immediately after cattle had been driven into the labourers lines
by the herdsmen one evening, a woman was drawing’ water in a bucket
from a well close to the road where the cattle had just passed.

She had just raised the bucket of water and was pouring it into
her pail, when a # grown tiger sprang clean over her head and dis-
appeared down the well!

Neighbours nearby saw this and went to the well where the tiger
was standing on his hind legs, with his head out of the water. Soon
afterwards it was shot by the European in charge of the Estate. The
tiger had evidently followed up the cattle and fer some reason had
mistaken the woman for one of the animals.

Anyhow, it is most unusual for a ? grown tiger te be a maneater.
It was indeed lucky for her that she had simultaneously stooped to
pour the water into her pail as the tiger sprang.

The woman was unable to speak for two days, but after a
good peg cf whisky she soon commenced to talk and her husband
said she talked all right ! 3

The second incident is that of a full grown leopard being found
dead in a drain near the labourers’ lines with a domestic cat in its
mouth. Both were dead.

Obviously the leopard had attacked the cat whose head was in the
leopard’s mouth. On closer examination it was discovered that the
cat had bittea through the leopard’s wind pipe and there were claw
marks through the tongue—Hats off to the cat!

D1KAL CAMP,
DARRANG, ASSAM, FRANK NICHOLLS

January 6, 1956.

2 oe PING DOGS

In his customary Nature Notes in the Daily Telegraph, M.B. (a
well-known naturalist-writer) questions whether when a domestic
dog walks round and: round before settling down it is because
its wild ancestor did so. He remarks that even in domestic dogs it
seems not to be a common habit. Making enquiry of various dog
owners he received various replies, but twc particular views were given
frequently. The first was that dogs are less prone to this particular
trick than they used to be. The other was that this circling action
is most noticeable in kennel-kept dogs. In common with a large
number of sportsmen who have kept dogs in India for ‘Bobbery Pack’
purposes I can recollect that the circling habit before lying down was

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

fairly commen among them. But I kept no notes on the matter.
‘Perhaps’ says M. B. ‘our ancestors were responsible for it (the circling
abit) rather than the dogs’.

The purpose of this note is to invite those who can throw light on
the subject to do so.

c/o Liroyps Bank Ltp.,
39 PICCADILLY, W..'1; R. W. BURTON,
December 11, 1955. i Lt.-Col. 1.a. (Retd.).

. THE BROW-ANTLERED DEER OR THAMIN (PANOLIA
ELDI THAMIN THOMAS) IN THE UNION OF BURMA (1955)

The thamin has been declared a completely protected animal
under section 6 of the Burma Wild Life Protection Act, 1936, vide
Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Notification No, 237 dated the
16th August, 1955.

DISTRIBUTION

A survey was conducted by the Conservators of Forests, Northern
Circle and Chindwin Circle in their respective circles during 1954.
On request by the writer, the Conservators of Forests, Hlaing and
Sittang Circles carried out a similar survey in their circles during the
current year (1955).

Northern Circle

West-Katha Division:

There are approximately about 1oo-150 animals in the unclassed
forests along the villages of Ye-Oh, Aingyi-le and Chne generally
known as Phalekwin comprising an area of about 20 square miles and
situated in the south-west corner of the Division. The habitat is scrub
Indaing jungle dotted with grass patches.

East Katha Division: |

About 200 animals are in existence in the Division. They are |
found in all dry places under scrub forests with patches of grass from
the foot of Tagaung Hill towards Shwebo Division in the unclassed
forests and situated round about Tagaung, Magyigon, Mingon,
Kyarhnyat, Pauktabin, Twin-nge and Thabeikkyin along the Irrawaddy
covering an area of about 50 square miles in the southern part of the
Division.

Shwebo Division:
The estimated numbers now in existence are as follows:

Shwebo Range 300
Kanbalu Range 300
Thaw Range 600

The range of this species covers all scrub indaing areas, especially
those now constituted as fuel reseryves—Thityabin, Thaw and Kyaikthin

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 461

reserves lying between the Mu river and Mandalay-Myitkyina railway
line, Kyaikthin Fuel Reserve and the surrounding unclassed iorests
have been constituted as a Thamin Game Sanctuary. Most of the
thamin are to be found in this sanctuary. Estimates are prepared
from information collected from local villagers.

There are still a fair quantity of thamin distributed along the Mu
Valley and also on the east of the Irrawaddy River in the dry scrub
forests, and there is at present no anxiety as to its extinction. There
is no doubt, however, that as soon as conditions permit, steps should
be taken to appoint game staff to prevent further extermination of
these rare animals. (Letter dated Maymyo, 5th June 1954 from
U Thein, Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle.)

Chindwin Circle

Lower Chindwin Forest Divisicn: 300-400.
Yaw Forest Division 60.
Minbu Forest Division 300.
Meiktila Forest Division 300.

(Letter dated Maymyo, the 14th July, r954 from U Mya, Con-
servator of Forests, Chindwin Circle.)

relaunve @iene Ke

Insein Forest Division Nil.
Tharrawaddy Forest Division Nil.
Zigon Ferest Division About 30.

In Satthwa Reserve.
About 25-30.
Prome Forest Division Thamin moving in groups of 7 or
8 in Tonye Reserve just about 10
. miles north of Prome.
Thayetmyo Forest Division About 200.
: In scrub jungle between the eastern
watershed of Panichaung and
Irrawaddy River.
Allanmyo Forest Division About 300-500.
In small groups of 4 or 5 in un-
classed forests which is mostly
‘Indaing’. 7 |
(Letter dated Rangoon, the 21st October 1955, from U Ne Win,
Conservator of Forests, Hlaing Circle.)

Sigua, Cunele

Yamethin Forest Division 15

‘A small herd of 6-7 animals seen occasionally near Yan-Aung,
south-west of Pyawbwe.

A few pairs occasionally seen about four miles west of Stopes
Railway Station.’

(Letter dated Rangoon, 7th November 1955 from U Thein Han, °
Conservator of Forests, Sitrane Circle.). |

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Shwebo Forest Division:

In September 1952, an old Forest Ranger, resident of the area,
gave the following estimate:

Shwebo Range 400
Kanbalu Range 300
Thaw Range 600-700

The Divisional Forest Officer gave the following estimate in
September 1955:

Kyaikthin Wild Life Sanctuary 500
Shwebo Range 150
Kanbalu Range 250

Kyaikthin Wild Life Sanctuary is situated in Thaw Range. The
Divisional Forest Officer has not given an estimate of animals outside
the sanctuary.

Minbu Forest Division:

The estimate of 300 animals was made in 1954, before the re-
occupation of Shwezettaw Wild Life Sanctuary in March 1955. As
250 thamin are now reported inside the sanctuary, there may be more
than 50 animals outside the sanctuary.

Thayetmyo Forest Division:

In October 1947, the Divisional Forest Officer gave the same
number 200 for the Panichaung area, and from 20-30 animals in the
Kama area. A few thamin have also been reported from Negar-

myetnar, Padaung Township. The present estimate does not appear
to include the animals in the two areas.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Lt.-General A. F. Phillip Christisen and Lt.-Col. Edgerby were
surprised to come across thamin on two or three occasions during the
campaign in Arakan from the autumn of 1943 to May 1945.

Lt.-Col. Edgerby who knows the thamin well, thought it strange
to find it on the west coast.

‘They seem scarce and very local and confined to the low ground
and coastal foothills on either side of the Indo-Burma border where the
country in winter is dry and the jungles scrubby and open with grassy
hillocks, ‘‘Khunai’’ grass growing on the foothills... JBNHS, Vol.
45 (4) December 1945. Owing to unsettled conditions in the area
recent information is not available. |

The Arakan Yoma is a natural barrier. ‘Vhamin from Minbu
Forest Division could not possibly have crossed over the Yoma into
Arakan. It is therefore possible that the ‘‘Thamin’* seen by Lt.-General
Phillip Christisen may be Panolia eldi eldi MacClelland; which had
wandered into Arakan from East Pakistan. In his article on The
Larger Deer of British India, R. I. Pocock gives the distribution of
Panolia eldi thamin Thomas as Upper Burma and Lower Burma
including Tenasserim; also Siam and probably the Malay Peninsula.’
JBNHS Vol. 43 (4)—April 1943.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 463

The writer was on a shooting holiday from the middle of March
to the middle of May in 1910 on the Tenasserim River. Though he
saw large herds of sambar, he never came across any thamin.
Neither did he hear of it.

Again in 1914, the writer was on a shooting holiday in the
Thayetchaung Township, Tavoy District, during the college summer
vacation. No thamin were seen.

I personally doubt if the range of ‘Thamin’. extends beyond
Martaban. This view is strengthened by the following extract from
‘Notes on the Fauna, Flora and Minerals of Tenasserim, Pegu and
Burma’ by Rev. I’. Mason, (Stephens Austin & Son, Hertford, 1882).
‘Their habitat and range according to Mr. Davis are as follows:
In the Mariaban District they inhabit exclusively the open grassy plains
between the sea and the mountains. In the Pegu plains they are
perhaps more abundant than in any other part of Burma; next to
them the Yengyaung plains in Martaban produce most; near Rangoon,
they are found in the Dallah plain. About Pegu and Yengyaung they
are found in herds frorn fifty to a hundred in the month of March, but
when hunted they congregate much more and as many as two hundred
may be seen together.’

CONCLUSION

There are now approximately 3,000-3,500 thamin in the Union of
Burma. Panolia eldi thamin Thomas cannot now be said to be a
vanishing species. But, as pointed out by the Conservator of Forests,
Northern Circle, early appointment of game staff to protect it from
further extermination is essential. It is hoped that the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests will not stop at declaring thamin as a
completely protected animal, but will continue to see that there is no

further illicit shooting of thamin, the beautiful and typical deer of
Burma. ;

RANGOON, U TIN YIN, s.c.s. (Retd.)
BURMA.

[U Tun Yin has since informed us that by the subsequent Wild
Life Protection (Amendment) Act of 1956 the Government of the
Union of Burma has declared the thamin a completely protected

species along with rhinoceros, tapir argus pheasant, masked finfoot
and peafowl.—Eps. |

4. THE LEAF MONKEY OF KASHMIR VALLEY}?

Pocock (1939), Fauna of British India, Mammalia, Vol. I, p. 96
was not sure of the identity of the leaf monkey found in Kashmir and
he doubtfully included this locality in the distribution of two forms,

namely, Presbylis entellus achilles (Pocock) and P. e. ajax (Pocock)
without citing any authority.

* Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
5 OO

While with a field par isp of the Horlesicall Suey ey of India in Ju ne
1955, I came across a large troop of leaf monkeys on the hills just
behind Nishat Garden about eight miles north-east of Srinagar.
There were about fifty individuals in the troop which probably included
a number of family parties. The altitude at which they were found
was about 8,ooo ft. That this leaf monkey frequents places of similar
or higher elevations was confirmed by a number of reports from: the
local people also. Although no specimen could be obtained, yet it
was possible to observe some individuals at a very close range and
identify them to be P. e. ajax.

The troop was busy eating wild fruits. A few individuals hurled
stones’ when a shot was fired. It appears to be quite an inquisitive
and a bold animal, some old individuals even threatening to charge.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
INDIAN MusEuM, H. KHAJURIA

CALCUTTA,
August 18, 1955.

5. LONGEVITY OF THE CEYLON RUDDY MONGOOSE
(HERPESTES SMITHIVZEVEANTICUS) IN CAPTINANY

Further to my note which was published in the Journal in 1954
fVol. 52, (2 & 3) ‘page 587], I ‘now. ‘write to ‘record’ thatthe
mongoose in question died on the September 8, 1955, aged approxi-
mately 17 years and 1t months. It ate quite well right up to the last
day and died peacefully during the night, apparently of old age and/or
heart failure.

‘TONACOMBE,
NAMUNUKULA, Wiig NAYS AN IPISUBL IER

CEYLON,
November 7, 1955.

6. TUFTED DEER IN BURMA

With reference to U Tun Yin’s very interesting note on ‘Tufted
Deer in Burma’, in Vol. 53, pp. 123-125 of this journal, mention
of ‘black barking deer’ in Northern Burma was not, unfortunately,
confined to newspaper accounts of the Vernay-Cutting expedition.
Mr. Cutting himself published an account of this expedition in ‘The
Fire Ox and Other Year’ (London, 1947) and wrote as follows
(pp. 318/19) :

‘Now came a big moment in the history of the expedition.

Returning to camp one evening, empty-handed, we saw a Lisu

crouched over the dark form of a little animal. It was a deer with

1 ? Or was it not perhaps the accidental hurtling of loose stones. down the
hillside, caused by the flight of the langurs on the report of the gun?—Eps,. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 465

prominent teeth and curved antlers, and its colour was a smoky-
gray of a uniform shade. This was the famous crested muntjac:
the black barking deer had turned out to be smoky-gray. The
American Museum of Natural History would be the first to possess
A SVSCMINGD 4 9 o

The smoky- _gray deer was in good condition, we were happy to
discover, and the newspaper correspondents would now be at liberty
to call the expedition a success. Actually, its success or failure did
not depend on one specimen, however important, but not one of us
would have teigned indifference to the vagaries of those who had
made this a barking-deer expedition. Anyway, there it was on
the ground before us, the prize for which we had worked and
struggled.’

‘An excellent photograph of the dead animal and its Lisu hunter
is printed in the book. Mr. Anthony’s notes now make it clear that
this was merely another example of the Tufted Deer.

In 1948 I found it to be common in the Chimili area, where it
was wont to come out singly early in the morning's to graze on open
grassy areas below the snow-line at 8,o00-9,o00 ft. The Lisus in this
area had no superstition about hunting them with cross-bows and
arrows, and I purchased one so killed; the skin and skull were
presented to the British Museum (Natural History), whose only other
specimen from Burma was the one presented by Capt. Maxwell West.
I failed to find this deer in the upper N’Mai Hka or its tributaries
the Ahkyang and the Faron, nor has anyone else yet recorded it north
of the Chimili on the Burma side.

ForEST OFFICE,

BRUNEI, B. E. SMYTHIES
SARAWAK,

November 3, 1955.

7. EXPERIMENTS IN IMPLANTING AFRICAN LIONS
INTO MADHYA BHARAT

The Rar in India used to be fairly common in the jungles. now
included in Rajasthan and Madhya Bharat. It is unfortunate that it
is not found any longer in the country except in the Gir forest situated
in Saurashtra. The reason for its disappearance is the tiger which
kept on increasing in number and killed off or drove away the lion
until it found an asylum in the Gir forest. This forest is an isolated
area completely cut off by over a hundred miles from the tiger infested
hills. The tiger is the kind of animal which does not allow other
large carnivora feeding upon the same food to live in the same locality.
It is like the case of having two swords in one scabbard.

The tiger seems to have come to India from China, Assam, Burma
etc., through Bengal, and that is the reason why it is still called Bengal
tiger. It was more cunning and powerful than the lion and therefore
it killed off or drove the lion away from the areas it occupied,

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 88

I had a few opportunities to arrange duels between the lion and the
tiger in a small arena specially prepared for the purpose. In three
such experiments on three different occasions I found the same result.
It is the lion that always makes the first attack and it is he who gets
the worst of it. One or two smacks from the tiger are enough to
make the lion retire.

The late Maharaja Sir Madho Rao Scindhia, realizing that lions had
existed in his State (Gwalior) in the olden days, resolved to re-introduce
them. With this object he imported three pairs of lions from Africa.
The jungle selected was Sheopur and Shivpuri forest range, which
covered an area of some 1,000 square miles. )

When these animals arrived they were taken to a place called
Dobe Kund which is practically half way between Sheopur and Shivpuri.
A special enclosure of stone wall, 20 ft. high, was prepared, in which
the lions were kept. They were not fed on dead meat but were
always provided with live buffaloes so that they might not lose the
natural habit of killing animals. They were kept in this enclosure for
about 4 years during which they not only got thoroughly acclimatized,
but also bred and increased in number.

This place was situated in a lonely spot in the midst of forest
abounding in tigers. The roaring of the lions always attracted the
wild tigers, but on account of the high wall they could not get at
them. We used to make periodical inspections of the place, and
twice I came across tigers lying about in the vicinity of the enclosure-~
they probably came to challenge the lions!

We did not let out all the lions at the same time, but they were
released in pairs. The first pair which was let out in August 1920
gave us no trouble, but vanished in the wilderness. But when the
second pair was let out, the animals came back again and made their
home outside the enclosure. They caused great alarm among the men
who went there with a supply of their food. They attacked and
snatched away the buffalo from their hands. Fortunately they did
not kill any man but they simply took the buffalo and started feeding
on it there and then.

On getting this news we got rather worried; so the next day we
went there in a party and drove them away from the enclosure. Since
there were some more lions left in the enclosure a regular supply had
to be sent for their feed. The next day when the shikaris went with
a fresh buffalo they found the male lion lying dead with his body badly
mutilated, showing that he had been killed by a tiger. The lioness
was not seen anywhere in the vicinity. What had apparently happened
was that this pair on being driven away must have come across some
tiger in the jungle who must have killed the lion, and the lioness
must have escaped.

The third, fourth and fifth pairs gave us no trouble, but when the
sixth and the last pair was let out after two months they proved most
troublesome. ‘They adopted the easiest method for getting their food.
The forest in this part is very thinly populated having no big villages
but just a few scattered hamlets. The poor villagers do not possess
any fire-arms. The pair of lions made the habit of going to these
hamlets and helping themselves to any cattle they could kill and eat on
the spot. The villagers, to protect their animals, built stronger fences.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 487

The next time the pair visited the village, they could not get through
those fences and therefore they killed.a man instead and devoured him.
As soon as this news was brought to us we rushed to the spot and
destroyed the animals.

Most of the five pairs that vanished into the wilderness went
a long way east and south. A few cases came to my knowledge of
these lions having been actually shot near Panna and Jhansi in the
east, and some at Kotah in the south. The late Maharaja of Baria
shot one of them a few years ago along the bank of Kunoo River in
Madhya Bharat.

I was glad to read in the newspapers that there is a proposal to
re-introduce the Indian lion from the Gir forest into some other parts
of our country, so that the species may not get extinct. If this idea
is under serious contemplation, I suggest that the authorities should
select isolated forests in which there are no tigers. Rajasthan is one
of the suitable provinces where one can find such isolated jungles.
It is most desirable to make this experiment, because very few Indian
lions are left in the world, and if they die the species will vanish with
them.

Where sport is concerned it is far more interesting and exciting
to shoot a tiger than a lion. The tiger requires comparatively elaborate
arrangements to be made for a successful shoot, and sometimes even
after all such arrangements and precautions there is every possibility
of his giving one the slip. He is infinitely more cautious than the lion.

In the summer of 1952 I accompanied the Maharaja of Jaipur who
went for a lion shoot in the Gir forest in Junagadh. All shooting
arrangements were organised by H. H. The Jam Sahib of Nawanagar.
The very next day after our arrival a beat was organised in which two
lions came out together out of which one was shot. Another beat was
organised the next day in which another lion was shot.

I was surprised to notice that in neither case did the lion attempt
to make any use of cover. He came out boldly as if taking a
stroll, offering an easy target to the sportsman. Once he is wounded
he is certainly as bold as the tiger.

There is a great diiference between the habits of these two animals
as well. A lion uses his paws to strike his adversary, whereas the
tiger uses them mainly for holding down his victim. Lions live in
a ‘pride’ consisting of a large family, whereas the habit of the tiger
in this respect is just the opposite. Lions do their hunting by team work
which tigers rarely do. The lion is comparatively weaker but bolder,
and he is not half as cunning as the tiger. If a tiger is accompanied
by a tigress and cubs it is the tiger who tackles the kill first, and he
has his fill before allowing any member of this family to touch the food.
But in the case of the lion, and also the panther, it is the female who
does the killing and eating, while the male joins her later on. To put
it in nut-shell a tiger has more of the Indian habit in this respect
than the other animals!

Lions should certainly be increased not only to save them from
extinction but also for providing a variety of big game shooting in
India, although it is much more fun, and also more difficult, to shoot a
tiger.

pees JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83

In conclusion I must state that our implanting experiments were
more of a success than a failure. The very fact that H. H. The Maharao
of Kotah, and the Maharajas of Panna and Baria have shot these lions
in comparatively recent years, suggests the possibility that they may
still be surviving in remote areas away from the haunts of the tiger.

KESRI SINGH, |

NARAIN Niwas,
Colonel.

JAtPUR (RAJASTHAN),
October 26, 1955.

~ 8. WESTERN LIMITS OF TWO EAST HIMALAYAN BIRDS -

Whuie in Landour recently I had the opportunity of examining a
specimen (d) of Gould’s Shortwing, Brachypteryx stellatus Gould,
collected by Master Robert Fleming at Dhodi Tal, 11,000 ft. altitude, 70
miles due north of Mussoorie, on 7-6-1953. The hitherto known distribu-
tion of this species was Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and South Tibet bordering
Bhutan. ‘

I also examined a specimen of the Striped-throated Yuhina,
Yuhina -gularis gularis Hodgson, collected by him at Jabarkhet,
Mussoorie (ca. 6,000 ft.) on 9-3-1953. The Fauna gives the distribu-
tion.of this as ‘Nepal to eastern Assam north of the Brahmaputra’.
-. These specimens, therefore, represent a considerable westward
extension of the known ranges. Remarkably enough both of them were
killed by Master Robert with an air-rifle! ie
33, Pau Hit, SALIM ALI
Banpra, Bompay, ‘ “
January 13, 1956.

We00s 2. 6. 9... A DABCHICK: 1S BORN

.In the game of bird photography both sides often follow the same
tactics: the ardent photographer, having found a nest, retires into his
‘hide’. and waits for the return of its owner; the wily bird, noting
the carefully camouflaged excrescence which has suddenly grown from
the ground, retires into the jungle and waits for the departure of the
photographer. And so, things being as they are, the consequences are
as inevitable as the philosophers say they will be, namely unexposed
films, unproductive hours, and unavailing labour.

The Little Grebe or Dabchick (Podiceps ruficollis) is expert at playing
this game of patience, for it will vanish into the reeds, in the midst
of which it makes its home, without leaving behind so much as a
ripple on the water, and yet it will not go so far away as to deprive
the photographer, steaming in his hide, of the trilling sound of its
mocking laughter. At such moments, the photographer is apt to forget
his biological training and call it ‘a regular swine’. —

In the summer of 1944 I was in Kashmir and planned to photegraph,
among other birds, the Little Grebe; I hoped for success of course,
but expected none, and my expectation was largely fulfilled !

Hi

MISCHELANDOUS NOTES = =>) == 469

in ee
<The first nest found was the usual ‘pad of weeds’ in the middle of
a small weed-grown, water-filled ‘nullah’ not far from the lower reaches
of the Sind River. A willow overhung the bank and trailed - long
slender fingers in the water and about the nest, whose top was covered
with wet weeds carefully left in place by the retreating parent-bird
in an attempt to conceal the four mud-stained eggs. I buttoned myself
into my hide and prepared to wait. A shrike, whose nest was placed
in a split limb of the willow tree, was the first to return, its aggressive
call leaving the listener in no doubt as to its nearness. A euckoo
with the smooth, self-assured voice of one who knows he will get
the better of you, called and chuckled from a nearby plane tree.-- His
presence caused a violent stir among the shrikes. Innumerable doves
moaned in the tree-tops.

A dabchick once emerged silently Seow the dark water and aan res
beside the nest—a quick look at the hide and the telephoto-lens pushing:
through and it was gone again, making as it went a sound no- louder
than the splash of a little fish coming up for a fly. Time passed:
hordes of caterpillars, hairy and dark, invaded the hide;- voracious
mosquitoes stung the patient watcher in those parts of his person
where his trousers were stretched Ge htest Jout never again did the
dabchick return. aR! SEs). Seas

~That was the first of many fruitless eet The nest in the ‘nutlah’
was abandoned and the scene of operations shifted to Anchar Lake:
This is a large shallow lake to the north of Srinagar which is filled
with vegetation. The flowering time of the white water-lilies was over ;
the lotus had not yet begun to bloom, and only their broad- eaves,
still tender and the colour of dull bronze, reached out of the water
towards the sunshine. Brushed by a boat the wide wheels. revolved
against the sides and twisted back into place once the boat.had-passed.
Sometimes the leaves passed under the keel of the boat and would
reappear each with a drop of water on it and magically, it seemed,
clear water in the new association became clearer and more beautiful
still. The edge of the lake is guarded by the close-serried ranks of
tall reeds, the height of a man, and among them the second nest was
found.

pillere again many fruitless hours were spent and patience began to
ooze out of me even as did my sweat. The trilling laughter of the
dabchicks mocked me incessantly. At last my patience was exhausted,
and I determined to abandon the vigil when a shikari, picking an egg
up in his hand, discovered that it was cracked and the chick about to
break through. Back excitedly once more into the hide, this time with
great expectations! For a while nothing happened. The sun moved
steadily westwards and cast evening shadows on the base of the reeds.
Suddenly the crack in the egg widened perceptibly and from within
issued a loud cheeping, clearly audible from the hide 15 ft. away. <A
parent bird which so far had only shown glimpses of itself now pushed
a small, excited, snake-like head through the reed stems, first from one
side, ten from the other, but it was still too frightened to approach
the nest. Another pause. Then with a mighty heave the young chicix

470 © JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

broke free from its prison-shell and appeared in all the glory of its
striped coat. The adult again appeared, and this time throwing caution
to the winds, flopped clumsily like a seal out of the water on to the
nest. There was no sign of the second parent bird.

The adult tried hard to incubate the newborn young and the
remaining three unhatched eggs. The chick, however, was too lusty
a youngster, even at his age (but a minute or two old!) to submit thus
to parental authority; instead he clambered from side to side inspecting
every corner of the nest, once or twice nearly falling into the water.
The parent bird persisted in its attempts to incubate, but being totally
unable to cope with Junior’s encircling moves, trod clumsily on him.
Junior squeaked a protest, but still took no notice of the breast feathers
fluffed out to receive him. This game of catch-me-if-you-can went on
for fifteen minutes or so with parental anxiety gradually reaching
fever- pitch. Suddenly there came from the thick forest of reed-stalks
a warning trill from the second parent.

The events that followed happened swiftly and with the precision
of a well-rehearsed manoeuvre. The warning was not repeated, nor
did the adult bird in the nest utter any audible sound. Nevertheless
the chick understood the signal and played his part without apparent
instruction. At the sound of the warning call the clumsy parent
scrambled off the eggs which it had been incubating and went to the
edge of the nest furthest away from me. It squatted down and lowered
its vestigial wings. The chick, which at this moment was investigating
the far north-western corner of the nest, immediately left off explora-
tion and made towards his waiting steed at a rapid crawl. Unaided by
the adult bird, he then proceeded to clamber up its back and once he
was safely enceonecd the parent bird got up on its feet, folded its
wings into place and quietly and rapidly slid into the water. In an
instant they were gone, not to be seen again.

CaTuay BUILDING, LOKE WAN-THO
SINGAPORE,
January 14, 1956.

| Unfortunately the photo is underexposed and will not reproduce
satisfactorily. It was taken, Mr. Loke points out, in war-time when
materials were scarce, and the film used for the picture was so old that
even four times the normal exposure proved insufficient !—Ebs. |

10 CROWS AND WEAVER BIRDS — RATIOCINATION
OR WHAT?

While living in Balloopur, near New Forest in Dehra Dun, U.P.,
a few years ago, I had under close and regular observation a colony
of Baya weaver birds (Ploceus philippinus)—ca. 50 nests in all—on
an isolated tall date palm some 150 ft. from the window of my study.
Binoculars lay handy at all times so that routine happenings at the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 471

colony could be observed, and any unusual agitation or commotion
followed immediately. On 24 August 1939 I find recorded in my notes
as follows: ‘Colony constantly raided since last day or two by house
crows, in parties of 4 or 5, sometimes assisted by a couple of jungle
crows. The crows hop from frond to frond of the palm, reaching
out and pulling up the suspended nests till they can be held under
foot, and tearing them to pieces with their bills in the region of the

egg chamber. In one case a crow made a hole thus, 6 pulled out and

gobbled up 3 naked young. It apparently left behind one or more, as
the female baya flew up the entrance tube repeatedly afterwards, once
with food in bill. One marauding crow was chivvied off a nest once
or twice by a myna. All the time the colony is being raided, the
bayas fly about innocuously and distractedly, settling on tree-tops at a
distance and uttering an agitated chit-chit-chit. Now and again sonie
of the bolder ones skim past the rifling crows, but without pressing
the attack home. One crow clung to a nest, tore open the egg
chamber and carried off what looked very like an adult cock baya,
the yellow in whose plumage was conspicuous.’

This was the first time that I actually witnessed such raids, which,
from the holes so often seen near the egg chamber of baya nests,
must be of common occurrence elsewhere also. It must be added that
these raids affected only a few nests at a time, and only those con-
taining chicks, as far as could be made out. Thereafter, the crows
passed on.

The point of particular interest was that after the first two or three
days, the raids were not of daily occurrence but took place
sporadically at intervals of several days each. On 19 September my
note reads: ‘Why are these raids so sporadic? After one or several
successive raids in one day, there are no more until several days later’.

Indeed it seems odd that having discovered where easy booty was
procurable, the crows should yet allow several days to go by before
making their next onslaught. It all appeared diabolically calculated
to give time for the unhatched eggs to become nestlings! No raids
had occurred while the nests had contained only eggs. The nesting
season was well advanced before the first raids began—at the time
when most nests contained either hatchlings or hard set eggs. Certainly
there is no question but that the raids took place at intervals of days,
because the situation of the colony and the circumstances precluded
the probability of my missing any of them. After the commotion in
the colony created by the initial series of raids I was constantly on the
alert for similar tumults, which heralded and accompanied every visita-
tion by the crows and continued desultorily for a considerable time
after it was ‘All Clear’.

During: these later stages of the nesting, and the period of raiding
by the crows, a solitary shikra (Astur badius) was also observed to
haunt the colony regularly. He usually spent long periods weaving
his way through the bases of the fronds, deliberately searching for

11

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

wobbly refugees from the ravaged nests. Another time the agitated
chit-chit-chit of the birds revealed a Brown Tree Snake on the same
quest gliding purposefully in and out of the frond stalks as the cocks
fecklessly pranced and flitted about him.

33, Patt Hitz, Baypra, : SALIM ALI
BOMBAY 20,

January 15, 1956.

11. COLONIZATION OF ISLANDS BY WHITE-EYES|
(ZOSTEROPS SPP.)

On reading G. R, Williams’s paper in the Ibis (Vol. 95, No. 4) on
the ‘Dispersal of Introduced Birds from New Zealand’ I was struck py
the fact that in almost every case in small and isolated islands one of
the few land species occurring was a Zosterops sp. which had almost
certainly colonised the island from the mainland of Australia or New
Zealand by its own unaided agency, and not by human introduction.
It. will be recalled that when I visited the Laccadives in 1938 I
found that the only two resident land birds were the white-eye and
and the house crow. It seems a very remarkable coincidence that
in such widely scattered parts of the world the genus Zosterops should
have the faculty, above other passerines, of colonising desert. islands
and might be worth enquiring into.

It is difficult to see what particular attributes the white- -eye possesses
which enable it to establish itself on isolated islands. They are
sedentary, non-migratory sylvicolous birds, little subject, one would
imagine, to wind dispersal; and there are many other passerines which
one would think would be far more likely colonists of oceanic islands.

There are the following points in their favour:

hae. ind to live in | bese Hooks in Le non-breeding season,
emer ‘disturbance there is greater ene: ‘than in the case
of almost any other small insectivorous bird of sufficient numbers
landing together on an uninhabited island to start a breeding stock.
They are comparatively omnivorous, and where, as in the
Laccadives, the coconut is found, can subsist on the nectar of the
flowers and such small insects as visit it. Munias for instance, while
living in large flocks would starve on the Laccadives. . | -:
3. They are sedentary and, in consequence, having arrived at an
island where they can exist, are content to remain there. In ‘the
Laceadives they are found on Kiltan and Kadmat but not on Chitlat,
40 miles from Jsiltan, nor on Amini 2 miles from Kadmat. In the

1 vide JBNUS, Vol. 40 pp. 882-387.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 473

latter case, however, the fact that Amini has a population of house
crows and Kadmat has none, may be the deciding factor.

ARDURA CRAIGNURE,

IsLE OF MULL, ARGYLL, Nee eS
CRAIGNURE 21, SCOTLAND, }

October 25, 1953.

iz, THE DUCK SEASON IN NORTH INDIA, 1955-56

I am sending you separately by parcel post the skin of a duck shot
on X’mas day which I believe to be a female or immature male of
the Bronzecapped Duck or ‘Falcated Teal’!. It was obtained at a
jheel about one mile north of Anta on the Hansi Branch of the
Western Jumna Canal on the borders of the Karnal District, Punjab
(I), and Jind District of Pepsu.

As regards my experience of duck this year {season 1955-56] in
these parts, at first sight they would appear to be unexpectedly scarce.
But on close investigation I have found that they are present in enormous
numbers—perhaps in greater numbers than ever before seen in my
25 years experience of this locality. It seems to me, however, that
they have noticeably changed their haunts and habits, in some cases
leaving favourite jheels of former years quite unfrequented. I attribute
this partly to over-shooting and harassment, partly to the enormous
‘areas under water this year, and partly to the fact that the permanent
jheels are all about 3 ft. deeper than usual. Thus surface feeders tend
to favour temporary and shallow flood water which has the additional
advantage of being unknown to most shikaris, since it is dry land
in a normal year. Also persecution has made them leave, during day-
light hours, permanent jheels which provide good feeding, but they
flight in regularly in large numbers alter dark, leaving again at first
light. A good example of this is the famous Najafgarh-Gurgaon jheel
about--20 -miles from here, which is some 3 miles long this year. At
the start of the season it was populated by duck and teal in almost
unbelievable numbers, and a large number of Greyiag Geese. As the
shooting season progressed thousands of birds could be seen flighting
in and out at dusk and first light, while thousands more learnt to
seek. safety in the middle and ignored the firing; thus one hears many
unobservant shikaris saying that duck are scarcer than usual this year
on their experience of this place alone. But during a 10 days X’mas
camp 80 miles from here in the Karnal/Jind Districts, which is little
known and inaccessible, we were scarcely ever out of sight of duck,
even when partridge shooting, and were amazed at their abundance.
Even here, however, they were restive and constantly, on the move, and
there was a noticeable flight every evening to feeding places evidently
far distant.

_.. As regards species of the migrants, Pintail have been seen in very
large numbers, much more so than usual. All four pochard have also
been seen in some abundance probably attracted by the large areas of

es ate “i ee

1 Tdentification confirmed.—Evs,

474, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

deep water. Mallard, however, which have always been very local here,
have for some reason been scarce even in their usual haunts. Of the
residents, a very noticeable feature has been the large number of Spotbill
seen this season, since formerly they were not common here; the numbers
seen have been reminiscent of the south of India.

11, AURANGZEB ROAD,
NEw DELHI, O. H. pe ST. CROIX
January 9, 1956.

| It may be interesting to mention that Mr. N. A. Leslie of Karachi
in a letter dated 17th December, 1955 wrote: ‘As to your query about
duck and snipe, I do not myself shoot, but my shooting friends say
that snipe are about in unprecedently large numbers this year. As for
duck, the complaint both here and in the Punjab is that there is so
much water about after the floods that duck are hard to come by,
scattered as they are over a far larger area. There seems to be no
evidence that they are less plentiful than usual’.

Mr. H. C. Grieve of Calcutta in a letter dated 5th December also
writes that duck are scarce but snipe plentiful.

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams in a letter dated 24th January
1950 writes: ‘I was down in Mysore last week and found remarkably
few snipe—not a quarter of what one expects to find at this season.
Duck and teal too were very scarce. Can it be that most of the birds
are still up north on the flooded areas? Or is it that as all our Mysore
tanks are brim-full (at any rate in South Mysore) there is not the
usual amount of duck-weed, etc.? I notice also that practically no
migrant birds of prey are to be seen, either on the plateau or down
below. Their absence is very noticeable’.—Eps. |

i3. A LARGE INDIAN KITE, MILVUS MIGRANS LINEATUS
(GRAY), WITH A SPLIT BILL’.

(With a text-figure)

Of the large number of specimens of birds handled by me during
the past several years in connexion with my studies, the most curious
bill formation I have come across is in a specimen of the Large Indian
Kite, Milvus migrans lineatus (Gray). ‘The specimen is an adult female,
collected at Chisapani Garhi, about 15 miles to the south-west of
Kathmandu, Nepal, on the 26th July 1947, by Dr. Walter Koelz, and
deposited in the American Museum of Natural History, New York. It
possesses an additional process to its bill. This is a fixed, rounded,
apparently solid structure with a rhamphotheca. It originates dorsally
from the base of the upper mandible, and arches gently over the culmei,
leaving a well-marked gap at its base. It tapers to a point a little
short of the tip of the bill. The height of the bill at cere is smaller

oe —

! Published by permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 475

than that at its middle portion, but the length remains unaffected

(fig. 1).

ME
gh, vs = ° We Wl Yd

cr AX ~ we NO yy <

Nik % ie y a al i INS

Wainy Sos SS > on iNSsenZ
| LY ee i ae a wee = LW
TN Ws eee

{ 10mm j

Lateral view of the head of a Lense Indian Kite showing split bill.

To all intents and purposes it appears that the upper mandible has
split up during the embryonic development of the kite, for which no
reason can be assigned. This split-billed condition does not seem to
have affected the normal life and activities of the specimen.

I am thankful to Dr. Walter Koelz and the American Museum of
Natural History, New York, for allowing me to examine the specimen,
and to Shri A. Karmakar for preparing the final sketch from my original
drawing under my supervision.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BISWAMOY BISWAS
InpIAN Museum,

CALCUTTA 13,

December 13, 1955.

ee N OAL RONG Vibes ACHE D CHICKS OF LE
SLATYBREASTED RAIL, RALLUS STRIATUS LINNAEUS.

A pair of Slatybreasted Rail bred in the wader aviary of the Calcutta
Zoo this year and four eggs were successfully hatched out. On the
30th July, one chick was hatched, and from the remaining three eggs
three chicks came out on the 31st. While the first chick died in the
nesting basket on the 31st, the three others descended to the ground
along with the mother on the rst August.

A search through the available literature for any record on the
newly hatched chicks of the Slatybreasted Rail, proved abortive.
Coward in his ‘Birds and their Young’ (1923, p. 57), however, says,
whatever the plumage of the adult rails the young in their down dress
are self-coloured, blackish grey or sooty.’ I, therefore, give my
observations below.

Chick in down.—Thickset woolly down black all over. Bill, legs,
feet and claws black. The bill is proportionately a very small and

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

bluntly conical structure, very different from that of the adult. It is,
however, laterally compressed. The first-born chick has a minute,
white egg-tooth. A trace of the egg-tooth is also present in one of
the specimens born later.

Measurements in millimeters:

Tip of bill to root of tail along curva-
ture of dorsal side 600 81 84 BD 82
Bill from anterior edge of nares... 370 4°5 4°] SEH
Depth ot bill at nostril sce 4°5 | = 44 _
Width of bill at nostri) od 2°3 fete -2°0; 2°5 pk
Tarsus 500 Ze3 12°5 13°0 13°0
Longest toe (middle) without claw. 14°5 | ob URS 18°5 14°5
Ege-tooth eleebresen taal "Absent Absent A trace
apkesert

The chicks were apparently healthy and were seen being assisted
by the mother in feeding. The hen picks up minute particles of
food (ants’ eggs, shrimps etc. supplied for rearing wader chicks) places
before the chicks, and draws their attention to the food particles by
pecking about it.

When. Painted Spurfowl, Indian Water-Rail, Spotted Crake ete.,
which share the same aviary, attempted to come near the chicks one
were promptly driven away by the mother.

Unfortunately the three chicks suddenly died on the 3rd August.

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, ALIPORE,
CALCUTTA 27, R. K. LAHIRI
December 1, 1955.

15. HAWK DROWNING WOUNDED DUCK
‘Last Sunday I witnessed a remarkable incident.

We were shooting at Gondal Tank and were attempting to despatch
a wounded teal on the water some 100 yards away with a .22 rifle.

After one or two shots it was hit but not killed and flew a short.

way to be stooped upon by some kind of eagle or buzzard.

The identification of birds of prey is not my forte but this was a
blackish brown bird, of heavy flight and slightly larger than the common
kite. Its cheeks and the sides of its neck appeared to be yellow.

As what I shall now call the buzzard stooped, the teal dived. When
the latter rose again to the surface the process was repeated and so
on for four or five times. Then the buzzard, apparently tiring of
this game, stooped once more and sat on the water over the teal,

~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 477

appearing to hold the bird under water to drown it. He remained in
this position for three or four minutes until he was moved by a shot
into the water near him. The teal at once rose to the surface and a
few moments afterwards the buzzard returned, stooped, and resumed
his position on the water. This time the buzzard stayed there longer
and as we could not wait he was.once-again moved by a shot and
this time went right away. A minute or two later the teal floated
to the surface and apparently expired almost immediately.

At the place where this incident occurred the water was certainly
more than 6 ft. deep and there was a very thin growth of weeds
trailing on the surface of the water, but not enough I am sure to
support the buzzard.

I witnessed this scene through binoculars.

RAJKUMAR COLLEGE,
RaJKOT, M. A. WYNTER-BLYTHI

February 1, 1956.

| Reference is invited to the Gleaning ‘Swan Song’ and the editorial
note to it (Vol. 52, p. 655) dealing with this subject.—EDs. |

16.. A JUMPING SNAKE

Dr. Maurice Burton in the Illustrated London News of tath
November, 1955 discusses an incident of a five-foot long snake progress-
ing down a mountain side in Liguria in a series of jumps. This reminds
me of a jumping snake which I saw in Balasore (Orissa) in 1926. I was
motoring along the main road when I saw about 25 to 30 yards in
front of me a light-brown coloured, five-foot long snake crossing the
road. I accelerated with the intention of running over it. The snake
saw me approaching and began to move faster but could not move
fast enough to escape.. When I was about 2 yards from it and made
certain that I must crush it, it rose into the air and got away from
me. The angle at which it rose was about 45° or a little more. It
reached a height of 3 to 4 ft., but its tail was never very far from
the ground. I stopped the car and tried to find the snake, but it dis-
appeared among the bushes and so I was unable to identify it.

It would be interesting to know whether any of your readers have
had experiences of jumping snakes.

16, Union Park,
Kar, Bompay, 21, D. E, REUBEN

January 24, 1956.

17, A NOTE ON FISHES OF THE FAMILIES SYNGNATHIDAE
AND PEGASIDAE AND THE ORDER HETEROSOMATA IN

THE COLOMBO MUSEUM

_In the course of my studies of the fishes in the collections of the
Colombo Museum I discovered the presence of three species among the

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Syngnathidae and four species among the Heterosomata not hitherto
recorded off Ceylon. These are: |

Name in the Locality
collection
Syngnathus cyanospilus Bleeker on 4 Pearl banks and off
Jaffna.
Hippocampus hystrix Kaup ae 1 Pearl banks.
Hippocampus trimaculatus Leach an 4 Pearl banks.
Pseudorhombus dupliciocellatus Regan ... 2 Pearl banks.
Pseudorhombus elevatus Ogilby Sai 13 Pearl banks and off
Panadura.
Pardachirus marmoratus (Lacépéde) ... 2 Pearl banks.
Brachlrus albomaculatus (Kaup) Sc 1 Otf Negombo.

Amongst these first records the record of Pseudorhombus dupliciocel-
latus and Hippocampus trimaculatus off Ceylon indicates a westward
extension of the range of distribution of these species, whilst the
record of Pardachirus marmoratus off Ceylon indicates an eastward
extension of its range of distribution.

The Colombo Museum also possesses a single specimen of Pegasus
volitans Linné collected from China Bay, Trincomalee. This is the
second record of this species for the Indian Ocean, the first being
that of Johnstone (1904, Pearl Oyster Reports, pt. 2, p. 214) from
off Aripu.

NATIONAL MUSEUMS,
CEYLON, P. H. D. H. De SILVA,
September 7, 1955. Assistant in Zoology.

18. FOOD OF THE WHALE SHARK, RHINEODON TYPUS
(SMITH): EVIDENCE OF A JATAKA SCULPTURE,
2ND CENTURY B.C.

(With a plate)

It is not my intention to enter into a controversy raised in McCann's
recent article!, in which he has tried to prove that the Whale Shark
is a vegetarian fish, browsing on long filamentous marine algae, as
against Gudger’s statement® to the following effects: |

‘However, Rhineodon must need and must get bulkier food. This
it undoubtedly finds in sardines and like small surface-feeding fishes,

1 McCann, C. The Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus (Smith). JBNHS, 52: pp.
326-833 (1954).

2 Gudger, E. W. What ultimately terminates the life span of the Whale Shark,
Rhineodon typus? ibid., 54: pp. 879-884 (1953).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Timingila Jataka Medallion (2nd century B.C.) depicting ‘Whale Shark’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 479

and their feeding and schooling habits make it easier for the Whale
Shark to get them in great quantities. Like Rhineodon, they are
plankton-feeders on the surface and go in schools. The sardine
fishermen off Lower California often find Rhineodon competing with
them—indeed, they sometimes get a Whale Shark in their sardite
nets. These sardines are presumably the largest fish on which
Rhineodon normally feeds. However, it probably sometimes feeds
on any somewhat larger fishes that it gathers at the surface and!
can swallow through its small gullet. And it is also known that
it feeds on small squids.’ |

Quite recently, in my article’ on ‘Fish in Jataka Sculptures’ in
commenting (page ro) on the Timingila Jataka Medallion among the
Bharhut reliefs of the 2nd century B.c. (Plate, fig. 2) it was pointed
out that Timingila does not refer to a true whale but to the Whale
Shark, and that its food-fishes, such as mullets, sardines and small
perches, are shown in the medallion (Plate, fig. 2). When the fish
inhales water for oxygenating its gills, the power of suction is so
ereat that a small boat with three occupants could be sucked into its
cave-like mouth as is so clearly shown in the medallion. It is evident,
therefore, that even sizeable fish and other animals, besides plankton
and small shoaling fishes, could form the food of the Whale Shark.

It is not surprising that McCann found the intestines of the young
specimens of Rhineodon full of algae, for fishery biologists know that
the feeding habits of the young invariably differ from those of the
adult, and that the same may be different in different seasons according:
to the availability of the nature of food at the time. The actual records
of the feeding habits of this monster fish are so meagre that it is
quite likely that both McCann and Gudger may prove to be correct
according to size of the specimen and seasons of capture of the fish.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA 12, SUNDER LAL HORA
October 14, 1955.

19. ADDITIONS TO THE APHID FAUNA OF INDIA

In his previous papers (David 1954 a & b), the writer had furnished
notes on 64 species of aphids which had been noted by him in South
India. Since then further records of aphids have been obtained
in this area. In this note six species which are new to this
country are reviewed. Of these except the first, the other five are
met with only in the high hill ranges of the Nilgiris up to about
7,200 ft. above mean sea level.

1. Aulacorthum (Neomyzus) dispersum (vy. d. Goot)

This species is easily distinguished by its colour. The larvae are
yellow with a purple patch around the siphunculi; the legs, siphunculi

1 Hora, S. L. Fish in Jatka Sculptures, Journ. As. Soc, Science, XXI, pp. 1-13
(1955).

480. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

and cauda are pale with the antennae dark. The apterae are dark
greyish green with the cauda and the base of the third antennal segment
pale. Eyes dark brown; legs dark in the distal half of femora and
the ends of tibiae. In macerated specimens the dorsum has dark
patches on each segment up to the second abdominal segment and the
sixth and seventh segments. Alatae are dark greenish black with
dark siphunculi and a pale cauda having 3 or 4 hairs. |

Measurements in mm.

Length of body Antennae Siph. Cauda Antennal segments
IOUS NY WY VI
ADLERACwaesmenUS 2°47 °S4 “28 Ue) CGNs) BV). (CUTS 7777)
Alataew iG mao 2°45 ‘48 wae - 65 *42 37 ( 12+°82)

Rhinaria in apterae ]II-16, 1V-17, V-10 and in alatae ILI-34, IV-20, and V-Ll. Last.
segment of rostrum ‘16, Second joint of hind tarsus ‘15.

Host-plant and locality: Emilia sanchifolia in Coimbatore during
January 1954.

Notes.—The aphids feed usually on the undersurface of leaves and
are met with in considerable numbers. There is no perceptible effect
on the plant due to their feeding. Ants do not visit them.

‘This species has so far been recorded only in Java. Although it is
very near Neomyzus van der Goot, this subgenus differs from it by
the presence of rhinaria on the V antennal segment, also in both
apterae and alatae. It is however retained in this subgenus for the

present.

2. Capitophorus eleagni (Del Guercio) ;

This aphid conforms in general characters to the typical European
form but differs in having the hairs on the vertex longer, about twice
the basal breadth of the III antennal segment. The hairs on the VII
and VIII’ abdominal segments are even longer. The colour of the
living form is invariably yellow with paired transverse green bands
across the abdominal segments, of which those on the II abdominal
segment are longer.
Measurements in mm.

Length of body Ant. Siph. Cauda Antennal segments Rhinaria
1Hdt IW \W VI lil IV V
Apterae ... 1°96 1:02 eG Op meee 39 +34 +28 (09+ °69) #

Alatae ... 2°02 BRS) OHSS ONS} 54 +4) +29 (°11+-°77) 47) 297

Last segment of rostrum .15 and second joint of hind tarsus .og
Host-plant and locality: Cynara scolymus in Ootacamund during
January and July. |
Notes.—The aphid occurs in very large colonies on the undersurface
of the leaves of this plant and sometimes covers the entire leaf. It is
difficult to distinguish the presence of the aphid due to its cryptic
coloration. Ants are not found attending on it and the only indica-
tion of its presence is given by the development of sooty mould on
the honeydew. The drain of sap from the plant due to the feeding of
considerable numbers of this aphid noticeably retards the growth of the
plant. )
It is learnt from Dr. D. Hille Ris Lambers that a certain amount
of variation in the structure of the hairs exists in forms collected from
Eritrea. Therefore the South Indian form is retained in this species,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 431

3. Eutrichosiphum lithocarpi Maki.

The larvae of this aphid are .reddish and the apterae and alatae
dull black. Siphunculi small and dark with long stout hairs. Hairs
on the vertex and the two spinal ones on the VIII abdominal segment,
about 4 times the basal breadth of the III antennal segment. Hairs
on the antennae are about 1/3 the former. Last rostral segment long,
narrow and tapering, about 5 times the length of the second joint
of the hind tarsus. The whole body is covered with closely arranged
nodules. Tibia have 4 spurs and the tarsal formula is 7, 7, 7. Alatae
have dark sclerotic pattern extending like a patch on the venter of the
abdominal segments.

Measurements in mm

Length of body Ant. Siph, Antennal segments Rhinaria
: Le ee CE evi VI ING

ENPLETAC) Gree la seg 61 ral "06-04 °15 :08 :09 (°11+°18)
- Alatae ~ -:.. 2:19 1:33 ‘65 706 06 °47 +17 °17 (:14+°26) 1 4

Length of last segment of rostrum .34 and second joint of hind tarsus .o9.

Host-plant and locality. Quercus montana, Q. coccinea, and Q.
serrata in Ootacamund in January.

Notes.—The aphids are found on the undersurface of leaves or in
leaf axils in the terminal portions of branches. Only about 4 or 5
are found on a leaf but they are spread out on a number of leaves.
Ants have>no attraction for them.

4, Macrosiphum hellebori Theobald and Watson (?)

This is a large green aphid which resembles Macrosiphum euphorbiue
(Thomas) Slaselhy. The number of hairs in the cauda are usually more
than rr and the. legs have the distal portions of femora dark.

Measurements in mm,

Length of body Ant. Siph. Cauda Antennal segments Rhinaria
ME IAW NY Vi III

Apterae .. 2:99 391 97 “44 ‘92 +75 +70 (°18+1°14) 3

Length of the last rostral segment .14 and the second joint of the hind
tarsus .I5.

_ Host-plant and locality: Ranunculus sp. in Ootacamund in September.

Notes.—The aphid feeds on the stem in large numbers. The plant
is not affected in any way by their feeding.

This species was listed as a synonyn of M. euphorbiae (Thomas) by
Lambers (1947). However, he states that it has to be a separate species
for the characters mentioned above.

5.- Myzus (?) hemerocallis Takahashi.

Apterae yellow with pale cylindrical siphunculi and wide flange. The
antennae are short and dark. Head with minute spinules all over.
Cauda conical. Alatae do not have the sclerotic patch on the abdominal
tergites.

Measurements in mm.

Length of body Ant. Siph. Cauda Antennal segments Rhinaria

a JUBE di § WW VI Til
Apterae ... 1°76 f() ORS) OFT I) O11) OND Ylyitb ony
Alatae ... 1°80 1°30 *29 als "42. +22 +16 *09+°40 GS)

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Length of the last rostral segment .10 and second joint of the hind
tarsus .10.

Host-plant and locality: Hemerocallis flava in Ootacamund and
Coonoor (6,000 ft.). Also Agapanthus umbellatus at Coonoor. ‘The
aphid is found in January.

Notes.—The aphids are found usually in between the two tender
central leaves and are not visited by ants. No mark of injury is seen
on the plant even when large numbers are present. Only the alates
are seen on the tips of the leaves.

This aphid has so far been noted only in Formosa. Though it
does not possess the sclerotic pattern on the abdomen in alates, which
is typical of the genus, it has much affinity with this genus.

6. Myzus ornatus Laing.

Apterae are pale yellowish ‘all over with pale, cylindrical, tapering
siphunculi and a large flange. Cauda broad and constricted at the
base. Dark intersegmental spots are found pleurally on the thorax
and abdomen.

Measurements in mm.

Length of body Ant. Siph. Cauda. Antennal segments
IG Ie WW VI

Apterae ... 1°63 °89 32 14 25°15. 11 :09+:18

Length of the last rostral segment .og and second joint of the hind
tarsus .oQ.

Host-plant and locality: Cineraria sp. in Ootacamund during
January.

Notes.—The flower stalks are usually infested by hordes of these
aphids which either stunt the growth of the plant or distort the
formation of flowers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My grateful thanks are due to Dr. D. Hille Ris Lambers, Holland,
for his kind help in identifying the aphids.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
COIMBATORE. S. KANAKARAJ DAVID

REFERENCES

David, S. Kanakaraj (1954 a): Rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon (Dav.) a new record
of aphid for India. Ind. J. Ent. xvi (II): 196.

— — — (1954 b): Thesis for M.Sc., University of Madras, January 1954.

Hille Ris Lambers, D. (1947): Contributions to a monograph of the Aphididae
of Europe. II. Temminckia iv: 1-134.

20. SOME INSECTS ATTRACTED TO LIGHT-III

The following insect species were taken at light in addition to
those already reported by me (JBNEIS, 52: 647-650 and 950-951).
The collections were made in Bangalore during March-May 1955,
unless otherwise indicated. I am most grateful to the authorities of
the Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, British Museum (Natural

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 493

History), London, for the determination of the species included here.
I am likewise grateful to Dr. M. Putta Rudraiah, Government
Entomologist, for facilities.

List oF INSECTS
EPHEMEROPTERA

Baetidae.—Cleon sp. @ (Novr. ’53).

HEMIPTERA

Lygaeidae.——Dieuches leucoceras Walker, Nysius melanicits
Distant and N. minor Distant.

Jassidae.—Deltocephalus sp.

LEPIDOPTERA

Gelechiidae.—? Brachmia sp. {Novr. °53), ? Chelaria sp.,
Lecithocera sp. and ? Telphusa sp.

Cosmopterygidae.—Cosmopleryx aibilineela Dev. and
Cosmopteryx sp. (Novr. °53).

Hyponomeutidae.—Plutella maculipennis Curt.

Tineidae—Tinea opsigona Mey. (Novr. ’53), Tvrichophaga
monachella Hb. (Novr. ’53), and T. irimaculella Snell. (Novr. 53).

Olethreutidae.—Argyroploce sp., Crocidosema plebeiana
Zell. (Novr. 53) and Psorosticha zizyphi St. (Novr. ’53).

Pyralidae—Charllena sp., Crambus sp. (Novr. 53), Loxostege
messalis Walk., Nymphula affinialis Guen., Phycita (s.l.) sp., Udea
brevialis Walk.

Lycaenidae.—-Talicada nyseus Guer.

Lymantridae.—Lymantria fuliginosa Moore.

Arctiidae.—Asura sp.

Agrotidae.—Eustroia opella Swinh. and Hydrillodes lentalis
Guen.

Xyloryctidae-—Odites sp. (Novr. °53).

COLEOPTERA
Carabidae.—Clivina memnonia Dej. and Macrochilus 3-
maculatus Oliv.

Elateridae.—Agrypnus fuscipes F. and Ludius sp. nr. hirtellus
Cand.

Tenebrionidae.—Microcrypticus sp.
Copridae.—Onthophagus sp., nr. ovissanus Arrow.

A phodiidae.—Aphodius costatulus Schmidt and A. parvulus
Har.

Melolonthidae.—Apogonia villosella Blanch.
Rutelidae.—dAdoretus bicolor Brenske.

- 484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL_HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

HYMENOPTERA

Braconidae.—Apanteles sp.
Formicidae.—Aenictus sp., Camponotus spp. (more than 3
species seem to be involved), Myrmecaria sp. and Polyrhachis sp.

DIPTERA
Muscidae.—Atherigona sp. 9.

Division or ENTOMOLOGY, 3
DEPARTMENT 0 AGRICULTURE, AP ine S. USMAN
BANGALORE,

December 31, 1955.

21.- NOTE ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF LEMA
SEMIREGULARIS JAC. (COLEOPTERA, CHRYSOMELOIDEA,
CRIOCERIDAE)

Eighty-one species of Lema are known to occur in India (jacoby,
1908; Lefroy, 1909). Lelroy (1909) opined that although these beetles
were common on grass and on plants in the plains, life-history of none
was definitely known and this statement holds true to date. Recently
Sengupta (1952) and the authors (Sengupta and Behura, 1953, 1955)
studied the life-history of Lema praeusia Fab. and L. signalipennis Jac.
respectively and recorded them, and L. semiregularis Jac. on turmeric
(Curcuma longa) for the first time. The only other species of Lema
known to occur on turmeric.is L. fulvicornis Jac., in Ceylon (Huston,
1937). eee hing ee
_ L. semiregularis was first noticed as a minor pest on turmeric in
1949 in the district of Phulbani (Orissa) along with L. praeusia -and
L. signatipennis. During subsequent years all the three species
appeared in major pest form in Phulbani, and are so far known to be
confined to that district. Adult specimens of L. semivegularis were
obtained from the Turmeric Research Station, G. Udaygiri, and
reared at Cuttack in the Entomological Laboratory of the Department
of Agriculture, Orissa, at ordinary room temperature in glass jars
covered with muslin during November 1953: to January 1954.
Besides, field observations were also made by the staff of the
[Entomological Section of the Agriculture Department stationed at
G. Udaygiri and Phulbani.

It is interesting to note that the different stages in the life-history
of the three species of Lema infesting turmeric in ‘Orissa, viz., J.
praeusta, L. signatipennis and L, semiregularis were extraordinarily
similar.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435

Lire-Hisrory

Egg: The eggs are laid singly on the leaves, being thrust into
the tissues. No female was observed to lay more than 11 eggs within
24 hours, counts of 3, 5, 8, 9,.10 and 11 being typical for the egg
masses. Incubation lasted from 4 to 5 days.

Larva: The larva on emergence measured about 0.13 mm. in
length. Locomotion and feeding in the larva was noticed immediately
after emergence. The apex of the anal segment is turned upwards
and the faeces are released little by little so that they covered the dorsal
part of the abdomen of the larva. The excreta are green and initiaily
very little in quantity, appearing as a speck on the abdomen. Gradually
they become heaped so as to form a protective covering for the larva.
During the course of its development the old faecal matter on the
abdomen gets discarded automatically and is left on the leaves and
fresh excreta are again deposited. The larva is a voracious feeder. It
grew to a length of about 0.54 mm., after which it pupated. The
larval period lasted about 15 days.

Pupa: Before pupation the protective covering of faeces is dis-
carded and ieeding is slow. The head of the pupa is pale brown and
the abdomen is very much enlarged and yellowish in colour. White
streaks of 2-3 mm. long appear all over the abdomen. The pupa
measured about 1.0x0.8 mm. and 1.2x0.8 mm. The pupal stage
lasted about 1y days, giving rise to the blue (elytra) adult.

The total number of days from egg to adult lasted about 39 days.
__.. Grateful thanks are due to the Director, Commonwealth Institute
of Entomology, London, for the determination of the insect species.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH STATION, G. C. SENGUPTA
BHUBANESWAR. -State Entomologist.
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, By. BE UR A:
RAVENSHAW COLLEGE, |

Cuttack. ,

November 2, 1985. -

REFERENCES

Huston, J. C. (1937): Report of the work of the Entomological Division. Adm.
Rep. Dir. Agric. Ceylon 1936. pp. D22-D28. Colombo. Dec. 1937. (Rev. Appl. Ent.
26. Ser. A. (6): 358 (1988).

_Jacoby, M. (4908): The Fauna of British India. Coleoptera. Chrysomelidae.
Vol. I., London.

“Lefroy, H. M. (1909): Indian Insect Life, Calcutta. pp. 354-356.

Sengupta, G. C. (1952): Observations on Lema praeusta Fab. (Chrysomelidae)
as a pest of Turmeric. Proc. 39 Ind. Sc. Cong. (38): 324.

Sengupta, G. C. and Behura, B. K. (1953): Observations on the life-history of
Lema. signatipennis Jac. (Chrysomelidae) as a pest of Turmeric (Curcuma longa),
Proc. 40 Ind. Sc. Cong. (8): 198.

Sengupta, G. C. and Behura, B. K. (1955): Some new records of crop pests from
India. Indian J. Ent. 17: 288-285.

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
22. BEHAVIOUR OF BUTTERFLIES BEFORE OVIPOSITION

Recently, while going through the excellent series of articles
published in your journal by the late Mr. T. R. Bell on ‘Common
Butterflies of the Plains of India’, I came across a paragraph
[p. 679, Vol. 19 (3), 190g] containing what is most probably the first
description of the interesting phenomenon which I have called the
‘Drumming’ of the female butterfly pricr to oviposition. I myself
have described this reaction for some European butterflies (Aglais
urticae, Argynnis paphia, Pieris brassicae and Aporia crataegi; the
Swallowtails Papilio machaon and podalirius, and also for one
cosmopolitan species common in India, 1.e., Vanessa cardui, the Painted
Lady (see Sitzber. der naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 1934, Sitzber. der
dtsch. entomol. Ges. 7, 1937, and Nature 140, 1937), and have also
taken some cinematographic records of ‘drumming’ in urticae, paphia
and cardui. Up till now, I had only found one footnote in the literature
concerning this, by the late Prof. W. T. M. Forbes in Comstock’s
‘Introduction to Entomology’, 1924, p. 750, who mentioned the
‘drumming’ in some American Satirid’, and that only after my own
description had been published. But obviously the credit for the
discovery of the reaction must go to Bell, who wrote as early as 1909
with regard to Kuihalia garuda More, thus:

‘The female of this species when engaged in laying eggs may be
seen, if carefully watched, or heard hammering the leat-surfaces with
the imperfect frontlegs® before depositing an egg; E. lepida has also
been seen to do this.’

He further mentions that the food plants for the larvae of these
two species are mango and cashew-nut tree, and ‘Flame of the Forest’
respectively.

I have been fortunate insofar as I was in charge of large observa-
tion cages where conditions could be more or less controlied; in this
way, I have been able to watch the ‘drumming’ of female nymphalids
in detail which, having been brought up in the cage, had lost their
usual shyness. In these the ‘drumming’—a quick alternating tapping
on the surface of the leaf—is performed, as in Euthalia, with the
veduced pair of frontlegs, thrown out only for that occasion and
therefore easily distinguished. In Pierids and Papilionids, on the
other hand, where the ‘drumming’ is performed with normal
frontlegs, it was often possible to identify the reaction, not by sight,
but by sound alone. I have also seen a few female butterflies in the
process of ‘drumming’ in India, but unfortunately, have not got the
records with me here. It would be interesting to hear whether other
readers have observed this phenomenon, which should be easy in a
country with such a great wealth of butterflies breeding almost
throughout the year.

* According to a written communication by Dr. Forbes, the species was Basilarchia
astyanax, ovipositing on Tilia at Westborough, Mass., which was heard, then seen
tapping with the forelegs alternately on the leaf.

* The italics are mine. D. I.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 487

Bell (ibid.) then proceeds to give his interpretation of this peculiar
behaviour as follows:

“The reason . . . may be to frighten micro-ichneumons or spiders
Oi the leat 2.) =. }

Interesting though this suggestion may be, it seems to me that
some of my further observations do not support this idea; quite apart
from the fact that evidently such an effect as postulated by Bell, could
only be very temporary, and that nothing would prevent the parasite
or predator from returning to the same leaf within a few seconds,
in order to attack the newly laid eggs.

I should like to suggest that sufficient evidence has now been
accumulated in favour of my interpretation that the ‘drumming’ serves
to test the physical as well as the chemical properties of the leaf
surface, and particularly by the latter means, probably to identify the
species of the plant. In fact, some such device appears necessary,
unless we assume that the female butterfly selecting the food plant
of the larva, sometimes without ever having seen it before, is an
experienced botanist !

1. Testing ot physical properties:

Though 1 myself have not noticed that after ‘drumming’ the
butterfly selects a leaf of a certain consistency, it 1s quite imaginable
that this reaction helps her, e.g., to assess the degree of turgidity of
the leaf in question. The remark by M. Hering (in his ‘Biologie der
Schmetterlinge’, 1926), that female butterflies usually prefer those
leaves for laying their eggs which are neither too juicy nor too dried up,
seems to point in this direction.

2. Testing of chemical properties :

Here we seem to be on safer ground. In my observation cages
(built for the purpose in Germany as well as in England and in Poona),
time and again | have been able to fcllow a female butterfly with my
eyes on her ‘trial flight’ from leaf to leaf, during which she kept
drumming on a number of individual leaves belonging to various
plants, only to take off again immediately alter each ‘performance’.
This was continued for a long time, until at last, sometimes
apparently by chance, she reached one of the food plants of her larvae;
only then was the ‘drumming’ followed immediately by oviposition.
The female of the Cabbage White, Pieris brassicae, even used to ‘drum’
on any green or bluish-green surface, be it a watering-can, a dress or
a piece of paper, as well as on ali kinds of leaves; but only after she
had reached a cabbage leaf, or a leaf of some other crucifer, would
the ‘drumming’ be followed by her settling down to oviposition. if
the food plant happened to have been removed from the cage altogether,
then the female would occasionally lay some eggs on the ‘wrong’
plant, e.g., Papilio machaon or even, in rare cases, on green paper
(unpublished observation by U. G. Vaidya with a female of the Indian
Papilio demoleus in our observation cage in Poona). Perhaps most
convincing of all is the observation that the female of the European
Silver-washed Fritillary, Avgynnis paphia, after having ‘drummed’

12

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

extensively on the food plant of her larva—a forest violet—nevertheless
will not deposit her eggs on that plant at all; instead, she wili
immediately ty to the nearest tree trunk and oviposit on it, inserting
the tip of her abdomen into the crevices of the bark. Since no
‘drumming’ has ever been observed to occur at this actual place ot
oviposition, Bell’s explanation cannot be applied to this case. (In the
meantime, my own observation, undertaken in a cage, has been fully
confirmed in the open by Dietrich Magnus in Tibinger.) Incidentally,
the biological effect of this involved instinctive response is beautifully
clear; through it, the female avoids laying her eggs on the summer
leaves of the “ites. which would not provide sufhicient protection for
the caterpillar hatching in autumn, against the vicissitudes of a
European winter; instead, she lays them in the bark where they can
hide, but only of such trees as are close enough to the violet to allow
the hungry caterpillars to find their way to the food quickly in the
following spring. 1 wonder whether a comparable instinct may exist
in some Indian fritillary or other butterflies whose caterpillars may
have to undergo a resting period ?

Poona, ch eakruy fo ae WOK ABIES Is
December 27, 1955... |

oa

LITERATURE.

Bell, Abs 15 (COD) z Common: Butterflies of the Plains of India JBNHS, 19 (3).
‘Ilse, Dora (1934): Ueber das Sehen der Insekten, besonders der pees in:
Sitz ber. der Ges. naturf. Freunde, Berlin.

— -— — (1937): ‘Aus dem. Leben der Schmetterlinge’ “(ake Film). Sitz. ber. d.

Deutschen Entomol. Ges.
— —- — (1937): New response to colours in egg laying butterflies. Nature, 140.

Magnus, Dietrich (1950): Beobachtungen zur Balz und Eiablage des Kaisermantels

Argynnis. paphia L. ees -,. Nymphalidae) Zt. Tierpsychologie, T (3).

— 23. TERMITES FROM NEAR BAGHDAD, IRAQ...

_ During the Field Museum Spear to the Near East, 1936, 1

eases some termites. from near Baghdad. - Determination — by
Professor Alfred Emerson of the University of Chicago identifies them
as Microcerolermes diversus Silvestri, a species described in 1920 from
Amara on the lower reaches of the Tigris.

Emerson writes: ‘As far as I know, the species has not been

reported from any other locality since that time. I had cotype

winged specimens in my collection, but no soldiers. I had a soldier

from Jerusalem determined by R. G. Temple of the British Museum.

as this species, but careful comparison proves the Jerusalem specimens

to be a new species. The specimens you collected agree perfectly

with the originai description and drawings.’

COCONUT GROVE,

FLORIDA, he hee F Fark HENRY FIELD

November. 2,-1955.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 439

24. SHEEP AS ANEW HOST OF THE VICK, DERMACENTOR
AURATUS SUPiINO (FAMILY IXODIDAE)!

A collection of ticks made from sheep and sent to the Zoological
Survey of lndia by Sri R. D. Katiyar, Assistant Disease Investigation
Otticer (Sheep & Goat), Animal tlusbandry Department, U.P.,
Lucknow, has been identified as follows:

1. Boophilus australis (Fuller)

2. Rhipicephalus haemapiysatoides Supino
3. Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann

4. Dermacentor auratus Supino

The first three species are well-known for their occurrence on
sheep and goat, while the last, Dermacentor auratus Supino, com-
prising a male and a female specimen collected trom sheep at the
Central Sheep and Wool Kesearch Station, Pashulok-Rishikesh, Dehra
Dun District (U.P.), in July 1954 Is interesting in as much as it is
recorded here for the first time trom sheep.

Sharif (1928) commented on the taxonomy, distribution and hosts
of D. auratus, and Sen (1938) has given an exhaustive list of hosts
of this widely distributed Oriental species. In neither of the above-
mentioned works nor in later literature is there any reference to sheep
or goat as a host of D. auratus.

D. auratus is a well-known pest of wild animals and has been 0)
far recorded trom Borneo (oli Polamochoerus larvatus F. Cuv.); Java
(off Sus vittatus Temm.); Sumatra (off wild pig); Carin- age and
Mooleyet in Burma (off Ursus torquatus Wagn. and Sus cristatus
Wagn.); Ceylon (off bear) and Nias (off pig). In India it is recorded
from Nagabera, Goalpara District, Assam (off wild boar); Naihati,
Bengal (olf Geer); Calcutta (off man); Singhbhum District, Bihar (off
wild pig); Chandan Chowki (off Felis pardus Linn.) and Bhowali (found
on the clothing of a man on his return from the jungle) both in the
Naini Tal District, Uttar Pradesh; Songra in the Gonda District (off
Melursus ursinus); Helvak, Koyna Valley (host unknown) and Nechal,
Western Ghats (host unknown), both in the Satara District, Bombay
State.

Its accidental transport or attachment from one host to another
or even to the clothes of human beings traversing grazing land of
wild animals is not unknown as will be evident from the distribution
of the species and its hosts given above. However, in the present
instance, as the specimens were collected from a controlled stock of
sheep and as one of the specimens (female, length 9.5 mm, aad
width 7.8 mm.) was gorged with blood, we are led to think that it is
also equally capable of sustaining itself on sheep.

Kouwenaar and Wolf (1934) were able to produce rickettsiosis
experimentally in guinea-pig in Sumatra by inoculating suspensions
of crushed examples of Devmacentor auratus Supino and “Rhipicephalus
haemaphysaloides Supino, collected from wild pigs. Sharif {1938) has
identified on numerous occasions nymphs of D. auratus collected from
man at the School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Calcutta, and
he suspects that D. auratus is the real vector of the tick-typhus fever

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

in India and that R. haemaphysaloides may play some part in the
transmission of the disease.

The author is deeply grateful to Dr. ‘A. P. Kapur for his instruc-
tion and help in this piece of work.
ENTOMOLOGICAL ASSISTANT, :
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, G. MATHAI
CALCUTTA,
October 27, 1955.

REFERENCES

Sharif, M. (1928): Rec. Indian Mus., 30: 291-297.

— — — (1938): Indian J. Vet. Sci. 1: 356-357.

Sen, P. (1938): Jndian J. Vet. Sct. 7: 133-147.

Kouwenaar, W. and Wolf, J. W. (1934): Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 14: 1659.

APPENDIX MASCULINA OF PALAEMON LAMARREI
H. MILNE-EDWARDS!

On

(With a texi-figure)

In all the known species of Palaemon Fabr. (=Macrobrachinm
Bate) the males are distinguished from females, in addition to other

\\ \\\ | | H

b
Second pleopods in male of: (a) Palaemon carcinus (after Holthius),x4; (b)
Palaemon lamarrei, X 20.

1 Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 491

characters, by the presence of an appendix masculina on the endopod
of the second pleopod.

The appendix masculina presents a more or less uniform ‘structure
in all the Indian species of Palaemon examined by me except Palaemon
lamarret H. Milne-Edwards. It consists of an elongate, thin appendage
arising from the angle formed by the junction of the appendix interna
with the inner border of the endopod. In most of the species this
structure, though longer than the appendix interna, fails to reach the
apex of endopod by a considerable margin, and it is copiously provided
with stiff hairs (fig. a).

The appendix masculina of -Palaemon Imarrei (fig. b) differs from
that of other species in the following features :

1. In the fully developed stage it is a long structure, in the usual
position, extending as far as the apex of the endopod or even slightly
exceeding beyond it.

2. Its apex is slightly inflated, and is provided with about half a
dozen stiff hairs. In addition its inner edge has five or six scattered
erect marginal hairs in the upper two-thirds of its length.

The only other recorded instance where the appendix masculina
extends almost up to the end of apex of endopod is the figure of the
second pleopod of a 25 mm. long male identified by Kubo! as Palaemon
boninensis Stimpson. In this case, the structure appears to be more
jairy than in P. lamarrei.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA. KRISHNA KANT TIWARI
Octovereishe loss:

26. REPRODUCTION OF THE NOTOSTRACA?

The Phyllopod Crustacean (Triops orientalis) is extremely common
in the rainwater pools on the Tableland of Panchgani, 4,378 [t.,
(Satara District, Bombay), but nothing is known regarding its habits
or breeding. It may therefore be of interest to draw attention to a
note on the “Reproduction and Cytology of the Notostraca’ by Alan
R. Longhurst, Bedford College, University of London, on pages
671-680 (Volume 125) of the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of
London for November 1955.

Both bisexual and hermaphrodite reproduction occur. The
copulation of Tviops cancriformis has been described by other authors
and is said to be ‘a rapid process, in which the male approaches the
female laterally, and arches its body so that it grips that of the female
in such a way that the ventral surfaces of the posterior regions of the
thorax are opposed; for a few seconds the male moves convulsively,
and then breaks away.

‘Isolated hermaphrodite females readily lay viable eggs’, but ‘in
bisexual populations copulation is necessary before the females will

1 Kubo, I., J. Imp. Fish. Inst. Tokyo, 34, No. 1, p. 17. Fig. 9 (1940).
2 Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

pass eggs into the brood pouches; females of such populations of
Triops granarius and T. australiensis will lay no eggs in the absence.
of males’.

Triops orientalis of India is bisexual though the sex ratio is not
known with certainty. No information is available about the structure
and cytology of gonads in this species.

It is hoped that students in India will study this interesting
problem which may throw light on the taxonomic status of this species
which is regarded by Longhurst as a synonym of T. granarius.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALcumTA, KRISHNA KANT TIWARI
January 2, 1956.

27. BRANCHING IN ARECA PALM, ARECA CATECHU lL.
(With a photo)

Branching is the rule in the aerial stem of Doum-palm (Hyphaene
thebaica) and a few other species of this genus. The stem in this
plant forks several times in succession, which appear like dichotomies.
These are not true dichotomies but the result of ‘the development of

an axillary bud into a branch equal in strength to the main stem’
(Rendle, 1953). Branching in cther palms is exceptional, and reports
of this phenomenon have been recently made for Cocos nucifera

(Vélez, 1954) and Elais guineensis (Lesage, 1955). Further, it has

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 493

been pointed out by Rendle (1953) that branching in palms may be
caused as a result of injury to the terminal bud or due to replacement
of flowering buds by leafy shocts.

During a recent field trip it was observed in a private garden at
Kuppahalli, Krishnarajpet Taluk, Mandya District, Mysore State, that
a specimen of Arecanut palm (Areca catechu L.) had three branches in
all. The branches show normal growth and yield. The ‘plant
is 20 years old and 28 ft. in height. On enauiry it was learnt that
the branches appeared 8 years ago, and to start with it had a single
crown of leaves, as the other plants in the garden.

The three branches with their crown of leaves surround a central
stump, which is about + a foot from the uppermost branch; the
branches appear just above leaf scars at intervals of 14 to 2 inches.
The branching may be due to an injury to the apical bud, which is
now represenied as a stump, or may be the result of further develop-
ment of axillary buds in the distal region into healthy lateral shoots
thus replacing the apical crown.

Botany DEPARTMENT, ©

ST. PHILOMENA’s COLLEGE, B. N. NARAYANA RAO
Mysore, K. H. KRISHNA MURTHY

November 3, 1955. -_-B. §. VENKATAKRISHNIAH

28. _PTERIDOPHYTES OF COOCH BEHAR

-Cooch Behar is a representative part of the North Bengal plain near
the foothills of the eastern part of the- Himalayas. It is situated
at 26° 190’ N. and 89° 30° E. The place is 145 ft. above sea level;
the yearly rainfall is about .120 inches. The climate of the place is hot
and humid; the temperature varies from 45°F. to 103°F. The soil is
loamy to sandy and remains moist throughout the year. Epiphytic
and terrestrial ferns are abundant. One of them is an uncontrollable
weed. Sea
Carl Christensen’s ‘Index Filicum’. is followed in most cases for
naming the ferns, and synonyms from Beddome’s ‘Ferns of British
India’ are quoted for the convenience of those who follow the latter. As
for other pteridophytes Baker’s ‘Fern Allies’ is followed. )

FERNS

ils Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn. Beddome p. 464.
- Terrestrial, collected with spike during the rains. Found growing
abundantly in meadows.

2. Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. |

LL. flexuosum Sw. Beddome p. 457.

~~ Large pinnately divided leaves are found climbing on shrubs and
small trees. Abundantly distributed.

494, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

3. Lygodium japonicum Sw. Beddome p. 457.

Less common than L. flexuosum. Intermediate leaf forms are
found and it is very difficult to separate the species from L. flexuosum.
Possibly L. japonicum is a form of L. flexuosum.

4, Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. Beddome p. 84.
Collected from damp shady regions. Abundantly found.

5, Adiantum lunulatum Burm. Beddome p. 82.

Semilunar pinnae obliquely attached to the rachis. Fronds pro-
pagate by rooting at the tips. Found growing on damp soil together
with the former species. ‘Abundant.

6, Cyclophorus adnascens (Sw.) Desv.

Pyrrosia adnascens Copeland. Copeland, Genera Filicum.
Niphobolus adnascens (Polypodium aduascens Sw.). Beddome
Pe325-
Epiphytic, abundantly found on trees. Rhizome creeping, much
elongated.

7, Cystopteris setosa Bedd. Beddome p. 7o.

Terrestrial, erect plants. Somewhat membranous fronds, tripin-
nate. Less commonly found.

8. Diplazium esculentum (Retz) Sw.
Anisogonium esculentum Presl. Beddome p. 102.
Rhizome stout and erect. Terrestrial with large, much divided
fronds. This is an uncontrollable weed growing everywhere. Young
leaves are taken as vegetable by local people.

9, Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J.Sm. Beddome p. 341.

Epiphytic, most prominent fern flora on the trees, with dimorphic
leaves.

10. Dryopteris prolifera (Retz) C.Chr.
Polypodium pvoliferum Roxb. Prain, D. Bengal Plants.
Scandent plants, fronds rooting at the tips and branching profusely
from the axils of pinnae.

11, Dryopteris subpubescens (BI.) C.Chr.
Nephrodium molle Desv. Beddome p. 277.
Terrestrial plant with large fronds pilose on both surfaces.

Fronds membranous in texture. Sori smaller in number. Commonly
found. ;

12. Dryopteris unita (1) O. Ktze.
Nephrodium cucullatum Bl. Beddome p. 270.
Found commonly. Fronds coriaceous, pubescent beneath. Sori
profuse. Fronds about 5 ft. tall,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 495

13, Leptochilus axillaris (Cav.) Kf.

Acrostichum axillare Cav. Prain, D. Bengal Plants.
Gymnopteris variabilis var. axillaris Cav. Beddome p. 429.
Eiphytic, rhizome creeping on tree trunks, flat, green in younger
parts. Fronds membranous, about one foot long.

14, Polypodium'clathratum Clarke.

Pleopeltis clathvata Clarke. Beddome p. 348.
Found growing on shady moist walls. Fronds small membranous.

15. Polypodium lineare var. simplex Hook.

Pleopeliis simplex Sw. Beddome p. 347.
Found rarely. Epiphytic with large fronds. —
(Identification of the specimen is doubtful as sori were not found).

16. Pteris biaurita Linn.

Campleria biaurita Pr. Beddome p. 116.
Rarely found. ‘Terrestrial.

17, Pteris longifolia Linn. Beddome p. 106.

Found growing in abundance, specially in the crevices of old
moist brick walls.

18, Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.) Bedd. Beddome p. 4a2t.

Acrostichum palustre Bedd. Piain, D. Bengal plants.
Covers the whole of the host plant, so that the host seems to he a
fern plant itself. Fertile pinnae very much reduced.

19, Ceratopteris thalictroides (1..) Brong. Beddome p. 123.
Grows abundantly on damp soil. Found in the rainy season.

20. Marsilea quadrifoliata Linn.

Found growing in the ponds, marshes and moist lands; abundant,
Leaves used as vegetable. Soporiferous.

FERN ALLIES

1. Psilotum triquetrum Sw.

A few plants are found growing on Polyalthia longifolia along with
an orchid (Dendrobium sp.) in the main park. [| Possibly this has come
here from the south along with the orchid collection. Found to be
growing there without the knowledge of the nursery men].

2, Selaginella ciliaris (Retz) Spreng.
S. proniflora Baker.
Very small plants, a few centimetres long. Spikes with two types
of spores. Found growing on damp and shady soil or wall. —

3. Selaginella serpens Spreng’.

Plants with much branched stem. A blue tinge is found on the
upper surfaces of the leaves. Growing on damp soil,

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIRTY, Vol. 53

4, Equisetum debile Roxb.

Found in river beds and other shady moist regions.
I wish to thank Dr. S. K. Mukerjee of Indian Botanical Gardens.
Calcutta, for his valuable help.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY,
VICTORIA COLLEGE, Kk. C. BISWAS
Coocn BEHAR,

REFRRENECES

1. Carl Christensen. : Index Filicum.

2. Beddome, R. H.: Ferns of British India.

3. Prain, D. : Bengal Plants Vol. II.

4. Copeland, E. B.: Genera Filicum.

5. Baker, J. G.: Fern Allies.

6. Backer, C. A. and Posthumus: O. Varen flora Voor Java.

7. Stewart, R. R.:; The 180th Anniversary Volume of the R. B. Gardens, Calcutta
9

1942, p. 159.

29. THE TAXONOMIC VALUE OF THE ANDROECIUM IN
THE GENUS CASSIA

The genus Cassia shows a great diversity in the characters of its
androecium. These characters together with those of the fruit have
been used in splitting this large genus into three subgenera namely
Fistula, Lasiorhegma and Senna (Engler and Prantl, 1894). The
subgenera have been further divided into several sections. Some
systematists are inclined to raise the three subgenera to independent
generic status, while others prefer to treat them under the same
genus. |
Detailed investigations by me of species representing all the sub-
genera have revealed a number of characters of the stamens and
anthers which could be used to great advantage in the diagnosis of
the various species. The characters in question pertain to gross
features, structure and the mode . of dehiscence of the «anthers.
Occasionally there exists a certain degree of variability within the
limits of a few species but usually the entire androecium or some
features of it are quite typical or characteristic of a species.

The taxonomic value of the characters of the anther, where they are
widely variable, is quite well recognised in families like the Melastoma-
ceae and the Ericaceae. Whereas in these families it is the different
genera which show characteristic modifications of the anther and
filament, in the case of Cassia such variability 1s well pronounced
intragenerically among the different species. The following key, which
comprises the thirteen species investigated in the present instance, is
intended to indicate the utility of such characters for the purpose of |
the systematic delimitation of the species.

A. Stamens all fertile and antheriferous.

B. Stamens markedly dissimilar in
length of filament, size and
form of the anthers. Anthers

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of the outer whorl dehiscing by
incomplete longitudinal _ slits,
those of the inner whorl by
sub-basal pores at the ends of
thecal spurs. A typical fibrous
hypodermis present (Subgenus
Fistula).

Cre ilamentsamot) ther threes tall
anterior stamens with pro-
minent nodulose Suede
about the middle.

CC. Filaments of the three tall rei ior

BB.

stamens without swellings.

D. ‘The filaments of these three
stamens broadly flattened.

DD. The filaments of these three
stamens slender and filiform.

Stamens similar or dissimilar only
in size. Anthers with broad
flattened bilobed tips with
mucronate apices and dehiscing
by two sub-apical chinks which
continue downwards as _ lateral
sutures lined by intercoiled
epidermal hairs which give the
sides of the anther a_ shaggy,
bearded or stitched-up appear-
ance. A typical fibrous layer is
wanting but a few epidermal
cells may show fibrous thicken-
ings (Subgenus Lasiorhegma).

C. Stamens 5, sometimes more,
subequal.

CC. Stamens 10, alternately long nea

AA.

B.

BB.

short.

Stamens rarely all fertile and antheri-
ferous, usually the three posterior
and sometimes the one anterior also
reduced to staminodes ending in
sterile blades. Dehiscence of anthers
occurring by 1-2 apical or subapical
chinks or pores. The hypodermis
not fibrous (Subgenus Senna).

Fertile stamens 10, anthers dehisc-
ing by 2 short subapical chinks.
Lateral sutures present alone the
whole length of every anther.

Fertile stamens less than 1o,
usually 7, the rest staminodes.

C. nodosa Ham.

C. fistula L.

C. marginata Roxh,

Co GISNS Mn,

C. mimosoides J..

and

C. kleiniti W. & A.

C. glauca Lam.

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

C. <Anthers without lateral sutures
and smooth on the sides, de-
hiscence occurring by a solitary
chink across the anther tip. .... C. siamea Lam.

CC, Anthers with ‘short or long
sutures and furrows on _ the
sides, dehiscence occurring by
1-2 chinks or pores.
D. Sutures continuous over the
entire length of all anthers,
dehiscence by a pair of
chinks. on . (©, Guiaoullaia |b.
DD. Sutures of some anthers con-
tinuous along whole length
and in others limited to
about 2 length of the anther.
Dehiscence occurring by a
solitary broad gaping pore |
across the tip. C. laevigata Willd.

DDD. Sutures variously limited to
different lengths in all
anthers..
E. The three anterior anthers
dehiscing by two subapi-
cal pores, the others by
1 or 2 apical pores at the
very apex. Go obtusifola
KE. All the anthers Hence
invariably by 2 subapi-
cal angular pores situat-
ed well below the apex
on the ventral side of
the strongly flattened
tip. ear
fw Sutures iveny, shout
and usually limited
only to the base of
the anthers. bee Ceroccidentalismlar

FF. Sutures longer, run-
nine along the
greater feneth of
the anthers. 1 Ceehirsutamle.

SUMMARY

The key given in this paper shows the great variety and systematic
utility of the characters of the androecium in the genus Cassia. Of the
three subgenera it is Senna that offers the largest number of characters
for the delimitation of its different species. When more species
become available for study and obseryation, it may be possible by

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 409
ising the characters of the androecium to evolve a suitable diagnostic
key for all the species of Cassia occurring in India.

I am thankful to Rev. Father H. Santapau, St. Xavier’s College,
Bombay for suggestions, and to Professor P. Maheshwari of the
University of Delhi for kind encouragement.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

University or DELHI, C. S. VENKATESH
DELHI,’ *
December 20, 1955.

[ESI DEESRVAS TRUER OE

Engler, A. and Prantl, K. (1894) :-—‘Die natirlichen Pflanzenfamilien.’ Leipzig.

30. NAME CHANGES OF A FEW BOMBAY PLANTS

Some of our Bombay plants have had their names changed of recent

years, but this fact may not be known to some of our botanists who

May not possess the necessary bibliographic references. ‘The follow-
ing notes are given in order to help interested botanists.

1, Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindler in Fedde, Repert. Spec.
Nov. 21: 14, 1925.
Desmodium rufescens DC. in Ann. Sci, Nat. 4: ror, 1825.
Uvaria hamosa Wall. Cat. 5681 B, 1831-32, nom. nud.; Wt.
Gb vem, PieCle, BAA, isieVac
Hedysarum hamosum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 57, 1814, nom. nud.
Doodia hamosa Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3: 367, 1832.

In a recent number of this Journal Santapau and Panthaki re-
ported the cccurrence of this plant in Bombay, under the name of
Uraria hamosa Wall. Of the occurrence of this plant there can be
no doubt, but the name U. hamosa is clearly illegitimate according
to the Rule of Priority; Roxburgh’s Hedysarum hamosum is the
oldest name for the plant, but it is a nomen nudum in the sense of
the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, since it has 1io
description of any sort, and is not described by reference to any
previous description. Desmodium rufescens is the first and oldest valid
name.

2, Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taubert in Engler et Prantl,
Pflanzenfamilien 3 (3): 365, 1894.
Evrythrina monosperma Lamk. Encycl. 1: 391, 1783.
Butea frendosa Koenig ex Roxb. in Asiat. Res. 3: 469, 1792 &
Pl, (CORoml, G8 Biy to Big Woh, we Ilo Mevels Be emi ater
auct. indici passim.

1 Present address: Department of Plant Biology, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, Stanford, Calif., U.S.A.

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The combination B. monosperma is now generally accepted as the
correct name of our Pallas tree; but the combination is often attributed
to Otto Kuntze. This attribution is not correct. O. Kuntze in
Rey. Gen. Pl. (1891) writes on page 202:

‘Plaso Ad. (1763). . . Plaso monosperma OK; (Butea monosperma
OK. olim==Erythrina m. Lam. .. .=Butea frondosa Roxb.
1795). |

This means that formerly O. Kuntze held the view that the plant
ought to be called Butea monospermi O. Kuntze; but this view was
not published until 1891, when the name was merely given as a
synonym of Plaso monosperma; this method of publication is specifi-
cally condemned by Art. 43 of the International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature. : eat aah

qa

3, Gardenia resinifera) Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 150, 1821; Stearn in
Blatter & Millard, Some Beautit. Ind. Tr., ed. 2, 83, 1955.

Gardenia lucida Roxb. Hort. Beng. 15, 1814, nomen nudum; id.

Ii Wheels BS S53, ieeal eel ne Go, welaae IM, Inve, Ibincl 28 iis,

1880. : | |

The oldest valid name for this plant is Roth’s of 1821; Roxburgh

listed the plant in 1814 but without giving either a description or

a reference to one. The name is changed in accordance with the

Rule of Priority. :

4, The common Thunbergia of Bombay.

The commen white-flowered plant of Bombay is listed in our
floras as Thunbergia fragvans Roxb.; Bremekamp in Verh. K. Akad.
Nederl. Wet. II, 50 (4): 31, 1955 has shown that the plant listed in
our floras as Ih. fragrans is a mixture of two plants, Th. fragrans
proper and Th. laevis Nees. The two species can be distinguished by
the following key : |

Ovary and capsule glabrous. Basal

half of leaf blade on each side with

two: patent lobes. .. Ll. fragrans Roxb. ©
Ovary and capsule puberulous. The ~~

basal half of the leaf blade usually

on each side with a single patent

lobe, never with two lobes. ... d. laevis Nees.

The nomenclature of the iatter species is as follows:

Thunbergia laevis Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 77, 1832 et in
DC. Prodr. 11: 56, 1847; Bremek. in Verh. K, Nederl. Akad.
WE, WG FO (YS Bity LOB }
Th. fragrans Roxb. var. laevis Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:
391, 1884.
Th. fragrans Cooke, Santapau, etc. non Roxb. nisi partim.
Meyenia longiflora Benth. in Flora 32: 558, 1849.

Sr, XAVIER’S COLLEGE, D. PANTHAKI (Miss)
OMBAY I. | H. SANTAPAU, s.J._
December 20, 1955.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES EOI

a1. EXTENSIVE LOSS OF WATER BY FOREST TREES
IND ite DANG S WOKE Sp

In a paper published by the present author in the Journ. Gujerat
Res, Soc, (16: 318, 1954) mention was made of extensive loss of water
by Ougenia dalbergioides Benth. The loss of water was in fact so
great that when the tree was placed between the observer and the sun,
it appeared like a constant drizzle. In tne month of October of this
year I was again in the Dangs Forest and noticed that the ‘rain’ was
not confined to Ougenia; it was noted also under Mangifera indica,
Grevillea robusta, Syzygium cumini, and others. ‘This phenomenon
was observed by myself and my assistants almost every morning from
sunrise to about 10 a.m. _ If one stood under the tree at that time, one’s
face and clothing were soon noticeably wet.

Another remarkable ‘aspect of this ‘rain’ was thal even trees growing
in rather dry, spots seem to be giving out great amounts of water. IN
the time our observations were made, if.was not possible to assess the
quantity of water lost by any particular tree, but it was quite clear
that it was considerable; the temperature was noted as between 80
and 82 degrees F.

One simple explanation of this phenomenon is that the relative
humidity of the atmosphere being very high (about 50% at the time)
much of the surplus water taken up by the tree was released not in the
form of water vapour but as liquid drops, which gathered at the ends
of the leaves and reaching certain size or quantity fell to the ground.
It is, however, a great puzzle, how to account for the large quantity
of water lost by such trees. This phenomenon has not been observed
by the writer in any other part of Bombay State.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, ;
Fort, BomBay, —_ H: SANTAPAU,.s.J.
December 17, 1955. |

2 .32.. DOLICHOS BRACTEATUS BAKER

In the course of our studies on the Papilionaceae of Bombay, on
which the junior author has been engaged for over a year, we have
gathered some details which may be of interest to botanical readers
of the Journal.

Dolichos bracteatus Baker is a les of rather restricted distribution ;
Cooke in his Flora Pres. Bombay (1: 381, 1902) considers it ‘a very
rare plant, the only specimens seen being those in Herb. Kew, marked
‘Konkan, Stocks’’.’ The type sheet of the species is a rather
dilapidated specimen, of which only one leaflet (out of three) and
some flowers are preserved. However, in our field excursions we
have had occasion to see and collect the plant in Khandala, Purandhar,
Mahableshwar etc.; in all these places the plant is far from rare,
large masses of leaves, flowers and fruits being available during the
monsoon months; along the road down Fitzgerald Ghat at
Mahableshwar it is one of the showiest plants in the second half of

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

August. Moreover, the iocal people collect the pods ag an article of
food, so that as soon as the monsoon is over it is impossible, or
nearly so, to salen, either flowers cr fruits. This may explain why
the plant has been so seldom noticea by Bombay botanists.

The flowers are about the largest among the Papilionaceae, and
certainly the largest among the Delichos species of western India;
generally flowers are bright purple; occasionally we have noticed pure
white flowers.

The nomenclature of the plant needs adjustment to bring it into
line with the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. J. G.
Baker in Hook. f. Flora of British India (2: 210, 1876) listed the
plant under the name Dolichos bracleatus Baker; previously, in
1831-32, Wallich in his Numerical List under No. 5554 had published
another Dolichos bracteatus, which Baker himself makes the basonym
for Rhynchosia bracteata Baker. It is clear, therefore, that in the
opinion of Baker, the two plants bearing the same name are quite
different.

According to Art. 74 of the Code, Dolichos bractealus Baker must
be rejected as a later homonym of D. braciealus Wall. In consequence
the plant needs a new name and, for want of an older legitimate one,
we propose the following:

Dolichos ghaticus Santapau & Panthaki, nom nov.
D). bracteatus Baker in Took. i hs Bie indies 210.370);
Cooke; (HI: Pres.) Bombay) 123 2or a Santapaumineinecum bots
Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 87 (non Wall. 1831-1832).
The new name is given ito commemorate the fact that -the plant
seems to be endemic on the Western Ghats of India.

ST. XAVIER'S COLLEGE,
Bombay 1, H. SANTAPAY, s,J.
December 2, 1955: D. PANTHAKI (Miss)

33, FLOWERING OF ‘BANGA RAJA’ NIGHT FLOWERING
CACTUS

(With a plate)

The Chief of Police, Kuching, Sarawak, sent me a leaf of the night
flowering cactus in 1952, with the following notes:

‘Banga Raja flowers every five years. Banga is Malay for flower
and Raja, a prince. Jt is a Prince of Flowers when it blooms. The
flower is large bell-shaped, dark purple red. It only flowers at about
ty p.m., and the flower is dead by the morning.’

But here in Rangoon, it bloomed twice in 1954. During the
current year it has bloomed already four times. On the first occasion
in August, there were six flowers on the first night, and one flower
on the following night. On the present occasion—the fourth time——
there were three flowers on the first night (2tst October 1955) and
one flower on the following night.

d

S)

S

n

Od

o

rs

)

)

Ss

ny

Ny

Vv

0)

Ss
O

WU

7

IIMOLY

1Y

e— vley es

Caeye Mn Ce

SIIMO] ST

20S

“STH

‘yen Avquog

‘-uanor

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

‘ : Mae Ba
SR GAT
i VEY:
} } j
\ } a \ 4} :
: fh, " y J
yr
g\ \ Jf,
1 \
b
4
ic
S.
i
iN ~% ‘
\ VA
\ Ca, n

‘ay }}
K HLA

am | %
‘ " y,
) h é

4 a f
aq a
\
y pr) ’
{
A
AI
} ‘
4 i
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( j
]
4 |

Fig. 2: Petaloid stamens.

ee te Ee A EE 8 NN RN TC EET CRE A LCT CE NE CE EN TR es eH

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES 503

The flower is pure white and sweet scented. On all occasions it
blooms before 10 p.m. and on the 8th, 9th, or 10th day of the moon.
The Rangoon climate may have suited the plant.

The photographs were taken at 21.00 hours on 21st October 1955.

25-Inya MyainGe Roap,

University P.O., TUN YIN,
RANGOON-BURMA, B.c.s. (Retd.)
November 12, 1955.

[Cereus is a well-known night-flowering cactus; several species
have. been intreduced from tropical America, and are rather showy
but for the unfortunate habit of flowering at night, when flowers may
pass unnoticed.—Eps. |

34. PETALOID FILAMENTS IN IPOMOEA RUBRO-
CAERULEA HOOK.

(With aw plate)

The following peculiarity was observed while examining some
specimens of Ipomoea rubro-caerulea Hook. grown in our garden.
Out of a totai of about 55 flowers that opened one morning, about
20 of them showed that the filaments of their stamens were modified
into prominent petaloid structures. This modification was not uniform
in all the flowers. In the accompanying diagram of an abnormal
flower, fig. 1 shows the corolla split open and spread out to show the
petaloid filaments; fig. 2 shows the five stamens all are attached to
the base of the corolla by the lower portion of their filaments. Stamens
A and B are normal, except that B has a twist in the upper part of
its filament; stamens C, D and E show the petaloid modification,
In all the stamens the anthers are normal; in the modified ones, they
are attached about the middle of the petaloid structures, the filament
at the base of the anthers being but about 2.5 mm. long.

This modification varies considerably from flower to flower; in
some flowers all the five stamens are changed; in some flowers the
modified stamens are attached to the corolla base only; in others,
however, the petaloid structure has fused with the corolla for nearly
all its length. The shape and size of the modified stamens varies
from plant to plant, and even from flower to flower or even within
the same flower; however, the colour is always blue, the same as the
corolla. Further in flowers showing this modification the filaments
are completely glabrous or hairless, which is not the case with normal
flowers. All the petaloid stamens show a strong median band similar
to the ones on the corolla.

The plant has been examined on successive days, and the same
peculiarity has been noticed in some of the flowers that opened each

day.

LovoLa COLLEGE,

MADRAS, 31. J. PALLITHANAM, -s\J.

December 10, 1955. :
U3}

a

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

[This is an interesting case of ‘reversion’; it is generally accepted
by botanists that the various parts of the flower are modifications
from the normal leaves of a plant; the stamens with their slender
filaments are a further stage in this evolution of the floral structures.
Occasionally some parts of the flower may revert or go back either
to the original leaf form, or to some intermediate stage as in the
present case. Such irregularities seem to be rather common in garden
plants.—Ebs. |

35. THE NAME HOYA PENDULA

In the botanical literature of India, two plants go under the name
Hoya pendula: (a) Wt. & Arn. in Wt. Contrib. 36, 1834; (b) Wt. in
Icon. t. 474, 1540-43.

It is clear that in accordance with Art. 74 of the International Code
of Botanical Nomenclature, the name can only be retained for the first
plant, the other being a later homonym in the sense of the Code and
therefore an illegitimate name.

The nomenclature and synonymy of these two plants is, therefore,
the following:

(a) Hoya pendula Wt. & Arn. in Wt. Contrib. 36, 1834, excl.
synon.; non Wt. Icon. 1840-43.
Hoya wightii Hook. f. in Fl. Br. Ind. 4: 59, 1883; Santapau,
Fl. Khand. in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 175, 1953.
Hoya pallida Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 152, 1861.

(6) Hoya’ iconum Santapau, nom. nov.
Hoya pendula Wt. tcon. t. 474, 1840-43, non Wt. & Arn. 1834;
Hooker in Fl. Br. Ind. 4: 61, 1883. .
Asclepias pendula Roxb. F1. Ind. 2: 36, 1832.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,
-BOMBAY, H. SANTAPAU, s.J.
November 25, 1955-

36. TOBACCO WITHOUT NICOTINE

Whilst going through some of the journals in the library of the
Botanical Survey of India in Calcutta recently, I found a note that
may be of interest to the readers of this journal. The note was
reproduced from Revue Intern. des Tabacs, October 1952, in
Agronomie Tropicale 8: 207, 1953.

If a tobacco plant, i.e., a stem, is grafted on a tomato rootstock,
the resultant tobacco plant is completely devoid of nicotine.
Inversely, if tomato stems are grafted on rootstocks of tobacco plants,
the resultant tomato plants contain some nicotine. The conclusion
drawn from similar experiments is that nicotine is formed in the roots
of the tobacco plant.

Bomsay, H. SANTAPAU, S.J.
October 20, 1955. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 505

37. A PETRIFIED MONOCOTYLEDONOUS INFLORESCENCE
FROM THE DECCAN INTERTRAPPEAN BEDS,
CHHINDWARA, M.P.

In the present note is described a petrified monocotyledonous
inflorescence collected from Mohgaonkalan, Chhindwara District, M.P.,
India, where the Eocene beds of the Deccan intertrappean series are
exposed.

The inflorescence is a raceme of shortly pedicellate pistillate flowers,
arranged in acropetal succession, along six alternating vertical rows
on a six angled inflorescence axis. Each flower has a polysepalous
calyx consisting of six sepals, one against each carpel. Petals and
stamens are absent in all the flowers, young or old. The pistil is
hexacarpellary apocarpous. The six carpels of a flower are placed
round or partly fused with a flat and six angled central axis, which
is the continuation of the floral stalk. The ovaries are drawn out at
the apex to form a short conical structure, the style. The central
axis or the carpophore gradually broadens out at the top to cover the
Six ovaries partly. On the top of the flower there lie thick flat ribs,
one on each ovary, radiating out from the centre of the fiower to the
stigma of each carpel.

The anatomy of the inflorescence axis shows a typical monocoty-
ledonous structure. The cellular structure of most of the floral parts
is well preserved and could be studied in detail. Sclerotic tissue is
abundant, both in the inflorescence axis as well as in the floral parts.

On the basis of the floral structure it is proposed to assign the
present specimen to an extinct genus under the Order Helobieae,
which is an assemblage of primitive or reduced Monocotyledonous
families, mostly aquatic. The fossil shows nearest approach to
some genera belonging to the present day Juncaginaceae.

A fuller account of the specimen is being published elsewhere.

LECTURER IN Botany,

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, J. K. VERMA, M:sc.
NAGPUR.

March 22, 1956.

38. ON A NEW PETRIFIED FLOWER SAHNIPUSHPUM
SHUKLAI SP. NOV. FROM THE INTERTRAPPEAN
BEDS OF MOHGAONKALAN IN THE DECCAN.

This note describes a new petrified flower from Mohgaon-
kalan (22° 1° N; 79° 11’ E), Chhindwara District, M.P. The descrip-
tion is based on nearly thirty specimens, the first of which was
collected by Professor V. B. Shukla and named as Sahnipushpun.
Later, during subsequent years, many more specimens were collected

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

by the author and studied both in longitudinal and transverse sections.
The flowers are bisexual, sessile, with the receptacle forming a cup-
like hypanthium enclosing the ovary; sepals not ‘seen; petals O;
stamens probably many, perigynous near the mouth of hypanthium,
incurved, anthers small, basifixed, dehiscing by longitudinal slit, pollen
grains ellipsoidal; ovary superior, spherical in cross section, tive-locular,
each locule incompletely partitioned by half septum, central axis dis-
organised in the middle part of the ovary; each half loculus containing
one ovule, placentation probably basal, style thick, traversed by a
stylar canal, ending in an umbrella-shaped plate. Dehiscence of the
fruit septifragal, seed endospermic. Anatomical details of most of the
floral parts are fairly well preserved.

The affinities of the flower have been traced to the family Sonnera-
tiaceae—Order Myrtiflorae, with a near approach to the genus 5Son-
neratia.

The complete paper on this unique specimen is being published
elsewhere.

LECTURER IN BOTANY,

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, J. K. VERMA, M.Sc.
NAGPUR.

March 22, 1956.

39. MODEL MILES ON ROADS

In an editorial dealing with this subject (Scottish Field, July 1955)
we are informed that the idea of a Model Mile was instituted in
America five years ago and landscape architects drew up plans free of
charge, while business concerns made liberal contributions towards the
funds, and different communities got together to raise money to ensure
the success of the project. Where a country depends more and anon
on its increasing tourist industry it is essential that roads be mace
attractive. Apart from this it is surely the duty of man in this hot
country to provide needed shade for both man and beast? Model roads,
were they to be provided in as many parts of the country as possible,
would arouse a civic sense in the matter. At the present time we can
see in many parts the lopping of avenue trees for fuel and even the
felling of them for the same purpose.

In 1952 the Hon’ble Mr. K. M. Munshi, the then Union Minister

for Agriculture and Forests, wrote, ‘. . . . tree mindedness is growing,
not yet grown; and it can only grow by Vana Mahotsava becoming
a part of our national faith . .. . WH India becomes Vana-

’

Mahotsava-minded, she will live; not otherwise .

c/o Lioyps BANK LTp., }
39 PICCADILLY, W. I., R. W. BURTON
December 11, 1955. Lt.-Col., (Retd.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 507
40. DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY

Are you an active member,

The kind that would be missed? |
Or are you just contented

That your name is on the list?

Now, as on many occasions in the past, our editors are in need of
contributions from members of a popular nature. ‘The Society is a
mutual one, the more the Society benefits, the more the member benefits.
The Society is finding it difficult to procure voluntary contributions
of a popular nature. The Society appeals to its members for this
assistance and support .’.... ‘Again and again we have stressed
that no lofty literary attainments are necessary for writing for the
Journal .’.... ‘Wecan meet much of the criticism that the journal
is too technical if only members would take the trouble to send us
notes of anything that has excited their interest or curiosity on holiday
treks, or shooting or fishing trips, or may be even on the way to
office. The cultivation of real interest, of habit of observation and an
enquiring mind is what is wanted and is not difficult to acquire.’

In 1952 the present writer made a note, ‘The real basis of a success-
ful journal and a successful Society is more co-operation from many
members who do not actually help the Society. The duty of member-
ship goes considerably further than just reading the Journal’.

It is hoped this appeal may have useful results.

c/o Litoyps BANK LTp.,
39 PICCADILLY.. Wy 185
December 11, 1955.

R. W. BURTON
Lt.-Col., (Retd.)

13a

GLEANINGS

EXTRACTS FROM I.U.P.N. BULLETINS. SELECTED AND
ANNOTATED By R. W. BURTON

Inisrve catsiccuucdsess

In Essen, Germany, Dr. Wilfried Przygodda has just published an
excellent monograph on the damage that insecticides and fungicides
cause to wildlife, especially to birds. The report is accompanied by a
bibliography, both references and text quoting copiously from the
papers presented at the I.U.P.N. Technical Meeting at Copenhagen
iN 1954.

December 1955.

1B POSIO ia

‘Soil degradation is essentially Man’s doing.

‘In most cases, when left to her own devices Nature can tend her
own wounds comparatively quickly and more or less adequately.

‘Forests—or rather vegetation in general—-are the surest remedy
for erosion in all its forms.’—A. Oudin.

In the sub-continent of India, Nature can be aided by sowing of
both indigenous and exotic grasses; and eroded hillsides can be speedily
reclaimed through planting the quick-growing Trema orientalis, also
T. politania.

Edsuscraltanosn

‘In our opinion, conservation ought to be a compulsory part of
school curriculums... With some exceptions, the graduate’s ignorance
will increase with age, and the mechanical engineer, the physicist,
the chemist, or whatever the school-child eventually becomes, will only
give nature casual attention, if any.

‘For him a waterfall will be valued in kilowatts, a tree by its cellulose
weight. <A bird will be considered merely as a poetic symbol—execrable
thing that it 1s, and doubly useless since the spread of insecticides.

‘Then the help of first class specialists, who have a practical
knowledge and not only a theoretical one, must be obtained. The
invalid must be operated on before he dies.’—J. Orioton.

PeOnpalllsanteioun

Excerpts from a sermon on Science and Ethics delivered by the
Archbishop of York: |

‘It is only when food is no longer the chief preoccupation in life
and the struggle for bare survival is relaxed that man has leisure to
concern himself with the quality of life. Only then will it be possible

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES hO9

to educate him into a sense of parental responsibility which will prevent
him from bringing into the world more children than he can reasonably
hope to support. For however great may be the food supplies of a
country, the growth of population will soon again outpace them if
parentage is without foresight . .. . Side by side with the aid
which science can give in the production of food and against disease,
there must be moral and religious education in both the responsibilities
and restraints of parenthood. The quality of life is more important
than numbers’.

Extract from ‘Controlling Human Numbers’ (prepared by a study
group of ‘Political and Economic Planning’, P.E.P., London.

* * * *

THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN: THE ORIGIN OF THE NAME

A LETTER TO THE Epitor, Daily Telegraph and Morning Post,

SIR. ;
Peterborough’s note about the Abominable Snowman makes it a
matter of interest to explain how that odd name came into being.

The first report of these peculiar footprints found in the Himalayas
was made by a friend of mine, Col. Howard Bury, who had been a
political officer in Tibet, and who took part in one of the earlier
expeditions to Everest. He was the first person ever to see them—
at least the first European.

When lunching with him two years ago at his villa in Tunisia) I
asked him what he thought about them. He laughed and said the
story of the Abominable Snowman had originated in a report he had
made to his base and had completed with marks of interrogation and
exclamation, showing that it was not to be taken too seriously.

But when the message was telegraphed to India these marks were,
of course, omitted and the receiver of the message took it as genuine.

Brockham, Surrey. Yours faithfully,
January 20, 1956. E. J. Bridges, Lt.-Col.

From ‘Ni_cirr1 SPORTING REMINISCENCES, By
AN OLpD SHIKARRI’: 1880.

(On page 61 he records that the Sloth Bear is remarkably fond of
white ants and may be found near their nests). ‘A well known Nilgiri
sportsman once suddenly came upon a bear at worl: upon one of these
anthills. Bruin was hard at his labor with his head and arms far down
in the bottom of the nest, with only his stern high up and hind legs
in a kneeling posture visible—a most undignified and helpless position
—and was so intensely absorbed with his work that he was entirely
unconscious of the proximity of the ‘man with the gun,’ who walking
right up to his black friend gave him a rousing kick a posteriori, and

510 WY QNETINENER TeXOMO EON INGA I CORAVE, JES, SOCIUBIEV, Wal. KY

as he was struggling out of the hole to resent the insult was quickly
polished off on the spot. |

‘Another very curious incident connected with white ants’ nests
and resulting in the death of a bear happened in the woodland on
the Westbury Estate, Seegoor, about eighteen months ago. One day
the overseer of the Estate, observing a number of vultures, kites, etc.
collected and wheeling over a certain spot not far from the plantation,
went to the place indicated by these birds, and perceived a horrible
stench of carrion. On looking about, he soon found a black mass of
hair, skin and bones at the foot of a white ants’ hill, which, on further
examination, proved to be the remains of a bear far advanced in de-
composition. The head and shoulders he found to be jammed into the
mouth of a large cavity at the foot of the ants’ nest; the other halt
of the body and hind legs erect in the air. The animal must have
been digging away and burst suddenly head foremost into this cavity
into which he got wedged, without the room or power to use his
muscular fore-arms to extricate himself, and so died from suffocation,
regularly trapped. I visited the spot soon affer the occurrence and
was thus able to verify the position of the body and all the particulars
Ol the account... :

Extracts from ‘LETTERS ON. SPORT IN EASTERN BENGAL’
By Frank B. Simson (published in 1886 and relating
to experiences from 1847 onwards). SELECTED AND

ANNOTATED BY HyvMAYUN ABDULALI

Page 176: The junglefowl of Eastern Bengal is mentioned as
having white ear lobes while the birds which he shot at Cuttack had
red ear lobes.

| According to Fauna, subsp. murghi (type locality Bihar) has the
lappets white sometimes touched with pink, while robinsoni (of Sumatra)
is said to have them red or deep fleshy pink, not white. It is added,
however, that according to Robinson and Kloss this character is not
of much value. |

Page 142: Records shooting ‘two of those curious bristly hares
Lepus hispidus’ near Mymensing and adds ‘except sportsmen who have
shot about Dacca and Mymensing I never met anybody who ever
knew anything about the animal at all, and Jerdon’s account is meagre’.

Page 124: . ‘Tigers are omnivorous. From habit and preference
they prefer to feed on deer, hogs, and cattle killed by themselves, but
they will eat any dead animal they come across. I have just shown
that they eat the dead bodies of their companions; I have proved that
in the inundations they catch fish, turtles, crocodiles, and large lizards.
I believe they will occasionally eat sugar-cane and maize; but the most
curious thing I ever knew them eat was grasshoppers. I once killed
a tiger whose paunch was crammed full of grasshoppers or locusts;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES R11

nearly all birds, and fish, and deer, and cats eat grasshoppers, but it
was new to me that a tiger should catch and eat several pounds of
these insects at once.’

Page 201: ‘Leopards often resort to trees. Once a party of us
was taken to an old tree on which vultures had nested for many a
year, and we were assured that a leopard lived in the huge faggot-
looking pile. We were on elephants. Something apparently was in
the nest; one of the party fired into it, and immediately a leopard half
ran and half fell down the tree; as soon as he reached the ground
he received a volley and was finished off.’

Page 205: Records an occasion when sixteen male hog-deer were
shot in a day!

Page 210: ‘The next place I got to (on elephant) was a dry teelah
covered with grass about six feet high; here there were only a few
inches of water. I never could have believed that so many wild deer
and animals could have been so crowded together. Khyah partridges
were rising and screaming at every step, and all around me I could
see horns moving about; the grass was high enough to conceal the
bodies of the swamp-deer, but I could see their horns. As soon as the
first astonishment ceased, I began to consider which pair of horns was
the finest, then getting rather close to the animal, and judging as to
his neck and shoulder, I fired. In this way I soon had killed four
magnificent bucks; but it was mere murderous slaughter, there was no
sport, nor pursuit, nor pleasure in these proceedings. Four large deer
were quite as much as I could dispose of in that hot weather, among
the boatmen, mahouts, and attendants. I padded the stags and gave
up the pursuit of them, and thought I would make a bag of khyah
partridges. These birds, all wet and with heavy plumage, flew slowly ;
in ten minutes I shot three brace; but the men on the elephants knocked
over three birds with sticks in the same time.’

Page 214: ‘To the man who has only shot black partridges the
sudden bouncing whirr and scream of the khyah partridge out of the
thick tall grass near the swamp is so disconcerting that many a one
misses his khyah . . . . they go in pairs in the dry weather and
congregate in numbers in the rains; they are never found far from
swampy ground or places that for a great part of the year are either
under water or swampy; they perch habitually in bushes, ... . 5s
very noisy at times; but his scream is unmelodious and no pleasant
memories are attached to it.’

Page 213: ‘The quail is a bird which is most uncertain; for two
or three years running you may hardly meet with a trace in the most
eastern districts, but in the third or fourth year you will find them
absolutely swarming, especially in February—you will kick them up
under every bush in the garden and find the long rice-stubbles almost
alive with quail. To the westward they are more regularly abundant ;
but even there I believe there are regular quail-years . ... I have put
them up at nearly every step of the horse; I have struck at them at

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

times with the hog-spear. In the aleeneone I have gone out and
shot between twenty and thirty brace; but there is little sport in the
pursuit: the bird rises quite close and flies generally straight; some
nice double shots are offered; but there is a sameness in the shooting,
and with small charges of powder and No. 8 or No. 10 shot you can
scarcely miss. I have no record of what other men shot ; but, according
to my memory, I have known two guns shoot more than eighty couple
of quail in a forenoon on the plains of Parbuttia, while most of us
were hunting hog.’

Page 216: ‘At Dacca they (Bengal florican) were to be found in
places I knew of; in Mymensing they were numerous, and on the
Brahmapootra plains plentiful: but in Purneah, both north and south,
they were exceedingly numerous; I have seen fourteen in the air at
one time, and they breed in Purneah and stay there all the year. . .
Some are most delicate eating; but I have tasted floriken which were
coarse and strong.’

Page 224: The eggs of the watercock (Gallicrex) ‘are taken and
put into the half of a cocoanut-shell lined with cotton; this is bound
over a man’s stomach and so the bird is hatched out. It is brought
up tame and taken into the high rice, where it calls with an extra-
ordinary sound, more like the bellow of a bull than the note of a bird.
The wild males answer and bellow in return; when they come near,
the tame bird is let loose and runs through the thick rice till it meets
its adversary; both birds then fight and entangle each other in their
long claws, and the native then catches both together and places the
tame bird again in his cage to call another. A really good khora
is a very valuable bird’.

Page 233: ‘The pink-headed duck is a rarity and prize; I shot
numbers in Purneah because I made them a special study, and f
introduced Jerdon to the first pair he ever handled in the flesh. I
was resting for the night, when travelling slowly with my goods and
chattels towards the head station of Purneah, at a small staging
bungalow; before sunrise next morning I was standing, wearing only
— nightshirt and pyjamehs, in the doorway watching two floriken, when
a party of dark-looking ducks, with rosy-pink feathers under their
wings, alighted in a tank close by. I seized my gun and went after
them; as I was without anything on my head or my feet, I easily
got close to them in the sedges and shot a pair of ducks quite unknown
to me. These were pink-headed ducks (Anas caryophyllacea). I never
met with them save in Purneah and the neighbouring parts of Maldah:
they are not particularly good to eat, but they are regular ducks
exactly of the Mallard type. I suppose these were the rarest ducks
I ever shot; they are resident in Purneah all the year and breed in
the grass-jungles’.

Page 246: ‘A planter at Purneah told me that he once turned a
wild sow out of grass with a litter of young ones. A larger python
made a dart, as the planter thought at one of the squeakers and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 513

enfolded it in his coils. The planter then shot the snake. As it
uncoiled it appeared that it had caught two young pigs in its deadly
grasp; they were both quite dead, though the snake had only that
instant enfolded them.”

Page 249: ‘When first I went to Mymensing several colonies of
foxes lived under the houses and offices in the station; it was pretty
to see them playing in the evenings. They cared nothing for ordinary
dogs; but after coursing hares came into fashion and swift English
greyhounds were introduced the poor little foxes had a bad time of
it and disappeared. ... I once tried to find out what these foxes
fed upon. I knew several of their earths in high sandy spots, and
I was astonished to find that they fed apparently almost entirely on
doves. Doves are very common; but as they roost in trees and are
active and wary, it was curious that the little fox should be able to
catch these birds in such numbers.’

NOTES AND NEWS

At the Annual General Meeting of the Helminthological Society of
India held in Agra in January 1956 a Committee was appointed to draw
up a scheme for a National Parasitological Laboratory in India, under
the chairmanship of Dr. G. S. Thapar, lately Professor of Zo
Lucknow University. Particulars of the Helminthological Soci
the proposed laboratory may be obtained from its Honorary Secretary
and Treasurer, Dr. B. S. Chauhan, c/o. Zoological Survey of India,
34 Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta 12.

The reference to the name Presbytis geei on p. 252 of the Journal:
for December 1955 (Vol. 53, No. 2) was premature and is regretted.
Mr. Khajuria of the Zoological Survey of India informs us that his

description of this new langur has not as yet been published.
* * * *

hod

It might interest members and others to know that a Hydroponic
Information Centre has been opened at P.O. Box 31, Bombay. (Soilless
Cultivation of Crops in India by J.W.E.H. Sholto Douglas in Nature,
Vol. 175, May 21, 1955.)

vv * % %

The Sir Dorab Tata Gold Medal has been awarded to Dr. M. L.
Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Cantab.), F.N.I., Forest Entomologist at
the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for his important contribu-
tions to the Science of Zoology during the period 1952-54. The citation
makes special reference to Dr. Roonwal’s outstanding work on termites

and locusts, in both their scientific and economic aspects.
* * * %

The 2nd meeting of the Bird Wing of the Indian Board for Wild
Life was held in Bombay from 14-16 March 1956 under the chairman-
ship of Mr. Salim Ali.

One of the principal items on the agenda concerned the flamingo
breeding grounds in the Great Rann of Kutch. These are believed to
be in jeopardy due to the recent construction of a solid bund across
the Little Rann for the Kandla-Deesa Railway, which, it is alleged
diverts the outflow of the monsoon waters of the Banas River and its
tributaries away from the birds’ breeding grounds, rendering them
uninhabitable. The Wing authorized the Chairman and the Technical
Secretary, Dr. B. Biswas, to make an on-the-spot investigation and
report on the position.

* * x

A number of horns, antlers and skulls of various species of Indian
deer, antelope, etc. are available. The Society would be glad to give
them away ex site to any educational or other institute.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MANDRAS—30-5-1956. ©5127
EDITORS: SALIM ALI, AND H. SANTAPAU
114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

NOTICE Ae) CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of peentine articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for

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2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on
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3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-
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names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a
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suratensis or Dimeria blattert.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be vet
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6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian
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7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

pa paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the ak
of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), end titles of books
oe underlined (roman type), thus:

~ Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Habner. Trans. ent.
Soc. Lond., 100 (2): 47-70.

Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.
8. Reference to literature in the text should be made b:
the fates s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1$
9.

Information “€ i Conference (uly 1948), the cue consider it gorsble
that eac scientific pape accompani Sa geo
the beginning, immediately after the title. The sy pane arte ae
factual. It should convey briefly the content of the per ; ee

pa
attention to all new information and to the author’s main conclusions: :

It should also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions

of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new

finding, theory or technique. It should be concise and normal ly not

vie ae tesciietontibesesreeully, revised
hen the synopsis is completed it shou @

the author to clarity AGATE S and further .compressed ak siete

possible without ceeaGng from its usefulness.

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JOURNAL OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Vol. 53, No. 4

Editors
sALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU,s.j.

NOV16 1953
LIBRARY .-

AUGUST 1956
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With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome plates, and numerous text-
figures. Price Rs. 20.

(to members Rs. 16).

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. L. Bor and
M. B. Raizada. With 31 coloured and 99 half-tone plates, and
numerous text-figures. Price Rs. 22.

(to members Rs. 17-8-0).

The Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali. 5th (New) Edition.
With 56 coloured plates depicting 224 species, and 22 in mono-
chrome from photographs. Price Rs. 20.

(to members Rs. 16).

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53, NO. 4

PAGE
SUNBIRDS AND HUMMING-BIRDS. By J. Berlioz (With six text figures) 515
NEw Prant REcoRDS FOR SoutH INpr1A—I. By D. Daniel Sundararaj
(With two plates) 523
THE LION CENSUS OF 1955. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth (With a map) 527
A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF SOME LiTToRAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE
West Coast of InprA. By J. N. Misra, M.Se., Ph.D. (With 72 figures
in the text) 600 wee 606 500 are co. OR
THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KAaRWAR [Haliaétus leucogaster
(GMELIN)]. By R. S, Dharmakumarsinhji and K. S. Lavkumar (With
two plates) 500 aS iss eS 569
BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE
ERSTWHILE TEHRI GARHWAL STATE. By Raj Kumar Gupta, M.sc, :
(With a map) = oe a 500 aes 581
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH. By C, E.
Hewetson, 1.4.8. (Retd.) (With a map and four plaies) 595
GAME PRESERVATION IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATS. By Col. K.
Guman Singh, I.A. i rE bee Asa, wo» 646
NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CaAtcuTtaA, Part Il. By D. G.
Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ves he ois ~ 651
CovERING KANHA WITH A CAMERA. By A.S. Talati, B.Sc. (Hons.) (With
tao plates) oa ae uae 500 nee 659
MopES OF COPULATION IN SHORT-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA :
ACRIDIDAE). By K.N. Katiyar, m.sce. (With a plate) 664
FISHES OF KoLtHAPuR. By A. G,. Kalawar, m.sc. and C, N. Kelkar, B.sc.,
v.c.T. (With a map and two text figures) ies a see O09
OBITUARY :—
Major S. F. Hopwood, M.c. a o50 680
REVIEWS :—
1. Botanical Collector’s Manual (V. K. C.) » 681
2. Some Extinct Elephants, their Relatives and the two iene Species
(M. R. Sahni) 681
Bo GbRES ANOTOS (Ds Lin IRa)) “ 682
4, Acta XI Congressus Internationalis Ornunelenie! (S.A. w. 683
5. A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. III
@QEESIC) oe eee 684
6. Travels and Traditions of Waterfowl (S.A. . aes 685

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Distribution of the Liontailed Monkey, Macaca silenus (Linnaeus).
By Editors (p. 687). 2. Longevity in the Ceylon Ruddy Mongoose Herpestes
smith zeylanius Thomas. By W. C. Osman Hill (p. 687). 3. Strange
Behaviour of Bats. By Ishwar Prakash and S. C. Sharma (p. 688). 4. Rats

li CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53, NO. 4—(contd.)

in Human Dietary. By F.D.Gheyara (p.689). 5. Tusks of Indian Elephants.
By P. D. Stracey (p. 690). 6. Rhinoceros in the Kachin State. By U Tun
Yin (p. 692). 7. Nature’s Economy. By C. McCann (p. 694). 8. Nesting
of the Yelloweyed Babbler (Chrysomma sinensis ssp.) in the Madura District,
Madras Presidency. By C. H. Biddulph (p. 697). 9. Occurrence of the Red-
faced Malkoha, Phoénicophaus pyrrhccephalus (Pennant) in Madura District,
Madras Presidency. By C. H. Biddulph (p. 697). 10. Occurrence of the
Blackcapped Kingfisher, Hfalcyon pileata (Boddaert) at Coimbatore, South
India. By Editors (p. 698). 11. Hoopoe (Upupa epops) at Sea. By C.H.
Biddulph (p. 699). 12. Besra Sparrow-hawk (Aecipiter virgatus) in
Saurashtra (Witha photo). By R.S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 699). 13. Ex-
tension of the known Range of the Collared Pratincole, Glaveola pratincola
pbratincola (Linnaeus), in India and Ceylon. By Humayun Abdulali (p.
701). 14. Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) and Little Ring Plover
(Charadrius dubius) nesting in South India. By A. Krebs (p. 702). 15.
Occurrence of the Spottedbilled Pelican, Pelicanus philipfensis Gmelin, in
the Vedanthangal Heronry. By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj (p. 703). 16. Some
Observations on the Breeding Behaviour of the Chestnut Bittern /xvobrychus
cinnamomeus (Gmelin) and the Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis (Latham).
By K. K. Neelakantan (p.704). 17. Redbreasted Merganser (Mergus serrator
Linn.) in Sind. By N. A. Leslie (p. 708). 18. Solar Eclipse and Animal
Behaviour. By N. G. Pillai (p. 708). 19. A Blind Snake from Nepal. By V. K.
Chari (p.711). 20.Further Extension of Range of the Frog, Uperodon globu-
Zosum (Ginther) in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. By J. L. Bhaduri and S. L. Basu
(p. 712). 21. The Tadpoles of Uperodon globulosum (Giinth.) (With three
text figures). By J. L. Bhaduri and J. C. Daniel (p. 713.). 22. Notes on
Bufo stomaticus Lutken in Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali and J. C.
Daniel (p. 716). 23, Ona Collection of Fish from Assam ( Wzth a text map).
By K. L. Sehgal (p. 717). 24. A Record of the Sun-fish, Ranzania truncata
(Retzius) near Beypore, Malabar Coast (Wzth a photo). By P. I. Chacko
and M. J. Mathew (p. 724). 25. Occurrence of the Copepod Parasite Lernea
elegans on Ophicephalus striatus Fish Fry in Mysore. By H. D. R.
Iyengar and K. Venkatesh (p. 725). 26. Biological Control of submerged
Aquatic Vegetation in Pond Fisheries by culture of ‘ Katli’ [Barbus
(Lissochilus) hexagonolepis|, a hill stream species of fish of Darjeeling Dis-
trict (West Bengal). By K. C. Saha and D. P. Sen (p. 726). 27. Onthe
occurrence of three Sacculina parasitising the Edible Crab Neptunus
sanguinolentus (With a photograph). By N. Balakrishnan Nayar and O. N.
Gurumani (p. 730). 28. Extension of Range of the Freshwater Crab
Paratelphusa (Oziolelphusa) hydrodromus (Herbst). By B. F. Chhapgar
(p. 732). 29. Mites from the Gills of the Unio, Anodonta marginalis. By
Barundeb Banerjee (p. 733). 30. Some Observations on the Ecology and
Behaviour of the Common Indian Apple-snail Pila globosa (Swainson)
(Withtwo text-figures). By B. B. Saxena (p. 733). 31. The Horned Helmet,
Cassis cornuta Lion.—An Addition to the List of Marine Gastropods of
Bombay (With a photo). By V. K. Chari (p. 736). 32. Occurrence of the
Fairy Shrimp Streptocephalus dichotomus (Baird 1860) in Mysore State. By
H. D. R. Iyengar and N. Basavaiah (p. 738). 33. Notes on the Lepidoptera
of Assam—III. Further Additions to the Indian List and other notes. By
T. Norman (p. 738). 34. The relative abundance of the three female forms
of Papilio polytes L.in Calcutta. By D. G.Sevastopulo (p.:741). 35, The
‘Slug’ Caterpillar, Parasalepida Cr., andits Control. By D. G. Savastopulo
(p. 741). 36. Interesting Observations on the Mounds of the Termite,
Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann). By Barundeb Banerjee (p. 742). 37.
The Essential Oil of Cymbopogon travancorensis Bor. By T. C. K. Menon
(p. 742). 38. A Specific for Leucoderma (With two figures). By A. Basu
(p. 743). 39. Wild Life Preservation in India. By Maj.-Gen. M. Hayaud
Din (p. 746). 40. On the Names for certain Birds recently adopted by the
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. By Francis Hemm-
ing (p. 746).

GLEANINGS aoe eee eee coo eco ooo
NOTES AND NrEws eee eee 800 eor eee eee

PAGE

JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1956 VOL. 53 No. 4

SUNBIRDS AND HUMMING-BIRDS

BY
J. BERLIOZ

Museum National d’Histoirve Naturelle, Paris
(With six text figures)

Over a great part of the world, in the eastern as well as the
western hemisphere but more abundantly in the tropics, are found some
birds notable for their very small size, which are chiefly adapted to
feed from flowers and consequently concerned with their pollination
and the natural spreading of piants. In the Old World these are
the Sunbirds (family Nectariniidae) ; in the New World the Humming-
birds (family Trochilidae). Although they represent two quite distinct
avian types and show highly divergent phylogenetic affinities, they are
very often confused owing to the apparent similarity both in_ their
morphology and their biology. But the sunbirds exhibit all the charac-
teristics of a true passerine type, while the humming-birds are more
closely related to the picarian type. In the old classifications they
were generally associated together, an arrangement now considered
to be entirely unwarranted and out of date.

The similarities, of course strictly superficial and adaptative, are:

1. In the reduction of size, the largest sunbird (the West African
Dreptes thomensis) being about the size of a sparrow, the largest
humming-bird (the Andean Patagona gigas) that of a swift. The
smallest sunbirds (the South Indian Cinnyris minimus and the West
African Cinnyris minullus) scarcely exceed the size of a common bumble-
bee, the smallest humming-birds being still more diminutive, the Cuban
Hummer Calypte helenae being the smallest of all known birds.

2. In the shape of the bill, which is thin from the base, tubular,
more or less elongated (the ‘Sabre Humming-bird’, Ensifera énsifera,
possesses the longest bill compared to general size among all birds),
acutely pointed, either straight or downcurved, or even upturned in
some humming-birds. In close correlation with such a type of bill, the
tongue is very long, thin, more or less protractile and tubular, bifid
at the distal end, and used by the birds for obtaining their nectar

food. ;

NOV : 3 1956

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

3. In the brilliancy of plumage, at least among the adult males,
since sexual dimorphism is a most frequent but not absolute rule in

Fic. 1. One of the smaliest known birds: Costa’s Humming-bird
(Calypte costai 6).

both groups. The most highly differentiated feathers have often a
scale-like appearance and a peculiar microstructure, which is the origin
of the iridescent gloss and varied effects of light-rays, for which these
little creatures are celebrated from olden times as some of the most
handsome and beautiful of all animals.

But, when examined more closely, and particularly from their
anatomical and morphological structure, both types of birds show
obvious distinctions which make them in fact very easy to differentiate
comparatively, not only in the hand but also in nature.

Fic. 2. An African Sunbird: Cyanomutra verticalis @.

SUNBIRDS AND HUMMING-BIRDS 517

The wings, tail and legs are quite differently shaped. Although
in both groups the number of primaries remains the same—ten—the
wing of the sunbird has the common, rounded structure of the
passerine type, with the third and fourth primaries the longest. In
the humming-bird, the wing is quite peculiarly oar-shaped, with a
reduced number of secondaries, a very short humerus, and the first
primary the longest (exceptionally the second). The tail in the sunbirds,
typically passerine, is always composed of twelve rectrices, all of them
normally shaped even if elongated; in the humming-birds, the tail has
only ten rectrices, several of which are in some cases extremely
differentiated compared with the normal type. The legs of the
sunbirds are the normal legs of passerine birds, with comparatively
long tarsi; in the humming-birds, the tarsi are greatly shortened,
their strength varying in accordance with the several types, generally
with very sharp claws.

The tongue, long and bi-tubular in both groups, a feature closely
correlated with their way of feeding, shows an embryonic and anatomic
development which is not the same in both of them.

The metallic feathers themselves, in spite of the similarity of their
glossy tints, are quite different in either group, even from their external
appearance and still more so from their microstructure when viewed
under a strong lens. On the whole, if the various shades of green
seem to be the most generalised ground-colour in both groups, it is
quite obvious that this metallic colouring varies distinctively within
each of them, the plumage of the sunbirds often exhibiting, besides
the metallic appearance, some bright pigment-colouring such as red
or yellow, which is entirely unknown among humming-birds.

Sexual dimorphism occurs as a rule among the sunbirds with but
very few exceptions: in this family the females never become really
andromorphic, but in several species the male retains a dull gynemorphic

Fic, 3. An Asiatic Sunbird: ALEthopyga siparaja g and Q.

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

appearance. In this regard, the humming-birds exhibit a much more
varied tendency. Both sexes are sometimes very much alike, and
this not only among the dullest, but also among the most brilliant
of them, as for example the ‘Rainbow’, Panterpe insignis, from Costa-
Rica, and the Antillean EKulampis jugularis.

Foop AND HABITS

In their way of life, the search and the quality of the food are
the most prominent features which make these two types of birds so
often and so easily confused by people who are not specialists in
ornithology. Both groups take their food chiefly from flowers and
are well known as frequenting freely gardens and all kinds of cultivated
areas where they may find an abundance of flowers. Therefore they have
rapidly become familiar and popular animals even in the big towns:
the sunbirds in Africa and Asia, the humming-birds in America.

But, if these birds are so much attracted to flowers, it is not
exclusively in quest of their natural liquid secretions as was formerly
believed, but also for catching the many tiny insects which are to be
found inside the floral envelopes, which are themselves attracted by
those secretions. It is a well-established fact now that the animal
food is still more necessary to them than the vegetarian one, and in
fact all of them are also quite capable of catching their animal prey
on the wing, such as flying insects or small spiders from their webs.
While exploring the flowers for their food, sunbirds generally hang
on the flower itself or nearby, but may eventually hover before it
with rapid wing-beats. It is the reverse with the humming-birds; a
few of them are said to feed when sitting on the flowers, but the
great majority take their food by hovering in front of them, introducing
their long and thin bills inside the corollas and rapidly visiting flower
after flower without alighting for a single moment.

Owing to the varied and often peculiar shape of the bill, several
species of sunbirds and humming-birds have been considered as strictly
adapted to feed, each of them, from one special kind of flower, the

Pic, 4, Female Rubythroated Humming-birds in flight for drinking.

SUNBIRDS AND HUMMING-BIRDS 519

shape of which suits them best. As a matter of fact, from more
recent and accurate observations, it seems that there are only very few
cases of direct relationship between the species of plants and the species
of birds visiting them, and mostly these visits remain only connected
with seasonal changes or opportunities.

While the sunbirds are able to change their mode.of flight variously
according to circumstances, exactly as do other passerine birds, the
more specialized humming-birds possess only one most peculiar way
of flying, in close accordance with the peculiarities of the wing-
structure and the shortness of the humerus, and from this they
derive their popular name. It is a ‘humming’ flight consisting of
uninterrupted, regular and very rapid wing-beats (up to 50 per second
for the smallest species), which is rather similar to the flight of several
types of moths (Sphingidae) and makes the latter easily confused with
the birds in the countries where they occur side by side. On the
other hand, humming-birds are the only birds which add to this
peculiar, unique, mode of flight the ability of flying backwards quite
as well as in any other direction. This singularity gives to them an
unrivalled power of motion in the air, which contrasts strongly with
the disability of their very short legs even to move on a branch.

. If we now consider the biology of the reproduction cycle, it appears
clearly that the two groups of birds diverge noticeably from each other.
Sunbirds are seemingly, during the nesting season, mostly monogamous
birds. The female is undoubtedly the only sex that occupies itself
with the building of the nest and with incubation, but the male
appears in most cases to take part in the feeding and rearing of
the young and helping the female in the accomplishment of this

Fic. 5. Female Rufous Humming-bird sitting on nest.

duty. Male humming-birds on the other hand are polygamous.
Both sexes live quite apart from each other, except for the act of
mating, often even widely separated in space as well as season of the

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIELTY, Vol. 53

year. In no case, as far as is known, does the male ever take the
least part in the building of the nest or the rearing of the young,
the female undertaking these very tiresome duties entirely by herself.

In both sunbirds and humming-birds the nests are most delicate
and well worked-out structures, built chiefly with vegetal matter such
as moss or very tiny twigs, associated with vegetable down and adhesive
threads taken from spiders’ webs. But the sunbirds always build
closed, hanging, pear-shaped nests with a lateral entrance, mostly
placed among bushes or tree-branches, often at the end of a branch.
Humming-birds always build open, more or less cup-shaped nests,
placed in most cases on branches or twigs, but often too on the
most unexpected supports such as cave-walls or even human apparatus.
In either group the normal clutch is composed of two eggs only, very
seldom one or three. While the humming-birds invariably lay uniformly
white eggs, somewhat elongate in shape and rather big compared to
the size of the birds, the eggs of sunbirds exhibit the most handsome
variety of colouring and pattern, being generally more or less adorned
with dark frecklings or patches or stripes on a light ground of whitish,
pinkish or bluish, and sometimes quite glossy.

Although the nests of the sunbirds are domed, with a rather narrow
entrance, they are often parasitized, in Africa as well as in Asia, by
several of the smaller species of cuckoos, Nothing similar of course’

Fic. 6. Nest of an Indian Sunbird: Cinnyris asiatica.

occurs with the humming-birds,, but we must not forget ‘that in
America the brood-parasitism of the cuckoos is far less developed than
among their old-world cousins,

SUNBIRDS AND HUMMING-BIRDS a21

HABITAT AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Sunbirds are to be found in all tropical and sub-tropical parts of
the Old World, even in the deserts and on the high mountains. But,
although some of them are able to accomplish a certain amount of
changes in their habitat seasonally, none is known as a true migratory
bird, and their travels never go beyond the limits of the warm areas
where they can find flowers and insects all the year around. Many
of them are quite sedentary and breed at any time of the year without
a definite season. :

Their northern limits of general distribution are Syria, the Himalayas
and Southern China. They are especially numerous in tropical and
southern Africa, but do not occur in north-western Africa. Not more
than one-third of the species live in south-eastern Asia and the Malayan
region, very few of them reaching even New Guinea and Australia.
The Solomon Islands and Queensland are the most easterly limit of
their geographical distribution.

In Africa, every kind of habitat generally possesses its own
characteristic species of sunbirds: several of these are unknown except
in the heavily forested, humid parts of the lowlands, as for example
the magnificent Cinnyris superbus in West Africa. Some others, as
for example Nectarinia metallica of the Sudan, are partial to very dry,
sunny and even desert areas, where the flowering Acacia trees remain
their favourite haunts and afford them most of their food. Others, as
for example Drepanorhynchus reichenowi of East Africa, are strictly
confined to high mountain slopes where frequent mist and rain entertain
luxuriant vegetation. A certain number of species are however much
more widely spread and may show, as does Cinnyris cupreus, much less
partiality for any special kind of environment. In the drier districts
the typical species very often exhibit a seasonal change in the plumage
of the male (‘eclipse’), which during the dry season appears more: or
less like the dull female. Such a change seemingly does not occur
among the species living in more humid areas.

In India, the various species are mostly less specialised as regards
their habitats and a few of them, for example Cinnyris asiatica, exhibit
a similar seasonal change of the plumage as the African ones, but
probably with much less regularity. In any case, all the sunbirds,
whether in Africa or in Asia, are always rapidly attracted to gardens
and the extension of the latter is generally followed by the spreading
of the former, even into areas which from their natural conditions
would seem rather unsuitable for the birds.

The humming-birds are a typically American group of birds, con-
taining nearly twice as many different species as the sunbirds. But,
owing to their strong power of flight and their speed, several species
of North America are well-known to perform extensive and regular
annual migrations, being found during the spring and early summer
months as far north as Alaska and Labrador and wintering mostly in
Mexico and Central America. To the south, humming-birds are spread
all over the South American continent down to Tierra del Fuego, 4
few southern species also being migratory. They exist on most islands
of the Neotropical Region: West Indies, Juan Fernandez, but not in
the Galapagos. However, Central America and the Andean countries

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

(Columbia, Ecuador, Peru) are certainly the richest of all in numbers of
species, and here they are encountered at all elevations.

Like the sunbirds, and perhaps still more, humming-birds
may be found in every kind of biotope, from the most barrea
areas, where the flowers and even fruits of Cacti remain their chief,
though precarious food resource, to the heaviest rain forest, becoming
rapidly adapted to cultivated country as well. Several species live
the whole year round in the high mountain ranges of the equatorial
zone, Close to the perpetual snow, amongst extremely poor life-
conditions. Although some of them are obviously partial to very dry
areas, seasonal changes of plumage—at least of regular occurrence—
have not yet been definitely recorded for any species.

It may be added that these tiny birds, when living in close contact
with human settlements, may become the tamest and most fearless
birds in existence, to the extent of nesting inside freely opened and
daily frequented rooms without the least apparent disturbance.

As a conclusion, it may be interesting to point out once more, from
a general biological point of view, the close parallelism in the evolution

of these two very different avian types—the humming-birds in America
‘and the sunbirds in the Old World. But, from their morphological
affinities, it must not be forgotten that the former constitute a highly
specialized and differentiated group of birds, with well defined limits
and no near allies. This is far from the case with the sunbirds, which
are in fact closely allied to some other passerine types, especially the
Honey-eaters (family Meliphagidae). In fact the frontier between
Nectariniidae and Meliphagidae is rather unclearly defined, and the
so-called ‘Spider-hunters’ (genus Arachnothera and allies) may be con-
sidered as a kind of connecting link between them.

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR SOUTH INDIA—1I.

BY
D. DANIEL SUNDARARAJ

Madras State Herbarium, Coimbatore
(With two plaies)

Since the publication of the Flora of the Presidency of Madras in .1935,
a number of species not recorded in that publication have been noted in
South India. C. E. C. Fischer, between 1932 to 1940 published a series
‘New or little known plants from South India’ in the Bulletin of Mis-
cellaneous Information from Kew, in which he dealt with such species.
For nearly fifteen years, there had been a gap in bringing such informa-
tion up to date. It is proposed to deal ina fresh series, with all species
not recorded so far in the Flora of Madras Presidency and also with
those which are found in South India as recent introductions. .

1, Polygala glomerata Lour. Fl. Coch. 426. 1790.

Bennett in Hooker’s Flora of British India gives the distribution as
‘ Eastern Himalayas, hot valleys of Sikkim, alt. 1-6000 feet ; Oude ; Assam;
Khasia Mts., alt. 0-5000 feet ; Tenasserim ; Eastern Archipelago, China ’.
This species has been collected also from Carcoor Ghats in Nilgiris at
about 5,000 feet elevation by Lawson.

Stems densely pubescent ; leaves variable, sessile or shortly petioled,
broadly ovate or oblong to elliptic-lanceolate, secondary nerves obscure;
flowers on short, extra-axillary racemes; outer sepals acuminate,
sub-equal ; wings hatchet-shaped, acuminate; crest very small, capsule
narrowly winged, strongly ciliate; seeds large, silky-obovoid, strophiole
3-appendiculate, sinuses very natrow, curved,

Nilgiris: Carcoor Ghats—Lawson, Nov. 1885, Madr. Herb.
No. 2381.

This specimen collected as early as 1885 by Lawson was not proper-
ly identified till recently.

2. Ximensia encelioides Cay. Icon. 2: 60. 1793.

Syn. Verbesina enceliotdes Benth. & Hook. f. in Bot. Calif. 1: 350,

A tropical American plant which has got introduced into India and
recorded as occurring in the Upper Gangetic Plains (Journ. /nd. Bot, Soc.
15 : 156. 1936).

An annual herb, leaves deltoid—ovate, green and mainly pubescent
above, pale and densely canescent beneath; flower heads peduncled
showy ; involucrai bracts lanceolate ; ray florets prominent, golden yellow;
disc florets numerous, fertile ; achenes obovate, flattened, winged scarious-
ly, pappus as two subulate awns.

Mysore: without locality etc. (1859)—Madr. Herb. No. 28265.
Coimbatore District: Dharapuram, D. Daniel Sundararaj, May, 1946.
Madr. Herb. No. 93135, Viruchirappalli District: Karur -P, S. Jivanna
Rao 23rd Sept. 1949. Madr. Herb. No. 93798,

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

A specimen from Mysore collected as early as 1895 without proper
label as to the exact locality or name of collector had been identified and
authenticated at Kew as Gutzotia abyssinica. These two species, viz.
Guizotia abyssintca-and Xitmensia enceliodes, have very close resemblances
in the vegetative and head characters. The achenes in X7zmensia have
the characteristic wings and the pappus in the form of two subulate awns
by which it differs. This comes up along the sandy banks of the Amara-
vathi river both in Dharapuram and Karur.

3, Datura quercifolia H.B. & K. Nov. Gen. Sp. 3: 7. 1818.

Native of Mexico; recorded for India for the first time near the
Southern extremity of the Peninsula.

Annual herb ; young parts pubescent; leaves long petioled, ovate, deep-
ly sinuate or pinnatifid ; flowers sinall; calyx tubular prismatic quinque-
fid; corolla pale yellow tinged with violet, about- double the length
of calyx; fruit an ellipsoid, spinescent 4-celled capsule with large unequal
spines ; seeds thickish with a dark coloured and more or less~ pitted or
rugose coat. | s

Tirunelveli District: Rajapathy--D. Daniel Sundararaj, 28th Dec.
1944, Madr. Herb. No. 87242; -Vallioor—D. Daniel Sundararaj- and
J. Sakharama Rao, 14th May 1949, Mad. Herb. No. 93572: eee

The plant has similarity to D. stvamontum Linn. in the vegetative
parts to a great extent and the flower size; but the difference is chiefly in
the-few pinnatifid leaves and the comparatively big fruits with very pro-
minent spines. The spines in D. guercifolia are very characteristic with
broad base many of. them extending nearly 2.5 cm. in length. The
dehiscence of the capsule is regular, deeply valved approaching that of
D. stramontum. ae

4, Barleria vestita T. Anders in Thwaites Enum, 230. 1860. et Journ.
Linn. Soc. 9 : 492. 1867.

Trimen (1895) in the Flora of Ceylon treats this species as endemic to
Ceylon.. Clarke (1885) in Hooker’s Flora of British India also gives only
Ceylon, alt. 5000 feet, for its occurrence. But Beddome (1874) in his
Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. has recorded this plant as occurring in ‘Ceylon, C.P., and
Saffragram district’. A specimen collected by Beddoms himself in 1873
bears the labelling ‘ Neelgheery Hill, 1873’. This is the exact specimen
from which he made the drawing t. 263 in the Icones; but it is baffling
how he did not mention Nilgiris in the distribution. Gamble who had
access to this Beddome’s sheet while writing up the Flora of Madras
Presidency did not include this in the Flora. He has left a small note
on the specimen which is as follows: ‘ This is, I have no doubt, the very
specimen from which Beddome’s Ic. t. 263 was drawn. But he describes
it from Ceylon and so the entry Neelgheery Hill is clearly a mistake.
Trimen gives it as an endemic Ceylon Sp. 18—5-1923.’ »

However, there is another specimen of &. vestzfa in the Madras Her-
barium ; this had been collected by Lawson (1883) from ‘ Kartaery-Nil-
giris’’. ‘The locality is nearly 5500 feet in elevation and the fact that the
species has been collected on Nilgiris is sutficient proof that the species
occurs also in South India. x

Herbaceous, hirsute, young shoots patently yellowish brown hairy ;
nodes constricted and internodes swollen; leaves ovate-elliptic up to
20'S cm, long, attenuate at both ends, short-petiolate, petiole and the mid-

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE.

Tritaxis beddomet Benth.

NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR SOUTH INDIA 525

rib very hairy ; flowers in cymes on long peduncles, but shorter than the
leaves, axillary or terminal ; bracts conspicuous linear-lanceolate ; calyx
fulvous strigose, unequal, lanceolate; corolla white or pale’ purple, 7:5
cm. long, fruit ovoid or oblong capsule.

Nilgiris: Neelgheery Hill—R. H. Beddome, 1873. Madr. Herb.
No. 38605: Kartaery, M. A. lawson, Aug. 1883.- Madr. Herb:
No, 38606.

5, Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil. Voy. Brés. II 2: 439. 1833.

Syn: Achyranthes polygonotdes (Linn.) Lam. Encl. 1: 547.1785,
Alternanthcra folygoncides R. Br. Prodr. 417, 1810. A native of tro-
pical America. Reported first in India by Raizada as occurring on the
banks of the Ganges in Cawnpore and Benares (/. /id. Pot. Soc. 15: 149
—167).

"4 prostrate spreading perennial herb, rooting at the nodes and densely
white villous in young parts; leaves opposite, spathulate, elliptic ; flowers
in dense sessile glomerate heads, white bracts and bracteoles half as long
as the perianth lobes, mucronate, perianth lobes 5, oblong-lanceolate ;
stamens 5, filaments united at the base in a short tube, short staminodes
present ; ovary l-ceiled, l-ovuled, style very short; utricle orbicular,
included in the perianth; seed orbicular, 1 mm. broad, dark brown
shining.

Coimbatore District ; Coimbatore town, D. Daniel Sundararaj, 28th
July 1943, Madr, Herb. No. 86632. 6th August 1943. Madr. Herb.
No. 86666. .

This herb with much variation in growth form is commonly found
along the damp sides of drainage channels in Coimbatore town. This
species has not been noted anywhere else in South India so far. The free
growing plants have Jong internodes with leaves and inflorescences
arranged lax on the stem; but the plants growing in areas often trampled
by men or animals have much congested stems with all the plant parts

giving a clumpy appearance. Such plants have also much white hairiness
(vide Fig. d& 2; Plate I): 3

6. Tritaxis beddomei Benth. cmend. D. Sundararaj.

This is an endemic species found in Tirunelvelly District of Madras
State. Bentham described the species from a specimen collected from
‘Tirunelveli; Hast India Penninsula’. Hooker (1887), in Flora of British
India, had doubts even about the genus of this species described by
Bentham, as the specimen had ‘no female flower in the male cyme’ and
“the fruits unknown’. Brandis (1906) in Indian Trees had similar
doubts. Gamble, while accepting the inclusion of this species in the genus
Tritaxts, is not definite as to the habit of the plant which he described as
‘a tree’ in his Manual of Indian Timbers and as ‘a small tree’ in the
Flora of the Presidency of Madras. A detailed improved description of
this species including that of the female flower and the fruits, not seen
end described so far, is given below :

Small shrub, 80 to 120 cm. in height, shoots glabrous, ines with
pale papery bark; leaves alternate, entire, broadly lanceolate to ovate,
base cordate, apex acute or obtuse, mucronate; petioles 2.5 to 7.5 cm.
long, stipules minute, caducous; inflorescence terminal or axillary dicho-
tomously branched cymes with solitary short pedicelled female

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAO RAE SEUS IN S\O\CTE IDA umVicl anos

flowers at the forks; flowers unisexual, monoecious, bracteate;
male flowers 0.4 to 0.5 cm. long, 0.3 to 0.4 cm. broad ; calyx less
than half the length of the corolla with 5 sub-imbricate lobes, connate at
the base; corolla lobes 5, oblong, hairy within about the base of the
lobes; disc glands 5, prominent, reddish ; stamens 8 of two whorls, outer
5 and inner 3 forming acentral column, anthers oblong; female flowers
0.6 to 0.8 cm. long, 0.5 to 0.6 cm. broad; calyx bigger than that of the
male; corolla pale yellow ; disc glands 5, oblique; capsule of 3, 2-valved
cocci; seeds oblong crustaceous, mottled, shining, caruncle prominent,
albumen fleshy, cotyledons broad and thin,

[ Tritaxis beddomei Benth. emend. D. Sundararaj.

Frutex parvus, 80-120 cm. altus, ramis glabris, nitentibus, cortice
pallido papyraceo. /olza alterna, integra, late lanceolata vel ovata, ad
basim cordata, ad apicem acuta vel obtusa et mucronata; petioli 2.5-7.5
em. longi, stipulis minutis, deciduis. J/zflorescentia cymosa, terminalis
vel axillaris, dichotome ramosa, uno flore femineo ad singulas bifurcationes.
posito; flores unisexuales, monoecii, bracteati. Flores masculini 0.4-0.5 x
0.3-0.4 cm. Calyx quarn corolla duplo minor, lobis subimbricatis 5 orn-
atus, ad basim connatis. Covollae laciniae 5, oblongae, intus pilosae ad
basim. Jzscz glandulae quinae, eminentes, rubescentes. Stamina 8, bis-
seriata, quorum 5 exteriora, 3 vero interiora, columnam efformantia ;
antherae oblongae. ores feminez 0.6-0.8 x 0.5-0.6cm. Calyx maior
quam in flore masculino. Corolla pallide lutea. Glandulae disci quinae,
obliquae. Ovarium 3-loculatum, stylo triplici, stigmatibus bifidis obliquis
ornatum. Cafsula constans coccis tribus bivalvulatis; seezza oblonga,
crustacea, marmorata, carunculo prominenti, endospermo carnoso, cotyle-
donibus latis et tenuibus.]

Tirunelveli District—Near Vijayapathy, D. Daniel Sundararaj and
S. R. Raju, 5th Feb. 1945, Madr. Herb. Nos. 87314, 88126; D. Daniel
Sundararaj and J. Sakharama Rao, May 1949, Madr. Herb. No. 96729.

This species occurs at the foot of the Western Ghats on the Eastern
slopes in sandy areas round about Panagudy, Radhapuram and Vijaya-
pathi. Local name (Tamil) ‘ Aathalai’.

Baillon (1858-Etud. Gen. Euph. 342) who originally founded the
genus Zyvitaxis on the Cochin-Chinese type 7. gaudichaudi Baill.
pointed out the affinity of the genus to Jatropha ; but later reduced it to
Trignostemon in his Histoire des Plantes. Bentham (loc. cit.) was of the
opinion that 77ztax/s should form a separate genus and observed it to be
nearer to either Ostodes or Jatropha. Our close study of the species 7.
beddomei Benth. points out its close nearness to Jatropha, especially from
the inflorescence and flower characters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author.is indebted’to Rev. Fr. A. Rapinat, s.s., for the rendering
of the English descrintion of Zrztaxis beddomez into Latin,

THE LION CENSUS OF 1955

BY
M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH

(With a map)
elo S0=19 Sp.

At the moment of writing the policy of the Saurashtra Government is
to grant no permits for the shooting of lions. Whether or not this is
wise is doubtful. At worst it is a fault in the right direction.

During the last six years, with the exception of two periods, very few
lions have either been shot on permit or poached. The result, as shown
by the 1955 census, has been a large increase in the number of lions.

Readers of the article on my first lion census in Volume 49(3) of the
Society’s Jouvnal may remember that a pride of fourteen lions was then
counted near the Hill of Sana. These lions continued to remain out-
side the forest and moved in a northerly direction, spreading, if one is to
believe the garbled accounts in the local press, alarm and despondency
among the inhabitants who were unaccustomed to seeing lions in such
large numbers. ‘There were tales of damage done to local stock, which
were probably correct, and tales of unprovoked attack on human beings,
which were certainly quite untrue. The net result was that permits to
shoot these animals were granted, and five or six of them, some mere
cubs, were killed.

Since this unfortunate incident not more than a further five or six
lions have been shot on permit, but a small number has been trapped by
the forest department.

In 1952, as alarming reports again appeared in the press—this time of
a wholesale siaughter of lions in the Sasan neighbourhood, I was asked
to hold an enquiry and to report on what had happened. In all there
turned out to be ten cases to investigate.

Firstly, three dead lions had been found and two wounded lionesses
destroyed between August 22 and September 22, all on the western edge of
the Sasan Division of the forest, and all within a limited area, the northern-
most case (at Mendarda) being but 12 miles from the southernmost (at
Dharampur). Descriptions of the wounds found on these animals were
consistent with gunshot wounds. As a number of villagers had recently
been issued with guns as members of the home guard it seems more than
probable that these persons had shot at the lions, either in protection of
their flocks and herds or to scare them away before they could do any
damage.

There were no more cases in this area after the police began to
investigate.

The case of one of the wounded lionesses is worth recording. At
sandbera Nes, some six miles from Sasan, early on the morning of
September 16a maldhari of the nes drove out his buffaloes from the
thorn enclosure surrounding his hut, leaving open the exit. Shortly
afterwards a badly injured lioness limped in and settled herself down in

528 HOQXOARIME AE ONGBVeL NC INAINOURAUE, JEUISIN, SOC, Vol. 53

a corner of the nes, outside a long room in which were still penned-up
seven goats. This room was divided into two by a six and a half foot
partition, the goats being in that half of the room further from the lioness
and the entrance.

Although the inhabitants of the nes tried to drive away the lioness by
shouting and throwing stones at her, she refused to stir but, later, when
the sun got up, needing shade, she moved into the empty half of the
room, shortly afterwards leaping over the partition to kill six of the goats,
but to eat none of them. The seventh goat forced its way to safety
through the flimsy wall of the hut.

By this time a forest guard had gone off to Sasan to report to the
Divisional Forest Officer. He was instructed to return and to destroy
the lioness, which he did by climbing on to the roof of the hut and firing
at her from above.

She was found to have been suffering from extensive gunshot wounds
in the head, shoulders, and one paw. In addition a porcupine quill was
sticking into her chest. In her weakened state hunger must have com-
pelled her to attack this singularly unpalatable creature.

Of the remaining five cases, one was that of a lion shot by a maldhari
in the Girnar Forests because it was harassing his cattle, for which
he was punished. ‘Two were mere collections of bones and skin
found in the deep jungle, and there is no reason to think that they could
not have died in the natural course of events. The remaining two had
been shot in the Baroda Gir—one lion on permit, and the lioness at
the same time ‘ because she attacked’, an unlikely story unless she too
had been wounded.

This visit also enabled me to travel round most of the forest, and in
particular to tour the Visavadar Range, an area which I had never been
to before. During this trip 1 cannot remember visiting any nes or village
where lions had not been seen or otherwise recorded somewhere close by
within the previous forty-eight hours, and in my report I was able to state
that it was my general impression that lions were on the increase.

Regarding the other game in the forest I gained a very different
impression, for I saw very little and the only areas where it was at all
abundant were close to Sasan (where wild pigs were then in great
abundance) and near Janwadla. I continued to have an impression of a
progressive decrease in forest game during my frequent visits to the Gir
between 1952 and 1954 until my stay at Sasan in February 1955 when I
went there to plan out the census. On this occasion I saw more forest
game than I had ever seen before. During the census in March 1955 and
on a recent visit to the forest I have seen game in plenty, and am now of
the opinion that it has increased over the last year or so and is increasing.

epee ee Canisius; Av Pi tee elle Ome eal O55

The census of 1950 had been such an arduous and difficult operation
that I had vowed that I should never again undertake a full-scale census,
and so when I was asked to hold one in 1955 I strongly represented that
a partial census of the central area of Jamwala, which could be made very
accurate, would serve the purpose. This did not meet with approval and
once more I was persuaded to undertake a census of the whole Saurashtra
area. ‘That this went so smoothly and was so easy to carry out, in spite
of my gloomy prognostications, was of course largely due to the excellent

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THE LION CENSUS OF 1955 529

help I had from my assistants and to the experience gained from the first
census, but above all to the fact that the Chief Minister was especially
interested in the matter with the result that I had every possible facility
and cooperation.

Below are given the results of this census together with the figures of
the 1950 census for comparison.

| | YOUNG
AREA | Lions LIONESSES (Say under Toran | 1950
18 months)

Sasan Range a @ | 4 | 19 114 | 68
eee Rance Pe meInG Wa Ody: chore li: » 24 lr wea
Jamwala Range vate 42 | 24 | 14 | 80 45
Jasadhar Range ae 34 22 | 9 65 45
- Mithiala Fell Sameer 1 | 1 2 1
Girnar oe 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 3
Other Areas | ais | ae | be | 14
Baroda Gir ..| not included in this census © 24
Totals coe 141 { 100 | 49 eZ 0 224

Notes on the above

SASAN RANGE includes the old Sasan forest division, a large strip
of Visavadar Mahal to the north, the Jetpur Forest and the Devalia Sanc-
{uary with a strip of revenue land to their east, the revenue lands between
the Devalia Sanctuary and the Sasan forest, and the revenue lands around
Talala and to the east and west of it.

VISAVADAR RANGE, JAMWALA RANGE, JASADHAR RANGE inclu-
des the revenue lands bordering these ranges.

Figures tor the Jamwala Range 1950: These are misleading as for
three days previous to the census a very large fire had swept much of the
range, driving game and lions out of it. Therefore these figures are
lower than would normally be expected. In the test count of a mere 2/3rds
of the range 42 lions were recorded.

MITHIALA, GIRNAR. These two areas are situated at some dis-
tance from the Gir Forest. Lions are nowadays permanent inhabitants of
both areas.

These figures show that there has been a substantial increase in the
lion population since 1950. An important point to note is that on this
present occasion it was possible to include in the census certain areas
outside the forest that were beyond the scope of the 1950 census,
These produced 40 lions, making the comparative figures for the areas
covered zz both censuses 250 to 200, that is an increase of 25 per cent.

We may then conclude that an all-round increase of 25 per cent is
not far from the truth.

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Young Lions: Any lion with a pugmark of 4:5” or less in
length is considered to be a young lion, i.e., not more than 18 months
old.

The proportion of young lions has decreased from 19 per cent in 1950
to 16.9 per cent in 1955. The latter, ifmy arithmetic is correct, is the
number of young lions to be expected in a stationary population with an
average life span of just under 9 years. Unfortunately information on
the length of life of lions intheir wild state is most unsatisfactory, varying
from the 10 years of one ‘expert’ to the 30 years of another! As the
average age of a lion seems likely to be more than 9 years the number of
young lions probably still indicates an increasing population, though one
that may be increasing more slowly than five years ago. It should also
be remembered that very young cubs will not usually enter the census.
I do not think the decrease in the number of young lions is yet in any way
serious.

Proportion of Lions to Lionesses: It is difficult to
say to what extent these figures are accurate, as the method of determining
sex by the shape of the pugmark is far from infallible, as was made
obvious to us when we came across instances of the same lion being re-
corded as a male in one place and as a female in another.

Nevertheless old Junagadh records of the sex of lions shot and found
dead, and every census have shown a large preponderance of lions as may
be seen from the following figures :

1936 to 1947: Lions shot or found dead in Junagadh Gir: Lions
45; lionesses 28.

1936 Census: Lions 143; lionesses 91,

1950 Jamwala Test Count: Lions 23; lionesses 13.

1950 Census (determination of sex only made in Baroda Gir and
Jasadhar Division): Lions 42; lionesses 19.

1955 Census: Lions 141; lionesses 100.

Notwithstanding these records almost everyone insists that the reverse
is the case and that there are more lionesses than lions. I respectfully
suggest to these gentlemen that their belief in the preponderance of lion-
esses is due to the fact that all young lions, being maneless, look like
lionesses from a distance.

Distribution of Lions: As was expected the greatest con-
centrations of lions were found on, or outside, the forest edges near
revenue villages. The most heavily populated regions were near Talala,
and on the forest borders of the Jawantri and Janwadla centres of Jam-
wala. With the exception of the Cihodawadi centre of Jamwala, and
Jasadhar, the middle forest regions contained many fewer lions.

As at the last census, the Jasadhar Range showed itself to be the home
of big lions, for there four pug lengths of over seven inches were record-
ed. The only other lion of such pug measurements was found near
Sasan.

Census METHODS

As there have been so many queries as to how the census was carried
out and as so many mistaken ideas about it are current, it will perhaps
not be out of place to recapitulate the census methods.

THE LION CENSUS OF 1955 531

I possess no form of magic by which I can prove the accuracy of my
censuses, nor do I pretend to be able to find exact numbers of lions-—only
the simple can expect that—but I myself believe that the final figures are
not far removed from the truth and, as I have been extremely cautious in
my count, I should be very much surprised if there are less lions than the
figures I have given.

However, what cannot be stressed too strongly, and what it is very
difficult to make people realise is that the main object of the census is
to find out the increase or decrease in the numbers of lions, since to know
this trend is vital to any policy of protection— much more important than
to know the exact number of lions.

If censuses are carried out at regular intervals and zf exactly the same
methods are used they will produce this information admirably. The 1950
and 1955 censuses were carried out in an identical manner and therefore
one may be confident that the comparative figures are reasonably accurate.

The census is based on three main factors. Firstly, as the measure-
ments of the full length and breadth of the front pugmarks are seldom
identical in any two lions. such data can be used for identifying individual
lions in much the same way as fingerprints are used by the police for
identifying criminals. Secondly, lions move about a lot at night, and
for preference move along roads and footpaths (the silence and ease with
which they can do so being of value to them while hunting). Thirdly,
from December to June these roads and footpaths are covered with a
particularly fine dust, which is a perfect medium for recording pugmarks
exactly. Therefore, if a large number of enumerators is sent out over a
network of beats to cover the areas inhabited by lions, the majority of
their tracks will be found and their footprints measured. Even if lions
do not walk along footpaths or roads, they are likely to cross them and so
enter into the census.

Another count is then held with the object of recording most of those
lions which have, for one reaSon or another, escaped the first day’s
count.

For the purpose of the census the areas inhabited by lions are divided
into two divisions, namely Sasan and Jamwala. The former is also
subdivided into the Sasan and Visavadar areas, and the latter into
Jamwala and Jasadhar. Mithiala and Girnar are well separated from
the Gir Forest and the number of lions recorded there is based on
information received from the forest staff and not on a count. Every
area where lions may be expected to be found is thus covered.

The subdivisions are further divided into anumber of centres, each un-
der the control of a supervisor whose duty it is to brief and control the
enumerators. ‘The enumerators work in pairs, and as far as possible an
experienced man such as a beat guard is coupled with one less ex-
perienced.

The measurements, which are made with thin bamboo strips which can
be broken to an exact length, are first handed in to the. supervisors, who
label them with all relevant information and then take them to subdivi-
sional headquarters from whence they are passed on to Sasan or Jamwala,
where the information is entered on to a series of maps.

From these maps lions which have been counted more than once
are noted and only one lion counted in each such instance. For this pur-
pose, of course, a certain variation in measurements is allowed, but the
principle employed is that if there is any suspicion at all that a lion has

2

532 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

been counted tnore than once only one lion is counted finally. All sus-
picious measurements are also eliminated. For instance any lone ‘ lions ’
with pug lengths of less than 4°5” are crossed out, as young lions of this
age will inall probability still be accompanied by their mothers. Such
measurements are usually those of panthers taken by mistake. Other
checks on measurements are the ratio between the length and breadth of
pugmarks (which should work out at between 1:1 and 1°3) and the num-
ber of lions moving together.

A PopuLAR FALLACY REGARDING THE LION CENSUS

A criticism made by several people is that the census, to be successful,
must be held in the hot weather, that is in May, on the assumption
that drinking places are then fewer, and under the misapprehension that
the census is based on counting pugmarks—or the lions themselves —
at such places.

If the drinking places in the Gir were very limited in number all
that would be necessary would be to keep a watch on them and measure
the pugmarks of the lions that come to drink, for lions will obviously
drink at least once in the twenty-four hours. But this is far from the
case as the Gir possesses a number of perennially flowing rivers along
any part of whicha lion may drink. Furthermore, as the edges of the
rivers are nearly always of rock, grass or coarse sand or shingle, they are
almost always unsuited to the measurement of pugmarks, Lions may also
drink from village water troughs, as I myself have seen. Drinking places,
then, play a very minor part in the census.

Another argument for holding the census in the hot weather is that
lions then will move about less. ‘The latter is probably true but the more
lions move about the more chance of recording their pugmarks.

Ill. CoNcLuSIONS

Although the census figures show that the rigorous control over the
shooting of lions in recent years has been most successful, this increase
in numbers brings problems in its wake.

The Gir Forest obviously can only hold a certain number of lions, and
once this is exceeded one may expect a progressive decrease in the num-
bers of forest game and a corresponding increase in the losses of . domes-
tic stock up to a point at which they cannot be endured.

At the moment the forest game does not seem to be decreasing, and
one concludes from this that these animals must therefore form a small
proportion of the lions’ food, the greater amount of what they eat being
domestic stock.

From random figures taken five years ago I estimated the annual loss
of cattle and buifaloes in the nesses and forest viilages, and villages at the
forest edges, to be in the neighbourhood of 3% of the total stock—and the
total stock is very large indeed. Government has also gone into this
matter recently and has, I believe, reached conclusions similar to mine.

Evidence in support of domestic stock forming the greater part of
what the lions eat is that lions are nearly always found prowling in
the neighbourhood of villages and nesses, and it is near such places
that the vast majority of them is recorded in the censuses. (See map.)

So far the maldhari has, on the whole, been fatalistic about these
losses and seems to regard them as part of the terms upon which he

THE LION CENSUS OF 1958 588

gets good cheap grazing. However, any considerable increase in them
will undoubtedly be viewed in a different light.

I feel then that the time has come to grant, say, five or six permits per
annum for shooting lions, as an experimental measure, and to hold
check counts, perhaps annually. The subsequent issue of permits can
be regulated in accordance with the results of these, or of full scale
censuses which may be held when considered necessary.

I would suggest that the check censuses be held in the Jamwala sub-
division, where this matter has been most studied and where there are a
number of men trained in census work. Such check censuses would be
easy to carry out, cheap, and would soon become routine.

IV. CENSUS EXPERIENCES

The management of the Sasan Division was in the hands of the Yuv-
raj of Jasdan and K, S. Lavkumar of Jasdan than which two expert natu-
ralists I could not have had better helpers for this census work. As in
1950 I myself took the Jamwala Division, on this occasion helped by the
brothers Dost and Nur Mahomed, both great ‘characters’ and persons
of much ability.

The whole party foregathered at the Sasan Rest House on arrival, and
the following morning made a visit to Devalia, the scene of recent
attempts to catch lions. One lioness had already been caught, and
others were caught later.

The method is simple. A wooden cage with iron bars at the sides
is placed by the road with a goat tied up in it at the end further from
the entrance. The lion attracted by the bleating of the goat enters the
cage and in doing so presses down a board which causes the entrance
door to drop behind him and another gate to fall between him and the
goat, thus saving the goat! Nevertheless there were remains of dead
goat in the second partition and, as the cage was only six feet long,
one imagines that the lion in his first rush receives the second gate on his
neck whilst the entrance door guillotines his tail.

A good story had already grown up about the captured lioness. As she
was being carried to Junagadh by night the lorry that was transporting
her broke down. ‘The furious roaring of the lioness from the strand-
ed lorry attracted all the lions in the neighbourhood to see what -was
amiss with her, with the result that the lorry driver and his mate spent a
night of terror in their cabin with more than twelve lions prowling around
them trying to get to the lioness.

As our plans had been drawn up and all arrangements made during a
previous visit to the Gir in February, our duty now was mainly to travel
all over our divisions to see that these atrangements were being carried
out. The important thing was to visit every centre and there check the
work of at least one or two enumerators in the field—in short to give the
impression we were taking the census seriously and expected everyone
else to do so. This was hard work as it meant travelling many miles in
an open jeep in the blazing sun of a March heat wave. There were few
parts of our division we did not visit ; the narrow valley of Jamwali where
thousands of acres had recently been devastated by a forest fire; Bhim-
chas, where Bhim, being refused water, split the rock with a blow into a
deep gorge through which the river flows in a channel that legend
says is bottomless ; the barren lonely wastes of the Hadala and Timberwa

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GUST, SOCIUEZIONY, Wolk, Ge

uplands where one gets the impression of having reached the uttermost
parts of the world; a night spent in the open in the forest compound of
Jasadhar surrounded by its babul jungle ; once more a taste of the famous
hospitality of Lord Krishna’s priests at Tulshi Shyam ; innumerable cups
of tea wherever we paused, from Rabaris, forest guards, pasaytas and
others ; and lastly a large part of a day spent most peacefully under a
pipal tree in Thordi drinking curds and eating chapatis when our jeep
broke down.

On the first day of the census enumerators walk over their beats to
get to know them and to mark any lions’ pugmarks that are there already
so that they shall not count them on the first day of the census,
though the chance of this is small as by day at this season a strong sea
breeze arises which soon makes fresh pugmarks look old. It is on the
second and third days that the count is made.

On the second day of the census we made our trip to Jasadhar,
leaving the following evening so that we could collect both days’ measurt-
ing sticks, and then deal with those of both days from the Jamwala sub-
division when we returned there in the evening.

During our stay at Jasadhar an amusing incident occurred. A pasayta
(for pasaytas, being government servants, had been recruited for the good
work) brought in his little bundle of measuring sticks from his village
and the neighbourhood round about—an obviously simple straightforward
type with no guile about him (though I must qualify this by saying that
I know it is dangerous to make statements like this in Saurashtra). The
bundle of sticks measured as follows: 6:7” x 5:2” : 6:7” x 4:9% : 2:2” x
NRA OAU NS NeW AZM NGMNGTIM OSI SE NOI 9 TAIKY SQODY 9 oD se Wo72, “Toul
intriguing collection of measurements was meant by him to represent two
lionesses with three cubs apiece (as they were all found in the same place),
obviously a very simple and just division of the pugmarks he had
measured. However, as the length of the first two measurements was the
same and the ratio between the second measurements was too high, there
was more than a strong suspicion that the front and the hind feet of the
same animal bad been measured. ‘This left in our minds the delightful
picture of a large (very Jarge) lioness wandering about the outskirts of the
pasayta’s village accompanied by her six little (very little) cubs. ‘This
would have just been possible had not the footprints of the ‘ cubs’ been
smaller than cubs’ footprints couid have been even at birth. No! we re-
eretfully decided that the cubs were one village cat wandering around in
circles confusing its own tracks.

Pasaytas (and it is perhaps necessary to explain to the uninformed that
a pasayta is a village policeman) certainly provided the census with light
relief, for when we returned to Jamwala we found another bunch of
measuring sticks sent in by the pasayata of a village not far away, the
measurements of which were those of long thin footprints, something
I imagine like those of young Abominable Snowmen. However, as we
were not on this occasion taking a census of Abominable Snowmen in the
Gir Forest these measurements did not enter into the count, and we made
an immediate visit to the pasayta’s village, where we found his wife but
not himseif—he had had an urgent call to a distant sick relative. As the
pasayta’s name was Ramji Bhagwan, we decided that he had considered
himself fully capable of conducting his census work zz adsentza from some
distant Kailas.

When we had finished at Jamwala we had had neither sight nor

THE LION CENSUS OF 1955 535

sound of Jions. Those at Sasan had been more fortunate (except for one
member of the party who, walking in the jungle, had found himself in
the centre of a large pride) for by the use of baits they had had several
enjoyable evenings attempting to photograph another pride at Sandbera.

It was to Sandbera Nes then that we went on the evening of our return
to Sasan. The pride had not killed the previous night, which meant
either that they had moved elsewhere or that they would be hungry.

Close to the nes there is a fine flat maidan with one large tree in
its middle. There is no more Suitable place in the whole of the Gir
Forest for watching lions than this if plans work out well.

Just after dusk we tied up a young buffalo to this tree but even whilst
this was being done a lion emerged from the shadows so that those who
were tying it up had to fly almost before they had finished. The lion was
on to the young buffalo in a moment and had killed it, but as we were
still unprepared and the lights of our jeeps were not focussed on the
buffalo we could not see how he did it, but it was to the accompaniment
of much noise.

As soon as we had got into our jeeps and moved towards the kill we
saw that the lion had the buffalo by the throat and was apparently drink-
ing his blood. We proceeded until we were within thirty-five yards but
the lion took no notice of us at all. Nor did he at any moment of the
subsequent two and a half hours that we watched him and his followers,
although he was constantly in the full glare of our headlights.

What followed was a practical lesson in natural history such as few
people have been privileged to witness. We had ringside seats, as it were,
at a dinner party of one of the rarest animals in the world. |

As we moved forward our headlights were reflected from four pairs
of eyes watching from the forest bordering the maidan. These belonged
to the rest of the pride. One of these animals moved forward towards
the kill to reveal herself to be a large lioness, but she remained at a
respectful distance from it and made no attempt to join the lion at his
meal. He was obviously a gentleman of character as it was not until
he had finished that she was allowed to begin her dinner. Having torn
out the entrails and eaten much of them, the lion bit off and devoured
large, whole chunks of meat with tremendous voracity, but presently his
tempo of eating slowed down as his stomach grew visibly more and more
distended, until at last he confined himself to licking one or two succulent
parts of what was left of the buffalo. Finally, replete, he moved a yard
or so away and began to clean himself, for his mane and chest were
drenched in blood. How apt is the simile in the Odyssey likening
Odysseus after his battle with the suitors to a lion ‘ spattered with blood
and filth when he comes from feeding on some farmer’s builock, with the
blood dripping from his breast and jaws on either side, a fearsome
spectacle.’

The lioness now moved in to begin her meal, and a younger lioness
also appeared froin the shadows and began to share with the older
female. The lion in the meanwhile, having decided that cleanliness
could wait, had a short nap, yawned in a very pointed and offensive
manner in our direction, and proceeded to roll on his back with obvious
pleasure. He finally came to rest in the most ludicrous manner possible
with all four legs pointing into the air. He then rose and wandered off to
the well a couple of hundred yards away and had a long and satisfying
drink from the water trough. He next returned and went to sleep.

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

In the meanwhile a comedy had been enacted under the solitary tree.
There was little food left for the two lionesses, for the lion had consumed
at least half of the buffalo—a well grown young buffalo—so a situation had
arisen in which the two of them were eating at the opposite ends of the
remaining piece of hide that contained any quantity of eatable meat. This
did not suit either of them and an awe-inspiring fight took place—awe-
inspiring to see and listen to but I fancy sound and fury signifying nothing,
because there was no visible damage to either of them The conclusion
of the matter was that the younger and smaller lioness finally decided that
the only way to preserve her share of the meal was to clamp her jaws
firmly on to it and to remain so. And this she did for the next twenty
minutes while the older lioness comfortably chewed away at the other
end !

Finally when there was little meat of any kind left for them to finish
we decided to leave. We took the pagis back to Sandbera and returned
on our way to Sasan. The first jeep, travelling fast, disturbed the lion
sleeping on the road and he had to make way quickly. He undoubtedly
regarded this as most undignified for when we followed past a moment
later he was viciously attacking the large lioness. The other two young
lions had also appeared, but it was to be a hungry night for them as by
this time there was nothing else to eat.

The behaviour of this pride was strange because prides generally live
and feed together amicably.

A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF SOME LITTORAL MARINE
DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST OF INDIA

BY
J. N. Misra, M.Sc., Px.D.
Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras

(With 72 figures in the text)

There is no record as yet of the Marine Diatoms from the West Coast
of India, though Menon (1931), Iyer and his collaborators (1936), Menon
(1945), and Subrahmanyan (1946) have given accounts of the Marine
Diatoms occurring on the East Coast. In view of this fact, it was thought
proper to investigate the Marine Diatoms of the West Coast of India and
to give firstly a systematic enumeration of the littoral diatoms belonging
to the Saurashtra and Bombay Coasts. The actual places of collection be-
longing to this coast are Okha Port, Dwarka, Porbandar, Veraval, and
Bombay. ‘The forms enumerated were found to occur either as epiphytes
attached on higher algae or were present in the sediment belonging to the
intertidal region.

The preparation of the slides was done by taking small bits of the
plants or sediment in a small dish containing Con. HNO, and heating it
gradually for 25 minutes. ‘The residue is then washed acid free by a re-
peated process of decantation with distilled water. The washed residue
is very evenly distributed on a slide already smeared with Mayer’s albu-
min. ‘The slide is then warmed over a low flame and it is passed through
90%—100 % alcoholic grades to xylol and finally mounted in Canada Bal-
sam or Styrax. Identification of the forms is based on the key provided
by Hustedt (1930,, 1930), 1931, and 1937), although other works have
also been consulted, e.g., Smith (1853, 1856), De-Toni (1891-94), Kolbe
(1932), and Fritsch (1935).

In all 69 forms have been described, representing 25 genera. Out of
these 9 genera and 20 forms belong to the group Centrales, and 17 genera
and 49 forms to the Pennales. Of the total forms described 8 represent
new species, and 6 are new varieties.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION

1, Melosira dubia Kijtz, Hustedt in Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora
von Deutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz, Bd. VII, Die Kieselalgen,
Tiel 1, p. 234, fig. 97, 1930b.

Frustules linked in long chains by means of gelatinous cushion. Cells
spherically-ellipsoidal with a short mantel, cell-wall strong. Sulkus and
neck absent. Pseudosulkus present. Fine puncta striation parallel and

regularly arranged. Marginal tooth absent (text-fig. 1).

Diam. frustule, 22-—30u.
Height of the half cell, 11-131.
Punctae striations, 32 in 10x.
Except for the greater dimensions, and the larger number of punctae
Striations, the form agrees with the type closely.
Habitat: Veraval, Dwarka. Epiphytic on Cladophora.

538 [QIN eV ER XON evel INARIOH RAIL, JEUISIP, SOCIBINNY, Well, BF

2. Melosira juergensi Ag. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 238, fig. 99. 1930b.

Frustules linked in long chains, cylindrical with round, convex ends,
longer than broad. Shell mantel strong, arched. Sulkus and neck absent,
pseudosulkus present. Membrane sieve-like with thick net of pore canal.
Girdle band with strong pervalvar striations (text-fig. 2).

Diam. frustule, 25-281,
Height of the half cell, 9-13.
Punctae striations, 10-12 in 10u.

The form resembles the type closely, but differs from the same in
possessing larger number of punctae striations.

Habitat: Dwarka, Bombay. Epiphytic on Actocarpus.

3. Melosira sulcata (Ehrenb.) Kitz. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 276, figs. 118,
119, 1930b.

Frustules linked in long chains. Cells disc-shaped. Shell with a short
cylindrical strong mantel, base strongly incised. Disc flat in the middle.
Sulkus and neck absent, pseudosulkus present. The mantel possesses a
thinner ground membrane with a hojlow cavity. The flat portion of the
disc shows radial ribs or furrows. Basal incised portion of the disc with
small narrow ring of pores arranged in the mantel structure, numerous
irregular chambers without walls present in the mantel (text-fig. 3).

Diam frustule, 7-9.
Height of the frustule, 2-3u.
Pores rows in pervalvar axis, 12 in 10u.

The form closely resembles the type, but it differs from the same in
its smaller size, and in the possession of larger pores.

Habitat : Dwarka, Porbandar, Veraval. Epiphytic on Cervamium.

4. Podosira montagnei Kutz. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 281, fig, 122, 1930b.

Frustules in short pairs, bound by gelatinous stalks in chains, lentiform
with convex disc without shell mantel. Disc with separate sectors, crossed
by punctae rows, inner half of each sector shows parallel radial rows and
two intercrossing striation system. Umblicus absent. Central portion of
the disc indistinct (text-fig. 4).

Diam. frustule, 32-34.u.
Areole, 20 in 10u.

The form agrees closely with Podoszra montagnet Kitz. It, however,
differs from the same in more stronger areole rings.

Habitat: Dwarka, Veraval, Bombay. Epiphytic on Cladophora.

5. Hyalodiscus subtilis Bailey. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 291, fig. 132, 1930b.

Frustules with umblicate centre, flat, lentiform, shell slightly convex,
watch-glass-shaped. Umblicus ring shaped with irregular rim punctae.
Minute reduced punctae present in the umblicus which are radially arrang-
ed. Disc crossed with radial punctae rows (text-fig. 5).

Diam. frustule, 52-62.

Diam. Umblicus, 18-24.

Areole in the Umblicus, 25 in 10u.
The form agrees closely with the type.
Habitat: Dwarka. Epiphytic on Gracilaria.

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 539

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Text-figs. 1-6.—Fig.1, Melosira dubia Kiitz., girdle-view, showing punctae stria-
tions. Fig. 2, Melosira juergenst Ag., girdle-view, showing punctae striations.
Fig. 3, Melosira sulcata (Ehrenb.) Kitz. girdle-view. Fig. 4, Pordosira montagne
Ktitz. valve-view, showing the system of striations. Fig. 5, Hyalodiscus subtilis
Bailey, valve-view. Fig. 6, MHyalodiscus scoticus (Kttz.) Grun., girdle-view.
(All X 2800).

(||

hy

i

|

—=— —

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

6. Hyalodiscus scoticus (Ktitz.)Grun, Hustedt, op. cit., p. 293, figs. 131
and 133, 1930b.
Frustules linked in short chains lens-shaped with convex sheli. Shell
membrane striated, striations parallel and punctate (text-fig. 5).
Diam. frustule, 30-33 w.
Height of the half shell 8-9.
Striations, 12-14 in 10.
The form agrees closely with the type, but the striations and the punc-
tae are bigger in the present diatom.
Habitat : Dwarka, Porbandar. Epiphytic on Polystpbhonia.

7. Coscinosira oestrupii Ostenfeld. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 318, fig. 155,
1930b.

Frustules bound in long chains, gelatinous ring being always present
between two frustules, middle band very distinct. Frustules short, cylin-
drical with flat or slightly arched shell. Disc strongly areoled, areoles
smaller near the rim. Marginal spines of the disc absent, shell mantel is
pervalvar band. Striped striations in the girdle band (text-fig. 7).

Diam. frustule, 10u.
Areole, 9 in 10u.
The form agrees well with the type.
Habitat : Dwarka, Veraval, Bombay. Epiphytic on Cladophora.

8. Thalassiosira tropica sp. nov.

Frustules linked in long chains, drum-shaped, octagonal in outline.
Disc flat with hollow centre, punctae striated. Punctae in the middle
irregular, but radially arranged towards the edge. On the disc margin
spines are present. Spines minute and remote (text-fig. 8).

Diam. frustule, 29-331.
Striations, 8-9 in 10.
Punctae, 9-10 in 10u.

The Indian diatom resembles TZhalasstostra nordenskioldi Clev.
(Hustedt, op. cit., p. 321, fig. 157, 1930b.), due to its drum-like octagonal
form in the girdle-view. It further resembles the same on account of
possessing spines on the margins, and punctae striations on the surface of
the frustules in valve-view. It, however, differs from the same in having
much smaller spines on the rim and lesser number of punctae striations on
its valves, which are 8-9 in 10 in the present diatom, while they are 16-18
in 10” in J. nordenskioldi, besides the punctae are much bigger. More-
over, 7. novdenskioldi occurs in the colder regions of the European seas
and polar waters, whereas, the present form is found in the tropical sea.

Habitat; Porbandar. Epiphytic on Cawlerpa.

Accedit ad T. xordenskioldi Clev. forma octogona tympanacea, spinu-
lis ad margines atque striis punctorum; ab ea tamen differt spinulis
minoribus, striarum numero minori(in praesenti specie 8—9 in 10u, in
altera vero specie 16—18) punctis multo majoribus, distributione tropi-
cali (7. nordenskioldé vero invenitur tantum in regionibus articis vel in
frigidioribus partibus Europae).

9, Cyclotella meneghiniana Kititz. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 341, fig. 174,
1930b.

Frustules flat disc-shaped. Shell with radially ribbed distinct mar-
gin, striations strong, wedge-shaped, uniform throughout. The central

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 541

area appears ordinarily smooth but under very high magnification shows
fine punctate striations, (text-fig. 9).
Diam. frustule, 15-17,«.
Striations, 9 in 10y.
The form agrees weil with the type.
Habitat : Dwarka. -Epiphytic on Polysiphonia.

10. Coscinodiscus finicus Sp. nov.

Frustules discoid flat, slightly depressed in the centre, with the margin
faintly sloping. Disc plain with polygonal, six-sided (Hexagonal) areoles,
areole big arranged in three systems of tangential rows. Areole row
arched in one shell, in the other shell of a different frustule the disc
possesses perfectly straight tangential row of areoles, that is, the system
of areole is one and is straight tangential.

The margin of both the types of discs is striated, and the striations are
strong and parallel. A ring of minute spines is also present on the disc
margin (text-fig. 10),

Diam. frustule, 36-39.
Punctae in the centre, 3-9 in 10u.
Striations in the margin, 8-10 in 10x,

The Indian diatom closely resembles Coscinodiscus excentricus Ehrenb.
(Hustedt, op. cit., p. 388, fig. 201, 1930 b) in general structure. It, how-
ever, differs from the same in having finer punctae, which in the present
form are 3-9 in 10” whereas, they are 3-5 in 10u in C. excentricus.
Further, the present diatom possesses much closer striation on the margin.

Habitat : Dwarka, Veraval, Bombay. Epiphytic on Cladophora.

Nova species accedit ad C. excentricum Ehrenb. structura generali, ab
eo tamen differt punctis minoribus, numero 3-9 in 10u (in C. excentrico
3-5 in 10) atque striis marginalibus propius dispositis.

11. Coscinodiscus bathyomphalus Cleve. Hustedt, op. cit. p. 431,
fig. 234, 1930 b.

Disc with a large circular areoled area. Areole big, spirally arranged.
Outside the circular area, the disc plain is radially areoled, with hyaline
intercalary spaces between the areole row. Margin striated, striations fine.
Indistinct minute spines present on the margin (text-fig. 11).

Diam. frustule, 27-30.u.

Areole of the disc, 15 in 10x.

Areole in the centre, 15 in 10u.

Striations of the margin, 20 in 10x.
The Indian diatom closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Dwarka, Porbandar. Epiphytic on Bryopsis.

12. Triceratium robertsianum Grey. var, dwarkensum yar. nov.

Frustules triangular in valve-view. Shell with an arched valve, which
is convex on the margin, areole of the valvar plain closely fitting and
irregularly distributed, sides perforated and spiny. Primary membrane
radially striated. Apophysis of the shell remarkably strong. Frustules
in zig-zag chains bound by means of gelatinous stalks situated between the
neighbouring apophysis or processes (text-fig. 12).

Long. frustule, 105.
Areole, 4 in 10u.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The Indian form agrees well with Zyviceratium robertsianum Grev. in
its general features (Hustedt, op. cit., p. 803, fig. 466, 1930b), but it
differs from the same in having irregular instead of the regular arrange-
ment of the areoles in its valve-view. Further, the areoles in the present
form are much bigger than those of the type.

Habitat : Dwarka. Epiphytic on Polysiphonia.

Accedit ad speciem typicam multis in notis; ab ea tamen differt
irregulari dispositione areolarum, atque areolis multo majoribus.

13. Triceratium spinosum Bailey, forma tetragona Hust. Hustedt, op.
cit., p. 806, fig. 468, 1930b.

Frustules tetragonal, sides concave, apophysis elongated. Valve-view
areoled, areoles hexagonal. Margin striated. Apex of the apophysis
smooth. Minute thorns present on the margin (text-fig. 13).

Long. frustule, 30-34.
Areole, 3 in 10u.
Striations, 4 in 10u.
The form agrees well with the forma type.
Habitat: Porbandar. Epiphytic on the disc of Codiwm.

14. Triceratium dubium Brightw. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 806, fig. 469,
1930b.

Frustules bound in zig-zag chains, triangular, with concavity on all
sides, middle area broad with areoles irregularly arranged. Areoles of
different sizes, inner side perforated. Membrane areole punctate, base
with radially striated margin. Apophysis cone-shaped, attenuated, having
areoled apex, and strongly built (text-fig. 14).

Long. frustule, 33-35.
Areole of the membrane, 5 in 101.
Marginal striations, 8 in 10y.
The present form agrees well with the type.
Habitat : Dwarka, Bombay. Epiphytic on Polyszphonta.

15. Triceratium pentacrinus (E.) Waliich, forma quadrata Hust. Hus-
tedt, op. cit., p. 814, fig. 475, 1930b.

Frustules in zig-zag chains, shell flat with quadrangular valve, sides con-
cave, middle portion of the valve convex. Apophysis very short. Valvar
wall areoled with radially arranged ribs net, areole round and radially dis-
posed, towards the outside in quincunx. Margin with short striations,
minute thorns in the middle. Apices of the apophysis smooth (text-fig, 15).

Long. shell, 80-901.
Areole of the middie portion, 6 in 10u.
Areole of the apophysis, 10 in 10z.
Marginal striations, 10-12 in 10u.
The torm closely resembles the type.
Habitat : Dwarka, Porbandar. Epiphytic on the disc of Codium.

16. Triceratium balearicum Cleve et Grun. forma biquadrata (Janisch)
Hust. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 815, fig. 477, 1930b.
Frustules arranged in zig-zag chain, flat with quadrangular valve
having concave sides, the middle region of the valve convex, apophysis
short. Frustule wall of the shell areoled, and provided with ribs arranged

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 543

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Text-figs. 7-13.—Fig. 7, Coscinosira oestrupii Ostenfeld, valve-view. Fig. 8,
Thalassiosiva tropica- sp. nov. a disc in valve-view, showing arrangement of punctae.
Fig. 9, Cyclotella meneghiniana Kitz. valve-view. Fig. 10, Coscinodiscus finicus
sp. nov., valve-view, showing hexagonal areoles. Fig. 11, Coscinodiscus bathyom-
phalus Clev. valve view. Fig. 12, Zvriceratium robertsianum Clev. var. dwar-
kensum var. nov. valve-view, showing areoles. Fig.13, 7viceratinm spinosum Bailey
forma ¢etragona Hust., valve-view, (All X 2800).

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

radially throughout. Areoles rounded in radial rows, near the edges
quincunxially arranged and distantly situated. Basal shell margin beset
with continuous strong radial striae. Apex of the apophysis smooth
(text-fig. 16).
Long. frustule, 60-68 1.
Areole in the middle part, 6-7 in 10 p.
Areole in the apophysis, 6 in 104.
Striations of the margin, 7-10 in 10x.
The form agrees well with type.
Habitat ; Porbandar, Veraval. Epiphytic on Cladophora.

17, Biddulphia pulchella Gray. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 832, fig. 490, 1930b.

Frustules adhering in zig-zag chain. Valves elliptical, spinose, angles
of the apical axis produced into rounded process. Valves provided with
long sutures. Frustules pseudozygomorphic. Angles of the valve distinctly
structured with perforations, the edges of the valve slightly silicious,
otherwise strongly silicified. Cell membrane areoled, areoles big, rounded
and free from each other. Margin of the frustules undulating. Middle
portion of the valve elevated. Girdle band likewise areoled, but the areoles
here are much finer, arranged in rows. Areoles of the processes also very
fine (text-fig. 17). |

Long. apical axis, 90-150,
Long. transapical axis, 111-120u.
Areole of the membrane, 5 in 10u.
Areole of the process, 20 in 10u.
The form agrees well with the type.
Habitat: Dwarka. Eniphytic on Bryopsts.

18, Biddulphia rhombus (Ehrenb.) Smith. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 842,
figs. 496, 497, 1930b.

Valve elliptic-lanceolate, processes lorn-shaped, twisted, valve plain
convex, sloping near the margin, wall of the valve strongly silicious,
areoled throughout, areoles arranged in quincunx. Short spines attached
to the margin. Girdle-view rectangular. Girdle band areoled, the areoles
are smaller (text-fig. 13).

Long. apical axis, 65-72u.
Long. transapical axis, 59-71y.
Areoie of the valve, 8 in 10x.
Areole of the girdle band, 12 in 10x.
The form resembles the type closely.
Habitat: Porbandar. Epiphytic on the disc of Ulva.

19, Biddulphia aurita (Lyngb.) Brébisson et Godey. Hustedt, op. cit.,
p. 846, fig. 501, 1930b. |
Frustules bound in zig-zag chains, individual frustule barrel-shaped.
Valve elliptical-lanceolate with a long pervalvar axis... Valvar plain in the
middle portion convex, sloping in the margin, possessing two awl-shaped
spines, poles of the apical axis horn-like, obtuse, slightly twisted at the
apex and inflated in the base. Wall of the valve strongly silicious.
Membrane areoled punctate, the punctae are big, round and free from
each other, and are arranged radially. ‘The areoles of the girdle band

WEST COAST 545

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE

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Text-figs. 14-17.—Fig. 14, Triceratium dubium Brightw., valve-view. Fig. 15,
Triceratium pentacrinus (E.) Wallich. forma guadrata, Hust., valve-view. Fig. 16,
Triceratium baleavicum Clev. and Grun., forma 6iguadrata (Janisch) Hust., valve-
view. Fig. 17, Biddulphia pulchella Gray, girdle-view. (14 and 16, x 2800; 15, x
1400 ; 17, x 1530).

The processes are also areoled likewise.

arranged in straight rows.
Apical portion of the processes are smooth (text-fig. 19).

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Long. apical axis, 50-59 .u.
Long. traasapical axis, 20-39u.
Areole of the membrane, 9 in 10u.
Areole of the process, 10 in 10x.
The form closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Bombay. Epiphytic on the disc of Padzna.

20, Biddulphia levis Ehrenb. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 852, fig. 506, 1930b.

Valve cylindrical, pervalvar axis much elongated, valvar plain convex,
processes greatly reduced, valve throughout areoled. Areoles in very
fine rows, middle area of the valve with irregularly arranged areoles
(text-fig. 20). 3

Long. apical axis, 62.
Long. transapical axis, 52u.
Areole in the valve, 18 in 10u.
The Indian diatom closely resembles the type.
Habitat : Dwarka. Veraval. Epiphytic on the pinna of Bryopsts.

21. Rhabdonema indicum gp. nov.

Frustules cemented with gelatinous cushion into long ribbons, linear
in valve-view, and rectangular in girdle-view, with rounded edges, and long
intercalary bands. Short apical and broad transapical septa are present.
Valves round at the poles, linear, with three apertures, one central and
two polar. Valvar plain with transapical rows extending throughout the
breadth. Shell margin possesses minute pores, mantel plain with ribs of
fine areole-punctae (text-fig. 21).

Long. frustule, 72-120.u,

Lat. frustule, 51-581.
Transapical rows, 5 in 10w.
Transapical areole, 10 in 10u,

The Indian diatom resembles Rhabdonema adriaticum Kitz. (Hustedt,
op. cit., p. 23, fig. 552, 1931-32) on account of its rectangular frustules in
the girdle-view, and in possessing intercalary band with transapical septa.
But it differs from the same in having much broader frustules, possessing
bigger transapical rows. It further differs from the same in possessing
more prominent intercalary bands than the type.

Habitat: Dwarka. Epiphytic on the thallus of Padzna.

Accedit ad Rk. adriaticum Kitz. frustulis rectangularibus, zona inter-
calari atque septis transapicalibus ; ab eo tamen differt frustulis latioribus,
amplioribus seriebus transapicalibus, zona intercalari prominentiore.

22. Grammatophora angulosa Ehrenb. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 39, fig. 564,

1931-32.

Frustules in zig-zag chains, rectangular, round-edged. Septa curved,
the inner end is hooked. Shell mantel and the intercalary band bridged
with distinct line. Shell linear-elliptical with slightly convex sides, flat
round apices, polar area hyaline. Transapical striations punctate, in long
straight intercrossing rows (text-fig. 23).

Long. frustule, 16”.
Lat. frustule, 10..
Transapical striations 12-16 in 10xu.
The form closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Dwarka, Bombay. Epiphytic on Cladophora.

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 547

23, Grammatophora hamulifera Kiitz. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 40, fig. 566,
1931-32.

Frustules bound in zig-zag chains, rectangular with round edges,
possessing two intercalary bands. Septa strongly folded, curved at the
base and hooked behind. In the girdle-view the septa appear characteris-
tically C-shaped. Shell linear-elliptic with flat round edges, convex on the
sides. Membrane with long straight intercrossing rows of transapical
punctae. Pseudoraphe distinct and close. Hyaline polar area present
(text-fiys. 24a and b).

Long. frustule, 32°5..
Lat. frustule, 171.
Transapicai striations, 17 in 10.

Except for the greater breadth of its frustules, the Indian diatom
resembles the type closely.

Habitat: Porbandar. Epiphytic on Valoniopsis.

24, Grammatophora caulerpica sp. nov.

Frustules occurring in zig-zag chains, rectangular with round edges,
possessing two intercalary bands. Septa more or less wavy, inner end
more or less knobbed. Shell mantel and intercalary band separated by a
distinct line. Shell broad, linear in the middle, transapical portion slightly
bulged, ends broad and round. ‘Transapical punctate striations in quin-
cunx. Pseudoraphe short and close. Polar area short and hyaline (text-
i, 2)

Long. frustule, 17-—20u.

Lat. frustule, 16-18 .w.

Transapical striations, 24-28 in 10w.
Due to the presence of a wavy septa, and on account of the edges of
the frustules being round, the Indian diatom can be compared well with

Grammatophora marina (Lyngb.) Kitz. (Hustedt, op. cit., p. 43, fig. 569,

1931-32). It further resembles the same in having its punctae quin-
cuncially arranged. It, however, differs from the same in having broader
frustules and in possessing greater number of transapical striations, which
are 24-28 in 10u in the present diatom while G. marina possesses 15-22
transapical striations in 10u. On account of possessing the same number
of transapical striae it may be compared to G. marina var. adriatica
Grun., but it differs from the same in greater dimensions of its frustules.
Further the present form may also be compared to G. marina var. tropica
(Kiuitz.) Grun, in its general features, but the present form differs from this
variety in having larger number of transapical striations, it further differs
from the same in having smaller size of its frustules. With both of the
above varietal type it differs also in possessing more wavy septa, which
in the varieties are rather straight.

Habitat : Okha Port, Bombay. Epiphytic on Cazlerpa.

Accedit ad G. marinam Kiitz. septis sinuosis, marginibus frustulorum
rotundatis, punctis quincuncialiter dispositis ; ab ea tamen differt frustulis
latioribus, striis transapicalibus pluribus (24-28 in praesenti nova specie,
15-22 in altera specie in 10). Numero striatum accedit ad G. marinam
var. adriaticam Grun., a qua differt magnitudine ampliore frustulorum ;
accedit etiam ad G. marinam var. tropicam Grun. multis in notis, sed
differt numero majore striarum transapicalium et magnitudine minore
frustulorum ; ab utraque varietate differt septis sinuosis, quae in varieta-
tibus sunt fere recta.

3

SOCIETY, Vol. 53 |

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Text-figs. 18-25.—Fig. 18, Aiddulphia rhombus (Ehrenb.) Smith, girdle-view,
showing areoles. Fig. 19, Biddulphia aurita (Lyngb.) Breb. et Godey, girdle-
view. Fig. 20, Biddulphia levis Ehrenb. valve-view. Fig. 21, Rhabdonema inditum
sp. noy., frustule in girdle-view. Fig. 22, Rhabdonema indicum sp. nov., a part of
the frustule, showing intercalary bands. Fig. 23, Grammatophora angulosa Ehrenb.
girdle-view. Fig. 24a, b, Grammatophora hamulifera Kitz. frustules in girdle- |
and valve-view. Fig. 25, Grammatophora caulerpica sp, nov., girdle-view, showing ia
pepts and striations. (18, 19, 23, 24 a, b, 25, x 2800; 20, x 1500; 21, x 180; 22, x |
00). |

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 549

25, Grammatophora maxima Grun. ;Hustedt, op. cit., p. 44, figs) 572;
1931-32.
Frustules rectangular with straight prominent septa, shell linear-
lanceolate, ends rounded, bulged in the middle, polar area short, hyaline ,
pseudoraphe narrow. ‘Transapical punctae striations in quincunx (text-
fig. 26).
Long. frustule, 52..
Lat. frustule, 13x.
Transapical striations, 24 in 10u.
The form closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Porbandar. Epiphytic on the disc of Ulva.

26. Grammatophora oceanica (Ehrenb.) Grun., var, macilenta (Smith)
Grun. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 47, fig. 573, 1931-32.

Frustules rectangular, thin-walled, septa long, straight, shell linear-
lanceolate with flat round ends. Pseudoraphe narrow, polar area very
small, hyaline. Transapical striations in guincunx, finely punctate
(text-fig. 27 a, b).

Long. frustule, 65.
Lat. frustule, 13,.
Transapical striations, 20 in 10x.
The Indian diatom resembles the type closely.
Habitat : Bombay. Epiphytic on the thallus of Padzna.

27, Licmophora flabellata (Carm.) Ag. Husted, op. cit., p. 58, fig. 581,
1931-32. |
Frustules in branched colony, attached to the host by a gelatinous
stalk, keel-shaped with pointed edges in girdle-view, septa very short,
intercalary band flat, straight. Valve-view narrow club-shaped, apical
pole round. Valve tapering gradually towards the basal pole. Apical
pole flat and arched. ‘Transapical striations of extremely fine punctae,
hardly visible near the base (text-fig. 28 a, b, c).
Long. frustule, 152-165.
Lat. frustule, 26-30u.
Transapical striations, 26-30 in 10u.
The form resembles the type closely.
Habitat : Dwarka. Epiphytic on Laurencia.

28, Licmophora bharadwajai Sp. nov.

Frustules keel-shaped in girdle-view, broad with round edges. Septa
distinct, moderately deep, intercalary band flat, slightly curved. Valve
broadest at the apical pole narrowing gradually towards the basal pole.
with concave margin. ‘Transapical striations strongly developed. Inter-
calary space between the transapical striations, punctate fine in long row.
Pseudoraphe distinct, narrow (text-figs. 29, 30 a, b).

Long. frustule, 39-78 w.

Lat. frustule at the apex, 23-46.
Lat. frustule at the middle, 26-39.
Lat. frustule at the base, 4-8 wu.
Transapical striations, 6-8 in 10w.

The Indian diatom resembles Licmophora gracilis (Ehrenb.) Grun.,
(Hustedt, op. cit., p. 60, fig. 582, 1931-32) due to the possession of keel-

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

shaped frustuies in girdle-view with flat, slightly curved intercalary band.
It further resembles the same in possessing a broad round apical pole,
while the margin in both the diatoms is concave near the basal pole.
Moreover, they possess fine punctae between the transapical striations.
Licmophora bhavadwajai sp. nov. differs, however, from the same in being
shorter in length, and wider in breadth, and in having lesser number of
transapical striations, which in the Indian diatom are 6-8 in 10u, whereas
they are 20-22 in 10u in the type. It further differs from Licmophora
gracilis (Ehrenb.) Grun. in having distinct and moderately deep septa,
instead of short and indistinct as in the type. The present form may
also bé compared with LZ. oedipus (Kitz.) Grun., (Hustedt, op. cit., p. 62,
fig. 585, 1931-32) due to the possession of similar frustules with the
intercalary band flat or slightly curved, and in having fine punctae bet-
ween the transapical striations. But the Indian form of Lzcmophora
differs from the same in possessing distinct and moderately deep septa.
It further differs from the same in possessing a lesser number of trans-
apical striations, which in the type are 20-30 in 10“, while in the present
diatom they are 6-8 in 10x.

Habitat : Dwarka, Veraval. Epiphytic on Cladophora and Cevamtum.

Accedit nova haec species ad Z. gracilem Grun. frustulis carinatis
aspectu zonali, fascia intercalari tenuiter curvata; polo apicali rotundato,
latoque, marginibus concavis prope polum basalem; differt vero longi-
tudine breviore, latitudine latiore, striis transapicalibus paucioribus (6-8
in nova specie, 20-22 in 10 in altera specie); porro differt septis dis-
tinctis et moderate altis. Nova species accedit etiam ad L. oedipum
Grun. frustulis similibus, fascia intercalari plana vel paululum curvata,
punctis minutis inter strias transapicales; ab ea tamen differt numero
minore striarum transapicalium, quae in specie typica sunt 20-39 in 10x,

29, Licmophora abbreviata Ag. Hustedt, op. cit, p. 66, fig. 590,
1931-32.

Frustules in girdle-view strongly keel-shaped, upper edges round.
septa long, deep. Intercalary band strongly curved (sinuous). Valve-
view narrow, club-shaped, with broad apical pole having round edges,
basal pole pointed round. Margin near the basal pole slightly concave.
Transapical striations distinct throughout. Pseudoraphe narrow but
distinct (text-fig. 31).

Long. frustule, lll.

Lat. frustule at the apical pole, 18..
Lat. frustule at the basal pole, 6.
Transapical striations, 15-18 in 10x.

The present diatom resembles the type closely, except that it possesses
a large number of transapical striations.

Habitat: Porbandar. Epiphytic on Polysthhonia.

30, Licmophora paradoxa (Lyngb.) Ag. var, media var. nov.

Frustule wedge-shaped in girdle-view, with broad round edged apical
portion. Septa long, deeply piercing. JIntercalary band curved. Valve
club-shaped. Margin near the basal pole concave. Transapical striations
distinct. Pseudoraphe narrow, but distinct (text-figs. 32, 33).

Long. frustule, 55-59.
Lat. frustule, 8-10y.
Transapical striations, 24-28 in 10u.

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Text-figs. 26-31—Fig. 26, Grammatophora maxima Grun. girdle-view.
Figs. 27 a, b, Grammatophora oceanica (Ehrenf.) Grun. frustules in girdle- and
valve-view. Figs. 28 a, b, c, Licmophora flabellata (Carm.) Ag. girdle-and valve-
view. Figs. 29, 30 a, b, Licmophora bharadwajai sp.nov. frustules in girdle- and
valve-view, showing septa and transapical striations. Fig. 31, Licmophora abbre-
vata Ag. girdle-view. (26, 27 a, b, 30 a,b, x2800; 28a, b,c, x 700; 29, x 800;

31, x 1400),

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 53

_. The present diatom agrees with Licmophora paradoxa (Lyngb.) Ag.,
(Hustedt, op. cit., p. 76, fig. 605, 1931-32), in having distinct, deep septa,
and in possessing the same general features. It, however, differs from
the same in being smaller in size and in the possession of lesser number
of transapical striations.

Habitat ; Dwarka, Bombay. Epiphytic on Padzna.

Accedit ad speciem typicam septis distinctis, altis, et notis aliis
‘plurimis; ab ea differt magnitudine minore, striis transapicalibus pau-
cioribus.

31, Licmophora grandis (Kitittz.) Grun. var. somnathii var. nov.

Frustule in girdle-view long keel-shaped with round edges, septa deep
piercing. Intercalary band feeble, sinuous. Valve-view narrow club-
shaped, broad at the apical pole, narrowing towards the basal pole. Basal
pole round. Transapical striations distinct throughout. Pseudoraphe
prominent (text-fig. 34 a, b, c, d).

Long. frustule, 90-105.
Lat. frustule, 5. 3
Transapical striations, 20-28 in 10..

The Indian diatom resembles ZL. grandis (Kttz.) Grun,, (Hustedt, op.
cit., p. 76, fig. 608, 1931-32) due to its general characters, But it differs
from the same in possessing sinuous to almost straight intercalary band.
It further differs from the type in having narrower frustules with greater
number of transapical striations.

Habitat : Veraval, Porbandar. Epiphytic on Ceramzumi..

Accedit ad speciem typicam multis in notis ; ab ea recedit fascia inter-
calari sinuata vel fere recta, frustulis angustioribus, striis transapicalibus
pluribus.

32, Licmophora communis (Heib.) Grun. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 79,
fig. 610, 1931-32.

Frustule wedge-shaped in girdle-view with round edges. Septa deeply
piercing. Intercalary band sinuous. Valve-view club-shaped with broad
round apical pole. Margin straight, but concave near the basal pole.
Transapical striations faint in the apical part, while prominent in the basal
region. Pseudoraphe distinct (text-fig. 35 a, b).

Long. frustule, 36-39.
Lat. frustule, 6-7.
Transapical striations, 12 in LO.
The form resembles the type closely.
Habitat : Dwarka. Epiphytic on the basal disc of Dictyota.

33, Climacosphenia littoralis sp, nov.

Frustule in girdle-view wedge-shaped with perfectly straight margins,
Intercalary bands straight, running throughout the length of the frustule
with numerous septa. Frustule in valve-view club-shaped with circular
ends, broad at the apical pole narrowing towards the basal pole. Septa
irregularly round to oval, larger in the upper portion, while smaller in the
lower region becoming ovalin shape. ‘Transpical striations fine, straight.
Striations in the middle portion of the shell finely punctate. Punctae
minute irregularly disposed (text-figs, 36 a, b, c), ;

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Text-figs. 32-34 d.—Fig. 32, 33, Licnophora paradoxa (Lyngb.) Ag. var.
media, var. nov. girdle- and valve-view, Figs. 34 a, b, Licmophora grandis (Ktitz.)
Grun., var. sommnathii var. nov. girdle- and valve-view showing septa and trans-

apical striations. Figs. 34 c, d, same, showing apical and basal parts of the valve-
view. (32; 33, 34:c, dl. x 2800;.34 a, b, x. 1400).

Long. frustule, 380-460,.

Lat. frustule at the apex, 40-58.

Lat. frustule at the middle, 20-35y.

Lat. frustule at the base, 10-13,.

Striations in the upper portion, 25 in 10u.
Striations in the middle portion, 10-12 in 10u,
Striations in the lower portion, 14-20 in 10u,

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The Indian diatom resembles the type Climacosphenia moniligera
Ehrenb. (Hustedt, op. cit., p. 89, figs. 625, 626, 1931-32) in possessing
keel-shaped frustules in the girdle-view, having straight margins, and
club-shaped in the valve-view. It further agrees with the same in having
numerous septa and well developed transapical striations which are
punctate in the middle part of the frustules. The Indian diatom, however,
differs from the same in having more or less round to oval septa, while
in the type they are roundish to elliptical. Further the present form has
irregularly disposed punctae in the middle region, and the number of
transapical striations also vary from those of the type for the corres-
ponding regions. Moreover, the frustules of the Indian diatom are
broader.

Habitat : Dwarka, Epiphytic on Chamaedoris.

Species haec indica accedit ad monzligeram Ehrenb. frustulis carinatis,
marginibus rectis aspectu zonali, clavatis vero aspectu valvali, septis
plurimis, striis transapicalibus bene evolutis punctatis in media parte
frustulorum; ab ea tamen recedit septis plus minusve rotundatis vel
ovalibus, punctis irregulariter dispositis in regione media, striis trans-
apicalibus numero diversis ; porro frustulis latioribus.

34, Plagiogramma pulchellum Grey, var, intermedia var, nov.

Frustules rectangular in girdle-view, margins straight with round
edges. Valve linear-elliptic with blunt round edges. Pseudoraphe deep,
piercing. One pair in the middle anda single on each end of the valve.
Transapical striations punctate, bigger in the middle than those on the
ends, punctae in long radial rows (text-fig. 37).

Long. frustule, 19-21b vu.
Lat. frustule, 4-5.
Striations, 5-8 in 10u.
Punctae, 7-9 in 10u.

The present form resembles Plagiogramma pulchellum Grev. var.
pigmea (Grev.) Pergallo, (Hustedt, op. cit. p. 108, fig. 634, 1931-32)
closely in general structure, but it differs from the same in being larger
in size and in possessing lesser number of transapica! striations.

Habitat: Bombay. In sediment. -

Accedit ad speciem typicam structura generali, recedit vero magni-
tudine ampliore et numero striarum transapicalium minore.

35, Podocystis ovalis sp. nov.

The frustules are attached with their basal pole to the thallus of
Polysibhonia by means of a gelatinous cushion. The shell is oval: in
valvar-plain. Valve membrane traversed by apical and_transapical
striations, which form a net-like system. The striations are areoled, which
are round, slightly elongated, that iS, oblong in shape (text-fig. 38).

Long. frustule, 52-58.

Lat. frustule, 42-481.
Transapical striations, 6 in 10u.
Areoles, 8 in 10.

The present diatom resembles Podocystzs sbathulata (Shadb). Heurck.
(Hustedt, op. cit., p. 133, fig. 653, 1931-32) on account of a more or less
similar shape, and in the possession of apical and transapical striations
which are areoled. It, however, differs from the same in being oval or
egg-shaped instead of spathulate, Further in comparison to the above type

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 555

the Indian diatom has smaller frustules. Moreover, the transapical
striations are More prominent and the areolation is in one row, further the
apical axis of the Indian form is broader than that of P. spathulata.
Habitat: Okha Port, Dwarka. Epiphytic on. Polystphonia.
Proxima P. spathulatae Heurck. forma, et aliis notis; ab ea differt
forma ovali nec spathulata, frustulis minoribus, striis transapicalibus pro-
minentioribus, areolatione uniseriata, axi apicali latiore.

36. Frigilaria cylindrus Grun. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 152, fig. 665, 1931-32.

Frustules occurring in thick bands, rectangular in girdle-view. Valve
linear with broad round ends. Transapical striations prominent. Pseudo-
raphe very narrow (text-fig. 39).

Long. frustule, 10-131.
Lat. frustule, 3-5.
Transapical striations, 20 in 10...
The form resembles the type closely.
Habitat: Okha Port, Bombay. In sediment.

37, Synedra kashyapiens Sp. nov.

Frustules existing individually. Valve narrow, linear to lanceolate
with slightly curved round ends. ‘Transapical striations prominent.
Pseudoraphe distinct, narrow and linear, centrai hyaline area absent (text-
fig. 40).

Long. frustule, 45-638.
Lat. frustule, 4-5y.
Transapical striations, 13-14 in 10.

The present diatom resembles Synedra duvestiens Smith (Hustedt, op,
cit., p. 209, fig. 699, 1931-32) in its general construction, but it differs from
the same in having larger frustules possessing greater number of trans-
apical striations. Further the pseudoraphe is not as narrow, but broader
than that in the Smith’s species.

Habitat: Porbandar, Veraval. In the sediment.

Ad 5S. investientem Smith accedit structura generali, ab ea differt
frustulis largioribus, numero majore striarum transapicalium, pseudoraphe
latiore.

38, Synedra famelica Kiitz. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 210, fig. 701, 1931-32,

Frustules individually existing. Valve broad-lanceolate, narrow in
the lower portion with round apices. ‘Transapical striations fine. Pseudo-
taphe very narrow and hardly recognisable. Central hyaline area
absent (text-fig. 41).

Long. frustule, 36-39«.
Lat. frustuJe, 3-4.
Transapical striations, 15-18 in 10u.

The form closely resembles the type, but possesses lesser number of
transapical striations.

Habitat: Porbandar, Veraval. In sediment.

39. Synedra hyperborea Grun. var. rostellata Grun. Hustedt, op. cit.,
p. 217, figs. 709 k, 1, 1931-32.

Frustules occurring individually, valve linear-lanceolate, abruptly

narrowing towards the apices, round on the poles, Transapical striations

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

extremely fine, pseudoraphe narrow and linear, central hyaline area absent
(text-fig. 42),
Long. frustule, 50-551.
Lat. frustule, 4.
Transapical striations, 24 in 10w.
The present form closely resembles the varietal type.
Habitat: Dwarka. Epiphytic on Bryopszs and Laurencia.

40, Synedra tabulata (Ag.) Kiitz. var. fasiculata (Kitz.) Grun.
Hustedt, op. cit., p. 218, figs. 710 i-1, 1931-32.

Frustules freely occurring. Valve long-lanceolate, without curved end,
poles broad, round, transapical striations short and fine. -Pseudoraphe
broad and distinct (text-fig. 43),

Long. frustule, 39-52.u.
Lat. frustule, 6.
Transapical striations, 11-12 in 10u.
The form resembles the varietal type closely.
Habitat: Bombay. Enpiphytic on the thallus of Pune

41, Synedra closterioides Grun, Hustedt, op. cit., p. 222, fig. 712 ;
1931—32.

Frustules curved like a bow, bulged in the middle narrowing towards
the bent apices. Transapical striations very fine, pseudoraphe narrow and
uniform throughout (text-fig. 44).

Long. frustule, 32-48.

Lat. frustule, 3-41.

Transapical striations, 20 in 10.u.
The form agrees well with the type.
Habitat: Bombay. Epiphytic on Cladophora.

42, Cocconeis clandestina Schmidt. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 331, fig. 784,
TOSIESZ.

Frustules attached to Déctyota thallus with their raphe-shell. Ellipti-
cal in valvar plain, intercalary band and septa absent. Rapheless shell or
the epitheca with flat transapical striations. Intercalary space between
the striations prominently punctate, punctae big and round, towards the
poles in three rows, in the middle there are usually two rows only. The
punctae system is in straight line; pseudoraphe linear hyaline. Raphe-
shell or the hypotheca with fine radial transapical punctate row, punctae
arranged in long faint wavy rows. Raphe straight, axial area narrow,
central area round bulged. Valvar margin hyaline (text-fig. 45),

Long. frustule, 13-28..

Lat. frustule, 13-20u.

Transapical striations on the epitheca, 6-10 in 10..
Punctae on the epitheca, 7-9 in 10.

Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 18 in 10u.

The form closely resembles the type.

Habitat: Dwarka. Epiphytic on Dictyota.

43. Cocconeis costata Greg. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 332, fig. 785, 1931-32.

Frustules epiphytic on Lryofszs, hypotheca and epitheca similar, ellip-
tic in outline, Epitheca with prominent radial transapical ribs or striations

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Text-figs. 35-43, Figs. 35 a, b, Licmophora communis (Heib.) Grun, girdle- and
valve-view. Fig. 38 a, b, Climacosphenia littoralis sp. nov. frustules in girdle- and
valve-view, | showing intercalary band and septa. Fig. 36 c, a part of the same,
Showing striations and punctae. Fig. 37, Plagiogramma pulchelluna var. inter-
media var. noy. valve-view. Fig. 38, Podocystis ovalica sp. nov. frustule in
valve-view, shoWing areoled transapical striations. Fig. 39, frustule, showing stri-
ations. Fig. 40, Synedra kashyapensis sp. nov. frustule, showing striations.

ig. 41, Syzedra famelica Kiitz. frustule, showing striations. Fig. 42, Synedra
hy perborea Grun. var. vostellata Grun. frustule with striations. Fig. 43, Synedra
tabulata (Ag.) Kitz. var. fasiculata (Kitz,) Grun. frustule. with striations. (35 a
b, X 1530; 36 a, b, X 700; 36 c, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, X 2800; 38, X 1400).

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Interspaces between the striations distinctly areoled, areoles arranged in
quincunx, pseudoraphe narrow, hyaline and linear. Hypotheca traversed
by transapical striations, raphe straight, axial area very narrow, hyaline,
margin with transverse bands (text-fig. 46).
Long. frustule, 18..
Lat. frustule, 13u.
Transapical striations on the epitheca, 12 in 10u.
Punctae on the epitheca, 15 in 10u.
Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 12 in 10x.
Punctae on the hypotheca, 16 in 10x.
The form possesses larger number of striations than the type, otherwise
closely agrees with it.
Habitat : Porbandar, Veraval. Epiphytic on Bryopsis.

44, Cocconeis californica Grun. Hustedt, op. cit, p. 343, fig. 796,
US lea sy45.*

Frustules with hypotheca and epitheca similar in outline, but differing
in punctations. Epitheca traversed by transapical punctae, striations
radially arranged, punctae in slightly wavy lines. Pseudoraphe narrow,
linear but slightly bulged in the middle. Hypotheca radially punctate.
Punctae fine. Raphe straight, axial area narrow hyaline, central knot
slightly bulged. Margin in the valves hyaline (text-fig. 47).

Long. frustule, 20-21..

Lat. frustule, 12-17,..

Transapical striations on the epitheca, 10 in 10wu.
Punctae on the epitheca, 9-12 in 10z.

Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 12 in 1lOw.
Punctae on the hypotheca, 11 in 10u.

The form closely resembles the type.

Habitat: Dwarka, Veraval. Epiphytic on Bryopszs.

45, Cocconeis placentula Ehrenb, var, euglypta (Ehrenb.) Hust. Hustedt,

op. cit., p. 349, fig. 802 c, 1931-32.

Frustules with elliptical hypotheca and epitheca. Epitheca with —
radial punctate striations. Punctae in thick long row. Pseudoraphe ©
narrow linear. Hypotheca with fine punctate transapical striae. Raphe
thin linear, axial area narrow, central knot distinct (text-fig. 48).

Long. frustule, 18-—21u.
Lat. frustule, 8-171.
Transapicai striations on the epitheca, 6 in 10xu.
Punctae on the epitheca, 12-15 in 10u.
Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 6 in 10x.
Punctae on the hypotheca, 14 in 10x.

The form closely resembles the type.

Habitat : Dwarka. Epiphytic on Chamaedorts.

46, Cocconeis dirupta Greg, var. flexella (Jan. and Rabh.) Grun. Hust-
edt, op. cit., p. 354, figs. 809, d-i, 1931-32.
Frustules attached to Gracilaria thallus, both hypotheca and epitheca
are elliptically broad. Jipitheca with wavy, remote, radial transapical
striae in an intercrossing system. Pseudoraphe lanceolate and broad

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 509

pointed at the ends. Hypotheca with radial punctate transapical striations,
raphe sigmoid, axial area narrow (text-fig. 49).
Long. frustule, 26-441.
Lat. frustule, 15-17,.
Transapical striations on the epitheca, 12-18 in 10u.
Intersecting lines on the epitheca, 9-14 in 10.u.
Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 15-20 in 10w.
Punctae on the hypotheca, 16-21 in 10u.
The form closely agrees with the type in its structure.
Habitat: Dwarka, Veraval. Epiphytic on Gracilaria.

47, Cocconeis heteroides Hantz. Hustedt, op. cit. p. 356, fig. 811,
1931-32.

Valves elliptic. Epitheca with fine radial transapical striations, narrow
bow-shaped hyaline furrow between the striations. Pseudoraphe broad,
linear, oblique at the ends. Hypotheca with tansapical striations, thicker
towards the ends. Axial area hyaline. Raphe strongly sigmoid (text-fig.
50 a, b).

Long. frustule, 17-23 wu.
Lat. frustule, 14-16u.
Transapical striations on the auittnese, 28 in 10y.
Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 25-27 in 10x,
The form agrees well with the type.
Habitat: Dwarka, Porbandar. Epiphytic on Valon7opsis.

48, Cocconeis quarnerensis Grun. var. borgesensis var, nov.

Frustules elliptic lanceolate, epitheca with short radial striations touch-
ing the margin (marginal), central ones broad, lanceolate, with faint signs
of striations. -Pseudoraphe narrow, lanceolate. Hypotheca with strong
radial striations. Raphe straight, axial area very narrow. Central area
bulged and barrel-shaped (text-fig. 51).

Long. frustule, 23-42..

Lat. frustule, 10-16.

Transapical striations on the epitheca, 10 in 10w.
Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 10-12..

The present diatom resembles Cocconeis guarnerensis Grun, (Hustedt,
op. cit., p. 360, fig. 814, 1931-32) in having marginal transapical stria-
tions, and in its pseudoraphe being lanceolate, it further resembles the
same on account of its central area being bulged. It, however, differs
from the same in the possession of a barrel-shaped central area instead of
the circular as inthe type. Further, the transapical striations are greater
in number. |

Habitat: Okha Port. Epiphytic on Ceramdume.

Accedit ad speciem typicam striis marginalibus transapicalibus, pseudo-
taphe lanceolata, area centrali tumescente. Differt vero ab ea centro
doliiformi, striis transapicalibus pluribus.

49, Cocconeis pelta Schmidt. Hustedt. op. cit., p. 36/1, fig. 815, 1931-32.

Shell elliptical, epitimeca with radial transapical striations, and broad
irregularly punctate middle portion, hypotheca with transapical striations.
Raphe straight, axial area narrow. Central area more or less round (text
fig. 52).

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Long. frustule, 3ly.

Lat. frustule, 13.

Transapical striations on the epitheca, 18 in 10u.

Transapical striations on the hypotheca, 20 in lOw.
The form closely resembling the type differs in having bigger frustules.
Habitat: Porbandar, Veraval. Epiphytic on Bryopszs.

50. Achnanthes taeniata Grun. MHustedt, op. cit. p. 382, fig. 828, 1931-
SY
Frustules in bands. Vaive elliptic-lanceolate with broad round ends.
Transapical striations fine. Pseudoraphe distinct, linear, raphe straight
and thin, axial area very narrow, central area absent (text-figs. 53 a, b).
Long. frustule, 26-52.
Lat. frustule, 7-9y.
Striations, 20-25 in 10.
The form resembles the type closely.
Habitat: Porbandar. In sediment.

51. Achnanthes hauckiana Grun. MHustedt, op. cit., p. 388, fig. 834,
1931-32.

Frustules occurring freely. Valve slightly elliptic to lanceolate with
narrow ends, which are wedge-shaped. Pseudoraphe distinct, linear-
lanceolate, raphe pinnate, axial area narrow, central nodule slightly broad,
central area round. ‘Transapical striation strong, slightly radial to almost
straight (text-fig. 54).

Long. frustule, 46,..
Lat. frustule, 7.
Striations, 12 in 10u.

The diatom seems to be enjoying a wide distribution. It is stated to
be occurring in brackish-water as well as in hot springs and in the - Arctic
Coast of White Sea, op. cit., Hustedt, p. 289, 1931-32.

The form agrees well with the type.

Habitat: Dwarka. In sediment.

52. Achnanthes coarctata (Breb. ) Grun. var. elliptica Krasske. Hustedt,
op. cit., p, 420, figs. 872 d-e, 1931-32.

Valves linear elliptical with flat round ends, pseudoraphe narrow close
to the shell margin. Striations extending in the middle portion of the
valve, hypotheca with straight prominent raphe, striations slightly radial
(text-fig. 55),

Long. frustule, 48-781.
Lat. frustule, 8-12 u.
Striations, 9 in 10u.

The form resembles Achnanthes coarctata (Breb.) Grun. var. elliptica
Krasske, on account of possessing elliptic valve, in having radial striae,
marginal pseudoraphe, and straight raphe. But it differs from the same
in valves being longer and in having slightly wider striations.

Habitat: Porbandar. In sediment.

53, Achnanthes arctica Cleve. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 423, fig. 876, 1931-32.

Valves linear-elliptic with broad round ends and slightly concave sides.
Pseudoraphe slightly wavy and narrow, central area absent. Striations
vertical, arranged in more or less long wavy rows (text-fig. 56).

LITTORAL. MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST

561
46

47

| Db,

LOE gaititt

44

53b
Text-figs. 44-54Fig. 44, Synedra closterioides Grun., frustule, showing striations.
Fig. 45, Cocconeis clandestina Schmidt., frustule with punctae. Fig. 46, Cocconeis.
costata Greg. Fig. 47, Cocconeis californica Grun. Fig. 48, Cocconeis placentula
Hhrenb. var euglypla Cleve. Fig. 49, Cocconeis dirupla Greg. var. flexella (Jan.
and Rabh.) Grun. Fig 50a, b, Cocconeis hetevoides Haniz. Fig. 51, Cocconeis
guarnerensis Grun., var. bérgesensis var

(All X 2800),

nov. frustule, showing radial striations.
Fig. 52, Cocconeis pelta Schmidt. Figs. 53, a,b, Achnanthes taeniata Grun., frus-
tules with striations. Fig. 54, Achnanthes hauckiana Grun., frustule, showing stria-
tions.

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Long. frustule, 40-46u.

Lat. frustule, 7-llyv.

Striations, I5 in 10.
The form agrees well with the type.
Habitat: Bombay. In sediment.

54, Achnanthes brevipes Ag., var. intermedia (Kitz.) Cleve. Hustedt
op. cit., p. 425, figs. 877 d, e, 1931-32.

Valves linear-lanceolate with round ends. Narrow pseudoraphe.,
Striations straight and prominent (text-fig. 57).
Long. frustule, 38-45.
Lat. frustule, 10-l5y.
Striations, 9-10 in 10.
The Indian diatom closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Dwarka, Okha Port. In sediment.

55, Rhoicosphenia marina (Smith) Schmidt. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 432,
fig, 880, 193J-32.

Shell club-shaped with broad round apex, basal pole narrow, trans-
apical striations prominent, straight. Raphe straight extending almost
to the middle of the frustule. Pseudosepta present (text-fig. 58).

Long. frustule, 13-15..
Lat. frustule, 3-5.
Striations, 20 in 10u

The form closely resembles the type.

Habitat : Okha Port, Dwarka. In sediment.

56. Diploneis incurvata (Greg.) Cleve, var. arabica var. nov.

Valves linear-elliptic, constricted in the middle, with round ends,
central nodule moderately small, almost quadratic in outline. Horns dis-
tinct, parallel, furrows broad. Transapical striations straight and well-
Soon on the poles radial, outer wall striated. Alveoli absent (text-
fig, 09)

Rene frustule, 42-52.

Lat. frustule in the middle, 10-13u.
Lat. frustule in the upper part, 17-20u.
Striations, 10-12 in 10x.

Though the Indian diatom resembles Diploneis incurvala (Greg.)
Cleve., (Hustedt, op. cit., p. 593, figs. b-d, 1937) in general structure, but
it differs from the same in possessing well-developed striations. The
Indian variety further varies from the same in the absence of alveoli.

Ad varietatem typicam accedit multis in notis; differt vero striis bene
definitis, absentia alveolorum.

57. Diploneis confecta (A. S.) Hust. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 609, figs. 1023
Bh [oh IWEMc
Valve linear-elliptic, constricted in the middle with round ends.
Central nodule long, quadratic in outline, apex rectangular, horns parallel
and strong. Raphe furrow broad, striations long, narrow, interrupted in
the middle, radially arranged in the lower portion, furrow region poroide
(text-fig. 60).

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST. COAST 563

Long. frustule, 52-58.
Lat. frustule in the middle, 11-13,
Lat. frustule in the upper portion, 16-18.
Striations, 7-8 in 1).
The form closely resembles the type.
Habitat : Okha Port. In sediment.

58. Diploneis crabro Ehrenb. forma suspecta (A, S,) Hust. Hustedt, op.
Cillts5 > BA, (eez, JUOZS) jo, IVEY
Valves linear-elliptic, ends wedged (acute) round, constricted in the
middle. Central nodule elongated quadrate in outline, horns strong,
parallel. Striations strong, radial. Raphe furrow broad. Outer wall
poroide (text-fig. 61).
Long. frustule, 52..
Lat. frustule in the middle, 13u.
Lat. frustule in the upper part, 18—20w.
Striations, 7 in 10u.
The form closely resembles the type form.
Habitat : Dwarka. In sediment.

59. Diploneis ovalis (Hilse) Cleve, var, oblongella (Naeg.) Cleve. Hustedt,
op. cit., p. 671, figs. 1065 t-k, 1937.

Valves broad elliptic, with broad rougd ends, central nodule very big,
roundish-oblong in outline. Horns strong, parallel. Raphe furrow very
narrow. Striations more or less prominent, distinctly radial, loculi
indistinct, outer wall poroide (text-fig. 62).

Long. frustule, 40-437.
Lat. frustule, 11-13.
Striations, 15 in 19.
The Indian diatom agrees well with the type.
Habitat: Porbandar, Veraval. ‘The form occurs in sediment.

60. Diploneis peterseni Hust. Hustedt, op. cit., p. 676, figs. 1068 f-h,
1937.

Valves linear-elliptic, with broad round ends and slightly convex
sides. Central nodule elongated, raphe furrow narrow, lanceolate.
Striations fine, straight, loculi wall finely poroide (text-fig. 63).

Long. frustule, 22-26.

Lat. frustule, 6-8.

Striations, 20-24 in 10u.
The form closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Dwarka, Bombay. In sediment.

61. Pinnularia directa Smith. Smith, A synopsis of the British Dia-
tomaceae, Vol. 1, London, p. 56, pl. xviii, fig. 172 b, 1853.
Frustules in girdle-view rectangular with round ends. Striations fine,
straight and parallel (text-fig. 64).
Long. frustule, 39-40.
Lat. frustule, 9-13.
Striations, 20 in 10w.
The Indian diatom closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Dwarka, Bombay. In sediment.
4

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

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Text-figs. 55-62.—Fig.55, Achnanthes coarctata (Breb.) Grun, Fig, 56, Achnan-
thes arctica Cleve. Fig. 57, <Achnanthes brevipes Ag.’ Fig. 58, Rhoicosphenia
marina (Smith) Schmidt. Fig. 59, Diploneis incurvata (Greg ) Cleve. var. arabica
var nov. frustule with striae. Fig. 60, Diploneis confecta (A. S.) Hust. Fig. 61,
Diploncis crabvo Ebrenb. forma suspecta (A. 8S.) Hust. Fig. 62, Diploneis ovalis
(Hilse) Cleve. Fig. 63, Diploneis petersent Wust. (All x 2800).

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 565

62, Pleurosigma nubecula Smith. Smith, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 64, pl. xxi,
oer, OIL, als}58},

Valves linear-lanceolate, very slightly sigmoid, ends Brace. striations
oblique, intercrossing, central raphe slightly sigmoid. Central area small,
oblong (text-fig. 65).

Long. frustule, 90--144.

Lat. frustule, 18-26u.

Striations, 2V in 10x.
The Indian form agrees well with the type.
Habitat: Dwarka, Bombay. In sediment.

63, Pleurosigma sirigosum Smith. Smith, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 64, pl. xxi,
fig. 203, 1853.

Valve lanéeolate to sigmoid with obtuse ends, raphe central, narrow
and sigmoid, central area narrow, round. Striations oblique intercrossing,
punctate (text-fig. 66).

Long. frustule, 200-221 .,

Lat. frustule, 30-33,.

Striations, 12-15 in 10u.
The form agrees closely with the type.
Habitat: Bombay. In sediment.

64. Amphora holsatica Hust. Hustedt, Pasher’s Susswasser-Flora, Heft
10, p. 345, fig. 633, 1930a. ty,

Frustules occurring freely, valves lunate with round ends, dorsal side
slightly concave. Raphe straight, parallel to the concave or ventral side.
Axial area narrow, towards the dorsal side. Transapical striations radial
punctate. Punctae big and round (text-fig. 67).

Long. frustule, 36-39.

--Lat. frustule, 6-8...

Striations, 12-14 in 10u,

Punctae, 12 in Ou. el ae

The form agrees well with the type, except that the ventral side is
slightly concave instead of being straight.

Habitat: Bombay. In sediment.

65. Amphora caffeaeformis Ag, var, africana. [Fritsch et Rich, Trans,
Roy. Soe. S. Africa, Vol. XVIII, pt. 2, p. 112, figs. 8 a-d, 1930.
Valves lunate, with the dorsal side convex, the ventral side is straight
ot slightly arched, ends elongated and capitate, striae fine and radial, axiai
area narrow. ‘Raphe straight (text-fig. 68). atic VOR
Long. frustule, 22—26u. ~
Lat. frustule, 3-4.
Striations, 15-17 in 10z..
The form agrees well with the varietal type.
Habitat: Dwarka. In sediment. 4:

66. Amphora salina Smith.” Smith, op. cit. Vol. I, p. 19, pi. xxx; fig.
1 BEN sus MEG eehae gn ERED od Bova |

Frustule in the girdle-view elliptic truncate. Ends slightly produéed
and round. Striations straight and fine (text-fig. 69).

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Long. frustule, 15-17.

Lat. frustule, 6—7u.

Striations, 15 in 10u.
The form closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Okha Port. In sediment.

67. Amphora costata Smith, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 20, fig. 253, 1853.
Frustules ellipsoidal, in girdle-view longitudinally striated, with
straight striae. Ends produced and round (text-fig. 70).
Long. frustule, 30-33u.
Lat. frustule, 18-20u.
Striations, 15 in 10u.
The form closely resembles the type.
Habitat: Okha Port. In sediment.

68, Bacillaria paradoxa Gmelin. Smith, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 10, pl. xxxvii,
fig. 279, 1853.

Valves linear, spindle-shaped, with a row of carinal dots situated in
the middle portion of the valves. ‘Transapical striations extremely fine,
straight throughout (text-fig. 71).

Long. frustule, 68-75.

Lat. frustule, 6-7.

Striations, 24-28 in 10u.

Carinal dots, 8-9 in 10u.
The Indian diatom closely agrees with the type.
Habitat: Porbandar, Veraval. In sediment.

69. Nitzschia sigma Smith. Smith, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 39, pl. xiii, fig. 108.
1853. °

Valves lanceolate, sigmoid, gradually tapering towards the truncate
ends. Striations finely punctate, punctae in double row (text-fig. 72).
Long. frustule, 52—60 pu.
Lat. frustule, 5—6 py.
Striations, 8 in 10 pz.
Punctae, 16 in 10 u.
The form agrees well with the type.
Habitat: Dwarka. In sediment.

The present investigation comprises a study of 69 forms of littoral
benthic diatoms belonging to Okha Port, Dwarka, Porbandar, Veraval and
Bombay on the West Coast of India. Out of the total forms enumerated
above, 45 are found to be epiphytic on the various higher algae; the rest,
that is, 24 occur in the sediment. Amongst the three classes of algae, that
is Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae, the members of the
Chlorophyceae harbour the Jargest number of epiphytes and Cladophora
amongst these constitutes the most accommodating host. Thus, as men-
tioned in the habitat of each form, 5 members of the Centrales and 3 of
the Pennales are found epiphytic on Cladophora. ‘This preference of the
Chlorophyceae by a large number of the diatoms seems to be mainly
due to the similar ecological conditions suitable to their chlorophycean
hosts. ‘The occurrence of the hosts in any one of the above places is in
the protected localities of the intertidal region, like pools and puddles.

LITTORAL MARINE DIATOMS FROM THE WEST COAST 567

TT

On

68

Mi

SCAT

Fig. 65, Pleurosigma
nubecula Smith. Fig. 66, Pleurosigma strigosum Smith. Fig. 67, Amphora holsa-

Text-figs. 64—72.—Fig. 64, Pinnularia directa Smith.

tica Hust. Fig. 68, Amphora caffeaeformis Ag. var. africana Fritsch et Rich.
Fig. 70, Amphora salina Smith. Fig. 71, Bacillaria paradoxa Gmelin. Fig. 72,

Nitgschia sigma Smith, (66x 790; rest x 2,800).

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

In view of the present observations it is interesting to note that the same
host when growing in exposed localities, does not bear any epiphytic
form. In respect of the epiphytic nature of the two groups of diatoms,
there appears a more or less balance. However, the Pennales show greater
epiphytism than the Centraies because out of the 45 epiphytes,
only 20 belong to the Centrales, while 25 are Pennales. The study
of the diatoms present in the sediment indicates absence of centric
diatoms.

In conclusion, the author expresses his great indebtedness to Prof.
Y. Bharadwaja for his kind guidance and criticism throughout the course
of this investigation.

LITERATURE CITED

De-Toni, J. BE. (1891-94): Sylloge Baciilariearum Omnium Hucusque Cogni-
tarlimsc, bangeleeZ aos

Fritsch, F. E. (1935): The structure and reproduction of Algae, Part, 1, Cam.
Univ. Press.

Hustedt, F. (1930 a): Bacillariophyta (Diatomee), Pascher, Stisswasserflora
von Mitteleuropa, Heft X, Jena.

Hustedt, F. (1930 b,-31,-37): Die Keiselalgen, Deutschland, Osterreichs und der
Schweitz, Rabenhorst, Kryptogamenflora, Band VU, Teil 1, 2, Lief 1-2.

Iyer, G. R., Menon, K., and Menon, G. K. (1936) : Elankton records for the years
1929 and 1930, Journ. Madras Univ. 8.

Kolbe, R. W. (1932): Grundlinien Einer Allgemeinen Okologie Der Diato-
meen, Sonderabd. aus Ergeb. der Biol. Ach. Band.

Menon, M.A. S. (1945): Observations on the seasonal distribution of the plank-
ton of the Trivandrum Coast, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sct., 22, Sect. B, No. 6.

Menon, S. K. (1931): A preliminary account of the Madras Plankton, Rec. Ind.
Museum, 33-

Smith, W. (1853, 1856): A synopsis of the British Diatomaceae, Vols. 1
and 2,

Subrahmanyan, R. (1946): A systematic account of the Marine Plankton
Diatoms of the Madras Coast, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 24. Sec, B, No. 4,

THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KARWAR

[HALIAETUS LEUCOGASTER (GMELIN)]
BY

R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI
AND
K. S. LavKUMAR

(With two plates)
PART I
ed se ty 1D.

I was at Karwar on inspection duty from December 20 to 22,
1955, a place that I would call one of the most beautiful coasts of
India. Karwar itself is a small port, situated on the western coast
of India, 14° 49’ N. and 74° 8’ E., with a population of about
78,700. There is a beautiful harbour surrounded by evergreen forest,
thickly wooded with trees and a great variety of fauna and flora.
I was staying with a friend Shri D. V. Narurkar, Sub-Divisional
Forest Officer, Western Kanara Forest Division, Honavar, who showed
me round the town, the adjoining forest area, and the beach between
the harbour of Karwar and the mouth of the Kali Nadi. It is here
that many of the fishing boats land their catches and also the fisher-
men drag their nets in the shallow waters for ‘Bangda’ and other
small fish. And it was at this beach that I saw groups of 4o to
50 Brownheaded Gulls in winter plumage. They were so tame as
to permit me to approach within 30 or go ft. and, when the fish
were caught, they would all fly at a few feet above our heads. What
surprised me was that even Common Kites joined in the melee and
were almost touching the Gulls without causing any alarm.

The green wooded hills as a background to the white sands of
the beaches, and the blue sea with sailing boats in the foreground,
seen from a country craft, makes a superb tableau difficult to compare
with any other part of the world. I was sailing in a fishing boat,
heading towards the lighthouse on Deogad island, also known as
Oyster Rock, 10 miles away from Kodibag. Kodibag is a small
landing place and a harbour for ‘dhows’ on the Karwar side, at the
mouth of the Kali Nadi. Across the river, the conspicuous white
dome of the temple at Sadashivgadh could be clearly seen about a
mile away. My arrival at Karwar had been from this side, over
Anshi Ghat, and I had crossed by a ferry to the small landing jetty
at Kodibag. Now, I was in a ‘machwa’—a medium sized fishing boat
-—sailing silently but speedily over the sea to the lighthouse at Deogad.
The east wind filled the sails and we crossed the bay as we sped
to our destination. There was a slight swell, caused by the strong
east wind which made the white horses fret. The sun was bright
but pleasant as the air was cold. Many Brownheaded Gulls were

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

seen flying singly, but the spectacular performances of the Lesser and
Large Crested Sea Terns, diving perpendicularly into the water and
submerging for a second or two after their prey—small fishes—were
most exciting to watch. There did not appear to be a large variety
of sea birds at this time. On our return, we passed two islands,
Kuramgad and Mudlingad, which means middle island; the first is well
clothed with trees such as coconut palms and mango, and the second
is well wooded and an abode of large and small birds. In half an
hour we reached Deogad. Close to this island there is an_ islet
covered with thick vegetation, and in the strait which divides this islet
and Deogad we came slowly to a stop and, then, as the water was
not very deep we punted our way to the landing of cobbled stones
where red crabs and oysters were clinging to the rocks. My guide on
this trip was Shri M. A. Gokarna, the Range Forest Officer, Karwar,
who knew the head lighthouse-keeper fairly well. We disembarked
and walked up the steps to the hill-top where we were greeted hy
the keeper himself, Shri .B. J. Noronha, who welcomed us to his
house. Mr. Noronha is a short, thin and rather frail-looking man
of middle, age, and I wondered how he could weather the seas and
storms. My doubts, however, were soon to be removed, for while
inspecting the surrounding islands I found him to be as nimble as
a monkey and as sure-footed as an ibex. I saw him jumping from
rock to rock and climbing down steep rocky crags and up again.
He knew every bit of the islands around Deogad, and Deogad itself,
but this was not all. He knew all the common animals and birds
existing on the island although he was not quite aware of their
names. As I introduced myself and listened attentively to his ex-
periences at fishing and his acquaintance with the natural fauna of
the islands, I was learning something from an intelligent man who
had carefully observed the movements of bird and animal life of the
surroundings. He was a Robinson Crusoe, but with a large family
of seven children. His hospitable wife looked after me during imy
sojourn on the island. As we were talking of birds, a big grey bird
floated past and I immediately guessed it to be a sea eagle. I watched
it for some minutes as it slowly soared higher and higher, keeping
its wings well above the horizontal, in a wide ‘V’ shape. The broad
black border to the white under-wing, ash-brown upper parts and the
black wedge-shaped tail broadly tipped with white gave me an indica-
tion that it was a Whitebellied Sea Eagle. I immediately recailed
the ‘Birds of Travancore-Cochin’ by Salim Ali, in which the descrip-
tion of this eagle fitted the bird perfectly. As I watched the bird,
I felt there was no doubt regarding my identification and I audibly
mentioned the Whitebellied Sea Eagle. No sooner had I uttered the
name, Mr. Noronha told me with nonchalance that the bird had been
breeding on the island since the past few years. My observation of
this species was merely confined to the bird I had seen in Saurashtra
many many years ago, and I was completely unaware of the
habits and behaviour of this majestic sea eagle, other than what
I had recently read in an article by Loke Wan-Tho, the renowned
Malayan ornithologist, in the Journal, Vol. 50 No. 3. The first im-
pression I got of the bird when I saw it from below was. that
of a pelican without its long bill, and then, when I had watched the

‘THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KARWAR 571

bird a number of times when it was flying in the same horizontal line
as my eyes, it gave me the impression of a gigantic Blackwinged Kite,
particularly because of the short white-tipped tail which could not be
seen to be wedge-shaped from a great distance, and the manner in
which it held its wings. Mr. Noronha took me up the lighthouse
and I was admiring the beautiful seascape with all the different islands
along the shore some miles out at sea. It gave me a reminiscent
touch of the Scandinavian coast and its Fjords. I used my binoculars
and looked across on the north-western side, focussing on an islet with
steep rocks and boulders and with a few stunted trees clinging on
to the little soil that had been preserved by a narrow top layer of
grass. There I discovered a nest of the sea eagle and I could see
a bird standing over the nest. The excitement was great, for I[
wondered what was inside the nest. Was the bird breeding? I
spoke to Mr. Noronha and we decided to paddle up to this litle
island after lunch in his small fishing boat. Now I was most
interested, and soon we were on our way to the islet which, at its
nearest portion to Deogad, was only about 250 yards away. Since
the boat house was further away we had to paddle about half a mile
to reach the beach-head where we could land without colliding with
the large out-cropping of rocks that shielded the islet. Mr. Gokarna
had joined us on this trip, and after landing we soon made our way
to a point opposite the nest. At this point we were almost level with
the nest, though slightly lower. As soon as I aimed my cine-
camera lens towards the bird which was sitting on the nest, she flew
off and revealed to me two young eaglets in white downy coats. The
larger of the two had some brown feathers on the scapula and neck,
but the other was completely white. As soon as we had shown our-
selves the parent bird started flying over our heads and crying
vigorously in a characteristic Kyadnk—Kyank. She would not leave
us for some time; then she flew out towards the sea and again returned
with her mate. Now both the birds were flying over us though well
apart, and then one, which I considered to be the male, flew out of
sight. I watched the other bird and was most impressed by the
magnificent style in which she was gliding and soaring. She would
catch the wind currents and soar in circles rising rapidiy and I
could see that the wide ‘V’ shape angle helped her considerably in
gaining height. The remarkable way in which she could do this
can only be compared with’ birds I have seen soaring in similar
manner such as the Blackwinged Kite, Pale Warrier, Short-
toed Eagle, and, to some extent, Buzzards and Tawny Eagles.
But this bird, of all, seemed to me really outstanding. For a long
time I watched her closely, catching the air currents and rising rapidly
into the sky in wide circles. Soon after we had reached the top
we flushed a large Monitor Lizard which ran down the grassy slope
and over the rocks, till almost into the sea, and disappeared among
some crevices. If only the eagle had dived down it would have made
a superb picture but it appears that these eagles were disturbed by
our visit, besides being partial to marine life for their food. Since time
was short and I had to leave for other work I was obliged to return
to the lighthouse and then proceed to the mainland. I talked to
Mr. Noronha, requesting him to cooperate by assisting a friend of mine,

~I

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Or

who might like to come here on a bird expedition to photograph the
sea eagles at their nest. Mr. Noronha cordially acquiesced in my
plans and I had no difficulty in persuading my friend Shri K. S.
Lavkumar to visit the island. His interesting story of a week spent
in what I have called the ‘Kankan’ expedition follows. ‘Kankan’ is
the local and appropriate name of the sea eagle, derived from its call,
and I have named the nest islet, ‘Kankan’. Another islet close-by,
when seen from ‘Kankan’ islet, looks exactly like a submarine without
ifs periscope, and this may aptly be called ‘Submarine’ islet! I hope
these names will be accepted as appropriate.

PART Il
BY K.'S.°L.

On January 12, 1956 I embarked at Bombay on my first sea voyage
with much misgiving regarding my capabilities as a sailor. But finding
no increase in the rolling of the ship as the twinkling lights of
Bombay receded in our wake, I cautiously began to enjoy the cool
breeze in the face and the rush of the sea alongside the ship. Super-
stitiously I touched wood to ensure against some sudden storm.

I was up early the following morning to watch a tall-sailed dhow
ride past against a watery dawn. Immediately the sun’s first rays
struck the water, the grey of the sea blazed up into shimmering gold
that changed to a blue challenging the clear winter sky overhead.
But the colour was never the same for long, often and evanescent green
crept over to become a rich brown as we passed over beds of aquatic
weeds. White-sailed dhows strung the entire coast faintly visible eight
miles to the east.

Surprisingly the first living thing I saw, apart from man and his
manifestations, was a butterfly, the common black variety of our
gardens. I saw many of these frail things battling against air currents
that carried them further and further to their doom. Schools of por-
poises splashed past all seemingly headed north. Brownheaded Gulls
fed on the surface singly and in small parties. Blackheaded Gulls
were less in evidence. Yellowbilled Crested Terns flew buoyantly above,
plunging now and then in headlong dives after shoals of surfacing
fish. ily | py ak
The morning so uneventful to seasoned voyagers passed only too
quickly for me. At 2.00 p.m. the headland of Karwar was sighted.
The shore, now closer, had changed considerably and high wooded
hills came out to meet the sea in rocky capes and islands. Forest
grew down to the very edge of rocks denuded by the rough monsoon
seas. Fine sweeps of sand bordered the bay, and stands of Casuarinas
added a temperate charm to this coconut fringed coast. North
of the bay were the two large islands of Kurrumgadh and Mudlingadh.
Out to the north-west lay the Oyster Rocks, islands with the light-
house where I was to spend most of my stay.

THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KARWAR 543

January 14 being the Hindu day of Sankrant, local belief cautioned
me against going what was termed ‘overseas’, and I had to pass
the day idling along the beaches watching fishermen mending nets
and Brownheaded Gulls along the edge of the waves or Lesser Sand-
plovers among: sand-binding Ipomoea biloba; on spray wetted rocks
Common Sandpipers twittered while Common Kingfishers plunged after
multi coloured fish in tide-left rock-pools. In the afternoon I lay in
the balmy water of Cemetery Bay listening to sweet warbles of a Blue
Rock Thrush or gazing at a Whitebellied Sea Eagle high up in the
heavens.

Describing the bird to the proprietor of Grand Hotel, where |
stayed while in Karwar, I was agitated when he recognized the bird
as being a favourite dish among some of the locals. There was no
reason to suppose that Mr. D’Souza was mistaken, for he had been
an active companion to many European naturalists during their visit
to Karwar after butterflies and deep sea fish. I did, however, muster
all possible doubt when he imitated the call, sounding very like a
Black Ibis, and when he said that the bird was called ‘Kankan’ by
the fisher folk. In Saurashtra the Black Ibis is known as the Kankan.
To be ignorant is to be happy as I learnt a couple of days later
when I heard my birds call like Black Ibis and the lighthouse lascars
call them Kankans! My fears, allayed through ignorance, were
removed when the lighthouse-keeper Mr. Noronha, my host on the
islands, told me later in the evening that he had been to the eyrie
and that the eaglets were safe.

On the 15th morning Mr. Gokarna picked me up in a car and drove
me eight miles to the Kodibag ferry where a country craft had been
hired to take me and my equipment out to the lighthouse. It being
a Sunday, the entire Forest Office staff accompanied us to the islands
for a picnic, and we had a very merry morning indeed.

Only after they had returned to the mainland, sails straining to a
brisk afternoon sea-breeze, was I able to turn to the task in hand
and, following an introduction to Mr. Noronha’s charming wife and
children, we sat down over a cup of tea to plan the strategy for
photographing the eagles.

It was decided to set up the hide that very evening and observe
the birds’ reactions to it. Should they seem to pay no extra heed
to this new structure on the crag opposite them, I was to spend the
16th night on the eagle islet so as to be in the hide early to get
most out of the morning light which alone was suitable for photography
and observation. The afternoon sun set up strong reflections in the sea
backlighting the birds in shadowy relief.

Landing on the islet was a tricky business as it had to be done
on sea-swept rocks from the heaving boat. Thick beds of edible oysters
encrusted the rocks, giving some measure of hold to shod feet but
naked feet had to be placed with great care; oyster shells can give
nasty cuts. This islet consists of bare rocks rising some fifty feet
from the sea in two crags fifty yards apart. The very top, where the
monsoon waves cannot reach, is a thick mass of stunted trees, thorn
shrubs and wild plantains. The western and narrower pinnacle is
a little higher, and the eyrie was situated right on its top. The hide
was placed on the other cliff opposite the eyrie, among low shrubs

“I

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 53

Or

that provided a very useful camouflage. The only drawback was that
the inside of the nest was not visible, so that when the eaglets were
crouching on the far end, they could not be seen. The distance also
was a little too far even for the 300 mm. tele-lens. However, for
observations one could ask for nothing better, considering how nature
had provided a derrick for the hide, a thing necessary when photograph-
ing this bird, which normally builds on the tallest trees in the area
[see W. T. Loke’s article JBNHS, 50 (3)]. All previous observers
mention tall trees as the usual sites for nests. In ‘Nidification of
Indian Birds’ Stuart Baker writes: ‘Sometimes the birds make their
nest on very small islands, just a few rocks with a scanty scrub growth
and a few large trees’, but he does not go on to clarify whether
these large trees are invariably used or nests are placed on inaccessible
rocks themselves. According to him large trees in the centre of villages
are also used, the birds losing all fear of man and paying no heed to
his activities.

Looking from the base of the cliff, the nest appeared to be empty
and, fearing the worst, I scrambled to where the hide was to be placed.
To our relief the eaglets, two in number and fully fledged, were
crouching in the nest sheltering from a strong wind blowing in from
the sea. Both Stuart Baker and Jerdon mention two to be the usual
number of the clutch, but Mr. Loke found the bird he photographed
incubating only one egg. As this turned out to be addled, there is a
possibility there was something wrong with the hen.

While the scrub was being cleared and the hide erected, the parents
circled over several times uttering an anxious Keynch from time to
time finally leaving the vicinity of the islet altogether. I was struck
by the great expanse of their wings which they flapped very seldom,
hoiding them in a wide V over their backs and rising in great circles
with effortless grace. In general form they looked very like Black-
winged Kites at a distance, but overhead their pelican-like colouration
and their wedge-shaped tails were pointers to an unmistakeable identity.

There being still ample light, we scrambled up to the eyrie to take
a few closeups of the eaglets in their nest. On a platform some seven
feet below the nest were strewn pieces of skin and bones of sea
snakes. Perhaps because I appeared over the edge of the nest
the eaglets sprang up and ran to the other edge with wings
spread, the larger of the two becoming airborne. The second chick
failing courage sank down on the very rim, where it lay still all the
while we were on the eyrie. The first eaglet now assuming the
dimensions of a Tawny Eagle carried on straight ahead and, being
on its trial flight, could not turn to the rocks below but sailed into
the wind, sinking lower and lower till it struck the water a mere
speck among the waves. The only hope was to get the boat
round to rescue it before it became too waterlogged to float
or came to grief on the rocks. Mr. Noronha scrambled down
for the boat while I remained on top to guide him. As the light
was fast fading I took a hasty picture of the remaining bird. Turning
round I found I had lost the bird in the water. The boat had only
just left the island and I cursed myself for not having brought the
binoculars with me. Just when I was giving the whole thing up as
lost, a speck appeared in the glare set up by the setting sun, A

THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KARWAR 57

strong current was bearing it to the east of the island into the narrow
strait that lay between it and the main island. As the disc of the
sun touched the water, the rescue was completed and I started my
difficult descent. It was impossible to take the truant up to his home
in the dark and, fearing that our second appearance at the eyrie might
send the other chick in flight, we took him along with us to the
lighthouse, where he was adopted by the children and soon became
very tame taking fish proffered to him. He is now in the collection
of His Highness the Maharaja of Baroda who finds him a charming
pet. Should he survive to attain full maturity, he will provide a
tremendous opportunity to study the moulting of the juvenile plumage
in this species.*

Through field glasses it was possible to observe the birds clearly
from the western end of the main island. The hide apparently caused
no worry to the parents, and they visited the remaining chick with
utter unconcern. Once both the parents came to the nest together
but usually only one did so. The birds spent most of the morning in
the shade of overhanging trees on the eastern end of the island. A
third bird flew in from the sea to be attacked by the owners of the
eyrie uttering a loud and defiant kyank kyank kyank ... After
driving the intruder off, the victors circled around majestically calling
to each other in a Black Ibis kenk kenk kenk . ., Their great
pinions were long in proportion, very unlike the broad square-
tipped wings of other eagles, and seemed ideally suited for gliding,
an art they appeared to have perfected above all other great raptors.
They seemed to know, the value of each cliff for air currents to rise
effortlessly without any perceptible motion of the wings, and brought
to mind the lammergeier vulture of the Himalayas. But the speed of
the rise at almost perpendicular inclines was phenomenal. To watch
them glide along the crest of the waves, along a cliff and high up into
the heavens above, made one doubt the universality of the law of
gravity.

From my vantage point I saw that the Oyster Rocks were divided
between two pairs of sea eagles, the second pair having its stronghold
on the wooded island opposite the light boathouse. Their territories
met over the light and we witnessed many aerial battles from the
bungalow. Ten miles off Honaver, on Pigeon Island, Jerdon writes
of a colony of 30 nests all on large trees. ‘This island is used by the
Navy for shelling practice, and this community must now be a thing
of the past.

Though these eagles showed such resentment against their own
kind they never seemed to molest other birds of prey. I saw a
Longlegged Buzzard on the rocks on the lookout for crabs; a shikra
that was constructing a nest in one of the banyans often shared the
sky with them and an osprey, using the same vantage points as they.
Contrary to Jerdon’s observations I never saw them attempting to
wrest away prey from the osprey, though the latter would be flounder-
ing heavily with some large fish and entirely at their mercy. Only
once did a Brahminy Kite find itself at the receiving end of a power
dive, when it approached too close to the eyrie.

* A month later he was seriously mauled by a panther cub and died,

676 © JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

There were many other birds on the main island: Indian Orioles
flashed from tree to tree, Whitebreasted Kingfishers_dodged among
the boulders, occasional willow-warblers flitted in the undergrowth, while
a pair of wary House Crows nervously flew off when glanced at, no
doubt feeling guilty at having stolen some stray hen’s egg. Blue Rock
pigeons bred ia the cliffs, flighting to the mainland to feed. Blue Rock-
thrushes were very common, one perching on the wind vane atop the
light. On the wooded island I saw a Little Green Heron and a heronry
of Reef Herons right in the centre of the island. Over the oyster en-
crusted rocks nimble Turnstones followed the waves to pick up stranded
food, while Common Sandpipers were scattered singly along the shore
and a group of four Whimbrel led a shy life on the extremities of Eagie
Islet. Once a party of Redrumped Swallows sailed over. Mr. Noronha
told me that Flying Fox flew out from the mainland to feed on the ripe
banyan figs but apart from the friendly lighthouse dog, the only other
mammals I saw were an otter fishing at the edge of the surf, and
numerous porpoises in the sea around. Small brown lizards were
fairly common both in the grass and on the rocks above the tide. A
monitor lizard scampered into the undergrowth at my approach on
the wooded island. Snakes I was told were fairly plentiful on the
islands of Kurrumgadh and Mudlingadh. These are swept down by
the Kali River: during the monsoon deluges and swim on to these
islands near the estuary of the river. In years to come Oyster Rocks
will no doubt be colonised by their first serpent, ending for ever the
days when one could walk anywhere bare-footed and in the dark.
Small red ants swarmed on the eagle islet «and a few mosquitoes
hummed after dusk. Flies were absent.

Seeing that the eagles took no heed of the hide, I had myself
rowed across to the islet on the 16th evening and spent the night
outside the hide, to crawl in a little before dawn at 6.30 a.m. The
eaglet was lying down. The parent arrived at 8.30 with something in
its talons which I could not identify. Apparently the chick was not
hungry for it evinced no response. The adult calling several times
with neck outstretched, left the nest after a few minutes to return
again at 9.00 with a sea snake dangling from its talons. The second
parent joined it, beth calling loudly in their typical clanging note.
When together, it was possible to notice a great difference in their
sizes; the first bird, the hen, being very much larger. The smaller
bird came only when its mate was at the eyrie and then too without
any food except once when he landed with a serpent, only to take it
away again. He never ate while at the nest even if the hen was
doing so, nor did he stay for long. The regular frequency of the
larger bird’s visits might be explained by the cock passing his prey
over to her off the nest and she bringing it across to the young,
while she always bringing her catches direct to the nest, taking it
away if the youngster was not hungry, or feeding. herself on the
nest. While doing so, she passed dainty morsels to the chick. if it
came nudging up. At this age the parent still fed the chick though
very often it got up and ate by itself when alone.

In all identifiable cases the catch brought were sea aielkest and
remains collected at the eyrie were also those of these reptiles with
a single claw’ of a crab. The eaglet-in my possession ate the entire

Journ. BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Hen feeding the eaglet.

The cock arrives calling.

(Photos : kK, S, Lavkumar)

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate II

The eaglet, about two months old.

(Courtesy : H.H, Maharaja of Baroda) |

THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KARWAR B77

fish whatever its size, only leaving the gill covers of the larger
specimens. This could be the reason why no fish remains were found,
and no doubt examination of castings would provide the clue. That
sea snakes are the major item of diet at this time of the year is a
fact and, though both Dharmakumarsinhji and Noronha have seen
these birds with large fish, on no occasion while under observation
did this pair of eagles bring any. Even Jerdon found serpents the
major diet of these eagles at the Pigeon Island colony. Noronha’s
-explanation is very plausible; according to him, fish come less to the
surface in winter than at other times of the year when large numbers
of fish are captured. Serpents, on the other hand, are easy prey as
they surface for air.

The regularity of visits by the female was remarkable. On the
third sitting, finding my watch had run out I set it to her arrival and
found. that I was out by only half an hour, a deflection of little
consequence on an isolated island.

During the heat of the day, though the hen sat for long periods
beside the eaglet, she never attempted to shade it; on the contrary
she seemed to be at times in a hurry to get away to the trees at
the other end of the island. At night the eaglet was left to itself,
the parent arriving again at 8.30 a.m. next morning either with break-
fast or merely for inspection. At night the eaglets lay down with
their necks and heads stretched out in front. In the sun they often
spread their wings for sunning to get relief from mites that were
plentiful on their bodies. This attitude was also adopted as a show
of agressiveness. When approached with food the captive sometimes
called out, and once I heard the other eaglet similarly welcome iis
parent. The hen, on approach, was usually silent but on a couple
of occasions she uttered a subdued kench kench.

While the weather was settled, a land breeze always blew during
the morning, that is from the hide to the eyrie, and the birds approached
from the opposite side flying very low to become visible only just
before landing. A vagrant north wind that made approaching the
island mildly dangerous gave me grand opportunities to get the adults
in flight, for they now came in from the side flying high to drop
down on the nest. ‘The stiff breeze also seemed to have an exhilarat-
ing effect on the birds, for they flew around the eyrie landing and
‘taking off repeatedly, calling all the time. Heat and stiffness were
forgotten in the expectant thrill of watching these magnificent birds
show off their paces. |

When I look back on those days couped up in the confines of a
Aix 4 x 4" hide, once from six-thirty in the nrorning to six-thirty in
the evening, I wonder how I managed it. In all I spent four days
of varying lengths at the observation post, with a two-day leave on
the main island in between.

On January 22, prior to my leaving for the mainland and Bombay;
I visited the wooded island to locate the other pair’s eyrie. They
were still building it, coming for branches to the trees below the
lascar lines, diving down to wrench them off with their talons. This
nest we found up in a tall silk cotton tree, and close beside was an
older structure blown over. ‘The vegetation on this island was very thick
with great creepers, making walking difficult through the entwining

578

16th January
Observation from main
island

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

WHITEBELLIED SEA

OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER

17th January
| Observation from Hide

Ba

SETS ETS

18th January
Observation from Hide

9°30 Both parents at
nest. Feeding chick.

11:00 Parent flew to nest.

Chased an intruder.

11°30 Both parents visi-
ted nest, one with
sea snake. One with-
out food left immedia-
tely.

11:40 Other bird le.
eytie. Both settled in
shade.

13°45 A parent at nest.

14:15—14:45 A parent
at nest.

15:00 Observation stop-
ped.

8°30 9 brought food.

Left nest immediately.

9°00 2 brought food.
of joined her for short
time, left. 9 Fed her-
self. She flew away.
Piece of snake in
talons.

11°45 2 arrived and fed
eaglet.

12°20 ° left eyrie.

LOGY

18:30 2 arrived. Fed
eaglet.

18:50 2 left eyrie. Eag-
let feeding itself.

7°45 Parents flew around.

8-35 Both arrived. Q
With sea snake. (Jf
flew off carrying piece
of snake.

3-40) OMlcitiey nie:
845 2 returned with

food unidentified.
Fed itself. Eaglet not
interested.

9°00 2 fed chick while
feeding self.

9°05 Q left nest.

14 See Se aarrivedaamwith
food unidentified.
Watched young feed
itself.

14:20 2 circled around
and settled again.

14°30 2 flew out to sea,
Returned.

14°35 Relief party distur-
bed bird.

THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KARWAR

EAGLE AHALIAETUS LEUCOGASTER

AND TIME OF VISITS TO NEST

19th January
Observation from main
island

20th January
Observation from Hide

579

21st January
Observation from Hide

9°30 Entered hide. Dis-
turbed 2 feeding eag-
let.

8:30 Both parents at
nest.

10-45 2 returned but
left immediately carry-
ing away snake.

11-10 Q arrived. Sat be-
side eaglet.

1115 @ left.

11°30 Eaglet feeding it-
self,
12°20 one bird at nest. Meet - arrived with
food? #’ed chick.

14:45 A parent at nest. | 13:45 9 left nest.

Other bird circling
around. Former left
immediately. 13°50 Both birds arriv-

ed. o excited flew
around, landing for
short while. Both call-
ing. o flew off.

14:10 ° left.

14:13 @Q arrived with
food? Fed eaglet.

14°45 § arrived.

14°47 ¢ left.

14°50 returned.

Hees) $2 ike, MIE ola
With remains of snake.

14:58 ¢ left.

Observation stopped.

Game iestees arreriee tte CT LER ERE PE EIA r ORI BRED 5

| 8:45 Both parents atriv-

ed. Both with sea
snakes.
8:50 Both left. catry-
ing away snake.
90072 sreturmedae shed

self and chick.
9:03 9 left.

9:10 2 returned with sea
snake to carry it away
again.

12°50 Q arrived with
‘ood ?

13:05 & attempted to
land. Fiew off.

14°30 @ disturbed by
relief party.

SPS TADS RTPI EATER RE IO LT a SNARE TNT LE ESS, PID SOR LEAL EP

Faeroe +k
rae?

578

EEE

16th January
Observation from main
island

9:30 Both parents at
nest. Feeding chick.

11:00 Parent flew to nest.

Chased an intruder.

11°30 Both parents visi-
ted nest,
sea snake. One with-
out food left immedia-
tely.

11:40 Other bird le:-

eyrie.
shade,

13:45 A parent at nest.

14:15—14'45 A parent
at nest.

15:00 Observation stop-
ped.

one with |

Both settled in |

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

WHITEBELLIED SEA

OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER

17th January
Observation from Hide

8:30 2 brought food.
Left nest immediately.

9:00 @ brought food.
¢ joined her for short
time, left. 9 Fed her-
self. She flew away.
Piece of snake in
talons.

11:45 Q arrived and fed
eaglet.

12-20 9 left eyrie.

18:30 @ arrived. Fed
eaglet.

18-50 ¢ left eyrie. Eag-
let feeding itself.

at OU

18th January
Observation from Hide

7:45 Parents flew around,

8-35 Both arrived. @
with sea snake.
flew off carrying piece
of snake.

8-40 9 left eyrie.

845 2 returned with
food unidentified.
Fed itself. Eaglet not
interested,

9:00 2 fed chick while
feeding self.

9:05 @ left nest.

1415 2 arrived with
food unidentified.
Watched young fe2d
itself.

14-20 2 circled around
and settled again.

14:30 2 flew out to sea.
Returned.

14:35 Relief party distur-
bed bird.

THE WHITEBELLIED SEA EAGLES OF KARWAR

EAGLE AHALIAETUS LEUCOGASTER

AND TIME OF VISITS TO NEST

579

19th January
Observation from main
island

20th January
Observation from Hide

21st January
| Observation from Hide

8:30 Both parents at

nest.

12:20 one bird at nest.

1445 A parent at nest.

Other bird circling
around. Former left
immediately.

9:30 Entered hide. Dis-
turbed 2 feeding eag-
let.

10:45 2 returned but
left immediately carry-
ing away snake.

11:10 Qarrived. Sat be-
side eaglet.

| 11-15 9 left.

11:30 Eaglet feeding it-
self.

Test He
food ?

* arrived with
Hed chick.

13:45 2 left nest.

13:50 Both birds arriv-
ed. o excited flew
around, landing for
short while. Both call-
ing. di’ flew off.

1410 9 left.

1413 2 arrived with
food? Fed eaglet.

14:45 of arrived.

14:47 9 left.

14:50 f returned.

14:55 2 fed. Flew off

with remains of snake.

1458 ¢ left.

Observation stopped.

8-45 Both parents arriv-
ed. Both with sea
snakes.

8:50 Both left. carry-
ing away snake.

9:00 2 returned.
self and chick.

Fed

9:03 9 left.

9:10 2 returned with sea
snake to carry it away
again.

12:50 2 arrived with
food ?
it

13:05 j attempted to
land. Flew off.

14:30 2 disturbed by
relief party.

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISY, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

growth. On the main island only the larger trees were left with
scarcely any undergrowth. This was the work of goats allowed to
run around the house to provide the lighthouse family with fresh milk
but, when their depredations were directed toward the new mango
saplings, they had to be banished. The damage had already been
caused. However, in a few years the vegetation should regenerate
itself if the ban on goats is not lifted.

Haliaétus leucogaster is not uncommon along this coast, and in
the Karwar Bay alone I was able to make out six pairs, all presumably
breeding. Its loud clanging call is a familiar sound in Karwar thouga
few people recognise the originator as it flies at great heights. On ~
the islands the birds come very low and are well known to the fisher-
men. It is believed that when the -Kankan calls, there is sure to be
a SW. wind.

The co-operation and enthusiasm of all those I had to deal with
in Karwar has suggested another visit to the Oyster Rocks to gather
scientific data on this eagle. Thanks are due to R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji
of Bhavnagar who sponsored the venture right from its conception,
Mr. Gokarna of the Forest Department for looking after my interests
on the mainland, and finally to Mr. Noronha of the Oyster Rocks
Light without whose help and hospitality everything would have been
so much more difficult.

LITERATURE

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1922-30): Fauna of British India—Birds, Vols. I-VIII.
— — — (1932-4): Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire.
Jerdon, T. C. (1877): Birds of India.

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE BHILLANGNA
VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI GARHWAL STATE

BY
Raj KUMAR GUPTA, M.SC.

Government College, Tehri Garhwal
(With a map)
INTRODUCTION

To the scientific world, the flora of Tehri Garhwal is known orly
by collections of Davidson, Duthie, Gamble, King, Keshwanand and
others, who collected plants from the valleys of upper Tons, Pabar,
Rupin, and Ganga. Their collections are preserved in the herbarium
of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. - Little has been
published on the botany of the area, though much work has been
done on the botany of the neighbouring hills in Pauri Garhwal.
Osmaston has described the forest types of the Garhwal district lying
across the Himalaya; Troupe has given some notes on the vegetation
of the same. Some information has been recorded by Hooker in his
introductory essay in ‘Flora Indica’ and also in the chapter on the
vegetation of India in the Imperial Gazetteer of india, though all of
his personal experiences had been in Sikkim. Smythies, Champion,
Raturi, Keshwanand and other forest officers contributed some
important notes in connection with the distribution of vegetation.
Later on Dudgeon and Kenoyer described the ecology of Tehri Garhwal
based on their field notes on their trip to Gangotri in ig21. However,
in spite of the many papers on the region no systematic description of
plants has been given; further some areas of this district are still
untouched in the botanical sense. The present author has attempted
to explore some parts of the Bhillangna valley, and his notes may be
of interest to botanists and plant geographers alike.

This paper is based mainly on the observations made during
trips to Masar Tal lake (10,000 ft.) and the collections from Sahsru
Tal lake (16,000 ft.). The collections and observations were made
in the months of May and September respectively, and have been
supplemented_ by observations at Naini Tal and Mussoorie.

Sri P. N. Gupta, Divisional Forest Officer of Tehri Division,
accompanied and greatly helped me in my collection tours. My
specimens have been identified at the herbarium of the Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun, and are preserved in the herbarium of the
Government College at Tehri.

PHYSICAL FEATURES AND GEOGRAPHY

Tehri Garhwal is situated between lat. 30° 3’ and 31° 18’ N. and
long. 77° 53’ and 79° 28’ E., and has an area of about 4,500 sq. miles.
It is surrounded by Rawain and Bashahar in the north, Tibet in the

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS1T. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
east, Pauri Garhwal in the south and Dehra Dun in the west. It
lies entirely within the Himalayan ranges and consists of a series
of ridges separated by narrow valleys. The ridges run mainly from
northeast to southwest, radiating from lofty peaks on the border of
Tibet. .
The area is drained by two main rivers, the Ganga and the Yumna,
which come out of the district near Munikireti (Rishikesh) and Kalsi
(Dehra Dun) respectively. The river Ganga rises from Gaumukh
(13,750 ft.) and is known under the name of Bhagirathi; within the
area the Ganga is fed by the rivers Bhillangna and Alaknanda,
which meet the main stream at Tehri (2,278 ft.) and Deopryag
(1,474 ft.) respectively. This forms the southern boundary of the
district. The river Yumna rises from Bunderpunch (20,720 ft.) and
flows southwest and forms the western boundary of the district.
Burrard and Hayden divide the Himalayas into three zones; the
Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas and the Siwaliks. The area
of our explorations, according to them, lies entirely within the former
two zones. The Lesser Himalayas are roughly uniform in height,
between 6,o00 ft. and 10,000 ft. The greater Himalayas contain
snowy peaks, the average height of which exceeds 20,000 ft.; but
there are some deep river valleys. 7

GEOLOGY

The geological survey of the erstwhile Tehri Garhwal state has
contributed some information on the geology of the area, but the
information is rather scanty. The Lesser Himalayan peaks are
composed of a series of sedimentary rocks such as slates, quartzites,
conglomerates and limestones; the higher Himalayan region is made
of granite and crystalline rocks. The composition of the rocks from
ihe area varies greatly in colour, form and composition. However,
fossils have not been recorded so far from this area.

CLIMATE

The physical features of the district as a whole being so varied,
there is naturally great range in climate; the lower and outer ranges
have a climate similar to that of the plains; whilst the higher peaks
are covered with perpetual snows. As there are no meteorological
data available from the area itself, one must have recourse to the
stations near the edge of the mountains in Dehra Dun district.
Dehra Dun, at a height of about 2,223 ft. above sea level, has a
mean annual temperature of 71° F.; Mussoorie at 6,705 ft. has a
mean temperature of 57.4° F. Blanford gives a depression of about
1° F. for each 300 ft. rise in elevation in the Western Himalayas ; thus
at 11,000-12,000 ft., the mean temperature would be abeut 42° F.-
As 18

There is an increase in the dryness of the atmosphere from east
to west. The annual rainfall ranges from 32” at Tehri to 125” at
Narendranagar; at some places, however, there is a short spell of
misty weather, actual rainfall being rare. Schimper says (p. 694)
that ‘increasing altitude is associated with increase in alin alll Sree

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

° ele ‘
ae 8
’ gon
, R
a
a
4
q Ue
my \e
s§ y)
4
c Y | yu "ties
‘ .
rs y A Gy; pty
Se. os
= =: S.\HSRUTAL
x 6 \ fz
‘ t MASARTAL . =
nO rf
a ye RS ¥)
i S GANGI) », “Mleeataes ag
4 oN io»
- “A = ne See oe jase fe e?
d ” A S67
Y 9 = eee =
as
~
x N

1G
e

1 inch
Scale 1% == 10 Miles g

N
Area under exploration
W
Route followed
S

Tehri Garhwal showing Bhillangna Valley

>

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHR] GARHWAI. 583

up to a certain level’; above this level atmospheric precipitation again
diminishes. He quotes Hill (p. 695) that the line of greatest rainfall
in the Himalayas lies at 1,270 m. (4,165 ft.) above sea level. Here the
rainfall amounts to 3.7 times as much as in the neighbouring’ plains,
but at 3,000 m. (9,040 ft.) it is only 1/5 of the former. As data
on the rainfall of the district are not available, we can but guess the
rainfall from the records available from the adjacent hills in the
district of Dehra Dun. In Dehra Dun proper the annual rainfall
is 85”, in Rajpur (3,200 ft.) it is 119”, and at Mussoorie 94”. So
we may deduce that at a height of 9,840 ft. it must be 40”. The
northern slopes of the valleys receive much less precipitation; and
summer rains are scanty north of the snowy peaks.

Relative humidity is greatest at about 7,000 ft.; above this height
there are great fluctuations. The absolute humidity decreases with
falling temperature in passing to higher altitudes. As we pass
northwards the precipitation is in the form of snow. In general the
spring is sunny and moist due to winter rains and melting snows;
the summer is dry. The rainy season is warm with rains and high
humidity. Autumn is sunny and dry; while the winter is cold with
rains and low humidity. The climate is so different at varying
altitudes that no general statement can be made on the climate of the
whole area.

CLIMATIC ZONES

The entire area in the Bhillangna Valley can be divided into three
climatic zones very similar to Hooker’s three climatic zones of
Western Himalayas:

1. Tropical, extending up to 5,000 ft., i.e., a little above Ghansali.

2. Temperate, from 5,000 ft. to 12,000 ft., i.e., the upper limit of
trees, a little above Masar Tal.

3. Alpine, from 12,000 ft. to 18,000 ft., i.e.. the upper limit of
flowering plants.

Tropical Zone:

This zone extends up to 5,000 ft., the lower limit of snowfall
during winter. Annual rainfall 80-90”. The temperature rarely
falls below freezing point during winter; in May it rises to 105° F.
or above. The monsoon starts about the middle of June, and it
continues to about the end of September. The rainy season is
characterized by general cloudiness and heavy rainfall; clouds fre-
quently roll on the ground and humidity reaches saturation point
for a considerable period. During autumn there is continuous
sunshine without rain, and consequently humidity is much reduced.
Spring is sunny without rains and is the hottest season of the year.

Temperate Zone:

Here the temperatures are lower, precipitation is less and a con-
siderable portion of it is in the form of snow. During June to
September the forests are enveloped in thick monsoon clouds and the
air is saturated with water vapour. About 70-80% of the annual
precipitation falls as rain. Autumn is sunny, with low humidity, and

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the temperature falls during winter below 32° I. Spring days are
cloudless with rising temperature. The ground remains moist from
the melting of the snows and the humidity is never very low. With
the advance of the dry season, humidity reaches a low point, whiist
temperatures reach their highest.

Alpine Zone:

This zone extends from above the tree line. In this region
winters are cold and the growing season for plants is very short.
The spring and autumn seasons are practically eliminated. Precipita-
tion is very small and that, too, in the form of snow. The monsoon
begins a little earlier than over the outer mountains, but the total’
rainfall is much lower. During summer day temperatures are
tolerable, the nights are decidedly cold. Between the end of summer
rains and the beginning of winter, the season is very pleasant; it is
the best season for plant collection. Winters are characterized by
heavy snowfalls; this snow only disappears with the starting of the
monsoon.

THE VEGETATION OF THE AREA

The flora of the district varies between sub-tropical species in
the outer ranges of the hills and rich alpine forests in the northern
hills. The flora of the valley can be divided for the sake of con-
venience into three zones on the basis of the climatic zones :

. Tropical and Sub- tropical Zones, covering the lower slopes.

2. Temperate Zone, covering middle elevations.

3. Alpine Zone, covering the greater heights bounded on the north
by snow line.

Tropical. anid) 3S) ub at ospniciallieeZ one:

These forests cover the large tracts of the slopes of lower hills in the
valley, between 2,000 ft. and 5,000 ft. above sea level. The follow-
ing trees are given roughly in order of their abundance:

Bauhinia variegata Linn.
Bauhinia retusa Roxb.

Bauhinia vahlii W. et A.
Grewia oppositifolia Buch.-Han.
Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl

Mallotus philippensis Muell.-Arg.
Terminalia chebula Retz. _
Terminalia belerica Roxb.
Eugenia jambolana Lamk.

‘The forests are dense and moderately shady. During February-
April, they are leafless, and the ground is covered with thick coat-
ing of dried leaves. Undershrubs are scanty.

Along the river in the valley the following plants are common:

Nvyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.
Woodfordia fructicosa (Linn.) Kurz
Glochidion velutinum Wight
Bridelia montana Royle

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN-TEHR] GARHWAL O85

Rhus parviflora Roxb.
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb,
Murraya koenigii Spr.
Cocculus laurifolins DC.
Phoenix sp.

Several Leguminosae.

Along the edges of terraced fields and over abandoned fields the

‘ollowing plants were seen:

Berberis lycium Royle

Rosa moschata Mill.

Rubus ellipticus Sm.

Carissa spinarum Linn.

Prinsepia utilis Royle

Adhatoda vasica Nees

At Tehri proper it is almost dry with very little vegetation. The
vegetation is purely xerophytic, The following trees are generally
cultivated :

Mangifera indica Linn.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Ficus bengalensis Linn.
Aegle maymelos Correa
Emblica officinalis Gaertn.
Caigus sp.

On the dry rocky cliffs, shrubs of Euphorbia royleana Boiss.,
Carissa spinarum Linn., Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb., Zizvphus
oxyphylla Edgew., Agave americana Linn. and Lantana camara Linn.
are common.

The principal component of the vegetation of the valleys in
the lower hills is Pinus voxburghiit Sarg. {Pinus longifolia) and is
usually found alone restricted to exposed dry places. It appears to
possess the power of driving away all the vegetation from the tract
which it occupies. The floor of the forests is usually grassy with
thick dry needles in summer. Undershrubs are xerophvtic and few,
Some of them are:

Rubus ellipticus Sm.

Berberis lycium Royle
Indigofera gerarvdiana Wall.
Aechmanthera tomentosa Nees
Inula -sp.

Eupatorium sp. -

Temperate Zone:

In this zone towards the upper limit in cold aspect Pinus roxburghii
Sarg. is mixed with Quercus incana Roxb. Higher up it is associated
with :

Rhododendron arboreum Smith
Pieris ovalifoiia D. Don
Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham.
Viburnum cotinifolium Don

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The principal shrubs are:
Berberis aristata DC.
Desmodium tiliaefolium G. Don
Rhamnus procumbens Edgew.
Deutsia corymbosa Br.
Daphne cannabina Wall.
Myrsine africana Linn.
Rosa moschata Mill.
Jasminum humile Linn.

Herbaceous vegetation is luxuriant during and after the monsoon.
The commoner plants are: :

Thalictrum javanicum Bl.
Hedychium sp.
Oenothera rosea Sol.,

With some ground orchids, ferns; Compositae and Umbelliferae are
also found.

Above 8,000 ft. Quercus incana gives place to Quercus
floribunda Wall. (syn. Quercus dilatala. Lindl.) and Quercus semi-
carpifolia Smith, and up to 10,000 ft. the following trees are commonly
seen: g

Skimmia laureola Hook. f.

Aesculus indica Colebr.

Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall. gh?
Taxus baccata Linn.

Pieris ovalifolia D. Don

Arundinaria spathiflora Trin,

Viburnum nervosum Don

Viburnum stellulatum Wall.

Euonymus lacerus Ham,

The undergrowth is composed of

Hedera nepalensis Koch.
Rhamnus virgatus Roxb.
Taraxacum officinale Wigg.
Polygonatum verticillatum Allioni
Cypripedium cordigerum Don

In the lake at Masar Tal and Sahsru Tal no plants were seen. As
the higher elevations are approached, trees of silver fir and spruce
become more and more abundant, and above all birch Betula utilis are
present up to 12,000 ft. After this the vegetation becomes typical of
the alpine type.

On the sides of the lake at Masar Tal in rich green grass the
following plants were collected:

Gentiana argentea Royle
Anemone obtusiloba D. Don
Ranunculus hirtellus Royle
Taraxacum officinale Wigg
Anemone sp.

Poa sp.

“I

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEURI GARHWAL 58

Alpine Zone
This zone covers altitudes between 12,000 ft. and 18,000 ft. above

sea level, and forms the upper limit reached by flowering plants.
Above 12,000 ft. alpine formations in the form of meadows witr:
a few shrubs become common. The following plants are common:

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.

Primula sp.

Saxifraga sp.

Corydalis sp.

Poa sp.

In addition to the special formations mentioned for the various
zones some other coniferous edaphic climax forests were also seen.
They constitute the pine forests at 3,000 ft.-6,500 ft. and Cedrus
deodara Loud. forests at 5,500 ft.-10,500 ft. They are not characteristic
forest trees, and large natural forests of deodar are present below
the general climatic climax of the region. The Pinus longifolia and
Cedrus deodara forests appear to be climatic climax and the scarcity
of soil water due to physical conditions can be regarded as_ the
determining factor.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is deeply indebted to Sri. M. B. Raizada, Officer-in-
Charge, Botany Branch, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for
allowing him to work in the Institute and helping him in the identifica-
tion of some specimens, to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Biological
Section, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for critically examining’ and
suggesting improvements in the manuscript, and to Prof. K. S.
Bhargava, Head of the Botany Department, Govt. Degree College,
Naini Tal, for constant encouragement during --the course of the
work,

LIST OF THE SPECIMENS COLLECTED

The plants in the appended list have been collected from the area
shown in the map during this author’s visit to Masar Tal lake.
Plants from Sahsru Tal lake have not been given. The reference
numbers given after the specimens refer to herbarium sheets possessed
by the author. The author has tried his best to adjust the nomen-
clature of the plants to the latest findings on the subject; plants
marked with an asterisk have not been described by Collett in Flora
Simlensis,

RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculus laetus Wal].

Small herb, with bright yellow flowers, at 3,000 ft. near Bhillangna
river at Ghansali (Gvp/a 16, 59),

R. hirtellus Royle
Herb. w ith bright yellow flowers, at 9,500 ft. near lake at Masar Tal
(Gupta 58). 7 |

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 53

Anemone obtusiloba D. Don

Herb, with flowers which are white when open, but the underside is
blue. In open grass slopes at 10,000 ft. near the lake at Masar Tal
(Gupta 65).

Anemone sp.
Small herb, with white flowers about 5” in height, at 10,000 ft. near
the sides of the lake (GzhZa 26).

Delphinium denudatum Wall.
Herb, with blue spurred flowers at 6,000 ft. (Gupza 32).

BERBERIDACEAE

Berberis aristata DC.
Prickly shrub, with yellow flowers at 6,000 ft. (Gupta 34, 46).

VIOLACEAE

Viola canescens Wall.
Small herb, with blue flowers, in shady places in the fir forest at
8,500 ft. (Gupta 51),
CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Stellaria latifolia Benth.
Small herb, with white flowers, at 3,500 ft. at Ghansali (Gupta ?)

Stellaria media Linn.
Small diffused herb, at 7,000 ft. (Gupta 67).

Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn.
Diffused herb, with small leaf and white flowers, at Ghansali near river
Bhillangna (Gupla 9).

GERANIACEAE

Oxalis corniculata Linn.
Small herb, common in shady places, with yellow flowers (Gupla

19}
AQUIFOLIACEAR

Ilex dipyrena Wall. .
Small evergreen tree, in fir forest. A small sapling has been collect-
ed (Gupta 61).
SAPINDACBRAE
Aesculus indica Colebr. |
Large tree, in fir forests at 10,000 ft. (Gupta ?)

Acer caudatum Wall.
Large tree, in fir forest at 9,500 ft, (Gupta 71).

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN. TEHRI GARHWAL 589
LEGUMINOSAE

Lespedeza stenocarpa Maxim.
Shrub, 3-5 ft. high, silky, with red flowers, in pine forests at 4,000 ft,
(Gupta 21),

Indigofera gerardiana Wall.
Shrub, with few leaflets, flowers purple, in oak forests at 6,000 ft,
(Gupta 48),

Crotalaria albida Heyne
Herb, 1-2 ft. high, with yellow flowers at 4,000 ft. (Gupta 18),

ROSACEAR

Prunus padus Linn.
Tree, with white drooping racemes, in moru forests at 8,000 ft. (Gupta
84),

Fragaria vesca Linn,
Herb, with small white flowers, on way to Masar Tal (Guta 72),

Potentilla fulgens Wall.
Small silky herb, common at Chirbatya at 8,000 ft. Flowers not seen
(Gupta 31, 81).

Potentilla sp,
Small herb, about 5” in height, with yellow flowers, at 8,000 ft.
(Gupta 10, 15).

Rosa sericea Lindl.
Erect shrub, 4-8 {t. high with white flowers, at 9,000 ft. in kharsx
forest (Gupta 80).

R. macrophylla Linn.
Shrub, 6-10 ft., lowers not seen (Gupia 82),

R. moschata Mill.

Climbing shrub, with white flowers, commonly seen at 4,000 ite
(Gupta 43).

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham.
Small trees, with white pinkish flowers at 7,500 ft. (Gupta 57).

Pyranthus crenulatus Rehd.
Large shrub, with white flowers, spiny, in oak forest at 6,000 ft.
(Gupta 56).

Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall.

Large shrub, 10-18 ft, high, with white flowers, at 8,000 ft. (Gupfa 42)

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

C. microphylla Wall.

Densely branched prostrate shrub, with white flowers, commonly
seen at 6,000 ft. (Gupta 36),

LYTHRACEAE

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn. ) Kurz

Shrub, with red flowers, very common in the valley at Ghansali at
3,500 ft. (Gupla 20),

ONAGRACEAE
**Oenothera rosea So],

Herb, about 11” high, with pink flowers, very commonly seen at
Geonli at 6,00) ft. (Gupta 15).

FICOIDEAE
Mollugo pentaphylla Linn.
Herb, much branched, with pink flowers at Ghansali (Guta 17).

UMBELLIFERAE
Pimpinella gp,
Erect herb, in fir forest, flowers not seen (Gupta 70).

ARALIACEAE
Hedera nepalensis Koch.

Climber, adhering to fir trees by rootlets, common in fir forest at
8,500 ft. (Gupta 83).

CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Viburnum cotinifolium Don
Shrub, with white flowers, at 7,500 ft. (Gupta 41, 60).

V. stellulatum Wall.

Large shrub, with small flowers, at 9,000 ft. in kdarsaz forest
(Gupta 87).

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.
Large shrub, with yellow flowers, at 8,000 ft. (Gupta 66), —

RUBIACEAE
** Oldenlandia gracilis Hook. f,
Herb, on grassy slopes, with white flowers, at Paonli rest house
(Gupta 28),
COMPOSITAE
Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn.
Small herb, wooliy, common at Ghansali (Guta 11).

* BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN°TEHRI GARHWAL 591

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.
Small herb, common at Ghansali (Gup/a 11).

Artemisia nilagirica Pam.
Small herb, with underside of leaf white, common at Ghansali (Gupta
13).
Gerbera lanuginosa Benth.

Herb, with silky leaves, on grassy slopes (Gupta 47),

Myriactis wallichii Less,
Small herb, with yellow flowers, commonly seen on roadside (Gupta Sc

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.
_ Herb, with flowers in globose heads, common in rice fields at Ghansali
(Gupta 26). .

Crepis japonica Benth.
Herb, with flowers which are yellow, at 5,000 ft. (Gup/a 3),

Taraxacum officinale Wigg,
Herb, with yellow flowers, commonly seen at 4,000 ft. and at 10,000 ft.
near the sides of the lake at Masar Tal (Gupta 35, 78),

Prenanthes sp.
Herb, in fir forest at 10,000 ft., flowers, not seen (Gupta 74).

Sonchus oleraceous Linn.
Succulent herb with yellow flowers, at Ghansali (Guia 27),

Tragopogon gracile Don
Herb, with yellow flowers on grassy slopes at 7,000 ft. (Gupia 39),

**Tridax procumbens Linn.
Weak herb, common on roadsides at Ghansali (Gupéa 22),

Ainslea pteropoda DC,
Herb, with flowers in spike, common at 6,000 ft. (Gupta 44),
ERICACEAE
Rhododendron arboreum Smith

Tree, with conspicuous red flowers, at 7,000 ft. (Gupta 55),

aRele MaUpeyANCoE WAGE

Primula petiolaris Wall.
Herb, with purple flowers, common in damp shady places above
8,500 ft. (Gupta 85).

Androsace rotundifolia Hardw.
Herb, with pink flowers at 7,000 ft. (Gupta 40).

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

GENTIANACEAE

Gentiana argentea Royle

Small herb, in grass with blue flowers, on the edge of Masar Tal lake
at 10,000 ft. (Gupta 63).

BORAGINACEAE

Trichodesma indicum k, Br,
Hairy herb, with pale blue flowers, in the valley at 5,000 ft. (Gupta
38). :
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Verbascum thapsus Linn.
Herb, woolly, with yellow flowers in long terminal spikes (Gupta 37),

Veronica anagallis Linn.
Herb, with white flowers, at Ghansali (Gupta 12).

LABIATAE
Coleus sp.
Herb, at 4,000 ft. at Ghansali (Gupta 29).

Micromeria biflora Roxb.
Small herb, with pink flowers, common up to 7,000 ft. (Gupia).

Salvia lanata Roxb.
Woolly herb, with blue flowers, at 5,000 ft. (Gupta 33),

Ajuga bracteosa Wall.
Hairy herb, with lilac flowers, at Ghansali (Gup/a 8).

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia repens Linn.
Herb, with minute pink flowers, at Ghansali (Gufia 1).

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum plebejum R, Br.
Small herb, with minute flowers, at Ghansali (Guia 6).

P. alatum Bych.-Ham.
Herb, with whitle fowers, at Ghansali (Gupta 25).

P. orientale Linn.
Hairy herb, with red flowers, in racemes at 4,500 ft. (Gupta 25).

**P, viviparum Linn.

Herb, with coriaceous leaves, flowers not seen by me, common in fir
forest (Gupta 68).

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN | TEHRI GARH WAL 993

P. capitatum Buch.-Ham.
Herb, with pink flowers, at 9,000 ft. in damp places (Gu Ala 76).
LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum tamala Nees
Large shrub, with aromatic three-nerved leaves, at 4,500 ft. (Gupia).

Machilus odoratissima Nees.
Large tree, with lanceolate leaves (Gupta 49).

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia pilosa Linn.
Juicy herb, with yellow green bract, at 6,000 ft. (Gupta 45).
E. royleana Boiss.
Cactus-like fleshy shrub, common on dry rocky cliffs (GuAta).

Mallotus philippinensis Muell.-Arg.
Small tree, with red powder in capsule (Gupta).

SALICACEAE

Salix elegans Wall.
Small tree, common at Chirbatya, at 7,000 ft. (Gupta 30).

CONIFERAE

Taxus baccata Linn.

Trees with peculiar aromatic smell, at 10,000 ft. on way to Masar Tal
(Gupta 76). ;

ORCHIDACEAE

Goodyera repens R, Br.

Ground orchid, with leaves having shining veins, in fir forests at Masar
Tal (Gupta 64).
Cypripedium cordigerum Don

Herb, with solitary terminal flower, in fir forest (Gupta 73).

LILIACEAE

Asparagus filicinus Buch.-Ham.
Erect herb, with tuberous roots, in fir forest (Gupta 79).

Polygonatum verticillatum Allioni

Herb, with flowers in whorled spikes, in fir forest at Masar Ta
(Gupta 77).

(List of the plants from Sahsru Tal to be continued.)

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

REFERENCES

AUDEN, J. B. (1937): Structure of the Himalaya in Garhwal, Records of thz
Geological Survey of India, 71 : 407-433.

BRANpDis, Sir D. (1883): On the distribution of forests in India, /nzdian
Forester, 9 : 173-183, 221-223.
————— (1874): Forest flora of Northwest and Central India,

London.

ee — (1906): Indian Tree. London:

BURRARD, S, and HAyvpBN, H. H. (1907-1908): A sketch of the geography
and geology of the Himalayan mountains in Tibet. Calcutta.

CoLtett, H. (1911): Flora Simlensis. Calcutta.

CowLes, H. C. (1911): The cause of vegetative cycles, Botanical Gazette

1; 161-183.

° DupDGEON, W. (1920): A contribution to the ecology of Upper Gangetic Plain
Journ. Indian Botanical Society., 1 : 296-323.
and KENOVER, L. A. (1925): Ecology of Tehri Garhwal. A
contribution to the ecology of western Himalaya. Journ. Indian Botanical
Society. 4: 233-285. :

HENRY FRowp, M. A. (1907): Imperial Gazetteer of India, London.

HrERON, M. A. (1937): General report of the Geological Survey of India for
the Year 1936. <ecords of the Geological Survey of India, 72: 81.

Hooxgr, J. D. (1855): Introductory essay in Hooker and Thomson, Flora
Indica., pp. 1-260, London. (Original not seen.)

KENOVER, L. A, (1921): Forest formations and successions at Sat Tal valley
in Kumaon Himalayas. Journ. Indian Botanical Society, 2: 236-258.

KANJILAL, U. N. (1901): Forest flora of School circle and Northwest Pro-
vince. Calcutta.

KING, Sir J. (1901): List of the plants of Garhwal, Jaunsar Bawar and Dehra
Dun. Calcutta.

Raturi, P. D. (1947): Industrial Survey report of Tehri Garhwal State.
Indian Forester, 73: 479-485.

ROYLE, J. F. (1839): Botany of the Himalayan mountains. London.

ScHIMPER, A. F. W. (1903): Plant geography upon a physiological basis.
Oxford. (English Translation. )

SMVYTHIES, E. A. (1919): Geology and Forest distribution. Zuzdian Forester,
45 : 239-243.

STEBBING, E. P. (1923): The Forests of India. London.

WapidA, D.N. (1919): Geology of India, London.

WALTON, H. G, (1910): British Garhwal, A Gazetteer. Allahabad.

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIRD LIFE OF
MADHYA PRADESH

BY
C. E. HEWETSON, LF.S. (Retd.)

(With a map and tour plates)
SCOPE

The justification for this article is that so far in India there have been
few accounts writte by a person who has lived for nearly 30 years
(1926-1955) in one State of India, and has recorded the status of the local
birds. Ornithological surveys collect all the birds they can find, but have
only a short time to assess the relative abundance or status of each
species. Books like the Fauna of British India describe the distribution
of birds by the specimens received from different places, but have no
idea whether these represent samples of an evenly distributed population
or of locally distributed pockets, or of passage migrants. In addition,
central India has been unfortunate in that few naturalists have worked in
it, either zoologists or botanists, and records are correspondingly meagre.
This article therefore attempts to assess the status and local distribution
of the species which can be expected to occur in Madhya Pradesh. They
are my own personal observations since 1928. I have also given
references to other articles on bird life in central India.

The extent of the area covered is the State of Madhya Pradesh as it
existed after January 1, 1948, i.e., with the addition of 14 states to the
old unit known as the Central Provinces and Berar. During 28 years
I have seen every part of the State, but I have spent only a few days in
the northernmost district of Sagar. Without intensive specimen collecting
a close observer can expect to see round about 350 species of birds
in central India if he keeps on for 15-20 years. ;

METHOD OF STUDY

The observations are all visual and I have not shot any birds. for
identification in the hand. As I have not attempted to determine the
boundaries of geographical races, this does not matter for the birds which
are easily recognized, but my observations on the groups of birds without
strongly marked colour characteristics or which are difficult to observe for
other reasons are admittedly deficient. These groups are the warblers
and associates, the larks and pipits, the owls and the quails.

VALUE

I hope these observations will be of value as indicating in broad outline
the pattern of bird distribution in a large part of central India and will also
provide some ecological data of the birds found in each main habitat.
The birds listed and observed by me make up the main bird population,

6

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

but occasional individual stragglers may be found from year to year.
Particularly in winter, birds wander about over the Indian continent, and
in peculiar weather conditions unusual birds may pass through.

HABIDATS

The following main habitats (biotopes) may be recognized though
of course they grade into each other :
A. Closed Mixed Deciduous or Sal Forest. Plates I, II.
B. Open Cultivation and Waste Lands. Plate IIL.
C. Scrub Forest intermediate between A and B. Plate IV.
D. Reservoirs and Irrigation lakes or ponds (tanks).
E. River Beds. Plate LV.

A. Closed Mixed Deciduous or Sal Forest

From the bird’s point of view I class all the closed forest as one
biotope. ‘The Mixed Deciduous Forest does contain a number of
variations important to the forest officer, the ecologist or the botanist, but
within wide limits they provide similar living conditions for birds. No
forests are so continuous or dense that small gaps or blanks are not
found here and there; and these breaks in the continuous forest provide
the variety of plants and food which enable a large number of bird species
to live. In the Sal Forest there is some change in that there are many

-imore borers in sal (Sorea robusta) and the rougher bark provides cover
for bark haunting insects, so that in sal forests there are more wood-
peckers, nuthatches, etc. A more profound change is often brought
about by the forest officer in creating pure plantations of teak etc, but so
far these are not on a sufficiently large scale or so continuous as to change
the bird population markedly.

In the higher hills of the Satpuras conditions are cooler and moister,
and to a certain extent do provide conditions in the hot weather which are
favourable to birds which live in slightly moister conditions than are usual
in the dry deciduous forests. The characteristic species of the mixed
deciduous forest are given below. By characteristic I mean birds which
are found more in the forest than in other biotopes and are present in
sufficient numbers to be significant in the biological sense:

1. Tree Pie, 2. Grey Tit, 3. Jungle Babbler, 4. Redvented
Bulbul, 5. Magpie Robin, 6. Locally, the Shama, 7. Tickell’s Blue
Flycatcher, 8. Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher—locally replaced on hills
by, 9. Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher, 10. Wood Shrike, 11. Scarlet
Minivet, 12. Small Minivet, 13. Large Cuckoo Shrike, 14. Black
Drongo, 15. Whitebellied Drongo, 16. Racket-tailed Drongo, 17. Tailor
Bird, 18. Blackheaded Oriole, 19. Greyheaded Myna, 20. Common
Myna, 21. Yellowthroated Sparrow (as a breeding bird in February-—
May), 22. Tree Pipit in winter, 23. White-eye, 24. Purple Sunbird,
25. Flowerpecker, 26. Pitta(in May, June), 27. Mahratta Woodpecker,
28. Goldenbacked Woodpecker, 29. Large Green Barbet, 30. Crimson-
breasted Barbet, 31. Common Hawk Cuckoo, 32. Large Indian Para-
keet, 33. Roseringed Parakeet, 34. Blossomheaded Parakeet, 35. Blue
Jay, 36. Common Bee-eater, 37. Whitebreasted Kingfisher, 38. Common
Grey Hornbill, 39. Common Indian Nightjar, 40. Jungle Nightjar, 41.
Crested Serpent Eagle, 42. Crested Hawk Hagle, 43. White-eyed Buzzard,

(wosjamapy “sf °D 2 s0joyf)

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JOURN. BomBay Nat. HIsT. Soc.

Sal Forest with small blank. Narainpur, Bastar.

Mixed Deciduous Forest in drier climate in December.

(Photos : C. E. Hewetson)

Akola, Berar.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 597

44, Shikra 45. Common Green Pigeon, 46. Spotted Dove, 47. Common
Peafowl, 48. Grey Junglefowl in teak area, Red Junglefowl in sal forests,
49. Red Spurfowl, 50. Jungle Bush Quail, 51. Stone Curlew, 52.
Redwattled Lapwing.

In addition a few species are characteristic of the moister type. They
are local and do not occur in large numbers, but are interesting as
indicating a linkage of birds found in SW. India with Assam, Burma and
Malaya. Such are: 1. Velvetfronted Nuthatch, 2. Pied Shrike, 3. Nilgiri
Blackbird, 4. Whistling Thrush, 5. Scimitar Babbler.

B. Open Cultivation and Waste Lands

By this I mean lands which are nearly bare of trees and bushes
except along the field boundaries; and the overgrazed waste land of
villages. The characteristic birds are:

1.;Common Babbler, 2. Large Grey Babbler, 3. Yelloweyed Bab-
bler, 4. Pied Bushchat, 5. Stonechat, 6. Indian Robin, 7. Great Grey
Shrike, 8. Baybacked Shrike, 9. Rufousbacked Shrike, 10. Black Drongo,
13. Tailor Bird, 12. Brahminy Myna, 13. Common Myna, 14. Locally,
Bank Myna, 15. Locally, Pied Myna, 16. Baya Weaver Bird, 17. White-
throated Munia, 18. Crested Bunting locally, 19. Indian Pipit, 20. Little
Skylark, 21. Rufoustailed Lark, 22. Ashycrowned Finch Lark,
23. Blue Jay, 24. Green Bee-eater (except for August and September),
25. Hoopoe, 26. Pale Harrier, 27. Kestrel, 28. Blue Rock Pigeon, 29.
Spotted Dove, 30. Indian Ring Dove, 3). Red ‘Turtle Dove, 32. Com-
mon Quail, 33. Grey Partridge, 34. Stone Curlew, 35. Indian Courser,
36. Redwattled Lapwing, 37. Yellow-wattled Lapwing. |

C, Scrub Forest intermediate between A and B

By Scrub I mean the lands lying between the open treeless cultivation
and the closed continuous forest. The amount of woody growth varies
but typicaily there are at least scattered trees of mohwa (J/adhuca latt-
folia), or Harra (Terminalia chebula) or tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon),
and a proportion of coppice and bushes. ‘This habitat is quite favour-
able to a number of species and the bird population is intermediate bet-
ween Aand B. Certain forest-loving species are absent but most of the
birds of open cultivation can find open spaces.

It is not necessary to repeat the names of the birds.

—D. Reservoirs and Irrigation lakes or ponds (tanks)

Lakes, Reservoirs, or Tanks are of all sizes from expanses of water
covering thousands of acres to village ponds under one acre. The greater
part of big lakes with deep water are more or less useless to birds for
feeding, but they may rest on them. It is the silted-up edges of the
tanks, the water of moderate depth with weeds growing below the surface
which provide the optimum habitat for water birds. ‘The plants found
depend on the depth of water, and the same succession is found round
most tanks.

The characteristic-birds which feed here mainly or completely are:

1. Wiretailed Swallow, 2. Yellow Wagtail, 3. Large Pied Wagtail,
4, White Wagtail, 5. Common Bee-eater, 6. Pied Kingfisher, 7. Common
Kingfisher, 8. Whitebreasted Kingfisher, 9. Hoopoe, 10. Brahminy Kite,
11. Fishing Eagle, 12. Coot, 13. Bronzewinged Jacana, 14. Pheasant-tailed

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Jacana, 15. Sarus Crane, 16. River Tern, 17. Redwattied Lapwing, 18.
Blackwinged Stilt, 19. Wood Sandpiper, 20. Common Sandpiper, 21.
Green Sandpiper, 22. Greenshank, 23. Little Stint, 24. Common Snipe,
25. Little Cormorant, 26. Snake Bird, 27. White Ibis, 28. Black Ibis, 29.
Whitenecked Stork, 30. Painted Stork, 31. Openbilled Stork, 32. Grey
Heron, 33. Little Egret, 34. Cattle Egret, 35. Paddy Bird, 36. Nukta,
37. Cotton Teal, 38. Common Teal, 39. Garganey, 40. Pintail, 41. Spot-
bill, 42. Shoveller, 43. White-eyed Pochard, 44. Little Grebe.

E. River Beds

In this biotope I include both the broad, often sandy, beds of large
rivers like the Narmada or Mahanadi as well as beds of smaller nalas
which hold water. ‘The nala beds may be divided into several sub-types:

(1) Bare sandy beds with deep pools.

(2) Rocky beds or rock and sand with bushes of tamarisk etc. and
small trees.

(3) The banks which may be bare, or covered by trees like Tevmz-
nalia aryjuna and Syzygium cumint with varying amounts of
bush and scrub.

Each section of the bed is the province of one species or a group of
birds, and every niche is fully exploited. Characteristic species are:

1. Large Pied Wagtail, 2. Sand-Lark, 3. Pied Kingfisher, 4. Com-
mon Kingfisher, 5. Whitebreasted Kingfisher, 6. Brownheaded Storkbilled
Kingfisher, 7. Brown Fish Owl, 8. Brahminy Kite, 9. Great Stone Plover,
10. River Tern, 11. Whiskered Tern, 12. Blackbellied Tern, 13. Little
Tern, 14. Indian Skimmer, 15. Little Indian Pratincole, 16. Redwattled
Lapwing, 17. Spurwinged Plover, 18. Little Ring Plover, 19. Common
Sandpiper, 20. Green Sandpiper, 21. Wood Sandpiper, 22. Greenshank,
23. Little Stint, 24. Little Cormorant, 25. Common Cormorant, 26.
Indian Snake Bird, 27. Barheaded Goose, 28. Ruddy Sheldrake.

BiRD MOVEMENTS

Apart from giving a picture of the pattern of the distribution of birds
such a protracted study provides a good deal of information about bird
movements. ‘There are three main movements:

A. The migration of birds which nest outside India to the north,
and are winter visitors.

B. The migration of certain species from south India in the sum-
mer for breeding.

C. Movements of the resident birds which are caused by the need
to get food. These are not so regular or complete as the
movements in B and C,

A. The first type of migration has already been described very fully in
all books, the long distance winter migrants are well known, and it is not
necessary to describe this here.

B. The second type of movement from south to north, or west to
east, affects only a few species. ‘They are, so faras is known at present :
1. Paradise Flycatcher, 2. Pitta. 3. Golden Oriole, 4. Southern
Blackbird (Zurdus simillimus), 5. Yellowthroated Sparrow, 6. Pied
Crested Cuckoo, and perhaps other cuckoos,

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prace Lh

i

tos Ne Hix MeWQ.Sey
SAN 2 SR SSCS
A . ws ~~ sy

Degraded open Grazing Grounds with bushes of Palas (Butea f
Hiwar (Acacia leucophloea). Ner, Yeotmal.

(Photos : C. E. Hewetson)

rondosa) and

Journ. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

Ree

Wewws

MQ
SRR ‘ . : S SS Sssx“s GCC

Junction of the Godavari and Indravati rivers in extreme south of the State.

(Photos : C. E. Hewetson)

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 599

C. The third type of movement is less regular and is connected with
food supply rather than reproduction. Though some such movements take
place each year, it is the exceptional years when they are emphasized and
made obvious. In 195] and 1952 the rains were deficient over a large
part of the State and this led to a very big exodus of the insect-eating
birds in 1953. Though as I say, this was exceptional, every year there is
a thinning out of the birds in July to mid-September. In this period the
bird population, both by species and numbers, is atits minimum. In
the rains of 1953, following two years of drought over a large part of
Western Madhya Pradesh, the birds left were mainly the seed eaters and
those with a varied diet. The only pure insect eaters left were the
Common Swift. The following is a list of birds which form the hard core
of the resident population, and were still found during the rains of 1953:

Crows, Sparrow, Indian Robin, Larks, Pipits, Doves, Common
Swift, Mynas, Babblers.

Of the insect-eating birds, the bee-eaters and all species of flycatcher
were absent completely. 95 per cent of the drongos had left, and rollers
and shrikes were rare.

To my mind in 1954 and 1955 these last classes of birds were fewer
than normal, and apart from the interruption in breeding caused by the
drought and the exodus, there may have been a high mortality among
this class of bird which do not normally migrate and may have had no
ingrained knowledge of which direction to migrate in. The bee-eaters
are more regular migrants and perhaps have regular rains quarters. These
movements indicate that the insects on which the birds feed are also
affected by the years of low rainfall: though insects seem plentiful in the
rains, many of them are probably inedible: as far as bee-eaters are cons
cerned it is known that the bees also migrate from the cold, damp areas
such as the higher hills of the Satpuras in the height of the rains—and the
bee-eaters certainly leave these areas each year, and as I said above, are
much less common in the plains of Madhya Pradesh in the rains, and
were completeiy absent in 1953, except for parties on migration.

ILOC AIG IP Osw Wig Ngee) iS

The last observation leads me on to the subject of local populations
and their significance. We are all familiar with flocks of migrating birds,
and many birds in their winter quarters habitually roost together, such
as swallows and wagtails in reed beds, but these are non-breeding birds
and their assoeiation may be by mere chance, largely controlled by the
small number of suitable roosts. Of the resident population, large assem-
blies of crows, parrots and mynas are familiar sights of any part of
India. On a smaller scale many other resident species roost together at
night. The bee-eaters are a well-known example. In the evening, the
outlying birds start flying in, and as they go other birds join them and
they all fly along together chirruping and gliding, and similar parties
come in from all sides to roost together. The dronecs toa certain extent
do the same. The movement is less clear cut in the evenings since they
feed into the dusk, but if one is out before dawn one will see no drongos,
and after a time one secs them posting out to their daily beats. Another
species I heve observed is the Whitebacked Munia. ‘These have dormi-
torics, and one such was in a small paim tree near my bungalow in
Raipur, and I used to watch the birds flying in from all sides in the

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

evening with a strong swinging flight quite unlike their normal fluttering.
It is interesting to speculate to what extent these local roosting parties
represent distinct clans or populations which select mates within the
colony and to which the young, when the breeding season is over, are
taught to return. The thought that these roosting colonies are not chance
assemblies but may have 4 more permanent link was suggested to me by
seeing the parties of migrating bee-eaters in 1953. There were definite
parties of 10-25 birds flying together in a very loose flock, hawking
insects as they went, but flying in one definite direction and passing along
without halting. If I had thought of this earlier it would have been
instructive to plot the roosting centres in any one locality and to try and
map the area covered during the day by the birds that roost together at
night, and to see how many there are in one locality. The Blue-tailed
Bee-eater is a very definite colonial species and one always sees a party of
them together even during the day.

Similar group activities are suggested by species which form definite
breeding colonies such as several species of swallows ; or detached colo-
nies of such birds as Bank Mynas or the Grackle. These birds may be
considered as the exact opposite of migrating species in as much as they
stay attached to one restricted locality and fail to colonise the surrounding
countryside which is equally suited to their requirements. Bank Mynas
provide one of the best examples of discontinuous distribution in India
and, considering they have such a varied diet and are quite strong on the
wing, it is surprising how local and patchy their distribution is. Such
detached groups must form, one would think, isolated populations that
breed within the group. If this is true, varieties or sub-species could
easily form in the same way as in bird populations of islands. Another
species with very discontinuous distribution is the Emerald Dove. ‘The
small group which exists on the Balaghat-Mandla border must be sepa-
vated by 200 miles from the birds in Bastar, which are the nearest group
in Madhya Pradesh.

PROBLEMS WORTH ATTENTION

I venture to set down a number of bird problems on which infor-
mation is needed and where present knowledge is scanty or wanting.
These hints may be of value to anyone who takes up the study of birds i in
central India, and wants to know where to start :

(a) Status of certain species which have not been recorded in recent
years but which may occur, such as:

1. Great Indian Bustard, 2. bluebreasted Quail, 3. Blewitt’s Owl,
4, Blewitt’s Painted Bush Quail, 5. Large Indian Pratincole, 6. Chestnut
Bittern.

(0) Foster parents of the Indian Cuckoo (C. micropterus). It is
curiotis that so little is known about this relatively common cuckoo. It is
a very arboreal species and is sexually active at a time when birds which
construct hammock nests at the ends of branches, such as drongos, the
Paradise Flycatcher, orioles and minivets, are nesting, and these are the
most likely hosts. Also other problems connected with all species of
Indian parasitic cuckoos.

(c) The status of several cuckoos has not been determined. Several
appear to be visitors in the months of May—July. For instance the

THE BIRD LIFE.OF MADHYA PRADESH 601

Cuckoo (C. canorus) has been recorded mostly in these months and acts
as if breeding, but no eggs have been recorded from central India. The
hosts are not known for certain either.

(d) Status of the Bluetailed Bee-eater. It may be a passage migrant
in March-April and September : or may exist in small pockets in isolated
localities.

(é) The Nilgiri Blackbird is another species which appears likely to be
a migrant. It is very common, for instance in Chikalda in May, but I
saw none in the rains or in the cold weather. It is possible the birds dis-
perse into the Melghat as soon as the hot weather ends. It is also found
in a number of isolated places along the Satpuras, but all my records are
in the hot weather and rains. The migration of the Pitta is well established.
The Paradise Flycatcher is also a migrant, but what. proportion of birds
breed regularly is uncertain : and whether any stay in central India all the
year is doubtful.

(f) Another locally distributed species about which little is known is
the Green Munia. It is a central Indian bird. It is very common in parts
of the Melghat in March—May: another locality is Aheri—Allapalli from
where it was recorded by Hume and again seen by me in 1949. Also
parts of Bastar. Practically nothing has been recorded about its breeding.

(g) Very useful work could be done in recording the status of some
of the larger birds which are most liable to become scarce or éxtinct as
the country is opened up and the human population increases. The Great
Indian Bustard may already have disappeared. The Sarus Crane is protec-
ted to a certain extent by religious sentiment but the breeding places may
be cleared or disturbed. A census of the birds at 10-year intervals is the
only way to check this. Many of the herons, storks etc. breed in colonies
and can thus be enumerated fairly easily. The Painted Stork is a good
example. Censuses of such birds are very useful.

(hr) A field quite untapped in India is the usefulness or destructive-
ness of different species. We know very little about the diet of birds and
to wkat extent they play an effective part in controlling insect pests.

(z) Resident ducks are another type of bird whose numbers might
fall and the species disappear. The Spotbill is a good case, and a census
of birds at 10-year intervals would be valuable.

In conclusion I summarize other papers which I could trace on bird
life in central India so as to provide future workers with all the informa-
tion available.

IC ReACIS Rv

The earliest paper is one by R. C. H. Moss King (1911), ‘ The Resi-
dent Birds of Saugar and Damoh ’.

This is based on a three-year period of duty and does not claim to be
exhaustive. The author guarantees, however, that all the birds listed do
breed in these districts. He lists 155 species. Out of these, only one,
Amaurornis akool, the Brown Crake, does not appear in my list. He
gives details of breeding dates for some species. I have included a
number of these in my record with acknowledgements.

The second paper is by B.B. Osmaston on the Birds of Pachmarhi.
He lists 135 species and the only unexpected bird is the Kokla or Wedge-
tailed Green Pigeon (Sphenocercus sphenurus). He states he heard the
very distinctive call, and in conversation at Oxford in 1955 he confirms
this. It has not been recorded by anyone else.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

In 1927, R. 5S. P. Bates contributed an article on Impressions of Pach-
marhi Birds during his stay on a course. He gives details of birds seen
breeding, but does not give any unusual birds.

In 1931, E. A. D’Abreu, Curator of the Nagpur Museum, published some
notes on the Fauna of British India, which had just been completed, with
reference to birds found in central India. He followed this up in 1935
with a list, which he tried to make as complete as possible, of all birds
seen by him or received in the Museum or of which notes had been
supplied by others. He also indicated birds which might occur but had
not been recorded. In all he lists 430 birds of which 21 are different
races so that 409 is the number of species. A large number of the birds
given in his list, but not appearing in mine, are birds which mzght occur,
or occasional stragglers. ‘The following 23 species given by D’Abreu,
which I have not recorded are worth mention as they may be found by
future workers, and if one knows that their occurrence is possible one is
more likely to be on the look-out for them:

1. Whiteheaded Babbler. Zurdozdes striatus (Dumont).

2. Purple Thrush. Cochoa purpurea Hodgs.

3. Rufous-tailed Flycatcher. <Alseonax ruficaudus (Swainson).

4, Dark Grey Cuckoo Shrike. Lalage melaschista (Hodgs.).

5. Starling. Sturnus vulgaris Linn.

6. Whitecapped Bunting. Amberiza stewart? Blyth.

7. Blackheaded Wagtail. JZotacilla feldegg Michahelles.

8. Himalayan Yeliowbacked Sunbird. <4ethopyga siparaja (Raffles).
9. Small Cuckoo. Cuculus poltocephalus Latham.

10. Indian Lonetailed Nightjar. Caprimulgus macrurus Horsfield.

11. Grass Owl. Tyto longimembris (Jerdon).

12. Cinereous Vulture. Aegyptus monachus (Linn.).

13. Small Indian Spotted Eagle. Aguila pomarina hastata (Lesson).

14. Himalayan Fishing Eagle. Jchthyobhaga nana (Blyth).

15. Crested Goshawk. <Astur frivirgatus (Temm. and Laug.),

16. Eastern Baillon’s Crake. Porzana pusilla (Pallas).

17. Brown Crake. Amaurornts akool (Sykes).

18. Gullbilled Tern. Gelochelédon nilotica (Gmelin).

19. Eastern Golden Plover. Pluvialis dominicus (Muller).

20. The Ruff and Reeve. Philomachus pugnax (Linn.),

21. Glossy Ibis. Plegadzs falcinellus (Linn.).

22. Tufted Duck. Wyvoca fuligula (Linn.).

23. Eastern Goosander. Mergus merganser Linn.

In 1939, Salim Ali published a paper on the Birds of Central India
based on coliections made in Dhar, Indore, Gwalior and Bhopal States as
they then existed. These adjoin Madhya Pradesh to the west and north
with a drier and more open type of country. He listed 278 species which
more or less are the same birds as given in my list except that species
of the moister forest are less, and birds of open country are more.

In 1939 the present writer contributed a paper on the Birds of the
Betul District. ‘This listed 158 species and gave the months in which
they occurred. Betul district has few lakes and so the water birds are
few.

In 1942, Mrs. Wright contributed a list of birds seen in Berar during
one year. She names 193 species. She gives one unusual species, the
Kentish Plover (Leucopoltus alexandrinus) one of the far spreading winter

DA BIRD iE E OR Nia DH VAY PARADES IE. 603

migrants. She saw a number of birds of which I have no record or few,
e.g., Brown Shrike, Starling, Wryneck and Tufted Duck. She saw the
Grey Drongo in the Melghat in winter. She also records the Bluetailed
Bee-eater as local, and saw a large flock on April 10 at Kamgaon tank
and againin September. ‘These are the months in which I have seen them
also.

Thé following books and papers have been used by me in compiling
this articie :

BooKSs

Fauna of British India. Birds, Vol. I-VIII, E. C. Stuart Baker.
Nidification of Indian Birds. E. C. Stuart Baker.

Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. 5th Ed. Hugh Whistler.
The Book of Indian Birds. 5th ed. Salim Ali.

Indian Hill Birds. Salim Ali.

The Birds of Travancore and Cochin. Salim Ali.

PAPERS

1. Moss Kinz, R. C. H. (1911) : The Resident Birds of the Saugar and Damoh

Districts, C.P. JBNHS 2x : 87-103.
2. Osmaston, B. B. (1921): Birds of Pachmarhi, /BN AS 28 : 453-459.
3. Bates, R. S. P. (1927): Impressions of Pachmarhi Birds, JBNA’S 31;

$18-931.
4. D’Abreu E. A. (1931) : Noteson the Fauna of British India. Birds, chiefly

with reference to the Central Provinces, JANATS 35 ; 217-219.
5. D’Abreu, E. A. (1935) : A list of the birds of the Central Provinces, JBNAS

- 38 ; 95-116.
6. Ali, Salim (1939) : The Birds of Central India, JBNAS ar : 82-106, 470-488.
7. Hewetson, C. E. (1939) : The Bird Year in Betul, /BN A/S ax : 286-310.
8. Wright, Mrs. M. D. (1942): Notes on the Birds of Berar, JBNA/S 43:
428-445,

ASIN IN OAT A TE 19, ID) IG iS) Ie

], Corvus macrorhynchus Wagler. Jungle Crow

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident—no abrupt changes noticed in
numbers throughout the year. It is fairly closely confined to the forest,
but may occur in villages or towns close to the forest.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘They occur throughout the forest
and arrive at a kill soon after it occurs. Communal roosts occur but. per-
haps not so well established as in the next species.

NESTING: March—May.

2, Corvus splendens Vieillot. Common House Crow

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident. No seasonal changes in numbers
recorded. ‘Towns and cultivation, and on the edge of the forest.
NESTING. March—May.

3. Dendrocitta rufa (Latham). Indian Tree Pie
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident. No local migrations noticed.
Common in all forests, being one of the most constant species. Also
occurs outside the forest wherever there are groves of trees.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘The birds are usually in pairs but
small parties also occur. Tree Pies and Racket-tailed Drongos frequently

604 JOURNAL, YBOMBAV 2 NAIOIVATE SUS Vinn S| OOH DY amos,

appear together, I do not know if their food-seeking is identical or com-
plementary.

4, Parus major Linnaeus. Indian Grey Tit

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident. One of the constant and regular
members of the forest fauna. ‘They occur in all forests.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: They form part of the mixed hunt-
ing parties but are also found in small parties of their own. They are
active and call frequently.

5. Machlolophus xanthogenys (Vigors). Yellowcheeked Tit

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident. Found in all parts of the State
in forest, gardens and open scrub country.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Similar to the preceding but more
usually in pairs.

NESTING: Nestsin June, Sagar (M.K.).

6, Sitta castanea Lesson. Chestnutbellied Nuthatch

STATUS AND HABITAT: Widely distributed but not common. Found
here and there in old mango groves and sal forest. Resident.

7. Sitta frontalis Swainson. Velvetfronted Nuthatch

STATUS AND HABITAT: A locally distributed bird in certain hilly
jungles. Satpura hills, Betul, Seoni, and common in the Bastar jungles.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Same as preceding.

8. Turdoides somervillei (Sykes). Jungle Babbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the commonest and most regular
resident species all over the State, particularly in the forest.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Bold and occurring in all localities
in both forest and gardens and scrub.

NESTING: Rains.

9, .Argya caudata (Dumont). Common Babbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is a bird of scrub growth in the fields
and open village scrub, and is rare in the forest. Resident.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Asrecorded. A rather shy species.

NESTING: Rains.

10. Argya malcolmi (Sykes). Large Grey Babbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is a bird of the open country and
occurs in the west of the State chiefly: Berar districts, Betul, Hoshanga-
bad and Nimar. Not recorded in the east, ie, Raipur and Chattisgarh,
but boundary not exactly noted.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘This strong and vigorous looking
bird is typically found in open country and scrub jungle in the Berar
plains. It is a noisy species. It occurs in garden compounds and is not
shy. )

NESTING: Rains.

11. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes. Deccan Scimitar Babbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Comparatively a rare species found general-
ly in the forest. Usually seen in pairs, but owing to its skulking habits may

THE BIRD, LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 605

often be overlooked. I have recorded it chiefly in bamboo forest mainly
in March to June. It may be partly migratory.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: As recorded in books. Extrefnely
elusive and difficult to watch.

12. Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin). Rufousbellied Babbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Widely distributed throughout the State in
open grassland and scrub. Owing to spending its life in this type of
vegetation it is not often seen or noticed. It also occurs in the forest and
is seen working bamboo clumps.

13, Chrysomma sinensis (Gmelin). Yelloweyed Babbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Widely distributed all over the State in open
scrub between fields and in village hedges. It clambers further up the
vegetation than the previous species and provides chances to be observed.
It is not a forest species.

14, Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson. Spotted Babbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Only recorded in the Satpura hill ranges.
Betul, Melghat. I believe it to be resident.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Feeds in dense undergrowth in
deciduous forest and rarely seen. Presence more often deduced from
the characteristic call.

15. Alcippe poiocephala (Jerdon). Quaker Babbler
STATUS AND HABITAT: Probably widely distributed in the more
hilly parts of the State, in the forest. Recorded chiefly in the Satpuras.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘Tree and shrub haunting bird.

16, Aegithina tiphia (Linnacus). Common Iora

STATUS AND HABITAT: Widely distributed throughout the State in
all types of country with trees. It occurs in all forests and in gardens
and groves. Resident.

17, Chloropsis jerdoni (Biyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis or Leafbird

STATUS AND HABITAT: Widely distributed, being mainly seen in
open country with trees but aiso sparingly in the forest.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Largely associated with plants of
Lorunthus, and most frequently seen feeding among flowers of this para-
site. A very wide range of harsh calls, and also mimics other birds. |

NESTING: Nests in June, Sagar (M.K.).

18. Chloropsis aurifrons (Temm. and Laug.). Goldfronted Chloropsis

or Leafbird

STATUS AND HABITAT: As far as my records go, a rare species in
central India. My records are all in the Satpuras, and I have identified
it only four times.

19. Mbolpastes cafer (Linn.). Indian Redvented Bulbul

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of three most numerous and widely
distributed birds of central India, being found in all types of vegetation

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

even dense forest. Particularly abundant in lantana infested jungle of

the Melghat.
NESTING: May—Auegust.

20, Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus). Redwhiskered Bulbul

STATUS AND HABITAT: Occurrence is discontinuous in central India.
Most of the colonies are in the hills of the Satpuras or Bastar. It is a
forest species but also occurs in hill stations such as Chikaida and
Pachmathi, where the forest comes up to the bungalows.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘These are similar to the Redvented
and the two species overlap in Chikalda. The Redwhiskered Bulbul is a
wilder species in central India though it does come into the compound.

21. Pycnonotus leucegenys (Gray). The Whitecheeked Bulbul

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have never recorded this species in
Madhya Pradesh but there are records from Sagar and Hoshangabad in
the Fauna of B.I.

22. Pycnonotus flaviventris (Tickell), Blackcrested Yeilow Bulbul
STATUS AND HABITAT: Seen by me only in Bastar District in sal

and mixed forest. I saw parties each time I visited the Kanger Reserve.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘They were seen flying up from

trees as if hawking insects.
NESTING: Recorded by Osmaston near Pachmarhi.

23, Pyenonotus luteolus (Lesson). Whitebrowed Bulbul
STATUS AND HABITAT: This is not a common or widely distri-
buted species as far as my records show. I have seen it in Chanda and

Nagpur, commonly.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Seen in thick bushes and trees.

Rather a skulking species compared with most hulbuls. Often detected
by the calls.

[Luscinia brunnea (Hodgson). Indian Blue Chat

STATUS AND HABITAT: Never recorded by me in the State, but this
bird breeds in the Himalayas and is recorded regularly as a winter visitor
to the Nilgiris, but has not been recorded yet in central India. ]

24, Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus). Pied Bushchat
STATUS AND HABITAT: A fairly regularly distributed species all
over the State, but never common. Resident. Open fields particulariy

in black cotton soil country.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Lives and feeds in the cultivated

and scrub lands. Hawks from any vantage point and also captures

insects on the ground.
NESTING: April-May, in hollows or under clods in fields.

25. Saxicola torquata (Linnaeus). Stonechat
STATUS AND HABITAT: Winter visitor to the whole State. October-

early March. Habitat similar to preceding.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE; General habits similar to preceding.

LHE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESTI 607

26, Oenanthe picata (Blyth). Pied Wheatear

STATUS AND HABITAT: Not recorded by me but they reach the
west of the State. ;

27, Oenanthe deserti (Temminck). Desert Wheatear

STATUS AND HABITAT: Not recorded though known to occur up to
Nagpur. The range and penetration of migrant birds must vary from
year to year.

28, Cercomela fusca (Blyth). Brown Rock Chat

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species occurs commonly along the
northern fringe of the State. I have recorded it in Hoshangabad town,
Sagar, Damoh, but no further.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It stays in towns and ruined
buildings and is quite unafraid of man. One family has been living in the
Hoshangabad forest office for the last 10 years to my knowledge. ‘The
restricted range is curious as similar conditions occur all over the
State.

NESTING: Rains for certain. Perhaps from April.

29, Phoenicurus ochruros (5. G. Gmelin). Black Redstart

STATUS AND HABITAT: A very punctual winter visitor. I have
noted it on October i year after year. They leave again in the last
week of March or first week of April. They are distributed fairly
evenly both in towns and open deciduous forest all over the State.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘Their niche in the bird community
is closely similar to the Indian Robin and their arrival is rather resented
by the robins.

30, Cynosylvia suecica (Linnaeus). Bluethroat

STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter visitor to the whole State but
owing to its habitat being mainly in long grass and heavy reeds and its
skulking habits, it is not easily seen. . It is, however, common and wide-
spread.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is seen always on the ground
and mostly near heavy grass and reeds, but when walking through they
often fly up close to one’s feet and the characteristic chestnut patch on
the tail is conspicuous and leads to easy identification once one knows
this.

[Calliope calliope (Pallas). Rubythroat

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species should occur at least in the
east of the State in Bastar, but it has not been recorded by me. ]

31, Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus). Indian Robin

STAIUS AND HABI‘AT: ‘This is perhaps the most faithful resident
species of the State. When the bird population is reduced to minimum in
August-September, the robin will still be found in its own beat. The robin
is found in the scrub and regular dry deciduous forest, as well as in gar-
dens and fields.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It appears to be mostly an insect
feeder and often takes arts. ‘They have well defined beats and the males

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EMS, SOCIIEIW, Wall, '8

sing for territory, but round about bungalows the pairs seem to be perma-

nent.
NESTING: April—July.

32. Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus). Magpie Robin

STATUS AND HABITAT: A regular resident species. It is often found
well into the dry deciduous forest and is not confined to gardens ete. as is
often suggested.

GENERAL HABiTS AND VOICE: It is a ground feeding bird, but
presumably in the forest has a fairly mixed diet. In the forest it is
the commonest and perhaps the best songster.

NESTING: March to July.

33, Kittacincla malabarica (Scopoli). Shama

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘The bird is confined to one part of the
State according to my notes. This is a narrow belt running more or
less north-south from Balaghat through Bhandara into Bastar and
Chanda districts. The forests are mixed deciduous with dense bam-
boo understorey ; there are other parts of the State with similar
vegetation but I have not recorded it. The very striking and loud
song, combined with the conspicuous colours, makes it unlikely that the
bird would be missed wherever it cccurs.

NESTING: No notes. The birds are in full song as early as March
and up to May.

34, Turdus simillimus Jerdon. Nilgirit Blackbird

STATUS AND HABITAT: Iam uncertain of the status of this bird.
I have noted it at various places in the Satpuras from May to September.
It is nowhere continuous and I have never seen a bird in the cold weather.
Chikalda in the Melghat for instance, has a large population in May and
up to the outbreak of the monsoon. By the end of June they are rare and
by August none are leit. It is possible they disperse and spread out in
the forest and are not so obvious, but Ihave no record. I have seen colo-
nies at Chikalda, Sajpur near Betul, Pachmarhi (Dhupgarh) and as far
east as Surguja and Jashpur, all in the summer. I have no record of
nesting but the cocks have been heard once singing at the end of
June. They are not singing in May. Almost certainly they are not
resident for the whole year. Bates (1927) records finding a blackbird’s
nest on Dhupgarh, Pachmarhi.

35. Geokichla citrina (Latham). Orangeheaded Ground Thiush

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and widely distributed but not com-
mon. They are usually found in fairly dense patches in the forest and
are shy and difficult to observe ; but they are commoner than the casual
observer would think.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘They feed late into the evening and
fly up into the trees when disturbed. ‘The male’s song is heard from
May onwards and is strong and pleasant.

NESTING: Probably May—June.

36. Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). Blueheaded Rock Thrush

STATUS AND HABITAT: An unusual winter visitor. I have record-
ed it only twice. Both times it was seen in the forest.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 609

37. Mbonticola solitaria (Linnaeus). Blue Rock Thrush
STATUS AND HABITAT: A regular winter visitor to the whole State.

38. Myiophoneus horsfieldii Vigors. Whistling Thrush

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident where found, but spreads into
the plains in the rains and early winter. It is found at a number of
places in the Satpuras besides Pachmarhi, e.g., Betul forests and as
far east as the high plateaus in Surguja.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: In the cold weather and summer
it is found near the streams, but in the rains when every nala is a
water course it flies about freely all over the Pachmarhi plateau. The
song is heard from April onwards, but chiefly in June. The charac-
teristic alarm call reveals its presence much more often than it is seen.

NESTING: Rains.

39, Siphia parva (Bechstein). Redbreasted Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Regular winter visitor to the whole State—
October to early April.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Generally in all types of country
excluding the open fields. Its demands are similar to those of the
resident ‘lickell’s Flycatcher, and there is some resentment when the
Redbreasted comes in. Its calls in winter are an impatient chik.

40. Muscicapula tickelliae (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and widely distributed in the
forest areas of the State. It is one of the species which may be found in
the densest deciduous forest. One of our most typical forest species.

NESTING: July—September.

41. Muscicapula superciliaris Jerdon. White-eyebrowed Blue Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Occasional winter visitor but probably only
a passage migrant. Only recorded end of January or February.

42, Eumyias thalassina (Swainson). Verditer Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter visitor but recorded by me only
from the hill districts of the Satpuras such as Chikalda—Betul.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Hawking insects from the tops of
trees and bushes. |

43, Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson). Greyheaded Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the commonest and most widely
spread small resident birds being particularly common in dense wild
mango trees along nalas in the hills.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘The cheerful little song may be
heard nearly the whole year.

44, Tchitrea paradisi (Linnaeus). Paradise Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Definitely a summer migrant though an-
occasional straggler may be seen in the winter. ‘They arrive in the last
week of March and are common until the rains break when many birds
move on. 4\ few nesting birds may stay on throughout the rains, but
most nests seem to be broken up by the monsoon winds and rain

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

A garden bird, and also in forest particularly along nalas which retain
water. The numbers of birds vary from year to year. 1955 was a
bad year.

NESTING: May-June.

45, Alseonax latirostris (Raffles). Brown Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Recorded by me only in the Melghat where
it is common at present. I may have missed it in the adjacent Betul
forests which are similar, but I doubt that I could have failed to see it in
five years spent in Betul. Presumably resident, but my records are all in
the period April-June.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A bird of the mixed deciduous
forests hawking insects in the crowns of the trees and understorey.

NESTING: No notes. Salim Ali (1939) furnishes evidence of its
breeding in central India.

46. Hypothymis azurea (Boddaert). Blacknaped Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the regular resident birds of the
mixed deciduous forest. Perhaps not so numerous as Tickell’s and the
Greyheaded Flycatchers, but characteristic. |

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Typical flycatcher. Nothing special
to record.

47, Leucocirca aureola (Lesson). Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the commonest and most widely
spread birds of the State, found in all places where there are some trees
and woody growth.

NESTING: April-June.

48. Leucocirca pectoralis Jerdon. Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher

STATUS AND HABITAT: This bird which is so similar in its habits
to the last is not widely distributed but has been recorded by me only
from the western hill ranges such as Chikalda, Pachmarhi and the
higher parts of Betul.

NESTING: April-June.

49, Lanius excubitor Linnaeus. Great Grey Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident bird confined to only a small
part of the State and never common. My records are only from the
drier western parts where the thorny trees are characteristic.

NESTING: Nestsin March-April in Sagar (M.K.).

50, Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. Baybacked Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and found commonly all over the
State in all types of country except dense forest.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is not a bird exclusively of the
dry parts with thorny trees, but is aiso found in quite well-watered forest.

NESTING: June-August.

51. WLanius cristatus Linnaeus. Brown Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: Though this species should occur in
Madhya Pradesh, it has never been recorded by me. Mrs. Wright has
recorded it in Berar.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 611

52. Lanius schach Linnaeus. Rufousbacked Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident and widely distributed species
in all parts of the State except dense forest.

NESTING. April—July.

53, Lanius nigriceps (Franklin), Blackheaded Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘Though recorded in Whistler’s Handbook
as found in Nagpur, I have no record. D’Abreu records it from Bastar,
Bilaspur and Nagpur. It is a Himalayan bird particularly common in
Assam. It is not recorded from central India in Stuart Baker.

54, Hemipus picatus (Sykes). Pied Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident species distributed patchily in the
Satpura Hills and Bastar State. dtis not cominon, but I have recorded it
2—3 times a year.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: An inhabitant of hill forest in the
Satpuras recorded by me many times in Betul and Hoshangabad, and
latterly Bastar. Usually in pairs or small parties.

NESTING: Nests in June-July in Sagar (M.K.).

55. Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin), Common Wood Shrike
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and common in all forests in the
State and in well-treed localities in towns and villages.
NESTING: Nests in June-July in Sagar (M.K.).

56. Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster). Scarlet Minivet

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is a regular resident bird of the better
quality forests in the State such as the Bori Valley in Hoshangabad and
the Bastar sal forests.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is an arboreal bird and is seldom
seen less than 20 feet from the ground. ‘The males have a superb court-
ship flight above the tree tops in April and May.

NESTING: No record, but presumably in April-June.

57. Pericrocotus brevirostris (Vigors). Shortbilled Minivet

STATUS AND HABITAT: Though I cannot distinguish this species
from the preceding with certainty, it is a winter visitor to the State in
all probability.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Same as preceding.

58. Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus). Little Minivet

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is one of the commonest species of the
forest and wherever there are avenues or groves of trees in the cultivation.
It is resident and occurs all over the State.

NESTING: Nests in April-May in Sagar (M.K.).

59, Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon). Whitebellied Minivet

STATUS AND HABITAT: Iam uncertain of the status of this species.
For many years at a time I have not seen it at all. My records are mostly
from Betul and the north-western portions. It may be an occasional
Winter visitor in exceptional years, or else a very local bird.

vi

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Itis much more a bird of the open
grassy country than the other minivets. ‘The flocks keep fairly close
together. It is probably a bird of dry thorn scrub forest to the NW. of
Madhya Pradesh and at times moves into the better wooded parts of this
State.

60. Lalage sykesi Strickland. Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is another species which from lack of
adequate records I cannot fix the status of. I have not seen it often, and
all my records are in March-April. This suggests a passage migrant,
but my observations are quite inadequate.

61. Graucalus macei Lesson. Large Cuckoo Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: A common and well-distributed species
occurring all over the State. Resident as far as I know.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A bird of the tree tops and usually
seen flying at the tree top level; in pairs or several birds in a loose party.
They call frequently with a typical long ¢ee-hee whistle.

62. Artamusfuscus Vieillot. Ashy Swallow Shrike

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘Though this is a species which might be
expected to occur regularly in the State, I have only two records, each
time in January-February, once in Betul in the Tapti Valley and once in
the Kanger Valley in Bastar.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Nothing beyond what is recorded
in books. Since parties of this bird are very prominent and cannot be
missed I feel fairly certain that it is extremely rare to absent all over the
State.

63. Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot. Black Drongo

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the commonest and most faithfully
resident birds of the State. :
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘This drongo occurs in all types of
country from open fields to dense forest, though in the forest it tends to
be replaced by D. caerulescens. ‘The birds of one locality roost together
and may be seen in the early morning posting back to their beats.
NESTING: April—May.

64, Dicrurus longicaudatus Jerdon. Indian Grey Drongo

STATUS AND HABITAT: [ regret my failure after so many years to
be able to distinguish this species in the field from the preceding. My
observations on this species must therefore be guarded. It is a winter
visitor and usually seen in the hills. ‘This is the sum of my observations.
I write, however, subject to correction.

65, Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus), Whitebellied Drongo

STATUS AND HaBITAT: A regular resident species of the forest. It
is definitely a forest denizen and is an arboreal species.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Similar to other drongos, except it
is seldom seen on the ground. It has a wide range of calls more melo-
dious than the Black Drongo.

NESTING: April—May.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 613

66. Chibia hottentotta (Linnaeus). Haircrested Drongo

STATUS AND HABITAT: A very locally distributed bird to the best
of my knowledge; only seen in Bastar from where it has been recorded
by other forest workers too. |

67. Dissemurus paradiseus (Linnaeus). Large Racket-tailed Drongo

STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident of the denser bamboo forests of
the State, being widely distributed. It is not uncommon.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘This fine drongo is often associated
with tree pies. It is famous for the variety of its calls. They fly through
the forest and do not seem to have a beat within which they hawk insects
and return to the same place.

68. Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon). Indian Great Reed
Warbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Almost certainly occurs but no confirmed
record.

69, Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed Warbler
STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This occurs but I have no certain records.

[Acrocephalus agricola (Jerdon). The Paddyfield Warbler, may also
occur. |

[Hippolais scita (Eversman). Booted Warbler. No record but probably
occurs, |

70. Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant). ‘Tailor Bird

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and resident throughout the State
in all types of country including the mixed deciduous forest.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A busy bustling noisy bird produc-
ing an astonishing volume of song for suchasmall size. Common in a
ereat range of different types of country.

NESTING: June-August.

71, Cisticola juncidis (Rafinesque). Fantail-Warbler
STATUS AND HABITAT: Certainly occurs but no confirmed record.
Osmaston records C. cursitans at Pachmarhi.

72, Franklinia buchanani (Blyth), Rufousfronted Wren-Warbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Occurs in the State and recorded in the west
and north-west: Little else noted.
NESTING: Nests in July in Sagar (M.K.).

73. Franklinia gracilis (Franklin), Franklin’s Wren-Warbler
Recorded by Osmaston at Pachmarhi.

74, Sylvia curruca (Linnaeus). Lesser Whitethroat
STATUS AND HABITAT: Occurs regularly in the winter ; in trees etc.

75, Phylloscopus collybitus (Vicillot), Chiff-Chaft

STATUS AND HABITAT: This and related forms occur in the winter,
eg., P. griseolus was recorded by Osmaston at Pachmarhi.

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

76. Acanthopneuste occipitalis (Blyth). Large Crowned Willow-Wacb-
ler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Certainly occurs regularly in the winter
and is seen all over the forest as well as more open country.

77, Prinia socialis (Sykes). Ashy Wren-Warbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is one of the common and regular
resident breeding species.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Occurs in cultivation and scrub
jungle and gardens.

NESTING: June-July.

78, Prinia sylvatica Jerdon. Jungle Wren-Warbler
NESTING: Nests in July in Sagar (M.K.).

79, Prinia inornata Sykes. Indian Wren-Warbler

STATUS AND HABITAT: Occurs but no certain notes.
NESTING: Nests in July in Sagar (M.K.).

80. Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus). Golden Oriole

STATUS AND HABITAT: Though this species is seen all the year,
there certainly are many more birds in the period March-July.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: This is a bird of open country
though it does also occur in the forest, as opposed to the next species
which is more of a forest dweller.

NESTING: April-June.

81, Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus). Blackheaded Oriole

STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident species and typical of the dry
deciduous or sal forests. It is common and occurs in all except the
driest forests.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Similar to the preceding but espe-
cially in forest trees.

NESTING: April-June.

82. Gracula religiosa (Linnaeus). Indian Grackle

STATUS AND HABITAT: A bird confined to only one area in the
State according to my notes, ie., Bastar State in the Kanger Valley and
other parts of the plateau. It is curious that such a strong flying bird
does not spread into new localities which are equally well suited, but this
immobility seems to be typical of several species of myna.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A bird of tall tree forest, never visit-
ing the ground.

NESTING: February to May but also after the rains in October.

83. Pastor roseus (Linnaeus). Rosy Pastor

STATUS AND HABITAT: An irregular migrant species which may or
may not be seen in any one year, and whose numbers vary greatly in
different years. Usually seen in Madhya Pradesh from January to
March.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE; It appears to be a passage migrant
and does not settle downin one locality.

THE BIRD LIFRK OF MADHYA PRADESH 615

84. Sturnia malabarica (Gmelin). Greyheaded Myna

STATUS AND HABITAT; ‘Though some birds may b2 seen in all
months of the year it is also a migratory species and flocks may be seen
on passage in February-March.

GENERAL HABITS AND voicr: A tree-feeding species in the main
and much shyer and less bold than most mynas.

85, Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin). Brahminy Myna

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the widely distributed and resident
mynas ; though not usually common it may be looked for in all parts of
the State both in forest and open country.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Similar to the Common Myna, but it
does not come into houses to nest and is generally less bold. It is rather
intermediate between the tree mynas and the ground feeders.

NESTING: No record but probably rains.

86, Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus). Common Myna

STATUS AND HABITAT: Abundant and resident. Probably the
commonest bird in the State.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Often chooses railway stations for
its communal roosts.

NESTING: March—July. Very fond of buildings, but in the forest
uses holes in trees.

87, Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham). Bank Myna

STATUS AND HABITAT: In Madhya Pradesh very patchily distri-
buted, but very faithful to the localities where it is found. I know
of one colony, on the Katni-Burhi road in Jabalpur district, which I noted
in 1937 and found the birds still in this restricted place in 1955. They
have a breeding colony in the high banks of the river Mahanadi. Another
colony is west of Harda. I have not recorded it elsewhere in the State
though there must be other isolated colonies.

NESTING: April-May.

88, Aethiopsar fuscus (Wagler). Jungle Myna

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘Though this bird might be expected to be
found all over the hill ranges of Madhya Pradesh, I have only seen it once
in my 28 years, and that on the Pandrapat plateau at 3,500 ft. on the
Jashpur-Surguja border, I am pretty sure it does not occur else-
where as on this occasion I spotted the identity at once without binocu-
lars and I feel I could never have missed it by confusion with any
other species of myna. It is to be considered as very rare or occasional.

GRNERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Appears to be a tree species and
not similar in habits to the Common Myna.

89. Sturnopastor contra Linnaeus. Pied Myna

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is another myna with a very restricted
arid patchy distribution. It is common in the Bhandara and Balaghat
districts, and sporadically in Raipur and the eastern districts.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A ground feeding myna of open
country and not a forest bird.

NESTING: April-July.

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

90, Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus). Baya Weaver Bird

STATUS AND HABITAT; Obvious in rains when they are breeding
and the males are conspicuous. I have also recorded them occasionally
in the cold weather, but whether absence of records in the hot weather
means that the birds migrate or are inconspicuous and one misses them,

T am uncertain.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Usually in dense parties in the cold

weather ; and in the breeding season in the rains as described.
NESTING: July-September. Nests are usually suspended from
palm trees or Babul (Acacza arabica).

91. Uroloncha malabarica (Linnaeus). Whitethroated Munia
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and numerous in nearly all parts of
the State. Though usually associated with open cultivation it also occurs

in the forests.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Often seen in fluttering small par-

ties, and this is the usual impression, but they are also capable of a fine,
strong, Swinging flight as for instance when individuals return to the
‘family ’ dormitory in the evenings from their foraging.

NESTING: Probably in any month.

92. Uroloncha striata (Linnaeus). Whitebacked Munia

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is not so common, nor so evenly
distributed as the last species. It is more often observed in light forest
areas, than in the open cultivation. I would cali it occasional and patchily

distributed.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE; Usually in close parties that feed

together in the forest and soon disappear so that one can never keep them
under observation for long. It is surprising how quickly a flock can be
lost to sight.

93, Uroloncha punctulata (Linnaeus). Spotted Munia
STATUS AND HABITAT: Occasional flocks are observed butit is not

common or often seen. Resident.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Nothing on record except usually

seen in grass land.

94, Munia malacca (Linnaeus). Blackheaded Munia
STATUS AND HABITAT: No certain record but I think I have seen it
in Bastar. Bates has recorded it from Pachmarhi.

95. Amandava amandava (Linnaeus). Red Amadavat or Waxbill
‘STATUS AND HABITAT: Occasionally seen. Local.

96, Stictospiza formosa (Latham). Green Munia

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This beautifully coloured little munia has a
very erratic distribution but where it occurs it is abundant. Localities
where I have seen it are Melghat (Chikalda in May only), Allapalli
(Aheri) a locality noted in the Fauna, and parts of Bastar, e.g., Bailladilla
Hill. Also in West Betul and Nimar.

GENERAL HABITS AND voice: Where found it is often seen in
closely knit flocks containing 25-50 birds. They feed on the ground

THE BIRD LIFk OF MADHYA PRADESH 617

mostly and fly up into grass and low bushes when disturbed. They
keep up a steady fweet-tweet which is distinctive as soon as learnt,
Though the markings when seen are distinctive and pretty the birds soon
merge with the background and are a uniform grey-green.

NESTING: No notes. Probably in July-August.

97. Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas), Common Rosefinch

STATUS AND HABITAT: Best classed as a passage migrant in this State.
I have seen it only in January-February and usually not for many days,
I have not seen the birds in October-November.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Usually in cultivation but also seen
in the forest.

98, Gymnorhis xanthocollis (Burton). Yellowthroated Sparrow

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is one of the strongest marked internal
migrants. Flocks of birds become common in January and split up into
breeding pairs in March-April when the forests resound with the
chirpings of these sparrows. By the end of May the flocks are re-forming
and the great majority of birds leave with the rains. Some flocks may
perhaps be seen between July and December, but this is the main
movement.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: As a breeding bird this sparrow is
a forest dweller and the whole of our forests are occupied: in aggregate
a vast number of birds. Not all birds seem to pair, and there are
always a number dashing about. This bird is very strong on the wing
and birds chase each other swiftly. They appear to be ground feeding.
In March-April our forests are at the barest, most trees being leafless,
but I regret I have no records of what the nestlings are fed on.

NESTING: March—May.

99, Passer domesticus (Linnaeus), House Sparrow

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and resident.
NESTING: All the year—main period is perhaps August—October.

100. Emberiza striolata Lichtenstein. Striolated Bunting

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have recorded it only twice, in dry forests
in Betul. It is an unobtrusive bird and may easily be missed. It is re-
corded from Sagar and may occur in the north and west of the State.

101. Emberiza buchanani Blyth. Greynecked Bunting

; STATUS AND HABITAT; A winter visitor to parts of Madhya
Pradesh, but recorded by me only in the Wadali Hills near Amravati.
Mrs. Wright has also recorded it in her birds of Berar.

GENERAL HABITS AND voicr: It is seen in small parties on the
ground in scrub forest.

102. Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. Blackheaded Bunting or
Emberiza bruniceps (Brandt). Redheaded Bunting
STATUS AND HABITAT: Occasional passage migrants usually record-
ed in January to March. Many years pass without any record. I am
not sure which species occurs and observers should try to check this
point.

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HYST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘The birds are usually associated with
the ripening crops. ‘They are found in small loosely aggregated flocks
and fly up into trees when disturbed.

103. Melophus lathami (Gray). Crested Bunting

STATUS AND HABITAT: Status uncertain. I have found it mostly
in the west of the State particularly in Betul, Amravati and Nimar, One
never sees it in the east. The numbers vary from year to year and by
seasons which suggests local movements as well.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: In small parties in fairly open coun-
try and usually feeding on the ground.

104. Riparia paludicola (Vieillot). Indian Sand Martin
STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and resident in all parts of the

State.
NESTING: Probably January—March.

105. Riparia concolor (Sykes). Dusky Crag Martin
STATUS AND HABITAT; Found in hilly localities in all parts of the
State in small numbers. )

106. Hirundo smithii Leach. Wiretailed Swallow

STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident species in the main in Madhya
Pradesh; at least birds are seen in all months of the year.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is usually found near water all
over the State. Nothing exceptional is noted.

NESTING: Probably April-August.

107, Hirundo daurica Linnaeus. Redrumped Swallow

STATUS AND HABITAT: In some ways this is difficult to assess.
Some are undoubtedly resident and are found in hill ranges in the summer,
but there is a great increase in numbers in the winter. The main season is
in January and February when large flocks of this species and A. rustica
may be seen together.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: The resident hill birds behave more
like Crag Martins, but the immigrants in the plains are typical swallows in
their habits.

NESTING: Probably rains.

108, WHirundo rustica Linnaeus. European Swallow
STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter migrant usually seen in January
and February.

109. Motacilla alba Linnaeus. White Wagtail

STATUS AND HABITAT: Both a passage migrant and a winter
resident. ‘The birds appear in large numbers in the middle of October
but soon become less. During the rest of the cold weather they are
distributed patchily and seem to move about a lot.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: On first arrival they are in small
flocks and very strong on the wing. The return migration does not seem
to pass through this State in large numbers,

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 619

110, Mbotacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. Large Pied Wagtai!

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and widely distributed all over
the State wherever there is water, on rivers, tanks and village ponds.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Feeds along the edge of the water.
Bold in its nesting habits. One family has been using the Forest Rest
House in Bori F.V. since 1938.

NESTING: In buildings etc. April-June.

11]. Motacilla cinerea Tunstall. Grey Wagtail

_ STATUS AND HABITAT: A migrant species but one of the first
species to arrive and the last to leave, so that the bird is absent only for
May, June and July. Birds start to appear at the end of August, but in
September they become more common.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Found all over the State particularly
in forest areas, and in the cold weather one bird may be found in nearly
every nala with water and also on roads near water. Also on nalas in
more open country. ‘The birds seem to occupy definite beats and will fly
ahead up a nala as one goes along, but after a time will fly out into the
forest and back into the nala behind one.

112. Mbotacilla flava Linnaeus. Yellow Wagtail

STATUS AND HABITAT: Passage inigrant might be the best way to
describe this bird. ‘They are seen mostly from February onwards and are
common in March each year. Individuals are seen in December—January
but this is the main occurrence. .

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: On marshy ground at the upper sides
of tanks is the most usual, and in drying rice fields.

113. Mbotacilla citreola Pallas. Yellowheaded Wagtail

STATUS AND HABITAT: A rather scarcer bird than the preceding
and also seen in February—March.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Feeds in the same places as the
Yellow Wagtail.

114. Anthus hodgsoni Richmond. Indian Tree Pipit

STATUS AND HABITAT: Though rather doubtful about the exact
identity of the birds seen, I presume that this species is the one seen in
the cold weather. It is found in nearly all forests and is common. I am
uncertain of the length of stay but I think it is from November to March.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Found mostly feeding on the ground
inside the forest but also in open groves and gardens. ‘They fly up into
trees when disturbed.

115, Anthus trivialis Linnaeus. Tree Pipit

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have never succeeded in distinguishing
this species from the previous one, but it may well occur.

116, Anthus richardi rufulus Vieillot. Indian Pipit

STATUS AND HABITAT: A common, resident species in all open
country in the State. Often the only species in village waste land which
has been grazed so heavily that little vegetation has been left.

NESTING: Probably mainly May, June, July,

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

117. . Anthus campestris Linnacus. Tawny Pipit

STATUS AND HABITAT: Not definitely identified by me but I have
many times seen larger pipits than the resident species. These species
are very difficult to identify in the field.

Also possibly Azthus stmilis (Brown Rock Pipit) and Azthus richardi
(Richard’s Pipit) may occur and must be looked for.

118. Alauda gulgula Franklin. Little Skylark
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and moderately common all over
the State. .
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: The song may be heard mostly in
the cold weather.
NESTING: Presumably March-July, but the -main song season is
earlier.

119. Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisler), Short-toed Lark

STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter migrant species found in good
sized flocks in all parts of the State. The birds are usually seen only in
December and January. They feed and live in the open fields after
harvest and on waste ground.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘They are seen by an observer usually
as a tight-knit, large flock which sweeps across the country in a swinging
co-ordinated flight. When seen on the ground ata short distance they
feed closely together, but soon get lost as they merge so quickly with the
bare ground.

120. Calandrella acutirostris Hume. Yarkand Short-toed Lark

STATUS AND HABITAT: Not recognized separately by me, but it
may well occur, or this may be the common species (see Salim Ali, 1939),

12]. Alaudula raytal (Blyth). Sand-Lark

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This isresident and found near water. I parti-
cularly associate it with the banks of the Narmada River.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is always found close to water.

122. Mirafra assamica Horsfield. Bengal Bush Lark
STATUS AND HABITAT: Not recorded with any certainty though it
should occur in the State. This is due to the difficulty in identifying
these species unless individuals are shot. I am also uncertain about the
Singing Bush Lark (A@zrafra javanica), and have no certain record.
NESTING: April and August-September in Sagar (M.K.).

123. Mirafra erythroptera Blyth. Redwinged Bush Lark
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and occasional.

124, Galerida cristata (Linnaeus). Crested Lark

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and fairly widely distributed in
open country. Galertda deva also probably occurs but again not definite-
ly identified, ;

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 621

125. Ammomanes phoenicura (Franklin). Rufoustailed Finch-Lark

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is one of the commonest and most
widely distributed birds in the State in allopen country. Usually in pairs
or small parties. Resident.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Often one of the only bird species
in the more desolate parts of the State. Overgrazed village wastes, pot-
holed ground, between cultivation, etc. Its rather mournful calls are one
of the typical sounds of these parts of the countryside.

126, Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli), Ashycrowned or Blackbeilied Finch-
Lark

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and mostly resident but one
~ often appears to find larger numbers at certain seasons so there may be
local movements.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A bird of the open fallow land,
often surprising one by the number of birds which spring up at one’s
feet from an apparently bare piece of ground. For small birds they are
strong on the wing and the male appears to enjoy thoroughly his rising
and falling song.

NESTING: No definite period. Nests in April and August-Septem-
ber in Sagar (M.K.).

127, Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck). White-eye

STATUS AND HABITAT: Mostly resident and common to extremely
common particularly in the slightly moister forests. Certainly one of the
typical forest species.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: AX tree and bush haunting species ;
seen in small parties.

NESTING: April-June.

128, Cinnyris asiaticus (Latham). Purple Sunbird

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is the common sunbird of this State
and is resident and found in all types of country. No other species of
sunbird is found in most of Madhya Pradesh.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Males put on summer plumage
from January, but the nesting season appears to be mostly from March to
May. 7

NESTING: March to May seems to be the main season.

129, Cinnyris zeylonicus (Linnaeus). _Purplerumped Sunbird

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘Though this species is shewn as occurring
in the south of the State it is, as far as my experience goes, extremely
scarce and I have only one record from the sal forests of South Raipur.
In Salim Ali (Sth edition) it is recorded as not occurring north of the
Godavari and this agrees with my observation.

130, Dicaeum erythrorhynchum (Latham). ‘Tickell’s Flowerpecker

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and fairly common in all parts of
the State. | |

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

131. Piprisoma agile (Tickell). Thickbilled Flowerpecker
STATUS AND HABITAT: Presumably occurs but not identified by me

as distinct from Tickell’s Flowerpecker.
NESTING: Nests in March in Sagar (M.K.).

132. Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus). Indian Pitta

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the well-marked summer migratory
species of the State. The birds appear at the end of April and
are common in suitable forest areas by May. ‘The return migration is not
so well-marked, but most birds have left by September, or it may be even
earlier as one is not so much in the forest in the rains and opportunities to
observe them are few.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: They are generally seen in Madhya
Pradesh in the denser and moister forest, and remain unknown even to
forest officers. ‘They feed much as thrushes and fly up into trees when
disturbed. The forest is full of their emphatic calls in May and June.

NESTING: May-August.

133, Picus vittatus xanthopygaeus (Gray). Little Scalybellied Wood-
pecker

Status AND HABITAT: Resident species but not at all common and
usually seen, according to my notes, in the Satpura Hills or on the Bastar
plateau. Occasional and patchily distributed.

134, Leiopicus mahrattensis (Latham). Mahratta Woodpecker
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident species and common all over the
State. Together with the Goldenback the most common species of wood-

pecker in our forests.
NESTING: February-April.

135, Yungipicus nanus hardwickii (Jerdon). Indian Pygmy Wood-
pecker

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident, but from observation not very
common and usually seen in the more hilly forests. This may be due to
the comparatively small and inconspicuous nature of the bird.

136. Micropternus brachyurus (Vieillot). Rufous Woodpecker

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident, but as far as my notes go con-
fined to the south of the State in Bastar and South Chanda. Common
enough where found.

GEN @RAL HABITS AND VOICE: The species makes a surprisingly
loud noise when drumming on trees.

NESTING: One nest found in May in Bastar from which a young bird
flew.

137. Brachypternus benghalensis (Linnaeus). Goldenbacked Woodpecker

STATUS AND HABITAT: The commonest species of woodpecker
found all over the State and fairly abundant everywhere. Easier to ob-
serve than most woodpeckers, It occurs equally in forest and more
open tree-studded cultivation.

NESTING: February-May is the main season,

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 623

138. Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus (‘Tickell). Tickell’s.\ Goldenbacked
Woodpecker.

STATUS AND HABITAT: Though recorded from the State I have not
seen it for certain, and cannot confirm its occurrence. It is a bird of the
Western Ghats but has been recorded from Chanda in Whistler. D’ Abreu
records it from Bhandara and Chanda.

139, Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert). Blackbacked Woodpecker

STATUS AND HABITAT: The status and numbers of this species are
uncertain as I have only once definitely seen it so clearly as to be able to
identify it for certain, but | have many times seena woodpecker which is
not the Goldenback. However, as the bird seems to live permanently on
the opposite side of the tree one can never be sure of the identity! Pro-
bably a very local species. Recorded by me only in Betul for certain.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE : As for other woodpeckers but very
shy.

140, Hemicircus canente (Lesson). Heartspotted Woodpecker

STATUS AND HABITAT: A species found only in Bastar to my know-
ledge. There I have seen it once or twice. It was also recorded by Salim
Ali. Not common even in Bastar. :

141. Dryocopus javensis (Jerdon). Great Black Woodpecker

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species also appears to be found only
in Bastar. Specimens were secured to their surprise by Salim Ali and
Koelz, and I saw it in 3 or 4 places in Bastar when touring.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Usually in noisy parties in tops of
trees, Their loud clanging calls are very arresting.

142, Jynx torquilla Linnaeus. Wryneck

STATUS AND HaBITAT; A rare winter visitor, not seen by me but
recorded by both D’Abreu and Mrs. Wright. |

143. Megalaima zeylanicus (Gmelin). The Green Barbet

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and resident all over the State
and one of the commonest species in nearly all forests. It is also found
outside in open country with trees.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: An arboreal species which feeds
mostly on figs ete., a bird which will be known to most only by the voice
owing to the concealing coloration, but once one’s eyes get used to pick-
ing it out, one will see it frequently.

NestinG: March-April.

144, Megalaima haemacephala indica (Latham). Coppersmith
STATUS AND HABITAT: Less of a forest species than the last one.
It is equally common and resident, and found in all parts of the State

wherever there are trees,
NESTING: March—April.

145, Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus). Blue Jay

STA1US AND HABITAT: Common, resident and equally common all
over the State. It penetrates into most of the forests and is more of a
forest species than is usually said in books.

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

NESTING: Mostly May-June. The young usually are seen being fed
in July-August.

146. Merops orientalis Latham. Green Bee-eater

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and found all over the State. Nor-
mally to be counted as a resident but subject to considerable local move-
ments. I had earlier noted that the birds left the colder hills of the
Satpuras in the rains, but in 1953 following two years of low rainfall the
entire population moved out in May—June and only returned in the first
week of October. In June-July occasional parties of bee-eaters were seen
but they were all on the move and keeping together. Probably in most
years large numbers of bee-eaters do migrate, as numbers are obviously
less in the rains and more in the cold weather.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Like many such birds the local popul-
ation collect together to roost.
NESTING: February—May.

147. Merops superciliosus Linnaeus. Bluetailed Bee-eater

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have too few observations to decide its
status in central India, It is common nowhere and not evenly distribut-
ed. My records are all in the months of February to April except for one
in September. This may be mere coincidence or shows it is a passage
migrant. I have always seen it near water. The localities I have seen it
in are on the Indravati River between South Chanda and South Bastar,
several individual birds on the Narmada at Hoshangabad ; once a party
on the Mahanadi River near Katni at the same place as a colony of Bank
Mynas (an association mentioned by Salim Ali 5th edition); one party
over the tank in the Chaugan Fort in Khairi Forest Range of Hoshanga-
bad District ; and once near Nepanagar. ‘These are the only occasions in
25 years of observation.

148. Alcemerops athertoni (Jardine and Selby). Bluebearded Bee-eater

STATUS AND HABITAT: A comparatively rare bird found in the
hills round Pachmarhi, and also in Bastar. I have seen birds near
Pachmarhi, at Bori and Churna in Bori Forest Range. :

149. Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus). Pied Kingfisher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and widely distributed. Wher-
ever there are lakes or fairly large rivers with considerable pools of good
depth. Not found in forest country usually.

NESTING: Probably main season December—April.

150, Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus). Common Kingfisher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common, resident and widely distributed in
all parts of the State wherever there are small streams and tanks.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘This species is fairly adaptable and
found in a wide variety of country, Itis rather shy.

NESTING: March—May.

151. Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus). Whitebreasted Kingfisher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Another common species particularly in the
forests being independent of water and with a more varied diet. Resident
all over the State, but particularly a forest bird.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 625

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: This species is not immune from
attacks by hawks and its bright plumage shows up when it is killed and
plucked.

NESTING: March—June.

152. Ramphalcyon capensis gurial (Pearson). Storkbilled Kingfisher

STATUS AND HABITAT: Tiis fine, large kingfisher is typically found
along deep pools in the forest and has not been seen by me in any other

habitat. It is locally distributed and not widespread. I have seen it °

most in Chanda District.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A rather noisy species calling a lot
from dense foliaged trees along nalas. It flies strongly, but I have not
seen it actually fishing.

153. Tockus birostris (Scopoli). Grey Hornbill

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and resident all over the State,
equally in the closed forest and the open treed countryside.
NESTING: March-April.

154, Hydrocissa coronata (Boddaert). Malabar Pied Hornbill

STATUS AND HABITAT: Found locally here and there in many parts
of the State particularly in the denser forests and on the hills. Where it
occurs it may be in considerable parties. I have seen it in Bori Valley
(Hoshangabad), Ladi (Betul), Bastar, and it probably may be found in
many other parts.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: An extremely noisy bird usually in
parties feeding in tall trees.

155, Upupa epops ceylonensis (Reichenbach). Hoopoe

STATUS AND HABITAT: Widely distributed and more or less resident.

The distribution is irregular and numbers seem to vary, suggesting
local movements. It is found in all open country but not usually inside
dense forest.

NESTING: February to May.

156, Harpactes fasciatus (Pennant), Trogon

STATUS AND HABITAT: Only recorded from Bastar State where it
appears to be fairly widespread. Probably will also be found in Sironcha
range of South Chanda.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Only seen occasionally in ordinary
types of forest, sitting silently inside the foliage of trees.

157, Micropus affinis (Gray). Indian Swift |

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and widespread and resident all
over the State. The local colonies are usually based on some buildings,
but the birds are also seen in the forest where they may nest on rocks
EI,

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘This species was the only insecti-
vorous bird which did not migrate in 1953 after the two years of drought.

NESTING: Probably mainly May-—September. ;

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

158. Micropus melba bakeri (Hartert). Alpine Swift

STATUS AND HABITAT: Only two colonies are known in this State.
There is one centred on Gawilgarh Fort in Chikalda (Amravati). These
birds have been seen by me on several occasions ; I have also seen them
from the top of Dhupgarh (Pachmarhi).

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Tremendous speed and wonderful
aerial display.

159, Cypsiurus batassiensis (Griffiths). Palm Swift

STATUS AND HABITAT: A very locally distributed bird as palms are
not so common in this State. There is one colony in the large group of
palms near the North Chanda forest office in Chanda town.

160, Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell). Indian Crested Swift

STATUS AND HABITAT: A very regularly distributed bird in nearly
all the forests of the State and occasionally in well-treed localities in the
more open tracts.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It hawks for insects above the trees.
It comes down and skims the surface of the water to drink.

NESTING: February—March.

161. Indicapus sylvaticus (Blyth). Whiterumped Spinetail

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species is reported to occur in the
State but I have never succeeded in identifying it. Salim Ali in his Birds
of Travancore and Cochin shows it as occurring in parts of Madhya
Pradesh. D’Abreu records it as occurring from Nagpur to Seoni.

162. Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham. Indian Nightjar

STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident and widely distributed species all
over the State particularly in non-forest areas.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: They are particularly seen on roads
and are often shown up in the headlights of cars.

NESTING: March-April.

163. Caprimulgus indicus Latham. Jungle Nightjar

STATUS AND HABITAT: Mostly a typical forest species though found
in the open. Common all over the State.

Note: [Franklin’s Nightjar (Caprimulgus monticolus) probably occurs
but I have not succeeded in identifying it for certain.]

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: The uk, kvroo-kroo call is attributed
to this species, but my impression is that this call is heard only in hill
forests and not in the plains where the Jungle Nightjar is certainly seen.

NESTING: March-April.

164, Cuculus canorus Linnaeus. Cuckoo

STATUS AND HABITAT: According to my records a migrant species
which visits this State from early May to July or August: usually most
are seen in June-July in the north. ‘The numbers vary markedly from
year to year ; for example in 1955 hardly a bird was seen or even heard.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is a bird of the more open
country presumably as the main fosterers are birds which breed in open
country.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 627

NESTING: Chiefly June-July. I am almost certain that this bird
does breed in central India, but on consulting Stuart Baker’s Nidification
of Indian Birds, I see that no eggs have been recorded in central India.

165. Cuculus micropterus Gould. Indian Cuckoo

STATUS AND HABITAT: The status of this bird is still uncertain. I
have only seen it at the same time as I have heard it, and as it is unob-
trusive it is possible that in the rest of the year when it is silent one fails
to spot it; but I would say it is a migrant and present from March in the
south of the State, and from May in the north up to July or August.

‘GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: This is typically a forest species
though also foundin more open country. It appears to be entirely arbo-
teal and is usually seen in trees or flying above the forest canopy.

NESTING: Very little has been recorded. In the Nidification of
Indian Birds, Stuart Baker says no information has been recorded except
a possible connection with the drongos and the Paradise Flycatcher.

166, Hierococcyx varius (Vahl). Common Hawk-Cuckoo

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is the only parasitic cuckoo which I
would agree is resident. It is common all over the State and in almost
all types of country.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: The Hawk-Cuckoo calls mostly from
April to June, but if a spell of rainy weather occurs in the cold season it
may call. It is mostly arboreal and is usually seenin trees. One often
sees it flying from one tree to another even in the cold weather,

NESTING: April-June. Normal fosterers : Babblers.

167. Cacomantis merulinus (Scopoli). Plaintive Cuckoo

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is another species of uncertain status.
Its calls are heard mostly in the rains in the State. It is also a forest
species in the main.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is however small and unobtrusive
even when calling and again it is just possible that one fails to see it in the
rest of the year, but I feel that it is unlikely that, for the last 15 years
when I have been particularly looking for cuckoo species in the cold
weather, I should never have even had a suspicion of seeing one.

168, Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert). Pied Crested Cuckoo

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is a very clearly marked migrant spe-
cies and one where there is no room for any doubt as it is so easily seen
and heard and keeps to open country. ‘The birds arrive in the last week
of June and are not seen beyond the end of September except, presumably,
young birds which leave by the end of October.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A bird of open country, particularly
open scrub forest, in the drier western parts of the State.

NESTING: July-August. Babblers are the most probable foster
parents.

169, Eudynamis scolopaceus (Linnaeus). Indian Koel

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is another species which is of uncertain
status, since it becomes silent. But I believe it to be largely resident as i

8

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

have seen birds in nearly every month of the year. It may be also
partially migratory. It is found all over the State.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It starts calling first of all the cuc-
koos and may be heard from March onwards. The breeding season of
its normal fosterers, the crows, is March to May in the main in Madhya
Pradesh.

170. Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon). Small Greenbilled Malkoha
STATUS AND HABITAT: Though this species may occur in the ex-

treme south of the State, L have no record. It is common from Hydera-
bad to the South of India. :

171. Taccocua leschenaultii Lesson. Southern Sirkeer Cuckoo

STATUS AND HABITAT: This bird is widely distributed in nearly all
parts of the State. It is resident and found in forest areas usually in
rather grassy open forest. ;

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Perhaps the most silent and unob-
trusive bird in our list. Except when frightened up out of the grass when
it runs up into a tree with hops and a few flutters of wings it is not seen or

heard. Once I saw a pair courting early in June and making a few
sounds.

NESTING: Presumably June—August.

172, Centropus sinensis (Stephens). Crow-Pheasant or Coucal

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the resident and common birds all
over the State in nearly all types of country.
NESTING: Rains, July-September.

173, Centropus benghalensis (Gmelin). Lesser Coucal

Is recorded in Orissa but has not been recorded by me inside the bor-
ders of this State.

174, Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus). Large Indian Parakeet

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and widely distributed, but perhaps
more a forest species than the next. |
NESTING : December—February is main season.

175. Psittacula krameri (Scopoli). Green Parakeet

STATUS AND HABITAT: Probably the commonest species and wide-
spread throughout the State in all types of country.
NESTING: January to April.

176, Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus). Blossomheaded Parakeet

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and very numerous all over the
State.
NESTING: January—April.

177. Ketupa zeylonensis (Gmelin). Brown Fish Owl

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have seen this species comparatively fre-
quently and also heard its calls. It is presumably resident.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 629

178. Bubo bengalensis (Franklin). Rock Eagle Owl

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species is common and widely distri-
buted. |

179, Bubo coromandus (Latham). Dusky Eagle Owl

This species could well occur in Madhya Pradesh but I have no notes
of seeing or hearing it. It is recorded from all over India including
Raipur.

180. Otus bakkamoena Pennant. Collared Scops Owl

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species certainly occurs, but there are
no certain sight records in my notes. The call is distinctive and is heard
not infrequently.

181. Otus sunia (Hodgson). Indian Scops Owl

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Wauck-chug-chug! For these species
of small owls identification even with good field glasses is difficult and in
the absence of killed specimens I am not able to state for certain whether
this bird occurs.

182, Athene brama (Temminck). Spotted Owlet

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and resident all over the State and
one of the most regularly distributed birds.
NESTING: Cold weather.

183. Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell). Jungle Owlet.
STATUS AND HABITAT: Occurs and is seen not infrequently in the
forest as it is on the move in the early evening. :

184. Ninox scutulata (Raffles). Indian Hawk-Owl

STATUS AND HABITAT: This bird has been recorded from the State
but I have no notes. I only read about it late in my service and was not
on the look-out for it, but its call described in Salim Ali’s Birds of Tra-
vancore and Cochin appears similar to an unidentified call heard by me on

several occasions.

185, Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli). King or Black Vulture
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident, and widespread in all the State.

186. Gyps indicus indicus (Scopoli). Longbilled Vulture

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and widespread in all the State.
(Gyps fulvus may also occur as its range is to the Deccan.)

NESTING: Cold season.

187. Pseudogyps benghalensis (Gmelin). Whitebacked Vulture

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and common in all the State.
NESTING: Cold season.

188. Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus). Neophron
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and common in all parts of the
State.

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83

189. Aquila rapax (Temminck). Tawny Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: Fairly evenly distributed all over the State.
Usually seen in open country. Resident in the main.

190. Aquila nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson. Steppe Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: Recorded as a winter visitor as far east as
Seoni and Raipur. I have not identified it myself and have no record.

19], Spizaétus cirrhatus (Gmelin). Crested Hawk-Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is one of the most typical forest birds
of the State and may be seen in nearly all places. Resident.

. GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It strikes down peafowl and jungle-
fowl, but I have never seen this interesting sight. A noisy species. Very
considerable differences are seen in the coloration.

NESTING: Cold weather.

192, Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot), Bonelli's Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This species may well occur in the State -
but I have no record of it. It is apparently similar in shape to the pre-
ceding species but has no crest. As the crest of the Crested Hawk-
Eagle is not easy to see without binoculars, it may be easy to confuse the
two species.

193. Ictinaétus malayensis (Temm. and Laug.). Black Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species is recorded from this State but
I have no notes. I only learnt about it recently and so was never on the
look-out for it.

194. Circaétus gallicus (Gmelin). Short-toed Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have seen this fine bird in several parts of
the State but it is not common or evenly distributed. A pair can usually
be seen between Chikalda and Bairat in the Melghat. I have also seen it
at Kukroo in Betul: and once at Sanna in Jashpur, the other end of the
Satpuras. 7

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: To my mind one of the greatest
masters of flight inthe bird kingdom. It makes use of upward currents
of air. The kestrel has to use its wings to hover, but you can watch a
Short-toed Eagle gradually shifting uutil he finds the exact position where
he is supported like a tight-rope walker. It can then plunge to the ground
like a plummet and alight so softly it would not stir a straw. It is the
poetry of flight.

195, Haematornis cheela (Latham). Crested Serpent Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and widely distributed in all the
forest areas of the State.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘This species is found mostly along
water courses and damp places in the forest. It feeds on frogs, reptiles
and lizards. Often soars at considerable heights.

NESTING: March—May.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA, PRADESH 631

196, Butastur teesa (Franklin). White-eyed Buzzard

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is probably the commonest hawk of the
State, being found both in open country and in open spaces in the forest.
Resident and common all over.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘Though most often seen sitting on
a tree the bird must hunt fairly assiduously. I have seen it once with a
young hare, but it must feed largely on insects and small animais.

NESTING: March—May.

197. Haliaétus leucoryphus (Pallas). Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This and the next species occur in the
State but I am unable to say with certainty what is their position. They
are seen on the larger tanks and on deep pools onrivers even in the forest.

198. Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus (Horsf.). Greyheaded Fishing Eagle
STATUS AND HABITAT: As for the last species.

199. Haliastur indus (Boddaert), Brahminy Kite

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and well distributed throughout
the State wherever there are small tanks or even moderate sized pools in
jungle nalas.

NESTING : January—March.

200. Milvus migrans (Boddaert). Common Pariah Kite

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and abundant all over the State.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Presumably the birds seen in the
forest are less scavengers than the town bird, but I do not know what
they feed on exactly.

NESTING : January—March.

201. Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). Blackwinged Kite

STATUS AND HABITAT: A locaily distributed bird seen in couples
here and there in the State, usually in forest areas. Resident pre-
sumably.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Usually seen gliding and soaring by
a forest hill-side, but I have little idea how it feeds or on what.

202. Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus). Marsh Harrier

STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter visitor seen in well watered parts
of the State. It is moderately common but numbers vary from year to
year.

203. Circus macrourus (S, G. Gmelin), Pale Harrier

STATUS AND HABITAT: A common winter visitor and one of the
characteristic sights of the open country from November to February
each year. Seen all over the State and even enters open spaces in the
forest.

204. Circus pygargus Linnaeus. Montagu’s Harrier
This species probably occurs but I have no certain record,

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

205. Astur badius (Gmelin). Shikra

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and moderately common in the
forest areas of the State.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Particularly feeds on small birds in
the forest.

NESTING: Probably January—April.

206. Accipiter nisus (Linnaeus). Asiatic Sparrow Hawk

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is a winter visitor, but owing to its
similarity to the Shikra one is uncertain of its correct status. If carefully
looked for may be found to be common.

207. Pernis ptilorhynchus (Temm. and Schleg). Crested Honey Buzzard

STATUS AND HABITAT: This bird is not uncommon in many parts
of the State both in the open and the forest. I have seen it only flying
or circling and have little knowledge of its habits or status in the State.

208. Falco peregrinus calidus Latham. Eastern Peregrine Falcon

STATUS AND HABITAT: This falcon may occur in winter but I have
no certain record. Once finding duck most unwilling to take to the air
from a tank, the explanation was provided a few minutes later by a small
flock of teal coming in to land at top speed with a large falcon (possibly
this or the next species) chasing them in, but it did not take one and was
apparently only in fun!

D’ Abreu records it as taken on the banks of the Narmada.

209. Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall. Shahin Falcon

STATUS AND HABITAT: As for the last species.
D’ Abreu records it as resident and a regular breeding bird.

210. Falco jugger J. F. Gray. Lugger Falcon

STATUS AND HABITAT: The Lugger Falcon is seen occasionally in
different parts of the State and is presumably resident,
NESTING: Probably March-April.

211. Falco chicquera Daudin. ‘Turumtee or Redheaded Merlin

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is a commoner falcon than the Lugger
and appears to be fairly common in hill forest areas, Presumably mainly
resident.

212, Cerchneis tinnunculus (Linnaeus). Kestrel

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This species is a winter visitor to all parts
of the State and I doubt if any birds breed here.

Note : Both the European, as a winter visitor, and a local race, which
is resident, may occur.

213. Crocopus phoenicopterus (Latham). Common Green Pigeon
STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and common all over the State.

Vote: Osmaston states he saw and heard the Kokla or Wedgetailed
Green Pigeon (Sphenocercus sphenurus) at Pachmarhi. This species
breeds in Kashmir, Kumaon and Garhwal hills and east to Assam, but

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 633

migrates to the plains in winter. It has not been recorded by anyone else
in central India.
NESTING: February—April.

214. Muscadivora aenea (Linnaeus). Green Imperial Pigeon

STATUS AND HABITAT: Very locally distributed in the south of the
State. There used to be a colony at Junona F. V. near Chanda town.

215. Chalcophaps indica (Linnaeus). Indian Emerald Dove

STATUS AND HABITAT: A very patchily distributed species and
resident where found. They are common in the Kangar Reserve,
Bastar, and occasional in other parts of Bastar. There is also a colony
in Balaghat, Mandla. Some specimens in the Nagpur Museum were
obtained in Balaghat, and Mr. C. E. C. Cox told me of this colony. I
saw one bird myself in the Kanha Game Reserve in May 1955. Otherwise
this species does not occur in any other locality in Madhya Pradesh to the
best of my knowledge.

216. Columba livia Gmelin. Blue Rock Pigeon

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and common throughout the State.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘The birds may be divided into two
classes; those that live in various works of man suchas buildings, wells,
bridges; and the true jungle birds which nest in rocky caves etc. Both
fly considerable distances from their base to feeding grounds.

NESTING: Probably all the year.

217. Streptopelia orientalis (Latham). Rufous Turtle Dove

STATUS AND HABITAT: Found in the better quality forest and _ hiil
ranges. It is more of a forest species than the other doves. Local and
not seen in nany areas.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: This dove is found in small parties
mostly inside the forest, but when crops are being reaped it may be found
in larger numters out in the fields.

NESTING: Probably February-March, mostly.

218, Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli). Spotted Dove

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is the commonest dove of the State
and is also one of the birds which seem equally at home in the forest.
This is to be noted as the general belief is that it is a bird of open

country.
NESTING: All the year except the rains.

219. Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus). Little Brown Dove
STATUS AND HABITAT: A bird of open country and gardens and not
a forest species. Not so common as the last species and much less

hardy.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘The most quiet and ‘ gentlest’ dove.

NESTING: All the year except the rains.

220. Streptopelia decaocto (Frivalszky). Indian Ring Dove
STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and widely distributed in all parts
of the State. Presumably resident, but numbers seem to vary.

634. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

A bird of the open country in particular, and not generally seen
in the forest. :
NESTING: All the year.

221. Oenopopelia tranquebarica (Hermann). Red Turtle Dove

STATUS AND HABITAT: A widely distributed but patchy bird all over
the State, particularly in open country. Numbers vary markedly and
males seem often to be absent entirely in the cold weather, or scarce.
Whistler, page 401, mentions that large flocks consisting entirely of males
are sometimes found, so that this suggests a seasonal movement at least
of males.

222. Pterocles exustus Temminck. Common Sandgrouse

STATUS AND HABITAT: Not particularly common or widespread.
In small parties in the more open and drier areas to the west of the
State.

223. Pterocles indicus (Gmelin). Painted Sandgrouse

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is the most typical sandgrouse of
this tract. It is found in nearly all forests. From December to May or
June they are found in pairs on firelines or forest roads. ‘Towards the
end of the rains they collect in considerable numbers in favourite locali-
ties in open raised country particularly where the ground is covered with
‘ Wiid Indigo’ (Zebhrosia purpurea). The birds rise when shot at and
tend to break up into small coveys which may be true family parties.
The birds drink at dusk at jungle pools and pairs may be seen coming to
drink from all directions.

NESTING: January—April.

224, Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. Common Peafowl

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common and resident all over the State in
all forests and scrub. ‘Though not considered sacred, they do not have
many human enemies and their numbers are large.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: They are extremely sharp-sighted
and have wonderful hearing. We were amazed at how they could pick
up the slight whirr of a small 8 mm. cine camera 20-30 yards away.

NESTING: April-May mostly, with perhaps a second brood in
August-September.

225. Gallus sonneratii Temminck. Grey Junglefowl

STATUS AND HABITAT: The resident species of the west of the
State more or less up to the sal forests. It is not evenly distributed and
may be absent over considerable areas. At places it may be common.
Teak and bamboo forest are usual haunts, and it is common in the
lantana-infested Melghat. :

NESTING; March-June. There may be second broods in Septem:
ber—October just after the rains.

226, Gallus bankiva Temminck. Red Junglefowl

STATUS AND HABITAT: The Red Junglefowl is found in the east of
the State particularly in the sal forests. It is not however rigidly con-
fined and may be found for instance in the teak and bamboo forests
adjacent to the sal forests in Mandla. Hybrids between the two species

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 635°

are said to occur in the zone in which they overlap. The small colony
which used to live in the sal forests round Pachmarhi in Forsyth’s day
seems to have gone. I could not find any.

NESTING: March—May.

227. Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin). Red Spurfowl

STATUS AND HABITAT: A common species in the dry deciduous
forests of the entire State except perhaps the extreme east. Resident.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Though found in pairs scattered in
the forest, it is a hardy species and often the only sign of life in some
forests which have been cleared of game.

NESTING: March—June.

228. Galloperdix lunulata (Valenciennes). Painted Spurfowl

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This smart iittle bird appears to be more
common in the extreme east of the State, and in Surguja it appears to
take the place of the Red Spurfowl. . I have once seen it in Balaghat also,
but have too little knowledge of these parts of the State to fix the western
boundary accurately. Its distribution is not the same as G. shadicea.

229. Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus). Common Quail

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident, but many migrants come in winter
too. Widely distributed all over the State, usually in pairs in open
country.

NESTING: March—May.

230. Coturnix coromandelicus (Gmelin). Rain Quail

STATUS AND HABITAT: Resident and also migratory, but I have
little definite information as this can only be obtained from marked birds.
NESTING: Rains.

231. Excalfactoria chinensis (Linnaeus). Bluebreasted Quail

Though this bird might occur in Madhya Pradesh I have no record.
It is a peculiarly patchily distributed bird and few specimens have been
recorded for many years.

232, Perdicula asiatica (Latham). Jungle Bush-Quail

STATUS AND HABITAT: A common species in all forests, and at
times almost abundant. It is found all over the State in all months of
the year, but probably there are movements as at times they seem very
numerous.

NESTING: No records but young birds are seen in nearly every month.

233, Perdicula argoondah (Sykes). Rock Bush-Quail

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species almost certainly occurs in the
State, but I have not managed to identify it separately in the field from
the preceding species. The Jungle Bush-Quail inhabits forest and light
scrub while the Rock Bush-Quail is found in dry open, sandy or rocky
plains.

234. Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum (Sykes). Painted Bush-Quail

STATUS AND HABITAT: A Separate race, d/ewzttz, occurs in east
Madhya Pradesh, but I have not recorded it as I was not aware of its

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

existence early enough to look for it and as with most quails one does
not often get a chance to pick out small differences in the field.

235, Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus). Black Partridge
STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This partridge may occur in the north of the

State, but I have no records. I have spent very little time in Sagar

district where it is most likely to occur. (/Vote: Moss King, in 1911, said
he had not seen the bird in Sagar, but notes one was shot in 1909.)

236. Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby). Painted Partridge

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is a widely distributed species in the
State, but occurs in small pockets; I associate it particularly with grassy
maidans inside the forest. This may be because birds in more open
country get netted.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Livesin grassy country. The call is
distinctive. It often calls from trees, but it is almost impossible to pin
down exactly where the bird is calling from.

NESTING: Rains.

237, Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin). Grey Partridge

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is the mostcommon partridge all over
the State and very hardy and capable of living under all conditions. It is
met most often in the open country right up to habitation, but is also seen
inside the forest. aera Tae

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A ground feeder and good runner,
and strong on the wing.

NESTING : Mostly March—May, but probably also in the cold weather.

[Turnix suscitator (Gmelin). Common Bustard-Quail
Turnix sylvatica (Desfontaines). Little Button-Quail
Turnix maculatus tanki Blyth. Indian Button-Quail

STATUS AND HABITAT: The three species are all likely to occur in
the State but I have no records. ‘This is due to bad observing rather
than their scarcity. |

238, Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant). Whitebreasted Waterhen

STATUS AND HABITAT: Widespread all over the State and resident.
I associate it particularly with the pools in nalas in the forest where dense
bushes and climbers come down to the water’s edge. These provide the
ideal conditions. Also found round water all over, even in the open.
NESTING: Rains.

239, Gallinula chloropus indicus Blyth. Waterhen or Indian Moorhen
STATUS AND HABITAT: Widely distributed in all parts of the State
where there are tanks and plenty of water.
NESTING: Rains.

240, Fulica atra Linnaeus. Common Coot

241. Porphyrio poliocephalus (Latham). Purple Moorhen

STATUS AND HABITAT: Common on tanks in all the well-watered
parts of the State. Resident in the main; the numbers certainly seem

|

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 637

larger in the winter, but the extent of such migrations is difficult to gauge.
The Purple Moorhen almost certainly occurs but I have failed to recognise
it as a separate individual.

NESTING: Rains.

242. Grus grus (Linnaeus). Common Crane

STATUS AND HABITAT: Winter. visitor, found sparingly along the
larger rivers. The numbers vary greatly from year to year. Narmada
and Mahanadi rivers in the north and south-west are localities where they
may be found.

243. Anthropoides virgo (Linnaeus). Demoiselle Crane

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This species occurs in much the same way
as the preceding, but is probably commoner.

244, Antigone antigone (Linnaeus). Sarus Crane

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘The Sarus occurs patchily in different parts
of the State. It is fairly common in the well-watered parts of the rice
growing districts Bhandara, Balaghat and Raipur, and in Jabalpur. In
Hoshangabad they are found along the Narmada in the open season but
these birds move off in the rains. Resident.

NESTING: Jains.

245. Sypheotides indica (Miller). Likh Floriken

STATUS AND HABITAT: Never recorded by me, but I have heard of
birds being shot in Nimar, the most western district. This is probably
the extreme limit of the bird in the State.

246. Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors). Great Indian Bustard
Did occur in the State, but I never saw one and it may no longer exist.

247, Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus). Stone Curlew

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is found all over the State and is resi-
dent. I have seen it most in the openly stocked patches within the denser
mixed forest in the Government Reserves. It is a bird of scrub growth.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Though seen by day by those
whose work takes them in the forest, it is a species whose calls after dusk
are most familiar, though many people are ignorantof the vocalist.

NESTING: Probably March-June. Moss King found eggs as late as
August in Sagar.

248. Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier). Great Stone Plover
_ $§TATUS AND HABITAT: This bird has been seen by me only on the
Narmada River near Hoshangabad. Resident where found.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is found on the islands in the river.
It has a curious call like the whine or sqeak of an unoiled gate.
NESTING: Nests from March to May in Sagar (M. K.)

249, Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin). Indian Courser

STATUS AND HABITAT: A locally distributed bird in the drier open
country. Probably also partly migratory. A typical habitat is the open
country round Multai in Betul District.

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

GENERAL HABITS AND voIcE: A bird of fallow fields, village
wastes etc. I have not noted any cali. When on the move it flies high
and strongly.

NESTING: March-rains (probably).

250. Glareola lactea Temminck. Little Indian Pratincole
STATUS AND HABITAT: A locally distributed bird. I have found it

common only on the Narmada River near Hoshangabad. I also once —

saw a flock on the landing ground of Jagdalpur; probably from the
Indravati River which is close by.

GENERAL HABITS AND VoICE: At Hoshangabad the colony lived
on the sandy islands in the river bed during the open season, but when the
river bed was covered in the rains, they moved. I saw them only when
flying overhead in the evenings, hawking insects in company with swifts.

NESTING: March—May.

251. Glareola maldivarum Forster. Large Indian Pratincole

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have only one record of this species. A
small colony was found in the dry bed of the Ghorawala Reservoir near
Nagpur in a year when the water level was very low.

D’Abreu notes it as resident and breeding in May.

252. Metopidius indicus (Latham). Bronzewinged Jacana

STATUS AND HABITAT: A common species on smaller or shallower
tanks where there is plenty of weed growth. Resident.
NESTING: Rains.

253. Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). Pheasant-tailed Jacana

STATUS AND HABITAT: Similar to the last, but probably commoner
and bolder species and more tolerant of man.
NESTING: Rains.

254, Lobivanellus indicus (Boddaert). Redwattled Lapwing

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the common and most widely distri-
buted birds of the State, being found in nearly all types of country;
inside the forest, in open fields and along bare river beds.

NESTING: June—August.

255. Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert). Yellow-wattled Lapwing

STATUS AND HABITAT: A great deal less common and less widely
distributed than the last. It is a bird of the more open bare land having
somewhat the same demands as the Indian Courser.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Presumably feeds on small insects.
The call is much less vigorous and challenging than that of the Red-
wattled.

NESTING: May-June.

256. Hoplopterus duvaucelii (Lesson). Spurwinged Plover

STATUS AND HABITAT: This bird is common on nearly all the larger
rivers and their tributaries wherever there are fairly continuous stretches
of water in most parts of the State. It is not confined to the large rivers.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Feeds along the edges of river beds
and nalas. It is very noisy and calls repeatedly at intruders both

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 639

human and animal, but this it appears to do on principle rather than
through fear for its nests. The call is similar in timbre and vigour to the
Redwattled Lapwing’s.

257. Charadrius dubius Scopoli. Little Ring Plover

STATUS AND HABITAT: Fairly common and resident on the sandy
stretches and beds of rivers and nalas. It is found all over the State.
NESTING: March—April.

258, Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus), Blackwinged Stilt

SPDATUS AND HABITAT: Seen occasionally in parties in small tanks,
round larger tanks, and in pools in nalas. More or less resident and un-
evenly distributed all over the State.

259. Numenius arquata (Linnaeus), Curlew

STATUS AND HABITAT: A rare winter visitor to large tanks or river
beds. My only records are of a few birds on the Narmada River at
Hoshangabad.

260, Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus. Common Sandpiper

STATUS AND HABITAT: A migrant species but absent only from May
to June. Found all over the State wherever there are even small patches
of water.

261. Tringa ochrophus Linnaeus. Green Sandpiper

261A. Tringa glareola Linnaeus. Wood Sandpiper

STATUS AND HABITAT: Also a migrant species and found during the
cold weather in all parts. 7. glaveola is also found scattered in small
parties.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: This is a more solitary bird than
the others in its winter haunts.

262, Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus). Greenshank

STATUS AND HABITAT: Similar status to the preceding species, but
less common. It is usually solitary and a single individual may be seen
where other species are present in tens or twenties.

[Tringa totanus (Linnaeus). Redshank

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species should occur, but [ have no
record of it myself. ]

263, Erolia minuta (Leisler). Little Stint

263A. Erolia temminckii (Leisler). T’emminck’s Stint

STATUS AND HABITAT: An occasional winter visitor in parties to
larger rivers and lakes. They are not seen regularly, and only for a
short time. ‘These are probably parties which wander about a good deal
in the cold weather and do not take up permanent winter quarters. I
am not sure whether both species occur or which is the common one.

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

264. Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). Common Snipe

STATUS AND HABITAT: This species is widespread in moist ground
from September to April, but most birds are seen from November to
January. After January suitable moist land becomes scarce.

265. Capella nemoricola ( Hodgson)? The Wood Snipe may be found
on inigration. D’Abreu records it from Mandla, Surguja and Amar-
kantak. i

266. Capella stenura (Bonaparte). Pintail Snipe
267. Lymnocryptes minima (Brunnich). Jack Snipe

STATUS AND HABITAT: As for the previous species, but in the east
of the State only. The Jack Snipe is found occasionally in the same type
of habitat in small numbers, all over the State.

968. Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus). Painted Snipe

STATUS AND HABITAT: A widely distributed but occasional resid-
ent species. Found in wet ground below tanks where there are bushes
and tufts of grass,

269, Chlidonias leucopareia (Temminck). Whiskered Tern
STATUS AND HABITAT: A resident species in most of the State.
It is seen fairly regularly all over the well-watered parts, whether lakes or

large rivers.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: One of the most graceful fliers in

the bird kingdom.
NESTING: March—April on sand banks in rivers. All the terns

breed on islands in rivers which are often covered by small floods if there
is unseasonable rain in March or April, but these two months to which
breeding is confined are the safest in the year.

270, Sterna aurantia Gray. Common River Tern
STATUS AND HABITAT: This is probably more common and more

frequently seen than the last species.
NESTING: March-April.

571, Sterna melanogaster Temminck. Blackbellied Tern

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have noted this species pekisomlentty on the
Narmada where it is resident and fairly common.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Similar to other terns.

NESTING: March-April.

979. Sterna albifrons Vroeg. Little Tern
STATUS AND HABITAT: This isa small edition of the other terns and

I have recorded it only from the Narmada.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Similar to other species of tern.

NESTING: March-April.

973. Rhynchops albicollis Swainson. Indian Skimmer

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have seen this remarkable bird only on
the Narmada. ‘There were a few individuals always in the hot weather

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 64)

near Hoshangabad, and they were breeding on the same islands with
other terns etc.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: I have watched the remarkable actions
of this bird at close range. ‘They adjust their height carefully, and having
found a still piece of water they plough along with their beaks. To my
disappointment I never saw any evidence of their catching anything.

NESTING: March-April.

274. Pelecanus onocrotalus roseus Gmelin. Spottedbilled Pelican

STATUS AND HABITAT: The bird is seen occasionally here and there
in the State usually as a single bird.

275. Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot), Little Cormorant

STATUS AND HABITAT; A common and very numerous species in all
watered parts of the State. They are particularly seen on large pools in
the forest nalas. Resident.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: Fishes in large flocks together.

NESTING: Rains.

276, Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus). Large Cormorant

STATUS AND HABITAT: Occasionally seen in the same sort of habitat
as the preceding species.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: As for the smaller bird.

277, Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. Indian Darter

STATUS AND HABITAT: Seen fairly regularly in ones or pairs in
tanks and also on pools in the jungle. Resident. A very characteristic
and well distributed member of the bird population in the State.

278. Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). White Ibis

STATUS AND HABITAT: Not a common bird, but seen here and there in
the well-watered parts of the State. Resident.
NESTING: Rains.

279, Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck). Black Ibis

STATUS AND HABITAT: A much morecommon and more widely dis-
tributed species than the last. It is found in a wider variety of habitats
and even in quite dry places.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: I once saw a bird feeding on a sand
bank in the Narmada and being robbed by a drongo as soon as he dug
up a worm or something edible.

NESTING: No notes for certain but probably rains to early cold
weather.

280, Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus. Spoonbill

STATUS AND HABITAT: I have recorded this species only in the
north of the State, where occasional individuals are found along the
deeper pools left in the bed of the Narmada River.

281. Dissoura episcopus (Boddaert). Whitenecked Stork

STATUS AND HABITAT: A widely distributed species found nearly
all over the State and able to exist with little water. It is often found
hunting round the last small pools as the water dries up. Resident.

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

282, Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham). Blacknecked Stork
STATUS AND HABITAT: Occasional individuals seen in large rivers.

It is not common or widespread. The White Stork (Ciconia ciconia)
has never been recorded by me in Madhya Pradesh.

283, Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant). Painted Stork
STATUS AND HABITAT: This stork is comparatively common and
resident in all the well-watered parts of the State, and is characteristic.
NESTING: Cold weather to February. I remember a big colony
breeding on Imli (Zamarindus indicus) trees in a village in the east of
Chanda district in February.

[In May 1955 I saw two smaller Adjutant Storks (Leptopizlos javani-
cus)in Kanha National Park. ‘This is the only record I have of either of
the Adjutant Storks. |

284, Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert). Openbill

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is by a long way the most common
stork in the State and may be found wherever there are tanks and large
rivers. Resident.

NESTING: Rains.

285, Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. Common Heron

286, Ardea purpurea manillensis Meyer. Purple Heron

STATUS AND HABITAT: Well distributed and comparatively com-
mon all over the State. Resident.

The Purple Heron is seen occasionally all over the State.

It has much the same habits as the Grey, but is much more crepus-
cular and feeds chiefly in the mornings and evenings.

NESTING: Rains.

287. Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus). Little Egret ;
STATUS AND HABITAT: A moderately common and well distributed

resident species.
NESTING: Rains.

288, Egretta alba modesta (Gray). Large Egret

STATUS AND HABITAT: Occasionally seen but not a common bird.
Usually solitary individuals. Resident.

289, Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler). Smaller Egret

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘This is a commoner bird than the last and
found in all well-watered parts of the State. Resident.

290. Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus). Cattle Egret

STATUS AND HABITAT: ‘The commonest of all these birds and found .
all over the State. It is a more adaptable species and has a more varied
diet. Resident. It occurs in quite large flocks. |

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘They attend grazing cattle parti-
cularly in the rains and cold weather. ‘The nuptial plumes are assumed
from March-April.

NESTING: Rains.

THE BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 543

291, Ardeola grayii (Sykes). Paddy Bird

STATUS AND HABITAT: A solitary but abundant bird all over the
State being able to sustain itself at the smallest borrow pit of water.
Resident.

NESTING : Rains.

[Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus). Night Heron
STATUS AND HABITAT: Not recorded by me but should occur in the
State. ]

292. Butorides striatus (Linnaeus). Little Green Bittern
STATUS AND HABITAT: This is quite a common species in many
nalas in the forest. Where the bushes and shrubs come down to the
water level and form thickets, this little heron is quite characteristic.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: A shy bird seen with difficulty. No
record of the voice. I have not recorded any other bitterns, but they

might well occur.

[Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). Chestnut Bittern
This species will probably be found though not recorded by me. They
live in reeds and round tanks. |

293. Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus. Large Flamingo

STATUS AND HABITAT: Stragglers may be found in any part of the
State. I saw one bird on the Narmada near Hoshangabad. They have
been recorded at the salt lake at Loni in Buldana district. They have
also been recorded at Nagpur.

294, Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant). Nukta
STATUS AND HABITAT: Seen here and there in small flocks in the
well-watered parts of the State. Resident in the main.

295. Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). Cotton Teal
STATUS AND HABITAT: A common bird being found on nearly every
tank however small, though never in large numbers. Resident.
GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: It is very loath to leave its tank even
when fired on repeatedly. When the other ducks have all gone it still
flies round and soon settles.
NESTING; Rains.

296, Anser indicus (Latham). Barheaded Goose

STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter visitor to parts of the State mainly
along the big rivers in the north, but also occasionally in the south along
the Mahanadi in Chhattisgarh. Birds are seen from December to February
being most common in January. |

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: They feed in the young wheat and
gram fields up to 07:30-08-00 hours in the cold weather when the villa-
gers come out for the day’s work. The feeding flocks can be approached

quite closely on a horse.
9

644, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

297, Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield). Whistling Teal

STATUS AND HABITAT: The most abundant and well distributed
duck in the State. Medium to large flocks are found on many tanks,
even small tanks in the forest. Resident. I have not recorded the
Larger Whistling Teal (D. fulva) in Madhya Pradesh. It has been
recorded from the Deccan, but East Bengal is the main habitat.

GENERAL HABITS AND VOICE: ‘The bird flights regularly in the
evenings. I have not recorded it roosting in the trees.

NESTING: Rains.

298, Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg). Ruddy Sheldrake

STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter visitor common in many parts of
the State on all the larger rivers and nalas. It may be said to be quite
common.

299, Anas poecilorhyncha Forster. Spotbill }

STATUS AND HABITAT: Found locally ina few places in the State.
My records are all from Bhandara district. A resident duck. It is the
sort of bird which might disappear altogether without anyone being sure
just when the last duck was seen.

NESTING: Kains.

300. Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus). Gadwall

STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the regular winter migrants to all
parts of the State. Present from December to March.

301. Nettion crecca (Linnaeus). Common Teal

STATUS AND HABITAT: A migrant species from October to even
May, but the main body visits this State from December—March. Jt is,
however, one of the last migrants to leave.

302. Querquedula querquedula (Linnaeus). Garganey Teal

STATUS AND HABITAT: Much the same as the preceding species ;
pethaps the Common Teal is slightly more numerous.

303, Dafila acuta (Linnaeus). Pintail

STATUS AND HABITAT: This is one of the main migrant species to
this State and the finest eating bird. It is found in most years fairly
evenly distributed all over the State. .

304, Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus). Shoveller

STATUS AND HABITAT: A winter migrant species found in scattered
pairs or small parties here and there in the well-watered parts of the State.

305, Nyroca ferina (Linnaeus). Pochard .

sTATUS AND HABITAT: A regular winter visitor and one of the ducks
represented on many large tanks where ducks collect, but never very
numerous.

306, Netta rufina (Pallas). Redcrested Pochard

STATUS -AND- HABITAT: Similar to the preceding species but less
frequent. ! aa:

THE BIRD LIFRK OF MADHYA PRADESH 64!

307, Nyroca rufa (Linnaeus). White-eye
STATUS AND HABITAT: This duck is one of the more common and
widespread migrant ducks, and found all over the State wherever there

are tanks.

308, Podiceps ruficollis (Vroeg). Little Grebe
STATUS AND HABITAT: One of the most widespread and constant
species on all water. Resident. It can move about when tanks dry up.
‘At Amravati, the Wadali tanks were completely dry at the’ end of the
1953 hot weather, but within a week of filling, the grebes had arrived.
NESTING: Rains.

GAME PRESERVATION IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE

BY

Cot. K. GuMaANn SINGH, I.A,

I am sure all those who are interested in game preservation were
happy to read the report of the Society’s delegation on ‘Game
Preservation in Kashmir’, published in Volume 53 (2) of the Journal
—December 1955. ‘There are some excellent recommendations made
in this report and, if only the Government of Jammu and Kashmir
State could adopt them with speed, much could be achieved towards
game preservation in that State. .

Besides what has already been suggested I have the following
additional suggestions to offer.

GAME STAFF

(a) If I am correct, at present there is only one Game Warden
for the whole of Jammu and Kashmir State. 1, therefore, strongly
feel that considering the large area involved it is physically impossible
for him to carry out his duties with any measure of efficiency. The
Game Warden has also been burdened with other responsibilities
connected with the Forest Department. I recommend that, in
fairness to his post, the Game Warden should not be given any other
duties. Three Assistant Game Wardens, one each for Jammu,
Kashmir Valley and Ladakh, should be appointed together with
sufficient numbers of game rangers and watchers. At present
Ladakh has no game staff at all, and this state of affairs is encourag-
ing heavy poaching. It is not possible for a Divisional Forest
Officer and his normal forest staff to take keen interest in the pro-
tection of game besides attending to their other duties.

(b) Persons so appointed, as suggested above, should be carefully
selected from among those who are keen sportsmen and naturalists.
It is only these types of persons who could be expected to visit
inaccessible areas and high hills in order to perform their duties
efficiently.

(c) The game staff should be made to:

(i) Carry out surprise checks of known poachers’ houses
for any horns and skins. Houses of others are also
to be searched which are close to a game reserve or
sanctuary.

‘(ii) Carry out surprise checks of hotels and restaurants to
see whether venison is being served.

(iii) Carry out surprise checks on roads of motor vehicles
coming from the direction of a game reserve cr
sanctuary, in order to see whether any game _ shot
without permit, or its meat, skin or horns, are being
carried. They could also lie in wait on tracks coming
from a game reserve or sanctuary in order to surprise
and catch any poachers.

GAME PRESERVATION IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE 647

(iv) Carry out surprise checks of all local taxidermists’ shops
for illicit skins and horns. Any undersized horns
are also to be looked for and seized, and the matter
reported for taking action against the shikari/taxider-
mist concerned, as the case may be.

(d) In Africa a member of the game staff accompanies a hunter
in order to ensure that no illegal shooting is done. I recommend
that this could also be adopted with advantage in this State. A similar
practice also exists in the United States of America, whereby all game
shot is shown to the game staff before it is taken out from a game
reserve area.

(e) The game staff must be suitably rewarded for catching a
poacher or reporting any infringement of game laws by a shikari.

(f) Suitable propaganda must be done among the villages,
especially near a game reserve/sanctuary, so that their inhabitants
may be discouraged from illicit shooting.

DESTRUCTION OF VERMIN

The following birds and animals at present are classed as vermin
in the Game Act:

Leopard Lynx

Snow Leopard’ Wild Cat
Wolf Pine-marten
Jackal Mongoose
Fox Carrion Crow
Otter

Cormorant and other fish-eating birds.

To the above list the Black Bear has now been very rightly added.
Rewards on the following scale are also sanctioned by the same Act:

Leopard and Snow Leopard, each Rs. 10-0-0
Leopard and Snow Leopard Cubs of, each Rs. 5-0-0
Wolf, Lynx and Otter, each Rs. 5-0-0
Marten and Wild Cat, each Rs. 2-0-0
Mongoose and Carrion Crow, Cormorant

and other fish killing vermin, each Re. 0-4-0

The Black Bear now carries a reward of Rs. 15.

It will be seen from above that, although provision: has been
made in the Game Act for rewarding those who kill vermin, hardly
anyone knows about it, especially in the villages. Thus no one cares
to shoot them or, if one has been killed by chance, to claim a reward
for it. From my personal knowledge I can say that in the majority
of cases, even the license holders, are not aware of these rewards.

During my recent shikar trip to Ladakh I noticed that the Snow
Leopard and Wolf had considerably increased in numbers. At many

ee ee

1 Paradoxically enough the Snow Leopard is included in the schedule of protected
animals in Customs Notification No. 175, dated 29-10-1955 which prohibits their
export from India, dead or alive or in parts (e.g., skin) except under special permit
from the Secretary General, Indian Board for Wild Life !—Eps.

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEAY = Volk 53

places I picked up a number of horns, attached to skulls, of Ibex
(Capra siberica) and Shapu (Ovis vignei) which had been killed by
them. Considering the heavy destruction that is being caused by the
Snow Leopard? and Wolf, I would strongly recommend that their
rewards be raised to Rs. 13 and Rs. 10 respectively. Suitable pro-
paganda should also be carried out among villages to destroy vermin
by whatever means they can and to claim the rewards. All those
taking out arms licenses and game licenses should also be specifically
told to kill vermin.

Some of the large varieties of eagles are also known to prey on
the young of Muskdeer (Moschus moschiferus), Ibex and Shapu,
while hawks prey on game birds, and these should be added to the
list of vermin.?

GAME SANCTUARIES AND RESERVES

Although there are some game sanctuaries in Jammu and the
Kashmir areas, there are none in Ladakh. The two sanctuaries
mentioned under Ladakh in the Game Act are under Pakistan occupa-
tion at present. New sanctuaries should be formed in Ladakh
so that proper protection is given to all species of game found in this
area.

The list of Game Reserves given in the Act should also be
reviewed owing to the changed conditions and subsequent migration
of game from one area to another, and new reserves established. In
this connection I hope to give my views to the Game Department of
this State shortly. |

KasHmMiIR Woo. (SHAHTOSHAR)

The Society’s delegation mentioned in their Report that, according
to the data procured by them, they feel that the fine ‘Shahtoshah’
wool, although partly coming from.the soft undercoat of Ibex (Capra
siberica), Tibetan Antelope (Panthalops hodgsont) and Gazelle (Gazella
picticaudata), derived mainly from the Tibetan goat. I, however,
beg to differ partly in this respect. The information I collected in
Ladakh from those who were actually concerned with this trade was
that the finest quality of wool came solely from the Tibetan Antelope
called ‘Chiru’. In April, which is the best time for extracting this
wool, these antelopes are mostly caught in traps laid at water-holes.
I admit that the bulk of the fine wool ‘Pashm’, used for making
shawls, is extracted from the Tibetan goat in Chanthang area, but
the finest of them all, from which the ‘ring shawls’ are made, are
mainly the product of the Tibetan Antelope. Ibex also partly supplies
a small quantity of the finest wool. But as they are found at great
heights and in difficult terrain, especially in April, not many are
brought to hag by local poachers for this purpose...

I am not aware whether there is any license imposed by the Jammu
and Kashmir Government on those who carry. on this trade. As

* Ouestion—Eps.

GAME PRESERVATION IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE 649

long as the traders only deal with the wool procured from the under-
coat of the domestic goat, there is no danger to the game. But, if
the State Government wishes to obtain the finest underwool from
‘Chiru’ and Ibex for trade purposes, then some sort of check must
be imposed on their killing. I suggest that the Game Department
of the State should depute an officer to acquire full details of this
trade and then make suitable recommendations to the Government, so.
that the uncontrolled destruction of these game animals is stopped.

INTRODUCTION OF FOREIGN GAME!

I am afraid I do not agree with the delegation’s recommendation
that foreign species of game should not be introduced in Kashmir,
because the experience of other countries in this respect has not been
encouraging. In fact from what I have read in foreign journals on
game, my knowledge is to the contrary. The Red Deer, Sambar
and Cheetal introduced in New Zealand have thriven well. The
Chakor and the Blackbuck introduced in the United States of America
have also done very well. The Chakor is now one of the prized game
birds in that country. The Chinese Ringneck Pheasant has been
introduced in many countries including England and America with
great success. When other countries could successfully introduce
game animals and birds especially from India, I do not see any reason
why we should not follow suit.

In view of the above I strongly advocate the introduction of
foreign game animals and birds as under:

(a) Wapiti (Elk deer of America). This is one of the largest
of the deer species found in the World. Its record antlers measure
over 60 inches and are a magnificent trophy. It is an upland deer
and is found among the fir forests of America, which become snow
bound during winter. The conditions, therefore, in the Kashmir
Valley are ideal for its habitat. It should be introduced into those
fir forests where the Barasingh is not found, so as to keep the two
animals apart from interbreeding. The Pir Panjal and Nishtwar
areas ought to serve the purpose. These areas will also then have
more attraction for a shikari, naturalist-or photographer. This deer,
however, should only be introduced when it is made certain that it
would not fall a prey to poachers. In the meanwhile information about
its habits and characteristics could be obtained from America.

(b) Bobwhite Quail of America. This quail is much bigger
than any of the species of quail found in this country. It is also one
of the finest game birds of America and its introduction would be
an asset to the State.

(c) Chinese Ringneck Pheasant. As mentioned before, due
ta its fine qualities 1s a game bird, it has been imported frem China
into many foreign countries, including England and America where
it is classed as a top game bird. If 1 am correct, the late Maharaja
of Patiala had introduced this pheasant with success at his summer

resort at Chail near Simla.’

5 L This is a ene OG aversial Ships: and the writer’s views are not Necesen nls

ours.—EDs.
2 For an account of this experiment see JBNHS. 33: 120-135.

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The game birds mentioned above could be introduced in the State
without any serious danger from poachers. Plans should, therefore,
be made for importing them as soon as possible.

Finaily I wish to state that the recommendations which have been
made by the Society’s delegation and those made by me will require
more expenditure in money than what the State is now spending on
game preservation. But if the State Government wishes to save its
wonderful game animals and birds from total extinction, then it must
be done quickly, otherwise it may become too late to do so due to
the heavy poaching which is going on at present.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA

BY
D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

PART II
(Continued trom p. 422 of this volume)

The present part deals with the Agrotidae, formerly Noctuidae. I
have divided the family up into its present sub-families. Hampson’s
divisions have now been revised in many cases and, as many of Hampson’s
names are no longer current, I have added the modern name.

It has occurred to me that there is one point that needs clarification
in this series of papers. ‘The records of relative abundance refer to the
months of occurrence only. Thus an insect that was common in, say,
April, and not recorded for the rest of the year, would be shewn as
‘Common. iv.’ whilst another, that occurred rarely all through the year
would be shewn as ‘Rare. Records for all months,’ although more
specimens of the latter might occur taking the year as a whole than of the
former. Unless otherwise stated, all records are for light.

AGROTIDAE

LUXOINAE

Agrotis biconica Koll—Common. Larvae feed on grass. Records for
iv, vi and vii. Now Euzxoa spintfera Hbn.

A. ypsilon Rott-——Common in some years, rare in others. Records for i,
ii, and xii. Now Ahyacza.
HADENINAE

Polytela gloriosae F.—Imagines rare, larvae common on Liliaceae and
Amaryllidaceae. Recorded in vi, vii and viii.

Leucania irrorata Moore—Uncommon. Records for i, v, and xii. Now
Szderidis insularis Btlr.

L, irregularis Wik.—Common. Recorded in i, ii, iv, vi, xi and xii. Now
Sideridts.

L, exempta Wlk.—Common. Records for all months except v, vi and ix.
Now Sideridzs yu Guen.

L, venalba Moore—Common. Records for i to iii, vii and x to xii. Now
Szderidts.

L. unipuncta Haw.—Uncommon. Recorded in i and x to xii. Now
Szderidts.

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

AMPHIPYRINAE

Magusa tenebrosa Moore— Not uncommon, the nomino-typical form and
also ff. albistriga Warr., longistriata Warr. and dtstriga Warr. Re-
cords for vi, vii, and ix. Now Sasunaga.

Eriopus xanthopera Hamps.—A few larvae on ferns. Records for xi and
xii. Not in Fauna.

Calogramma festiva Don.—Larvae very common on Amaryllidaceae in
some years. Imagines rare. Records for iii, v, vil, viii, xi and xii.

Prodenia littoralis Bsd.—Very common, also larvae which are almost
omnivorous. Recorded in i to ili, v and x to xii. Now /ztura F.

Spodoptera mauritia Bsd.—Very common. Recorded for all months
except v. Larvae feed on grass.

S. cilium Guen.—Very common. Recorded for all months except iii to v.
Larvae feed on grass. The Fauna includes this as a synonym of
Caradrina exigua Hbn. :

S. pecten Guen.—Common, recorded in xi and xii only but may have been
overlooked as the previous species. Larvae on grass. The Fauna
calls it Cavadina pectinata Hamps. Ade.

Athetis placida Moore—One in vi. The Fauna treats this as a synonym
ot Caradina quadripunctata F. ;

Prospalta dolorosa Wik.—One larva. Recorded for iii. Included among
the synonyms of Euplexta conducta Wik. in the Fauna.

P, pallidipennis Warr.—Larvae common on Coreopsis. Records for j, ii,
ix and xi. Not in the Fauna.

P, capensis Guen.—Common, also larvae on Coreopsis. Records for all
months except v and viii. Not in the Fauna.

Nonagria inferens Wlk.—Common. Records for i to iii and ix to xi.
Now Sesamza.

Chasmina rejecta F,—-Uncommon, recorded in iii andiv. Not in Fauna.

ERASTRIANAE

Eublemma hemirhoda Wik.—Uncommon, records for x only. Now
Polyorycta dimidialis F.

E. acontioides Moore—Common. Records for ix, xi and xii. Now P.
pudica Snell.

E. olivacea Wlk.—Uncommon. Larvae on Brinjal. Records for ii, vii
and x. Now Autoba.

E. abrupta Wlk.—Uncommon. Recorded in xionly. Now Autoba.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 853

E. trifasciata Moore—Uncommon. Records for vi and vii. Now Por-
phyrinia.

E. divisa Moore—Common, also ab. devufata Warr. Recorded in iii, iy,
x, xiand xii. Now Porphyrinia anachoresis Wilgr. IJ have found
the larva in Mombasa on a species of Malvaceae.

E, amabilis Moore—Fairly common. Records for i, ii, vi, ix, xi and xii.
Now Porphyrinia.

E. virginea Guen.—Not uncommon. Recorded in ix, x, and xi. Now
P. ragusana Frr.

Zagira contentaria Wlk.—One inx. Now Cerynea.

Zagira divisa Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for viii, x and xi. Now
Oruza.

Z. semilux Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for viii, x and xi. The Fauna
includes it with dzvzsa.

Corgatha zonalis Wlk.—Common. Larvae found feeding on Lichens
growing on the trunks of Palm trees. Recorded for atl months
except i, iv, V and vi.

Swinhoea vegeta Swinh.—Rare, recorded in x only.

Metachrostis incondita Btlr— Common. Records for ix, x and xi. Now
Ozarba. :

M. itwarra Swinh.—Not common. Records for x and xi. Now Ozaz‘ba.

Amyna octo Guen.—Common, also f. axis ene Recorded for all months
except v and viii. Now J/lattza.

Berresa natalis Wlk.— Uncommon. Records for viii, ix, xi and xii. The
Fauna gives it as a synonym of 2. turpis W1k., which it is not.

Hyelopsis signifera Wlk.— Common. Records for vii, ix, x and xi. Now
Maliattha. |

Toxophleps optiva Swinh.— Rare, recorded in x only. Now Cophanta
funestalts W1k.

Naranga diffusa Wlk.—Common. Records for x and xi.
Tarache tropica Guen.—Uncominon. Records for vii and viii. Now 7.
marmoralis F. :

MELICLEPTRIINAE

Heliothis armigera Hbn.—Very common, also larvae which are often
pests on many garden flowers such as Antirrhinum, Carnations and
Roses. Recorded in i, ili, iv and v. Now Chloridea obsoleta F.

Chariclea marginalis WIk. —Uncommon. Records for vii, x and xii. Now
Adisura.

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
Adisura atkinsoni Moore—Uncommon. Records for iii and iv.

KUTELIANAE

Eutelia jocosatrix Guen.—Common. Records for i, ii, v, vi, ix, x and xi
Now Bom botelia.

E, nugatrix Guen.—Common. Records for iv and viii. Now Bombotelia.
E. favillatrix Wlk.—Common. Iecorded in vi, vii, x and xi.

Chlumetia transversa Wik.—Common. Recorded in all months from vi
to Xii.

Eutelia delatrix Guen.—Common also f. jAalliatrix Guen. Larvae on
Eugenia sp. Records for vi, vii andix. Now Phlegetonia.

Anuga constricta Guen.—Uncommon. Records for x, xi and Xii.

Ingura subapicalis Wlk.—Common. Recorded in v to viii and xi. Now
Paectes.

STICTOPTERINAE

Odontodes aleuca Guen.—Common, but with very little variation, Re-
cords for vii and Viii.

Stictoptera cuculloides Guen.—Rare, recorded in vi only.

S. illucida Wlk.—Rare. Records for vii and x. Now Lophoptera.

SARROTHRIPINAE

Sarrothripa nolalella Wlk.—Bred from larvae off Lagerstroemia spp.
Records for v and x. Now Sywmeitha.

Nanaguna breviuscula Wlk.—Common. Records for iii, ix and xi. The
Fauna calls it Cletthara nigridisca Hamps.

Plotheia celtis Moore.—Very common, also larvae on Lagerstroemia
indica. Records for all months except iii, iv and v. Now Selepa.

Barasa acronyctoides Wlk.—Common. Recorded in vi and viii to xi.
B. alopha Hamps.—Uncommon. Records for iii only. Not in Fauna.

Gyrtona pusilla Moore—Common. Records for vii and ix. Now Gyrto-
thripa.

ACONTIINAE

Earias fabia Stoll.—Common. Recorded in vii, x and xii. The Fauna
treats this and the following three species ia the Arctiidae.

E. luteolaria Hamps.—One in xii.

E. cupreoviridis Wlk.—Common. Records for x and xii.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 655
Paracrama dulcissima W]k.—One in i.
Pseudelydna rufoflava Wlk.—Rare. Recorded in vii and x.
Capotena apriformis Wlk.— One in ix. Now Azveta.

Carea subtilis W]k.—Common. Records for all months but i, iv, vi, vii
and xii, Now C. angulata.

Beara dichromella Wlk.—Uncommon. Larva on Zizyphus jujuba.
Recorded in x, xi and xii.

Acontia intersepta Guen.—Uncommon. Recorded in vii only.

A, graellsi Feisth.— One only in xi,

CATOCALINAE
Nyctipao hieroglyphica Drury—One beaten from herbage in x.
N. macrops L,—One in vi.

Entomogramma fautrix Guen.—One in vii.

Spieredonia helicina Hbn.—One in ii. Treated by the Fauna as a
synonym of Sfzvama retorta L,

Ophiusa dotata F,—Uncommon. Records for vii and viii. Now Lagop-
tera.

O. coronata F.—Common. Also larvae on Qutsqualis indica. Records
for i, v and vii to xii. Now Azua.

Ercheia cyllaria Cr,—Not uncommon. Records for vi, x, xi and xii.

Ophiusa serva F,—Fairly common. Recorded in v, vi, x and xii. Now
Achaea,

O. melicerte Drury—Common. Larvae on Castor and occasionally on
Rose. Recorded in iii, viand x. Now Achaea janata L.

O. illibata F,—Uncommon. Records for vili only. Now Parallelia.
O. joviana Cr,—Rare, in viii only. Now Farallelia.
O, conficiens Wlk.—Rare, in x only. Now farallelza.

O. stuposa F.—Uncommon. Records for vi, vii and ix. Now Parallelia.
‘The Fauna treats as a synonym of algzra.

O. arctotaenia Guen.— Rare, in x only. Now /arallelia.

O. algira L.—Common, also larvae on Castor. Records for vi, vii, and
viii, Now Parallelia,

Trigonodes ino Drury—Common. Larvae on Peepul. Records for iii
and iv. Now Adtatha.

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol..53

Grammodes geometrica F.—Common. Records for ii, iv and xi.

G. mygdon Cr.—Common, also in herbage. Records for ix, x and x1.
Now uclidisema.

Trigonodes hyppasia Cr.—Common, also in herbage. Records for ii and
vii to xii, Larvae on Rhynchosta minima (Papilionaceae), Now
Chalctope. |

T. cephise Cr.—One in xi. Now Chalciope.

Remigia frugalis F,—Common, also in herbage. Larvae on grass.
Records for all months except iii, iv, v andix. Now Mocis.

R. archesia Cr.—Common, also in herbage. Larvae on Ahynchosia
minima. Records for x, xi and xii, Now Mocis undata F.

Anisoneura hypocyanea Guen.—Rare. Recorded in ix and x.

Pericyma glaucinans Guen.—Not uncommon. Records for x and xi.

PLUSIINAE (NOW PHYTOMETRINAE)

Plusia jessica Btir.—Not uncommon. Larvae on Antirrhinum flowers.
Records for ii, iii, vii, vili, x, xi and xii. Plusza has now been re-
placed by Phytometra. ; |

P. eriosoma Dbl.—Common. Larvae on Hollyhock. Records fori, ii, vi,
vii, viii, x, xi and xii.

P. ochreata Wlk.—One in ix.
P. lectula Wlk.—One in xi.

P. orichalcea F.—Common. Recorded in 1, ii, iii and x.

NOCTUINAE

Cosmophila sabulifera Guer.—Uncommon. Larvae on Malvaceae.
Recorded in ix only.

C. erosa Hbn.—Common. Larvae on Hollyhock. Records forall months
except iii, v and vi.

Hypocala subsatura Guen.—Rare, recorded in xi only.
H. deflorata F.—Rare, in xti only.

H. moorei Btlr.—Uncommon. Records for ix and x.
Sericea feducia Stoll.—-One in vi.

Pandesma mundata W]k.—Rare, in iii only.

P, quenavadi Guen.—Common. Records for iv, v and vi.

NOTES ON THE HETEROCERA OF CALCUTTA 657

Polydesma umbricola Bsd.—Common. Larvae on Alézzztza sp. Records
for all months except ii, iii and iv.

P. inangulata Guen.—Common. Larvae on Cassta fistula. Records for
vi, vill, x and xi. Now Aviceza.

Hulodes drylla Guen.—Not uncommon. Records for vi and vii.
Catephia linteola Guen.—Unconimon. Recorded in i, ii, iii, vi and xii.
Sphingomorpha chlorea Cr.—Uncommon. Recorded in ii and xi.
Lacera alope Cr.—One only in xi.

Plecoptera reflexa Guen.—One in ix.

Acantholipes trajectus Wlk.—Uncommon. Records for ii, iii and xi.

Gesonia obeditalis Wlk.—Common, also f. nigvofusca Swinh. Records
for x, xi and xii.

Dragana pansalis W1lk.—Common, also in herbage. Records for i, ii, iv,
vi and ix to xii.

Fodina pallula Guen.—-Common in herbage. Larvae on an unidentified
creeper. Recorded in iii, ix and x.

F, stola Guen.—Not common. Records for iii, vi and vii.

Azazia rubricans Bsd.—Common, also in herbage. Records for i, iit and
K MOI eae

Ophideres salaminia F,—One in vii. Now Maenas.

O. materna L.—Common. Larvae on 7inospora cordifolia. Records for
ix and xi. Now Argadesa.

O. fullonica L.—Common. Larvae on 7. cordifolia. Records for vi,
Willy bsg O36 BHAUG) S:<i,

Calpe emarginata F.--Uncommon. Records for iv, viii, x and xi.

C. minuticornis Guen.—One in xii.

HYBLAEINAE

Hyblaea puera Cr.—Common, also Jarvae. Records for vy, vii, viii
and ix,

FOCILLINAE
Zethes ocellata Moore-—Uncommon. Records for x and xi.

Egnasia ephyrodalis Wlk.--Common. Records for vito x.

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Raparna digramma Wlk.—Rare. Records i and xi.

R. imparata Wlk.—Fairly common. Records for v, viii, x and xi.

DELTOIDINAE

Libisosa robustalis Guen.—Common. Recorded in ii and from v to xi.
Nodaria externalis Guen.—One in iii.

Dichromia orosia Cr.—In herbage, uncommon. Records for x only.
Hypena masurialis Guen.—Not uncommon. Recorded in x, xi and xii.
H. rectivittalis Moore—One f. sheculalis Swinh. in xt.

H. cognata Moore—Common. Records for vil, viii, x and xii.

H, indicatalis Wlk.—Not uncommon. Records fori only.

H. ignotalis Wlk.—Fairly common. Records for ii and from vi to xii.

Rhaesena transcissa Wlk.—One in iii.

There remain the following two species, which do not appear in
either Hampson’s Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae or in Seitz’
Indian Noctuidae :

Rivula bioculalis Moore—Common. Recorded in xi. The Fauna places
this in Acontiinae.

Nolasena ferrifervens W]k.—One or two every year in vi. Placed in the
Sarrothripinae in the Fauna.

(To be continued)

COVERING KANHA WITH A CAMERA

BY
A, S. TAati, B.sc. (Hons.)

(With two plates)

These notes are primarily intended for the nature photographer
visiting Kanha for the first time. It is assumed that the man behind
the camera is versatile, both with the instruments he is handling and
the art of stalking wild animals in their natural habitat. Jungle
photography in india amongst other things calls for the highest sisill
in a person, the best available material to work with, and patience to
a degree where it can get nerve-racking.

The trip to Kanha National Park even from a place within the
State is a feat in iself. Over dusty third-class roads .it is a
nightmare affair for any photographer who cares for his equipment.
These have to be sealed up so securely that not a speck of dust can
get at them till you reopen the packages at the forest rest house.
This of course entails the risk of losing some pictures, rare ones at
times, which you might get from the time you enter the park limits
to the time you reach the rest house. Jungle photography in India
is difficult enough without these added strains which our Nationa}!
Park imposes on us.

I had visited Kanha on two previous occasions before it had been
brought to the status of a National Park, and on both these occasions
I had dabbled in monochrome pictures. This time I was working
with colour stills. One must have plenty of time at one’s disposal
for photographing wild life. For photographing wild life at Kanha
the first requisite is time. A week is the minimum period I set for
an assignment at Kanha, though I myself have never been able to
indulge in the luxury of an extended holiday so far. I have worked
more or less over week-ends. Visiting Kanha for the first time will
take you at least a couple of days to familiarise yourself with the
terrain and the animal life. A couple of days with monochrome to
get your eye in, and thereafter you will be ready to shoot in colour.

Light in Indian jungles, and particularly sal forests, can be very
deceptive and difficult for colour work. A box camera is no use.
You would be wasting your time and money with anything less than
f, 5.6 and speeds slower than 1/100 sec. In jungle photography both
the camera and the man behind it count. Get the finest equipment
you can afford, get to know it like the palm of your hand, and then
put it to best use with the working knowledge you already possess.

Kanha National Park can alford some outstanding scenic and
animal shots to an enthusiastic photographer. I have worked with
a Rolleiflex, a Contax III fitted with a 135 mm. tele, a Graflex fitted
with a 1o” tele, and a Primarflex fitted with 200 and 4oo mm. teles,
in addition to a Bell and Howell 16 mm. cine. I gave up cine
pictures. Unless you give them the professional touch, you don’t

10

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

get your money’s worth, and I neither had the touch nor the money to
make any effort worth while. I therefore chose the next best—colour
stills. 1 like working with bigger negatives, though a 35 mm.
camera is more versatile in the jungles. The Graflex I found too big
and cumbersome, so finally 1 gave up all in favour of the Primarrex
with its 200 and 400 mm. tele-lenses. From my photographer friend
Isadore A. Berger, F.pP.S.A., F.R.P.S., of Detroit I have, among other
things, learnt always to use a tripod, even at 1/200 sec. But in
photographing wild life I discovered before long that there was
never time to fiddle about with a camera on a tripod. To hold a
4oo mm. lens steady you need a sturdy tripod. A gadget like that
has to be big and cumbersome. So invariably I depended on either
the car bonnet, or the branch of a tree, or a stone, or at times even
my knees. I could never work at speeds less than 1/100 sec.
The ones I had to take at 1/50 sec. due to bad lighting conditions
were invariably found to have been shaken. I worked with f. 5.6
most of the time. The depth of focus at this opening is very dis-
couraging and the focussing of the main subject has to be done very
critically. Animal subjects in the Jungle are not half as obliging as
studio models. They dislike close approach and trying to outwit
them in stalking would be living in a fool’s paradise. I therefore
decided on photographing them even from 150 to z00 yards.
The 400 mm. tele bridged the gulf between us remarkably well.
Each Ektachrome and Ansco roll provided twelve exposures and in
two days I took over a hundred pictures sometimes at machine-gun
speed. Chee tee res |
Most of the animals come out for grazing during the morning
and evening hours. I had not the luck to see carnivora during day
time, but friends have reported having occasionally seen tigers and
panthers along the Kiusli-Kanha road. The deer, antelope, wild
boar, wild dogs, peafowl, jungiefowl and other bird lite are quite
obliging during daylight hours. I found the best time to photograph
animals was between 3.30 and 5.30 in the afternoon. If you preter
misty effects early morning time is better, but in winter the grass is
much too high and wet to make walking through it comfortable.

I favour the use of exposure meters. ~Get the best one you can
but don’t depend on it all the time. Having once got the general
idea of the lighting conditions of your locality, try and use your
judgment and previous experience while indulging in quick shooting.
Otherwise you will find the animal giving you a prize picture pose
while you have the meter on it and give you its back when you are
ready to shoot. There are a lot of open maidans in this Park. Most
of your shooting will be done in good sunlight. Get the sunlight
flat on the subject if you want good colour prints and enlargements.
For melodramatic effects and salon pictures you have to work against
the light and with the light at all odd angles. If you go off the
beaten track you will get lighting conditions that you wished didn’t
exist. ‘That’s where your skill comes in, and the versatility of the
camera. Add to all these natural disadvantages and inconveniences
the obstacles left by the Park management. There is a fine salt lick
on which to photograph animals without their being aware of your
presence. A nice hide-out with a closed-in passage leading up to it

JourN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Cheetal in a typical maidan, Kanha

(Photos: A.S. Talatt)

PLATE [I

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Cheetal approaching the salt lick, Kanha

Yy

Yy

Uj

yy

a

s, Kanh

ind

ha h

irasing

‘
Cc

B

A. S. Talati)

(Photos

COVERING KANHA WITH A CAMERA 661

have been provided by the forest department. But that is about all
—and that is not enough. The passage leading up to the hide-out is
strewn with dried leaves most of the time. They never seem to clear
the passage of these dried leaves. Walking on them is lke
walking over tin foil. Either you walk on them at the risk of
disturbing game or pick them up diligently, as we did, one by one
and clear the way. When you are out shooting either with a gun or
a camera and intend to do it seriously, a thing like this can get on
your nerves. Having reached the hide-out it was a problem for me
to get my 4oo mm. lens through the small aperture provided. I had
to widen one of the holes in order to get the lens through. With
the light intensity almost zero within the hide-out and_ brilliant
sunlight behind the cameraman, animals in and around the salt lick
have no trouble in locating the intruder at the slightest movement.
We spent hours at the salt lick but hardly got one or two shots,
each time the animal getting suspicious and scampering away even
before we had time to say hello to it.

There is another sait lick at Srawantal but this place has no hide-
out for the photographer’s convenience. You might risk it on the
off-chance of catching an animal unawares on it—I am yet to see
even the keenest sportsman on foot whether with a gun or a camera
do that.

Srawantal is a beautiful spot to photograph. Animals come
there, during midday particularly, for a drink. With a little bit of
luck you can get good pictures here. But luck was evidently not
with me the day I was trying out my patience. My pal and I, each
with a camera, sat for two hours enduring patiently the heat of the
midday sun ior our wild friends to appear and then, just as a huge
crowd of barasinghas was approaching the pond, two forest guards
came talking loudly, drowning their own voices as they walked on
the dry leaves with their heavy jungle boots. The barasinghas were
off like a shot while the forest guards approached us most unconcerned
and stood there so stupid and dumb that they gave one the impression
of being just bone from their necks up. A hide-out in the centre of
the tank, with arrangements to approach it, would be ideal for the
cameraman.

Kanha National Park, beautiful in its natural grandeur and rich
in its animal life, still is a far cry, I think, from the National Parks.
such as the Glacier, the Yellowstone or the Yosemite, which it has
been my good fortune to see. These notes as I said are primarily
intended for the photographer wishing to cover Kanha with his
camera. Therefore I do not wish to go off the subject matter and
involve myself in discussing the merits and demerits of Kanha as a
National Park. I would like to say, though, that it could do with
a lot of improvement and care, which are at present lacking. The
roads are practically non-existent, domestic cattle abound within the
park area, wild life is in danger of depletion by wild dogs which are
ever on the increase, forest roads, paths and tracks leading up to salt
licks are strewn with dried leaves, and facilities are lacking for any
tourist to spend a day comfortably at the rest house. No facilities exist
for refuelling the car. Not even a Khansama is attached to the rest
house, while every P.W.D. rest house in M.P., however humble it
be, will at least have a cook and a sweeper. The photographer, in

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

addition to carrying his equipment and stacks of film rolls,. will be
required to carry his own bazar and tin provisions, and also a cook
and a bearer if he is fastidious. A small stall, wiich sells camera
films and other cheap accessories, | think would be very useful if
it were attached to the present rest house. No. route maps, no
literature on the flora and fauna of the park, no guides—nothing’ is
available. You start from scratch and are your own research student.
You just get to know the place by the time you are ready to leave.
If somebody from the terest department meets you it is usually a petty
official and he is of such a calibre and class that you would be better oft
without his assistance. Kanha as a National Park deserves better
treatment than this, surely.

With all these handicaps | say to my photographer friends do not
be discouraged. In our new-born Republic Kanha is still a bud.
We hope that it will be nursed and taken care of. A photographic
trip to Kanha today is a hard and expensive venture, but worth
while all the same if you don’t mind roughing it out a bit. You
may not reap a rich harvest with your camera the first time, but cut
of a few hundred pictures that you take a handful will be worth
preserving and reminiscing over. Even if by some miracle you
manage to reach Kanha by bus and bullock cart, or trudge the last
mile on foot, you will still! need a car to go round within the Park.
Any car will do. At various times I have taken my pictures from
the hood and the bonnet of a Hillman, a Chrysler and a Dodge
suburban. But I prefer a jeep to all these for real close up work.
Try stalking the animals on foot and they start moving away from
a mile off. In a jeep I have found they let you come as close as
within ten feet at times. At Yellowstone I could feed bears and
literally shake hands with them, but the Kanha animals are not
that friendly yet. In photographing wild life, as in hunting, team
work pays good dividends. You cannot expect to drive the jeep and
take pictures, all at the same time. You must have a pal who
besides being a driver for you literally knows what is going on in your
mind. Whenever we spotted mixed herds of blackbuck, cheetal,
barasingha, I would just have to tell him ‘cheetal, 25 {t., side lighting’,
and he would get ine into position; meanwhile I was ready set with
my aperture, speed, and distance settings on the camera. This way
I was lucky in recording quite a few good shots.

A photographer like a hunter has to be prepared for many dis-
appointments. I lost more good pictures than [ got. At times 1
would come to the end of a film just when we would witness a rare
fight between a vulture and a wild dog over the latter’s kill. It is all
over in a matter of a few seconds. Untortunately, I cannot unload
and reload my camera that fast. A 35 mm. gives you 36 exposures
and would be an asset at such times, but I prefer my 2}x 2}; and
have consequently suffered at odd times. If you can manage two
cameras and two teles with an assistant to help you load and reload,
you can save yourself many a disappointment. Photography is an
expensive hobby, but I do not intend to make it that expensive. I
have had to depend on my limited resources and the assistance of
those who accompanied me on this trip; also, the Divisional Forest
Officer who made it possible for me to occupy the forest rest house

COVERING KANHA WITH A CAMERA 663

for three days and nights. Without the combined assistance of all
these people my photographic trip to Kanha would have been a
washout. Whatever efforts you see recorded here must be con-
sidered the collective effort of a few and not of one individual.
Pursuing wild life at Kanha calls for at least a doubles game, if
not team work on a larger scale. A singles game here would be
downright disappointing. The forest department has provided an
elephant for going round the Sanctuary. I don’t think you can get
closer to animals on an elephant than in a jeep. At least it has not
been my experience. But I prefer to work from the jeep or when
necessary to get out quickly on foot. For one thing the elephant is
a very slow moving object and the deer species run circles round it.
Secondly sitting on an elephant presents an Empire State Building
view of the animals down below—a very awkward angle for the camera
I think. I like low angle shots, and where that 1s not possible even
straight and level, but never where I have to look down on the animal
unless I am shooting with a gun.

I have often been asked about the best time of the year to take
pictures at Kanha. That is rather difficult to answer. For my part
I would say given average conditions I like to photograph when I
am in the mood for it. If I don’t feel like photographing wild life,
given even the ideal conditions I would produce very mediocre
results. Also, to be able to photograph wild life, whether at Kanha
or any other jungle, one must above everything. possess enduring
love for Nature and wild life. Photographing wild life is not just
clicking the camera shutter; your heart must click with it. Any time
from November to June is good enough for Kanha. Early winter
the grass is a bit too high and the jungle a bit too thick. End of
February or early March I found as providing ideal conditions for
colour work. The sal forest is aflame with colours at this time of
the year. If you are after cloud effects, April and May I found to
be about the best months. No matter which time of the year it is,
Nature at Kanha will always fascinate you—the animal life, the bird
life, the insect life, the plant life combine in a mystifying harmony
fabricating a picture that will at its worst far surpass any human
effort with the best of lenses and the best of emulsions.

MODES OF COPULATION IN SHORT-HORNED
GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA: ACRIJDIDAE)

BY
K. N. KatTiyar, M.Sc.
(From the Branch of Entomology, Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Din)

(With a plate)
LEN GERIOS DAWES MINION

Very little research work has been done on the copulation of the
Acrididae, especially of India. Kuncket d’Herculais (1893-1905)
described copulation in the Desert Locust, Schistocerca gergaria, and
Fedorov {1927) in the Egyptian grasshopper, Anacridium aegyptium
Linnaeus. Later on, Uvarov (1928) gave a detailed account of the
common mode of Acrideid copulation (Mode I or ‘riding mode’ of
present account) in Schistocerca gregaria. Jhingran (1944) recorded
another mode of copulation (Mode II or ‘lateral mode’) in Choroedocus
insignis Thunberg. Katiyar (1952) recorded a third mode of copula-
tion (Mode III or ‘hanging mode’) in Parahieroglyphus bilineatus
Bolivar. <A critical study of the various modes of copulation
suggested that a correlation exists between the relative body-length
of the two sexes and the modes of copulation adopted. This is
discussed below.

The present account deals with the study of the different modes
of copulation in 16 species of Acrididae found around Dehra Dun
(Table I). Copulation was observed in the insectary cages as well as
in the field under natural conditions.

MopeEs oF CopuLaTION IN RELATION TO THE RATIO OF THE
Bopy-sizE OF THE Two SExEs. (TABLE I)

Three main types of copulation have been described so far (vide
supra). Katiyar (1952) suggested that during copulation the various
changes in the position of the males are due to the mechanical difficulty
of the male in introducing his aedeagus into the vagina of the female
and that this feature is correlated with body-length. When the ratio
of 9:o body-length? is about 1.07, as in Schistocerca gregaria,
copulation is by Mode I (‘riding mode’). When the ratio is about
1.51 as in. Choroedocus insignis, copulation is by Mode II (‘lateral
mode’). When it is about 1.72 as in Parahieroglyphus bilineatus
Bolivar, copulation is by Mode III (‘hanging mode’).

* This ratio was calculated as follows; Length of the entire body of female,
Length of the entire body of male.

COPULATION IN SHORT-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS 565

These correlations exist in the 16 species studied, as discussed
below. The most common mode of copulation is Mode I. Ten species
copulated by Mode I, but showed gradual variation depending upon the
increase in the ratio of 9:6 body-length; thus Schistocerca gregaria
(with the lowest ratio, 1.07) shows the perfect type of Mode I. In
this species the male is almost equal in length to the female. The
head of the male lies just above the occiput of the female during
copulation, and when he lowers his abdomen the aedeagus finds its
way into the genitalia of the female easily (Pl., fig. a). This can
be taken as the most comfortable posture for the male. The other
g species (Nos. 2-10, Table I) with the Mode I type of copulation
show a gradually increasing variation in the formation of the loop
or twist in the male abdomen to achieve coitus, and this is correlated
with the above-mentioned ratio. Not only the loop or twist in the
abdomen of the male increases gradually as the ratio increases,
but also the position of the male changes, the head of the male
gradually moves backwards as the ratio increases (Pl., figs. b-d).
The ratio is 1.07 in Schistocerca gregaria, 1.25 in Hieroglyphus
nigrorepletus, 1.27 in Aularches punctatus, 1.33 in Eyprepocnemis
roseus, 1.35 in Spathosternum prasiniferum, 1.36 in Ceracris deflorata
and 1.38 in Hieroglyphus banian, Hieroglyphus concelor, Cantantops
humilis and Chrotogonus concavus.

In Phlaeoba panteli (ratio 1.4) the male does not remain on the
back of the female as in Mode I, but comes to lie on the dorso-lateral
side of the abdomen of the female, with his head just near the hind-
femur of the female (PI., fig. e). It forms an intermediate link
between Modes I and II and shows a ‘dorso-lateral’?’ mode of copula-
tion.

In Choroedocus insignis, Jhingran (1944) recorded the ‘lateral’
mode of copulation (Mode II) in 4 pairs in the laboratory; the male
comes to lie on the lateral side of the female forming an acute angle
with the female (Pl., fig. f). The present author has observed this
mode in about 200 pairs in the field and in about 4o pairs in the
Insectary. Besides this species, this mode of copulation was also
observed in another species, Choroedocus sp., in three pairs in
Bibiwala Forest near Rishikesh (Uttar Pradesh). The ratio of the
body-length of the two sexes in these species is 1.51 and 1.52 res-
pectively.

In Gastrimargus transversus Thunberg, 2 pairs were observed
copulating by ‘dorso-lateral’ posture (the ratio of the body-length,
1.42). Four other pairs showed copulation by ‘lateral posture’
(ratio 1.53), and in 4 other pairs the males showed ‘hanging posture’
when copulating on a leaf; when copulating on the ground, the male
forms an obtuse angle with the body of the female during copulation
(ratio 1.61). Thus, in the same species as the ratio rises the mode
of copulation changes from the dorso-lateral to lateral (Mode I]),
and from the latter to the hanging type (Mode III).

In Oedaleus abruptus fratio 1.58), during copulation the abdomen
of the male forms a curve with the abdomen of the female; or he
comes to lie on the opposite side of the female (PI., figs. g, h),
forming an obtuse angle with the body of the female as_ in
Gastrvimargus transversus (when the ratio was 1.61). But in neither

666

JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCTETY, Vol.

TABLE I

53

Correlation between relative body-size of the two sexes and the mode of
pee in Acrididae.

hy
o }
Bf
oa
(@)

ran

Ratio

Benes g |e S
Rees ad log a oi3a oe Mode of
ppecies 8 i 4 € 8 e 4d g copulation
3 |¢ 8) 5 |fea) &
1S el Oo ise S)
6 I<e 6 j|O8 a
A |< A ia a
l. Schistocerca gregaria Mede I. ‘rid-
Forskal 5 | 58:42 5 | SAO |) kd il Oa
2. Hieroglyphus ECO EAT
Bolivar | 8 | 40-70! 8 |32:70/1:25 |Copulated by
3. Aularches punctatus Mode I, but
Drury 197 )°55*50> |= 19) | 432709) 127, showed gra-
4. Eyprepocnemts roseus dual _ varia-
Uvarov aL Oe RZ 5:40) el OMe S90) less tion, depend-
5. Spathosternum prasint- ing upon the
ferum Walker Moy Aa COE | AUS) Hh SEO |} 119835) increase in
the ratio of
6. Ceracris deflorata Brumer... a | B70 (nee? x 310 iP tars 0) the body
7. Hieroglyphus banian length.
Fabricius 12 | 40°50) 12 | 29:20/1°38
8. Huieroglyphus concolor
Herbst 14 | 54:25] 14 | 39:10 | 1:38
9. Catantops humilis humilis:
Serville 5 W293 0) Reel eee ope On eles s
10. Chrotogonus Concavus
Kirby ifey jf UkePI |] hs} IP BAL | ThoSKS
11. Phlaeoba panteli
Bolivar 10 | 27°60} 10 | 19:70 1:40 |‘ Dorso-lateral
mode’ or
between
| Modes I & II,
12. Choroedocus insignis Mode II or ‘la-
Thunberg BY) || SER) || S| SEPSO) |) IeSal teral ’.
13. Choroedocus sp. Sino 0250 3) cePlls |) lesz
14. Gastrimargus transversus
Thunberg 36 36°10 2 | 25°40} 1:42 |‘Dorso-lateral’.
4 | 37°50 4 | 24°60/1:53 |Mode II ‘ later-
ae
4 | 37°42 4 | 23:25) 1:61 |Between Modes
II and IIL.
15. O8¢edaleus abruptus
Thunberg i) || ARR} 8 | 14°52 | 1:58 |Between Modes
II and III.
16 Pavrahieroglyphus bilineatus | Mode III or
Bolivar Sool 48) BSR sy yy zailosko) 1 a7 ‘hanging’.

f TEAS HS were en in 1 actually copulating Weer in nie CELLO) as

well as in the field)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE

(a) Schistocerca gregaria Forskal in copulation (After Kunckel, reproduced from
Uvarov, 1928).

(b) Catantops humilis humilis Serville in copulation.

(c) Sphingonotus indus Saussure in copulation on a_ leaf.

(d) Chrotogonus concavus Kirby in copuiation on the ground.

(e) Phlaeoba panteli Bolivar in copulation.

(f) Choroedocus insignis Thunberg in copulation (Original photograph by
Dr. V. G. Jhingran, reproduced by his kind permission).

(g) Oedaleus abruptus Thunberg in copulation on the ground.

(h) Oedaleus abruptus Thunberg in copulation on a leaf.

1) Parahieroglyphus bilineatus Bolivar in copulation on the ground.
§ly I i

The larger insect is Q, the smaller ¢

COPULATION IN SHORT-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS 667

case does the male turn upside down as in Parahieroglyphus bilineatus
(see below). Thus, it is evident that Oedaleus abruptus also forms a
link between Mode II (in Choroedocus sp., ratio 1.52) and Mode III
(in Parahieroglyphus bilineatus, ratio 1.72).

Lastly, comes the ‘hanging’ mode of copulation as seen in
Parahieroglyphus bilineatus Bolivar (Pl., fig. 7). (For fuller des-
cription see Katiyar, 1952.) Here the ratio is 1.72, the highest
among all the 16 species studied, the length of the female being
nearly 13th that of the male.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the above discussion, the following are the brief
conclusions :

(1) Schistocerca gregaria copulates by Mode I or ‘riding’.
The ratio of the 9 :o body-length is 1.07, which is the lowest in ihe
present lot.

(2) As the ratio rises to 1.38, as in Chrotogonus. concavus
(Table I), the gradual backward shifting in the position of the male
over the female also occurs.

(3) The curvature of the abdomen of the males also increases
gradually with the variation in the position of the males in ‘riding
posture’.

(4) An intermediate mode of copulation between Mode I and
Mode II has been observed in Phlaeoba panteli (ratio 1.40), where
the male comes to lie in a ‘dorso-lateral’ posture on the side of the
female.
(5) Choroedocus insignis and Choroedocus sp. {ratios 1.51 and
1.52 respectively) copulate by Mode II or ‘lateral mcde’.

(6) An intermediate mode of copulation between Modes II and
III occurs in Oedaleus abruptus (ratio 1.58) and was also noted in a
few pairs of Gastrimargus transversus, where the ratio rose to 1.61.

(7) In Pavahieroglyphus bilineatus copulaticn occurs by Mode
III or ‘hanging mode’; the ratio is 1.72, the highest so far studied.

(8) In Gastrimargus transversus the intra-specific variation in
the mode of copulation occurs as the ratio varies.

SUMMARY

1. Various modes of copulation in 16 species of short-horned

erasshoppers were studied as follows:

(a) Schistocerca gregaria shows a typical example of Mode I.
Nine other species which also copulate by Mode I showed gradual
variation, depending upon the increase in the ratio of body-lengtth.

(b) Phlaeoba panteli shows an intermediate mode of copulation
or ‘dorso-lateral’ posture between Modes I[ and II.

(c) Choroedocus insignis and Choroedocus sp. copulate by
Mode II or ‘lateral mode’.

(d) Oedaleus abruptus shows an intermediate mode of copulation
between Modes II and III.

(e) Parahieroglyphus bilineatus shows a third mode of copulation
(Mode III or ‘hanging mode’),

—

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53
(f) Gastrimargus transversus shows considerable intra-specific
variation in the mode of copulation, which varies from the dorso-lateral
(Mode II), and from latter to the ‘hanging type’ (Mode III).
2. The modes of copulation hitherto described are correlated with
the relative body-length of the two sexes in a species.
3. Some general conclusions from the above discussions are given,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was done in the Branch of Entomology, Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun, under the guidance of Dr. M. L.
Roonwal, Forest Entomologist (now Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta). The author expresses his gratitude to him for
valuable suggestions and for giving laboratory facilities.

References

Fedorov, S. M. (1927): Studies in copulation and oviposition of Anacridium
aegyptium L. (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Trans. Ent. Soc., London, 75 (1): 53-61.

Jhingran, V. G. (1944): An unusual mode of copulation in Heteracris capensis
Thunberg (Acrididae). Indian J. Ent., New Delhi, 5 (1-2) 1943: 243-244.

Kunckel d’Herculais, J. A. A. (1893-1905): Invasion des Acridiens Vulge
santerelles, en Algeria, Alger, 2 Vols. 1893-1905, 34 Pls., maps, tabl.

Katiyar, K. N. (1952): A new mode of copulation in the short-horned
grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Z. ang. Ent., Berlin & Hamburg, 34% (2):
284-290, 1 Pl.

Uvarov, B. P. (1928): Locusts and Grasshoppers. A hand-hook of their study
and control. London, (Imperial Bureau of Entomology).

FISHES OF KOLHAPUR

BY
A, G, Katawar, o.sc. & C. N. KELKaR, B.SC., D.C.T.
(Fisheries Station, Kolhapur)

(Communicated by Dr. C. V. Kulkarni,
Director of Fisheries, Bombay)

(With a map and two text figures)

IBNETER) OSDLUACEDIEOnN

_

Very little is at present known about the fresh water fish fauna
of Kolhapur District. The official gazetteer of the erstwhile Kolhapur
State edited by Campbell (1886) contains only a few local names of
fishes and a sketchy account of impressions about the ‘Fisheries’ as
it was understood at that time. Campbeli stated that the fisheries
of the State (now the Kolhapur District) were of little importance. In
making this statement, however, he appeared to have overlooked the
vast potentialities of fresh water resources which have improved con-
siderably during the last decade on account of the construction of new
reservoirs and weirs across small rivers.. Unfortunately, even the recent
work on regional survey of Economic Resources, India, Kolhapur
(Patil, 1950) has no mention of fisheries.

During the course of a survey of fresh water resources for the develop-
ment of Inland Fisheries, efforts were directed to find a local source
of supply of fish seed. Survey of sheets of water near Kolhapur
indicated the availability of young ones of Labeo fimbriatus a fish
locally known as ‘Tambir’, in large quantity. Presence of suitable
tanks and reservoirs in this region brightened the scope for developing
freshwater fisheries. In view of the aforesaid prospects of developing
fisheries, a freshwater fisheries station was established by the Govern-
ment of Bombay in 1951.

In this article, however, it is not intended to discuss the fisheries
as an industry but only to record the fish fauna occurring in the
waters of Kolhapur District. The need for such a check-list of fishes
occurring in this area has long been felt, particularly in view of the
prospects of developing fisheries in this part of the Deccan and the
zoo-geographical significance (Kulkarni, 1951) of some of the species
found in this region. |

The district of Kolhapur is a part of the western Deccan Plateau
lying along the eastern side of the Western Ghats. This district is
bounded on the north by South Satara District, on the west by
Ratnagiri District and on the south and east by Belgaum District.
The physical features are of a varied nature consisting of plains,
plateaus and hill ranges. Kolhapur District is traversed on the west
by the long range of the Western Ghats which has thrown out several

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

spurs in the east. The high altitude of these ranges and their copious
rainfall have given rise to a number of streams and rivers which
have formed small and large valleys. The drainage of the District
is north-eastwardly and flows into the river Krishna. The important
rivers of Kolhapur District are six in number, the Warna, Panchaganga,
Dudhganga, Vedaganga, Hiranayakeshi and Ghataprabha. These rivers,
which rise in the Western Ghats and flow south-east and north-east
across the Kolhapur plateau towards the Krishna, have generally steep

SCALE-1 INCH =40 MILES

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T R | (e T : %o,

gence aN
yes MIRAJ

bcc,

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CANHALA |
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KOLHAPUR a
KAgnt yy od eG

re.

yOARCAD
e'>5

KOLHAPUR DISTRICT

banks and soft with either clayey or rocky beds of varying depths.
In the course of the first few miles. of their course before they pass
out of the mountainous terrain, the rivers are fed by numerous streams.
Topographically the area covered by the District can roughly be
divided into two zones marked by broad climatic differences (i) the
western mountainous tract’ covered by the Western Ghats and _ iis
spurs, with valleys running in between. the spurs, and (ii) the main

FISHES OF KOLHAPUR 671

eastern plain. The elevation above sea level in the hilly west varies
from 1850 ft. in the valleys to 3,c00 ft. on the crest of Western
Ghats. The elevation in the eastern plains varies from 1,800 to
1,900 ft. above sea level. Like the rest of the western Deccan, tie
climate of the District, being under the influence of the sea breeze,
is mild and temperate. The range of temperature between the maxi-
mum and minimum is comparatively small. The maximum temperature
in the hot season seldom rises above 100°F. and the minimum in the
cold season rarely falls below 55°F., except at Kolhapur where it is
sometimes 48°F.

Like the western districts of the Bombay Deccan, Kolhapur
District receives its rain mainly from mid-June to December ; the greater
part of the rainfall, supplied by the south-west monsoon, is received
from mid-June to mid-October... From about mid-October the eastern
part of the District gets showers of the north-east monsoon. The
rainfall varies according to altitude; the higher altitudes in the north
get more rain than the comparatively lower altitudes in the south. The
variations in the rainfall from west to east, however, are very marked.
Bavda region in the western tracts gets 277 inches, whereas Kolhapur,
Hatkalangde and Shirol get only 39, 25 and 23 inches respectively.

Kolhapur District is plentifully supplied with water from quite a
number of rivers, streams, natural lakes, irrigation tanks, reservoirs and
perennial ponds. The numerous streams offer many sites suitable for
dams and weirs. With the implementation of several new irrigation
development schemes which have ja direct or indirect bearing on
fisheries, pisciculture is bound to gain more importance in this region.

Most of the collection of fish specimens was done in the river
Panchaganga from Prayag, about three miles west of Kolhapur, to
village Valivde about nine miles east of Kolhapur. The five streams,
Tulsi, Kasari, Bhogavati, Bramhi and Kumbhi unite to form the
Panchaganga at Prayag. The aforesaid tributaries of the Panchaganga
rise in the Western Ghats and flow through a hilly tract before they
unite to form the Panchaganga. Due to the construction of weirs on
the Panchaganga, a considerable quantity of water is retained in the
river, thereby affording suitable habitat for a large number of lish.
Further, when the tributaries of this river become shallow after
monsoon, fishes from these tributaries also migrate into the Panchaganga
for shelter and forage. The part of the river Panchaganga between
Prayag and the village Valivde forms a stretch of about 12 miles.
The banks and the bed in the aforesaid portion of the river are rocky,
sandy and at some places muddy. This portion of the river also has
large deep pools where additional water is retained by means of con-
struction of weirs near Kolhapur and Valivde village. When the
sluice gates of the weirs are opened before the commencement of the
monsoon, the river runs with a terrific turmoil. Hence the collection
in the river Panchaganga made at different times of the year represents
fish fauna of varied nature including bottom dwelling forms in switt
as well as stationary waters. The list of the fishes collected by us
is given below with both scientific and local Marathi names.

672

A".
AZ,

13

14.
118,

16,
17,

18.
io:
20,
Ne

Zee

(eyo)
24,

Uae
26.
lic

SO WNIAN

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Scientific names.

Order :OPISTHOMI.
Family : MASTACEMBELIDAE.

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.)

Order : APODES.
Family : ANGUILLIDAE.

Anguilla anguilla (Ham.)

Order
Family : CYPRINIDAE.
Sub-family : Abramidinae

Chela clupeoides (B1.)
Chela phulo (Ham.)

Sub-family : Rasborinae.

Baritius bendelists (Ham.)
Barilius evezardi (Day)
Perilampus atbar (Ham.)

Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland)
Brachy-danio rario (Ham.)
Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)

Sub-family : Cyprininae.

Aspidoparia morar (Ham. )
Balttora shimogensis

Puntius amphibius (C. & V.)
Puntius dobsont (Day)

Puntius kolus (Sykes)

Puntius melanostigma (Day)
Puntius stigma (C. & V.)
Puntius sarana (Ham.)
Puntius ticto (Ham. )

Puntius (tor) khudree (Sykes)
Puntius (tor) mussullah (Sykes)
Puntius trasert (Hora & Misra)
Cirrhina tulungee (Sykes)
Cirrhina reba (Ham. )

* Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.)
Garra mullya (Sykes)

| Garra bicornuta (Rao)

: EVENTOGNATHI.

Local Marathi names,

Vam, Vambat.

Aheer.

Vadashi.
Alkut.

Jhorya.
Jhorya.
Sonukli.
Balooki.

Denies.

Amlee.
Phattar: chittu.
Khavli.

Parag.

Kolshi.

Khavli,.
Mhasheer.
aaa

Mulicha ganna.

Mallya.

”)

* Exotic fish introduced in Kolhapur waters.

FISHES OF KOLHAPUR 678

No. Scientific names Local Marathi names,
eee eee

28. | Labeo boggut (Sykes) ...| Sandasi, Sandas.

29. | Labeo fimbriatus (Bl.) ... | Tambir.

30. | Labeo calbasu (Ham.) ... | Kanas,

31. | Labeo porcellus (Heckel) ...| Tambudki.

32, | Labeo bata (Ham.) ...| Tambti.

33. |* Labeo rohita (Ham.) | see

34. |* Catla catla (Ham.)

35. | Rohtee coliv (Ham. ) eS Bhongi..
36. | Rohtee vigorsiz (Sykes) «| Phankut.
37.| Rohtee ogilbit (Sykes) . | Vatani.

38. | Schizmatorhynchus (Nukta) nukta (Sykes) ...| Nakata.

Family ; COBITIDAE.

39. | Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) Mori.

40. | Lepidocephalichthys thermalis (C. & V.) ... sp

41.) Nemachilichthys ruppelli (Sykes) pene hilclis

42.| Nemachilus denisonii (Day ) ...| Murunga.

43. | Nemachilus botius (Ham.) ...| Chikli.

44,| Nemachilus sp. ? ree @ lila ts

45. | Botia striata var. kolhapurensts nov. ...| Waghamasa.
Order : NEMATHOGNATHII.
Family ; SILURIDAE.

46.| Om pok bimaculatus (Bl.) -..| Wanz

47.| Ompok pabo (Ham.) ... | Kaliwanz.

48.| Wallago attu (Bl.) ..»| Valashivda,
Family : BAGRIDAE. |

49, | Mystus cavasius (Ham.) ... Katirna.

50. | Mystus seenghala (Sykes) .. | Singalu.

51. | Mystus malabaricus (Jerdon) .. Shingti.

52. | Mystus aor (Ham.) ... | Singalu.

53, | Rita hastata ( Val.) eeeurdus

54. | Rita pavimentata (Val.) ... | Ghoghrya.
Family : SISORIDAE.

55. | Bagarius bagarius (Ham.) ... | Khirit.

56. | Gagata ttchkeea (Sykes) | ... | Itchka,

57. | Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes). ... | Phattachittu.

58. | Gly ptothorax annandalez (Hora) ... | Phattarchatu.,

“Exotic fish introduced in Kolhapur waters.

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

No. | Scientific names. ~ |Local Marathi names.

Family : SCHILBEIDAE,

59. | Proeutropicthys taakree (Sykes) «| Munvi, Vyadi.
60. | Neotropius khavalchor Kulkarni - ...| Khavalchor.
61. | Pseudotropius atherinoides (B1.) ... | Sura,

Order : CyPRINODONTES,
Family : CYPRINODONTIDAE.

62. | Aplochilus lineatus (C. & V.)

Order : SYNENTOGNATHI.
Family : XENENTODONTIDAE.

63. | Xenentodon casxcila ..| Tokali,

Orders WA BY RUN DHT Cie
Family : OPHICEPHALIDAE.

64.| Chana gachiia (Ham.) ...| Dokrya.

65. | Chana leucopunctatus (Sykes) _...| Kalamasa, Murtrel.
66. | Chana marulius (Ham. ) ...| Kalamasa, Murrel.
67. | Chana striatus (Bl. ) ... | Mhangsha.

68. | *Osphronemus goramy (Lacep.) SSNs wae Rie

Order : PERCOMORPHI.
Family : AMBASSIDAE.

69.| Ambassis ranga (Ham.) ...| Kachki, Chembardi.
70. | Ambassis nama (Ham.) ... | _Kachki, Chembardi.

Order : GOBIOIDEA.
Family : GOBIIDAE.

71. | Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) ...| Kharpya.

noes PEE LENE EE TE TEI EE IS ET IT IT

* Kxotic fish intrcduced in Kolhapur waters.
SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Chela clupeoides (Bloch)

In his account of Chela clupeoides Day has stated that as a rule
the number of rays in the anal fin vary from 13-15 (2/11-13) but in
the specimens from Deccan he found them to be 2/13-15. In the
specimens collected at Kolhapur the number of rays in the anal fin

S76

FISHES OF KOLHAPUR 675

Colour—Day in his account has described the coloration as silvery
but has not mentioned about a distinct row, sometimes two rows, of
about 8-10 black dots on each side as found in the specimens collected
at Kolhapur.

Size—Day has stated that this species attains at least six inches
in length. The largest size of C. clupeoides found at Kolhapur
measured 9.5”.

Brachy-danio rerio (Ham.)

In the specimens of Brachy-danio rerio collected at Kolhapur, dorsal
does not commence opposite the anal as described by Day but it is
slightly anterior to anal. Number of rays in the anal fin of the
aforesaid specimens is 13-14 (2-3/11) instead of 15 to 16 as described
by Day.

Balitora shimogensis Silas & Kalawar

This new species of Homalopterid fish is discovered by E. G. Silas
and A. G. Kalawar almost simultaneously near Shimoga in Mysore
State and near Kolhapur in Bombay State. The diagnostic characters
and other details about the fish will be published elsewhere.

Occurrence of this fish in Kolhapur and its zoo-geographical
significance have been recorded (Kulkarni 1951).

Barbus fraseri Hora & Misra

ID, @/S8 Iho RAB Wo OS Alc By 58 (Co OR BBs ts Vigo s

This fish was described as a new species from Deolali, Nasik
District, by Hora and Misra when they commented on the collection
made by Dr. Fraser. The description was based only on very few
specimens and that too of only females. As males were collected
for the first time only in the present collection, it is considered desirable
to furnish a brief description of the fish.

This species of Barbus has a graceful form with a slightly
compressed body and its dorsal profile slightly more convex than the
ventral. Abdomen is rounded. Head is small and somewhat depressed.
Mouth is small, crescentic, opening forwards inferiorly. Lips are fleshy
and continuous at the angle of the mouth. Length of the head is
5-2 in total length and 3.9 in standard length. Height of the body
is 3.5 to 4.1 in total length. Inter-orbital space is slightly convex
and smooth.

The eyes are prominent and without adipose lids. They are situated
on the lateral margin of the head so that half of diameter can be seen
in the dorsal aspect and the other half in the ventral aspect. Eyes
are situated nearer the snout in the length of the head. Their
diameter is contained three times in the length of the head,
8 times in the length of the snout, and is almost equal to the inter-
orbital space.

There are two short maxillary barbels situated at the angle of the
mouth. Lateral line is incomplete and extends to about 6-9 scales.
There are 42-47 scales along the lateral line and 7-8 rows of scales

11

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

between it and the base of the ventral fin. There are 14 series of
scales between the base of the dorsal and ventral fin.

Origin of the dorsal fin is almost opposite the ventral, commencing
midway between the tip of the snout and the base of the caudal fin.
The upper edge of the dorsal is concave and its last undivided ray
is osseous and serrated. Dorsal is slightly longer than the head and
considerably shorter than the depth of the body. In the case of the
male, the last undivided ray of the anal fin is much elongated, while
in the female no such elongation of ray is marked.

A. S&arbus trasevi (male)
B. Barbus fraseri (female)

Colour of the body is yellowish olive with a silvery streak on the
sides. A faint golden spot is present on the occiput which turns
brownish in preserved specimens. A small black spot is present at
the base of the commencement of the dorsal fin and another black
spot at the base of the caudal.

The female specimens closely resemble Barbus fraseri (Hora & Misra
1938). No reference was made to the distinguishing characters of the
male. We have found that the adult males of Barbus fraseri have an

FISHES OF KOLHAPUR 677

elongated anal fin and they are smaller in size as compared with the
females of the species. This sexual dimorphism may be regarded
as a character to distinguish the sexes. The secondary sexual difference
noted above can be made out clearly from a comparison of the
drawings of male and female specimens here reproduced.

MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETRES

| Sprrlee | Spaces | Sp.3 ¢
Total length 46:0 45-0 41:0
Length of the head 9:0 85 &°0
Height of the body 13°0 11°0 10:0
Diameter of the eye 35% 3'0 3°0 2°5
Length of the caudal ae WlsS 11:0 10°0
Height of the dorsal 060 10°0 90 9:0
Length of the pectoral ues 8'0 7:0 6:0
Length of anal ne 3°5 5°U 80
Length of ventral ae 6°5 Be) 6°0
Inter-orbital width ane 325 3:0 3°0
ES PD

Botia striata yar, kolhapurensis nov.

ID, AIOE 1’, B/OTUOSS Wo BNGB Bro B/S 8 Go Ue

The body is somewhat compressed laterally and the dorsal profile
in front of the dorsal fin is a broad incline, which becomes an abrupt
descent from the nostrils to the tip of the snout. The depth of the
body is contained 34 to 3% times in standard length and 44 to 4% times
in total length. The depth of the body is almost equal or slightly
greater than the length of the head. The length of the head is con-
tained 3% times in standard length and 4? times in total length. The
head is greatly compressed and its length is nearly equal to the distance
between the tip of the snout and the anterior root of the pectoral iin.
Width of the head is more than half its own depth but almost half
the length of the head. The eyes are of moderate size and their
diameter is contained about 4 to 4+ times in length of the head.
Diameter of the eye is almost equal or slightly less than the length
of the suborbital spines. The spine is bifid at the base. Barbels 38,
subequal, the mandibular being the shortest pair. The mouth is
crescentic when shut and is an oval aperture when open. ‘The distance
between the angles of the mouth when wide opened is equal to the
diameter of the orbit. The upper lip overhangs the lower and both
are somewhat thick and suctorial.

The dorsal fin arises in front of the origin of the ventral and both
are situated nearer the caudal than the tip of the snout. The height
of the dorsal fin is slightly greater than the length of the anal and
ventral fins respectively. The ventrals are shorter than the anal. The
anal possess two simple and five branched rays. The length of the
pectoral is more than twice the suborbital spine and is much longer
than the snout. The margin of the dorsal fin is entire and that of
the caudal is deeply forked. The caudal lobes are of equal length,

678, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

The anterior of nostrils is surrounded by a very large glandular fold
which covers the posterior nares. The opening of the latter is a wide
funnel and that of the former a slit marked by glandular lips of the
fold. The lateral line is entire and straight and terminates anteriorly
in the upper corner of the gill opening. The scales are absent on the
head, operculum and chest. They are small and nondeciduous.

The body is diversified by broad dark brownish green and narrow
yellow bands which from behind the nape form slightly oblique hoops
directed backwards. These bands do not completely surround the body.
The bands fade into the ground colour as they reach the ventral surface.
The ground colour is light yellowish. The broad dark bands bear
light. streaks of variable number forming incomplete hoops. The
primary types of dark and yellow bands are broader on the sides
of the head and are directed obliquely forwards... The primary yellow
bands on the body are broad at the base and become narrow as they
reach the dorsal surface. On the upper surface of the head, the dark
and yellow streaks form a trident mark. The fins are pale and barred,
the caudal bears two entire and one or two interrupted stripes.

The specimens closely resemble Botia striata (Rao) but differ on
it on the points mentioned below.

(es striata (kolhapurensis)

|
|
{
|
1

57 mim.

B. striata (Rao)

1. Maximum size of the fish ...| 95 mm,
2. Pectoral fin 5A 11-12 13-14
3. Body profile . Abrupt descent from | Abrupt descent from
| the nostrils the eyes
4, Depth of body in standard |
length 33 to 32 times 34 times

of the head

6. Diameter of eye in length of |
the head 0
7, The bands on the body

5. Width of the head to depth
..| Width of the head

is
more than half of its
own depth

. | 4 to 43 times

The bands do _ not
surround the body.

ESE See Ro AE eT ES

Width of the head is
just half of its own
depth

3 times
The bands completely
surrotind the body.

The main point of difference between Botia striata (Rao) and Bolia

striata (kolhapurensis) found at Kolhapur is in the size.
collection of about 6750 specimens of B.
different times of the year,
is 57 mm.
go- mm.

Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv.

D. 8-9; P.

is 8 ANG

the maximum size

17-19; L.

From the

slriata (kolhapurensis) at

of the fish recorded

whereas Botia striata (Rao) is said to grow more than
In view of this sharp difference, we are inclined to regard
this as a new variety of Botia striata.
& Val.)

It Bale HOS ILy (HesOp

The specimens of Aplocheilus lineatus at Kolhapur are more slender

than those described by Day.

Even in fresh specimens the proportion

of height to the total length was 1:6 while Day has stated it to be

FISHES OF KOLHAPUR 679)

I:5—5it. Slight variation is also found in the number of anal rays
and scales in the lateral line. Presence of a distinct black spot at the
base in the middle of the dorsal fin as found in the specimens collected
at Kolhapur has not been mentioned by Day in his description of
A. lineatus.

Day states that fishes belonging to the genus Aplocheilus are
mostly found in the neighbourhood of the sea or tidal river. It is,
therefore, interesting to find the aforesaid specimen in the river
Bhogavati near Radhanagari at an altitude of about 2,250 ft. above
sea level. Similar observations on the occurrence of A. lineatus at
high altitudes were made in Madras State (Chacko & Ganapati 1949).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are deeply indebted to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries,
Bombay, for his constant technical guidance in the preparation of this
1) 5 t
paper.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1878): Fish. India.

Campbell, J. M. (1886): Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency Vol. XXIV,
Kolhapur. —

Patil, P. C. (1950): Regional survey of economic resources, India, Kolhapur.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1951): Some significant records of fish from Kolhapur, Northern
section of Western Ghats. Curr. Sci., 20: 334-335.

Chacko, P. I. and Ganapati, S. V. (1949): Some observations on Aplocheilus
lineatus (Cuv. & Vai.) in Madras Province, JBNHS, 48: 604-605.

Hora, S. L., and Misra, K. S. (1938): Fish of Deolali. JBNHS, 40: 20-38.

Hora, S. L. (1941): Homalopterid fish in Peninsular India. Rec. Ind. Mus.,

XLII.

OBITUARY

Major S. F. Hopwoop, m.c.
(late Indian Forest Service)

Stephen Francis Hopwood, who died in February 1956 at his home
in Louth, Lincolnshire, at the age of 75, was for many years a member
of our Society, and very well-known among naturalists, sportsmen
and forest officers in Burma. He joined the Indian Forest Service
in 1903 and became Chief Conservator of Burma from 1930 to 1935.

Remarkably well read and acutely observant, with keen sense of
humour, it seems a thousand pities to those of us who knew him
that ‘Hoppy’ never wrote a book about his experiences, for few would
be better worth reading. He fought with gallantry in France as a
gunner-officer in the rst Division in the Kaiser’s War, and did good
work as an intelligence officer on the Salween and later at G.H.Q.
India in Hitler’s War. When well over 60, he volunteered to re-enter
Burma with the ‘Chindits’, after a most gruelling march out of the
country in 1942, which took him 25 days and in which he lost every-
thing he possessed.

Though not a scientific naturalist, Stephen Hopwood was passiona-
tely fond of big game shooting and mahseer fishing, and made many
original observations on the fauna of Burma, too few of which got
into print. He wrote a careful paper on the abundance of tigers in
Burma in the Empire Forestry Journal, and shot a remarkable number
himself in the Chindwin and elsewhere. He accompanied Arthur
Vernay’s first Burmese expedition from Moulmein across the Taok
plateau in 1923, and with him sponsored and led the Vernay-Hopwood
expedition in 1935 from Nanyascik across to the falls of the Chindwin,
a trip on which R. C. Morris and Charles McCann made many
notable discoveries. Hopwood probably kaew more of the Burmese
forests from the Hukawng to Tenasserim than any previous Con-
servator and, after retirement, became an expert on the tung oil plant
in the Shan State.

All who ever travelled with him will mourn the death of a delight-
ful and talented companion, who was interested in wild life of every

kind.
J. K. STANFORD

REVIEWS

tr. BOTANICAL COLLECTOR’S. MANUAL. By H. Santapau,
S.J., F.N.I. Pp. v+62 (63” x 42”). 13 text-figures. Ministry of Natural
Resources and Scientific Research, Government of India, New Deihi,
1955. Price not indicated. (Re. 1-2-0).

This useful publication by the well-known botanist, Rev. Fr. H.
Santapau, S.J., aims at standardising the various methods employed
in the eollection and preservation of specimens of flowering plants
so that every Indian botanist would follow a more uniform system
and facilitate comparison of results.

The first chapter deals with the instruments needed for field and
herbarium work and is suitably illustrated.

The second describes the methods of collecting specimens and their
immediate preservation in the field. What should be collected, how
much should be collected, and the necessity and importance of main-
taining field-books for recording ecological and other interesting notes
of specimens, as also the use. of labels indicating accurate data in
each case, are lucidly discussed.

The processing of plants for the herbarium, the mounting of
herbarium specimens, and their preservation and handling form the
subject matter of the three succeeding chapters. . Profuse illustrations,
significantly instructive to herbarium-keepers, highlight these chapters.
A list of reference books to be always kept handy in the herbarium
is also furnished.

The print is bold and clear, though the get-up of the booklet could
have been made a little more attractive.

The Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Resende: deserves
to be congratulated on having secured the good offices of such an ex-
perienced botanist in bringing out this compact vade-mecum. All
botanical collectors and students of botany of the upper University
classes will welcome the appearance of this handy guide.

MIG

ZS OM EEE XING? BEE PHANTS, THEIR REEATEVES AND
FAW OP EINVEING: SPECIES. By Pe Ee. Pa Deraniyacala.. ep. 161
(11” x 84”). 48 black-and-white plates. Ceylon National Museums
Publication, August 1955. Price ?

This interesting volume by P. E. P. Deraniyagala, Director of
National Museums, Ceylon, is the result of study extending over a
quarter of a century. It encompasses not only a morphological and
systematic account of the extinct elephants of Africa and SE. Asia,
but also of the habits, food, diseases of the living forms. Tt is in
short a comprehensive study of the Proboscidean fauna of these
regions, dealing with as many as 43 species and subspecies. ‘The
author’s own contribution to Proboscidean systematics is one order,

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HITST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

two subfamilies, and one genus besides a number of species and sub-
species.

The author deals briefly with the evolution and classification of
Proboscidea and stresses the need for further subdivision into sub-
genera and even subfamilies on the basis of calva. It is, however,
doubtful if all authorities will agree with the basis of his classification.
Nevertheless, his point of view is of fundamental interest.

In the last part of the book the author has included three appendices.
Of particular interest here is the ancient Indian treatise the Gaja
Sastra, in which the elephants are classified and other useful details
regarding their diseases and medicines required for their cure, etc.
are given. The author is to be congratulated on his effort in
producing such a valuable and useful publication.

M. R. SAHNI

3. TREE TOPS. By Jim Corbett. With an introduction by Lord
Hailey. Illustrated by Raymond Sheppard. Pp. xxii+3o (7S texEGia\
Oxford University Press, London 1955. 6 sh.

‘In the course of a long lifetime, I have seen some courageous
acts, but few to compare with what I witnessed on that fifth day of
February.’ In these terms Jim Corbett describes the arrival of Princess
Elizabeth at Tree Tops, the hut on the Ficus tree in which she spent
a few carefree hours watching life in the African jungle and from
which next morning she descended as Queen of England. Faced
with a herd of elephants at the salt lick, she unhesitatingly advanced
to the foot of the ladder, within 10 yards of the elephants, and,
making over her handbag and camera to the author, calmly mounted
the steps to Tree Tops. In the few hours that followed the African
jungle did its best to entertain the royal visitor, and lovers of nature
will be glad to share the thrills that she experienced. The author
tells the tale with the skill which his previous books have taught us
to expect, and we lay down the book with regret that it is not longer.

The interest is not merely incidental, for the author tells us some-
thing of the family life of the African elephant, and gives us glimpses
into the minds of wild animals and their social relationships with each
other. An elephant blew dust at some doves for fun and ‘flicked its
trunk up and down as if laughing and flapped its ears with delight’,
and a young doe bushbuck provided a game for a baby baboon and
seemed to enjoy it. Two rhinos, evidently old enemies, manoeuvred
for position and abandoned the combat, while two waterbucks enacted
the last stage of their contest and the dead loser was carried off by
some beast of prey even as the royal party watched.

The book was written shortly before the death of Jim Corbett
in his eightieth year.

The introduction giving an all too-short sketch of the modest author
is very welcome. So are the well-executed marginal drawings which

illustrate the text.

D.E.R.

REVIEWS | 683

4. ACTA XI CONGRESSUS INTERNATIONALIS ORNITHO-
LOGICI. (Proceedings of the XIth International Ornithological
Congress). Edited by Adolf Portmann & Ernst Sutter. Pp. 680 (ca.
93° x 62”). 12 photographic plates, numerous text-figures and diagrams.
Basel-Stuttgart (Birkhauser Verlag), 1955. Price 36.40 Swiss francs.

The XIth International Ornithological Congress was held at Basel,
Switzerland, from 29 May to 5 June 1954 with Sir A. Landsborough
Thomson as President and Prof. Dr. Adolf Portmann as Generai
Secretary. Over 600 persons from some 4o countries participated,
including official and semi-official delegations from 32, and most of
the leading ornithologists of our time. This volume which is the
official record of the session, in addition to giving an account of its
activities, and of the excursions preceding and following the formal
sittings, contains the complete text of all the papers read or presented
at it, and is in effect an authoritative review of the advances and
trends in modern ornithological science. The papers received by
special invitation from persons distinguished in their particular spheres
of work are of exceptional interest and value.

The contents are divided into the following sections: I. General
Lectures (7 papers), II. Symposium on Visible Migration (8 papers),
III. Hearing and Analysis of Voice (3 papers), IV. The Biology
of Penguins of the Antarctic (5 papers), V. Morphology and Palaeon-
tology (8 papers), VI. Systematics and Speciation (14 papers), VII.
Zoogeography and Faunistics (8 papers), VIII. Ecology and Popula-
tion (26 papers), IX. Life History and Behaviour (24 papers), X.
Migration (12 papers), XI. Folklore (1 paper). ;

The presidential address on ‘The Place of Ornithology in Biological
Science’ is a masterly survey and is, in effect, an index of the
general contents of the volume. This is followed in the Section of
General Lectures by Dr. A. I. Ivanov’s informative account of
‘Ornithology in the U.S.S.R. in the post-war period’. Sections IV
and IX contain some superb photographs, superbly reproduced, of
penguins and woodpeckers, the latter feeding young within their nest-
holes, obtained by ingenious techniques employing infra-red rays.

The volume, which is handsomely printed, thus covers all the most
important aspects of, and developments in, modern ornithology parti-
cularly during the 4-year period since the 1950 Congress in Sweden.
As must be expected from such a large and heterogeneous collec-
tion, the papers are rather variable in quality. In general, however,
the papers and particularly, the major contributions are truly
admirable, and they serve to indicate the very high standard of
ingenuity, technique and scientific precision attained by present-day
ornithological investigators. Moreover, the abundance of the papers
offered in the sections on Ecology and Population Dynamics, and
Life History and Behaviour are a refreshing pointer to where the accent
lies in modern bird study.

I understand that copies of the Proceedings of the Uppsala
Congress as well as those of its predecessor at Rouen, 1938, are still
available, the former from Almquist & Wicksell, Booksellers, Uppsala (35
Swedish crowns), and the latter from the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle,
Rue Beauvoisine, Rouen (1200 Fr, fres.); also the special number

684 § JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

of L’Oiseau 1938 (300 Fr. fres.). The three volumes of ‘Proceedings’
between them provide an authentic and comprehensive review of the
progress and trends in scientific bird study during the last two decades.
They are indispensable as reference works in any ornithological
library.

S)oA\o

5. A COLOURED ATLAS OF SOME.VERTEBRATES FROM
CEYLON, Vor. III. Serpentoid Reptilia By P. E. P. Deraniyagala.
Pp. xii+49+6+121. Coloured plates 14+half-tone plates 7 with
23 illustrations + 37 text-figures. The Ceylon Government Press,
1955. |

This is volume III of ‘A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from
Ceylon’ dealing exclusively with the snakes of the Island and con-
cluding the work on Reptilia—crocodiles, testudines and lizards have
already been dealt with in Vol. II of this series (Tetrapod Reptilia)
a review of which appeared in JBNHS, 52: go4. In all 83 species
of snakes as against 60 listed in ‘Snakes of Ceylon’ by F. Wall (1921)
are described in this volume of which 12 are marine. Most of the
species are well-illustrated and Dr. Deraniyagala’s talent as an artist
is in evidence right through.

The text is accurate and follows the latest classification, synonymy
and nomenclature, definitions and limits of Orders, Suborders,
Families, Subfamilies and Genera having been revised in the light
of new knowledge.

Simple keys are furnished to facilitate easy identification. The
text-figures of several species are grouped together to enable easy
comparison.

A systematic index preceding the text and 4 different indexes to
scientific names, English names, Sinhala names and Tamil names,
together with a bibliography at the end, make this an ideal reference
work.

Sinhala Serpent Lore extracted from ‘The Sarapaduteya Nohoth
Sarapothpaththiya’—an ancient Palm Leaf manuscript—is the subject
matter for Appendix I, while ‘Snake Bites and their Treatment’ is the
subject of Appendix II wherein a very useful account is given in
simple and non-technical language. Appendix III is devoted to the
services rendered by Dr. John Davy (1790-1868) to the Island in his
‘An Account of the Interior of Ceylon and its Inhabitants, with Travels
in that Island’ (1821), in which chapter 4 is exclusively on snakes
of the Island.

The coloured illustrations appear to deviate slightly from the
natural colours of the species depicted. The print is clear and the
get-up satisfactory. Dr. Deraniyagala is to be congratulated on his
having produced this excellent series, and every library should make
room for the addition of these volumes. No _ herpetologist should
miss this one.

Other volumes in this series are awaited with interest.

V.K.C.

RIV IID TVS 685

6. TRAVELS AND TRADITIONS OF WATERFOWL. By:
H. Albert Hochbaum. Pp. jor (10”x7”). With numerous line
drawings, maps and figures in the text. Minneapolis (The University
of Minnesota Press), 1955. Price $5.

The mysteries connected with the migrations of birds continue to
be attacked on all fronts and from all angles. Many of them have
yielded before the determined onslaught of cleverly devised and co-
ordinated techniques. Others have been battered so heavily that
chinks are already beginning to let the light through: yet others
remain invulnerable and unrelenting, but there is no doubt that the
perseverance and ingenuity of investigators, and the application of
new strategies will ultimately bring capitulation up to the point which
is humanly attainable—for clearly there is a limit.

On the many fronts that have been assailed, it has been left to
Dr. Hochbaum to emphasize the importance of Tradition as a factor
in enabling migratory birds to orientate themselves correctly on their
journeys between their breeding grounds and their wintering ranges.
As Director of the celebrated Delta Waterfowl Research Station on
Lake Manitoba (Canada), the author has been able to pursue his observa-
tions and study of the problem over a long period of years. The concept
is, in principle, an extension of what should be common knowledge to
all observant sportsmen, that duck will flight from one corner of theit
feeding grounds to another over a certain set route year after year,
which is not necessarily the shortest or most direct approach. Shoot-
ing butts positioned after a careful study of the pattern of local travel
by the birds continue to be productive year hfiter year, despite the
fact that the configuration of the marsh may have altered considerably
in the interval, so that the route followed no longer provides. the
advantage to the birds it may originally have done.

The general burden of the book is that, while the act of migration
may be inherent, the geographical world in which it takes place js
learned by experience. In other words the route of migration, once
established by successful pioneers, is handed down through tradition
—young birds travelling in company with experienced adults on their
first autumnal migration and returning with them to their natal breed-
ing grounds in spring passing down the knowledge of routes and
landmarks from generation to generation.

Dr. Hochbaum is cautious to mention that ‘throughout the book
waterfowl refers to N. American ducks, geese and swans of the family
Anatidae’, but it seems reasonable enough to suppose that this tradi-
tion concept applies in varying degree to other parts of the world and
to other groups of birds as well.

Subjects such as The Function of Memory, The Aerial Environment,
Awareness of Time and Space, Influence of Bad Weather, Overseas
Migration, Awareness of Direction, and others, are discussed in a
lucid and fascinating manner, fully confirming the reputation as a
waterfowl researcher and writer which the author established for
himself by his classical study ‘The Canvasback on a Prairie Marsh’
a few years previously (1944).

It has been found that a female duck is faithful to her breeding
place as long as that area remains favourable for nesting. The drake

686. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

on the other hand is liable to pair up in his winter quarters with a
female from an entirely different breeding populatioa and to be carried
away elsewhere in her company on the spring migration. Thus, in
ducks which take new mates each year, the destination of the drake
depends upon the traditional experience of the female.

Just as old traditions may be broken by the disappearance of ex-
perienced individuals who form the vital link in their continuity, so
can fresh ones be built up by successful pioneers. Where artificial
transplanting and establishment of such pioneers can be achieved,
it is possible, for instance, to rehabilitate species and populations in
areas whence they have disappeared through direct human persecution.

Recent studies in bird behaviour, especially of the Anatidae, have
shown that the phenomenon of ‘imprinting’ plays a vital role in this
group. Ducklings and goslings, hatched in an incubator and hand-
reared, get so firmly ‘imprinted’ with their environment and keeper
that they will follow the latter about and behave with him exactly
as they would with their natural parent. Utilizing this knowledge,
a technique has been developed for restoring breeding populations of
various species of ducks and geese to areas where they have become
depleted. Hand-reared young birds are released on these marshes
at 5 to 7 weeks age, before they are able to fly. The females get
the environment ‘imprinted’ on them and, being faithful to their home
grounds, they return here in spring bringing with them the mates they
have acquired in the wintering area to augment the breeding popula-
tion. This is a technique which could possibly prove of practical
usefulness in India in our proposed rehabilitation of the Whitewinged
Wood Duck in areas of Assam where the original populations have
been ‘burned out’. Unfortunately, however, we do not as yet possess
the requisite research organization or facilities to undertake such
experiments. Until a proper wild life research organization 1s
established, all our efforts in wild life preservation must either remain
largely academical, or be carried out by purely empirical hit-or-miss
methods, which are seldom the most economical or effective.

The book is a highly readable and stimulating contribution to
waterfowl migration and behaviour literature, and the author’s
excellent line illustrations in the text add greatly to its appeal.

S.A,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. DISTRIBUTION OF THE LIONTAILED MONKEY,
MACACA SILENUS (LINNAEUS)

Blanford in the old Fauna (1891) gives the distribution of this
species as ‘the forests of Sahyadri range or Western Ghats from about
14 degrees North to Cape Comorin’. Pocock in the Fauna of British
India, 2nd ed.—Mammalia Vol. 1, page 69 (1939) refers to Baker’s
record |JASB, xxviii, p. 283 (not page 238)| of its occurring in the
Western Ghats as far north as Goa. His own distribution (p. 66)
reads “SW. India, the Western Ghats, principally of Travancore
and Cochin, but alleged to occur from about 14 degrees N. lat. to
Cape Comorin.’ Prater in The Book of Indian Animals gives
‘Western Ghats from Kanara southwards to Travancore and Cochin’.
Ellerman and Scott also state that the approximate distribution of
this species is ‘Peninsular India, the Western Ghats principally of
Travancore and Cochin’. |

It may therefore be worth recording that R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji,
Wild Life Preservation Officer, Bombay State, saw one in N. Kanara
on the Anshi Ghat (alt. 1,000 ft.), between Kadra and Kumbiarwada,
on 20 December 1955-ca. 15° N. lat. This locality may now be
pin-pointed for the northernmost record.

BomBay NATURAL History Society,

114, APOLLO STREET, EDITORS
Fort, Bomsay,

March 2, 1956.

2. LONGEVITY IN THE CEYLON RUDDY.MONGOOSE
HERPESTES SMITHIT ZEYLANIUS, THOMAS!

Phillips’s (1954) record of the duration of life in captivity of a
Ceylon Ruddy Mongoose (Herpestes smithii zeylanius) in view of
the reported inadaptability (compared with other mongooses) of this
species to confinement prompts me to publish the undermentioned
data. The circumstances suggest at least an equal longevity with
Phillips’s example and may exceed it.

In April 1931 I was presented with a fully adult but delightfully
tame female Ruddy Mongoose. She lived in my private collection in
Colombo until December 1944 when she was deposited in the
Zoological Gardens, Dehiwela, pending transfer to the Regent’s
Park menagerie of the Zoological Society of London, which she
eventually reached in July 1946.. She died there on 19 June 1947,
apparently not from organic disease, the only abnormal condition
found at death being slight osteomalacia.

es = ——e = eddie ——

1 Published with the permission of the Zoological Society of London.

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

This gives a duration in captivity of at least 16 years 2 montis
compared with Phillips’s record of 16 years 9 months as the full age
of his example at the time of his report. But Phillips’s animal was
only 3 months old when captured as against mine being fully adult
and sexually mature when first seen. Unfortunately I have no
information of the previous history of my specimen, beyond its having
been in captivity ‘for some time’. In view of the known duration
of life of the larger carnivores, the age of 16 years in any mongoose
is remarkable, but must surely approximate to the potential limit,
though the absence of obvious signs of senility at autopsy does not
support this. The osteomalacia. may be a_ senile condition, but
dietetic inadequacy during war-time seems a more likely explanation
in the absence of other senile changes.

Although at least nine other mongooses of several species were
kept in my collection from time to time, no other survived so long.

It is to be hoped that a record will be kept of the particulars and
fate of the example mentioned in Phillips’s note.

THE ZOOLOGICAL Society OF LONDON,

REGENT’S PARK, W. C. OSMAN HILL,
Lonpon, N.W. 8, M.D., F.R.S.E.
May 8, 1956. 3

REFERENCE

Phillips, W. W. A. (1954): Longevity in the Ceylon Ruddy Mongoose (IJerpestes
smithii zeylanius). JBNHS, 52: 587.

[By a strange coincidence, the above communication arrived just
when Mr. Phillips’s second note was in the final stage of printing
(Vol. 53: 468). In it he records the death of his mongoose at the
age of approximately 17 years and 11 months.—Ebs. |

3. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF BATS

We were collecting bats (khinopoma kinneari Wroughton,
Rhinopoma hardwicke: hardwickei Gray and Taphozous longimanus
longimanus Hardwicke) from a large cave at Barmer in November
1955 at about 11.30 a.m. with the help of butterfly nets. The animals
were transferred to small cages, which were brought outside the
cave. After a few minutes we saw about twenty R, kinneari swarm-
ing around us. They settled on a nearby rock and began squeaking
loudly towards the cages. Thereafter some of them actually clung
on..to our cages containing the bats. They were forced to fly away,
but to-our surprise five more came down from the rock and clung
to the cage, and some others to our bush-coats. The bats were
again driven away from the cages, but another set of bats soon
replaced them. Only after all the cages had been wrapped up in
cloth did their ‘attacks’ cease. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 689

As is well known, if a cave is entered and the bats disturbed,

amost of them will fly out, but soon return. It was the returning bats
that reacted to their captured companions in this manner.

DeEpr. OF ZOOLOGY,

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE, JAIPUR, ISHWAR PRAKASH
JASWANT COLLEGE, JODHPUR,
March 10, 1956. ». C. SHARMA

4. RATS IN HUMAN DIETARY

We were camping in the jungies of West Khandesh Division and,
while returning one cold evening in January around sunset in a bullock
cart from the banks of the river Tapti after an unsuccessful Mugger
hunt, my companion, a forest officer, and I espied a _ cheerful
fire crackling in a nullah about 50 yards from the fire-line
along which we were travelling. Hoping to catch some poachers
redhanded with their illicit gains, my companion and I tip-toed to
the spot to find an old man and a couple of young lads sitting com-
fortably by the fire and calmly chewing the cud of thought. Near
the fire lay one large basket covered over with fresh green leaves.

They evinced no great surprise when thus we broke in on their
tranquillity. However, when asked to open up the basket, they
demurred. Our suspicions strengthening, we repeated that they
should uncover the basket promptly, whereupon the oid man did so and
what a loathsome sight greeted our unbelieving eyes! The basket
contained nothing but dead rats of varying sizes; big rats, small rats,
middling rats, even small little squeakers, all together numbering
about 50 and all recently singed over a fire without even the trouble
of having their intestines removed. There they lay, as if living in
death, with bloated stomachs and glazed eyes, their greyish white
skin shining smooth under the fire light as all the hair had been scraped
carefully away. It was enough to rob us completely of our keen
appetite for dinner.

This party, who belonged to the Kathodi Bhil tribe, averred that
rats were a frequent item of diet on their otherwise meagre menu.
However, when asked to eat one in our presence, they declined.
Then, they went on to explain to us the ‘modus operandi’ of rat-
catching. When they come across what looks like a promising’ rat-
hole, they dig deep and wide around it, widening its mouth. Then a
piece of rag soaked in a little kerosene is lighted up and put therein,
and a basket lined with green leaves is used as a cover on top. This
causes the smoke to go underground in the winding tunnels and the
rats, on getting the smoke or smelling something afire, make for
the nearest exit. But men are already posted there and on the rats
emerging finish them off with their sticks. If any agile rodent
eludes the men with sticks, then it meets its fate at the hands or
rather the canines of their pet mongrel, and we saw several such rats
which bore on their bodies the marks of canine teeth. Sometimes,
these men use the expedient of flooding out the rats, if a source of
water like a nullah or river is handy.

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

However, with these men also there was a point of honour.
When we suggested that they carry out their operations in adjoining
fields where rats were reportedly doing a lot of damage, they shook
their heads emphatically. Jungle rats only would be acceptable.
Field rats were not their kettle of fish.

Thinking this incident over on the way home I felt that, after all,
a meal of cooked rats is really not so revolting. The jungle rat is
comparatively a clean feeder and belongs to the same group as the
rabbit whose meat most of us will tuck away with much evident relish.

Banoo MANSION,
NANPURA, SURAT, F, D. GHEYARA
February 13, 1956.

[The species referred to is apparently the Indian Mole-Rat
(Nesokia indica), a prolific and destructive species with practically
an all-India distribution. It forms a regular item of food for many
local tribes in the countryside, who, in addition, dig up its burrews
after the harvest for the grain it is in the habit of storing away.
According to Jerdon a single burrow will sometimes yield as much
as half a seer (1 lb.) of grain, containing even whole ears of jowari
(Sorghum vulgare).—EDs. |

5. LUSKS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS

Further to my note of 15 October 1946 (JBNHS, 46: 717/18),
on the question of size of Indian elephants and their tusks,
I send you details of two pairs of tusks which are still bigger than
the ones I reported.

In 1953 the Ruler of Talcher killed a rogue tusker elephant in
Dhenkanal, Orissa, which was 11’ in height, each tusk weighing i md.
1o seers and measuring 8’ 6” in length. A photograph of the Raja
with the tusks was published in the Amrita Bazar Patrika of
15 February 1953.

In 1952 a very large pair of tusks was tound in the Goalpara
East Division, Assam, the elephant having died a natural death or
having been shot by poachers. One tusk weighed 1 md. 9g seers.
13 chattaks and measured 9’ 2” in length and 1’ 5” in girth. The
other tusk was found cut short, probably by the persons who iad
concealed both the tusks in the jungle with the obvious intention of
stealing them. Though some cut pieces were recovered, it was not
possible to ascertain the exact measurements and weight of the
mutilated tusk. As the two tusks were obviously symmetrical it may
be taken that the cut tusk was of approximately the same length,
weight, and girth as the complete tusk. The cut tusk was re-con-
structed with a wooden piece shaped and coloured exactly like the
ivory and the pair was exhibited at the [Vth World Forestry Congress
at Dehra Dun in December 1954.

While the Ruler of Talcher’s pair is the second heaviest pair on
record, there are 3 individual tusks on record each heavier than a
single tusk of this pair. The uncut tusk of the Assam pair referred.
to here is the third longest on record. 1 give below the weights and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES H9L

measurements of some of the biggest tusks as far as I have been able

to ascertain:

Length out- Cleats! :
No. | “<38 circumfer- Weight Locality Owner
side curve
ence
1 | 2 | 3 4 | 5 6
its 9%.2% Ne” 1md.9Srs. \| Assam, Assam Forest Mu-
et pele (?)/—Do— (?) \ 13 ch. Goalpara seum, Gauhati,
(91 Ib. \| - East,
143}. @)0),) N23
Shire —Do— (?) |
Zr Siow ES 1 md. 10Srs.)'j Orissa, Ruler of Talcher.
13’ 6” SS (92 1b.) Dhenkanal,
1 md. 10 Srs. O53;
(92 Ib.)
3. 3 WAY OZ bss Burma (King |* Record.
| 7347 174” 973 lb. \ Thebaw’s Marquis of Water-
sacred white} ford.
elephant.)
4, — — 100 lb. Assam. The late Charles
Redde.
Ss 38’ 163” 90 Ib. S. India. Sir Victor Brooke’s
Collection.
6. 8202 163” 82 lb. Assam, Assam Legislative
Goalpara Assembly,
SyaOn4 163” §2 Ib. West, Shillong.
14 chs, 1946.
7s 7? tH? AR 183” 793 1b. Coimbatore C.R. T. Congreve
il Oma 194” 824 lb. \ Jungles, S. GBNES, 29);
India, 1923, 1045),
g. S; om es Ws Sri \ Assam, Late Lord Lytton.
9. TY BY No Wie 77 \b. Maharajah of
7 4” L. 17” 71 Ib. i MAISTO Mysore.
10. 4 As” 182” Hi 3s); Assam, P, D. STRACEY,
| Goalpara TR ao.
Tiel 18$” 77 ib. | West,
1940,
iis | OO CY IQ Fe 68 Ib.
Mysore. * Record.
SY” BY Ge 44 |b, Major Goring and
C, Theobald.
2; Bo ey? 183” 65 lb. Wynaad, Whee Ele seater
South '
ove Jake 183” 62 Ib. India.

F.R.I. & COLLEGES,
Deura Don,
April 4, 1956.

12

1 md. = 82 1b.

P. D, STRACEY, wes.

&

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

6. RHINOCEROS IN THE KACHIN STATE

‘We are not told what people inhabited Lin-yang. Several early
works, some dating from the 4th Century, refer, more or less
fancifully, to the tribes living SW. of Yung-Ch’ang. In the
mountains astride the Frontier there were the wild and troublesome
P’u {b’uok) tribes, whose land produced rhinoceros, elephant,
tortoise shell, jade, amber, cowries, gold, silver, salt-wells, cinnamon
and cotton trees, hill-paddy and panicled millet... Burma down to
fall of Pagan, by G. H. Luce and Pe Maung Tin. journal Burma
Research Society—X XI X—1939 (page 267).

The country referred to in the preceding paragraph may be
identified with the present Kachin State which lies in the north of
Burma and comprises Myitkyina and Bhamo Diyistricts:

In September 1955 the Ministry of the Kachin State conducted
an enquiry in order to ascertain the species and number of rhinoceros
still surviving within the State.

Pu tao. Sub a dutvesi one |
The Assistant Resident reported in December 1955 as follows:

(a) A villager reported having seen fresh tracks of two smaller
rhinoceros in the Namlang stream.

(b) A large solitary rhino is also reported on the border of
Putao Sub-division and Hukawng Vailey.

The Assistant Resident cannot say whether the rhinoceros are
the great one-horned or the Asiatic two-horned_ rhinoceros.

But in view of the fact that a rhinoceros shot by a Lisu in the
Namlang Valley in 1942 was one-horned, and one previously shot
also one-horned, the rhinoceros now reported from Putao Sub-division
may be a great one-horned or Indian rhinoceros, which had wandered
into the area from Tirap Frontier Tract National Park, Assam.
Part of the boundary of this National Park is the Burma frontier.

They could not be the smaller one-horned or Javan Rhinoceros as
E.H. Peacock in ‘A Game Book for Burma’, 1930, writes {page 78):
‘It is open to question whether the Javan rhinoceros ever existed
outside of the Thaton, Salween and Mergui Forest Divisions in
Lower Burma. The only definite records of its existence come from
these three Divisions.’

For a previous note see JBNHS, Vol. 52; No. 1, April 1954,
page 87.

Kamaing Sub-Division:
The Assistant Resident, Kamaing, submitted in November 1955

a copy of a report dated October 1955 from the Kayang-Ok Hpakan
(Kayang-Ok is a petty officer in charge of a circle, which comprises
an average of six village tracts). The gist of the report is as follows:

(a) There are rhinos in Kan Taik Bum, Wantuk bum, Bum
Chyang bum, Hpala mung bum, Bumdaw bum.

(b) The minimum estimated number is about - thirty.

(c) In April 1955, Laisai Duwa came upon fresh rhino tracks
between Laisai and Haung Pa which is on the Chindwin River. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 693

size of the tracks was about the size of the track of an elephant
measuring 6 to 7 ft. in height.

(d) In 1952 a villager from Ohn Done village shot a rhino.
The locality where.it was shot was not known. About the same
year, the headman of Pa-ok-gyi village shot two rhinos in Bum
Chyang bum.

(e) In March 1954 a villager from Lonkhin village who went
in search of amber in the Laisai tract saw numerous fresh tracks of
rhinoceros.

The writer has previously estimated the number of rhinos in the
Laisai tracts as from 3 to 4 specimens. See /BNHS, Vol. 52, No. 1,
April 1954, page 85.

The writer therefore enquired of the Assistant Resident, Kamaing,
whether the number thirty as estimated by the Kayang-Ok was not
high. The Assistant Resident replied in February 1956 that;

(1) the estimate is reasonable.

(2) the rhinos in the area are the Asiatic two-horned rhincceros.

(3) a white rhino was shot in the area some thirty years ago.

_ (4) fresh tracks of rhino calves have not been reported, and

(5) the rhinoceros in the area are dangerous and ‘from distance,

when they see fire-smoke, they use to charge’.

The same belief is held by Karens. See an extract from Burma
by Rev. F. Mason D.D.; M.R.A.S., 1882 pp. 451-452:

‘The Southern Karens say there is a third species of rhinoceros
in the jungles, which is distinguished from both the others
by its skin being covered with small tubercles, and above all
by its eating fire. Wherever it sees fire it runs up and
devours it immediately. I once lost my way among the hills
and valleys of Palaw and Katay, and on obtaining a Karen,
who lived in that region, for a guide, he laid special charge
on every member of the party to follow him in silence, for a
fire eating rhinoceros had been recently seen, and it always
came to noises, instead of fleeing from them as most animals
do.

The habit of attacking a fire and trampling it out (the eating
part of the performance being probably an embellishment)
may have originated in the sagacity of the animal or to the
mixed operation of fear and rage combined, as a savage dog
will pursue and bite the stone thrown at it; and in time an
act wholly unconnected with the natural economy of the
animal, and developed by an accidental circumstance, may
by the operation of the laws of heredity have become con-
verted into an instinct. This idea receives some support
from the behaviour of bees. When preparing to smoke off
a swarm of bees from their comb in the jungle, especial
care is taken by the Burmans not to allow the flame to rise,
or to ‘‘crackle’’, as the bees are said to be at once roused
to fury by the sound of the flames, and to attack every one
within reach. Doubtless experience has taught them the
danger to their home which attends a crackling fire in the
wood, and they at once resort to the weapon of offence with
which they are provided. A rhinoceros is actuated by

694. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

precisely the same sentiment, and he rushes to the detested
fire and tramples it beneath his feet as he would a living
enemy.’

25, INYAMYAING Roap,

University P.O., Ur TUNS Vine
RANGOON, B.C.S, (Retd.)
UNION OF BURMA,

April 12, 1956.

[This is not conclusive, as KR. sumatrensis has usually only
one horn in evidence, the anterior one. The posterior horn is
usually a mere pimple, if that. So villagers would only notice one
horn. The real criterion is size, the heavy folds in the tuberculated
or ‘studded’ skin at the shoulder etc. The species of the rhino
alleged to inhabit the Tirap Frontier Tract National Park (valley of
the upper Dehing River) has never been determined, as only footprints
have been seen in recent years. On the other hand, as it. unicornis
has been seen in the nearer hills of the Tirap Frontier Division, two
or three days march from Margherita, and in the Naga Hills east of
Kohima, it is not impossible that it may also be found in north
Burma. Thus when a rhino was seen two or three years ago in the
Tirap Frontier Division, Mr. Gee sent up two pictures, one of a
R. unicornis and one of a R. sumatrensis. These were shown to the
man who saw the rhino, and he confirmed that it was the former.
More investigation is worthwhile.—Eps. |

7. NATURE’S ECONOMY

In a recent publication by the International Union for the Pro-
tection of Nature entitled Protect LTomorrow’s World Yoday my
interest was aroused by two paragraphs which recalled incidents from
the past. Para to, p. 12 deals with the hippopotamus as a beneficial
factor to fish and aquatic life in general in the rivers and. lakes of
Africa; and para 24, p. 26, condemns the goat as, perhaps, the
most destructive animal on earth. Some comments in relation to
these paragraphs and India might be of some interest to some of
our readers.

Para 1o reads as follows:

‘The relation between beings cannot always be seen: they are
often linked in the most unexpected way. Who, for instance, would
think of linking these hippopotami, that live part of their mysterious
existence in African waters, with fish farming? But they are valuable
auxiliaries. Especially in the case of East African Lakes that are
fed a relatively small quantity of water by their tributaries, every
plant and animal plays the role of a regulator. The excrements of
the hippopotami fertilize the water depths, favouring the formation
of phytoplankton which, for its part, nourishes the tilapais. These
indigenous fish are widely used by the large fish farming enterprises
and supplement the protein so essential to African peoples.’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 695

The same line of interrelation between the Indian Buffalo (Bubalus
bubalis), whether wild or domesticated, and the aquatic life of some
Indian rivers and lakes could be interpreted in much the same way.
The following incident may be of interest:

The late Dr. M. Suter, a keen fisherman, and I went together
along the road between Kalyan and Murbad. Along this road, a few
miles out of Kalyan, a bridge crosses a tributary of the Ulhas River.
This point was the Doctor’s main objective. On alighting from the
car and peering over the parapet we could clearly see a fairly large
number of large carp (Dobson’s Carp ?) in the water below us, partt-.
cularly around a herd of buffaloes ‘cooling off’? on the right-hand side
of the bridge. The fish milled around the buffaloes in numbers.
The carp were few on the left-hand side of the bridge (down stream).
Dr. Suter was delighted at the prospect of a good catch. He
‘flogged’ the stream on the left of the bridge (away from the
buffaloes) using every device and lure he had, without success.
Eventually he decided that the hooks he was using were too large
for this small-mouthed species, but a change brought no_ better
results. Still determined, he decided to ply his art nearer and among
the buffaloes, but nothing seemed to attract the fish away from the
buffaloes in the river. Finally, he gave up in disgust. For a time
we watched the proceeding and then moved off in quest of further
natural history.

The reason for the fish not accepting the lures of the fisherman
was too obvious, they were feeding on the excreta of the buffaloes.
Some of the fish would follow the drifting masses of excreta down
stream for a time, but would soon return to the source of supply.
The constant ‘nosing’ of the fish around the anus of the buffaloes
seemed to stimulate excretion.

Such chains of interrelation between animals, and animais and
plants are perhaps commonplace in the animal world and the plant
world—only Man tries to be ‘self-contained’ and ‘self-sufficient’ !

Rarae24 eps 2o0) reads:

‘The Goat carries the destructive work further. He is the ‘bete
noire’, the desert maker. Nothing is safe from his insatiable appetite.
In arid and semi-arid regions where the goat is the principal factor
in the economy, it has rapidly denuded the soil of all vegetation. In
# region in Morocco, the goats shown in the illustration {photograph
of goats in a tree browsing on the foliage) have assaulted trees.
Elsewhere, whether in the Mediterranean area, New Zealand, South
America, or the Caribbeans, the misdeeds are astounding.’

There is no doubt that the goat is the most destructive of all
the herbivorous animals; no form of vegetation seems to survive the
appetite of this hardy, sure-footed, prolific little animal. Its powers
of adaptation to new terrain are astounding. Even in periods of
drought when other animals are dying of starvation, the goat seems
to flourish. It is the mainstay of many desert dwellers and provides
most of their needs. The ‘evil deeds’, whorling round in its brain are
masked by its ‘stupid’ look, accentuated by its horizontal. pupil! Its

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

appearance belies it. However, the point of interest lies in the fact
that in the neighbourhood of Bombay, the City Fathers and others
try to encourage the planting of trees along the roads to shelter the
wayfarer from the burning rays of the sun. Unfortunately, some of
these trees constitute excellent goat feed and the good efforts are
brought to naught by the local ‘goat keepers’, who systematically
defoliate the trees, some of the figs in particular, just at the time
when the trees are putting forth the new shoots and foliage and when
the shade is most welcome. Frequently, I remonstrated with these
.despoilers who either fled when accosted or replied that they had
bought the right to divest the trees from the municipality! At that
time I was informed that these vandals paid Rs. 3 per tree to the
municipality annually by way of a fee to carry out their depredations.
True, this system must have contributed a fair annual sum to the
coffers of the municipality, but it left the public (who contributed
by way of taxes to the planting of the trees) with malformed and
dying trunks lining the roads. Long stretches without trees—the
gaps caused by ‘goat feeders’—were not uncommon. Perhaps some
legal brain would have difficulty in answering the question, Whose
property are ‘private’ goats fed on ‘public’ property? !

The destructive powers of the goat are, perhaps, best expressed
in a belief that ‘if a goat nibbles a plant it is sure to die’. Some
virtually believe that the goat’s saliva is ‘poisonous’. The truth of
the matter is that once a goat starts on a plant he usually completes
the job thoroughly.

Incidentally, while on the subject of the denuding of trees, the
prevailing system in many parts of India and perhaps in other
countries of pollarding trees during the hot season, to obtain material
to burn in the fields before the arrival of the monsoon for the sake
of the little potash, has accounted for the deforestation in many areas. -
The period of pollarding is unfortunately at a time when most of the
trees are putting forth new growth. Further, it is also the time of
high winds which frequently blow away the ashes before the arrival
of the rains to settle them. Thus, perhaps, except for the steriliza-
tion of the soil in the fields intended as nurseries for the crops, little
advantage is gained, but irreparable damage is done to the surround-
ing forest. The cut branches and dead leaves are frequently brought
from long distances. Much of the deforested areas have been created
in this way. In time villages have had to move to keep near the
receding forest. Other serious consequences have followed in the
wake of this system. Parts of the Konkan are good examples.
Criticism is simple, but constructive proposals are more than difficult.
Perhaps, in time the advance of agricultural knowledge brought
home to the villagers, and a generous supply of cheap fertilizers
possibly subsidized by the Government, may relieve the situation
somewhat and spare the trees and forests for posterity.

Dominion Museum,
WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND, C, McCANN
February 3, 1956. Vertebrate Zoologist,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 697

8. NESTING OF THE YELLOWEYED BABBLER
(CHRYSOMMA SINENSIS SSP.) IN THE ‘MADURA DISTRICT,
MADRAS PRESIDENCY

Nichols in his survey of the ‘Birds of the Madura District’ refers
to the Yelloweyed Babbler as uncommon in the Madura District and
makes no mention of it breeding in the area.

A nest with a clutch of four fresh eggs was taken by me on
23-11-1931 in light scrub jungle in the Gandamanayakkanur Zamindary,
at the foot of the High Wavy Mountains, in the Madura District.

Extracts from recent articles in the Journal in which there are
references to this babbler are quoted. Only one record refers to birds
near Bombay and the breeding period is stated to extend to the end of
October. The period for South India is covered by the period June
to August.

(1) F. N. Betts ‘Birds of Coorg’, 50 {1): 20. Nest middle

of June, but not quite certain of the species.

(2) Sdlim Ali ‘Birds of Mysore’, 43 (3): 321. Records Phythian-
Adams taking two clutches of 4 eggs each on the 12th and
13th June near Gundlupet.

(3) Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali ‘The Birds of Bombay and
Salsette’, 39 (1): 96. Nests from- July to the end of
October, during the rains.

(4) Baker and Inglis ‘Birds of South India’. Breeding season
June to August.

The record, 23-11-1931, in the Madura District, although an
isolated one until further data are collected from the eastern areas of
the Madras Presidency, would suggest that breeding takes place
during the NE. Monsoon in areas where there is very little, if any,
rainfall in the SW. Monsoon.

The breeding period recorded in ‘The Birds of South India’
would appear to require revision as records seem to indicate that
breeding coincides with the monsoons in South India.

51, ELLERTON Roap,
WANDSWORTH COMMON,
Lonpon, S.W. 18,
February 28, 1956.

(Go Isls IIDID WIAs!

9g. OCCURRENCE OF THE REDFACED MALKOHA,
PHOENICOPHAUS PYRRHOCEPHALUS (PENNANT) IN
MADURA DISTRICT, MADRAS PRESIDENCY

Nichols in his list of the ‘Birds of the Madura District’, (Volume
44, Nos. 3 and 4 and Volume 45, No. 2), does not include the

Redfaced Malkoha.
Salim Ali in ‘The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin’, Volume

39, No. 1 of the Journal, doubts Stewart’s and Legge’s records of
the bird’s occurrence in South Travancore.

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

I confirm that the Redfaced Malkoha occurs in South India as
I had an opportunity of observing one for some time when it was
undisturbed and unaware of my presence. My record is dated
26-11-1931, the locality being the Varashanad forested area of the
Gandamanayakkanur Zamindary, at the foot of the High Wavy
Mountains, in the Madura District.

There is no possibility of mistaken identification as the time was
about 4.30 in the evening, I was seated on a machan and the Malkoha
flew on to a tree facing me and not more than 30 to 4o feet from
the machan.,

It remained on the tree for a sufficient period for me to observe
it closely and I made the most of the opportunity as it was the first
occasion on which I had seen a live bird of this species in its natural
habitat.

It changed its position on the tree while I watched and made its
harsh call three or four times. This cali, or note, has been correctly
described by Legge and it was its loud call which first attracted my
attention.

The crimson cheek patches were unmistakable and very prominent.
I noted its approximate size and shape, coloration, shape of heak
and length of tail in relation to the body.

This record of its occurrence, coupled with those of Stewart and
Legge, must, I think, establish the fact that this Maikoha is not
restricted to Ceylon and that it does occur in favourable localities in
the far south of the Madras Presidency and in the Cochin-Travancore
area. Z DS erent
As it is unlikely the specimen seen by me was a stray from Ceylon,
specimens should be secured by sending a collector to the area during
the months of November and December.

51, ELLERTON Roap,

WANDSWORTH COMMON, C, H. BIDDULPH
Lonpon, S.W. 18,

February 28, 1956.

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKCAPPED KINGFISHER,
HALCYON PILEATA (BODDAERT) AT COIMBATORE,
SOUTH INDIA

We have received from Mr. B. Subbiah Pillay of Coimbatore a
specimen of the Blackcapped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) which was
shot on 23 December 1955 on a channel near the River Noyal at
Coimbatore. This species is well known along the coasts of South
India, but the above is worth recording since there does not appear
any record of its occurrence so far inland. Coimbatore is about 75
miles from the Malabar Coast.

BomsBay Natura History Society,

114, APOLLO STREET, EDITORS
Fort, Bompay,

March 9, 1956.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 699

vite — IaKOXOPON, (WIPE STIPE) GAA SBA

On a voyage between Bombay and Aden a hoopoe was seen on
the ship at 10 o’clock on the morning of 17-2-1937, when the ship
was about 35 miles off the Arabian coast and about 7o miles from
Aden.

On two occasions it iooked as if the bird had left the ship for
the land, but after flying a short distance it returned and rested on
the ship. It eventually left the ship when it was nearing Aden.

The weather was calm and had been so for some considerable
time and there was no question of the bird having been blown out
to sea.

Questions which arise from this observation are:

(a) Could it be suggested the point where the crossing was
being made was an unusual migratory route for small birds moving
from the African continent eastwards? A route a little more to the
north would have involved less effort and risk by having a_ shorter
sea crossing’.

(b) Is there evidence that migration does in fact take place in
this URE 2

(c) Are records available of the species that move eastwards
and othe periods during which these movements occur, i.e., outward
and return migrations?

(d) To what sub-species is it suggested the hoopoe may belong
which was moving from Africa towards the east and the maximum
extent of the migration?

51, ELLERTON Roap,

WANDSWORTH COMMON, Go lal, IBUDIDIOJEIP Is!
LonpDoN, S.W. 18,

February 28, 1956.

[It is difficult to guess what this hoopoe could be doing so far
out at sea in mid February, which is surely too early for the regular
spring migration.

Although of no direct bearing on the above note or answering
any of the correspondent’s questions, reference is invited to the short
notes on ‘Land Birds on Board Ship’ on pp. 638-40 of the Ibis 1934,
where several migratory species of European land birds are reported
coming on board in mid winter in the Mediterranean during an
outward voyage from London.

There is a note in the Journal (30: 222) of a hoopoe travelling all
the way from Bombay to Gibraltar on a P. & O. Liner, a voyage
which must have involved at least 10 days !—Eps. |

12. BESRA SPARROW-HAWK (ACCIPITER VIRGATUS)
IN SAURASHTRA

(With a photo)

Trapping of birds of prey useful in falconry has been an annual
feature in Bhavnagar for well over two generations, and the ex-
perience gained in identifying a variety of hawks, their training, etc.

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

has been considerable. Each year new hawks are trapped, and there
is always some bird in a particular colour phase which is of unusual
interest. Last year His Highness the Maharaja of Bhavnagar sent
his men out to capture Sparrow-Hawks in the Victoria Park,
Bhavnagar, a thicket in which rare catches such as Goshawk
(Accipiter gentilis), have been made {see JBNHS, 52: 211). This
time it was a Besra Sparrow-Hawk. The bird was caught on

Photo by H. H,. Bhavnagar.

THE BESRA Q.

14 December 1955 in a net under which a live Common Myna was
tied as bait. The Besra was an immature female and measured as
follows:
Wing 185 mm.; bill 21 mm.; tail 150 mm.; tarsus 57 mm.
The main identification of the Besra is by its slim and long middle
toe and thin tarsus, as in the Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus)—very
different from that of the Shikra, and by the broad mesial stripe
on the chin as in the Shikra. In the adult phase, the Besra has the
crown darker than the Shikra’s and its breast is more uniformly
marked. A distinct supercilium, as in the Sparrow-Hawk, is present.
The general build is that of the Sparrow-Hawk, but with a compara-
tively short tail, which has distinct broad bands. The soft parts of
the Besra captured were as follows:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 701

Eyes golden yellow; cere yellowish green; legs greenish yellow.
But for the mesial stripe, the bird closely resembled a Sparrow-Hawk.

Although I have seen the Besra in the field in Gujerat I was
never very sure of seeing one in Saurashtra. So, this is the. first
authentic record of the species in Saurashtra, though our falconers
always maintained they had seen some. In the field the Besra is
not at all easy to identify unless at close quarters, and this is the
reason why there is so little information concerning it in Western
India. The bird has been used in falconry since ages, and is well-
known. It is faster than the Shikra, and though smalier than the
Sparrow-Hawk, it is hardier, but less so than the Shikra. In
Saurashtra the Besra is undoubtedly a winter migrant. It has not
been mentioned by Salim Ali in his list of Gujerat birds.

2, KoREGAON LODGE,
IKKOREGAON PARK, R. S, DHARMAKUMARSINHYJI
Poona,

February 18, 1956.

13. EXTENSION OF THE KNOWN RANGE OF THE
COLLARED PRATINCOLE, GLAREOLA PRATINCOLA
PRATINCOLA (LINNAEUS), IN INDIA AND CEYLON

On 28 December 1955, Mr. B. Subbiah Pillay shot one of a pair
of Swallow Plovers at the Big Tank at Coimbatore, South India. As
this was immature and there was some difficulty in identification,
Mr. Pillay visited the place again on 9 January and shot the other
which was in adult plumage.

From the depth of the tail fork and the white edges to the middle
secondaries, the adult appeared to be pratincola. In the absence,-~
however, of definitely named specimens in the Bombay collection, as
also of any records of either pratincola or maldivarum from South

SHAPE AND PATTERN OF OUTER TAIL FEATHERS

Glareola maldivarum

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

India, I wrote to Mrs. B. P. Hall at the Bird Room, British Museum
(Natural History), and she has been good enough to draw my
attention to the shape and pattern of the tail which she considers a
wholly reliable diagnostic character as between the two species {or
races), there being no intermediate specimens. In pratincola the
outermost tail feather is over 20 mm. longer than the second, while
in maldivarum it is under 15 mm. longer.

Mrs. Hall also advised that in the British Museum there are
specimens of G,. pralincola from Sind, Ahmedabad and Ratnagiri
(immature, 22 August) and also two collected in Ceylon in February
1951 by Lt.-Col. W. W. A. Phillips at Kalametiya lagoon,. near
Ambalamtota, in the Hambantota District (sea coast) of the Southern
Province. He shot them from a fairly large flock comprising 30-40
pratincoles which were resting on an open grazing ground near the
lagoon.

In ‘Birds of Saurashtra’, Dharmakumarsinhji refers binomially
to G. pratincola. Three specimens obtained by him at Bhavnagar
are in Bombay and are maldivarum. Salim Ali in his recent ‘Birds
of Gujarat’ omits the Swallow Plovers altogether.

In JBNHS, 40: 633, I recorded Glareola maldivarum as a
straggler around Bombay. The two specimens then obtained are
both in immature plumage and show white tips to the secondaries.
The other differences are, however, in keeping with that form, and
it is possible that the white tips to the secondaries are lost in the
adult plumage.

In addition to the above records of pratincola from Ahmedabad
and maldivarum from Bhavnagar, attention may be drawn to Littledale’s
note on the Small Pratincole (G, lactea) breeding on the Mahi River,
above Wasod (JBNHS, 1: 200).

c/o Messrs Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY 3,

April 12, 1956.

[The Fauna of British India—Birds, Vol. VI, p. 90 gives the
distribution of G. p. pratincola as: ‘S. Europe, C. and W. Asia to
Sind and Kutch. In winter it wanders into Africa. In India it
breeds in Sind, and straggles as far as Allahabad, the Deccan and
Ratnagiri.’—Eps. | an

14. KENTISH PLOVER (CHARADRIUS ALEXANDRINUS)
AND LITTLE RING PLOVER (CHARADRIUS
DUBIUS) NESTING IN SOUTH INDIA

Whistler in Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats
(JBNHS, 39: 250) identified two specimens of Kentish Plover from
the Godavari Delta as of the typical race and separated the form
resident in Ceylon as leggei on its smaller size and the absence of a
chestnut cap in its breeding plumage.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES A}

Though the typical race is known to breed in Saurashtra there
appears.to be no record of iis nesting in Peninsular India, and it
may therefore be worthwhile noting that at Cuddalore, South Arcot
District, Madras, Isaw birds with young ones on 30-7-1948 and later
in the year had another young one in my hand. Again on 13
April 1954 I found two (or three) newly hatched young ones. On
12 August I saw at least 11 young ones running together with: their
parents. It therefore seems to breed regularly in Cuddalore. On
tr April 1956, I also took a clutch of three hard set eggs in a
depression in the sand close to an Ipomoea biloba plant, which were
sent to the Natural History Museum in Bombay.

Although I looked carefully for the distinct chestnut cap which
the typical race is known to assume in the breeding season, I could
never see it, and | therefore presume that these birds are close to the
Ceylon race leg get.

On 10 July 1955 I found the Little Ring Plover (Charadrius
dubius) with two small young ones at the Gadijam River near Attur
(40 or 50 miles from Cuddalore). I think it is also breeding regularly
in this district.

~

DanisH Mission,

ULUNDURPET, A. KREBS
SoutH ARCOT,

May 24, 1956.

15. OCCURRENCE OF THE SPOTTEDBILLED PELICAN,
PELICANUS PHILIPPENSIS GMELIN, IN THE
VEDANTHANGAL HERONRY

The Vedanthangal heronry in the Chingleput District, South
India, has been in existence for over a hundred and fifty years and
has been described by Hume {Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds III:
238-239), Capt. Packard (JBNHS, 15: 138-139), Capt. Bates (Bird
Life in India 20-47) and by Whistler and Kinnear (Vernay Scientific
Survey, JBNHS 39: 447-456). None of these earlier surveyors have
recorded pelicans from this heronry. Some of my friends here who
have been visiting the heronry every year for over fifteen years and
I myself, visiting it frequently for the past five or six years, have
never seen one.

On my first visit to the heronry this year on the afternoon of
4 February 1956, along with other amateur bird watchers, we
saw no pélicans. But when I revisited it on the afternoon of
27 February, as soon as I arrived there at about 4 p.m. the watchman
of the sanctuary drew my attention to a large solitary bird swimming,
madhali kokku as he called it in Tamil, meaning ‘a large stork’. |
looked through my field-glasses. No doubt it was a heavy bird—a
pelican. It was swimming slowly alone in deep water just beneath
the nesting trees in the middle of the heronry tank. It did not
appear to be fishing. The heronry was almost desolate because most
of the day-feceders like Cormorants, Openbills, Spoonbills, White
Ibises and Darters which exist in larger numbers in this herenry

704. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

were away on the feeding grounds elsewhere, and the few staying
back were either sunning themselves on the trees, or preening on the
islets, Or swimming and fishing in the water. ‘This solitary pelican
later flew off to a nearby tree, where there was ene more oi its tribe
along with Cormorants and Openbills, with which they seemed to be
quite at home.

I could not clearly see the spotted nature of the bill since the
birds were about a hundred yards away {rom the tank bund where
I was but the dull purple pouch, the general colour of the plumage,
etc., agree with those of the Spottedbilled Pelican, which is supposed
to be the one occurring in South India.

{ was informed by the watchman that they do occasionally visit
the heronry in small numbers, a rare visitor indeed, and never stay
long, at the most two or three days. In fact seven pelicans
arrived there that morning as he said, and some ieft earlier and I
could see only these two remaining there till the evening. Un-
fortunately I was not there till late in the evening to see whether
even these two roosted here at all. He said that they do not nest in
the heronry and I could see no indication of their permanent stay or
breeding there either.

This is the first time that pelicans are recorded on an open jheel
from anywhere in the suburbs of Madras City on the East Coast.
Pelicans being sporadic in their distribution in South India, their
occurrence in the Vedanthangal heronry is therefore interesting.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
MApbRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, Po SANE EVA RAY

TAMBARAM, CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT,

[For a good account of the Spottedbilled Pelican breeding in
South India see Neelakantan, /BNHS, 48: 656-666.—EDs. |

16. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BEHAVIOUR
OF THE CHESTNUT BITTERN IXOBRYCHUS CINNA-
MOMEUS (GMELIN) AND THE BLACK BbITTERN
DUPETOR FLAVICOLLIS (LATHA)

In the Gayathri River in Kavasseri, Malabar, there are some
clumps of screwpine planted along the river bank to prevent erosion.
Most of these are small thickets covering a few square feet, but one
extends along the bund for 30 yards and is about 2 yards broad.
These are normally left severely alone by the local people as they are
believed to harbour an extremely poisonous variety of cobra. Some
8 to 10 pairs of Chestnut Bittern, 2 or 3 pairs of Black Bittern, and
one pair (2 in 1955) of Little Green Heron find in these screwpine
thickets ideal nesting sites every year. In 1942 and 1943 I took eygs
of both Black and Chestnut Bitterns, and in subsequent years saw
other nests of these two bitterns regularly.

The Black and Chestnut Bitterns seem to be local migrants arriving
in Kavasseri about the second week of May, soon after the first
showers. At first they are very shy and hard to flush, but early in
June they begin to sally forth as early as five o’clock in the evening,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 709

and a few days later may be seen even at noon, flying about or
standing under the bushes.

As tar as I could see, the Black Bittern was more retiring and
unobtrusive, and apparently quite voiceless. The Chestnut Bittern,
on the other hand, announces its presence by frequentty producing
a hollow booming note which is uttered from its perch within the bush
or from the ground. When on the wing it has a different note-—a
cross between a croak and a chuckle. ‘his short croak is uttered
when the bird flies about chasing others and, at times, even when it
is sitting inside a bush. It appears to serve as a warning note also.
The hollow booming is in the nature of a ‘song’, and plays an im-
portant part in an aggressive display indulged in by the males alone.

As nothing seems to have been published about this aspect of the
bird’s behaviour, I should like to adapt from my notes an account
written on 12 June 1955:

‘Time 16.30 hrs. Weather dull. All afternoon it had drizzled.
The birds were watched at distances varying from 4o feet to 60 yards,
mostly from the south-west, through iox45 field glasses. A nest
each of the Black and the Chestnut Bitterns had been discovered a
week ago, 5 June.

‘During the two hours I spent in the river today saw only male
Chestnut Bitterns. [Frequentiy these birds flew about. When one
flew out of the screwpine bush, another wouid come out at once from
another place in the clump and pursue it. Often one or twa more
would come out and join these, and then they would fly round and
return to their respective places, or alight under different bushes.
This chase was never seen to involve any sort of quarrelling; but it
looked as though they had a convention that no male bird should be
allowed to fly about alone. Often, at the beginning of the chase or
in the course of it, one or two birds would utter a series of harsh
chuckles. When two different pairs of males flew about like this,
they tended to join up and form one party. If one of the birds
alighted on the sand towards the end of the chase (which normally
Was just one round across the bed of the river, some 75 yards broad),
one or more of the others would fly low over its head as though they
wished to give it a peck. The sitting bird would immediately either
duck or thrust its neck up, and, at times, rise again to join the others.
Rarely did this chasing take more than a couple of minutes, or consist
of more than one ‘round trip’ across the river bed.

‘At times a male bird would tly down and alight on the bank at
the foot of the clump. Then with bill pointing up, neck half stretched,
it would cause the sides of its throat to swell and begin the hollow
‘“‘gok-gok-gok-gok-gok .. .’ call. ‘Another male sitting some 15
to 20 ft. away would become alert at once, and either advance towards
the other (the challenger) or, after flying part of the way, alight 10 ft.
away from him. In either case, most often, the second bird would
utter a couple of sharp chuckles, which seemed to be their way of
declaring that the challenge was accepted. Then, invariably, one of
the two would begin to advance towards the other, the birds almost
simultaneously lowering their heads meanwhile keeping the _ biil
horizontal and pointed straight at the rival. The posture of the birds
at this time should have been called the ‘‘on guard’’. position, for

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the bill is held exactly as the soldier’s bayonet is, and the bird which
advances is as watchful as the soldier, though it is not inclined to
‘charge’? at any time. The other bird would- either wait for its
opponent to draw near, or advance a few paces. The bird which
covered a greater distance, that is, the more aggressive one, invariably
stalked, taking advantage of all available cover. There was much
more than a hint of cunning in the way the bird walked up towards
its rival. The deliberate placing of the feet suggested the soldier’s
‘‘shost-walk’’.

‘It was noted that, most often, as the birds took up the crouching
position, the paler patch and the normally hidden ‘‘arrowhead’’ feathers
on the shoulder became evident. But there was never any hint of
plumage display—even the curious shoulder patches not appearing
to be brought into use for the purpose of intimidation. {See the
marvellous photographs: J/BNHS, Vol. 53, No. 1.)

‘Quite often something or other, an intruding buffalo or a passing
cowherd, interrupted the display and sent one or both birds flying
back into their bushes. At times, however, it went on uninterrupted.
Then the birds came very close to each other, thrust out their necks
(like mediaeval knights-errant tilting at a tournament), but never
seemed to make contact. They would then simultaneously leap a
couple of feet into the air, meet without any real impact, and fall
back, wings wide open to break their fall. |

‘Rarely did the challenging gok-gok-gok of a bird out in the open
go unnoticed. But, curiously enough, only one bird seemed to take
up the challenge at a time; never was more than one (on this or on
other days) seen advancing towards the trumpeter.

‘One of the birds watched today seemed to be in greater ‘‘heat’’
than the others. It uttered the booming challenge four or five times
at least within the two hour period, and was invariably answered by
another bird which occupied a clump some 20 feet to the east. This
desperate challenger once actually went in search of the other bird
when it uttered the gok-gok-gok . . . from its bush. It walked
rather fast, but carefully and in a crouching position, constantly
looking up, and to right and left, as it went on. But when it had
gone up to within 3 ft. of its rival, the other bird began to advance
boldly, and our eager champion, instead of meeting the foe on his
home-ground, at once flew off with the other in hot pursuit. | They
flew a half circle and alighted on a sandbank near their original stations,
but on the other side of a narrow stream of water. One of the birds
fell into the stream, and had to swim a distance of one or two ft.
to reach hard ground. On the sandbank they sat 10 to 12 ft. apart,
but both faced east instead of facing each- other. The one which
had got a ducking then flew back to its bush.’

Black Bitterns also indulge in a similar chase, but without any
apparent prelude such as the booming. Moreover, their chase invari-
ably begins when one bird leaves its bush, never after any sort of
display. On 14 June a second nest of the Black Bittern was dis-
covered. I had previously flung a few handfuls of gravel into the
bush to see if it was occupied, but nothing had stirred. It was by
an accident that I saw the sitting bird. It seemed quite confident
that no one could find it, and did not even put up its neck to ‘freeze’.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES hy)

But it leaned to one side and peered at me, very like a curious woman
peeping from behind her door. After a while it lost courage and,
instead of attempting to freeze as these birds normally do, flew oif.
As it was passing the clump where the nest discovered on the 5th was,
a Black Bittern which had been quietly brooding rose from the nest
and flew after the first one. They went round (exactly like the
Chestnut Bitterns, but more slowly, and quite silently) and alighted
on clumps away from their nests.

Though similar chases have been witnessed often, I have never
seen a Black Bittern indulging in any sort of aggressive or love dis-
play. If these and the Chestnut Bitterns have any courtship antics,
I have yet to see them.

On page 4 of JBNIIS, Vol. 53, No. 1, Mr. Loke Wan-Tho remarks
that the Chestnut Bitterns he saw ‘did not stretch out their necks...
whenever danger threatened, but instead preferred to crouch’. Those
I have observed invariably stretched out their necks whenever they
suspected danger; but, when convinced that their presence had
been discovered, they often crouched or just flew away.

Male Chestnut Bitterns never behaved aggressively towards
Black Bitterns. The nests, one of the black and the other of the
Chestnut Bittern, found on 5 June this year, were just two or
three feet apart and almost at the same height. As a rule, the
Black Bittern builds 6 to 1o ft. above the ground, and the Chestnut
Bittern at heights ranging from one to three feet. ‘The distance,
measured along the ground, oi the Black Bittern’s nest from water
is also much greater than that of the Chestnut Bittern’s. The chestnut
bird tends to build right over the stream, whereas the other places
its nest near the bund. In this instance both birds had nests about
6 ft. from the water-level and just over the edge of the stream.

The Chestnut Bittern’s nest is constructed entirely of pandanus
leaves. The Black Bittern’s is made of creeper stems and other
very slender twigs. Among the screwpines there grow also sone
thickets of henna; and the Black Bittern, more often than not, builds
its nest on the intertwined twigs of this plant.

THe LitrL—e GREEN HERON, Butorides striatus (Horstield)

As the breeding of the Little Green Heron also seems to have been
unrecorded from these parts, it may be interesting to note here that
in the second week of June 1955, there was a nest of this bird in a
screwpine bush at the place where I watched the other bitterns. The
nest was 10 to 12 ft. above the ground, well within the bush, and
very difficult to see. There were at least two chicks in it. They had
short yellowish bills, and were covered all over with pale greyish
down.

As I used to spend some time almost every evening in May and
the first two weeks of June near these screwpine clumps, and never
saw a Green Heron going anywhere near this particular bush except
on the 12th (when the nest was found only because the bird lost its
foothold while quietly slipping into the bush, and was seen flapping
its wings desperately), I was able to understand why I had _ not
succeeded in my search for the nest of the Little Green Heron for
hearly fifteen years, though, during every monsoon season, a pair
used to haunt this area.

i3

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 83

On 14 June, just 15 yards away from this nest, I saw a pair
of adult Green Herons sitting with a fully fledged young one. ‘The
young bird was able to fly very well, but lacked the black cap and
crest of the adults. On the closed wings it had white streaks in the
place of the adults’ green. It looked as though there were two
different pairs of Green Heron in the area this year. I had noticed
earlier in the season more than two adult birds moving about. _

GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE, “
PALGHAT, K. K. NEELAKANTAN
February 9, 1956.

17, REDBREASTED MERGANSER (MERGUS
SERRATOR LINN.) IN SIND

It may possibly be of interest, in view of the remarks on the
distribution of the above bird in the ‘Fauna’ (vi: 474), to record
having observed one closely today at Baleji, about five miles as the
crow flies west of Manora, Karachi. It was female.

I am well acquainted with this bird having seen it on the coasts
of Britain as well as on both the east and west coasts of America.
Today it was feeding in shallow water among the reefs at Baleji, low
tide, about 3 p.m., visibility perfect. I was using 8x 30 binoculars
and had very good views of it on the water and flying as I stalked
it up and down the rocky coast.

Diagnostic features were: in flight, the white squares on the wing,
low carriage of neck and head. On the water, low carriage and erect
neck: pinkish buff head and neck paling to pure white throat and
front neck, red bill, long and thin. There was a distinct crest. Back
greyish shading into buff on the flanks near the tail.

6, GuizRt Roan,

KARACHI, N. Ay EESELE
December 26, 1955.

[According to Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, Birds of Sind (Ibis 1923,
p. 458) it would appear that though not very uncommon on the
Mekran Coast, the only authentic record of its occurrence in Sind
was one shot by Capt. Yerbury in Karachi Harbour (in 1877). Our
correspondent’s attention was drawn to the close superficial resemblance
between the female of this species and that of the less rare Goosander
(MZ. merganser), but he confirms that it was as recorded.—Eps. |

18. SOLAR ECLIPSE AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

Having Come across several discussions in literature on the possible
relationships of certain aspects of animal life with solar phenomena,
particularly sun spots, I was piqued to know if solar eclipse in any
way influenced animal behaviour. So, when the opportunity presented
itself on 14 December 1955, I made a tour of the Zoological Gardens

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 709

at Trivandrum with a view to see if captive animals reacted in any
marked manner to the eclipse. As I walked about, I kept an eye
on the wild birds too for any sign of deviation from their normal
behaviour. Set forth below is a summary of my observations, classed
for the sake of convenience under a few headings of behaviour
patterns. This evidence, if anything, tends to point in the negative
direction and indicates that, contrary to popular notion, anirhals either
captive or free display little or no responsive behaviour during a solar
eclipse. It would be interesting to know how these observations
compare with those of any of the readers of your esteemed journal.

The solar eclipse of 14 December 1955 is, according to the
Trivandrum Observatory, the longest on record in the last twenty-
five years, having had a total duration of 4 hours and 21 minutes,
starting from 10.37 a.m. At 12.00 hours, there was a noticeable
pallor all around as if the whole sky was charged with rain clouds.
By 12.35 hours, the pallor had deepened so much that it was quite
dark inside the museum and lights had to be turned on. Shortly
after 12.00 hours, I felt a sudden chill seizing me and, from then
on, one could walk about in the bright sun without the shelter of an
umbrella. This corresponded with a fall of temperature, as registered
at the Observatory, from 82.6°F at 12.00 to 80.6°F at 13.00 and to
80.4°F at 14.00 hours. There was also a slight fall of atmospheric
pressure but a gain in humidity by 9%.

I am thankful to the staff of the Trivandrum Observatory for their
courtesy in letting me have their readings during the eclipse.

SUMMARY Oi (Os GIR WA GT © wes

A, CARP WRAY we AUNT A ILS

Gea im es
Sambur, Zebra, Muntjac, Nilgai, Indian Elephant, Gnu, Donkey,
Pig, Giraffe, Golden Pheasant, Toucan.

Civewiine © wd:
Sambur, Blackbuck, Fourhorned Antelope, Nilgai, Spotted Dees,
Freak Bull (with an additional eye in the middle of the forehead).

Walking abowt bmp mor aeeciimgs
Blackbuck (albino).

ReEsting Or SIlSCGpPimM se:

Pig, Kangaroo, Barbary Sheep, Gaur, Spotted Deer, Brown Bear,
Lion, Tiger, Panther Hyaena, Otter, Porcupine, Toucan, Hornbill,
Tortoise (Testudo sp.), Python.

CaAareSSim ges
Giant Tortoise.

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Pome en ingen:
Emu, Otter (rolling on ground: mangy).

Visi SicreuleivamnueroruEss:
Pecking at railing of paddack: Ostrich. Pacing inside cage:
Sloth Bear, Jackal. Inside water: Hippopotamus family, Crocodile.

B. FREE-~RANGING ANIMALS (BiRDs8)

CG altin er:

Indian Jungle Crow, Ceylon House Crow, Tree-pie, Southern
Magpie-robin, Black Drongo, Willow-Warbler, South Indian Black-
headed Oriole, Common Myna, Small Green Barbet, Coppersmith,
Indian Koel, Roseringed Parakeet, Bluetailed Bee-eater, Indian Spotted
Dove.

Sora nyods
Common Pariah Kite.

Hawking:
Bluetailed Bee-eater, Palm Swift.

Food-getting:
Black Drongo, Indian Whitebreasted Kingfisher.

ivevexd sisnsea:
Indian Blue Rock Pigeon.

Bathing:
Common Myna in bison’s drinking trough.

Flyihg past:
Indian Purple and Purplerumped Sunbirds, Flowerpecker and
Indian Blue Rock Pigeon.

‘GOKULAM’,
NANTENCODE, TRIVANDRUM, INo Go IPINLILAMI
February 16, 1956.

|The accounts frequently appearing in newspapers of crows and
other birds being deceived by the temporary darkening by solar eclipse
and flying to their nightly roosts at mid-day seem farfetched consider-
ing the delicate innate sense of chronometer time birds possess. And
surely even at the peak of total eclipse the darkness is no greater
than on some of the heaviest overcast monsoon days. Why, then,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 71)

does one never see or get reports of birds retiring to their sleeping
roosts on such monsoon mid-days?

However, the alleged reactions of birds to solar eclipse are certainly
worthy of a more scientific and critical investigation.—Ebs. |

19. A BLIND SNAKE FROM NEPAL

We recently received from Shri B. L. Karmacharya a Blind Snake
collected in Nepal by Shri Bandhu Pant which we were unable to
identify satisfactorily.

Its lepidosis, as compared with Typhlops jerdom Boulenger and
T. tenuicollis (Peters) was as under:

vc B

a =

5 se 2 S Eyes distinct or Nasal

, 8 Ms indistinct oe

a5 de

Ocm ~ B

wna a2
Present specimen ... 22 360 Indistinct Completely divided
jerdont 408 22 260-280 Distinct do,
tenutcollis es 22 480-520 Indistinct Incompletely divided.

In the absence of any material for comparison it was sent to the
British Museum (N.H.) whence Mr. J. C. Battersby of the Reptile
Section writes: ‘I have examined the Typhlops No. 1728S from Nepal
-and agree with you that the nasal is completely divided. Another
point against it being ftenuwicollis is that the diameter of the body is
about 38 and not 65 times in the total length. Although the number
of transverse rows of scales given by you differs from the number
given for the species in Smith’s F.B.I., I think it is an example of
jerdoni Boulenger. I have compared it with the paratypes with
which it quite well agrees, also with some specimens we have from
Darjeeling, which have about 298 scale-rows. The fact of the eye
not showing is due, I think, to this specimen being about to slough.
The number of scale-rows I imagine can be widely variable,although
(the difference of) 80 in this case is well above the given range.’

It would be interesting to examine more specimens from the same
area and determine if this increase in scale-rows is an_ individual
variation or common to the population in this area. Nepal is further
west of the recorded range which, according to Malcolm Smith’s snake
volume in the Fauna, p. 50, is Eastern Himalayas (Sikkim, Darjeeling,
Duars Dts.), Assam (Abor and Khasi Hills), Upper Burma (Lashio),
Pegu.

NATURAL History SECTION,

PRINCE OF WaLEes Museum, VV; Ko CHARI
BomBay 1,

April 16, 1956,

{

712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

20. FURTHER EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE FROG,
UPERODON GLOBULOSUM (GUNTHER) IN JALPAIGURI,
WEST BENGAL

wv

During the cultivation of a piece of land in the Agricultural Farm
of Jalpaiguri, northern Bengal, two frogs were exhumed from the field.
Sri Saumendra Kumar Das, Research Assistant in Entomology,
Government of West Bengal, at once recognized the frogs as rare
and interesting forms, and kindly presented them to our laboratory
in a well-preserved condition. We are greatly indebted to him tor
this gift.

The globular shape of the body, the tiny head with dark bead-
like eyes, and ‘the much shortened hind limbs with shovel-shaped
metatarsal tubercles are so characteristic that we had no difficulty in
identifying the frogs as Uperodon globulosum (Giinther) (vide Parker,
1934):

According to the previous records from Bengal (Mukerji, 1933;
Bhaduri, 1945) it is evident that U. globulosum is of rare occurrence.
In 1945 Bhaduri mentioned that the total number recorded then was
only ten, of which four had been collected from Bengal. He further
stated: ‘U. globulosum also enjoys a somewhat wide distribution,
it being found in Madras Presidency, Central Provinces aad Bengal,
although numerical records from these areas are few and far between.
All the same, it may be presumed that it is not so common as its
ally systoma in any of these areas.’ However, the present record
includes two more specimens from Bengal. The presence of U.
globulosum in Jalpaiguri in northern Bengal, particularly as it is
situated on the border-line of Assam, seems to be an interesting
feature. Its occurrence, therefore, in some parts of Assam may not
be unlikely from the point of view of distribution.

Very recently Abdulali and Daniel (1954) have discovered nearly
a dozen specimens of this species breeding in the Kanheri
Caves near Borivli, Salsette Island, Bombay, and they also noted some
interesting features of their habits. Evidently they come out of their
burrowing habitats for the purpose of breeding on the advent of
the first showers of rain in the month of June. However, its parti-
cular habitat in the area is yet to be discovered. Nevertheless, the
occurrence of U. globulosum in fair numbers in Salsette Island,
Bombay, considerably extends the range of distribution of this species.

On dissection of the two specimens, the larger one proved to be
a female bloated with well-developed ovaries containing pigmented
ova; the smaller a male possessing small testes which appeared to be
immature. The dusky skin under the throat, as noted by Bhaduri
(1945) in the lone specimen, is not evident in the specimen before
us. Abdulali and Daniel {1954}, who relied on the dark chins only
for determining the male sex, did not pay any particular attention to
other secondary sexual characters which might have been present in
the males, since the frogs were breeding at the time. They, however,
noted the breeding females to possess ‘numerous pustules’ around the
vent, which in their opinion may be considered as a secondary sexual
character,

—— |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 713

MEASUREMENTS (IN MILLIMETRES) OF SOME OF THE BODY
PARTS OF THE TWO SPECIMENS:

os g
Tip of the snout to vent 29:0 580
Breadth of head ; EPS) 17°2
Eye (orbital diameter) 2°0 4:]
Snout 1S) 3°0
Orbital end to the tip of the snout 4:0 71
Upper eyelid 15 3°5
Inter-orbital width ... 5°0 8:2
Outer metatarsal tubercles 20 3°5
Inner metatarsal tubercles 3°5 6:5
Tibia si 11:0 20°5
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA, J. L. BHADURI
35, BALLYGUNGE CIRCULAR Roap, So UR JBVANSU)

Calcutta 109.
February 28, 1956.

REFERENCES

Abdulali, H. and Daniel J.C. (1954) : Extension of range of the frog Upero~
don globulosum Gtnther. JBNAHS, 52: 637.

Bhaduri, J. L. (1945) : Notes on a rare and interesting narrow-mouthed frog,
Uperodon globulosum (Gtinther). JBNAS, 45: 251-254.

Mukerji, D. D. (1933): Some observations on the burrowing toad, Cacopus
Llobulosum Gunther. J. Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, N. S., 27: 97-100, 1931.

Parker, H. W. (1934): A Monograph of the frogs of the family Microhylidae.
Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London.

[Abdulali & Daniel (1954) actually sexed 5 specimens in the
breeding season and found the dark chin in all the three males among
them. It could be that this characteristic is present only in mature
males, and possibly only in the breeding season.—EDs. |

21. THE TADPOLES OF UPERODON GLOBULOSUM (GUNTH.)

(With three text figures)

The range of distribution of Uperodon globulosum has _ recently
been extended to Bombay and reference was made to the tadpoles
collected at about the same place and time. (Abdulali & Daniel,
JBNHS, 52: 637-639). The present notes concern the tadpoles which
have not been previously described.

On 13 June 1954, after the first few monsoon showers, a few
adults of this species were found floating sluggishly in a rock cistern
—one of several—in the Kanheri Caves (ca. 1,300 ft.) near Bombay.
The cistern held only about 9” of water which then stood several
feet from the top. The water was not examined for either eggs or
tadpoles, but the large females of U. globulosum collected then were
found to have spent ovaries. The breeding season in this area, it
would therefore appear, coincides with the break of the monsoon in
lete May or early June. On 19 June, when the cisterns were over-
flowing, a large number of actively swimming tadpoles were observed
in the above, as also in an adjoining cistern. No adults were then
noticed in them. |

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY VNAIMOTCAIE e EU SIs SOME MsVemmiolae ns

Unlike other species of Salientia breeding in the same area, the
tadpoles of U. globulosum were found exclusively in these two cisterns,
though there were several other cisterns also containing water at
various elevations on the hill.

The preference of the adults for these particular cisterns for
breeding purposes may be due to their location. These two cisterns are
flush with the ground, and thus easy of access to a species with such
an extremely limited ability for jumping. They are connected by a
small sloping channel through which overflow water runs from the
higher into the lower cistern. This slope appears to be the route by
which the frogs reach the cistern, since the other approaches are either
too steep, or from a higher level.

Since the inner walls of the cisterns are smooth, the frogs which
dive into them at the break of the monsoon when the water level
within is low, are unable to climb out after egg-laying till the cisterns ©
are brimful and they can float out with the overflow.

Two species of Rana (R. breviceps and R. tigrina) and one species
of Rhacophorus (Rh, maculatus) also breed in the same cisterns. The
tadpoles of U. globulosum could be distinguished from the others
by their smaller size and active habit of swimming freely near the
surface, while the others are more sluggish and appear to spend most
of their time ‘browsing’ on the algae on the walls of the cistern. In
colour the Uperodon tadpoles are olive-brown above, with a whitish
tail which is striped longitudinally with dark blotchy lines. The sides
and under parts are white, spotted with dark except the centre of the
tail which is pure white. In the hand the spots on the under surface
are distinctive and have not been noted in any other species of tadpoie
from around Bombay.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TADPOLE

The tadpoles are of rather small size. The head and body ovoid,
tt to 1} times as long as broad, and rounded anteriorly. The nostrils

. *¢ - ets
Ze HY, DF.
EONS Ay Base

Sin 5:
eae aS
S55 SUE te Sy

1. Tadpole of Uferodon globulosum (lateral view, x 7)

are Close to each other, equidistant between the snout and a line con-
necting the anterior edges of the eyes. The eyes are supero-lateral,
the distance between them 5% times that between the nostrils.

The mouth is almost terminal, more dorsal than ventral, not visible
from below, very small; its width is 1/5 to 1/6 that of the head at the
level of the eyes. There is no mouth armature. The narrow pig-
mented upper lip slightly overhangs the lower. The edges of ihe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 715

upper and lower lips at and immediately in front of the commissure
extend outwards and form the narrow gape pouches. The lower lip
has a small lobe-like projection in the centre which together wiih
the lip is contractile. On the floor of the mouth is a pigmented,
somewhat narrow U-shaped ridge; between the arms of the ‘U’ is
a median groove leading backwards to the gullet.

2. Mouth of tadpole, x 40

The spiraculum is a flat transparent median tube, its opening is
broad and transverse and terminates in front of the vent which is
also median but longitudinal. It may also be noted that the spiraculum
is transparent in young individuals, but becomes slightly thicker and
pigmented in older specimens.

rn

3. Posterior region of tadpole, showing the median
tubular spiracular opening and the anal aperture
(ventral view, x 12)

The tail is narrowly pointed, 3 to 3% times as long as deep and
Iz to 12% times as long as the head and body. The caudal membranes
are moderately deep with convex crests and are almost of equal size.

In smaller specimens the body and the muscular portion of the
tail is dorsally pale olive-brown, the colour being made up of fine

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

dots. On the sides and under-surface these dots form irregular
splotches, the centre of the belly being least marked and appearing
whitish. The tail membranes are almost transparent. In larger
specimens, however, the general tone of the colour is somewhat darker,
the minute dots being more crowded and the spots on the sides and
under-parts showing up more prominently. The area round the nostrils
is white sharply contrasting with the dark of the head. The tail
membrane is also blotched with brown, especially the dorsal surface.
In some specimens the dark muscular portion of the tail is flanked
by a white streak on both sides, which merges into the brown towards
the distal end.

Total length: 27 mm., head and body: to mm., tail depth: 5 mm.

Localities. —Kanheri caves, near Borivli, Salsette Islands; Thana.
Salsette ; Bombay.

Remarks.—The tadpoles of U. globulosum appear to be almost
indistinguishable from those of U. systoma. (Ferguson, JBNHS, 15:

507, 1904; Parker, A Monograph of the Frogs of the family Micro-

hylidae, p. 75, 1934-)
Acknowledgement.—Thanks are due to Sri R. C. Bagchi for the
illustrations.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, Jo Ibe 1BGUAUDAUIESI
35, BALLYGUNGE CIRCULAR Roap,

Calcutta 19.

NaTuRAL History MusEvum,
DARJEELING, Ce DANE
February 28, 1956. Curator

22. NOTES ON BUFO STOMATICUS LUTKEN IN BOMBAY

While driving round the south end of Marine Drive, Bombay City,
late at night in July 1956, H.A. heard an unfamiliar amphibian call,
and stopped to pick up a toad which proved to be Bufo stomaticus
and which had not been previously recorded from the area.

The toad which is easily distinguished from B. melanostictus by
the absence of cranial ridges, the black cornified area of the upper
lip and a less warty skin, was later found to be common in the
maidan covered with short grass, not far from the sea-wall at the
southern end of Marine Drive. The absence of any previous record
of this species from Bombay, together with the fact that it was

found on recently reclaimed land, leaves a possibility, though. unlikely,

that it is an introduction.

J.C.D. made several visits to the area and the following is mostly
from his notes. Egg strings of a pale translucent yellowish green
colour were found loosely wound round the base of grass stems in a
few inches of water. The egg strings were 1 mm. in diameter and the
eges about 3 mm. apart. It was not possible to determine the number
laid by each female as the individual strings could not be separated
from the tangled mass.

The tadpoles which have been described by Annandale and Rao
(Rec, Ind, Mus. 15: 39) hatched out on the day following collection.

Rant

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Haled

They wriggled within the gelatinous envelope prior to making
their way out to the surface. The gills were club-like, with a small
knob-like inner gill, followed by another with three branches. The
silvery spots on the body, which are distinctive, and to which atten-
tion was drawn by Annandale and Rao, appear on the third day after
hatching, by which time the external gills are lost and the labial
teeth visible. Development is rapid and the young toad on meta-
morphosis measures less than 10 mm. The young are light brown in
colour with darker marblings centred with pale pink. These colours
are lost by the time they attain a size of 30 mm.

This species is listed as Bufo andersoni in Boulenger’s Fauna
(p. 504). Annandale (Rec. Ind. Mus. 3: 283-284, 1909) held that
this was identical with stomaticus Lutken described from an unknown
locality in 1862.

It has been recorded from Arabia and over the whole of northern
peninsular India, as also Rajshahi in Eastern Bengal, Purneah and
Lucknow. In JBNHS, 27: 126, 1920, Narayan Rao described a
new race peninsularis based on 2 specimens from Coorg. The
differences were relative and not confirmed by Boulenger. The
examination -of 23 fresh specimens (12 males and 11 females) from
Bombay ranging from 34 mm. to 59 mm. in length confirms that the
differences between stomaticus and andersoni, as also those said to
separate the southern form peninsularis, are all covered by the individual
variations exhibited in this species.

c/o Messrs Faiz. & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY 3

NaturAL History Museum, lfo (G5 IDUNIN USL,
DARJEELING, WEST BENGAL. Curator

June 28, 1956.

23. ON A COLLECTION CF FISH FROM ASSAM
(With a text map)

The State of Assam lies on the north-eastern border of Bengal and forms
the north-east frontier State of India. It comprises the Valley of the
Branmaputra and the mountainous watershed which feeds the river and its
tributaries. Except on the west it is shut in by jungle-covered ranges or
jofty mountains. From east to west it is traversed by the main Brahm-
putra River, and the strips of land along each bank of the great river are
intersected by numerous minor streams. From the geographical point of
view the Assam Plateau cannot be affiliated to the Peninsula, but
geologically there would appear to be a proper connection since the pre-
vailing rocks are closely similar. ‘The study of the fish fauna of the region
shows several interesting features, suggesting that it served as the route
for the Malayan element to migrate into Peninsular India, during the
Tertiary era.?

———__—————————— SSS ee - a ee ——— eer

1 Hora, S.L., Proc. Nat, Inst, Sci. India, XV (8) : 309-310,

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

In November 1939 Drs. B. Prashad and S. L. Hora visited Darrang
District and Balipara respectively and made a collection of fish in rivers,
streams, ponds, borrowpits, lakes etc. of this region of Assam. The

¢)
[27
BALIPARA Y
*LQKRA
>BUMGAON
of °
: os 26

Sketch map of the region in which collection was made.

largest river in this region is the Bhareli, which rises in the Aka Hills
and enters the district just to the north of Bhalukpong. It first flows east
betweea the ranges of the hills and then turns sharply to.the south and
takes a tortuous course to the Brahmaputra, which it joins about 7 miles
east of Tezpur town. In addition to the Bhareli River there are numerous
other rivers which carry off the drainage of the hills into the Brahma-
putra. Besides these, there are a few bhils (lakes) like Kenduguti Bhil
and Soni Gaon Bhil of fairly large size. ‘These bhils are shailow pools
of no great extent which co!lect in depressions in the lower parts of the
district generally near the Brahmaputra. Almost the whole of the region
consis!s of alluvial deposits of clay and sand in varying proportions, rang-
ing from pure sand near the Brahmaputra to a clay so stiff that it is quite
unfit for cultivation, j .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 719

In the collection under report, there are altogether 70 species and of
these four, ie., Se/zihinna phasa (Hamilton), Nemachilus savona (Hamil-
tun), Glyptothorax rebetroi (Hora) and Doryichthys deocata (Hamilton)
have been recorded from this region for the first time. In the accom-
panying table, the species are listed with their respective places of collec-
tion in Assam, and their general distribution.

I am indebted to the late Dr. S. L. Hora, Director, Zoological Survey
of India, for placing the material at my disposal and for his constant
guidance and encouragement. My thanks are also due to Shri A. G. K.
Menon, Assistant Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, for helping me
during the investigation.

ST TE

Name of species Locality in Assam Further Distribution

Family: NoTOPTERIDAE

1. Notoplerus chitala (Hamilton) | Mangaldai (Darrang j|India to Malay Archi-

Dist.). | pelago.
2, Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) | Mangaldai. ‘India, Burma and further
\ekvaste
Family: ENGRAULIDAE
3. Setipinna phasa (Hamilton) ... Tezpur Fish Market | Orissa, Bengal, Cachar and

(Darrang Dist.). | Burma.

Family: CLUPEIDAE

4. Gadusia chapra (Hamilton) ...{Mangaldai & Tezpur Fish | Widely distributed in

Market. India ; absent south of
the Kistna.

Family: CyPRINIDAE
Sub-family: ABRAMIDINAE
5. Chela bacaila (Hamilton) ...;Tangla (Darrang Dist.) | Throughout India (except
Malabar) and Burma.

6. Chela gora (Hamilton) .-|Tangla & Tezpur Fish | Sind, throughout Northern
Market. India and Assam.

Sub-family: RASBORINAE

7. Barilius bola (Hamilton) ... | Mangaldai & Tezpur Orissa, Bengal, North
Fish Market, Tangla. West Province, Assam
and Burma,
8. Barilius bavila (Hamilton) ...|Lokra (Balipara Frontier} Delhi, North West and
Tract). Central Provinces, Ben-
gal, Orissa and Lower
Assam.
9. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton) | Lokra Throughout India, not
recorded from coast of
Malabar.
10. Aarilins tileo (Hamilton) | Tangla. Bengal and Assam.
11. Danio (Danio) dangila | a
(Hamilton) 500 || LOUGH). Bengal, Bihar, Hima-

layas at Darjeeling, also
the hills above Akyab.

. o8

26,

. Amblypharyngodon

. Puntius tetrarupagus

. Labeo angra (Hamilton)
. Labeo bata (Hamilton)

. Labeo boga (Hamilton)

. Labeo calbasu (Hamilton)
. Labeo dero (Haniilton)

. Lobeo vohiia (Hamilton)

Name of Species

Locality in Assam
|

Further Distribution

Sub-family: RASBORINA E—(cont.)

. Esomus danricus (Hamiltcn)
. Feasbora elarga (Hamilton) ...

. Rasbora rasbora (Hamilton)

..Danio (Danio) devario
(Hamilton) ealarroslar
. Danio (Brachydanio) rerio
(Hamilton) al ezptur

Tezpur and Mangaldai.
| Mangaldai and ‘Tezpur.
| Lokra.

Sub-family: CyPRININAE

mola
(Hamilton)

. Aspidoparia morar (Hamilton)

. Puntius chagunio Hamilton ...

. Puntius chola Hamilton

. Puntius phutunio Hamilton ...
. Puntius sarané Hamilton
. Puntius sophore Hamilton

. Punt7us ticto Hamilton

Mc-
Clelland

Puntius titius Hamilton

. Catla cetla (Hawilton) :
. Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton)
29:

Cirrhina reba (Hamilton) ...

. Labeo dyocheilus (McClelland)
» Lwbéo gonius (Hamilton)

. | Tangla,

Tezpur Fish Market and
Tanela.
Tezpur Fish Market.

Tangla and Lokra.

Lokra.

Mangaldai.

Tezpur Fish Market,
Mangaldai, Tangla and
Lokra.

Tangla and Mangaldai.

Tezpur Fish Market, Tez-
pur and Tangla.
Tangla and Mangaldai.

. | Lokra.

Tezpur Fish Market.

Mangaldai.

Tezpur Fish Market and
Mangaldai. 7

. | Tezpur Fish Market.

Tezpur Fish

Market and Lokra.

.|Tezpur Fish Market and

Lokra,

.| Mangaldai.

Tanegla and Lokra.

Lokra.

..| Mangaldai and Tangla.

..| Mangaldai.

Throughout India.

Throughout India and

Burma,

| India, Ceylon, Burma and

the Nicobars,
Bengal, Assam
Burma.
India, Assam, Burma and
Penang.

and

Throughout India’ (except
Malabar) and Burma,
A!'l over Northern India, .

Assam and Burma.

Bengal, Bihar, Assam,
NW. Provinces and
Punjab.

Throughout India and
Burma to Mergui.
Ganjam, Orissa and

throughout Bengal and
Burma,
India and Burma.

Throughout India, and
Burma as high as Manda-
lay.

Ceylon, India, Burma and
also Siam.

Orissa, Bengal, Assam,
NW. Provinces, Punjab
and Sind, also the

Deccan.

Orissa, Bengal, Assam,
NW. Provinces, Pun-
jab and Sind. Also the
Deccan.

India, Burma and Siam.

India and Burma,

Throughout India.

Assam, Bengal, Orissa
and Burma.

Orissa, Bengal
Assam.

Rivers of the Gangetic
Provinces, Madras and
Burma,

and:

| India and Burma,
| Delhi, Sind, Bengal and

Assam.

| Sind, Bengal and Assam.

India and Burma; absent
south of the Kistna.
India and Burma.

reer TO LR SRS TL TE YT OR PETE AONE CS TS ROE BT RE SS OES STN DIE TR TTR EE TR I

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 791.

2 Oe ST

Name of Species Locality in Assam Further Distribution

Family: COBITIDAE

38. Lepidocephalus gunica (Hamil-| Tezpur and Tangla. Ceylon, India and Burma.
ton

39. Nemachilus botia (Hamilton)... | Tangla and Lokra, Ceylon, India and Burma.

40. Nemachilus savona (Hamilton) | Lokra. Darjeeling Himalayas.

Family: CLARIIDAE

41. Clarias batrachus Linnaeus ...| Tezpur Fish Market. India, Burma and further
east,

Family: HETKEROPNEUSTIDAE

42, Hetéropneustes fosstlis | Mangaldai and ‘Tezpur | Ceylon, India, Purma and
(Bloch) | Fish Market. | Cochin-China.

Family: SILURIDAE

43, Callichrous macropthalmus: | 'Tezpur Fish Market. Madras, Assam and
(Blyth) | Burma,
44, Wallago attu (Bloch and Mangaldai and Tezpur} India, Burma and Ceylon.
; Schneider) : Fish Market.
Family: CHACIDAE
45, Chaca chaca (Hamilton) a0 [pacmtes Bombay, Brahmaputtra,
: Ganges and Irrawady.
Family: SCHILBEIDAE
46, Alia cola (Hamilton) ».|Mangaldai and ‘Tezpur | Throughout India.
Fish Market. ;
47. Clupisoma garua (Hamilton) |Mangaldai. Sind, all over Northern
India, Assam and
4 Burma.
48, Eutropichthys vacha (Hamil-|Mangaldai and Tezpur | Punjab, Sind, Bengal,
ton) Fish Market. _ Orissa, Burma . and
Siam.

Family: BAGRIDA®

49. Mystus (Mystus) cavasius |Mangaldai, Tangla and) Throughout India and

(Hamilton) Tezpur Fish Market, | Burma,

50. Wystus (Osteobagrus) seen-| Tezpur Fish Market. |Punjab, U. P., Delhi,
ghala (Sykes) - | Bengal and Burma.

51. Mystus (Mystus) vittatus Tezpur Fish Market. | Throughout India, Burma,
(Bloch) : _ Siam and Ceylon.

Family: SISORIDAE

52. Glyptothorax rebeiroi (Hora) Tangla. Tista drainage, Darjee-
ling Himalayas, Kosi
River, Bihar and
Riband River, Vindhya

Pradesh.

53. Gagata wiridescens (Hamilton) | Tezpur Fish Market. Rivers of Bengal, Delhi,
Assam, Poona in the
‘Deccan.

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Name of Species Locality in Assam Further Distribution

Family: CYPRINODONTIDAE

54. Parchax panchax (Hamilton) | sient [India, Assam and
} Burma.

Family: MUGILIDAE

55. Mugil corsula (Hamilton) ... pss Fish Market. .Common in the larger
rivers of India.

Family: BELONIDAE

56. Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton) Tezpur Fish Market. [rey len India, Burma and
utther east.

Family: SYNGNATHIDAE

57. Doryichthys deoeata ropa aac fees and Bihar.
ton)

Family: CHANNIDAE
58. Channa gachua (Hamilton) ...| Tangla. F India, Burma, Ceylon
and the Andamans.

59. Channa marulius (Hamilton) | Tangla. Ceylon and India to
hina.

60. Channa punctatus (Bloch) ... | Mangaldai and Tangla. Throughout India, Burma

and Malaya.

Family: ANABANTIDAE

61. Anabas testudineus (Bloch) ... | Mangaldaiand Tangla. | Ceylon, India, Burma and
| further east. é

Family: PERCIDAE

62. Ambassis nama (Hamilton) ...

Tezpur Fish Market.
63. Ambassis ranga (Hamilton) ...

Tezpur Fish Market,
Tangla and Lokra.

India and Burma.
India, Burma and Siam.

Family: OSPHRONEMIDAE

64. Colisa chuna (Hamilton) ... | Tezpur and Tangla. | Bengal and Assam.
65. Colisa fasciatus (Bloch and|Mangaldai, Tangla and Eas and Burma.
Schneider) Tezpur.

Family: GOBIIDAE

India, Burma and further

66. Glossogobius giuris (Hamil- zp Fish Market.
O00 east.

ton)

Family: NANDIDAE

67. Ladis badis (Hamilton) ahs
68. Nandus nandus (Hamilton) ...

Lokra.
Mangaldai and Tezpur
Fish Market.

(CRE TS CR FN SRLS RP RE ESSERE RETORTED (COE ESCAPES ST ERR YO RES SN RA SECRETE IC TT

India and Burma.
India, Burma and Siam.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 723

Name of Species Locality in Assam Further Distribution

Family: MASTACEMBELIDAE

69. Mastacembelus pancalus Large rivers of India and
(Hamilton) ... | Langla. localities near sea.
70. Rhkynchobdella aculeata Common in the deltaic

(Bloch) ... | Tezpur Fish Market. regions of N. India.
|

The majority of the species are fairly well known and widely distributed
and do not call for any special remarks. Some remarks are, however,
made on the following:

Setipinna phasa (Hamilton)

1822. Clupea phasa, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 241, 382, pl. ii,
ne, Wa

1878. Engraulis telara, Day, Fish. India, p. 627, pl. Cl viii, fig. 2.

1953. Setzbinna phasa, Misra, Rec. Ind, Mus., L, p. 384, fig. 6a.

In the collection under report Setipinna phasa is represented by a
single specimen, about 11:2 inches in total length, purchased from Tezpur
Fish Market. —

It is distributed in Orissa, Bengai, Cachar and Burma.

Nemachilus savona (Hamilton)

1822. Cobzitzs savona Hamilton, Fish. Ganges p. 357,

1935. Memachilus savona Hora, Ree. Ind. Mus., XXXVII, p. 56, pi.
iii, figs. 3 and 4.

A single specimen of VV. savona was caught in Bhareli River about 2
miles below Lokra. |

Hora gives the distribution of the species as ‘the foot of the Darjeeling
Himalayas at Sevoke and Siliguri ’.

Glyptothorax rebeiroj (Hora)

(1921. Laguvia rebeiroi, Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., XXII, p. 741, pl. xxix,
fig. 3.
1954. Glyplothovax rebetrot Menon, Ree. Ind. Mus., LIL, p. 27.

Hora, in his paper referred to above, distinguished Laguvza from Gly-
ptothorax only in the possession of humerocubital and scapular processes,
the presence of bony tubercles on the sides of the body and in the absence
of a well marked adhesive thoracic apparatus. Menon, on examination of
the collections of Glyptothorax, proposed to merge Laguvia Hora into
the synonymy of Glyptothorax Blyth.

In Dr. Hora’s coliection there are 8 specimens of G. vedeivoi caught in
streamlets of Tangla.

The distribution of the species is as follows: ‘Tista drainage, Dar-
jeeling Himalayas, Kosi River, Nepal, Himalayas, Morel River, Santal
14

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

Parganas and Kamala River, Darbhanga District; Bihar and Rihand
River, Vindhya Pradesh.

Doryichthys deocata (Hamilton)

1822. Syngnathus deocata Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 114, 363.
1877.. Doryichthys deocata Day, Fish. India, P. 680.

The only specimenjunder report was caught in streamlets of Tangla,
Darrang Dist.

Day recorded the species from Bengal and Bihar.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Kk, L. SEHGAL,
CALCUTTA,
December 29, 1955.

REFERENCES

Hora, S. L. (1921): Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with some Observations on
those of the Naga Hills. ec. Znd. Mus. XXII: 165--214. ;

— — — (1924): Fish of the Siju Cave, Garo Hills, Assam. ec.-lnd. Mus.
XXVI: 27-32.

— — — (1936): Ona further Collection of Fish from the Naga Hills. ec.
Ind. Mus. XXXVI: 317-31.

— — — (1937) : On a Small Collection of Fish from the Upper Chindwin
Drainage. ec. Ind. Mus. XXXIX: 331-38.

— — — and Mukerji, D. D. (1935): Fish of the Naga Hills, Assam. Ree. /nd.
Mus. XXXVI: 381-404.

Menon, A. G. K. (1954) : Further Observations on the Fish-Fauna of the Mani-
pur State. Mec. Ind. Mus. LIL: 21-26

—— —,M.A.S. (1952) : On a Small Collection of Fish from Manipur, Assam.
Rec. Ind. Mus. Wi: 265-70.

24.° A RECORD OF THE SUN-FISH, RANZANIA TRUNCATA
(RETZIUS) NEAR BEYPORE, MALABAR COAST

(With a photo)

On 14 February 1956 one female specimen of Ranzania truncata
was captured by the local fishermen from the shallow waters near
iseypore, seven miles south of Calicut. It showed all the typical
characters of the species, such as oblong body twice as long as deep,
smooth and tessellated skin and truncate caudal. The fish measured
61 cm. in length and 30 cm. in width. The dorsal fin was 17 cm.
high and 6.5 cm. at base; and had 17 rays. Anal was 15 cm. long
and 6 cm. at base; and had 18 rays. Pectoral was 10.5 cm. high
and 3 cm. at base; and had 13 rays. Eyes were 3.5 cm. in diameter.
Skin was 1 cm. thick. Mouth-opening was terminal, oval in shape
and 3.51.5 cm. in size. Alimentary tract was a straight tube 115 cm.
in length, and contained digested mucilaginous matter. Ovary was
single-lobed, 22x 6.5 cm. in size and 220 grams in weight; and con-
tained 14 lakhs eggs. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES... Va rox

This is a new record of this oceanic fish in this coastal area. It
is probable that the fish had followed one of the ocean-going vessels

that frequently call at Beypore port and then drifted towards
the shore. The specimen is kept in the museum of the Marine
Biological Station, West Hill.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION, |
West Hitt, Marazar, Pees CLIACK ©
February 24, 1956. M. J. MATHEW

{Occurrence of members of the family Mollidae along the coast
of India is rare. From Bombay, a specimen of Masturus lanceolatus
was recorded for the first time by Dr. Kulkarni (JBNHS, 51: 940,
1953). The present record of the Sun fish, Ranzania truncata, from
the Malabar Coast near Beypore, appears to be the second record of
its occurrence on the West Coast of India.—Ebs. |

25. OCCURRENCE OF THE COPEPOD PARASITE LERNEA
ELEGANS ON OPHICEPHALUS STRIATUS: FISH
FRY IN MYSORE

A bath of 580 Ophicephalus striatus fish fry of 1” size were
tollected on 7-6-1949 in the Palar River below the Ramasagara tank.
The fry were transferred to a nursery pond in the Markandeya Fish
Farm in Kolar district. On 11-7-1949, 100 fish fry from this batch
were collected to record their growth in length and weight. While

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 53

doing so, it was noticed that over 60% of the fish fry were infested
with external parasites in the region of the pectoral, pelvic and dorsal
fins. On dislodging these parasites, it was noticed that the parasites
had firmly fixed themselves in the flesh of the fish with the help of
an anchor-like appendage. The anchor was fleshy in colour while
the body of the parasite was dark, and near the free end there were
two bags containing eggs of the parasite. On the body of the parasite,
there were green filamentous growths which were later identified as
colonies of Vorticella. Mortality due to this parasitic infestation was
negligible. The parasites were later identified as copepod parasites
belonging to the species Lernea elegans. The infestation of the
parasite was gradually reduced by plucking out at each reading, so
much so that by the time the fish had grown to 3.5” the parasites
were completely eliminated.

Of the thousands of fish fingerlings handled by us, both in Kolar
and other-districts, this is the only record of the occurrence of copepod
parasites on fish fingerlings in Mysore State.

FISHERIES SECTION,

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, H. D. R. IYENGAR
GOVERNMENT OF Mysore, BANGALORE, K. VENKATESH

November 18, 1955.

26. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SUBMERGED AQUATIC
VEGETATION IN POND FISHERIES BY CULTURE OF
‘KATLIT [BARBUS (LISSOCHILUS) HEXAGONOLEPIS],

A HILL STREAM SPECIES OF FISH OF DARJEE-
LING DISTRICT (WEST BENGAL)

In the management of pond fisheries, one of the major problems
which stands in the way of the fish farmers of West Bengal is the
effective eradication of unwanted water weeds and their control. Up
till now, no chemical or mechanical methods are known which can be
effectively used for the purpose. Series of investigations were carried
out in the laboratory as well as in the field stations of the Directorate
with regard to the use of chemicals like sodium arsenite, copper
sulphate, nigrosine, 2-4-D etc. for the purpose, but no suitable solu-
tion to the problem could be found, in view of the fact that the effective
chemicals were either too expensive or too poisonous in character, which
restricted their use. Various forms of mechanical contrivances were
also tried but, in view of tender nature of the vegetation, no material
success could also be achieved in this respect.

The F. A. OQ. Expert, who was assigned for advising the State
Government in the matter of inland fisheries development, suggested
liberation of exotic fish like Zilapia mossambica and Puntius javanicus
in West Bengal water for the purpose. But experiments carried out in
different laboratories of India on the food and feeding habits of
Lilapia mossambica indicate that, at certain stages, it may be inimical
to the fry of Indian major carps and, as such, introduction of this

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 727

species in Indian waters cannot be encour e ce until further information
is available.

It was subsequently observed that the hill stream species of fish
‘Kath’ was purely herbivorous in character and ate up readily the
leaves of quite a good number of hill shrubs given to it. On the
basis of this observation, a consignment of about oo fingerlings of
‘Katli? was brought by air from Kalimpong (Darjeeling) in October
1953, after collecting the same from the river Ryang with the idea
of studying:

(i) how far its herbivorous character could be utilised for effecting
biological control of unwanted submerged aquatic vegetation in pond
fisheries ;

(ii) how far it could be acclimatised to withstand higher atmos-
pheric temperature in the plain;

(iii) its effect on the culture of Indian major carps; and

(iv) possibility of its breeding in confined waters in the plain.

EXPERIMENTAL

Ninety fingerlings, measuring between 2.5 to 4 inches, were
liberated in a specially constructed tank in the departmental fish farm
near Calcutta. The size of the tank was 720 sq. ft. having 5 ft.
depth. Subsequent to liberation of the fingerlings, the tank was Ake
stocked with an equal number of Rohu (Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla catla)
and Mrigal (Cirrhina mrigala), sizes varying from 2.3 to 2.7 inches.
Prior to liberation of the fingerlings, the tank was planted with aquatic
weeds like Vallisneria, Hydrilla and Ceratophyllum. Along with the
field investigations, aquarium experiments were also conducted with
the types of vegetation mentioned above. General performance of
the liberated fingerlings of different species, their growth rates and
effect on the vegetation were kept under close observation.

DISCUSSION

From the results obtained so far, it has been found that neither

any distressed condition was observed in ‘Katli’ even at an atmospheric

temperature of 1r0°F., nor was there any mortality, although at the
time of collection of fingerlings from the hill streams the temperature
was about 56°F. Moreover, although there was material difference
in the water qualities of the river Ryang and of the farm tank, as
may be seen from the undernoted analytical results, no change was
noticeable in the locomotory activities of the fish and its physiological
condition at any stage.

After a period of about 7 months, settled sewage water was
introduced into the tank in regulated doses but no adverse effect was
noticed.

Both in aquarium and field experiments it was found that ‘Katli’
fingerlings used to feed on all the three types of vegetation noted
and its herbivorous character could be effectively utilized for eradica-

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

tion of unwanted submerged water weeds with which the West Bengal
fish farmers are mostly concerned. Further experiments for assessing
the number of fingerlings needed under varying concentration of vegeta-
tion are in progress.

Water quality ot the Water quality of the

viver Ryang tarm tank

pH ae 6°9 8:6
Alkalinity as CaCo, ... 21 ppm. 105 ppm.
Dissolved oxygen as Soll CH 5,
Salinity as chlorine .... O99 520 ae
Dissolved phosphate as

EOF a 0-4 ,, Aad
Saline ammonia as N,. 0:48 ,, 14 ~=C;;
Dissolved nitrate as N,. Trace 0:04 -,,
Dissolved nitrite as N,. Nil 04 =,,

From the study of comparative growth rates of ‘Katli’ and the
three species of Indian major carps, it appeared that Katli had no
inimical effect on the growth rate of major carps, and as such their
mixed culture seemed to be promising. The undernoted results on
their length measurements would show that growth rate of ‘Katli’
compared favourably with that of Rohu and Mrigal. Catla, however,
appeared to have grown faster. ae

Lengthiindticated in inches.

Osserved tn. Observed
October. in April
ISS, ace SPE b Ss
‘Katli’ oe 2°5 to 4:5 Te te ri
Rohu (Labeo rohita) $65. ED OEY 7°4 to 9°5
Mrigal (Cirrhina mrigala).... 2°4 to 4°3 CHE) tt SO)
~Catla (Catla catla) . | Pa 25 to 4:7 8°6 to 13-1

The fingerlings were kept under close observation to see their
possibility of- breeding in confined water in the plains.

According to Hora-.and Nazir Ahmed (1946) as well as Langdale
Smith (1944) ‘Katli’ breeds in summer (August to September). But
in our case, although one summer. has passed since the observations
started, neither any egg-bearing sign in any of the female ‘Kathi’
could be noticed nor any spawn or fry detected in the tank. It may
be that by that time the females did not attain sufficient maturity
necessary for spawning. In a note on Langdale Smith’s observations

* This large difference is due to the fact that the farm water was sewage-fed
and therefore. of very high salinity.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 729

on the breeding habits of ‘Katli’, Hora (1944) stated: ‘It is now
clear to us that the small size of breeding males, 4” to 7” in length,
found by us in the Rambi, Ryang and Tista rivers is not due to any
adverse effect of the effluent from the Cinchona Factory at Mungpoo
but is the natural size at which the fish begins to breed.’ Hora and
Nazir Ahmed (1943) observed that males become fully mature when
they are only 91 mm. It was also observed by the authors that
whereas males of gt mm. in length had attained maturity, females
of 195. mm. in length showed that the eggs were just forming in the
ovary. According to Hora and Nazir Ahmed (1946), whereas males
mature when they are small in size, the females rarely attain maturity
under 9 inches in size.

From the observations made by the above workers, faiiure of ‘Kathi’
to breed in the farm tank up to September 1954 was perhaps due to
insufficient maturity in female specimens. However, further observa-
tions in this regard are in progress.

SUMMARY

The hill-stream species of fish ‘Katli’ [Barbus (Lissochilus)
Be tonal was found to feed on submerged aquatic weeds like
Valisneria, Hydrilla and Ceratophyllum.

2. No change was observed in the locomotory activities of the fish
and its physiological condition under the altered climatic conditions
of the plains.

3. The fish was found to have no inimical effect on the growth
rate of Indian major carps (Rohu, Catla and Mrigal) and as such
their mixed culture seemed to be promising.

4. During the period under report (October 1953 to Sestember 1954)
no symptom was observed in any of the fish indicating possibility of
its breeding in confined waters of the plains.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our Bese chances are due to the Government of West Bengal for
providing the facilities and funds for carrying out the investigations.

TECHNOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
DIRECTORATE ‘OF FISHERIES, aes K. C. SAHA
GOVERNMENT OF WeEsT BENGAL. } ID, IP, SIBINT

REFERENCES

“Hora, S. L. & Nair, K. K. (1943): The Game Fish Bokar of the Assamese
or Katli of the Nepalese Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland, Jour.
Bengal. Nat. Hist. Soc. Xvii: 107.

_Hora, -S...L. -(1944): Jour. Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc. xix: 90.

Hora, S. L. & Nazir Ahmed (1946): Culture of Katli Barbus (Lissochilus)
hexagonolepis McClelland, in. the Darjeeling Himalayas, Fishery Development
Pamphlet No. 2, Government of Bengal.

Langdale Smith, W. K. (1944): A note on the breeding habits of ‘Kathi’
Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland ; Jour, Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc, xix: 89.

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

27. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THREE SACCULINA
PARASITISING THE EDIBLE CRAB NEPTUNUS
SANG UINOLENTUS

(With a photograph)

The crab showing the three parasites attached to its abdomen.

The record of a single host crab parasitised by more than one Saccu-
lina of the same species seems to be very rare. George! recorded a case
of a female crab parasitised by two forms belonging to the genus Succu-
lina which he provisionally identified as sp. Rotundata. Further, the
usual site of attachment of Saccalina externa is given as the junction
of the thorax and abdomen.?

In a collection of 193 crabs (Weptunus sanguinolentus) caught off
the Ramnad coast on 6 February 1956, the authors noticed that 169
were parasitised by the genus Sacculina. It was observed that out of
the 169 infected ones, 73 showed the presencé of two parasites, while 5
of them had three each, attached close behind one another to the inner
face of the abdomen. Details of a few typical forms are given in the
table.

George! noticed that the place of attachment of the forms he
studied was the 3rd and 4th abdominal segments. It is evident from the
table that there is no regularity regarding the exact point of emergence
of Sacculina externa on the abdomen. It was very noteworthy that
all the parasitised forms in our collection have been females. From the
point of the number of parasites infesting a single host, this collection

1 George, M. J. (1948): Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., B.: 207.
* Smith, G, (1906) : Fauna und Flora des Golfes Von Neapel : 123.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 731

TABLE SHOWING THE DETAILS OF THE HOST AND PARASITE

Measurements of

Breadth off Number the parasites Site of attach- | Nature of
Sex of Sel fae om ment on the ata
crab | Ol crab IN | poracites | | segment of appendage
min, P peneth in | reat abdomen of host
f 1, 12 23 |Funetion of abdo-
Female 65 3.2) |e he 1s | men and thorax| bsent
Giesurisale o20 :
( Mo) IS) 20 1-2
Do. 62 3 1 2. i 14 93 absent
hele 18 ie
(| 1. 16 22 =
Do 70° 3 l Bo sie 15 3 absent
aby ae TG
ib D> on 3
Do. 64 3 746 XK) HS) 3 absent
| Bey ey ae
Ie Mz 18 D)
Do. 68 3 Bo dt 21 93 absent
Do. 67 Berar | a6 1 absent
; 3-4
5 ako)
Do. 67 2 | - te : : Reduced
Do. 66 2 1 | . e of 2 | absent
ey 3-4 |
Do. 62 2 | ; i ce a | absent
| lily Se |
Do 60 2 : | 2-3 _ absent
i ivemaels 19 o
Do 60 BN gS? Giga on 2 absent
| 3-4 |
Hs dfs} 24 |
Do 59 2 | DO) 12 : absent
Se US ere
Do 57 2 1 2D Wo |. 1 | : absent
( | de ats) 22 Junction of thor-| absent
Do. 52 2 i | ‘ax and abdomen
: 2, ah i | 3-4

seems to be remarkable since more than 40 per cent of the CHS showed
the presence of more than one parasite,

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

A detailed study of the life history and effects of the parasite on the
host is in progress. -
Thanks are due to Prof. J. Samuel Raj for facilities given.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, N. BALAKRISHNAN NAYAR,
ALAGAPPA COLLEGE, KARAIKUDI, O. N. GURUMANI.
February 18, 1956.

28. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE FRESHWATER CRAB
PARATELPHUSA (OZIOTELPHUSA) HYDRODROMUS
(HERBST)

In November 1954, Mr. Humayun Abdulali collected some fresh-
water crabs at Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft. {Satara District, Bombay
State). One of these has been identified as Pavratelphusa (Oziotel-
phusa) hydrodromus (Herbst) at the Taraporevala Marine Biological
Station, Bombay, and confirmed at the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
The characteristics of this species are the strong convexity of the
carapace, separation of the free edge of the ‘front’ proper from the
antennular edge of the front, and by the post-orbital crests ending
well in the rear of the small lateral. epibranchial teeth.

Alcock! gives the distribution of this crab as Bengal (Ranigunj,
Barabhoom, Calcutta), Allahabad, Orissa, and various localities in
South India (Pondicherry, Ellore, Madras, Madura, Travancore and
Calicut). Chopra and Tiwari? (1947) have subsequently recorded it
from Patna (Orissa). Pillai? describes this crab ‘as a common species
all along the west coast of India and the Madras Presidency’. On
inquiry it transpires, however, that his statement is based on Alcock's
records from Pallode and Shenkottah (both places in the southern-
most part of the Western Ghats in Travancore), and the crab was
so far not recorded, although so referred to by Pillai, north of
Calicut along the west coast of India. The present record, there-
fore, constitutes a considerable extension of the known range of this
species.

TARAPOREVALA AQUARIUM,
BomBAY 2, | B. F,. CHHAPGAR

April 4, 1956.

* Alcock, A. (1910): Paratelphusa (Oziotelphusa) hydrodromus, Cat. Ind. Dec.
Crust. part I, Brachyura, pp. 97-100, pl. xiii, fig. 60.

* Chopra, B. & Tiwari, K. K. (1947): Paratelphusa (Oziotelphusa) hydrodromus,
Rec. Ind. Mus. xlv: 214.

* Pillai, N. Krishna (1951): Paratelphusa (Oziotelphusa) hydrodromus, Bull.
Central Research Institute, University of Travancore, Trivandrum II, No. 1,
Series "Cy ips hv,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 933

29, MITES FROM THE GILLS OF THE UNIO, ANODONTA
MARGINALIS

In course of normal dissections of the common fresh water mussel,
Anodonta marginalis, presence of mites in the gills has been recorded.
The mussels were collected in the month of February 1956 from the
ponds near about Calcutta. Almost all the specimens examined were
found to be infected with the mites in varying extent. The number
of mites in the gills ranged from two to twenty-five. They were
found to occupy the spaces between the lamellae of the gills.

The mites appear to belong to the genus Tombidium. They are
pale brownish in colour and are somewhat oval in outline, and all
the walking legs are hairy. The chelicerae are simple hook-like
structures and gradually taper at the outer extremity.

Body length from tip to tip (including the mouth parts) varies
between .708 to. .712 mm. The breadth of the body between the
2nd and 3rd leg is between .531 to .540 mm. ‘The average length
of the legs is 6.49 mm.

It would be very interesting to study the pathological implications
on the gills due to the presence of these mites. Incidentally, in the
present case no visible change in the gills was apparent.

_ ENTOMOLOGY LABORATORY,

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, BARUNDEB BANERJEF
CALCUTTA,

April 25, 1956.

REFERENCE

Shipley, A. E., Warburton, & others (1909): Cambridge Natural History Vol. 4.

30. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE ECOLOGY AND
BEHAVIOUR OF THE COMMON INDIAN APPLE-SNAIL
PILA GLOBOSA (SWAINSON)

(With two text-figures)

Pila globosa is studied as a type of Gastropoda in most of the
Indian Universities. It is a freshwater and amphibious snail sup-
posed to have descended from a marine ancestor which became
established in estuarine waters. Lal and Saxena (1952) have de-.
monstrated that this snail possesses uricotelic metabolism, hence its
penetration in freshwater appears to be secondary. The present.
observations were made during a period of two years near the lakes
oi Chinhat, Kathota and Marayon in the vicinity of, Lucknow. (India),
when the author had to collect the snails for studies on the blood and
excretory constituents of Pila globosa. | |

For the greater part of the year Pila globosa aestivates under
ground but appears in the water during the hot monsoon months of
July and August in Northern India, This is the most vital part of

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

the life of these snails. The nitrogenous excretory products accu-
mulated during aestivation are unloaded (Saxena 1955). These
snails feed and breed, as well, in this part of the year. Pila globosa
is conspicuous by its strict terrestrial oviparity and complete cleidoic
eggs. They have been observed to possess a strong instinct for laying
eggs in dry protected corners, both in nature and under experimental
conditions. According to Bahl (1928) oviposition in these snails can be
delayed by preventing impregnated females from going out of water,
but as soon as this check is removed oviposition begins. Expert!-
ments were performed to exhibit the intensity of this instinct and
learning behaviour in these snails.

ss pleiim’ ent) 21:

Two aquaria (a) and (b) of similar size, measuring 20” x 12” x 11”
were put in a glass chamber measuring 40” x 27” x 40” as shown in
figure 1. In aquarium (a) sufficient mud was placed so as to fill it

up to one quarter of its height, while in (b) enough water was poured
to fill it up to three quarters of its height. A few snails from the
laboratory aquarium were placed in (a) and (b) aquaria. In the middle
of July some snails were found pairing in aquarium (b), but oviposi-
tion could be observed in (a). It was interesting to observe that the
snails in aquarium (b) learnt to climb up the inner wall of the aquarium
and descend along the outer wall, and laid eggs in a dry corner of
the glass chamber.

Experiment 2:

In another experiment two jars each measuring 6” x6” x 14”
containing water were kept in the aquaria (a) and (b), other things
being the same as in experiment 1. In this experiment the snails

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 735

were kept in the glass jars. The snails from the jar contained in
aquarium (w) came out and laid eggs on the mud in the corner of the
aquarium, but remarkably enough the snails of the jar in aquarium
(b) not only climbed out of the jar but also from the aquarium and
laid eggs in the dry corner of the glass chamber. Not only is the
judgment of the snails that the corner was the safest place note-
worthy, but the posture of the animal during oviposition also was
such as to avoid any chance of detection of the eggs by enemies.
Figure. 2.

Fig, 2

aq., aquarium; g.ch., glass chamber ; sn., snail ; wr., water.

It is evident from these experiments that not only may there
exist a natural rhythm to initiate oviposition in a particular part of
the year, but also that these snails possess a strong instinct to lay
eggs in dry protected places. ‘These experiments on the other hand
also amply illustrate the learning ability of Pila globosa to some
extent.

Pila globosa appears to be incapable of tolerating even the summer
and winter temperatures of 35°C. and 20°C. respectively, when
accompanied by drought, hence the winter and the summer hiberna-
tions are clearly marked with a break in the rainy season. During
hibernation the snail closely fits its operculum to the sheli to make it
an air-tight box, thereby eliminating any chances of water evaporation
and for maintaining an optimum humidity inside the shell. When
a snail is dug out from its hibernating burrow even in the hottest
part of the year, the viscera of the animal appear as if quite drenched
in water.

These snails usually occur near the banks of the lakes and seldom
venture into deeper waters. However, it was sometimes possible to

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58

encounter a few snails in the deeper waters during the period they
actually hibernate. It appears that they were thrown there by some
mechanical agent, rather thati went by themselves to lead a life of
semi-hibernation. With the onset of summer, the water slowly
evaporates from the ponds and the lakes leaving the banks still soft
and muddy. At this time they bore their way into the ground
by the aid of their foot which is the main organ employed for digging
and progression. In ditches where all the water dries up, the snails
burrow into the bottom mud. With the return of the rains they come
out through the softening of the mud surrounding their burrows.

It is also worth mentioning that when some hibernating snails
Were maintained in the laboratory aquarium in summer with hydrilla
twigs as food, they became active, fed and passed faeces. On ihe
other hand during winter, they only respired by projecting their
siphons above the water level in the aquarium, but neither ate nor
passed faeces. ‘These snails may be more intolerant to cold than to
heat. They are mostly herbivorous and their food consists of aquatic
plants like Hydrilla and succulent plants like Vallisneria and Pistia.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW, B. B. SAXENA
INDIA,

February 15, 1956.

REFERENCES

Bahl, K. N. (1928): On the Reproductive Processes and Development of Pila
globosa (Swainson). Rec. Ind. Mus., 9: 1.

Lal, M. B. & Saxena, B. B. (1952): Uricotelism in Pila globosa (Swainson).
Nature., 170: 95.

Saxena, B. B. (1955): Physiology of Excretion in the Common Indian Apple-
snail, Pila globosa (Swainson). Jour. Anim. Morph. Physiol., Bombay. I1 (2).
87-95—December.

31. THE HORNED HELME1, CASSIS
CORNUTA LINN.—AN ADDITION TO THE LIST OF
MARINE GASTROPODS OF BOMBAY

(With a photo)

On 21 September 1955 one Shri Santosh Kumar, a_ diver,
brought in a huge gastropod shell popularly called the Horned Helmet
or Great Helmet-Shell or Elephant-Chank—Cassis cornuta Linn.
(Cassididae) weighing 3 Ib. which, he said, had been found at a depth
of about 12 ft. in the Ballard Pier waters, Bombay.

This species has not been included in ‘The Marine Mollusca of
Bombay 1893’ by James Cosmo Melvill and Alexander Abercrombie’,
or in the additional list of 25 new species by James Cosmo Melvill?.

* Mem. & Proc. Manchester Literary & Philosophical Soc., Vol, 7, 4th series.
* Vol. 7, series 4.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 737

Neither does it appear in ‘The Marine Gastropoda. of Bombay’ by
LT. V. Subrahmanyam, K. R. Karandikar and N. N. Murthi'.

Cassis cornuta Linn. is the largest and the heaviest in the genus
Cassis and has a wide distribution ranging from Mauritius to Japan.
In Indian waters it has been recorded from a depth of 8-10 fathoms
on the Pearl Banks in the Gulf of Mannar, and also from the
Coromandel Coast, the Maidives and the Andamans. Its distribution,
according to Reeve, is ‘Moluccas, West Indies and Pacific Islands’.
It is not mentioned in Schepman’s Siboga Expedition Monograph.

There is only one specimen of this species weighing 3 Ib, 154 02.
in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, obtained from the
Andamans. The molluscan collections of the Government museums
of Madras and Travancore do not include this species.

The present seems to be the first specimen from Bombay waters
and is therefore worth recording. It was very kind of the diver,
Santosh Kumar, to have presented this rare and interesting shell to

the Museum.

NaturaL History SEcTION,
PRINCE OF WaLes Museum or W. Inp1A, Wolk CISLAURIL,
BomBay, Offg. Curator

February 29, 1956.

[James Hornell in ‘Indian Molluscs’, p. 22 says: ‘The larger
Helmet-Shells (Cassididae) are represented in India by two species,

' Journ. Univ. of Bombay, Vol. xx, pt. 8, 1951.

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 63

the Great Helmet-Shell Cassis cornuta and the Red Helmet Cassis
rufa. The former is the largest and heaviest of Indian gastropods,

its shell weighing several pounds . .. These great shells are rare
and are usually found at a depth of eight to ten fathoms on the pearl
banks in the Gulf of Mannar, and in the same depth in the neighbour-
hood of the Laccadives.’—Eps. |

32. OCCURRENCE OF THE FAIRY SHRIMP
STREPTOCEPHALUS DICHOTOMUS (BAIRD 1860)
IN MYSORE STATE

During November 1949, while trial nettings were being conducted
in the rearing ponds in Markonahally Fish Farm, which is situated at.
an elevation of 2,600 ft. in Tumkur district, it was noticed that objects
like shrimps were caught along with the fish in a cast net. When
these were introduced in an aquarium, they began swimming upside
down with a rhythmic movement of their appendages. The fishermen
in the locality had never seen such shrimps. These were later
identified as fairy shrimps Streptocephalus dichotomus (Baird 1860).
They are being recorded for the first time from this area.

The water in the ponds was muddy and the fairy shrimps were
in abundance for over a week. They then disappeared and all attempts
to locate them up to this day have been futile.

Four years later, another instance of the appearance of the same
species of fairy shrimps was recorded in Bikasipur tank in Bangalore
district, about 10 miles from Bangalore, at an elevation of 3,200 it.
The tank is situated in a deep valley. A good number of them were
taken out in a prawn net in September 1953. The water in the tank
was muddy and contained no vegetation of higher aquatic type.
These are the only two recorded instances of the occurrence of the
Fairy Shrimp in Mysore State.

FISHERIES SECTION,

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, H. D. R. IYENGAR
GOVERMENT OF Mysore, BANGALORE, _ N. BASAVAIAH
November 18, 1955.

33. NOTES ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF ASSAM—IIL
FURTHER ADDITIONS TO THE INDIAN LIST AND
OTHER NOTES

9, Lycaenopsis ceyx cerima Corbet

Since my last note on this species (Norman, 1953) I have identified a Q
and taken another of in the same locality (Sibsagar Dist., Upper Assam).
The 9 is new to science, and I give a detailed description,

9, Upperside, forewing. Black border 1 mm. at base of costa increasing
to 4 mm. at the apex; evenly 2 mm. along the termen. ‘The rest of the
forewing is ditty white, becoming darker towards the base, and overlaid
With shining blue scales which are more obvious ina side light. ‘The
white is clearest in the basal two-thirds of spaces 2 and 3 and in the base

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 739

of space 4. Hzxdwing. Dirty white below vein 7, spaces 4, 5 and 6 being
purer white than the rest of the wing. Overlaid with blue scales as in the
forewing. Equal sub-marginal black spots at ends of veins 1-6. Uvxder-
stde. Similar to the previously published description of the #. (Norman,
1953).

Field identification. Discal spots underfore on a very even curve: Sub-
marginal spots but no lunules on the underside of both wings, giving an
appearance similar to that of a/bocoerulea Moore.

10. Amblypodia nicevillei B. Bkr.

This species flies in the Kabaw Valley in April in company with A.
stlhetensis. In view cf this, Brigadier Evans, to whom I have shown my
specimens, considers that zzcev7llez should be regarded as a good species.

11. Tros plutonius tytleri Evans

Two specimens of this species, previously only recorded eastwards
from Manipur, have been taken by my collectors in the Naga Hills.

2 Papilio machaon verityi Fruh.

My collectors recently sent a specimen of this species, caught in the
Naga Hills, to Mr. A. E. G. Best, to whom I atm much indebted for the
gift of the specimen. Itis known to be fairly plentiful on Mt. Surot in
Manipur, but this may be the first record from the Nagas.

13. Aporia harrietae De N.

A oitakenin the Nagas (near Jhakama) in October 1953 is the first
record of any habitat for this species elsewhere than in Bhutan. Com-
pared with Bhutan specimens mine is darker, and all pale areas on the
upperside are more restricted.

14, Mycalesis mnasicles perna Fruh.
This species flies commonly in the Kabaw Valley.

15, Chersonesia rahria rahrioides Moore

This species, whose distribution Evans (1932) gives as Manipur-Burma,
is common in the Sibsagar district of the Assam Valley.

16. Neptis assamica \Woore

‘This species is listed by Evans (1932) in error as a sub-species of XV.
dindinga. I have caught three specimens of this very rare species in the
Sibsagar district in February.

17. Polytremis minuta Evans 2

Scobura woolletti woolletti Riley 1

I have taken both of these species, (previously only recorded from
Manipur) in the Sibsagar district. |

18. Plastingis sala Hewitson
1 J Sibsagar district. This species appears to be fairly common in
SW. India, but hitherto it has been recorded from nowhere between
the West coast and Burma.
15

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

19. Amblypodia apha De N.

One § from Sibsagar district (Garmpani Reserve) in August constitu-
tes a new addition to the Indian list. Previously only recorded from
S. Burma.

20. Amblypodia alesia Felder. Several 3

A. aceta De N. Several <\('.

A. belphoebe Doherty One ¢.

Tajuria isaeus De N. One 9.

Rapala kessuma deliochus Hew. One 9.
Bibasis etelka Hew. One.

I have taken all the above species in the Kabaw Valley in April, and
they must therefore be added to the Indian list.

21. Plastingia tavoyana Evans

This species, previously only recorded from Burma, Siam and Borneo,.
flies in the Kabaw Valley. From the evidence of the one specimen I have
caught and shown him, Brigadier Evans considers that the Kabaw Valley
specimens will turn out to be at least a new sub-species,

22. Isma Distant
I have caught two identical 99 of a species belonging to this genus in

the Sibsagar district of Assam. The genus has not previously been

recorded from India. My specimens are almost certainly referable to a
new species.

Throughout these notes the Kabaw Valley refers to the country on
the Indian side of the Manipur-Burma border.

One specimen each of three species formerly unrepresented there has
been presented to the National Collection of the ZoologicalSurvey of India

in Calcutta. These are:
Lycaenopsts ceyx cerima Corbet %.
Thecla kabrua Tytler 3.
Thecla kirbariensis Tytler j.

I am much indebted to the authorities at the Zoological Survey of
India (Calcutta) and at the British Museum of Natural History (London)
for permission to study material in their charge ; and to Brigadier W. H.
Evans and Sir Keith Cantlie for much help and advice.

SELENG TEA ESTATE T. NORMAN.
SELENG Hat P.O., ASSAM
February 17, 1956.

REFERENCES

Evans, W. H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies.

Norman, ‘TT. (1953): Notes on the Lepidoptera of Assam—Il. JBNAS, 51 (2):
515-517,

—

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 74,

34. THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF THE THREE
FEMALE FORMS OF PAPILIO POLYTES L. IN CALCUTTA

With reference to Mr. Sanders’ note (1955, /BNHS, 52: 805), the
note of mine, to which he refers, was published in 1944 (journ. Beng.
N.H. Soc., 19: 76) and was evidently based on insufficient material.

In 1947 (Entomologist, 80: 172) I published a short note giving
a summary of the published accounts of the relative abundance of the
three forms, and added the results of my own rearing from eggs
collected over a longish period from orange trees in my own and
neighbouring public gardens in Calcutta. The collecting was done at
intervals of a few days, so that it can be claimed that the resuits are
fully representative of the population. The figures are as under:

Males Bh 80
Females f. s¢zchius Bee 65

f. vomulus Dee 12

f. cyrus Bae 18 95

If anything, the proportion of romulus may be a little higher than it
ought to be as a batch of some half dozen eggs was once found,
obviously the product of a crippled female, and this produced three
vomulus females and three males.

It will be seen that the number of females reared excéeded the
number of males. Due to their more retiring habits females are usually
less in evidence than the other sex.

MomBaSA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO,
February 10, 1956. F.R.E.S.

35. THE ‘SLUG’ CATERPILLAR, PARASA LEPIDA CR.,
AND ITS CONTROL

Ananthanarayan and Abraham’s paper under this heading (1955,
JBNHS, 53: 205) omits any mention of what is undoubtedly its most
interesting parasite. This is the Chrysidid wasp Chrysis shanghaiensis
Smith. In 1936, in Calcutta, I found a considerable proportion of
the cocoons of P. lepida spun on the trunk of a mango tree had been
parasitised by the Chrysid, (mihi,—1937, Proc. R. Ent. Soc., Lond.,
(A), Has ti):

The Chrysididae, also known as Cuckoo or Rubytail Wasps, betong
to the Vespoidae and are normally parasites of other solitary wasps,
the parasite larva feeding on the host larva and the insects stored for
its food. The direct parasitisation of a Lepidopteron by a Chrysid
may give an indication of how the parasitic habits of the more highly
specialised Ichneumonidae and Braconidae have arisen. Firstiy the
collection and storage of insects for food for the larva; secondly the
‘cuckolding’ of other species of solitary wasp; thirdly the laying of
an egg on or near a lepidopterous cocoon, as in the present species;

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST SOCTEDN Vol.53

and finally the highly specialised habits of the modern ichneumonidae
and Braconidae.

As a matter of interest, P. lepida is also well known as a pest
on both tea and coffee.

Momsasa, ~ D. G. SEVASTOPULO,
February 23, 1956. NR DoS

36. INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOUNDS
OF THE TERMITE, ODONTOTERMES REDEMANNI
(WASMANN)

While collecting specimens of the termite Odontotermes redemanni
(Wasmann) in July 1955 from mounds at Jhargram, a town in West
Bengal, some interesting observations on the mounds were made.
In course of collection we came across a mound of moderate size,
quite uninhabited by any termite. As expected, the Royal chamber
was also found to be empty. The mound was, however, full of the
ants of the genera, Camponotus and Solenopsis. Ants are known as
one of the termitophilous insects, and about their relationship with
the termites Imms (1951)! states that they are quite friendly, unless
the nest is disturbed. It therefore appears that in the present case
the normal relationship between the ants and the termites was some-
how disturbed, resulting in the complete possession of the mound by
the ants, who overpowered the termites.

Ants, collembola and myriapods were common in all the nests
examined, and in addition Cybister larvae were obtained from four
mounds out of the total twenty mounds examined at that time.

ENTOMOLOGY LABORATORY,

ZOOLOGY ‘DEPARTMENT, BARUNDEB BANERJEE
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SCIENCE,

CALCUTTA,

March 8, 1956.

27. DHE ESSE NDA OLE Ohne“ VibOZO GON
TRAVANCORENSIS BOR

The: new classification of ‘white grass’, formerly designated
Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf. forma albescens, as a species (C. travan-
CXOAPSS 18X01) lone IY, MING I, BoP | WBINUEIS, Ga ())e isl] is. teullhy
substantiated by the results of analysis of its essential oil. Details
of the analysis were included in a thesis submitted by me in 1953 to
the Travancore University and will be published elsewhere. The oil
does not contain a detectable quantity of citrol and contains only a
relatively small proportion of borneol, the characteristic constituent
of some related grasses. Its chief constituent (ca. 40%) is, not a

'Imms, A. D, (1981): A text book of Entomology, New York.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 743

terpene derivative at all but a benzenoid compound elemicin. Elemicin
has not yet been reported in any Indian Cymbopogon oil though it
occurs in two foreign grasses, C. georingu and C. procerus.

“MALIKA’

KURUPPAM Roap, T. C. K. MENON
TRICHUR,

April 10, 1956.

38. A SPECIFIC FOR LEUCODERMA

(With two figures)

Leucoderma (Vitiligo) is a disease caused by the absence of the
pigment ‘melanin’ from the affected portions of the skin cf human
beings. The disease, though looked on with alarm by a great majority
of the people, is unlike leprosy neither contagious nor hereditary.
The available data on the prevalence of the disease in India indicates

&

DiGweas

Psoralea corylifolia Linn.

A.—Portion of a flowering twig. bat ; : |
B.—Mature seed showing the characteristic markings on the seed-coat.
C.—Mature seed with the seed-coat removed.

that the incidence of the disease is on the increase, It is also noticed
that men suffer more from this disease than women, the proportion
of affected men to women being roughly in the ratio of 15:1.

15A

744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Various specifics are known to have been tried in the treatment
of this disease, but the results have not been found to be very
encouraging. Certain oleo-resinous extracts, essential oils, psoralen-
isopsoralen mixture, leudermol, liq. hydrarg-perchloride and oil of
Baichi (Psoralea corylifolia Linn.) are some of the medicines generally
prescribed in the treatment of this disease. Among all, the herbaceous
plant Psoralea corylifolia Linn. (family Leguminosae)—(fig. 1-A)
has gained importance. This plant grows generally in a wild state
in the plains throughout India. Its tiny seeds which are brownish
black in colour (fig. 1-B) have an agreeable aromatic odour and are
bitter to the taste. The seeds are much used in the treatment of
leucoderma. Chemically, the seeds contain a resin, an essential oil,
a terpenoid oil, and two crystalline principles called psoralen and
isopsoralen, to which are attributed the anthelmintic and antidermatic
properties of Psoralea corylifolia Linn.

In the present note I mention a specific prescribed by a fakir
which, from my personal and intimate knowledge of its application
to two patients, has brought marvellous results. The patients treated
were one a boy of 17 years and the other a middle-aged man of 35
years, both acute cases of leucoderma.

The basic materials used in the medicine are the seeds of Psoralea
corylifolia Linn. (vern. Babechi, Babachi, Baichi), Cicer arietinum Linn.
(the common gram), and fresh mature leaves of Melia indica Linn.
(the common Neem tree). Equal quantities, say 1 seer of each of
the above materials, are boiled in water sufficient to cover the
materials for 7-8 hours in a suitable container, preferably with a
wide mouth. After boiling thus for about 7-8 hours, and when the
watér has almost evaporated, the neem leaves alone are removed
carefully and discarded. The remaining portion consisting of the
boiled seeds of Psoralea corylifolia Linn. and Cicer arietinum Linn.
are then spread out and dried in the open shade for 3-4 days on any
suitable tray or plate, previously scrupulously cleaned. After drying
completely for 3-4 days, the dried material is then kept inside a cavity
scooped out of the main trunk of a fairly large Neem tree. This
cavity (fig. 2) is to be at least 3-4 inches in diameter and 2-3 inches
deep. The mouth of the cavity is covered by a tin plate. ‘The
material is left in that cavity for at least 2} to 3 months, after which
it is taken out and dried again in shade in the open for about 3-4
days. It is then powdered and preserved in a well-corked container.
The powder thus prepared constitutes the specific. The dose pre-
scribed is 1 (one) tea-spoonful of the powder with $ cup of water to
be taken on an empty stomach, every morning.

The medicine, when administered to the two cases referred to
earlier, showed very encouraging results even within a month of
their treatment. The white patches on the skin at first gradually
turned to red or light red. Later small dark spots appeared on the
affected portions, and these spots gradually increased, ultimately
completely obscuring the white patches. and turning. the skin quite

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES "45

normal. The formation of any fresh patches or spread of the
infected portions of the patients were also found effectively arrested.
The two patients are now completely cured, without any trace of their
past ailment.

Sketch of a portion of the mature stem of Neem tree showing the scouped
portion where the boiled and dried seeds of Psoralea corylifolia Jinn. and Cicer
arietinum Linn. (the common gram) are kept in the preparation of the specific.

In conclusion, I express my grateful thanks to Sri K. S. Srinivasan,
Curator, Industrial Section, Indian Museum, Botanical Survey of
India, for his kind criticism of this note.

INDUSTRIAL SECTION,

INDIAN MuSEum, A.. BASU, Misc.
BoTaNniCAL SURVEY OF INDIA, |
CALCUTTA,

[Une eLe) sO

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

39. WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA

I was interested to read the letter by Colonel R. W. Burton (52:
923) on the preservation of wild life in what he calls the former Gilgit
Agency. I was up in these parts only last year where I spent a
considerable time in climbing and trekking. i am, therefore, in a
position to say something on some of the points raised:

(1) Marco Polo’s sheep is still found in Hunza State where the
Mir exercises a fairly good protection over the wild life of his territory.

(2) As regards trout the river Ghizr has plenty of this fish,
specially in the area between Gupis and Ghizr. As a keen fisherman
himself, the Raja of Gupis protects the fishing in his area with
great success. Consequently, trout have flourished and a _ good
amount of fishing can be enjoyed above Gupis at Pingle, Phandar and
Ghizr. These trout run to quite a big size. Above Ghizr there are
not many fish as the river becomes smaller as one goes higher.
Actually good fishing starts just a few miles from Gilgit itself. I
liad plenty of it all the way from Gilgit to Ghizr—a distance of about
go miles. Up to Gupis one can now ride in a jeep, and then a miule
track which I followed over the Shandu Pass into Chitral.

There is no doubt that great damage has been done to wild life
on the whole in all the northern areas and strict protection is badly
needed to conserve it, but there is still quite a lot. I saw markhor,
ibex, and even a skin of a freshly killed snow leopard was brought te
me. I was told by the locals that there are quite a few of them
still in existence.

EMBASSY OF PAKISTAN,
WasuHincton, D.C., M. HAYAUD DIN,
2315, MassacHusEeTts AVENUE, N.W., Maj.-Gen.

January 9, 1956.

40. ON THE NAMES FOR CERTAIN BIRDS RECENTLY
ADOPTED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION
ON ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature has
recently taken a _ series of important decisions on the names
for certain birds regarding which applications to the Commission
were published in October 1952 in Part 1/3 of volume 9 of the Bulletin
of Zoological Nomenclature. Among the decisions so taken the
following are of wide general interest:—({1) suppression of the generic
name Colymbus Linnaeus, 1758, and acceptance of the generic
name Gavia Forster, 1788, for the divers (loons), and of Podiceps
Latham, 1787, for the grebes (Opinion 4o1); (2) validation of the
generic name Pyrrhocorax (Tunstall), 1771, for the Chough by the
suppression of the name Coracia Brisson, 1760 {Opinion 404); (3)
suppression of the specific name ericetorum Turton, i807, and
acceptance of the name philomelos Brehm, 1831, for the Song Thrush
(Opinion 405); (4) suppression for nomenclatorial purposes of the
names by Linnaeus published in 1776 in the ‘Catalogue of Birds,

GLEANINGS ) 747

Beasts, . . . in Edwards’ Natural History’ (Opinion 412; (5) valida-
tion of the name Columba migratoria Linnaeus, 1766, for the
Passenger Pigeon (Direction 18); (6) validation of the generic names
Bubo Dumeril, 1806, Coturnix Bonnaterre, 1790, Egretia Forster,
1817, and Oriolus Linnaeus, 1766, by the suppression of older
homonyms (Direction 21); (7) acceptance of Gallinago Brisson, 1760,
and rejection of Capella Frenzel, 1801, as the generic name for
the Snipe (Direction 39). The foregoing Opinions and Directions are
now in the press and will be published at an early date. All enquiries
should be addressed to the Publications Officer, International Trust
for Zoological Nomenclature (address: 41 Queen’s Gate, London,
So Wo Fr

41, QUEEN’S GATE, FRANCIS HEMMING,
Lonpon, S.W. 7, GEMEGs, ACaBeE.
April 18, 1956. Secretary, International Commission on

Zoological Nomenclature.

GLEANINGS
How CAMELS CONSERVE WATER

It has long been known that the camel can survive hard work in
the heat of the tropical desert for a long period without water, but
how this is done has been a mystery. Ancient lore said «that
the water was stored in the hump. This is impossible because the
hump is solid. Later it was said that he drank an abnormal quantity
of water which was stored in one of his multiple stomachs similar to
those of the cow. This is not correct as the camel does not drink
large quantities of water until after he has been well dried out. Dr.
Knut Schmidt-Nielsen, Professor of Zoology at Duke University in
the U.S.A., directed the study and reported the results to the
UNESCO Advisory Committee on Arid Zone Research. The research
had been sponsored by UNESCO, the Guggenheim Foundation, Duke
University and the U.S. Government.

The camel’s unique ability to go without water turns out to be the
result of half a dozen extraordinary properties that are not shared
by any other animal. He cannot store the water as such but it is
conserved in the following ways:

(1) His excretions are very low in water content, while those
from his kidneys only amount to # oz. per hour, less than a_ pint
per day, even when he can drink all he wants.

(2) The camel does not cool himself by evaporating water from
his skin by sweating, or from the tongue and respiratory tract by
panting. He has a pattern of sweat glands widely distributed over the
skin, but these come into play only when the body temperature reaches
danger point and then secrete no more water than is_ absolutely
necessary. Accordingly the body temperature can rise from 93° F.
to 104°F. without any ill-effects to the animal.

(3) When the camel loses water under prolonged heat and when
the body temperature is well above normal, he does not lose water

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

from his blood stream and the concentration of blood plasma remains
close to normal.

(4) The camel’s thick fur is an additional protective device.
With all these protective devices in cool. January weather the
average loss of body weight is 0.9 per cent of the camel’s weight
per day; in a hot June it is 2.2 per cent. By contrast, the donkey
loses 3 per cent per day in January and 7.7 per cent per day in
June.

(Adapted from UNESCO Report in Pakistan Journal of Science
Vol. 7 No. 4, July 1955. Pp. 200-10.) 7

Without Comment.

Maharaja Ramanuj Saran Singh Deo, Maharaja of Surguja, in
a note on ‘Tiger Hunting in India’, Journal of the Bengai Natural
‘History Society, April 1955, xxvii (3): 98 states: “* have shot 1,111
tigers and over 2,000 panthers. J have hunted in Surguja, Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Nepal, Rajasthan and Vindhya
IPOS Os a My highest bag of tigers is 5 in a beat in five
shots and 11 panthers in one night.’

Songs of Cicadas.

In Spolia Zeylanica 27 (II): 229-39 (1955) is an article on ‘The
Songs and Habits of Ceylon Cicadas, with a Description of Two New
Species’ by J. W. S. Pringle, Department of Zoology, Cambridge.

In the course of an investigation of the physiology of sound pro-
duction ‘it soon became clear that the characteristic song pattern,
once recognised, can be used to give positive identification of the
species in the field.’ . . . ‘Field recordings of the songs of the
nine species were made with an M.S.S. Magnetic Tape Recorder,
Type PMR/1, operated from a car accumulator through a vibrator
power supply. This instrument records with little distortion the
song of the larger species, whose sound spectrum falls mainly within
the range audible to human ear. .. . Slow oscillograms of the songs
are shown in Plate 1.’

A Strange Fish Habit.

Prof. J. L. B. Smith of Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South
Africa in a letter in Nature (14 April 1956), p. 714 records a Gobius |
bibarbatus caught in a tide pool near Swakopmund, which blew itself
up in the same fashion as a Tetraodon (puffer fishes).

It is interesting to speculate what ecological or other factors have
tended to produce this most extraordinary habit.

Extracts from ‘GoLp Sport AND COFFEE PLANTING IN MysorE’ by
Robert H. Elliot (published in 1894) dealing with his experiences as a
coffee planter in Mysore for 38 years after 1855.

Page 93, 94.—He confirms the ‘native’ view that ‘the bear is more
dangerous than the tiger, and the panther much less dangerous than

GLEANINGS 749

either’. Quoting from the North Kanara Gazetteer, he states that
‘during the 22 years ending 1887, 510 tigers were killed and 44
persons killed by them. Between 1856 and 1882, 51 bears were
killed and 22 persons killed by them.’ He calculates that ‘the bear is
therefore about four times as dangerous as the tiger, the tiger is
about three times as dangerous as the panther and the bear is about
fourteen times as dangerous to man as the panther.’ Regarding
comparative destructiveness to animal life, he observes that ‘the tiger
seems to be more troublesome than the panther and between 1878 and
1882, 4041 heads of cattle were killed by tigers as against 1617 by
panthers.’

Page 96.—He quotes the Mysore Gazetteer (Vol. 2 p. 13) that
‘according to old legends the lion was once found in that Province.’

Page 126.—A shikari had just tried to climb a tree, but been
unsuccessful. “The tiger presently emerged from the jungle, went to
the tree and began roaring and scraping at the ground, and he musi
have either smelt traces of the manager or seen him trying to get up
into it, and concluded he was there. However, he deliberately went
up the tree paw over paw, and got into a cleft of it and looked
about in the tree, and then came down backwards, and was shot in
the act of descending.’

Page 135.—‘ A tiger flew at a Hindoo peasant—a first-rate plucky

sportsman, and as the tiger charged, the man struck at it with his
hacking knife (a formidable weapon in the hands of a man who knows
how to use it, and used to cut underwood, and thick boughs of trees),
with the result that the tiger’s skull was split open and the animal
killed on the spot. The native was thrown backwards with force,
and his head came in contact with a stone. He got up, and by this
time was surrounded by the people, when, holding out his hand, he
said, ‘Look here’, and then paused. Everyone expected some remark
about the tiger, but, amidst general laughter—for the natives have
a keen sense of humour—he continued, ‘‘There will be a bump on my
head tomorrow as big as a coconut’’.’

Page 138.—‘In all the books I have read about tigers I have never
met with an allusion to tigers purring like cats from satisfaction, but
a brother planter informs me that he heard a wounded tiger, that
had killed one of the natives who was following him up, purr for -
several minutes, as he described it, ‘“‘like a thousand cats’’.’

Page 140, 141.—‘The bear breeds much slower than the tiger and
that is why they are so soon almost exterminated. In Belgaum
between 1840 and 1880, 223 bears were killed. The steady decline of
the numbers of the bears is shown by the fact that 137 were killed
between 1840 and 1850, 51 between 1850 and 1860, 32 between 1860
and 1870, and 3 between 1870 and 1880. In Kanara 51 bears were
killed between 1856 and 1882.’

Page 158.— From what I have known of the habits of the wild
boar, I do not think I should ever be inclined to partake of its meat,
and certainly not when cholera is about. A neighbour of mine told
me that when he was once beating a jungle for game the natives

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

backed out of it with great promptness, having come upon wild pigs
in the act of devouring the dead bodies of some people who had
diced of cholera... . An official of the Forest Department told me
that, passing one day near the place where the carcase of an elephant
lay, he had the curiosity to go and look at it. To his astonishment
he found the flanks heaving as if the elephant were still alive, and
while he was wondering what this could mean, two wild boars, which
had tunnelled their way in, and were luxuriating on the contents of
the carcase, suddenly rushed out.’

Page 159.—‘In the 1876-77 famine the wild dog grew very bold
in Kanara and killed great numbers of half-starved cattle which were
driven into the forest to graze, 3. Aowidespread belief is that
the dogs first of all micturate on each other’s bushy tails, and, when
rushing past the tiger, whisk their tails into his eyes and thus blind
him with the objectionable fluid, after which they can attack him
with comparative impunity. A forest officer informs me that the Gonds
have a somewhat similar tradition, and that they believe that the dogs
first of all micturate on the ground around the tiger, and that the
effuvium has the effect of blinding him.’ (In a footnote he adds
that Jerdon who heard a similar story in Nepal disbelieves it.)

Page 162.—‘I have good reason to suppose that the immense
number of deaths (sometimes returned at 17,000 or 18,000 for all
India) reported as being caused by snake-bite, are really poisoning cases
which are falsely returned as being due to this cause.... In my
own long experience, I have not only never known of a death from
snake bite on my estates, but have, since 1855, never heard of but
one case in my neighbourhood, and that was of a boy who was killed
by a deadly snake about four or five miles from my house.’

Page 166.—‘The tank snake, often from g to 1o feet long, is not
~only harmless but useful, as it lives so largely on rats and mice, and is
in consequence sometimes called the rat snake. On one occasion a
manager shot one of these snakes near my house, and it had a rat
in its mouth when killed, and such snakes, so far from being killed,
ought to be carefully protected .... I was interested in observing
the proceedings of one of these snakes when followed up by two dogs
of mine in the open. First of all, it made for a clump of two or three
scrubby trees, and, apparently first fastening itself by the neck
to a stump, lashed out with its tail. Then when the dogs came closer
it again made off through the grass, but on being overtaken by ihe
dogs must have either bitten one of them, or lashed it with its tail,
as the dog gave a sharp cry and retreated.’

Page 173.—‘Anything more foolish and barbarous than the killing
of cow bisons cannot be conceived, for there is not a more harmless
and inoffensive animal in the jungle than the bison—harmless because
it seldom attacks crops (I have never known of more than one instance
of their doing so), and inoffensive because, if not molested, it never
attacks man.’

IDOE Wap ASST EM neighbour, Mr. Park, caught a male calf
bison which was supposed to be about three days old. About a week

GLEANINGS 751

later a young doe sambar, which was being pursued by jungle dogs,
rushed into one of the labourers’ huts and was secured. The two
were kept together, though they were never shut up. They were
first of all fed on milk, and then allowed to graze, and soon became
quite inseparable companions. They were fed at twelve o’clock and
at four in the afternoon, and seemed to know their feeding time
exactly. When about two years old a nose rope was fitted on to the
bison and it was led out to graze. The sambar sometimes remained
behind, but seemed to have no difficulty in finding the bull even though
it had been taken to a considerable distance. It would hold up its
nose to catch the scent and then go off on the track. When the
bison occasionally missed the doe he would wander about in search of
her, but seemed to have no power of following her by scent—a power
which she evidently possessed and practised. When the bull was about
three years old it was presented to the Maharajah of Mysore, and
sent off to the nearest railway station some sixty miles away. Some
time after he had left, the doe discovered his absence, and then, in
her usual way, went about holding up her nose in order to discover
the direction in which he had gone. Presently she hit off the route
and, setting off in pursuit, overtook her old companion after he had
gone about five or six miles and, though the doe had not been given
to the Maharajah, she was allowed to accompany the bull. When
the doe overtook the bull he showed the greatest signs of pleasure
at her arrival, and the two travelled happily along to Mysore.’

NOTES AND NEWS

At the instance of the Bird Wing, Indian Board for Wild Life,
Mr. Salim Ali undertook an investigation of the alleged detrimental
effect of the Kandla-Deesa railway embankment across the Little Rann

of Kutch on the breeding grounds of the flamingo in the Great Rann. -

The investigation revealed that the bund in no way interferes with the
amount of water discharged into the Great Rann by the rivers to its

north, and that the requisite hydrological conditions continue, as before, ”

to depend mainly upon the SW. Monsoon. Flamingoes had bred in
large numbers in the Great Rann after the satisfactory rainfall of the
1955 season, and it appears that a deficient monsoon is really what
produces the adverse conditions that inhibit breeding. Fortunately the
railway embankment seems to have nothing or little to do with the
non-nesting of the birds that has been reported in a series of recent
years.

* * * *

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.N.I., F:Z.S.1., Forest Ento-
mologist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and a member of the
Society’s Advisory Committee has been appointed Director of the
Zoological Survey of India in place of the late Dr, S. L. Hora. |

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
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