ea , Va hoes nome 14 gy Ala Be ans hae : segs Bete lf ES Sy wiSbis Aehahe yas Ny : 4 Ghia (ity eu Heese ia me pasteles aw gat feat ros dele} oy vit MY ae : ye ui AL u mn A) fet Cyared be my BaP A hy, Ahk Motes Page a be beg ee ee if * Te yea i *t ian l il of iM | iil | z pil i hoy, “7 Eont +) bal Se aa of re Peat Peet wae te “ie met Bid se a ee at ae ee eee eel = ™ | a es a gy fs, a br ged. _ : ee Pease NERS 1) ee | TON a, " "en xe Wy ia ie oe a) N a % OAS: ag 5 Be aic y i} ae = “ee ge Ses re i + "pL : i tt aE nye he ak ‘E Fh ee yi y OS | j a | fb o \ : CP ee “Ee » uy | i Ty rt Hy NE bey ssh OL, . es & SH : ty, ae pene Anore ay er Ns é & K é b> = ef Om it a i i. Poe ie |e Frye Pea a ates Gite a EF ia ay i, patie R ty SPL ARS tht J MaaOSH Te NS, * ad. A ey yeh ace cet int P Slit ae apy. 7 ts x ant Sh a a Oe, “4 Re as oO a eA, Se at Pg hs 4atl oes Fag te! 45.49 Beh caste on 1 fy fou tet . fate ae a oe 1 PUT a 1, = Mi 1 A ' il 7 bs i . Mi © el é 3 ‘ ' ‘ i > i 7 , U \ ! ee . wy 7 : cs is uv A Py 7 Hi ; "eS | : it Bs : i 7 oan : s 5 Uy a. . : s. : " s om a i } a 1 i . i a ¥ ct i ~~ v3 j : THE JOURNAL > OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND TITLE PAGE * VOL. XXXII PARTS 1 & 2 ARGMIAN INS lity | a uo — 2%OS Tl ys © varie, We MADRAS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 1928 Supplementary Erratum to Vol. XXX, Nos. 1 and 2 Index and Title page, line 4 from bottom, for 597 read 507. Supplementary Addendum to Vol. XXXI, Nos. 3 and 4 Page 777, between lines 9 and 10 from bottom, read Johnius sina (Cuvier). . THe JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY SIR R. A. SPENCE, xt., F.z.s., S. H. PRATER, c.M.z.S. and SALIM A. ALI VOL. XXXII Parts 1 & 2 Containing 2 Coloured Plates, 47 Black and White Plates, and 16 Text-figures Dates of Publication Part I. (Pages 1 to 236) ... Ist August, 1927. ee ee 237 to 396) ... 20th October, 1927. LONDON AGENTS DULAU & Co., Ltd., 32, Old Bond Street, London, W. I. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, GCONTRNIS OF VOLOME XXXII No. 1 THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (W7th a coloured plate.) Rallina fasciata, Blanf. By E. C. Stuart Baker, Jee, e2.Ses, Fake. MiB.O Us; HAF; AS OnUs. = REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE Bohai pamainaeees Partith, «By &. Blatter,. SJ.4.Ph.Ds-FUL:S.. Mathes THE MoGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NAcn aeons AND SPORTSMEN. Part II. (Wizth four plates.) By Salim A. Ali.. Dre Mees cot bad cemee ate THE prene OF Seams nicer Rpt Ill. (With-a plate),) By C. B. Ticehurst, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S.. , apaee ee eas cbeaee ete THE Porim Wasp CRiynthtiin niteiaulam). Pare I. (With two plates and three text-figures). By Major R. W. G. Tlingston, I.M.S.. ; scconth se ean ieee cuace ANIMAL LIFE IN ROR CaN aT AE Sica "(With one plate ana weap iext-iwewyres). By Dr. S.1.:Horay D:S¢in....034 WILD ELEPHANTS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. (W2th four PIGS. DY Bt) Wie CHAMPION, TeF Se, s'hosdesvceuios gennaonee SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SuRVEY No. XLVII. By Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S.. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR. Part IL. Rane a re ) Bebb. Or StaaStOnly. Wis. O, Uss. iia aastee pec crns cette Sa sencss ON THE BREEDING HABITS AND FECUNDITY OF THE SNAIL Limnea luteola. (With two plates and two graphs.) By R. V. Seshaiya, M.A.. ae ue ob Sauer eat citees esos A JOURNEY ACROSS THE HIMALAVAS, (With four plates.) By J. W. Borradaile.. : 2 ee PRINCIPLES AND een OF THE Rene ee RENDERED TO THE SCHOOLS BY MUSEUMS IN AMERICA. (With four plates.) By 8S. H. Prater, C.M.z.s.. INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXVIII. (With one Gee lope and four plates.) By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, 1.M.S., F.E.S. REVIEWS :—A NATURALIST IN BAST AFRICA... 10. scccccccnsencee NoOviITATES MACROLEPIDOPTEROLOGICA......... PAGE 14 34 64 98 111 yet) 133 134 154 163 iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXi1 PAGE EDITORIAL,, odadvlassieaesas'gee sips oneieeeeiee oer cee Nea a a. ence eo) OBITUARY .. wi iglie’Seco’g Sicyalein sa. cieiee AiG oi ae eeey RNA oes ste on ete aS 205. te ane aNeoue Nous — I.. Observation on the Habits of the Slow Loris Loris lydekkerianus. (With a plate.) By.C. R. Narayan Rao, M.A.. : es 206 Il. Man-eating Tigers. By iN. 'P. eben F.Z.S.. 209 ITI. *« Panther treeing its Kill. (Wzth a photo.) By | W. MM: Looan-Home, Major 3 ee eee 209 IV. Wild Dogs attacking Cattle. By Randolph _ ©. Morris.. re Rene eee ns ct ery Ae Alel V. Jackals in Residential Coanougiee Nise Rodney Foster, Major .c..c. pte ee CAA VI. The Maternal Instinct in the Dwarf Pipistrelle Ge mimus minus.) By We. aW.2A. Phillips, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.. Maes 211 VII. Note on the Deseu l@cmine (Gla je ) t By C. McCanni7 2.35 ee rece n Or) er ence 213 VU. Habits of the Porcupine (Aystr7x ae By / C. McCann.. : eo ere eee ee 214 IX. A White Wlcphant Calf. vee D. F. Mncne kere 214 X. Twin Elephant Calves. (W7th a plate.) By Gor- donvHundley.. 2c... .2en aes 215 XI. Solitary Cow Gaur. ae Randolph C. ‘Morne ae als) XII... Bison and Cultivation: By Av Pe Kinlocherz.s.., 7). 215 XIII. Worn Down Tips of Bison Horns. By Randolph C. Morris.. Berton) eC XIV. A Fine Mantaes oe as S Rniocn F.Z.S.. mA2UG XV. Clicking Noise made by Muntjac. By Readclen . Co MOPS) cet ae cee ce oe eee ee 216 XVI. Peculiar Cries emitted by Sambhur Stags Fignune By Randolph: CI Mons © oy hart: aie ene 216 XVII. Mating of the Jungle Crow (Corvus coronoides inter medius:) BY AttMUteEL. VSeLGiiiy aos tec se. te XVII: The Bearded=) Tit s@2a77707.705 Ps FUSSICUS (Brehm.) An addition to the Indian List. By Pio h, Wihistlerst ire 2: npn ee Cw mea 217 XIX. Occurrence of the Pamir Horned Lark (Ofocor?s penicillata albigula) in the Punjab. By Hugh | Whistler.. Se 218 Xo ae De Rocaparron (Petro onta a stata) in Pine. Buna , By Hugh Whistler.. REL ang hai Gneaeey ere hee 218 XXI. XXII. SX. XXIV. RXV. XXVI. XXVIL. WX ITT, XXIX. XXX. XXXI. SOE XXXITI. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIITI. Y CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII The Mating of Paroquets. By Salim A. Alli...... Habits of the Indian Spur-winged Plover (Hop/lop- terus ventralis.) By R. W. G. Hingston, Major. Comments on Mr. J. K. Stanford’s ‘ Occurrence of the Sheldrake and Lapwing in Upper Burma’. By J. R. Musgrave Hanna, Captain. Occurrence of Swinhce’s Snipe in North Lakhim- pur dy) We Me Demarciiands, 4 piaccessttecsse ee The Breeding of the Spot-billed Duck (Azas pectlorhyncha.) By C. G. Chevenix Trench.,,..,., Occurrence of the Sheldrake in Behar. By ome VESTS Nas eats ah. ee craps Tecate etre Seah! tore oe ok Further Record of Occurrence of the Sheldrake (CLOdO7 NG 1adoria) ny Demat 2a ssndie. sue qeseecses oe Migration of Wild Fowl. By Editors.. ee Large Flocks of the Comb Duck isp melanonotus.) By Rodney Foster...........c00e0e A Case of Snake-bite due to Cantor’s Viper (Lachests cantoris.) By A. Bayley de Castro...... Snakes of Sholapur. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, Mise. ee Large ed of fore ee the Chatketed’ Seis Snake (Verodia piscator.) By S. H. Prater, a eee Some Micha ecb een sartee tos wee aati! Notes on the Life and Habits of the Common Car- penter Bee (Xylocopa amethystina). By A.G. Frere, Major, F.zZ.S.. Notes on Collection of ues eae in Seah pur and Mount Abu during the years 1924, 1925 and 1926. By A. D. Macpherson, C.1.E.......... The Occurrence of the Wood Mason Butterfly (Parantirrhea Mea in Coorg. By H. C. Winchworth.. av. Bee RS 5 ae The North-west Bde in “Sind. es Harold H. Mann.. On the Vitality of ine eontocae (Stolopendras Sp. BD) By Salim A. Ali.. ae Ree vain The Poison of Cornansdee melee, a canoe re- ference to the Andaman Species. By Bayley- (Clee OES Teo Pe ie Pn ee ee 225 220 228 Vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII No. 2 THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BirpDs (With a coloured plate). Porzana pusilla pusilla, Blanf. _ By EC... Stuart Baker, J-P., F.2:S., F.1.S., HbA. 0.0e i THE PottER Wasp. By MajorR. W. G. ‘Hien I.M.S.. NOTES ON SOME SHORE FISHES FROM Bompay. By H. W. Fowler......... SP Ieee er elt eto he lade THE MocuL EMPERORS oF INDIA AS NATURALISTS AND SPORTSMEN... Part 111, "By. SalimpAr Alt. 5. see ee THE CEYLON PEARL FISHERIES. By Joseph Pearson.......... REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. Part [V. By.E. Blatter, $.J., Phsb., F.L.S.. ot A SPORTING TRIP TO BRITISH SOMALILAND, ug 26, “(With si SIX plates.) By Wieut:. J. W. Borradailey fee see ee INDIAN DRAGONBFLIES. Part XXVIII. (With three plates). By Lt.-Col. P.Ce Fraser, 1-Si) 78 Bis. suet e eee Brrp Notes FROM THE Mount EVEREST EXPEDITION OF 1924. (With a plate). By Major R. W. G. Hingston, 1.M.s. THE Rice RATS OF LOWER SIND AND THEIR CONTROL. (With a plate and three Mee By Ps Ve Waele; M.A. ee Rr rn et ee Leone GAME Beary ae IN THE Nie By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, 1.A. (Retd.)... Sve cathrnsice SOME FURTHER NOTES ON THE SucoND pone OF THE FAUNA OF BriITISH INDIA—BrirRps, Vol]. III. By C. B. Ticehurst, McA M.R-C.Si,, MiB. OrUs oR RIG: sus craks. Popes Two NEW SPECIES OF GRASSES FROM PANCHGANI. (Wzth two plates.) By Rev. E. Blatter and C. McCann........%.. GAME PRESERVATION IN INDIA. By the Editors........2.......- E;/DITORIAL ..... -auinlagiek va 8 shies ap dscety CSE gto Coen Eee a eee MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. ‘Tigers and Elephants. By A. J. W. Milroy..... II. Tigers preferring Carrion to Live Bait. By Wr Oe Shortt. ; ERE Stas 5 eee III. A Panther Cowinittine: ieee By W. H. O. Shortt.. IV. The Colour Change: and ees di Dterences.. in Colour in the Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat (Taphozous longimanus.) By W. W.A. Phillips. V. Habits of the Flying Lemur (Galeopterus peninsula). By WoS. Wood... s.r nebeeue, LAS Ae ie Cee PAGE 320 330 330 344 37 309 366 370 370 371 371 372 The Rice Rats of Lower Sind and their Control (w7th three dia- grams and a plate) ie West, Capt. E. Maser Solitary Cow Gaur WHISTLER, HUGH ; The Beatdcd Tit (Panurus biarmicus rus- sicus)—An Addition to the Indian List ae ae —_——_——_-—— ; Occurrence of the Pamir Horned Lark (Otocoris penicillata albigula) in the Punjab breed oa —-; The Rock- Sparrow (fetronia stulta) in the Punjab WINCHWORTH, MAJOR Hi: cs The Occurrence of the Wood Mason Butterfly (Parantirrhea marshallt) in Coorg % Woop, W. S.; Habits of the Flying Loner (Galeopterus Penney : Flying Squirrels in Tenmeonin 1S the ‘Large Hornbill (Dchoceros bicornis) Carnivorous? ... ae i 64 344 378 330 215 212 218 218 LIST OF PlaA LES VOLUME XXXIil No. 1 The Game Birds of the Indian Empire— The Malayan Banded Crake (Rallina fasciata) The Mogul Emperors of India as Naturalists and Sportsmen — Plate I.- (A) Sketches of Ibex Goat Hybrids (2) Nilgai Plate IIl.—(A) Mallard .. (B) Night Heron Plate III.—(A) A Falcon (B) Pea Fowl Plate I1V.—(A) A Pair of Sarus... (8) Cheer Pheasant ... The Bird of Baluchistan— (Ad) Hanna Pass, Quetta des oP (B) A Venerable Juniper—-Ziarat Forest ... The Potter Wasp— Fig.1. (Rhynchtum nitidulum) : 2.—(A) ” oe 53 Nest of Tc (B) . fi 5 Building Lower Half of Cellrs.: Animal Life in Torrential Streams— Plate V.—-Panoramic View of a Small Torrential Stream below Dumpep in the Khasi Hills Wild Elephants in the United Provinces— 1. A Young Tusker in which the Upper Ear-rims have not yet begun to turn over 2. An Old Tusker with one Tusk broken . A Large Middle-aged Makna 4, A Female Elephant which presemenly died of old aee Birds of Kashmir— 1. (A) Path near Sonmarg (2) A Corner of Wular Lake ve Breeding- habits and Fecundity of the Snail Limnca oie Plate J.—1. Laying Eggs on the Side of a Glass Jar 2. Eggs laid on the Under Surface of a Floating Piece of Leaf 3. Mating 4, Egg with Nine Ranbeyest Plate I].—Sketches showing relative aevelopinent of male ana Fernele genitalia at different periods of life A Journey across the Himalayas— Plate I.—{.d) Nomad Camps on Banks of Beas, Kulu ret (2) The River Beas between Sultanpur and Katrain, Kulu. Os PAGE 106 107 107 111 128 129 130 13] 134 134 156 156 156 156 175 164 164 xii LTS TROP-PEATES PAGE Plate II.—(A) Valley of the Chenab on the way to Kyelang, near Sis- sue, over 10,000 feet above sea-level : 165 (B) Bridge of twigs, (Jzoola) over the Chenab at Conrune g, Lahoul %.. ‘cont OS Plate III.—(.A) Old castle of fhe Dhavaer of Teoul: Conn eosd el Od (2B) Mt. Garpang (19,900 feet) from Sissue 4:8 a 7. Plate IV.—(4) My Camp at Kukti, Chamba State ae 167 (4) Mountains of Pir Panjal Range overlooking Chenabs with Glacier of Mt. Shikar Beh, 20,340 feet se BLOF, Principles and Extent of the Educational Service rendered to the Schools by Museums in America— Plate I.--Circulating Nature Study Collections ... ee eae, Lae Plate [I.—An Example of a Circulating Collection Case POT LS) Plate III.—Exhibits for the Blind : ie Be eye) Plate IV.—Blind Children studying the Elippopoearnne 177 Indian Dragonflies— Plate I.—Hind-wing of Rhinocypha immaculata, showing the main and interposed nervures only a ee tele Plate IIl.—1l. Wings of Rhinocypha cuneata, Seve “Male eo ee S/ 2. Wings of Rhinocypha quadrimaculata, Selys, Male ... 187 Plate II].—1. Wings of Ahkinocypha iridea, Selys, Male a 194 2. Wings of Rhinocypha fenestrella, Ramb., Male ae el Oe Plate IV.—1. View of rocky-bed of a montare stream in Shillong Assam, where Rhinocypha ignipennis and spuria are found, other ZYGOPTERA taken here are Watrona bast- larvis and Echo margarita... fie HO 2, Another typical stream for Fei neey ion era. Pool below Seven Falls, Shillong, Assam _... sf SOS. Observations on the Habits of the Slow Loris (Loris lydekkerianus )— (A) In expectation of the evening meal... = rie 3206 (B) All huddled bose rery in a corner of the cage me fa 200 Twin Elephant Calves-— ott Pi, In Harness Loe oe cae ne re, ce 2S No. 2 The Game Birds of the Indian Empire— _.. The Eastern Baillon’s Crake (Porzana p. pusilla) Sat Jen 987 A Sporting Trip to British Somaliland— Plate I.—1. ‘ The Motor Road’ across the Maritime Desert a S00 2. Golis Scenery site ce 2o00 Plate II.—3. View from Hol-Ka-Boba Base Goi Ronee: oie OT / 4, Camp at Gobedieh aa as Bes fen Od Plate IIl.-—-5. A Xurria Watering, Alladieh ire be very 304 6. Lesser Kudu (Strepsiceros imberbis, Bly.) ... ioe O04 Plate 1V.—7. ‘ Aoul’ orScemmering’s Gazelle (Gazella semmeringt, Cretschm.)... whe ae as “305 8 Oryx (Oryx betsa, Rupp) ... ne i waa O05 Plate V.—9. Juma the Midgan with ‘ Beira’ (Dorcatragus meélanotis, Menges ) Ah aoe ny ee esis LSI OTF EL ALES 10. ‘ Gerenuk ’ or Waller’s Gazelle (Lithocrantus walleri, Brooke) Plate VI.—11. The Golis Range... 12. The Village of Adadleh Indian Dragonflies — A ee ecu! Plate I.—l. Wings of Whinocypha untinaculata, Selys. Male 2. Wines of Rhinocypha trimaculata, Selys. Male Plate I].—1l. Wings of Rhinocypha trifasciata, Selys. Male 2. Wines of Akinocypha bifasciata, Selys. Male Plate III.—1l. Wings of Rhinocypha bifenestrata, Fras. Male 2. Wings of Rhinocypha hilarve, Fras. Male .. Bird-notes from the Mount Everest Expedition of 1924— (a) Choughs in Everest Base Camp aoe (6) Blue Hill-Pigeons in Everest Base Camp (c) Brown Accentor in Everest Base Camp ... (7) Adams’s Mountain-Finch in Everest Base Camp... Rice Rats of Lower Sind and their Control— (a) The Indian Desert Gerbil (Cheliones hurriane) ... (6) The Sind Mole-Rat (Gunomys sindicus) ... diy (c) Hutton’s Mole-Rat (Nesokia huttont) ... es Dichanthium panchganiense, Blatter and McCann sp. nov, Dichanthium McCanni1, Blatter and McCann sp. nov, Dichoceros bicornts (Nest of the Great Indian Hornbill) Spirostreptus, Brandt, (The Common Indian Millipede) INDEX LO SLEOSTATIONS VOLUME XXXII PAGE Accentor, Brown, in Everest Base Camp abl aie e 3 aa. hoe ee Ancylus figs. . fe a goel24 Animal life in torrential streams— Stream below Dumpep, Khasia Bis Seles es is te Peek Baltitora bruce, figs. a eS Blephearocerid, larve fig. eles Cheer Pheasant, Pl. fig. (B) ... 53 Cheliones hurriane, Pl. fig. 1... 330 Choughs on Everest Base Camp, Plowmig. 1 oe. en o20 Dichanthium WeCiant PL Fig oie! ae panchganiense Pl. ... 358 Dichoceros bicornis, nest of, Pl. ... 366 Elephant Calves in Harness, Pl. 215 ———* (wild) in the United Provitices 3— Pilea yours Pusker~ a. Pre Ae: Pl. 2, an old Tusker ee Rete) 42) Pl. 3, a large middle-aged Makna ... e 7 30 Pl. 4, a female Beaten gute h presumably died of old age 13i Malcon.) Ply tio. (A) ee. Sy Gomphine, Larvee and Habitat, foe ee ead ame Gunomys sindicus, Pl. tm 2. Tg a0 ee ——— ; Diagram, showing course of burrow Rese. Hanna Pass, Quetta, Pl. fig. (A) 65 Himalayas:—A Journey Across the Nomad Camps on banks of Beas, Kulu, Pl. (A) 164 River Beas between Sultanpur and Katrain, Kulu Pl. (B) ... 164 Chenab Valley, Pl. (A) Fee Loh) Bridge of Twigs (Jhoola) over the Chenab at Gohbrung, Lahoul, Pl. (B) as loo PAGE Lahoul, Gondla, Old Castle of the Thakars, Pl. (A) 166 Mt. Garpang, Pl. (B) ... sg. 106 Kukti, Chamba State, Camp at, Ae ek ileae. i: . 167 Pir Panial Range, Mounianns aa |e 3) Pela ohn 167 Ibex-Goat Hybrids, Pl. fig. (A) 36 Kashmir, Birds of :— Path near Sonmarg, Pl. (A) ... 134 A Corner of Wular Lake, Pl. (B) 134 Lateo, section of, fig. rat, fee OLS Limnéa luteola, Life History, Pls: Sa oe 156, 157 Oe graphs showing number of eggs laid 158, 159 _ Lorts lydekkerianus, P\. .. 206 Macromia tda, fig. ae won UA, _ Mallard, Pl. fig. (A) ar ees Matrona basilarts, fig. ... ae ply) Mertones hurriane, Diagram showing course of burrow See ote, Mountain-Finch, Adam’s, in Eve. rest Base Camp, PI. fig. 4 sae 20 Nesokia huttont, Pl. fig. 3 Moat ~ —-—-—— Diagram showing course of burrow Tee oae Night Heron, Pl. fig. (B) Sat pee: Nilgai, Pl. fig. (B) ais By cuere |) Panther, treeing its kill, photo .,. 209 Pea-fowl, Pl. fig. (B) ae Fen MOE Pigeons, Blue Hill,—in Everest Base-Camp, P).ciow.2> =... Pe YAY) Porzana p. pusilla, Pl. ... i 40 Y) Principles and Extent of the Edu- cational Service rendered to the Schools by Museums in Ame- rica :— Circulating Nature Study Collec- {ons ele we. te pear mee ees INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE ‘Example of a Circulating Collec- tion Case, Pl. ae sie pen Exhibits for the Blind, PI. . 176 | Blind Children studying the | Hippopotamus, PI. ee Al Psephenus, larvee and pupa, figs. 120 -Pyralid Moth, Larval and Pupal Chambers, fig. Mas Rallina fasciata, Pl. we i Rhinocvpha bifasciata, wings oe ! XY PAGE Rhynchium nitidulum, Diagram to forward tilt of pendulum, fig.... 107 cells at different levels, fig. , fo LOD Sarus Cranes, Pl. fig: (A) SK. _ Schizothorax, section of fig. eld Simullide, \aree and pupe, figs. 121 Sptrostreptus, Pl. ... 382 Somaliland, British, a sporting {tip tox— Ble fig 2 af se mise OLS Pl. E (1) The * Motor Road ” wee - bifenestrata, wings across the Maritime Desert 300 of PP. fies. I 318 (2) Golis Scenery . 300 —— cuneata, wings, Pl. 187. Pl. =I (3) View from Hol-ka- -——___-—— fenestrella, wings, Pl. 194° Boba Pass, Golis Range .., 301 — hilarye, wings of, Pl. (4) Camp at Gobedieh. 301 fig, 2 318 Pl. [11 (5) A Kurria watering ———— Bat a Heats oe Alladieh sat ... 304 PreCa), (5) ies ego (6) Lesser Kudu (Strep- ~ —— immaculata, Hind- siceros imberbis, Bly.) 304 wing, Pl, a 186 Pl. [LV (7) ‘ Aoul’ or Scemmer- ividea, Wings, PI. 194 ing’s Gazelle (Gazella semmer- _———-- guadrimaculata, wings, ingi, Crets) Pl. eat eee ode “et LOd (8) Oryx (Oryx beisa, —— spurta, Haunt of, Pl. Rupp) ; ae = 305 (A) ... 195 Pl V (9) Juma the Midgan eae eae -.. 184 with ‘ Beira’ (Dorcatragus brake tritasctata, wings of, melanotis, Menges i» 308 Pl. fig. 1 ve w. 315 (10) ‘Gerenuk’ or Waller’s —— trimaculata, wings of, Gazelle (Lithocranius Pl. fig. 2 ee nee OLE! walleri, Brooke) .. 308 — wnimaculata, ae Of, * Pl. VI (11) The Golis Rene 309 Pl. fig. 1 314 (12) The Village of Adad- Rhynchium ie PL. 106 leh en 309 A diagram showing pendulum, Trichopterous ee Pace. 119 mechanism of Potter Wasp Xylocopa amethystina, nest ander nest; Pl. fie, CA): <2.:107 construction 227 lower half of cell, Pl. Ziarat Forest— a enerainic sua fig.(B) .. - 107 ' per, Pl. fig. (4) 65 ERRATA Vol. XXXII, Nos. I and 2 Page ii. line 14 for-varmcus read btarmicus. 1 55 9) 13 ,, pencillata read penicillata. » 2 ,, 23 ,, Corturnex read Coturntx. , 60 ,, 5 from bottom for aurztra read aurita. », 68 ,, 1 for Heretus read Hieraetus. » @0 ,, 9 from bottom for bver7pes read brevipes. ,5, 87 ,, 8 for Geochelidon xead Gelochelidon. ,, 114 ,, 19 ,, Rana formosa read Ranae Formosae. » 115 ,, 7 ,, Rana formosa read Ranae Formosae. yy 118 5 © 6 Sy tly vead dragonily.. » 121 ,, 3 ,, Stmullidae read Simuliidae. ,, 137 ,, 37 ,, garulla ~ead garrula. ,, 149 ,, 9 from bottom for Lymnocriptes vead Lymnocryptes. », 217 ,, 35 for viarmicus read biarmicus. , 218 ,, ll ,, viarmicus read biarmicus. ,, 218 ,, 21 ,, pencillata read penicillata. ,, 227 Last two lines should follow line 34 on page 226, i.e. they should read between ‘... forms of food offered.’ and ‘ The inhabitant waslarge.. .’ ,, 2/72 line 17 for Popular vead Poplar. eos, — ae le29 yeaa 19293 | ,, 307. ,, 8 ,, Ball-throated vead Bare-throated. ,, 323 ,, 3 from bottom for rufotriata read rufostriata. ,, 346 ,, 34 for swbuluta read subulata. INDEX OF SPECIES _ PAGE Acacia arabica e 231 Acanthis baltistanicus ~ 346 ————-. cannabiua fimgillitostrié 346 ———— f. brevirostris ; 346 ——_——— flavirostris rufostriata 323 ———-—— ladacensis 346 montaneila 346 ————— pamirensis 346 | rufostrigata e 346 Accipiter badius cenchroides .. 70 ——-—— brevipes ae 70 —-—— minullus tropicalis ... oe OH ——--——— nisus melanoschistus. 70, 143 | —___---——-nisosimilis 70 ——_——_-——-—— pallens 70 —-—— peregrinum 231 —-—— virgatus ee 70 Acridotheres ginginianus 44, 344 — — tristis 37/28 Acropoma japonicum 209: | fEgialitis dubia a ecko 4igypius monachus 66, 141 AEthopyga andersoni 300 ——-=—— dabryi 356 ——-—— flavescens 356 | —-— goalpariensis Shh) —--—— gouldie dabryi 356 ——- gouldic 356 ——-—— ignicauda ignicauda sishoam ——-—— mussooriensis Soo ——-—— nipalensis 356 ——-———- sanguinipecta 356 ——-—— saturata 306 | ——-—— siparaja sehericze 390° | Alactaga acontion 133 aa Clare! 133 —— indica 133 Alactagulus 133 Alzmon alaudipes 344 Alcedo atthis pallasii 138 Alauda arvensis dulcivox 308 ——————--_— schach... 353 Anastomus oscitans PAGE Alauda gulgula gulgula 353 = ——— 9llttata 136 ee CCLIV OK 303 - inopinata Sco Alaudula raytal adamsi 303 —--——— rufescens 303 —_ - —__— persica 3035, G04 seebohmi ... 354 Alectoris greeca chukar ah AS —-——- ——— koraikovi Pe rane —---———- -__-- pallescens 145 | Amadina pectoralis 345 Amandava amandava 345 Amaurornis akool akool 6 ama bicolor 8 —-- fuscus i ——-—- —-—-- - bakeri 1, 146 ——- Bre inei voter Z —_———-- ZeylOMICUS ... 2 ——- ———- Insularis 4 ee Ce MICULS 4,6 ———_ ——_ -—— chinensis as) = —~ en ——— insularis 4,5 Amia ellioti a 258 ——- frenata 259 Ammomanes 354 —-. phoenicura Sone 354 —_— zarudnyi 354, 376 —- -- phoenicuroides 354 Ammoperdix griseigularis ae oS —_—_—_-——-——-——_._ griseigu- 75 laris 25 Anapheis Eeeene 228 Anas acuta 93 ——- angustirostris 93 ——- boscas ais 63 ——- penelope 93 ,-222 ———- platyrhyncha Araiveha hohe SMa oy! ~——- pecilorhyncha 635225 aa - poecilorhyncha. 93 ——- strepera 39 62 Xvili 24 INDEX OF SPECIES PaGrE Andropogan sorghum. sativus var. durra 296 fulvus 295 obovatus ane 296 roxburghii sis se 295 ———— ——— vertilliflorus 294 _—- striatus ae 23 aemnnae subglabrascens ... 292 ——. tacazensis 23 ——— tridentatus 25 ———- — tristachyus 290 verticilleflorus 294 | Anhinga melanogaster 89 Anous stolidus pileatus 88 Anser albifrons Sea 93 —— albifrons 151 —-——_- Bre Papell | ——-~ indicus TS) .325 Antennarius hispidus ... sip aees Anthropoides virgo Reso =) Anthus berezowskii Sar - blakistoni 351, 352 - — campestris griseus 352 -~cervinus .., ...344, 351, 352 ~—— - hodgsoni hodgsoni 351 ~- japonicus 351 ~ malayensis 352 -- richardi godlewskii 352 —— ~ - rufulus at Ie —— - roseatus ... 135, 139, 325, 352 ~~ rufescens... i see ae -- similis jerdoni 135 ~ sordidus decaptris 352 ———- spinoletta 302 - striolatus 352 — -s. contelli 352 -—_——- thermophilus 352 —trivialis haringtoni 135 -—-— ——- trivialis 351 - -- yunnanensis 351 Antilope cervicapra ... 39 Apluda aristata 26 -——-—- gryllus 26 _———~ varia er 26 var. aristata 26 | Apocopis vaginatus 25 —_——— wightii a3 ae 25 —_—_—.-—— —— _ var. vaginata 25 PAGE Anatherum nitidum For ae eo. OS Ancylus ee . ge. 115, 123 Andropogon armatus 59/ - binatus 25 ————- ———_ cernuus 297 -—__—_———— compactus aes see ed, — consimilis 293 ———-—- —— cordatifolius 2) —— ae —— crinitus 289 —__—-——— elegantissimus . 3d ——___———- filiformis 18 ———=- fuscus 293 oe griesebachii Si a halepensis 292 we inscalptus 24 ——— ——— lineatus 24 _———_ macrostachys 23 —— monandrus 289 —— ---- nervosts ... 23 —— --—_ niger 296 ————_—— = nitidus 293 —_—_—-_——- pedicellatus 203 ——_——-—— petiolatus 288 ———_—_-——— princeps ... Ze —— ——-——_ purpureosericeus 293 ——— ravenne ... 287 ——_——-—— rhizopeones 288 -———-—-—— rhynchophorus ... 24 ms roxburghianus 18 rubens 296 ——————- schangulensis —_——_———- schima 24 —— ——-——. serratus oe wares —_——-——— sorghum . .-291, 293, 294 | —--———-——- sorghum. var. eeyptiacus 296 | —_—— -———-- arabicus... 296 —————— -__ ——————- bicolar 296 ———— —— —— - —_ ——_ cernuus 297 ———$ —_—_— —_- __-—- ——_ hians 295 ——— -——— ——_ - —_-————_ niloticus... 296 | ——— -—_ + ———_. roxburghii. 296 | ———_—_—_——__—--—- —-— ——- rubrocernans 296 © ——————_— —————-—____- —— sativus 291, 292 ——_—_—— ———-- —-— schweinpur- thianus... 296 —$ —_— —_— — —— -—— usorum 295 ————_—__——_-——.__ halepensis var. effusus 294 | —— -—_—_——_-—— -—— sativus var. egyptians ... 296 ——_ ——_ —__ ——- sativus var, nernuus 297 Apolectus niger Appias libythea ... Aquila clanga chrysaétus — daphanz heliaca.... eee nipalensis nipalensis rapax vindhiana.. Ardea cinerea cinerea ie purpurea manillensis .. purpurea eee Ardeola grayi Arenaria interpres interpres Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius Arnetta vindhiana Asio flammeus — otus otus Atella phalanta Athene brama —_——_ _____. jndica Aulacodes simplicalis Azanus ubaldus ... ~ uranus awe Badamia exclamationis... Balitora brucei Baoris bada ——colaca ae eee Barilius bola Belenois foe Blepharocera ae aoe dee Bos bubalus —— grunniens Boselaphus bere ocamelis Botaurus stellaris stellaris Bregmaceros atripinnis Bubo bengalensis = ——- bubo bengalensis... —— subsp. < —— turcomanus... see —- coromandus Bubulcus ibis ——--—— ibis comomiataus Bucanetes .., as es Bungarus ceeruleus -— candidus Butastur teesa Buteo ferox ~—_——_ ——— ferox Byasa aristolochie ... aa noctua bactriana ee INDEX OP SSPECES PAGE | 258 228 67 47 67 | a7 G7 ..67, 142 ae G7 91, 150 Oy 90691 ... 90, 91 91, 150 80 229 | 230 64 64 377 | 230 206 fee 65 sO); 320 124 230 | 230 230 13h) 230 230 269 377 122 308) 34 | a0 o2 262 65 140 141 65 a7] 197 91 346 294 381 68 143 69 228 KIX PAGE Byasa hector 228 Caccabis chukor ... 54 Calandrella acutirostris acutirostris .. Shy, _———_——_ ——_ ———- tibetana 136, 325 —- brachydactyla brachy- dactyla .. 353 ———-—— b. dukhunensis 353 ——--—— b.. hermoniensis 353 —- b. longipennis Jo ——-—— Db. orientalis 353 --——— pispoletta 354 Calidris alba im 84 Calliope pectoralis pectoral oe 139 Calornis chalybeius 44 Calotropis heb) Capella gallinago pallinage 85 - megala ... 221 ———- solitaria ... 88 Capparis aphylla... Zo Capra sp. oe 36 Capra falconeri ... eae wes oF Caprimulgus indicus 147 Caprona ransonnetti... ro 230 Carana kalla , 258 Carangoides oblongus .. sé 258 Carduelis caniceps orientalis .. 346 ---— subulata 346 ——-— c. major 346 ——-—— paropanisi... ose 346 = SubCcaniceps. 4). 346 Carpodacus erythrinus ... s 345 —- -—— roseatus 345 -—— -—__-- ——_--——--- kuubanensis 345 —— ——_-——-. lapersonnei ves 346 —— lucifer 346 —_——__-——- mac g regori 345 —_——_——- rubecilloides 323 —-—— —— rubicilla rubicilloides 346 —_—_-————- severtzovi 346 —_-—— trifasciatus a ax 345 Casarca ferruginea a og oh aee — rutila 63 Catachrysops strabo 230 Catopsilia crocale 228 ——-—— florella 228 ——--—— pomona 228 ee v. catilla 228 ——-—— pyranthe - 228 Catreus wallichi ... 53, 144 Cenchrus granularis 28 Centropus sinensis tes ee 46 aa 90 | 90 | 17-| | xXx PAGE Cervulus muntjac 40 Cervus elaphus maral 41 Cerylelugubris guttulata 138) | _ rudis leucomelanura 138 Chaimarrornis leucocephalus ... 322 Charadrius alexandrinus alexandrinus 81 —— dubius curonicus a 81 — —---——- - jerdoni »O1, 148 ———---— leschenaulti ean 81 -——— mongolus atrifrons 1, 147 Charaxes fabius... : 229 Chaulelasmus streperus ... ame Pegi sy Cheliones hurrianz +o 2135-300, ol Chettusia gregaria 81 - leucura 81 Chillades laius 230'%| Chionachne barbata | Chirocentrus dorab | . 253.) Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni... 61, 78 Chlidonias leucopareia indica... ..86, 150 | Choriotes edwardsi 60 Chrysopogon fusctis 293° 4 Cicer arietinum 334 | Ciconia ciconia — asiatica 90 —- nigra : Cindus cindus Paci tienaes 323) | cashmeriensis 44 - pallasi tenuirostris 44 Cinnyris asiatica brevirostris ... 355 Circaétus gallicus 68 Circus eruginosus 69 — —_-—— eruginosus seh OT | -——— cyaneus ...69, 142 macrourus ...09, 142 4 SS py careus 69 | Cirripedesmus on sonee feaeoae vex BO Cissa chinensis chinensis des 43 | Clamator jacobinus 45, 140 Clupea ilisha 268 | Coelorrhachis clarkei Bol — -—-— - —-- hirsuta 30) Coilia dussumieri 254 | Coix barbata a — gigantea 17 —— lacryma oe —— lacryma-jobi Lo Coladenia dan 230 | Colotis amata 229 | -—-—— danz dulcis 229 —— etrida st 229 INDEX OF SPECTES Colotis fausta protractus m——= — versicolor... vestalis Coluber helena Columba eversmanni Ate -———-—— leuconota leuconota livia intermedia ———_——_——-— neglecta... ——--—— palumbus casiotis ——-—— rupestris em 2 ee, turkestanica Colymbus septentrionalis ——---—— steliatus Coracias garrula semenowi Corbicula ... Corvus capellanus corax tibetanus ... cornix sharpi -———. coronoides : _ nteemecdias: ——— splendens... ee aes a —-— zugmeyeri ... Coryllis vernalis ... Cotile riparia —-— subsoccata Coturnix coromandelica coturnix , —_———_ ——_—. coturnix Cremnochonchus syhadrensis ... Crex*cnex 2 -: wee pratensis ... Crocodilus palustris —-——-— porosus Crocopus phcenicopterus eae’ Cuculus canorus telephonus ... ———— optatus .. ——- polices pala pellecennalte Cuncuma leucoryphus Cursorius coromandelicus cursor cursor Cyamopsis psoralioides ... Cynoglossus macrolepidotus Cygnus jankowskii ———— minor olor Dafila acuta Danais chrysippus ——-—— limniace ——~ — plexippus PAGE 229 een e229 380, 381 229 224, 380 see 73 144, 327 ois 72 of 2,43 72;.73, 143 73 326 140 140 142, 326 o> ad | SE] 19) )) 18 | 43 91 | Ql 30 | | | PAGE | Delias eucharis sf 228 Delichon urbica cashmeriensis 348 — -+—- urbica ... 348 © Dimiegretta sacra asha ... Dendrocitta rufa 43 Dendrocygna javanica 93 Dendronanthus indicus ool Dichanthium armato 307 —— — McCanni 397, O00 Dichanthium panchganiense 357, 358 Dichoceros bicornis 367, 374 | Dimeria diandra ——— filiformis 18 —— gracilis 18 ——— ornithopoda 18 ——--———. woodrowii sf Dipsadomorphus ceylonensis ... 381 | —— trigonatus 224, 351 Dissemurus paradisius as Dissoura episcopa episcopa Ol Ge .00| Dorcatragus melanotis 308, 309 | Drepane punctata 261 | Dromas ardeola -/9 Dryobates auriceps 137 ————— himalayensis 137 Dryophis mycterizans 225, 001 Echeneis 174 12654) Echis carinata 225, 380, 381 Ecydurus 118 | Egretta alba — —-garzetta Parvetta Elephas maximus 127 Elionurus hirsutus Elophila fulicalis 125 Elyonurus royleanus 30 Emberiza arcuata 344 —_—— buchanani 348 ——--——-calandra 344, 348 —_———- cia 5 348 ———-- ¢. ponice sia 348 ———— citrinella Se htoeens: 348 ———— f, arcuata 347 — — —— hortulana 348 oe huttoni 348 ~——-—_—— icterica 348 | ————— khamensis 248 ————-——. melanocephala 348 — pusilia 347 ——-—— scheniclus aliGlin 2h7 ———-—. stracheyi 344 ———— pallidior 347 INDEX OF SPECIES XX1 PAGE Engraulis dussumieri 253 —_—— {ti 254 — ——- valencioniie esi 254 Equus onager indicus = 34 Eragrostis cynosurioides 932; 335 Erianthus fastigiatus 283, 288 ——-—— oriffithii 187 ——-——— hexastachyus... ies!) Zod ——-—— ravenne 283, 287 ——-—— roxburghii 290 —- miserum WA Erismatura leucocephala 153 Erolia alpina alpina 83 -caputus canutus 83 ferruginea 83 ——_ minutia 149 ee — 83 ——— temimincki . 83, 149, 328 ——— tenuirostris 84 Eronia leda es 377 Erythrospiza aerials 346 Eryx conicus 224 Esacus recurvirostris 7 ass 79 Euchlena mexicana var. mastuniane zs 15 Euchrysops cnejus 230 contracts 230 Eudynamis honorata 379 ——— -—— scolopaceus tedionncene 45 Eulabes intermedia 44 Eulalia argentea 290 - fimbriata 290 Kumenes conica 98 Kuploeea 377 -——_—— core tar 229 Euryzona canningi aE V2 Euthalia nais 229 Falco esalon insignis Ve -——-— amurensis ... a fal -——- cherrug milvipes ... an ——- chiquera chiquera 72 ——- concolor 71 —- jugger 71 ——-~ peregrinator a us 71 -—— peregrinus babylonicus eee Al reral ee — calidus 70, 143 ——-- subbuteo subbuteo 71, 143 —- tinnunculus saturatus 143, 326 —-——— tinnunculus UE Fistularia villosa eet 206 Francolinus francolinus asiz ... 145 ——-—_.__ --____——. Hogdlanowi 76 xxii PAGE Francolinus francolinus henrici 76 ———-—- pondicerianus 96,145 — ——__ -___ —- ——__—_—- interpositus 77 — mecranensis 76 ———-——- vulgaris 55 Fringilla frontalis 345 Fringillauda nemoricola Gemoneel 324 | Fulica atra 78 —— atra 146 ——_——. chinensis 4 Galeopterus peninsulz 372 Galerida cristata chendoola 354 Gallinago gallinago gallinago 149 abet 028, 570,°3/6 ——— -- stenura ——-——-- chloropus parvifrons 78, 146 ——-—— erythrothorax Gallus ferrugineus 22 Garra ids 114 Garrulus glandarius Were silite 376 —--- krynicki .. 376 Gavialis gangeticus 264 Gazella bennetti ... 40 ~ scemmeringi 303,°305 - subgutturosa ah 40 Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica ... 87 Genneeus hamiltoni 145 Gerbillus gleadowl1 330 —_- hurrianeze 330 ——-—— indicus ‘ 330 Glareola pratincola pratincola 80 Glaucidium brodiei 141 -— cuculoides cuculoides 141 Glaucion clangula : 95 Glaucionetta clangula paeala 153 Grus antigone 57 -communis ... 56 Gunomys sindicus Gymnodactylus deccanensis 380,000) Gymnoris ... 346 | Gypaétus perpatde ends 67, 142, 326 | Gyps fulvus fulvescens ——- himalayanus set 65 ——:-- himalayensis 141, 326 Hackelochloa granularis 28 Heematopus ostralegus longipes 82 Heematospiza sipahi 345 Haliaétus albicilla os leucoryphus .. Haliastur indus ... Hasora alexis 230 Helicopsyche 123, 124 . 330, 331, 332 66 68 | 68 | 48 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Hemarthria capensis 28 —+— compressa ... 27 —— coromandelina te 27 ——_ fasciculata ... ee Bled -—— glabra one 27 Hemibungarus nigrescens 380, 381 Hemidactylus maculatus 380, 381 Heptagenia 118 | Hesperida galba 230 Heteroxenicus Rey 1) Hieraétus fasciatus 68, 142 —-- pennatus 68, 142 Himantopus himantopus femonroot 82, 148 Holcus bicolor 296 --- cernuus ... a Pope AS) - compactus Per She - dora if oes due ace, ee ———- durra 296 ———- fulvus 293 ——— - halepensis 291 ———- niger 5 296 wane saccharatus ae ase ase. 296 ——.- sorghum | 296, 297 | ———_-————— minus 295 ee nitidum 295 —. ~ sisna ... 295 Hologamium nervosum aoe 23 Hoplopterus ventralis 219 Hipposideros brachyotus 372 Hirundo arctivitta 350 — —~—— daurica daurica see, uaaO) —— —-- erythropygia os, ooo —_ — —_ —__-— japonica seas Haaae. =~ nepalensis 349 -—___. —_—_-—— rufula 350 oe striolata 349 ————- filifera 344 ——-—— gutturalis 349 ——-——. intermedia 349 —-—— scullii... we 350 ———— smithi filifera ... 349 ———— substriolata 349 ———— rustica rustica 349 ——_____-—__— tytleri ... 349 Huphina nerissa é 228 Hydrophasianus chirurgus... 80 Hydroprogne caspia caspia 86 Hyelaphus porcinus 4] Hypolimnas bolina 229 ——— misippus 229 Hypoteenidia striata eset Hypoteenidia striata striata —- gularis —--~-—_-___-— —— obscura —_—__—_—_--——-— obscuriora Hystrix leucura .. Janthia rufilata ; Ibidorhynchus struthersi Ibis melanocephala Ictinaétus malayensis Ictinus Ilerda viridis Ri Imperata arundinacea ... ——-—— latifolia ——-—— cylindriaca —-—— keenigii Indoplanorbis exustus -—— aneustifolium Ischeemum aristatum —— ciliare —- conjugatum crinitum diplopogon ... ——_——— _ geniculatum hirsutum —_-_—-—— impressum —-——- inscalptum ... laxum ay —_— —--——_ var. genuinum -———--—— inscalptum ——— —— lisboz ——--—— macrostachys —_——— macrostachyun ————— mastrucatum —_-————. molle... nervosum pilosum rugosum ———— schima —_———— semisagittatum = ————S var. yantha spathiflorum sulcatum tenellum timorense Ithagenes cruentus Ixias pyrene ——.- marianne rr Ixobrychus minutus aayutes is ————— sinensis Iynx torquilla japonica ——— ——— INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE ZAS* | 243° 243 243 214 302 | 148, 328 61 47 117 198 | 281 | 281 | 281 281 155 20, das- 23 xxiii PAGE Jamides bochus 230 Jardinea abyssinica 22 Jasaminum grandiflorum Bie Johnius belangeri 260 - -glaucus .. 260 ———- miles 260 Labeo calbasu 269 Lachesis cantoris 223 a gramineus 224 _ ———— purpureomaculatus .. 224 Lampides boeticus 230 Lanius cristatus cristatus 376 - - schach tephronotus 321 Larus argentatus cachinnans re 85 brunneicephalus . 86, 150, 328 fuscus taimyrensis eee 85 ——-- genei 86 | ——-- hemprichii 86 | ——-- ichthyzeius ae 85 —--- ridibundus Pa ounce eae 86, 150 Lasiurus hirsutus 30 Leiodon cutcutia. ae 262 Leptocoma evans brevir pers 356 - lotenia 356 -—— ornata 356 Leptoptilus dubius 62 ee ---—— fasciculata .. 28 | Lethe rohria nilgiriensis 229 Libellago cuneata 189 -—— fenestrella 193 ——-—-- quadrimaculata 192 —_——--— trifasciata 315 ——-—— unimaculata ... oe ols ——---— falcinella taleimella 7, 83 Limnza luteola 154 —— stagnatilis - 155 Limnocryptes minima ... 85 Limosa lapponica lapponica 82 | —- limosa limosa te 82 | Liopeltis (Ablabes) Semen 381 Lioscopus collaris nepalensis ... 323 Lithocranius walleri 308 | Lithotis rupecula... “s 115 Lobivanellus indicus aigneri ... 80 —_—— -——----——— indicus 147 Lodicularia capensis —— ——-—- fasciculata ... 28 Lophoceros birostris 374 Lophophanes rufonuchalis Meat vs 321 Lophopogon tridentatus es 25 Lophophorus impejanus 144, 327 XXIV Loris lydekkerianus ——- malabaricus Lufa acutangula... Lyceena orbitulus walli... Lycodon aulicus ... : —--— flavomaculatus ———— striatus . ; ———— travancoricus ... Lymnccryptes minima ... Mabuia carinata ... Machetes pugnax.. Macrogomphus aymecicns Macromia ida Macropisthodon pinta color sik (Tze pidonotus)) plum bicolor Manisuris granularis —— polystachya ... Mareca penelope... : Marmaronetta angustirostris Matrona basilaris Megalogomphus hanyngtoni Megalophrys Megalornis grus ... —-—— —- nigricollis Melanitis leda ismene Melanocorypha bimaculata —__-—_—__——--— maxima torquata Merganser merganset orientalis orientalis Mergus albellus ... —-serrator ... Merops apiaster ... —- superciliosus eae Net Merularuficollis ... Michelia champaca Microcichla scouleri scouleri Microhierax eutolmus —=———--- — fringillarius Micropus affinis galilegensis -—— apus pekinensis ——-—— melba melba... pacificus leuconyx Milvus lineatus é ——-— migrans ouinae ——-———---—— h neatus —= == ——- ———--——— migrans Mimusops elangi ... Mirafra Molpastes Mateo an ’ ee INDEX OF SPECIES _ PAGE | 206 206 334 i elds 224, 380 | 224 224 380 | 149 | 380, 381 84 | 116 Ti7 | 224, 380 380 | 28 28 | 152 — 152 | 17 116 114 78 B27 228 303 325 44 153 329 153 Shs) 147, 25; 137] 376 O22 972 | 322 | 377 || S77 139 | 139 139 139 69 68 68 242 | 354 Pom Mab Yes) 326 © PAGE Monticola solitaria pandoo 322 Montifringilla blanfordi... 324 - - mandelli... 324 ——- - nivalis adamsi... 324 —_-—__—_— alpicola... 347 —— ruficollis 324 Moschus moschiferus 41 Motacilla alba an 350 ——- hodgsoni 134 ——-——-——-— persica ... 350 ——__— persona sce eS ———-——- alboides 325, 351 —-—-—-———. beema 301 ——-—- calcarata ace no —-— cinerea 344, 351 _—— -—— melanope 134, 375 —- citreola i 344, 351 we calcaratus... 325 —_—_-———-——-— citreoloides 134 —-—_——_-—-——- caspica 351 —_—_——_——__—__——. were eh! ———-—-— dukhunensis 350 —_—-~--———- feldege 344 ——---—— flava. 351 sa eats: 351 ——-—— leucocephala 351 —_————- lugubris . 351 —_—-—_-_--——_—— Pen cnienar cues ie 45 ——_—--—~ maderaspatensis 351 ————— melanogriseus 351 -—---—— personata... 351 ———-- thunbergi 351 ——--—-~— vidua ... 377 —- yarrelli 351 Munia malacca 345 - pectoralis 345 Mureenesox cinereus 255 Mus rattus.. aa as 330 Mycalesis minetis Bcdects 229 Myiophoneus temminckii 321 Nacaduba nora ... 230 Naia hannah wae = 206 ——- naia... re 350, 381 ——- trupudians... 224 Narke dipterygia.. 253 Nemorrheedus goral 373 Neophron percnopterus neconoptenie 66, 141 ES rubripersona- tus 66 Neritina perotettiana 115 Nerodia piscator ... Lip es 225 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Nerodia (Tropidonotus) piscator ... 380 Nesokia hardwickei i Bie aa el O80)" -- huttoni ... ee $2 50057 09114 G36 Nettawuhitiase = is. fees Ae 94, 152 | Nettion crecca crecca ... as neal’ 2 Oe Nezara viridula ... eee ae Bede | Nucifraga caryocatactes nemeniy seer O2UN | Numenius arquata lineatus ... Zan 82 —- pheopus pheopus... see 82 Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax OT, 151 Nyroca ferina ferina ... cee woe, 152 - fuligula ... ae 3 42209, 805 1 ——- marila marila ... ~ een 24 -nyroca nyroca ... ies re 94 - rufa rufa... or ae eee Ber Oceanites occanicus occanicus Aes 89 | CEdicnemus cedicnemus astutus oe te) —--—__—_-—— sahare ... 43) Cinanthe deserti oreophila ... ss mp ed CEnopopelia tranquebarica tranque- barica ... es ae a wee 74 (Estrus ovis an be at a 36 | Oligodon subgriseus _... asa fe eed || —-—— teniolatus... bes ... 380 Ophiocephalus ... sts ses ie OS Ophiurus corymbosus ... a's sa He ——_——- megaphyllus... ... test, “EOC Oriolus oriolus oriolus ... ae .. 344 Osteogeniosus militaris ... ay =) Bale Otis tarda . Ses ee ye 78 Otocorys Aipestiig Bineei. — 136; 325 ——_——_——-- longirostris... 135; 302 ———— penicillata albigula ... Spee 209 @tohthus ruber ...- . = ay mee 200 Otus bakkamoena deserticolor ae 65 brucei mais awe ses bet 65 aaa DEM MALIC. 0... oe aes as 65 a MCMC US" 45 ant sek at 65 —— scops pulchellus ..,. Rig a 65 | —— sunia ee oe ve er Go 1 —— turcomanus... sit oe are 65 Oxyura leucocephala ... aah es gS 1} Palzornis cyanocephalus Ds oes 46 irs CDAIeHSIS: \.. “is .. 46, 47 ————- torquatus ... Ss ... 46, 47 Palingenia ve re cas ieee LS Paludomus sd +e iat ee ee es Pampus cinereus.. $54 wa iar 208 Pandanus odoratissimus Ses seperate Pandion haliaétus haliaétus ... 66, 141 Pantoporia perius evi Er awl aed Panurus biarmicus russicus Papilio caunus - delesserti... - demoleus... ——-- memnon ... - polytes romulus - rex ; Parantirrhoea mereelle _ Paraplagusia bilineata ... | Parnassius apollo Parus monticola ... Passer biblicus | ——-——-—-———- confucius indicus - montanus... —__ -———_—_——— montanus —— dilutus ———-— pyrrhonotus rutilans ——— = -——___—.--——-——. cinnamomeus... —_—_——--——_——- debilis ... ——————_ —— intensior Pastor roseus Pathysa nomius . Pavo cristatus | Pelecanus crispus -~——-- -- onocrocotalus Peitophorus acuminatus ————--— divergens | - talboti Pennisetum typhoideum Penthoceryx sonneratii sonneratii Perdicula sp. Perdix hodgsonie Aodeeoinee Pericrocotus speciosus ... Perissospiza carneipes ... ICLELOId eS” 5c. ———--——- speculigera Petronia stulta 3 Pheeton eetherius indicus | Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis | ———---—— fusicollis —__—_—__-~—— Javanicts Phalaropus fulicarius -_—-— lobatus Phasmoptynx capensis ... Pheretima posthuma Philomachus pugnax Phoenicopterus minor - domesticus meTOoIns er hispaniolensis transcaspicus .. 382 149 €xvi PAGE | Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum | Phcenicurus erythrogaster grandis 322.51 ——-+—- —— frontalis 139, 322 aes hodgsoni ee 322 ———-- ——_ ochrinus pheciieuraides 139 ns ea ee rufiventris 3220) Phylloscopus t. sindianus 356 Pica pica bottanensis 320 Picus squamatus squamatus eh AST Pila globosa 155; 382 || Pinacopteryx =i 377 —- ridleyanus 377 Pipistrellus mimus mimus 211 Pitta brachyura ... ii ie ies 1208 |) Phoepyga squamata 140 | Planesticus albicinctus ... 322 Platalea leucorodia — major 90 Platanista gangetica 42 | Platanus orientalis 272 Plegadis falcinellus Se _ 61 | falcinellus 90, 150 | Ploceus baya 45 | Plotosus anguillaris 256 | Plumatella fruiticosa 116 stricta 116 Pluvialis apricarius = 81 | Podiceps cristatus cristatus 95,193 | — nigricollis nigricollis —_—— ruficollis albipennis 153 | —_—_—_-—___---— capensis Podoces humilis ... 321 Pogonatherum crinitum , 289 © — polystachyum ... 289 ——-— refractum 289 | —_——— saccharoideum 289 | ———-— — — var. | genuinum 289 | monandrum 289 Pogonopsis tenera 289 Pollinia argentea 290 ~ - eriopoda... 25 -—-——~ fimbriata 290 monandra 259 - polystachys 289 ——- striata 23 -— tristachya 290 Pollinidium angustifolium 25 Polydactylus sextarius ... o7 383 Polydesmus 92 | INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Polymitarcys 118 _Polytoca barbata 17 ——-— cooki 17 Populus alba ae _ Porphyrio ao tleete olor enna us78,1 61 | 95 | 96 | _— —— seistanicus ... 73 Porzana bicolor é 8 —— fusca bakeri ... ie me iL ———-— maruetta ane 237 —-——— parva see feteOo —-—— porzana : a etl OW, —— maculipennis sad (Ey | ===——— pusilla pusilla. 77, 146, 240 Precis almana ee 229 hierta 229 lemonias .. 229 orithyia 229 | Prinia gracilis lepida 217 Propasser frontalis 345 ——-—— pulcherrimus::: 323 —-—-—— rhodochlamys grandis 345 =—+— rodachrous : 345 ———-rodopeplus ... al 345 See nara blythis 2k 345 Prosopis specigera... 231 Prosopistoma 118 Proteles cristatus.. ¥ 303 Prunella Priveeectig peiecene 323 ——-—— rubeculoides 323 ———— strophiatus strophiatus 323 Psephenus... - 119, 120, 124 Pseudogyps benpalener 66 Pseudorhombus russellii dee Senter Pseudotantalus leucocephalus... 2 OL-62 Psilostachys filiformis 18 Psittacula schisticeps ehienrene . 240 —- torquata oe ; sae CLO, SLO Pterocles alchatus penone tee vis) — coronatus atratus 74 ——_——— exustus. Syl Eee fichteneteint Hehtendeettid 74 ———-— orientalis ee BARON le! -——_——— senegalensis erlangeri 75 -————-_ senegallus 75 Pteromys belone.. 373 Ptyas (Zamenis) mucosus 380 Ptyonoprogne obsoleta obsoleta 348 = pallida 348 rupestris .. 325 Pucrasia macrolopha pid eteilipin! 144 Puffinus chlororhynchus cee oes 8S =-_-—— ignipennis..,. INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Puffinus persicus .. .. 89, 90 -—- irocirig renmincsents 89 Pyrgita nigricollis “es 346 Pyrrhocorax graculus S21 —_——- pyrrhocorax 320 Pyrrhospiza punicea punicea .., 323 Pyrrhula erythrocephala 323 Pyrrhulauda grisea 354 —-—— — siccata 354 Querquedula crecca crecca 94 querquedula 94, 152 Rallina canningi... wet 12 - fasciata ii - superciliaris siperoiinre 3) eurizonoides $) Rallus akool : 6 aquaticus aquaticus 146 —_— —— korejewi i crex 241 fasciatus ... i fuscus 1 Sularis.| ay. 243 parvus a 239 phoenicurus a3 4 porzana ... nee see 237 pusillus 240 striatus 243 superciliaris 9 Rana afghana 4 114 —- cyanophlyctis ins 267 ——- formosa re 114 —- tigrina 267 Rapala melampus 230 Ratzeburgia schimperi .. 30 Reana luxurians . as) Recurvirostra avoceita HUaver ta 82 Rhiniachne princeps =e Ay 22 | Rhinocypha adamantina .. 187, 189, 190 SEE beatifica 187, 188 ———_--—— beesoni we tite 187, 189 ——- bifasciata 187, 314 ——_—__-———- bifenestrata , 1875185, 316 —_—- —— biforata .. 186, 187, 188 —_-——_ bisignata .. 186, 187, 189 —— cuneata 186, 187, 188, 189 —- fasciata Av ioe LOE ——— -—— fenestrella... 187, 188, 193, 194 ——-—— _fulgipennis... 312 ———-—— hemihyalina 187, 193 ——~-—— hilaryee 1875-318 186, 187, 188, 311 XXV1i PAGE | Rhinocypha immaculata 187,317 --——_ iridea 186, 187, 188, 195 -——- laidlawi 187 —— pertorata ... . 186, 187, 188 ——-——. quadrimaculata _ 186, 187, 19], 192 ——-—--——— spuria... 184, 186, 187, 188, 190, 191 ———— trifasciata .. 1H 1S7 pLOon Glo | ——--——_- trimaculata 1G/eISG 32 /———--——- unimaculata 187, 188, 196, 313, 317 ——_—--——- whiteheadi Aol 187, 189 | Rhodopechys sanguinia 346 Rhyacornis fuliginosa a22 Rhynchium nitidulum ... 98 Rhynchops albicollis 88 Rhytachne princeps 22 Riparia ijimee ijimze 348 ——-—- riparia indica 348 ——— ~-- — subsoccata 348 - — sinensis.. 348 Ripidium ravenne a 2Os Rostratula benghalensis benehalens: 149 Rottbceellia acuminata 29 ——_—--— arundinacea 30 —_——-——— clarliei bs 33 ——-—-——. compressa Zfac8 ————— compressa var. fascioulatn 24; 28 — ——_— -—— genuina ... 27 ———-——— corymbosa ... we 62 ——_———-- divergens 29 -—_———— elegantissima eal ————— exaltata a ol -———___—_————_—-— arundinacea SL —_—_ —_— —__ var. genuina out Jl ———_—_—_——_—_——_——_ robusta 31 | ————— gibbosa a5 ————— glabra 27 a hirsuta 30 ————- talboti 30 Rytilix granularis 28 Saccharum egyptiacum var. nepalence 283 sae —— —sinense ... 283 ——-—— . arundinaceum .. 283, 285, 286 —————— bengalense 285 ————— boissieri ton 1286 —— ——— canaliculatum nae. 208 ————~-— chinense 283 —————— ciliare 285, 286 ————— ciliare var. griffithii 287 INDEXAOF SRECIES 24 | 23a 23 4 23 | 25 | XX Vill PAGE | Saccharum cylindricum 281 - europeeum Acie | ——— —— exaltatum Bory || ——— fastigiatum .. ae shh ee OO ————— eriffithi ..283, 286, 287 — - hirsutum 30 ——_—— —— indum aa iis 28 | ———--— munja 283, 285, 286 | ———-——- officinarum ... 283, 285 ————— paniceum ... 289 ————-— procerum 285 —————- ravenne ede 201 ——— —-—— sara 285, 286 wa sentidcednibens eeeoo -—- ———— spontaneum : 283, 285 ——-—-—— spontaneum var. egyptia- cum;. 284 ——---—— var, caper 281 ——— tridentatum ... 25 Salvadora persica 213 Salvadora sp. 231 Sarangesa dasahara 230 --—— purendra 230 Sarcidiornis melanonotus 63 Sarciophorus malabaricus 80 Saroglossa a 344 Saxicola torquata mhdiea 139 Scieena russellii ... ves 201 Scirpus maritimus 334, 335 - subulatus 334 Scoliodon acutus wee 2200 || Scolopax rusticola rusticola 85, 149 | Scolopendra 231 Scomberomorus eee 207 Secutor insidiator 258 Sehima ischemoides — kotschyi... 24 ———- macrostachyum - nervosum - spathiflorum - sulcatum Sesbania grandiflora 378 Silybura brevis 380. | —- macrolepis 380 Simotes arnensis ... 224 Simulium. 120 Sorghum Bieler : 296 ——- bicolor var. Spor atin 296 ——-——- cernum 297-4] —_—_———- durra 296.73) o——-—— fulvum we 293 | PAGE Sorghum halepense ... 292, 294 Se Or aa OO ————- nitidum 291, 293 -——-——— papyrascens ... meri ag 3/40 7 —————- purpureo-sericeum ... 291, 293 ——-—— rubens... Sete 42/8) —————-- roxburghii SORE | oe) ——_———__——_-—— _ var. hians 295 _——— —--——_— _ semiclau- Stim. .: oe 295 —— —— subeglabrescens 291, 292 -——_——- versicolor 291 ——-——- verticilliflorum woe 204 ——-—— vulgare 291, 293 —_———-——- —— bicolor ae 296 ——_—_————— subvar nigrum 296 —_—_—-————— var. obovatum 296 —_ —— roxburehii 293 Sparus spinifer 299 Spatus clypeata ... 94, 152 Spheoeroides lunaris : 262 ———-- viridipunctatus 262 Spindasis ictis 230 -_—————- vulcanus ads ocoU Spirostreptus wae ane 382, 384 Spodiopogon albidus ... as 288 ---—— angustifolius BA 25 —_——_--- conjugatus aoe 21 ae obliquivalvis 21 Squatarola squatarola squatarola 81 Stegosia cochinchinensis 31 ————. exaltata 31 Stercorarias parasiticus... 88 Sterna albifrons ... 87 — — albigena ... 87 — aneestheta Poli gaie 88 -——— bengalensis bengalensis 87 —--— bergii velox 87 —— hirundo 150 ae — hirundo... | ve 87 ——-—_——-—-— tibetana... is 328 -—--— melanogaster 87 repressa 87 sandviceunsis eandicene 88 ——— saundersi ... 87 Strepsiceros imberbis : Brrpeee sil" Streptopelia decaocto decaocto... 73, 144 —————— orientalis meena ... 73, 144 ean senegalensis cam bayensis 73 ——_——__-—— turtur arenicola ... - 73 Strixaluco biddulphi ... ees 64, 140 INDEX OF SPECIES Xxix PAGE PAGE Strix butleri ee tes ase ne 64 | Tringa glareola ... 65 se ...89, 148 Sturnushumii_... ae sia aa 44 - hypoleucus aes ... 84, 148, 375 ———-— y. humii ee a jase 3 O44 - nebularia coe wee ass Ss 1AQ ee ev minor ays “ei .. 344 - ochropus aes ... 84, 148, 328 ___--— vy. poltaratzskii a .. 344 - totanus eurhinus oer ... 149 Suastus gremius ... 2a ae ... 230 | Trochalopterum affine affine ... we oe Sula cyanops ne tre = ae 89) |) 2: Jineatum ot . 140 —— dactylatra melanops mF = 89 | Tropidonotus piscator ... ie .. 224 Sus cristatus is aes ... 42 | Trypauchen vagina... ae ae blll Sylvia curruca Paltmodendfi = ... 376 | Turbinicola saxea ate FE os, | ALS 376 | Turnix dussumieri eco homeo Syntarucus alia ae ee .. 230 | Turtur orientalis see ae aves. wed. Sypheotides aurita an: i eee 79 | Typhlops sp. oi wba ti .. 224 —— indica... es as ves 79 | Tyto alba javanica... es 64, 140 Sypheotis auritus ve ae - 60 | Udaspes folus ... oe oe ... 230 = -—— penralensis ... ee .- 60 | Upenoides vittatus ®t oe ge 4S) Syrrhaptes tibetanus ... an 144, 327 | Upupaepopsepops ...__... .. 138 Tachysurus coelatus... Per .. 296 ———— orientalis... a saa 320 -——. sona ... wes as ... 255 | Uroconger lepturus _... aod vet 2200 Tadorna tadorna ... 93, 220, 221, 222 | Uroloncha pectoralis of od Tamarix ... eee er “as ere | | cman ae punctulata ... a «. 345 Taphozouslongimanus... ... «. 371 | ——---—rufiventris ... ... 0... 345 melanopogon .. se 371) Vanellus vanellus Sox) SEE Sagar, Tarucus theophrastus ... ae .. 230 | Vanessa cardni ees wed oe 229 Telicota dara weve eee 230 | Vipera russellii 000. 0. 204 Terekia cinerea ... ee .. «+ 83 | Varanus bengalensis ... ... . «©3381 Terias ... wes tee eee~S ewe «= 877) “Virachola isocrates ...... ... 230 === hecabe .... ae a ... 229 | Woodrowia diandra ... ie - 19 --—— libythea ... — Me .. 228 | Xylocopa amethystina ... ce 225, 269 = leta Ke Pye Me ..» 229 | Ypthima asterope mahratta ... 5. 229 === venata, ~... oe =" ... 228 | Zamenis fasciolatus ... ae ... 380 Tetracerus quadricornis... ~ ae 35 | ———— mucosus ih Mies ees Tetraogallus caspius... 54 | Zea mays ... z ron 0 ls -——- himalayensis Himelevencis 145 ——- var. BOI snCrne see ne 17 Lawes tibetanus ... a ... 327 | Zetides agammemnon ... we ae OS ——————— tibetanus «- 146 | Zizera gaika ae es we 1200 ——- tetrax orientalis ... a 78 —lysimon .., ee _ .. 230 Thelepogon elegans... » 22 mahamaha .,, ... —... ~—-230 Threskiornis melanocephalus ee otis decreta doe = er 280 cephalus Ses sis ses =. 0 trochilus putli ... ae .. 230 Tichodroma muraria ... als ... 321 | Zosterops aureiventer ... as 355, 356 Tirumala formosa a oa -- 3// | ——--——.. cacharensis ,.. a . 354 — mercedonia .. ne 377 | ——-—— egregia me =e e355 Totanus calidris tne ae os S28) 1) = El wesi at aa we = 354 - nebularius cae ace re $4 |) Ses palpebrosa ... ie .. 354 aaa es stagnatilis ae a ses 84 —_——-—_——-— elwesi ... eee 137 - totanus curhinus ae $4 | —-——____..__ nilgiriensis ae S00 Tragopansp. ... ore a es 54. | ——-——————_-— occidentis ... 354 Trichoptera oe Rei ee .. 118 | ——-—— simpiex se es i sooo Trichiurus muticus cae a en 2Or ——_——_-—— peguensis ... ssn GOS —— savala aan see -. 257 | Zygonyx ... me ake le Se 7 é ~ AY NATURAL | 4, ‘EDITED BY. sir REGINALD SPENCE, Krk ws. 2s: H. PRATER, C.M.zZ. Cae — & SALIM A, ALI VOL. XXXII, No. } | Date OF Publication, 1st August, 1927. x wy : x 3 a“ _ Price to Non-Members ‘ For terms of membership see inside hone “ove a | Honorary Secretary’ ‘S Address : : BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIET ! 6; Apollo Strack: Bombay. LONDON AGENTS: DULAU & Co., Ltd., ‘32, Old Bond Street, W. 1. Pin a of Game Bird Plates (19), Vol. II. Rs. 13-8 Fourth Edition. Rs. 3 é Identification of Poisonous Snakes — | | ye Hanging Wall Chart, 30” x40”. — . ya aR Bee Folding Pocket Chart. . Rs. 1-12 q Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, bg Stokes PRATER, C.M.Z.S. Re. 1 Me ~ Wood-Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Presidency By Rev. J. Aes a 1 A: S.J. Re. 1 xe Catalogue of the Bac s abe at . Re. Pe List of Indian Butterflies by Lt.-CoLt. W. H. EVANS, R.E. 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If this cannot be done then the stm of £1-15-4 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The | - National Bank of India, Bishopsgate ha Ponden) E.C. _ We regret the delay in the publication of the present issue of the Journal, which is due to a strike at our printers, who have however guaranteed to bring out the full complement of the Journals due to members this year, i.e. two further numbers in addition to the present one. CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXII, No. 1 THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (With a coloured plate.) By E.C. Stuart Baker, F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U., H.F.A.O.U. cs-cevese REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. Part III. By E. Blatter, S.3.. Ph.D., F.L.S. _ ..... Praca l Coo saearetle nd aicebe th eves saute THE MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS AND SPORTSMEN, Part Il, <(With four plates)... By Salitaj A. AM. saciesccccisccscccassceoces THE BrirDs OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN. Part III. (With a plate). By C. B. Tieehurst, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S. eee 27 ee2er72 080008 THE POTTER Wasp (Rhynchium nitidulum). Partl. (With two plates and three text-figures). By Major R. W.G. Hingston, 1.M.S. ......... ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS. (With one plate and ten text- MeuUreS er DY Di. S. Ls. Ora.) WsSCx \)o¢cccceesceseeccsseeee da, Sooeweneat eats WILD ELEPHANTS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES. (With four plates). By RENN em © arin lO sei, S .. Tack, aksoae dave etse caus secees cicmrca acess Seusigigwatec steed SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY No. XLVII. By Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S. .......0. Reb anne SL Seale oe Mawesne dears bes oaesmeteesues NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR. Part Il. (Witha plate). By B. B. SIMA SUOMI SONU Gn eeteaeises sci acie cave slp conse hed ea ce niles dclnek viae's saeacaulecg Ubewasees ON THE BREEDING HABITS AND FECUNDITY OF THE SNAIL Limncea luteola. (With two plates andtwo graphs.) By R. V. Seshaiya, M.a. A JOURNEY ACROSS THE HIMALAYAS. (With four plates). By J. W. AES GIGENCEEUI Ceaener ors SU Ceer a obs cuca ieee nrc ethic dae siciee tins oe ccaueca stusdiee wuniuteneeee es PRINCIPLES AND EXTENT OF THE EDUCATIONAL SERVICE RENDERED TO THE SCHOOLS BY MUSEUMS IN AMERICA. ( W1th four plates). By ee lemiaheCei fe CoNle 2. S.8 lac Seanch asics cagest eee vrs wie eeas veneeebisscelonvtscgsmsrcness4 os INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXVIII. (With one text-figure and four braves By, Lt.-Col F.C, Braset, 1.MsS., BiE.S. .ccocctisestueseonpescsses ED TOR Aer ase ckcdscs.cceh eee teeretseceanecceebesss ese PO PF BAS REPT Or PS OBITUARY. | cus ccecccacietes cesses Beret samh ee aa cile eho a ic | Stella wate msloacead ae piaseSon mon eeeuee uke MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I.—Observations on the habits of the Slow Loris Loris lydekkert- anus. (Witha plate). By C.R. Narayan Rao, M.A. ..........0ee ie—-Man-eating Tigers. -By* A. P; Kinloch) *8.Z.S8. | ©. ..esssocssvexseaces III.—A Panther treeing its kill. (Wzth a photo). By W. M. Logan- ElOme? NMAION 6 é.0c5.eeeseteor se Ea ein ea aad eee ea ae Ra ne Rn rt IV.—Wild Dogs attacking cattle. By Randolph C. Morris ............ V.—Jackals in residential compounds. By Rodney Foster, Major... VI.—The maternal instinct in the Dwarf Pipistrelle (?. mimus mimus.) By W.W.A. Phillips, F.Z S.,M.B.O.U. .......00.0006- VII.—Note on the Desert Gerbille (Cheliones hurriane}. By C. BUGS etn Th acre Neem initia ny center one veces chit inn te Oa Ose San oaseek eb nadnp eaherae ts VIII.—Habits of the Porcupine. (Hystrix leucura). By C. McCann. ie white Hlephant Calf. By D. Fo Machies .....cccceccdeccseed sosesensit PAGE 14 3 i CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXII, No. 1 PAGE X.—Twin Elephant Calves. (Wzth a plate). By Gordon Hundley 215 XI.—Solitary Cow Gaur. By Randolph C. Morris. .................0. 215 XII.—Bison and cultivation. By A. P. Kinloch, F.z.S. ....2........ 215 XIII.—Worn down tips of Bison horns. By Randolph C. Morris... 216 XIV.—A Fine Muntjac. By A. P. Kinloch, F.z.s. .......... Saisie tases ectanes 216 XV.—Clicking noise made by Muntjac. By Randolph C. I Morris... 216 XVI.—Peculiar Cries emitted by Sambhur stags fighting. By Randolph ©. Morris juci. steer e-teseee cies oene este neni 216 XVII.—Mating of the Jungle Crow (Corvus coronotdes intermedius) . By Arthur Hs Berrifi ui e ee ener een SAE: 217 XVIII.—The Bearded Tit, Panurus viarmicus russicus (Brehm)— An addition to the Indian list. By Hugh Whistler ............ 217 XIX.--Occurrence of the Pamir Horned Lark (Ofvocoris pencillata albigula) in the Punjab. By Hugh Whistler ............... 218 XX.—The Rock-sparrow (/etronia stulta) inthe Puniab. By Hugh Wiiistler © siivecchaics 0c Serer ete teeta aoe eter re towers cane 218 XXI.—The mating of Paroquets. By Salim A. Ali ......... cages ceeieene 218 XXII.—Habits of the Indian Spur-winged Plover (Hoplopterus gyentralss).; By R.W=G. Himgstom Sec kscseress encase seccee sn: 219 XXI1II.—Comments on Mr. J. K. Stanford’s ‘ Occurrence of the Sheld- rake and Lapwing in yes Burma.’ mie R. Musgrave Hanna, Captain: - | i.5.2usecsonsnesemetoas tnseseste ce womennserece tm encets 220 XXIV.—Occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe in North Lakhimpur. By W.M. Lemarchand ..... Baaisicdatene nec e OMe anette ikea once ate 221 XXV.—The breeding of the Spotbill Duck is pacilorhyncha). By C. G. Chevenix Trench: uso es le ee 221 XXVI.—Occurrence of the Sheldrake in Behar. By P. Murphy ..... 22% XXVII[.—Further record of occurrence of the Sheldrake Legere dadorna) in-Behar... (By FA] €. Munns, 2.2.55 tes aaaee 222 XXVIII.—Migration of Wild Fowl. Byars CilCTS! praca ceaet Ome ete ice 222 XXIX.—Large flocks of the Comb Duck (Sarcidiornis melanonotus). By Rodney Foster .......+....0 Suse setics tes Nenconsensncmmce acme eaten 222 XXX.—A case of snake-bite due to Cantor’s MEG UE Gcreses cantoris). By A. Bayley-de Castro _...... LG sbomseeeeonsnaiatessiees 223 XXXI.—Snakes of Sholapur. By K. G. Gharpury, I-M-S. ............... 224 XXXIl.—Large brood of eggs of the Checkered Water Snake (Nerodia piscator). By S.H. Prater ......se.ceeceeeeeseeeceees 225. XXXIII.—Notes on the life and habits of the common Carpenter Bee (Xylocopa amethystina). By A.G. Frere, Major, F.z.S. 225 XXXIV.—Notes on a collection of butterflies made in Jodhpur and Mount Abu during the years 1924, 1925 and 1926. By A. D. Macpherson, C.1.B. 62/2. ccoscccetecenessortateesset oer sitinwecane=mactiae 228 XXXV.—The Occurrence of the Wood Mason Butterfy (Parantir. rhea marshalli) in Coorg. By H.C. Winchworth ....... 230 XXXVI.—The North-West Locust in Sind. By Harold H. Mann ... 231 XXXVII.—On the Vitality of the Centipede rt eae sp.) By SSeplataa VAS ANd eae ew ae tae Coteacuee Geer ne totes snes nemetoeen sat 231 XXXVIII.—The Poison of Centipedes—Being a special reference to the Andaman species. By A. Bayley-de Castro ......... 232 235 PROGREDINGS 0: -xacecaycdcaeus pce td Gide cs the emiecteiloa ers uiniecianararcian Satstna's’e SAN tt a re dee SOC 1 S JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HI THE MALAYAN BANDED CRAKE Rallina fasciata ize s life si LTD. VITTY & SEABORNE, JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Naturai History Society Avucust, 1927 VoL. XXXII No. 1 THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE BY He Oo STUART BAKER B.27.S5,7F.L.8.,; 00B:0:U), (HePlA.O0U: VoL. V THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS Part III | (With a coloured plate) (Continued trom page 546 of Vol. XXXT) AMAURORNIS FUSCUS The Ruddy Crake There are four forms of this little Crake found within the Indian Empire, viz. : (1) Amaurornts fuscus fuscus. The Ruddy Crake. - Rallus fuscus Linn., Syst. Nat., 12th ed., 1., p..262,. 1766, Philippines. This and the Ceylon form are the smallest of the four forms, with a wing between 89 and 99 mm.; the colour the same as in FP. f. bakeri but deeper both above and below. Itis found from the Philippines through Celebes, Java, Sumatra and Borneo, etc., all through the Malay Peninsula to Tenasserim. (2) Amaurornis fuscus bakert. The Northern Ruddy Crake. Porzana fusca bakevi Hartert; Nov. Zool., 1917, p. 262 Kuinaon. | Larger than the preceding bird with a wing of 97 to 110 mm. Similar in colour. Inhabiting Northern India from the 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORALAITST. SOGIET YAO). exes Afghan Frontier (Whitehead) and Kashmir to Eastern Assam and Bengal, Chin Hills and Arakan. (3) Amaurornis fuscus erythrothorax. ‘The Chinese Ruddy Crake. Gallinula erythrothorax Temm. and Schlegel, Fauna Jap. Aves, p. 121, pl. 28, 1849, Japan. This is the largest and palest of all the known forms, the wing 105 to 120 mm. ; the lower parts a paler rufous and the crown less rufous anteriorly. This form occurs only, as far as is yet known, in the Shan States within our limits. Outside these it ranges from Japan and China to Yunnan and Siam. (4) Amaurornts fuscus zeylonicus. The Ceylon Ruddy Crake. Amaurornts tuscus zeylonicus Stuart Baker, Bull. B. O. C. Janolo27. A small form about equal in size to A. f. fusca but much paler and faintly tinged above with yellowish. Omitting one very faded specimen, the darkest Ceylon bird is not quite so dark as the palest Javan or Malayan specimen. Ceylon and South-West coast of India to Belgaum and Kanara. Description.—Forehead and crown to the sinciput, sides of the head and neck, lower plumage to abdomen vinous chestnut ; upper plumage dark olive brown, the rump, upper tail coverts, tail and wing quills darker brown; flanks and abdomen olive brown; under tail-coverts blackish-brown, edged with white; chin and centre of throat white more or less tinged with chestnut. Colours of soft parts.—Iris crimson, brown in young birds, glaucous blue-brown in nestlings; bill horny green to brownish green, the tip of the lower mandible yellowish; eyelids plumbeous grey with ared rim; legs and feet reddish-orange to brick red. Measurements.—A. f. fusca. Totallength about 220 to 230 mm. ; wing 87 to 99 mm. ; tail about 55 mm. ; culmen 19 to 21 mm. ; tarsus 3/7 ran, A. f. erythrothorax. Wing 105 to 122 mm.; culmen 21 to 24 mm. A. f. bakert. Wing 97 to 110 mm.; culmen 21 to 24 mm. A. ft. zeylonicus. Wing 87 to 96 mm. ; culmen 19 to 20 mm. As already noted, the depth of colour varies in the different geographical races, but the above description fits them all. Young Birds are darker above, and have the crown concolorous with the back ; supercilia, sides of head and neck and lower surface dull white barred everywhere with dusky brown; flanks and thighs dull olive-brown ; under tail-coverts as in adults. Nestling black with fulvous spots behind the ear-coverts. Distribution : vide supra. Nidtficatton.—The Ruddy Crake breeds wherever it is found, though birds may move about considerably under the effect of drought, heavy rainfall or other locai conditions, whilst it is possible that many of the rails which swarm in the swamps and lakes of Eastern Bengal in Winter breed further north. I have personally found them breeding in the Sunderbands of E. Bengal, Mymensingh and the Surma Valley in June, July and August whilst in Kashmir, THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 3 Osmaston and others have taken eggs from May to September. In South Siam, Herbert found it breeding in July, whilst in Ceylon eggs have been taken in August and September, and in Travancore in June. Further north, Davidson took nests with eggs in Kanara from May on to August. The nest is a fairly substantial pad of grass, rush blades or similar materials, which is placed either on or quite close to the ground in swampy places, marshy fields or in islands in the middle of swamps. Occasionally the nest is placed in reeds, rank grass or bushes growing in water, but this is ex- ceptional. The eggs generally number 5 or 6, more rarely 7 or even 8. The ground colouris a pale cream, sometimes a little deeper, and sometimes almost white, whilst every now and then one comes across a clutch of an almost deep red-pink. The marks consist of numerous ill-defined flecks, irregular blotches and spots of rufous-brown to deep reddish-brown, fairly numerous over the whole surface and generally more so at the larger end; the secondary markings, not always visible, are similar put more scanty and of a pale mauve, neutral tint or reddish-lilac. The surface is smooth but not glossy, and the texture strony and close. Thirty- — four eggs of the southern form average 30:0 « 22°35 mm.; one hundred of the northern form average 32°3 « 23:7 mm. ; whilst the only two clutches which I have seen of the Malayan bird were only about 29:0 & 23:0 mm., and were broader in comparison than any of the others. Typically they are rather smudgy ill-marked eggs compared with the more boldly spotted eggs of Hypotenidia. Habits.—The Ruddy Crake is possibly a much more common bird than people imagine, but it is such a desperate little skulker that it is most difficult to flush. When snipe-shooting in Eastern Bengal we often found that inthe hotter hours of the day the snipe deserted the rice fields and shallow mud and water round the edge of the swamps, taking refuge from the heat under the lilies, lotuses and other plants growing in deeper water. It was whilst pursuing these snipe that | first came across this very attractive little Crake. There was no chance in this deep water of running, so that any birds we disturbed were forcedto fly and, in consequence, we were constantly putting up tiny birds which flew much like quails for two or three hundred yards and then, after swerving a little to the right or left, dropped suddenly down to the water plants again. The legs were always visible as they rose so that I guessed them to be rails of some kind, and shooting one found it to be a Ruddy Crake. As long as the sun was high and hot we could be sure of putting up any number of these quaint little birds, though shooting in the early mornings and late afternoons one but seldom saw them as they were then feeding where the cover was ample, and they could escape without flying. Their diet is both insectivorous and vegetarian and they, sometimes at least, also eat tiny fresh water molluscs. Its note, so far as I have heard it, is a very soft crake, not rapidly repeated but uttered as a single note at considerable intervals. It appears to be uttered only in the very early mornings | and the evenings, and then but rarely. Hume syllabifies this as keck-keek-keck. Even where the birds were most numerous, as in the Sunderbunds, they were but seldom to be heard, though I was 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. X2OdT never in these districts during the breeding season when they may be more loquacious. They keep much to rice fields during the day, though they also haunt ali kinds of swamps and marshes and may sometimes be found in marshy meadows at a considerable distance from any water. Round about villages, they may sometimes be seen on quite small pieces of water and they then become quite used to humanity and very tame. They seem good-tempered littie birds, several pairs feeding in company without squabbling or fighting, even at the commencement of the breeding season. For the table they are of no use, though Hume says that when skinned and disguised with onions, etc., they are quite eatable. AMAURORNIS PHGNICURUS The White-breasted Water Hen The White-breasted Water Hen has three geographical races within our limits, including the typical form. These are :— (1) Amaurornts phenicurus phenicurus. The Ceylon White- breasted Water Hen. Rallus phenicurus Pennant, Ind. Zool., ix. p. 10, 1769, Ceylon. Inhabiting Ceylon and South Travancore only. (2) Amaurornis phenicurus chinensts—The Chinese White- breasted Water Hen. Fulica chinensis, Boddaert, Tabl. Pl. Enl. p. 54, 1783, China. Found throughout India, Burma, China. (3) Amaurornis phenicurus tnsularis.—The Andaman yes breasted Water Hen. Amaurornis tnsularis Sharpe, Cat. B. M. xxiii, p. 163, 1894, Andamans. Known from the Andamans only. Rather larger than either of the two preceding birds, and darker and blacker in general colour, with more extend- ed white onthe forehead. Vernacular Names.—Dawak, Dahak, Dauk (Hin.); Kitimat (Oudh); Azuvahi (Sind.); Kureyn (Gond); Bole-Radi(Tel.) ; Tannin Koli, Kannung Kolt (Tam. Ceylon); Aulu-quet (Burm.) ; D7-dao-ho- gophu (Cachari). Description.—Forehead, supercilia, sides of the head, chin to vent pure white ; upper parts, wings and sides of the body from breast to vent dark slaty-grey more or less washed with olive, and the upper tail-coverts generally browner ; tail and wing quills blackish, the first primary with white outer web, posterior flanks, thigh- coverts, vent and under tail-coverts dingy rufous; axillaries and under wing-coverts slaty edged with white. Colours of sott parts.—Iris brown in the young to crimson in the breeding male ; bill green, the base of the upper mandible red, the tip and lower mandible paler and more yellow ; legs and feet dull chrome-yellow to yellowish-green. Measurements.—A. phenicurus phenicurus.—Total length about 320 mm.; wing 142 to 160 mm.; tail 58 to 66 mm.; tarsus 49 to 57 mm. ; culmen 35 to 42 mm. A. p. chinensis. Wing 158 to 173 mm.; culmen 36 to 41 mm. THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 5 A. p. insularis. Wing 157 to 173 mm.; culmen 37 to 44 mm. Young Birds have the feathers of the forehead and face tipped with slaty and the white obscured ; the upper parts generally are olive-brown rather than slaty-gray. Distribution.—As given above. Niditication.—The White-breasted Water Hen breeds from June to September over the greater part of the area in which it is found but Messrs. Wait, Phillips and Jenkins have taken eggs in almost every month of the year in Ceylon, whilst in Assam, Burma and China many birds commence breeding in May. The commencement of their breeding agrees in fact, as it does with other water-birds in the tropics, with the break of the rains. As soon as the swamps and lakes begin to fill, the birds set about their domestic duties, and by the time the insect world is at its worst and thickest, the eggs hatch and the young have a super-abundance of food. So entirely are nesting proceedings governed by the rainfall that the breeding commences late or early just as the rain itself is late or early, whilst in some seasons of drought the birds desert the driest areas altogether and betake themselves to more congenial surroundings, or, if they remain, do not breed at all. The nest varies very much both in character and in position. Sometimes itis placed in among tangles of reeds, coarse grass, cane brakes, or any of the other forms of vegetation which grow either in the Swamps or immediately round them. In these cases the nest may be just clear of the water or as much as two or three feet above it, whilst in appearance it is just a heavy, large edition of that of the common Coot or Moorhen. -At other times it is built quite high up in bushes, trees or palms and it is then often made of twigs, creepers and such other material as may be handy for the purpose. Oates states that most of the nests he found in South Burma were high up in trees, not below ten feet. In Assam most of our nests were found close above the water, but one we found high up in a pepul tree and another pair of birds had laid in the deserted nest of a Fish-eagle. JI have seen many hundred nests, and think six or seven eggs is the number most often laid, and four or five only are often found incubated. Bingham found eight to be the normal full clutch in Tenasserim, but, on the other hand, in Ceylon, three or four eggs only are normally laid and five is excep- tional. In shape the eggs are rather long ovals, very obtuse at the smaller end and sometimes rather cylindrical. The surface is fairly smooth and fine and sometimes faintly glossy. The ground colour varies from a very faint yellow-cream to yellowish-stone or pale buff, never of any great depth. The markings consist of blotches and spots, irregular and, generally, rather longitudinal in shape, scattered sparsely over the whole surface and rather more numerous at the jarger end. The primary or superficial characters are light reddish- brick to rather dark brownish-red, whilst the secondary or under- lying marks are lavender grey, neutral tint or purplish. The eggs are very like those of the Ruddy Crake except in size. The average sizes for the eggs of the various races are as follows :— A. p. chinensis. 100 eggs 40°5 & 29:7 mm, 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURALVHISTASOCIETY, Vol. XXX] A. p. insularis. 50 eggs 40°8 & 31:0 mm. A. p. phenicurus. 40 eggs 36:8 X 30:0 mm. Maxima 45°0X% 30:0 mm. (Burma) and 43:0 & 32:2 mm. (Andamans). Minima 37:0 X 28:0 mm. (Ceylon). Habits.—This Rail is, I think, much less of a skulker than most of its tribe and its larger size, also, makes it a less easy matter to hide. It, of course, keeps as a rule closely to cover, more especially to, reeds, rushes and cane brakes, whilst at other times it creeps about in the forest and jungle surrounding the swamps, lakes or ponds in which it feeds in the mornings and evenings. At the same time it may often be seen wandering about over the water weeds, or swim- ming from one patch of cover to another, quite in the open, and I have often watched them feeding for half an hour at a time. They are very active walkers over weeds and lotus leaves, moving with rather long, deliberate strides, each foot lifted high and the tail jerking in unison with each step whilst every now and then there is an additional quick jerk upwards. It is, on the whole, a bold bird and may often be seen wandering about on the banks of village, ponds and ditches and, indeed, often breeds on these. It feeds on shoots of rice and water plants, reeds, grain, insects, mollusca and worms, etc. It is a noisy bird in the breeding seasons, and emits sounds quite astonishing for the size of the bird. E. H. Aitken describes its breeding call thus :— ‘ Anything more unearthly proceeding from the throat of a bird I never heard. It began with loud, harsh roars which might have been elicited from a bear by roasting it slowly over a large fire, then suddenly changes to a clear note repeated like the coo of a dove.’ They are pugnacious birds, and two cocks meeting in the open during the breeding season are sure to fight, but the damage done seems never to be serious, and they never continue the scrap with the pertinacity of the Water-Cock. AMAURORNIS AKOOL AKOOL The Brown Crake Rallus akool Sykes, P.Z.S., 1832, p. 164, Deccan. Vernacular Names.—None recorded. Description.—Whole upper parts, wings and tail dark olive-brown, the quills rather darker brown and less olive; lores, indistinct super- cilia, sides of head and neck and lower plumage ashy-grey, passing into brown on the posterior abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts ; chin and centre of throat whitish passing into the grey of the surrounding parts. Colours of soft parts.—Iris brownin young birds to blood-red in breeding males; bill greenish-horny or pale-green, more blue at the tip; legs and feet fleshy-brown to livid purple. Measurements.—Wing 114to 131 mm. ; tail54to 63 mm. ; tarsus 46 to 51mm. ; culmen 28 to 32 mm. Females average smaller than males. Chick in down.—Black. Distribution.—Northern India from Kashmir to Gowhati in West Assam; south to Bengal, Behar, Central Provinces, the South THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 7 Deccan, Mysore and Rajputana. I cannot trace any specimen from North Khasia Hills, nor did I ever see it there myself. There ison the other hard a specimen from Gowhati in the Kamroop District. Niditication.—The Brown Crake breeds from May to September, making a pad nest of reeds, grass or rushes, and water weeds either in among the reeds quite close above the water or a more substantial nest of the same materials mixed with twigs, leaves and creepers which it places in a thick bush or tangle of canes in or close to the water. Occasionally it makes use of a bush in thick undergrowth some distance from any swamp or open water but nine nests out of every ten will be found practically in the swamp or alongside the margins. The nest is nearly always well concealed, and, as it is small for the size of the bird, is not easy to find. The number of eggs laid varies from four to six, and in appearance they are very like rather richly coloured eggs of the Common Water-Rail. The normal shape is a broad, blunt oval, almost spheroid, and the texture is very fine and close, often well glossed. The ground colour is anything from a pale yellow—or pinkish-stone to a warm salmon or buff. The markings consist of fairly bold, well-defined spots and blotches of pale reddish-brown to deep reddish-purple, scanty everywhere but rather less so at the Jarger end. Fifty eggs average 34:9 265 mm.; Maxima 38:8 K 27:2 ange 37°7 << 280° mm... Minima 31:8 < 23°2 mm. Habits. —Blewitt sixty years ago gave an admirable account of this Rail. He writes :— ‘T have met with it nearly always singly, occasionally in pairs. Its favourite resorts are swamps, the reeds and bushes on the edge of streams, and the tangled amphibious coverts on the border of water-courses. A favourite place of abode too is the marshy ground occupied by Keurak Plants, the branches and broad leaves of which it ascends like Arythra phenicura, with wonderful agility. I have always found it a shy bird, seeking at once a place of security on the slightest alarm. Frequently I have witnessed it half emerge from the rushes, either to feed or change its retreat, and then pause, carefully scanning the neigh- bourhood before venturing onward. When walking, it ever and anon jerks up its short tai]. It runs with rapidity, and when once concealed it is very difficult to flush it; indeed, it would appear rightly to trust far more for safety to its speed of foot and aptitude for concealment than to its powers of flight. Slowly and heavily does it fly, and never to any distance, and with good dogs it may be run down and secured. This Rail has a short plaintive note, which, however, I have only heard it uiter at daybreak and just before sunset.’ ’ It by no means always keeps to marshes and swamps, but often seems to feed on dry and even on open ground where much of its food consists of land snails, slugs, worms, etc. Like the rest of the Rails, it is a shy, secretive bird, avoiding observation. 6 an 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII AMAURORNIS BICOLOR Elwes Crake Porzana bicolor Walden, Ann. Mag. Nat. His. 4), iv, p. 47, 1872, Sikkim. Vernacular Names. None recorded. Description.—Head, neck and Jower plumage dark ashy grey, darkest on the crown and nape and paler on the sides of the head, changing to albescent on the chin; upper parts, wing-coverts and inner secondaries rich brownish-rufous ; tail black ; wing-quills dark brown. Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown in the young to blood-red in breeding males; bill pale glaucous-green tipped paler and greyer and with a red patch near the base, more vivid in the breeding season ; legs and feet dull red to rather bright brick-red. Measurements.—Wing 112 to 119 mm. ; tail 57 to 60 mm. ; tarsus 37 to S9 mm.; culmen 21 to 27 mm. Distribution.—Nepal and Sikkim to Eastern Assam; Khasia and Cachar Hills, Manipur and Northern Burma to Yunnan and the Shan States. Nidification.—This Crake breeds in considerable numbers in the Khasia Hills, as also in the North Cachar Hills in the few places suitable to it. In Sikkim it is said to breed between 4,000 and 6,000 feet, but in Assam we took nests anywhere above 3,000 feet, whilst in Dibrugarh it was not uncommon practically down to the foothills. Most of the nests personally found by me were in quite small patches of jungle round about, or between, rice fields at an elevation of some 5,500 feet. Here they were very numerous, and I found nearly a dozen birds breeding in a small patch about 100 yards long by 60 wide. The nest differed in no way from that of the Brown Crake and was usually built a few inches above the water, though one was built up in a rhododendron tree in deep forest and some way from water. The eggs only differ from those of the Brown Crake in being more richly coloured. 80 eggs average 33°9 K 26:lmm.; Maxima 36:3: X525°3 and 35:3, & 27:0. mms > Winima is 20: l-and..32°3 2a 7 min. The breeding season is from the middle of May to the end of August, and the number of eggs laid varies from 5 to 7. Habits.—The habits of Elwes’ Crake are much the same as those of the Brown Crake. In the hills south of the Brahmapootra we found it kept to patches of jungle, scrub and rushes between or round the rice cultivation or, where there was none of this, to smali ponds and pools in or near forest. They also frequented small streams, especially those which had plenty of cover on one side and open grass land on the opposite one. They often came out of the cover in the early mornings and late evenings and fed on the grass » land, picking up small grasshoppers, Jand shells and small worms. On the least sign of danger they scuttled down to the bank and either swam or flew to the cover on the far side. When frightened they ran with head and tail depressed and covered the ground at a THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 9 great pace, but at other times their walk was the usual slow jerky movement affected by all Rails. I have never heard their call, even in the breeding season, though I attributed to this bird a deep grunting noise, very loud and resonant, which I sometimes heard, late in the evening, in their favourite haunts. RALLINA SUPERCILIARIS SUPERCILIARIS The Banded Crake Ratlus superciliaris Kyyton, Ann. Mag. Nat. His., xiv, p. 230, 1834, Malay Peninsula. Rallina superciliarts, Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 167. Vernacular Names.— Daobur-lat (Cachari). Description.—Chin and throat pure white, in younger birds more or less tinged with rufous; head, neck and breast chestnut ; remain- ing upper parts and wing-coverts dark brown slightly washed with olive; wing-quills dark brown ; lower breast, abdomen and under parts barred black and white, the centre of the abdomen practically unmarked with black. Colours of sott parts.—Iris crimson-red or blood-red; bill green, the terminal half of the upper mandible and tip of lower dark brown; legs dull greenish-plumbeous, plumbeous or black. Measurements.— Total length about 250 mm.; wing 122 to 132 mm. ; tail 55 to 64 mm.; tarsus 39 to 46 mm.; culmen 27 to 28 mm. Young birds have the upper parts of the head and neck con- colorous with the back; sides of the head and neck more ashy- brown; breast brown; inner webs of quills more or less barred with dull white, a few white and black bars on scapulars and wing- GOVEITS. lrides dull brown; legs greenish-plumbeous. Distribution.—Ceylon and the sub-Himalayas from the North- West Frontier to E. Assam. Thence in small numbers here and there throughout the well-wooded, wetter parts of India. It also aecurs In South Burma, the Malay States and Annam. | In the Philippines its place is taken by #. s. eurt@zonotdes, a race with deeper rufous colour and either no white or very little on the chin and throat. Nidtfication.—In 1900 and succeeding years General R. M. Betham found this bird breeding in considerable numbers on the ghats near Khandalla. In some notes to me he writes :— ‘This rail is apparently common on the ghats at Khandalla, near Poona, during the monsoon. It was probably overlooked as so few people visit these spots at this season, owing to the excessive rainfall. ‘My shikari first brought me the eggs which were puzzling as they were so unlike other rails. He, however, managed to secure the bird with the eggs so we were fortunately able to _ identify: them. ‘It breeds in thick jungle or, rather, in dense tangles of bushes and other vegetation, and its nest is not easy to find.’ 5 : 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Prior to this in 1898 Bell and Hervey had alreadv taken many of its nests and eggs round about Kanara. This is recorded in this Journal (vol. xiv, p. 394) as follows :— ‘We found that the Banded Crake was a fairly common bird in the jungles along the coast during the monsoon, and we obtained altogether some dozen nests with eggs varying in number from 4to 7 inthe clutch, besides finding many empty ones. All the nests with eggs were found in the months of June to September, i.e., during the heavy rains. Many nests were found robbed of their contents by mongooses, etc., the empty egg-sheils lying onthe ground below, some few there were in which the eggs were rotten. The nests are placed in bamboo clumps, on creeper masses, on the top of a tree stump, etc.. and were, at the most, six feet fromthe ground. The size ef the egg is about. 1:307°x 1” omvan average. one ofr the dargest out of a jseries of 50; measures 1°40%" x 1-207.) = ihe birds breed in the densest jungles as well as in the scrub jungle, from sea level up to the tops of the highest hills, which are here about 1,800 feet.’ Including Bell’s figures the average for 90 eggs is 33:7 X 26:0 mm. ; Maxima 35:8 K 25°4mm. and 35:1 K 28:2 mm.; Minima 30-9 KX 25-0 mm. The texture of the eggs is suz generis ; something between the thick shiny, chalky texture of the egg of the Crow- pheasants and that of the Herons, but nearer the former, and it is. most interesting to find that the eggs of these two primitive birds, the Rails and the non-parasitic Cuckoos, should be so much alike and so reptilian in character. In shape the eggs are very round, blunt ovals. Osmaston took two nests containing 7 and 5 eggs respectively in June and July near Dehra Dun. In the latter case the parent bird attacked his hand, leaving her nest for the purpose, and then returned to sit on her eggs. The native shikaris told Betham that they sat very tight and would almost allow themselves to be captur- ed by hand. . Habits.—Bell’s comments on the habits of these Rails forms an excellent summary :— *What Mr. Davidson says about its habit of calling in the mornings and evenings is correct; but it calls at other times during wet, misty weather. The cry is rather like that of the “« Common hen after laying’ an ‘ese ; but ‘there is a- difierence: . Suddenly disturbed, it utters the cry of the common paddy bird (Ardeola grayt) when alarmed ; if suspicious of danger: it makes a noise like "k—z Pe ’; pronounced in a sub- dued voice. It is extremely shy of open ground, and will invariably fly across even a few feet of open path in the jungle. When flushed it takes to the nearest tree or any thickly foliaged place available andis quite at home perched on a branch. We have put up many during our walks, generally with dogs. I have never seen one during the dry months, though I am constantly in their breeding haunts during that time. Whether - they migrate or not from the district we do not eon for certain, hut. it seems probable. ie BV aa a THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 3? 11- -*In the jungles they go about with their wings slightly hanging. They feed on insects.’ As regards their migration it is unlikely that they will be found to do more than move locally if even that. It seems probable that in the dry season they move away to those swamps and lakes which never dry up even in the longest droughts, so it ma ybe that they move north to those limitless wet areas lying below the foot-hills of the Himalayas. Even this, to me, seems unlikely and, when we have unravelled the mystery of their movements, we may find that they are very restricted. RALLINA FASCIATA The Malayan Banded Crake Rallus: fasciatus Raffles, Trans. Lin. Soc., xiii, p. 328, 1822; Malay Peninsula. Rallina fasciaia, Blant. and Oates, iv, p. 169. Vernacular Names.— None recorded. — Description.—Whole head, neck and breast deep chestnut, the chin and throat often a little paler and the crown darkest ; remaining upper parts, scapulars and innermost secondaries rufous-brown ; wing-coverts black with broad white bars; quills dark brown, barred on both webs with whitish; below broadly barred with black and white, the latter more or less rufous on the iongest feathers. Colours of soft parts.—Iris crimson or blood-red; Dill blackish, the base paler and tinged with greenish or plumbeous-siate ; gape and orbital. skin crimson; legs and feet coral-red ; claws slate or horny-blue. Measurements.—Length about 240 to 250 mm.; wing 118 to 131 min. ; tail 49 to 51 mm. ; tarsus 42 to 48 mm. ; culmen 20 to 21 mm. Young Birds have the head and neck the same coiour as the back ; the breast is pale dull brown and the remaining under parts” are whitish obscurely marked with brown bars. Distribution.--From Karennee and Rangoon south through the Malay Peninsula to the Celebes and Moluccas, Borneo, Java and Sumatra. Nidification.— There appears to be nothing on record about the breeding of this Rail, but Mr. Kellow took several sets of eggs for me near Simpang in the Federated Malay States. The nests were said to be rather rough platforms of grass, twigs and other scraps of vegetation placed on or under bushes in small ravines a !ong way from any water. In 1904 Wickham took a nest with 5 eggs. The nest was said to be ‘a pad of dead bamboo leaves with a few dry twigs placed on the ground under the thin cover of a small bush. I made many attempts to secure the old bird—one including three devices, one cast with a fishing net in the daytime, twice shot at (once on the nest), and the setting of nooses; in spite of all these. failures I was lucky enough to get the old male caught on the nest at night with a cast-net. The nest was ina small patch of _. bamboo tree jungle, rather dark, not very thick undergrowth $n the bend of a stream which dries. up in the hot weather, lg JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA TURAL AIST. SOCIZTY, Vol. XXX./ leaving perhaps a pool or two, but was at this time a flowing stream ; the particular patch of jungle used bordering the paddy land.” The nest was taken on June 29. Mr. Hopwood also obtained a nest of this bird containing four eggs, quite fresh. This nest, as well as those from Simpang, were ail taken in August. It contained four eggs which together with the Malay ones are now in my collection. They are of the same curious texture, shape and colour as those of A. superctliavis. They average 31:5 & 23:9 mm.; Maxima 35:0 K 25:4 mm. ; Minima 27:2 27-9 im: Habits. —Much the same as those of the preceding bird, and probably like it resident wherever found, in spite of the fact that so many are caught taking refuge in houses in a completely exhausted condition. The first bird I ever saw was a young female caught by one of my servants in their house, very exhausted when eaught, but reviving at once and fiercely attacking the hands of her capturer, uttering hoarse grunts rather like a dog growling. Pro- bably she had been pursued by some nocturnal vermin, and took shelter in the first hiding-place she found. Tnis was in North Cachar in December at about 2,500 feet. I also found this bird breeding there, capturing a hen bird and one young—out of severai —on her nest. It must be as great a skulker as any other Rail, for I hardly ever saw one unless accompanied by dogs, as nothing would make them fly and, far from flying across open paths in the jungle, they always scuttled across as hard as they could. In Assam it was a bird of dense jungles only, but in Lower Burma and the Malay States it seems to come more into jungle surround- ing villages and cultivation. RALLINA CANNINGI The Andamanese Banded Crake Euryzona canning? (Tytler), Blyth, Ibis, 1863, p. 119. Port Canning, Andamans. Rallina canningi, Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 169. Vernacular Names.—None. Descripltion.—Whole upper plumage, head, neck, breast and inner secondaries deep chestnut ; wing-coverts the same, but a few of the median and greater obsoletely barred with white and dark brown ; primaries and outer secondaries dark brown edged with chestnut barred on the inner webs with whitish, and also, less distinctly on the outer webs of the first two or three primaries, lower parts boidly barred with black and white. Colours of soft parts.—Iris red; bill pale-green; legs and feet olive-green. Measurements.—Total length 325 to 350 mm. ; wing 151 to 163 mm. ; tail 73 to 92 mm: ; ‘tarsus 56 to 62 mm.; culmen 29 to 33mm. As usual in Rails. the males exceed the females in average measure- ments, though there is much overlapping in size. Distribulion.—The Andaman Islands. Nidification.--Osmaston obtained a fine series of the nests and eggs of this Rail in 1907, whilst Wickham and Anderson obtained TFHE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 13 others later. All these nests appear to have been madeé of dead leaves, grass and rushes and to have been placed on the ground in marshy land or on the borders of streams in dense forest. In one case only does the record show that the nest was placed on a_ thick bush above the ground at a height of some three feet. The nests contained 3 to 5 eggs of the same texture and colour as those of the other Aadlinas but the chalky covering with its shiny yellowish surface is perhaps rather more pronounced. Thirty-two eggs average 40°6 &K 30°83 mm.; Maxima 431 & 30°8 and 41°3 & 32:0 mm. ; Minima 37:2. 30:0 and: 39°4 K 29*7 mm. Habits.—There is nothing on record about this Rail beyond Wimberly’s remarks of nearly 50 years ago :— ‘This is an extremely shy, and, I believe, exclusively a forest bird. It certainly never leaves cover during the daytime. It is found either in the forest itself or in thick secondary scruo adjoining this, and especially where the ground is swampy or ~ intersected by hill streams. ‘Tf driven out of cover it will not take wing unless hard-pressed, when its flight is slow and heavy. ‘Its food appears to consist of insects and fresh-water fish. The latter I infer, as some of those I sent you were taken in snares laid on the ground baited with fresh-water shrimps which were all eaten. ‘T have never heard the call notes, but the man I employed to snare some of my specimens tells me that its call is very similar to that of the Andamanese Banded Rail.’ Later Osmaston endorsed all the above marks and he has also proved it to be a very common bird in the Andaman Islands. ( Zo be continued ) ey 2 REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY BY BE. (BLATTER, Soa.) Phe ee. S Part III (Continued trom page 917 of Vol. xxx) GRAMINEZ: (Cke. ii, 907) BY -E. BLATTER AND C. McCann We-have decided to take up the Graminee for seyeral reasons. Since Cooke’s publication of this family several new species have been described and McCann has added over 50 species which are new to the Presidency. More important than the numerical additions are the changes made during the last fifteen years with regard to the general arrangement of the grasses and the definition of certain genera. A great amount of work has been done in Europe as well as in America. In Europe it was chiefly O. Stapf who, with his vast experience of the grass-flora of many countries and the rich material of “the Kew Herbarium at his disposal, has advanced our knowledge of the grasses and their systematic co-ordination more than anybody else. A comparison of his monograph of the grasses in the Flora of Tropical Africa which is still in. progress with that of the Flora Capensis shows at once in which direction and to what extent progress has been made. As regards the second sub- family Pooidew the two works reveal only minor changes; but considerable changes were found necessary in the first subfamily Panicoidec. Here again it is chiefly the genera Andropogon and Panicum _and their allies which have been affected. In this respect, especially where the tribe of Panicee is concerned, we owe a good deal to American botanists. It was chiefly the fact that there were no definite dividing lines for the genera of Andpro- gonee and Panicec, that induced Stapf not ‘to unite the groups wherever intermediate links can be detected,’ which would bring about endless confusion, but ‘ to be satisfied with approximately definable groups, which can on the whole be easily grasped and remembered.’ In other words, it is preferable from a practical point of view to adopt smaller genera than unmanageable large genera for merely theoretical reasons. As the Kew Herbarium, as far as the grasses are concerned, owes its systematic arrange- ment entirely to Stapf, and as colonial workers will always appeal to Kew in their difficulties, we thought it advisable to follow Stapf in the definition and sequence of the tribes as laid down in the Flora of Tropical Africa. As of late the grass-problems have received renewed attention by the Agricultural Departments in India, we do not consider it superfluous to bring the systematic account of the grasses of Bombay up-to-date. An. asterisk in front of a name means that the particular genus or species has been introduced. Two compiete keys, one natural and one artificial will be given at the end. SUBFAMILY I. PANICOIDEA: The mature spikelets fall entire from their pedicels or with them, all are alike or differ in sex and structure. Perfect spikelets with 2 heteromorphous florets, the upper hermaphrodite, the lower male or barren. Rhachilla not © continued beyond the upper floret: TRIBE I. Mayide@.—Sexes borne on difterent inflorescences on the same plant or the female spikelets at the base of the inflorescence, and the male above them. The male spikelets in pairs, one sessile, the other pedicelled, or both pedicelled, in spike-like solitary or panicled racemes, 2-flowered. Glumes REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 15 membranous or chartaceous, enclosing the florets. Valyes more or less hyaline, awnless. The female spikelets solitary with or without a rudimentary pediceiled companion, 1-flowered. Glumes firm, at least the lower which ultimately often becomes bony, or both thin and more or less hyaline. Valves hyaline, awnless. 1. Male and female spikelets in separate inflorescences. Male spikelets in a large terminal panicle. ‘The female spikelets in the axils of the leaves (a) Female spikes distinct, articulated . . “l. Huchlena. (6) Female spikes grown together into a spongy more or less cylindrical body a 725. ew, 2. Male and female spikelets in separate portions of the same spike, the female below. (a) Grain enclosed in the usually globose or ovoid ivory-like capsuliform supporting sheath ... 3. Cozy. (6) Grain enclosed in the hardened outer glumes ... 4. FPolytoca. *], EUCHLANA, Schrad. Stout and tall annuals with leaves very broadly linear or oblong. Male spikelets 2-nate (sessile and pedicellate) on the spiciform fascicled branches of a terminal panicle, 2-flowered with coriaceous glumes. Female spikelets in 2-ranked spikes which are clustered in the leaf-axils, not fused as in the Maize, joints rhomboidal, oblique, articulate, excavate, with the margins of the excavation embracing the cartilaginous outer glume and with it forming a smooth pseudocarp. *1, Euchlena mexicana, Schrad. Ind. Sem. Hort. Gé6tting. (1832), var luxurians ; H.H. Mann in Bull. 77, Dept. of Agric., Bombay.—Aeana luxu- ytans, Dur. in Bull. Soc. Acclim. Sér. IT, LX (1872), 581. Vern. name: ‘'Teosinte. Description: A large, very succulent, strong growing, annual grass, 30 cm.- 3.m. high. Leaves long, 5-7°5 cm. broad. Male spikelets 8-9 mm. long, crowded in long spikes ina corymb 15-25 cm. long. Female spikes in the leaf-axils. Styles very long, protruding from the top of the enclosing leaf- sheath. The spike of the female spikelets breaking up at maturity into rhomboidal seed-like joints. Nearly allied to Maize and resembling it in its tassel of male flowers and broad leaves. A single plant often sends up 100 stems. Locality : Cultivated in the Ganeshkhind Botanic Garden. Distribution: A native of Guatemala. Uses; Cultivated for green fodder, but it does not stand drought well. Horses are fond of it. "2 ZEA, inn, (Cke. it, L051, stapti. Ply Trop, Afr. ix,) 26) Tall, stout, annual grasses with large leaves, the axils of the lower bearing the female inflorescences (cobs), tightly enveloped by large membranous bracts. Sexes in different inflorescences on the same plant. Male inflorescence terminal, of panicled spike-like racemes with 2-nate spikelets shortly unequally pedicelled or one sessile on the inarticulate rhachis, both similar, 2-flowered, awnless. Glumes subequal, membranous, convex, obscurely 2-keeled, 9-10- nerved. Valves more or less hyaline, 3-5-nerved ; valvules similar, 2-nerved, obscurely keeled ; lodicules 2, fleshy. Stamens 3; anthers linear. Female spikelets 2-nate in 4-11 longitudinal rows, Slightly immersed in the spongy axis of the cob, with a lower barren and an upper fertile floret, awnless. Glumes similar, very broad, fleshy below, hyaline above, nerveless, ciliate. Lower valve resem bling the glumes, but shorter and ciliate, with or without a similar but smaller valvule ; upper valve similar to the lower with a valvule about as long as the ovary. Leodicules 0. Ovary obliquely ovoid. Style very _ long, 2-fid at the tip, papillose upwards, exserted in long silky tasse!s from the sheathing bracts. Grain large, subglobose or dorsally more or less flattened, surrounded by the dried up glumes, valves and valvules; scutellum large, equalling or exceeding 3 of the grain. Species 1.—A native of America. *1. Zea mays, Linn. Sp. pl. ed. I, 971; Beauv. Agrost. 136, t. 24, fig. 3; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. I, 9; Bentl., and Trim. Med, PI. t. 296; Duthie, Field and 16 JOCRNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL AIST ©S COLE Yi, Vel Xana Gard. Crops 25,-t. 53. Koern..and Wern. Handb. d. Getreidebaues 1, 330-378, II, 772-870; Harshberger, Maize, in Contrib. Lab. Univ. Pensylv. I (1893) "75-202 ; Nicholls, Text-book Trop. Agr. (1892), 260-265 ; Montgomery, Corn'Crops (1913), 1-275 ; Davy, Maize (1914) ; Stapf. in Fl. Trop. Afr. IX, 26. Vern. Names : Maize, Buta, Maka. Description : Culins up to3 m. high, sometimes more. Leaf-sheaths terete, more or less hairy upwards along the margin; ligule short, truncate, thinly inembranous, more or less pubescent; blades linear-lanceolate, up to over 90 cm. long -and 10 cm. wide, glabrous or almost so, tips often drooping. Male panicle up to over 20 cm. long; rhachis pubescent; spikelets up to 12mm. long ;-anthers 6mm.longe Female spike (cob) and grains varying much in size and shape, the grains also in colour. Locality : Cultivated widely in the Presidency as a forage for cattle and asa vegetable and for flour. Origin ; The origin of Maize is a much discussed question. Some are of opinion that it has been developed from Teosinte (Huch/@na), others that the original wild form has become extinct. A more acceptable opinion is that it is a hybrid between Teosinte and an unknowi or extinct species resembling pod- corn, a variety of Zea mays in which each kernel is enveloped in the elongated floral bracts.* _Kuwada? who studied the number of chromosomes in Maize came to the conclusion that Zea mays was originally derived from the hybridization between kuchlena and some unknown species of the tribe Andropogonee, long chromosomes belonging to the former and short ones to the latter, and that the nuclei of its various individuals possess both kinds of chromosomes in various combinations according to the law of chance. To explain the structure of the ear of Maize, Collins published evidence which indicated that the ear may have developed through the twisting of yoked pairs of spikelets. Weatherwax®* tries to refute this opinion. He contends that dropping of rows of seeds is due to the discontinuance of a row of paired spikelets and not to the loss of the pedicelled spikelets from yoked pairs, and that there is no indication that short rows represent long rows partially aborted, but that the abortion of spikelets or of rows in the ear seems to be much more constant as a characteristic of theories than of real ears. (zenetics of Maize: ‘Those interested in Maize from a genetic point of view sre referred to the more recent publications mentioned in the foot-note.* uM * Collins. The origin of maize. Journal Wash. Acad. Sci. 2 (1912), 520. * Kuwada, Y. Die Chromosomenzahl von Zea mays L. Ein Beitrag zur Hypothese der Individualitat der Chromosomen und zur Frage tiber die Herkunft von Zea mays LL. Jour. Coll. Sci. Imperial Univ. Tokyo, 39 (1919), 1-148. * Weatherwax, P. A misconception as to the structure of the ear of maize. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 47 (1920), 359-362. * Blaringhem, L.—Production par traumatism d’une forme nouvelle de Mais a caryopses multiples, Zea Mays var. Polysperma. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 170, (1920) , 677-679. Collins, G. N.~—Structure of the maize ear as indicated in Zea-Euchlena hybrids. Jour. Agr: Res.,.17- 11919), 127-135; Collins, G. N.—Dominance and the vigor of first generation hybrids. Amer. Nat); 09 (1921), 116-135, Collins, J. L.--Chimeras in corn hybrids. Jour. Heredity, 10 (1919), 2-10. Emerson, R. A.—The nature of bud variations as indicated by their mode of inheritance, Amer. Nat., 56 (1922), 64-79. Hume, A. N.—A system for breeding corn or gregarious animals. Jour. Heredity, 11 (1920), 191-192. . Jones, D. F.—-Segregation of susceptibility of parasitism in maize. Amer. Jour. Bot., 5 (1918), 295-300. _ Jones, D. F.—The effect of inbreeding and crossbreeding upon development. Proc. Nation. Acad. Sc., 4 (1918), 246-250. ; Tee D. F.—Heritable characters of maize. Jour. Heredity, 11 (1920), -10/. Ce Jones. D. F.—Selection in self-fertilized lines as the basis for corn improve- ment. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., 12 (1920), 77-100. eee” J. H.—Heritable characters of maize. Jour. Heredity, 11 (1920), REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 11 3. Corx, Linn. (Cke. ii, 997). Species 5 or 6.—Hot countries of the Old World. Coix Lacryma-Jobi, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. i, 972; Cke. ii, 997 ; Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 27.—Coitx Lacryma, Linn. Syst. ed. x, 1261; Duthie, Grasses of N. W. India, 11, and Fodder Grass, N. Ind. 18. Locality: Sind: Umarkot, sandy plains (Sabnis B717!) ; Chuar Chemali, Indus River (Blatter and McCann D680!) ; Mirpur Sakro (Blatter and McCann D681 ! D683!) ; Gharo (Blatter and McCann D682!).—Gujarat: (Graham).— Khandesh (McCann !) —Konkan : Gokhiwara, Bassein (Ryan 25!) ; Matheran (Paranjpe!); Dohe Forests (Ryan 713!) ; Junga Hill, Thana (Paranipe!) ; Alibag, rice fields (Ezekiel!) ; Kenery Caves, foot (McCann 9876!) ; Sion (McCann 8453!) ; Bhandup, near tank (McCann 5098!) ; Horse-shoe Valley, Ghatkoper (McCann 9877!) : Common along line from Kalyan to Kasara in streams (McCann !).—Deccan: Lonavla (Garade! McCann! Woodrow) ; Khandala, common all over (McCann 9405!); Purandhar (McCann 5005!) ; Igatpuri (McCann 4346!) ; Panchgani Ghat (Cooke) ; Panchgani (Blatter !).— S. M. Country: Devaryi (Sedgwick and Bell 4426!) ; Dharwar (Sedgwick 1856 !),—Kanara : (McCann!) ; Common all through the Konkan and Deccan during the rains, filling up the banks of streams and fields. Distribution ; Tropical Asia, cultivated in Africa and America. Uses : Used as fodder for cattle. Duthie says that they fatten on it. Haines calls ita poor fodder for cattle. Of the false fruits there are several varieties differing much insize, shape and colour, and used for decorative purposes in the place of beads. According to Stapf one variety with thin shells is an important cereal in Burma and in the Farther East. Waxy endosperm, first found in maize from China, Burma and the Phillippines, has been found now in Cotx Lacryma-Jobi from the same region.? 4. Porytoca, Br. (Cke. ii, 998) 1. Polytoca Cookii, Stapf in Hook. Ic. Pl. 24 (1895) t. 2333; Cke. ii, 998. Locality: Kathiawar: Junagad (Blatter). — Konkan: Tungar forest, Bassein (Bhide) ; Bombay (Dalzel!) ; Salsette (Jacquemont 706). Deccan : Khandala (McCann 9881!) ; Igatpuri (McCann 9880!) ; near Mahableshwar (Woodrow’) ; Mahableshwar (Woodrow, Cooke). Kanara: (Lisboa). Distribution ; Apparently endemic in the Bombay Presidency. 2. Polytoca barbata, Stapf in Hook. f. F. B. I. vii (1896), 102 ; Cke. ii, 599. Coix barbata, Roxb. FI. Ind. iii, 569; Dalz. and Gibs. Bombay Fl. 289. Coix gigantea, Herb. Russ. ex Wall Cat. No. 8626.—Chionachne barbata, Br. in Benn. Pl: Rar: Jav. 16; Aitchis; Cat. Panj. Pl. 157; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind.11, and Fodd. Grass: N. India, 19. Locality : Gujarat : Chharodi farm (Gammie 16536!) ; Nadiad farm (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Surat (Sedgwick !) ; Junagad, Kathiawar (Blatter 3784 !). Khandesh ; Toranmal (McCann 9883!) ; Taloda (Golne!). Konkan ; Between Worli Fort and Hornby-Villard Road on bank, Bombay (Sabnis 9884!) ; Thana (McCann!). Deccan: High hills round Junnar, Poona District (Dalzell and Gibson) ; Poona (Woodrow) ; Collegeof Science, Poona (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Ganeshkhind Bot. Gard. (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona !) ; Haveli (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; near Sholapur (Woodrow!)}. S.J. Country: S.W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick and Bell 4433!); Kunemelihalli (Sedgwick 1947!) ; Kholapur (Woodrow!, Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!). Kanara: Gersoppa Falls (Talbot !). . Distribution : India, Ceylon, Java. Kempton J. H.—Linkage between brachytic culms and pericarp and cob color in maize. Jour. Washington Ac. Sc. 11 (1920), 13-20. Kempton, J. H.—A brachytic variation in maize. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 925 1921). : Richey, F. D.—The inequality of reciprocal corn crosses. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 12 (1920), 186-196. Urbain, A.—Influence des matiéres de réserve de l’albumen de la graine sur le development de l’embryon. Rév. Gén. Bot. 32 (1920), 125-139, 165-191. 1 Kempton, J. H. Waxy endosperm in Cozx and sorghum. Jour. Here- dity, 12 (1921), 396-400. 3 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII TRIBE II. Andropogonee.—Spikelets usually in pairs, one sessile, the other pedicelled, very rarely both pedicelled, those of each pair usually alike as to sex (homogamous) or different (heterogamous) on the axes of variously arranged, often spike-like racemes. Glumes more or less rigid and firmer than the valves, and the lower always longer than the florets. Valves mem- brancus, often hyaline, that of the upper floret awned or reduced to an awn or muticous. The key to the genera of this tribe will be given below. 5. DIMERTA, tR: VB: Woodrowia diandra, Stapf. must be referred to this genus. The genus Woodrowia, therefore, disappears from the Bombay Flora, I. Spikelets in 2-3-nate racemes. Annuals (a). Rhachis nearly, straioht-) Asn lone. )c. ce. 1. D. ornithopoda. (6) Rhachis circinately curved. Awn short.......... 2. D. Woodrowtt. II. Spikelets in many-nate racemes. Perennial.....:..... 3. 2D. eraciits. Ill. Spikelets in panicles. Annual.............sssseseeeeeeee 4, D. diandra. The species of this genus usually inhabit open, flat, dry, gravelly plains which are well drained during the monsoon, and several species may be found associated with each other in the same locality to the exclusion of every other plant. Where D. ornithopoda, gracilis and diandra grow ppeLe!, the two former are more numerous. 1. Dimeria ornithopoda, Trin. Fund. Agrost. (1820), 167, t 14; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 81; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 104; Cke. ii, 945.—D. filiformis, Hochst. in Hohenack. Pl. Ind. Or. no. 231.—Andropogon filiformis, Roxb FI. Ind. i. 256.—Andropogon Roxburghianus, Schult. Mant. ii, 451.—Pszlostachys filiformis, Dalz. and Gibs. Bomb. FI. 305. Description - Cke. l.c. Locality: Konkan: Kankeshwar Hills, Alibag (Bhide!); Marmagoa (Talbot!) ; Vetora (Sabnis 33715!).—Deccan: Mahableshwar (Dalzell and Gibson, Lisboa) ; Lingmala to Mahableshwar, 4,000 ft., rain 200 inch. (Sedg- wick and Bell 4653!); Lonavla (Bhide!, Lisboa) ; Khandala, ‘lata’s Lake, very common (McCann A309!, 9885 !, Woodrow) ; Sakhar-Pathar, Lonavla (Gammie 15948!) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1214!, B1219!, B1279!, B1289!, Woodrow).—S. A7. Country : Castle Rock (Bhide!), Londa (Woodrow !).—Kanara: Yellapore (Sedgwick 3124!); Birchy (Talbot 2251!) ; Karwar (Hallberg and McCann A307!) ; Siddhapur to Sirsi, open grass land (Hallberg and McCann A313!) ; Jagalbet, N. Kanara (Talbot 1565). Distribution : All over India, Malay Islands, Japan, Tropical Australia. 2. Dimeria Woodrowii, Stapf in Hook. Ic. Pl. 24 (1895), t. 2312; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 104; Cke. ii, 945. Description » Cke. l.c. Locality : Konkan ; Marmagoa (McCann !, Bhide!, Talbot 2557) ; Karanjee, Ratnagiri Dist. (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Ratnagiri (Herb. Dhura!, Woodrow).—Kanara: Mirjan (Hallberg and McCann!); Honavar, open rocks (McCann !). Distribution : W. Peninsula. 3. Dimeria gracilis, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 413; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 88; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 105: Cke. ii, 946. Description : Cke. 1.c. Locality : Konkan: Penn, hills (Bhide!) ; Vetora (Sabnis 3714!).—Deccan : Lonavla (Bhide!, Woodrow); Khandala (McCann A318!); on the Ghats (Lisboa!).—S. 47. Country: Castle Rock (Bhide!) ; Anmod to Castle Rock (Sedgwick 3254!).—Kanara: Bell and Sedgwick 3165! ; Supa (Sedgwick and Bell 4880!) ; Arbail Ghat (Sedgwick and Bell 5018!) ; Sirsi (Gammie !) ; Kumwada (Talbot 2260!); Yellapore (Talbot 1527!) ; Kadra (Talbot!) ; Sumpkhund (Hallberg and McCann A308!) ; Sirsi to Siddhapur (Hallberg and McCann A311!) ; Devimani (Talbot !). Distribution : W. Peninsula, Ceylon. Where this species is growing together with other species of Dimeria it can easily be recognized by its overtowering the others. REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 19 4, Dimeria diandra, Stapf in Bhide, New and revised spec. of Gram. from Bombay Jour. and Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, new s. vii, (1911), 515.— Woedrow1a diandra, Stapf in Hook. Ic. Pl. (1896), t. 2447; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 241 ; Cke. ii. 1012. Description : Cke. 1.c. except for the number and description of the glumes, this part of the diagnosis must read like this: Glumes 4: Lower involucral ¢lume more or less dorsally hairy, with ciliolate margins; upper involucral glume with a densely ciliate keel; lower floral glume obovate-oblong, hyaline, nerveless ; upper floral glume 2-lobed, with a geniculate awn about 12 mm. long from the sinus, column of awn 4 mm. long, spirally ciliate, brown, the upper part of the awn yellow, longer than the column. Locality : Konkan; Vasco da Gama (Bhide!) ; Marmagoa (Talbot 2557 !)— Deccan ; Khandala, open grass land (Saxton and Bhide!, McCann A317 !).— S. M. Country; Castle Rock (Bhide!).—Kanara: Kumberwada (Talbot 2261!) ; Kadra (Talbot 2822!) ; Devimani (Talbot 3547!) ; Jog to Siddahapur, open grass land, rocky soil (Hallberg and McCann A314!) ; Mirjan (Hallberg and McCann A315!). Distribution ; W. Peninsula. 6. Iscuamum, Linn. (Cke. ii, 957) Species about 50.—All belonging to the Old World, except 3 found in tropical America. Cooke, 1. c. describes 12 species. Of these l/schemum angustifolium has to go under Pollinidium and Ilschemum laxum, sulcatum and spathiflorum under Schima. Instead 3species new to the Presidency will be added to the genus Lschemum, viz. L. impressum, Hack., JL. conjugatum, Roxb. and I. timorense, Kth. In /schemum the raceines are geminate or digitate. A. Margins of lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet inflexed or incurved from base to apex. I. Leaves rounded at the base (slightly cordate in 7. molle), sessile on the sheath. 1. Pedicel of upper spikelet less than 1/3 the length of the lower spikelet. (a) Lower involucral glume of sessile spike- lets with nodulose margins 1. JL. aristatum. (6) Lower involucral glume of sessile spike- lets closely transversely ribbed (c) Lower involucral glume of sessile spike- lets dorsally villous all over, not trans- versely ridged nor with nodulose margins 3. JL. molle. 2. Pedicel of upper spikelet 1/3 the length of the lower spikelet or more. (a) Upper involucral glume of sessile spike- bo 1, rugosum. lets 2-fid, 3-nerved 4. JL. diplopogon. (6) Upper involucral glume of sessile spike- lets acuminate, se nerved ... 5. JL. pilosum. II. Leaves hastate or cordate at the base, often petioled. 1. Pedicel of upper spikelet not 1/3 of the lower spikelet. (a) Leaves 7°5—13 cm. long ve .. 6. JL. semisagittatum. (6) Leaves 25—35 cm. long 7. L. conjugatum. 2. Pedicel of upper spikelets as ‘Jong as the | lower spikelet, or longer... 8. JL. impressum. B. Margins of lower involucral glume of sessile spikelets broadly incurved below the middle. I. Keel of upper involucral glume winged above the middle. 1. Sessile spikelets 3 mm. long; callus large, glabrous ; awn 4 mm. long.. 9. Ll. Lisboe, 2. Sessile spikelets 3 mm. lone ; callus short, bearded ; awn 12 mm. long . 10. JL. etliave. Il. Keel of upper involucral glume not winged. ll. JL. timorens, 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII 1. Ischemum aristatum, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 1049; Cke. ii, 958; Ranag Achariyar, South Ind. Grass. (1921), 151. Description : Cke. 1..c. ; This grass is a very variable one, so variable, indeed, that it is almost impossible to distinguish good varieties, in spite of Hackel’s and Hook. f.’s efforts. Locality; Khandesh: W. Khandesh (Blatter!).—Konkan: Bassein (McCann 4474!) ; Sion Boinbay (McCann 5233!) ; Bhandup (McCann $899 !) ; Parsik, railway line (McCann 9991!) ; Matunga near Bombay (Woodrow 4). Deccan : Khandala, on rocks (McCann 9908!): Lohagad, half way up (McCann 9906 !) ; Deolali (Blatter and Hallberg 4554!) ; Igatpur: (Blatter and Hallberg 5169!) ; Mahableshwar (Talbot 4534!) ; Lonavla (Garade!) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1216 5 Pasarni Ghat (Blatter and Hall- berg B1307 !).—S. WW. Country : Devarayi (Sedgwick and Bell 4456 !) ; Castle Rock (Bhide !) ; Belgaum (Ritchie 812/2). Distribution ; India (also on higher hills), Ceylon, China, Malaya. 2. Ischaemum rugosum, Salisb. Ic. Stirp. Rar. (1791), 1, t.1; Roxb. Fl. Ind. I, 320; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 206 ; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 18, and Fodd. Grass. N vinde oles. aS athe err 127: Cke. ii, 959; Ranga Achariyar, South Ind. Grass. (1921), 153 ; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa pt. V (1925), 1021. Locality : Konkan : Bombay Island (Blatter!) ; Kankeshwar Hills, Alibag ( Bhide !); Bassein (McCann 4479!).—Deccan: Khandala, common, Echo- Point in a dry pool (McCann 9903!) ; Igatpuri, common (McCann 4348 !) ! Poona (Woodrow) .—Kaxara : Halyal (Talbot 2140!). Distribution : India, Ceylon, China, Malaya. 3. Ischemum molle, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii (1896), 128; Cke. ii, 959. Locality : Konkan ; Sion creek (Sabnis 9900 !).—Deccan : Lonavla (Bhide ! Woodrow), Igatpuri (McCann 9543 !); Khandala, railway line (McCann 9944!). Distribution : W. Peninsula, Central Provinces. 4. Ischemum diplopogon, Hook. f. in F.B.1. vii (1896), 129 ; Cke. ii, 960. Locality : Konkan : Matheran (Woodrow).—Deccan : Mahableshwar (Wood- row 4): Mahableshwar, wet rocks in a stream (Sedgwick and Bell 4595 !] ; Amberwadi, Nasik District (Patwardhan !) ; Sakar Pathar, Lonavla (Gammie 15963 !) ; Khandala (McCann !) ; Bhorkas near Poona (Woodrow 3!). Distribution : W. Peninsula. 5. Ischemum pilosum, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 240; Duthie Fodd. Grass N. India 3]; Cke. 11; 961. Vern. Names: Khavo (Broach), Kunda (Poona), Nuth, Kanigyanhullu (Bijapur). Locality : Gujarat: Surat, roadside (Sedgwick !).—Ahandesh : (Lisboa) ; Amalner (Blatter and Hallberg 4397 !).—Deccan: Ganeshkhind Bot. Gard. Kirkee (Gammie!); Mangri, 8 miles E. of Poona (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona !); Yerowda (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel 1) ; Kirkee (Talbot !) ; Poona (Bhide!) ; Sholapur (Lisboa) ; Satara (Lisboa). Sh Country: Kunemelihalli (Sedgwick 2138!); Dharwar (Sedgwick and Bell 5341!) ; black soil field, Haveri (Talbot 2185!) ; Gadag (Talbot 2185!) ; black soil. field, 7 miles S. of Hubli (Sedgwick 5341 !). Distribution : W. Peninsula, Central Provinces, Rajputana. 6. Ischemum semisagittatum, Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 8; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 208 : Cke. ii, 961. Locality. Khandesh : W. Khandesh (McCann !).—Konkan : Kenery Caves (McCann 9,914!) ; Sion, Bombay (McCann 5,251!) ; Bassein (McCann 4482 !) ; Sewri, Bombay (McCann 3586 !) ; Marmagoa (Talbot 2500) 1)4; Parel, Bombay (Woodrow) ; ; Thana (Lisboa).—Deccan : Mahableshwar, in forests (Sedgwick and Bell 4802!) ; Lonavla (Bhide! Woodrow) ; Khandala, very common (McCann 9613!) ; Igatpuri, very common (McCann 4319!) ; Satara (Lisboa) .— S. M. Country : Castle Rock (Bhide !); Dudsagar Falls (McCann !).—Kanara: Anmod (Sedgwick 3273!) ; Supa (Talbot 2092 !) ; Jugglepet (Talbot 2089!) ; Yellapur (Talbot, 738). A very common grass growing usually in the shade of trees. It is common throughout the S. part of the Presidency. REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 31 ; Distribution g Bengal, W. Peninsula, Ceylon. Var. dasyantha, Hack. Monogr. Androp. (1889). 209; Cke. ii, 962. _ Locality : Konkan (Stocks ex. Cke.).—Kanara (Woodrow !) 7. Ischamum conjugatum, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 321 (not of Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1894), 8); Hack. Monogr. Androp. 205; F.B.I. vii, 131. Spodiopogon conjugatus, Voigt. Hort. Suburb. Calc. 706 —Andropogon cordatifolius, Steud. Syn. Gram. 375. Description: An annual. Stem spreading from the root and creeping, then geniculately ascending, 30-35 cm. high, slender, stiff, purplish, repeatedly branching upwards. Leaves short, 25-35 mm. long, base hastate or broadly, deeply cordate, acuminate, broadest at the base, rather rigid, striate, lower petioled ; sheath of the upper ventricose and often open ; ligule short, glabrous. Spikes 2, short, 25-35 mm. long, sessile, villous ; joints very short, quadrately clavate, plano-convex, ciliate. Sessile spikelets 3 mm. long, pale. Glumes 4. Lower invoiucral glume oblong, obtuse, flat, 2-toothed, villous from below or above the middle to nearly the top, margins narrowly inflexed, not winged, upper half often greener, even or lower margins obscurely nodose. Upper involucral glume lanceolate, acuminate, strongly keeled, puberulous. Lower floral giume paleate. Upper floral glume cleft to about the middle, awn dors- ally inserted at or below the cleft, slender, about twice as long as the spikelet. Pedicelled spikelets subsessile, almost awnless. Lower involucral glume as in the sessile. Locality : Konkan; Okda Forest (Ryan, 712!). Deccan : Mahableshwar to Pratabgad (Bhide!) ; Khandala (Garade !) ; College Farm, Poona (Pawar !).— Kanara: Gersoppa Falls (Chibber'!). Distribution : Bengal, W. Peninsula, naturalized in Ceylon. 8. Ischemum impressum, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 210; F.B.I. vii, 132. Stem 10-20 cm. high, slender, prostrate below, branching upwards, quite glabrous. Leaves 5-8 cm. long, upper 18mm. broad, ovate or oblong-lanceo- late, cordate, lower narrower, petioled, sparsely hairy beneath, margin thickened, scaberulous, sometimes crenulate ; sheath compressed, glabrous ; ligule oblong. Spikes 2, yellow ; joints and pedicels stout, clavate, ciliate with rigid hairs, forked at the top. Sessile spikelets 6-8 mm. long, shining; callus short, broad, bearded. Lower involucral glume linear-oblong, flat, dorsally broadly irregularly depressed with shallow subsemilunar pits in the lower 2/3, above it winged and 2-cuspidate, narrowed and margins subnodulose at the base, wings erose. Upper involucral glume obtuse, chartaceous, ciliate, dorsally rounded with a median gibbosity and an auricle-like wing above it. Lower floral glume oblong-lanceolate, hyaline, 3-nerved, ciliate. Upper floral glume much shorter, glabrous, cleft to above the middle, awn short, genicu- lately inserted at the cleft. Pedicelled spikelets smaller than the sessile, Lowey involucral glume obtuse, glabrous, many-nerved, winged on one margin. Upper involucral glume 7-nerved. Upper floral glume mucronate. Locality : Deccan ; Mahableshwar (Sedgwick and Bell, 4514!); Panchgani, Tableland (Blatter, 5083!, B1221!, B1285!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter!) ; Khandala, Echo-Point (McCann 9943 !) ; Lonavla (Bhide!). Distribution : We have found this species only in the W. Ghats. Hooker f. mentions the Konkan, but with a sign of interrogation. As we have never met it in the Konkan, it is not likely to occur in that region. Where Huegel’s specimen comes from we cannot say, and will in all probability never be known. We think it is quite safe to say that /. tmpressum is endemic in the W. Ghats of the Bombay Presidency. 9. Ischeaemum Lisboe, Hook. f. in F.B.1. vii, (1896), 133; Cke. ii, 962. Locality : Kanara: N. Kanara (Lisboa) ; Karwar (Talbot 2209!, McCann!), A rare grass, apparently endemic in N. Kanara. 10. Ischemum ciliare, Retz. Obs. 6 (1791), 36; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 225 ; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. India. 30; Cke. ii, 962. J. geniculatum, Roxb. FI. Ind. I, 322. S. obliguivalvis, Neesin Nov. Act. Cur. XIX, Suppl. I (1843), 185 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 16. Locality : Konkan: .Bassein (Ryan 445!); St. Xavier’s College Comp., Bombay (McCann 4594!) ; Parel, Bombay (Woodrow) ; Compoli (McCann 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII 9415!) ; Alibag, sandy shore (Ezekiel!) ; Uran (McCann 5126!) ; Salsette (Jacquemont 710).—Deccan: Khandala, very common (McCann 9612 !); Ganesh- khind Bot. Gard. (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!); Igatpuri (Biatter and Hall. 3927A!).—S. M. Country : Mugad, hill-side (Sedgwick 1823!) ; Castle Rock (Bhide!).—M. Kanara: Yellapore (Talbot 1526!) ; Halyal, borders of rice fields (Talbot 2141!)! Ankola (Mamlatdar of Ankola!) ; Karwar, sea coast, sandy soil near Gaol (Talbot 2821!) ; Gersoppa Falls (McCann!) ; Common throughout Kanara (McCann!) ; Kakti (Woodrow). Distribution : India, Ceylon, China, Malaya, Australia. 11. Ischemum timorense, Kunth Revis. Gram. i, 369, t. 98; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 229; F. B. I. vii, 136:—7. tenellum, Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 323. Stem 15-45 cm. high, slender, branched, straggling, nodes glabrous, or sparingly bearded. Leaves 2'5-10 cm. long, sessile and petioled, linear- lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous or sparsely hairy, base of upper rounded, of lower rounded; sheath lax, mouth hairy; ligule obscure. Spikes 2-3, 25-50 mm. long, rather slender, sparingly villous; joints and pedicels about half as long as the spikelets, nearly equal, shortly ciliate. Sessile spike- lets 2°5~3 mm. long, greenish or with green nerves; callus narrow, long- bearded. Lower involucral glume ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, bicuspidate, 5-9-nerved, base ventricose, margins broadly involute below, subauricled, dorsally convex, polished, nerves strong. Upper involucral bracts longer, acuminate or aristulate, dorsally rounded, recurved, 3-5-nerved, tip 2-toothed, dorsally usually ciliate. Lower floral glume lanceolate, falcate, palea linear-oblong. Upper floral glume short, 2-lobed, glabrous, awn in the cleft very slender, shortly exserted. Pedicelled spikelets like the sessile awned. Locality: Sind: Sukkur (Mamlatdar of Sukkur!).—Deccan: Mahableshwar, common (Sedgewick and Bell 4503!) ; Lonavla (Bhide!) ; Khandala, behind the Saddle (McCann 9915!).—S. MW. Country: Deciduous forests W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick and Bell 4500!) ; Devikop (Sedgwick 2170!) ; S. W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick and Bell 4429!) ; Londa (Bhide!).—Kanara: Suppa (Talbot 2101!) ; Yellapore (Talbot 2327!) ; Dandeli (Talbot 2494 !). Distribution : Burma, Chittagong, Bengal, Central Provinces, Sind, W. Peninsula, Ceylon, Malaya, Pacific Islands. 7. THELEPOGON, Roth. (Cke. ii, 971). Species 1.—India and tropica! Africa. 1. Thelepogon elegans, Roth. ex Roem. and Schult. Syst. ii, 788; Nov. Pl. Sp. 62; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 267; F. B. I. vii, 148; Cke. ii, 671.— Andropogon princeps, A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 470, ¢. 102.—Rhiniachne princeps, Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 360.—Jardinea abyssinica, Steud. l.c.—Rhytachne princeps, Durand and Schinz. Consp. FJ. Afr. v, 700. Vern. Names: Bodga (Kaira), Bhatad (Thana), Bangadi (Poona), Pharoda (Ahmednagar). Description « Cke. l.c. Locality : Gujarat : Ahmedabad (Sedgwick !) ; Kaira (ex Burns).— Konkan: Matheran (D’Almeida A257 !) ; Thana (ex Burns).—Deccan : Najar to Pasur Rd. (Paranjpe!); Lina Hill, Nasik District (Blatter and Hallberg A79!, 4544!) ; Katraj Ghat (Gammie!); Bairawadi, Purandhar (McCann 5053!) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hall. B1267!) ; Poona (Woodrow) ; Hewra (Dalzell) ; near Nasik (Edgeworth) ; Ahmednagar (ex Burns).—S. 4/. Country : Dharwar (Sedgwick 1824!) ; Alnawar (Talbot 2303!) ; Belgaum (Ritchie 812).—Kanara : Halyal (Talbot 2094 !, 2142 !). ; Distribution : Central India, W. Peninsula, Tropical Africa. Uses » Eaten by horses, although very bitter (Dalzell). 8. SEHIMA, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt. Arab. 178; Stapf. in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 35. Annual or perennial grasses. Blades convolute when young, at length flat, narrow; ligules a line of stiff hairs. Racemes usually gently curved, dorsiventrally and laterally compressed, with the pedicelled spikelets converg- ing over the convex side, joints and pedicels sublinear and parallel. Sessile and pedicelled spikelets heteromorphous. Spikelets 2-nate, those of each pair REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY — 23 differing in sex, one sessile, the other pedicelled on the articulate fragile rhachis of solitary spike-like racemes, the pedicelled tardily separating from their pedicels, the sessile deciduous together with the adjacent joint of the rhachis and the pedicel. Fiorets 2; lower male, upper bisexual in the sessile, male or neuter in the pedicelled spikelets. Sessile spikelets: glumes equal or subequal; lower grooved, rarely flat, 2-dentate or 2-mucronate, more or less chartaceous, upwards acutely 2-keeled with inflexed margins, keels winged ; upper glume boat-shaped, keeled upwards with a bristle-like awn. Valves hyaline, of lower floret entire, muticous, of upper 2-fid and awned from the sinus. Valvules more or less equalling their valves, hyaline. Lodicules 2, cuneate. Stamens 3. Stigmas linear-oblong, laterally exserted. Grain oblong, obtusely trigonous ; embryo reaching to the middle of the grain. Pedicelled spikelets flat, with 2 florets resembling the lower floret of the sessile spikelets, the lower or both miore or less reduced and barren. Species about 5.—India, Tropical Africa, N. America. A. Racemes enclosed in long narrow spathes .» Ll. S. spathiflorum. B. Racemes not enclosed in spathes— I. Sessile spikelets 6-7 mm. long. Lower in- volucral glume of sessile spikelet 6-nerved ... 2. .S nervosum. II. Sessile spikelets 7-11 mm long. Lower in- volucral glume of sessile spikelet 3-5-nerved... 3. S. ischemoides. III. Sessile spikelet9mm.long. Lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet 2-nerved ... we 4. S. sulcatum. 1. Sehima spathifiorum, nov. comb. Blatter and McCann.—/schemum spatht- florum, Hook. f. in F. B. I., vii (1896), 138; Cke. ii, 963. Description : Cke. 1. ¢. Locality ;: Khandesh : Toranmal (McCann 9922 !).—-AKonkan : Penn (Bhide !) ; Matheran (Paranjpe!) ; Bassein (Ryan 2300 !) ; Kenery Caves (McCann 9920 !) ; Island of Salsette in hilly stony places (Jacquemont 797).—Deccan ;: Lonavla (Bhide!) ; Khandala (Woodrow); Khandala, in watercourses, very common (McCann 9928!) ; Palasdari on the Bhor Ghat, G. I. P. Railway (Woodrow) ; Lohagad, plain (McCann 9919!) ; Bairawadi, Purandhar (McCann 5054!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter and Hallberg 3836 !, McCann !). Distribution : Endemic. 2. Sehima nervosum, Stapf. in Fl. Trop. Afr. IX, 36; Haines pt. v, 1023.— S. macrostachyum, Hochst. in Schimp. Pl. Abyss. n. 1705.—Andropogon nervosus, Rottl. aud Willd. in Verh. Naturf. Fr. Berlin, iv (1803), 218.— Andropogon striatus, Klein apud Willd. Sp. Pl. iv. (1805), 903 ; R. Br. Prodr. 201.—A. tacazensis, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 369.—A. macrostachys, Anders. in Schweinf. Beitr. Fl. Aeth. 306 (per errorem 310).—TLschemum laxum, R. Br. Prodr. 205: Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 136, partim ; Cke. ii, 964, partim.— Ischemum laxum var. genuinum, Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 245.—/schemum nervosum, Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 305.—/schemum macrostachyum, A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 472.—FPollinta striata, Spreng. Pug. ii, 12.—Hologamium nervosum, Nees in Edinb. N. Phil. Journ. xviii, 185. Description : A perennial, densely tufted grass. Stems erect, 60 cm. tol m. high, ona short rootstock, simple or nearly so, slender, terete, about 4-noded, middle and upper internodes exserted, smooth or slightly rough below the inflorescence, glabrous. Leaves 15-30 cm. and longer, 2-4 mm. broad, erect, linear, narrowed into long capillary tips, flat, smooth, striate, glaucous, more or less scabrid, lateral nerves about 3 on each side. like the midrib whitish and prominent on both sides; sheaths shorter than the internodes, tight, terete, striate, smooth or nearly so, glabrous or sparingly hirsute from tubercle-based hairs ; ligule a line of short stiff hairs. Racemes solitary, 5-10 cm. long, erect, slightly curved, pale, fragile ; joints and pedicels paraliel, sublinear, slightly compressed, 3-45 mm. long, densely ciliate with white hairs along the angles, otherwise glabrous, tips more or less oblique. Sessile spikelets lanceolate-linear to linear, acuminate, 6:25-7 mm. long, pale green, with a shortly bearded callus. Glumes subequal: lower subchartaceous to chartaceous, with an unequally 2-toothed, flat and membranous beak, the teeth of which sometimes run out into ciliate mucros, deeply grooved, especially below the middle, acutely 2-keeled, outer keel generally winged upwards, intracarinal nerves 4, with transverse veins in the upper part, like these green and raised on a white 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol.’ XXXTI ground ; upper glume subchartaceous, slightly shorter, boat-shaped, sublinear in profile, keeled above, with the keel widened at the apex and passing into a fine bristle 11-12°5 mm. long, 5-nerved with fine transverse veins, ciliate. Lower floret: valve faintly 2-nerved, hyaline, ciliate, 4:5 mm. long, with a narrow, linear valvule of about equal length and a male flower. Upper floret bisexual: valve oblong-lanceolate, 4 mm. long, 2-fid, with narrow lobes, hyaline, 3-nerved, ciliate; awn up to 43 mm. long, slender, column spirally twisted, bronze colour, very minutely ciliate along the spiral, bristle whitish, as long as the column or slightly longer ; valvule as long as the valve, linear, subacute, 2-nerved, ciliate. Anthers 3 mm. long. Styles and stigmas pale, 2mm. long. Pedicelled spikelet lanceolate, acuminate, green or tinged with purple, 7-8°5 mm. long, glabrous ; lower glume slightly 2-toothed, long-ciliate from the hairs of the tightly inflexed margin, keels very narrowly or obscurely winged, wing rigidly ciliate, intracarinal nerves 5, the inner 3 very prominent and rough ; upper glume lanceolate, long and finely acuminate, hyaline, ciliate, 3-nerved ; lower floret as in the sessile spikelet ; upper floret very much like the lower. Stamens smaller in the lower floret or both florets reduced and empty. Locality; Gujarat: Porbandar (Bhide!); Junagad, Kathiawar (Blatter 3799!) ; Surat, city walls (Herb. St. X. C. 9498!) ; Ahmedabad (Sedgwick !).— Khandesh : (Lisboa) ; Umalla village, on Tapti river (Blatter and Hallberg 5160!) ; Toranmal, common on the slopes (McCann 9916!).—Deccan : Purandhar Fort (Bhide!, McCann 5106!) ; Khandala, St. X. Villa compound (McCann 9419!) ; Deolali (Blatter and Hallberg 4548!) ; Lonavla (Bhide!) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1269!) ; Poona (Woodrow); Poona to Karli (Jacquemont 530).—S. W. Country : Dharwar (Bhide!) ; Haveri (Talbot 2186 !). Distribution: Bengal, Behar, Central Provinces, Rajputana, W. Peninsula, Ceylon, Tropical Australia,Somaliland, Abyssinia, Eritrea. Cape de Verd Islands Uses : Used for thatching in Khandesh (Lisboa). Considered to be one of the best fodder grasses and is eaten by cattle even after the fall of the spikes( Haines). 3. Sehima ischemoides, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. 178; Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. IX, 37.—Sehima Kotschyt, Hochst. in Flora (1844), 247.—Jschemum Sehima, R. Br. Prodr. I, 204.—/schemum inscalptum, Hochst. in Schimp. Pl. Abyss. n. 739 and Flora (1844), 247; A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. II, 472.— Andropogon Sehima, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. I, 369.—Andropogon lineatus, Steud. 1.c.— Andropogon schangulensis, Rupr. ex. Steud. l.c.— Andropogon inscalptus, Anders. in Schweinf. Beitr. Fl. Aeth. 306 (per errorem 310).— Ischemum laxum, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 205; Hook.f. in F.B.I., VU, 136 partim.—Ischemum laxum var. inscalptum, Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 245..— Andropogon rhynchophorus, Stapf in Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. LV (1908) Mem. VIII. TOT: An annualherb. Stems usually in small fascicles, rarely over 45 cm. high, slender, terete, simple, 2- or 3-noded, middle and upper internodes slightly exserted, smooth, glabrous. Leaves glaucous, linear, tapering to a long fine point, up to 13 cm. long, 1°5-3'1 mm. broad, more or ‘less scabrid, midrib fine like the 1 or 2 primary lateral nerves. Racemes solitary, or sometimes an additional 1 or 2 from the upper nodes, 2’5-7'5 cm. long, erect, or slightly nodding ; joints and pedicels parallel, sublinear, slightly compressed, 3°) mana long, very densely ciliate from white hairs along the angles, otherwise glabrous, tips more or less oblique. Sessile spikelets linear 7-11 mm. long, pale green, _ with a shortly bearded callus; lower glume subchartaceous to chartaceous, with an unequally 2 toothed flat and membranous long beak, the teeth of which run out into mucros, deeply grooved, especially below the middle, acutely 2-keeled, the outer keel generally winged upwards, intracarinal nerves 3-5, raised, rough, only distinct just above the groove ; upper glume and florets as in Sehima nervosum, excepting the bristle of the glume which is over 15°5 mm. long and the awn, the column of which is generally more brown than bronze in colour and has much longer cilia along the spirals. Pedicelled spikelets narrowly lanceolate, long-acuminate, pale green, up to 12°5: mm. long, glabrous; lower glume with two long setaceous teeth, sparingly hairy on the back, otherwise the spikelet as in Sehima nervosum. Locality : Deccan (Woodrow 147, Law, ex. Stapf.) Distribution : Tropical Arabia, Yemen, Abyssinia, Sudan, Kordofan, Nubia, Cameroons, Cape de Verd Islands. REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 25 4. Sehima sulcatum, comb. nov. Blatterand McCann.—J/schemum sulcatum, Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 248 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I., vii, 137; Cke. ii, 964. Description : See Cke. l.c. Locality : Deccan : Satara (Lisboa) ; Malsiras, Sholapur Taluka (Iisboa).— S. M. Country: Black soil banks 35 miles S. of Dharwar (Sedgwick 3745 !) ; banks of black soil fields 7 miles S. of Hubli (Sedgwick and Bell 5342!) ; Dharwar. common (Sedgwick 1819!, McCann!). Distribution : Central Provinces, W. Peninsula. 9. POLLINIDIUM, Stapf. As far as we can make out the diagnosis of this genus was published for the first time in Haines’ Botany of Bihar and Orissa, pt. 5 (1924), 1020. Densely tufted, perennial herbs with woolly rootstock and basal sheaths. Leaves convolute when old, wiry, mouth of sheaths ciliate. Spikes digitate or fascicled, fascicles with filiform peduncles on a more or less branched panicle. Spikelets 2-nate, sessile and pedicelled, similar, on the articulate, fragile, compressed, not stout rhachis. Callus densely clothed with long brown hairs. Glumes 4: Lower involucral glume flattened, 2?-3-dentate, dorsally hairy at base, 5-7-nerved, margins inflexed; upper involucral gluine cymbiform, minutely cuspidate, 3-5-nerved, with a slender awn. Lower floral glume hyaline, sparsely ciliate, elliptic, palea finely ciliate ; upper floral glume narrow, conduplicate, entire or 2-toothed shortly awned from the tip or minute sinus, palea broad and nearly as long as the glume, densely ciliate on the top. 1. Pollinidium angustifolium, Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa, pt. 5 (1924), 1020.— Ischemum angustifolium, Hack in Monogr. Androp. 241; Hook. f.in F-B.I. vii, 129; Cke. li, 960.—Spodiopogon angustifolius, Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb., ser. VI, ii (1833), 300; Spec. Gram. Ic. t. 336.—FPollinia eriopoda, Hance in Journ. Bot. iv (1866), 173.— Andropogon binatus, Retz. Obs, vi, 21. Description » Cke. |.c. Locality - Gujarat : Rajkot (Woodrow).—oxkan ; Victoria Gardens, Bombay (McCann 4302 !).—Deccan : College Garden, Poona (Grade!) ; cultivated at Poona (Woodrow). Distribution ; Afghanistan, India, China, Philippines. Uses: In Bihar and Orissa the Sabai grass is used for strings, ropes and mats (the Baib matting of Calcutta) and is very largely employed for paper- making. Fires iinprove the crop by removing shade. It is easily grown by division of the rootstock or from: seed. From seed it yields a crop in about three years. Cattle do not eat it (Haines). For Bombay see Cke. l.c. 10. Apocopis, Nees. (Cke. ii, 967) 1. Apocopis vaginatus, Hack. in Oestr. Bot. Zeitschr. 41 (1891), 8; Cke. ii 967.—A. Wightit, Nees, var. vaginata, Hook. f. in F.B.I., vii, 143. Description » Ckel.c. Locality : Gujarat: Ahmedabad, field (Sedgwick !).—Konkan: Kalyan (Weodrow).—S. M7. Country : Forests W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick !)— Kanara - Halyal (Talbot 2379!) ; N. Kanara (Woodrow). Distribution; Bihar, Central India, Deccan and W. Peninsula, Burma, Ceylon. 11. LopHoproGon, Hack. 1. Lophopogon tridentatus, Hack. in Engl. and Prantl. Nat. Pflanzenf. ii, pt. ii (1887), 22, 56, Monogr. Androp. 254, t. i. f. 14; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 149; Cke. ii, 966.—Andropogon tridentatus, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 257.—Saccharum tridentatum, Spreng. Syst. i, 283. Description: Cke.1.c. Locality: Khandesh: Tapti, Bhusawal (Blatter and Hallberg 5457 !),. --Deccan: Agricultural College compound, Kirkee (Bhide!): Bapodi near Poona (Gammie 15315!); Bowadhar near Poona (Garade!) ; Rahuri (Nana A80!); Igatpuri (McCann 4572!) ; Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel!) ; Deolali (Blatter 9620!, 9610!); Jeur, Sholapur Dist. (Woodrow !).—S. 7 Country: Dharwar, on dry gravelly uplands 2,400 ft., rain 34 inches (Sedgwick 3010!). . Distribution «+ Central Provinces, W. Peninsula. 4 26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX 12. ApLupa, Linn. (Cke. ii, 956) 1. Apluda varia, Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 196, var. aristata, Hack. 1. ec. 199 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I., vii, 150; Cke. ii, 956, comprehendens etiam alias varietates ; Stapf. in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 40; Haines pt. v, 1057.—Apluda arts- tata, I.inn. Cent. ii, 71 ; Schreber Beschr.-d. Gr. 93, t. 42 ; Beauv. Agrost 133; Duthie Fodd. Grass. of N. Ind. 44, t. 29.—Apluda Gryllus, Beauv. Agrost. Explic. planches, 15, t. 23, fig. 5 (6 per errorem). As our Pombay specimens must be referred to the var. aristata and as Cooke’s description comprises also other varieties we give in the following Stapf’s diagnosis of the variety aristata. This must not prevent botanists from paying attention to the possible occurrence of other varieties in the Presidency. Description: Mostly annual, branched from the base. Stems densely tufted, erect, 30-180 cm. high, or geniculately ascending and often rooting from the nodes, many-noded, terete, smooth and polished. Leaves 10-45 cm. by 4-15 mm., linear-lanceolate, long-attenuated towards the base, almost petioled, tapering upwards toa fine setaceous point, convolute in bud, then flat, somewhat rigid or flaccid, glaucous below, glabrous or very rarely sparingly hairy, slightly rough above, scabrid along the margins, midrib white above, stouter towards the base, primary lateral nerves, 5-§ on each side, fine ; sheaths terete, tight and glabrous or very rarely sparingly hairy, those sup- porting the flowering branches wider and shorter with reduced blades ; ligules short, rounded off, glabrous or ciliate. Panicle upto 60 cm. long, much compound, primary branches long, those of the foliowing orders gradually shorter, bearing clusters of trios of spikelets; spathe at the base of the trios ovate to ovate-oblong, mucronate or bearing rudimentary blades, glabrous, ereen or tinged with purple, 4-4°5 mm. long ; bulbous basal joint up to 1:5 mm, long, whitish. Sessile spikelets lanceolate-oblong, acute, up to 4°5 mm. long. Lower involucral glume chartaceous, firmer below, many-nerved ; upper involucral glume somewhat gibbous on the back, scaberulous on the keel. Lower floret: Valve oblong-lanceolate, acute, slightly shorter than the glumes, 3-nerved, glabrous; valvule linear-lanceolate, almost as long as the valve, 2-nerved. Upper floret : valve 31 mm. long, 2-fid to beyond the middle, awn up to9°3 mm. long, very fine, with or without a distinct twisted column ; valvule generally much shorter, oblong or broad-ovate, nerveless. Anthers 2°3-3'1 mm. long. Stigmas purple, up to 4'5mm. long. Grain about 1 mm. long, Pedicels 2°3-3'1mm. long, sparingly ciliate. Lateral pedicelled spike- let 4-5 mm. long. GlJumes similar, subherbaceous, lanceolate, acute, many- nerved ; lower glume rather flat on the back, upper not or obscurely keeled and not gibbous. Florets as in the sessile spikelet but the upper not awned, both are male more or less reduced. ‘Terminal spikelet reduced toa short striate glume, continuing the pedicel. Locality : Gujarat: Broach (Chibber !) ; Nadiad Farm (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Surat (Gammie 16467!, Cooke) ; Karu Roa, Cutch (Blatter 3776 !) ; Kala Pacham Island (Blatter 3735!) ; Garvi Dangs (Sedgwick !) ; Ahmedabad (Cooke).—Khandesh : Muravat, Tapti bank (Blatter and Hallbery 4434!) ; N. slope of Chanseli Hill (McCann A83!); Toranmal (McCann A84!) ; Munmad, Ankai Hill (Blatter Al46!).—Konkan - Dhapli forest (Roan!) ; extremely common throughout the islands of Bombay and Salsette (McCann!) ; Bassein (McCann 4480!); Alibag, margin of water-works (Ezekiel !).—Deccan - Purandhar (McCann 5008 !, Bhide !); Khandala, very common (McCann 5294 !) ; Diva Ghat (McCann A86!); Sholapur (D’Almeida A87!); Igatpuri, very common (McCann 4325 !, 4324!); Panchgani (Blatter 53-85!, Bhide!, Blatter and Hallberg B1322!).—S. 17. Country : Dharwar (Sedgwick and Bell 4489, 2400 ft., rain 34 inches; Londa (Gammie 15851!); Belgaum (Ritchie 824).— Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 2495!); Juggleput (Talbot!); Kawarwad (Talbot 2246 !). Distribution ; Socotra, India, Ceylon, E. Tropical Asia, Malaya, Australia, . Pacific Islands. Uses: A fairly good fodder grass, and readily eaten by cattle when young (Duthie). 13. HEMARTHRIA R. Br. (Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 54) Decumbent or ascending perennial grasses with branched, many-noded stems. Leaves linear, conduplicate in bud, then flat. Ligules very short, membranous. REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 27 Racemes compressed, often curved, tips more or. uss subulate from the slender terminal spikelet ; rhachis not or tardily breaking up. Spikelets pseudo-opposite owing to the fusion of joints and pedicels, each pair made up of a sessile (secondary) spikelet and the pedicelled companion of the sessile spikelet of the next lower node. Spikelets two-nate on the tough or tardily disarticulating rhachis of spike-like, spathe-supported racemes which terminate the culms and their often fascicled branches, alike in sex and shape, or at least similar ; joints and pedicels fused into roughly semicylindric internodes, hollowed out on the inner face for the reception of the sessile spikelet; disarticulation at a right angle to the rhachis or slightly oblique, tips of joints truncate, not hollowed out or appendaged. Sessile spikelet: Florets 2, lower reduced to a barren valve, upper bisexual, awnless. Glumes equal or subequal, lower flat on the back, 2-keeled, very narrowly inflexed along the margins, coriaceous or subcoriaceous, closing up the cavity formed by the adjacent joint and pedicel, upper membranous, adhering to the inner face of the cavity. Valves hyaline, of lower floret 2-nerved, of upper usually nerveless. Valvule of upper floret hyaline, small, nerveless. Lodicules 2, cuneate. Stamens 3. Stigmas laterally exserted. Grain oblong, dorsally slightly compressed ; embryo about % the length of the grain : hilum conspicuous, punctiform, subbasal. Pedicelled spikelet with more elongated acuminate glumes, especially the terminal, the upper glume mucronate or aristate. Species about 8. Throughout the warm countries of the Old World, 1 also in America, but probably introduced. 1. Hemarthria glabra, comb. nov. Blatter and McCann. Rottbellia glabra, Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey i, 353. Hemarthria coromandelina, Steud. Syn. i, 358. ARottbelia compressa, Linn. f. Suppl. 114, var. genuina, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 286; Hook. f. in F. B.1. vii, 153. ottbellia compressa, Linn. f. Suppl. 114, partim; Cke. ii, 952, partim. Hemarthria compressa, Kunth Enum. i, 465, partim. A word of explanation is required regarding the new name. Haines in his Botany of Bihar and Orissa, pt. VI (1924), 1061, mentions a species under the name of Hemarthria compressa, R. Br. and gives as synonym FRottbellia com- pressa, Linn. f. which, in our opinion, is not correct. Hemarthria compressa, R. Br. Prodr. Flore Nove Hollandiz et insula Van Diemen, p. 207, represents only partly Rottbellia compressa, Linn. f. Besides, Stapfin. Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 55 has separated Rottbellia compressa, Linn. f. var. fasciculata from the type and described it under the specific name Hlemarthria fasciculata, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 153. He was allowed to use this old name, because Hemarthria fasciculata is the same plant as Hackel’s var. fasciculata (Monogr. Androp. 287.) As to the species under consideration, it coincides with Hackel’s Rottbellia compressa Linn. var. genuina. With this Hemarthria compressa, Kunth Enum. i, 465 agrees only partly and this name cannot, therefore, be adopted. There are only two names left which can be considered: ARottbellia glabra and Hemarthria coromandelina. Of these the former is the older and should, there- fore, be retained, but as the species is being transferred to the genus Hemarthria, the plant has to be called Hemarthria glabra, nob. Description : A perennial grass. Stems creeping below, then erect, scandent, 15 to 6 m. long (Roxb.). Blade of leaf short, slowly getting narrower upwards, but at the apex slightly obtuse; sheath at the nodes glabrous. Racemes slender, compressed, 6-10 cm. long, solitary or the upper ones often fascicled. Spikelets 2-nate, 4-45 mm. long; callus 1 mm. long, obconical, obtuse, glabrous. Sessile spikelets: Lower involucral glume broad, ovate lanceolate, obtuse, at the apex emarginate or obtusely bidentate, not in the least acuminate, scarcely constricted below the apex. Pedicelled spikelets: Pedicel adnate. Gluines acute or subacuminate. Locality: Sind: Bughar, Indus River (Blatter and McCann D661 !}; Mirpur Sakro (Blatter and McCann D662!). Gujarat: Kankaria Tank, Ahmedabad (Sedgwick !).—Khandesh : Tapti, Bhusawal N. E. (Blatter and Hallberg 5495 !).— Kanara : Sirsi to Siddhapur (Hallberg and McCann A78!), We have not included the localities mentioned by Cke. ii, 952 as some of his specimens might belong to another species. Distribution - Wedo not know of any definite record as to the distribution of this species. Hooker f. calls it common in India. Hackel gives Bengal, sarampur, Punjab, Nepal, Ceylon, China. Duthie says it occurs in moist 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII places in the plains, and at Jow elevations on the hills of N. India, and extends to Australia. It would apparently be correct to say that this plant is found all over India and Ceylon. We are not so sure about Australia. The question now arises whether Hemarthria fasciculata, Kunth occurs in the Presidency. Wight, Roxburgh, Hook. f. and Duthie mention it for other parts of India and Duthie found it in the same localities where he gathered the previous species, but we have no reliable information at hand to say that it has been found in the Bombay Presidency. In all probability it does occur in our parts. In order to help botanists to clear up this point we add Stapf’s descrip- tion and synonymy of AH. fasciculata, Kunth. At the same time it wil! be good to remember what Hackel says under Rottbellia compressa, Linn. f.: ‘ Species valde polymorpha , varietates sequentes tn speciminibus typicis satis distincte, ed et tpse ita variabiles, ut nullus earum characterum constans, tormaeque intermedia frequertes.’ Hemarthria fasciculata) Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 153, and Enum. i, 465; Hack. in Mart. Fl. Bras. Il, 1, -314,_t. 72, fic. 2.—2. capensis, Trin, Anudron: in Mem. Acad. Petersb. 6 me sér. ii, 248.—Aottbellia compressa, Linn. f. var. fasciculata. Hack. Monog. Androp. 286 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 153 ; Rottbellza compressa, Linn. f.; Cke. ii, 952, partim.—Rottbellia fasciculata, Lam. Ilustr. i, 204.—Lodicularia fasciculata, Link. Hort. Berol. i, 6.-- Lodicularia capensis, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. 128.—Lepturus fasciculata, Trin. Fund. Agrost. 123. Description: A perennial grass. Stems erect or more often ascending, sometimes from a long decumbent rooting base, usually branched, 30cm. to 15m. high, many-noded, compressed, glabrous. Leaves linear, gradually tapering, acute, very variable in length and width, upto 23cm. by 4 mm; sheaths shorter or the lower longer than the internodes, compressed, keeled, often ciliate towards the mouth, otherwise glabrous or almost so; ligules membranous, very short, ciliate. Racemes usually fascicled, straight or curved, tapering to a slender point formed by the terminal spikelet, ultimately more or less fragile. Sessile spikelet linear-oblong to oblong, from a short obtriangular more or less conspicuous glabrous callus, 4-5'5 mm. long, glabrous. Lower glume coriaceous, opaque, usually more or less constricted below the obtuse entire or emarginate. 2-keeled and very narrowly winged tips, smooth, intracarinal nerves about 7; upper broadly oblong-lanceolate, acute, mem- branous except at the hardened tip, 3-nerved. Lower floret: Valve oblong, subobtuse, distinctly shorter than the glumes, 2-nerved. Upper floret: Valve slightly shorter, ovate-oblong, obtuse, nerveless. Anthers 1°5-2°3mm. long. Stigmas about 1‘5mm. long, laterally exserted. Grain oblong, dorsally com- pressed, about 1°5 mm. long, reddish ; scutellum exceeding half the length of the grain ; hilum punctiform, subhasal. Pedicelled spikelet similar in sex and shape to the sessile, but slightly longer, with the lower glume more acuminate and acute, and the upper sharply mucronate, the mucro somewhat exceeding the lower glume. Distribution: British E. Africa, Mozambique District, throughout Africa in the Mediterranean region (Stapf), India, America, probably introduced, 14. Manrsuris, Linn. f. Species 1.—Throughout the tropics. 1. Manisuris granularis, Sw. Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. (1788), 25; Beauv. Agrost. t. xxi, Fig. 10; Roxb. Pl. Corom. 11, 11, t: 118; Mart. and Eichl) Fl. Bras.iu,; 2, t. 46; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 314; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 18, Fodd. Grass, N. India. 29, t. 46; Hook. f. FBI: vii, 159+ Cke: ti, 955.; Stapf EL: Trop. Afr. ix, 57.— WM. polystachya, Beauv. Fl. Owar. et. Ben. t. 14.—Cenchrus granularis Linu. Mant. ii, App. 575.—Hackelochlor granularis, O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. Pl. ii, 776.—Rytilix granularis, Skeels in U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. PI. Industr. Bull. 2&2 (1913), 20. Locality « Gujarat: Charodi (Gammie 16534!).—Konkan : Wada ‘Taluka (Ryan 600 !) ; Mulgaum in Salsette, open grass land (McCann 3642 !).—Deccan : Poona (Wocdrow! Cooke); Deolali (Blatter and Hallberg 4552!) ; Igatpuri cMcCann 4573!) ; Railway line, Kirkee to Poona (Garade 8231!) ; Chattar- (hinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel!) ; Khandala (Woodrow), behind Hotel aT REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 29 (McCann 9410 !), behind Duke’s Nose (McCann 9393 !).—S. 7. Country - Dhar- war (Sedgwick and Bell 4146!, Woodrow), 2,400 ft., rain 34 in.; Kuput Hil], Dharwar District (Talbot 2323!).—Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 1733!, 2385 !). 15. PELTOPHORUS, Desv. (Stapf Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 59) Annual or perennial short grasses with slender, much-branched, rarely simple stems. Leaves linear, narrow, conduplicate in bud, then flat; ligules short, membranous. Racemes much compressed, rather slender, straight or curved, very conspicuously dorsiventral. Spikelets pseudo-opposite owing to the fusion of joints and pedicels, each pair made up of a sessile (secondary) spikelet and the pedicelled companion of the sessile spikelet of the next lower node. Spikelets 2-nate on the rhachis of spike-like, spathe-supported racemes which terminate the stems and their branches, different in sex and shape. Joints and pedicels fused into somewhat stout internodes, convex on the back, hollowed out on the inner face for the reception of the sessile spikelet ; disarti- culation ata right angle to the rhachis, tips of internodes truncate with two concavities corresponding to the next upper sessile and the adjacent pedicelled spikelet. Sessile spikelet dorsally much compressed. Florets 2, lower male or neuter and then with or without a valvule, upper bisexual, awnless. Gluines equal or the upper shorter; lower coriaceous, transversely rugose or muricate, conspicuously winged from the keels, upper membranous, immersed in the cavity formed by the joint and pedicel, usually 3-nerved, keeled, often in- distincly. Valves hyaline, nerveless or 2-3-nerved. Valvule, if present, hyaline, nerveless or 2-nerved. Lodicules 2, cuneate. Stamens 3. Stigmas linear, laterally exserted low down. Grain oblong; embryo equalling the grain. Pedicelled spikelet male or neuter. Lower glume coriaceous, smooth, asymmetrically or unilaterally winged, upper variously winged from the keel. Florets as in the sessile spikelet but male or barren. Species 5.—India (4) and Tropical Africa (1). I. Lower involucral glume 2—-aristate hoe, dG. 0. Ab0er ZENS. II. Lower involucral glume with a simple awn or acuminate. 1. Lower involucral glume broadly ovate, acuminate (not awned) as abs 2. Lower involucral glume lanceolate with a slender scabrid awn ie Sa 2s ts LQLOOr?. bo P. acuminatus. 1. Peltophorus divergens, comb. nov. Blatter and McCann. Rottbellia divergens, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 293 ; Lisboa in Jour. Bom. Nats Euist. ooc,, vi (1891), 195; Hook: f.. in F. B..1., vit, los > Cke:. 11,953, Description ; Cke. 1. c. Locality : Konkan ; Trombay (McCann A71!).—Deccan: Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft., rain 270 inches (Sedgwick «and Bell 4560!, Lisboa); Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1252!, B1259!, B1263 !, B1286!), behind the Tableland on rocks (Blatter 3805!) ; Satara (Lisboa); Lonavla (Bhide !) ; Khandala (Woodrow), Saddle, very common all over (McCann 9616!).—S. W7. Country : Amboli Ghat (Talbot 4305!) ; Belgaum (Ritchie 808, 827).—Kanura ; Castle Rock, 1,800 ft., rain 300 inches (Sedgwick and Bell 4295!), Karwar (Talbot 3171 !),—Usually growing on rocks in tufts. Note. The spikes are very brittle when dry and always fall off. Distribution : W. Peninsula. 2. Peltophorus acuminatus, comb. nov. Blatter and McCann. Rottbellia acuminata, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 291; Hook. f. F B. I. vii, Home ke. 1, 953: Description ; Cke, 1. c.—We have examined Talbot’s specimen No. 1291 and found that the lower involucral glume is much longer than 8 mm. (1/3 in.) going up to 10 and 12 mm. Locality : Konkan : Marmagoa (Talbot 2572!, 1291) ; Vasco da Gama (Herb. St. X. C. 9483!) ; Malwan (Woodrow).—Kanara: Karwar (Talbot 3171!, 2539, Hallberg and McCann A75!, Lisboa); Katgal (Hallberg and McCann 9934 !) ; Castle Rock (Bhide !). Distribution : W. Peninsula. Hooker f., but not Cooke, mentions also the Deccan Peninsula collected in by G. Thomson. 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII 3. Peltophorus Talboti, comb. nov. Blatter and McCann.—Rottbellia Talboti, Hook: f.:in®, Bo 1. vii, So Cke. aig G54. Description: Cke. 1. c. Locality : Konkan : Vasco da Gama (Bhide!) ; Marmagoa (Talbot 2572 !). Distribution : So far only been found in Goa. 1é. LAsrIuRuS, Boiss. (Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 60) Perennial, more or less branched and woody below ; : branches often in dense fascicles, intravaginal. Leaves linear, convolute or flat, hard; ligule a fringe of hairs. Racemes si!ky-villous. Spikelets usually 3-nate, rarely 2-nate, on the more or less fragile rhachis of villous spike-like racemes which end the stems and branches (if any) and are supported by or exserted from often spathaceous sheaths, if 3-nate 2 sessile, the sessile different in sex from, but similar in shape to, the pedicelled ; rhachis nodes bearded all round ; joints and pedicels linear, the latter more slender and shorter, opposite the joints if 2 sessile spikelets be present, otherwise approximate, but not contiguous and parallel to one of the sides of the joint ; disarticulation at a right angle to the rhachis, scar at the tips of the joints suborbicular, smooth, often ciliate. Sessile spikelets, if 2, one on each side of the pedicel with a narrow ring-shaped callus. Florets 2, lower male, upper bisexual, awnless. Glumes unequal; lower longer, subcoriaceous, flat on the back, acuminate, 2-keeled upwards and 2-dentate, densely ciliate, upper boat-shaped, membranous, keeled. Valves hyaline, 3-nerved. Valvules hyaline, 2-nerved. Lodicules 2, cuneate. Stamens 3. Stigmas linear, laterally exserted. Grain oblong, slightly dorsally com- pressed, embryo half its length. Pedicelled spikelet similar to the sessile, but with an indistinct glabrous callus and with both florets male or more or less reduced. 1. Lasiurus hirsutus, Boiss. Diagn. ser. II, iv, 146; Stapf Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 60.—Saccharum hirsutum, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. 16.—Rottbellia hirsuta, Vahl Symb. i, 11; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 311.—J/schemum mastrucutum, Trin. in Mém. Acad. Petersb. 6me. sér. ii, 298.--/schemum hirsutum, Nees in Schimp. Pl. Arab. Fel. No. 791.—Celorrhachis hirsuta, Brongn. apud Dene. in Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 2, ii, 13.—#lionurus hirsutus, Munro apuwd Benth. in Journ. Linn. Soc. xixv, 68; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 466 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 162 ; Cke. ii, 973. Description : Gke: acc: Locality : Sind: Karachi ( Bhide ae Sehwan to Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis B613!) ; Umarkot, sandy plains (Sabnis B940!). Distribution: N ubia, Egypt, Brit. Somaliland, Arabia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Punjab, Sind, Rajputana. 17. ELyonuRUS, Humb. and Bonpl. (Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 62) Usually perennial, czespitose, aromatic grasses. Blades of leaves flat or folded; ligules very short, membranous. Racemes erect, joints strongly compressed, usually villous, tips oblique, not appendaged. Spikelets similar, usually awnless, differing in sex, 2-nate, one sessile, the other pedicelled, on the articulate fragile rhachis of solitary spike-like racemes, the sessile deciduous with the adjacent joint of the rhachis and the pedicel. Florets 2: Lower reduced to an empty valve, upper bisexual in thesessile male, rarely barren, in the pedicelled spikelet. Glumes equa!: Lower subcoriaceous to herbaceous, often 9-toothed or 2-fid, rarely awned, dorsally flattened, 2-keeled, usually with fine filiformed transparent balsam ducts close to the ciliate or penicillate keels ; upper membranous, lanceolate, acute, rarely awned. Valves hyaline, awnless. Valvule obsolete or absent. Lodicules 2, cuneate. Stamens 3. Stigmas laterally exserted. Grain oblong, dorsally compressed ; embryo about half the length of the grain. Species about 15.—Tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. 1. Elyonurus Royleanus, Nees ex. A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 471; Hack Monogr. Androp. 343; Hook. f. in F.B.1. vii, 161; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 17, and: Fodd. Grass. N. India 28, t. 54; Cke?) 11/4972: Stapf in. FI Trop: Afr. ix, 65.—&. Griesebachii, Schmidt, Beitr. z. Fl. Capverd. 154.—/atze- bdurgia Schimperi, Steud. Nomencl. ed. ii, 439.—Aottbellia elegantissima, SSE REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 31 Hochst. ex. Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum.i, 365.—Andropogon elegantissimus, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 365—Andropogon Griesebachiz, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 365. Description : Cke. lc. Locality : Sind; (Woodrow).—Gujarat: Bhodir Maka, Cutch (Blatter 3747!) ; Bhuj, Cutch (Blatter 3795!) ; Rajkot, Kathiawar (Wocdrow). Distribution : Upper Gangetic Plain, Rajputana, W. Peninsula, Arabia, Somaliland, Eritrea, Abyssinia, Sudan, Nubia, Cape de Verd Islands. 18.. ROTTBOELLIA, .Linn..f, (Stapf. in Fl. Trop: Afr. ix, 72) Annual, usually coarse grasses, often with stilt-roots from the lowest nodes, more or less branched, particularly upwards. Leaves large, linear-lanceolate, rather wide; ligule membranous, short. Racemes dorsiventral, with the spike- lets placed anticously and laterally. Spikelets 2-nate on the nodes of the very fragile rhachis of stout cylindric perfectly glabrous spike-like racemes which end the stems and their branches, in the latter case spathe-supported, different in sex and usually in size, colour and nervation except those of the uppermost pairs which are barren, homomorphous and upwards increasingly reduced forming a tail-like appendage to the raceme. Joints dorsally flattened below, widely cup-shaped and hollowed out upwards, more or jess completely fused with the pedicels along their posticuous angles. Sessile spikelets pale, triangular in transverse section ; the narrow callus fused with the bases of the adjacent joint and pedicel into a glabrous ring from the centre of which protrudes a knob fitting into the cup-shaped hollow of the next lower joint, the whole plexus falling together. Florets 2, lower male, upper bisexual, awnless Glumes equal: Lower coriaceous, flat on the back, with very narrow inflexed margins, 2-keeled upwards; upper boat-shaped, keeled upwards, acute. Valves hyaline, 3-nerved. Valvules as long or almost as long as the valves, hyaline, 2-nerved. Lodicules, 2, cuneate. Stamens 3. Stigmas suberect or shortly laterally exserted above the middle of the spikelet. Grain broad-oblong or ellipsoid, dorsally compressed ; hilum large, suprabasal; embryo almost as long as the grain. Pedicelled spikelet similar to the sessile, but more compressed, green, striate, with two male florets, or smaller and more or less reduced. Species 2 or 3.—Tropics of the Old World. 1. Rottboellia exaltata, Linn. f. Suppl. 114; Roxb. Pl. Corom. t. 157; Fl. Ind. i, 354; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 17; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 293; Hook. f. in F.B I. vii, 156; Cke. ii, 955.— 2. exaltata, var. genuina, Schweinf. in Héhnel Disc. Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, ii, App. 352.—R. exaltata, £. arundinacea, Hack. in Bot. Soc. Brot. v, 215.—R. arundinacea, Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 444.--Stegosia cochinchinensis, Lour. Fl. Cochinch. 51.—Stegosia exaltata, Nash in Amer. FI. xvii, i, 84. Description ; Cke. l.c. Locality; Konkan: Dohe forest, Thana Dist. (Ryan 711!).—Deccan : Agricultural College Farm (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Poona (Bhide!, Cooke, Woodrow 2!) ; Purandhar 4,000 ft. (McCann 5591 !).—S. .W. Country : Dharwar, in field (Sedgwick 5469!) —Kanara; Hattikeri, near Karwar (Hallberg and McCann A74!). Distribution : India, Andamans, Ceylon, China, Malaya, Australia, Africa. var. robusta, Hook. f. in F.B.1. vii, 156. Description ; Leaf-base more cordately confluent with the sheath. Spikes stouter below, slender above the middle. Spikelets in upper half distichously imbricate, longer than the joints, fertile nearly to the tip. Pales of upper floral glume auricled at the base. Locality : Poona (Woodrow).—We have not seen this plant. Distribution : Malabar, Palamcotta. 19. OPHIURUS, Gertn. partim; R. Br. (Stapf Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 74) Annual (?) or perennial, sometimes very coarse grasses, usually much branch- ed upwards. Leaves linear to lanceolate, short to very long, conduplicate or con- volute in bud, then flat ; ligules very short, membranous. Racemes dorsiventral. Spikelets solitary on the nodes of the fragile rhachis of slender cylindric spikes which end the stems and their usually fascicled spathe-supported branches, their pedicelled companions suppressed or rudimentary and very minute and the pedicels completely fused with the joints, both forming together a deeply 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII hollowed-out cylindric receptacle ; disarticulation of the internodes at a right angle or slightly oblique to the rhachis, their tips hollowed out. Sessile spike- let with a very narrow callus which is fused with the base of the internode into a rim from the centre of which protrudes a small knob fitting into the hollow of the next lower internode, the whole plexus falling together. Florets 2, lower male or neuter, upper bisexual, awnless. Glumes equal: Lower coria- ceous, flat or subconvex on the back with very narrow inflexed margins, faintly nerved with a transverse groove at the base, upper boat-shaped, hyaline, obtuse. Valves hyaline, 2-nerved or nerveless. WValvules similar to the valves. Lodicules 2, cuneate. Stamens 3, Stigmas short, laterally exserted. Grain oblong, dorsally slightly compressed ; embryo 1/4 the length of the grain. Species about 4.—From the Sudan through tropical Asia to Australia. Stapf has described the species Ophiurus megaphyllus which forms part of O. corymbosus, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 160 (not of Gzrtn. f. and not of Rottbellia corymbosa, Linn. f.). What is Jeft over of Hook. f’s O. corymbosa after the separation of O. megaphyllus has to go under O. corymbosa, Geertn. I. Leaves ensiform, very hairy. Robust, 1‘5-1‘'8m. 1. O. megaphyllus. II. Leaves linear, glabrous. Slender, 0°6-1'2m. ... 2. O. corymbosus. 1. O. megaphyllus, Stapf in Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa pt. V (1924), 1058.—-Ophiurus corymbosus, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 160, dartim (non Geertn. f.); Cke. ii, 951, artim ; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 317 (partim). Description: A large stout grass, 1°5-1‘8m. high, very leafy to the top. Leaves narrowly ensiform, tapering from base to apex, upper 10-18 mm. wide, lower much wider, flat, very hairy as are the sheaths, but more or less glabres- cent with age, hairs with small tubercle bases, margins of sheath hirsute. Spikelets 2-4 mm., slightly shorter or longer than the joints, in very numercus peduncled spikes 7°5-10 cm. long, from the leaf-axils. Peduncles 7°5-12'5cm., sheathed at the base, finally far exserted, each solitary on a branch with a vill- ous node, often geniculate at the node. Sessile spikelets: Glumes 4: Lower involucral glume oblong, glabrous, with rounded tip, smooth or with few lines of small pits, not becoming recurved, sometimes bearing a small appendage. Upper involucral glume white, becoming inclined forward, quite free from the rhachis when the spikelet opens. Pedicelled spikelets: the lowest are some- times free at the top and bear a small brown free appendage. Locality : We have not been able to examine all the specimens which were formerly put under O. corymbosus, Hook.f. and we are, therefore, not in a position, to assign any specimen to O. megaphyllus, Stapf. Distribution : To make a definite statement all the herbarium material of O. corymbosa, Hook. f. would have to be examined. 2. ©. corymbosus, Geertn. f. Fruct. iii, 4, t. 181 f. 3 a. (Ophzuros) ;. Haines Fl. Bihar and Orissa, pt. V (1924), 1058 ; Aottballia corymbosa, Linn. f. Suppl. 114.—O.. corymbosa, Hook. f in. F. B. J. vii, 160, parvtim ; Cke. ii, 951, partim. Description: Perennial. Stems very numerous, glabrous, erect, slender, 0:6-1:'2 m. high, bulbous at the base, the bulbous bases connected into a horizontal rhizome. Leaves linear, glabrous, up to 5 mm. broad, margins minutely tubercled at base, the tubercles bearing cilia when young. Spikes very slender, 5-12°5 cm. long, sometimes ending ina small tail like that of a rattle-snake (Haines), spikelets 2°>5 mm. long, equalling the joint. Lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet glabrous, with many longitudinal lines of small pits, narrowly oblong, tip rounded, finally recurved. Locality: Deccan: Deolali (Blatter and Hallberg 4564!) ; Nasik Road (Blatter 9624!) ; Talezgaum (McCann !)._ aor 3 20. CC@LORRHACHIS, Brown. (Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 78) Mostly tall, coarse, perennial grasses, much-branched upwards. Racemes with - the sessile spikelets which are often imbricate, placed anticously and pedicelled laterally. Spikelets 2-nate on the nodes of the fragile rhachis of slender, more or less compressed conspicuously dorsiventral spike-like racemes _ whiecn end the stems and their usually fascicled, spathe- supported branches, different or very rarely alike in sex, similar in shape or the pedicelled more or less or very much reduced ; joints and pedicels similar or the latter more slender, REVISION OF THE FLORA OF BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. 33 linéar to cuneate or subclavate, dorsally compressed, glabrous, contiguous or nearly so; disarticulation of the joints at a right angle to the rhachis, their tips more or less hollowed out, with or without an ear-shaped appendage. Sessile spikelet dorsally compressed, the narrow transverse callus fused with the base of the adjacent joint and pea‘.e]l into an obscure rim from the centre of which protrudes a knob fitting into the hollow of the next lower joint, the whole plexus falling together. Florets 2, the lower usually reduced to the valve with a small valvule, always neuter upper bisexual, awnless. Glumes subequal; lower flat or slightly convex on the back, smooth or variously sculptured, with narrow inflexed margins, 2-keeled upwards and more or less winged from the keels, obtuse or emarginate, very faintly nerved ; upper chartaceous, keeled, acute, 1-3 nerved. Valves hyaline, of lower floret 2-nerved or nerveless, of upper 3-1-nerved or nerveless. Valvule hyaline, similar to the valve, 2-nerved or nerveless Lodicules 2. cuneate. Stamens 3. Stigmas shortly laterally exserted. Grain oblong, dorsally compressed ; embryo about half the length of the grain. Pedicelied spikelet very varied, similar to the sessile or more or less reduced or rudimentary, male or neuter, very rarely bisexual. Species about 12. Tropics cf both hemispheres. 1, Celorrhachis Clarkei comb. nov. Blatter and McCann. Aotitbellia Clarket, Hack. in Oestr. Bot. Zeitschr. 41 (1891), 8; Cke. ii, 954. ARottbellia gibbosa, Hack. ex Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vi. (1891), 195. Locality : Kanara: Bircny (Talbot 2820!, 2072) ; Jugglepet (Talbot 1566 !) Distribution ; Chota Nagpur, W. Peninsula. ( Zo be continued) THE MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS AND SPORTSMEN BY Satim A. ALI PART if (With tour plates) (Continued trom page 861 of Vol. XXXT) THE WILD Ass (£auus onager indicus) According to Abul Faz]! the Wild Ass was hunted in the Sarkar of Tattah (Sind). He gives an account of a hunt by the Emperor Akbar (civca April, A.v. 1571) which took place at Harhari near the River Sutlej (in the Punjab) as follows : ‘‘ Thescouts having reported that there was a herd of wild asses (Gorkhar), the sovereign proceed- ed to hunt them attended by three or four special huntsmen. When he came near the plain, he dismounted and proceeded on foot. At the first shot he hit an ass and the rest of the herd fled far away at the report of the gun. That Divine World Hero took his piece in his hand and proceeded rapidly on foot over the burning sand attended by the same three or four huntsmen. He soon traversed the plain and came up with the herd and killed one after the other with his gun; he continued to follow them up and on that day he shot thirteen wild asses. Whenever he killed one the others went farther off than at first (before).” The chronicler tells us that Akbar followed this herd till thirst brought about such exhaustion that he lost the power of speech. One of the items appearing on the list of game shot by Jehangir in the course of a gamargah hunt at Girjhak (in the neighbourhood of Kalpi?) is ‘“‘ ten Wild Asses’’.* By the Emperor’s orders the largest and strongest of these was weighed and found to be 9 maunds 16 seers equal to 76 Persian (Vz/aye/z) maunds (equivalent to 3244 lbs.). Regarding the qualities of its flesh as a table delicacy Jehangir observes: ‘ Though the flesh of the wild ass is lawful food (halal) and most men like to eat it, it was in no way suited to my taste.’ THE YAK (Sos grunntens) Abul Fazl mentions? that this animal was found in the northern mountainous parts of the Subah of Kumaon. Further on he describes the animal as follows: ‘The Yak approximates to the domestic cow, but of its tail is made the ‘ kutas’ or fringed tassel and many they join together.”’ 2 Ain, vol. ii, p. 338. 2 Jel: vol. 1,4. 103" 5 Ain, vol. ii, p. 280. MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 35 Jehangir records! that one day two Yaks out of the offerings of the Zamindar of Tibet were brought before him and regarding these he observes: ‘All the limbs are covered with wool which properly belongs to animals in a cold country. For instance the Rang goat ([bex) which they brought from the country of Bakkar (Sind) and the hill country of the Garmsir (Afghanistan) were very handsome but had little wool, and those that were met with in these hills (Tibet), on account of the excessive cold and snow are covered with hair and ugly. In form and appearance they (the Yaks) closely resemble the buffalo.” Jehangir is here doubtless, differentiating between the close- haired Ibex of the Sind Hills and its congener the Himalayan Ibex of the high altitudes of the Central Asian region. According to Blanford the Yak in the wild state is only found within Indian limits in Northern Ladak in the neighbourhood of Chang Chenmo. Hodgson described it as occurring in the northern region of Nepal in the immediate vicinity of the snows. It is possible that the Subah or province of Kumaon in Akbar’s day extended into Tibet which was a dependancy of the Moghul Empire. THE WILD BUFEFALO (Bos bubalus) Babur describes * the animal thus: ‘‘ It is much larger than the common buffalo. Its horns go back like those of the common buffalo, but not so as to grow into the flesh. It is a very ferocious and destructive animal.’’ Babur’s view is upheld by Blanford and by most sportsmen of the present day that the wild buffalo is by far the most savage and the boldest of Indian Bovide. The habitat of this beast at present is mainly Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Orissa and certain portions of Central India where it is locally distributed. In Akbar’s time, according to his historian* wild buffaloes were numerous in Oudh. ‘‘ When the plains are inundated,’’ he informs us, ‘‘the animals take to high ground where people find sport in hunting them. Some of the animals remain all day inthe water and only at night approach the dry ground and breathe in freedom.”’ According to the same author * various methods were employed in hunting the wild buffalo, the commonest being to decoy a bull by means of a tame cow on heat and to entangle him with nooses slipped round his legs by hunters lying in ambush. MountvAIN SHEEP (Oorial or Burhel ?) Jehangir records * that in the course of two Qamargah hunts, one at Girjhak and the other at Nadina (somewhere in the neigh- bourhood of Kalpi?) one hundred and eighty mountain sheep were killed. The Emperor ordered a large ram to be weighed and it came to 2 maunds 3 seers (Akbari) equal to 70 Persian (Vilayeti) maunds which would be equivalent to 714 Ibs. It will be noted that the Moghul Emperors invariably appraised their game by weight, ibid. vol. ii, po 151. 2 Babwr, volaii,p. 211, ? Ain, vol..ii, p, 125. 4Ain, vol. i, p. 293: 5 Jéeh., vol. i, p. 83. 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAUTRAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1/ only in a very few instances is any attention paid to the length of horn and other dimensions so dear to the heart of the modern sportsman. | Continuing on the subject, Jehangir observes: ‘I have fre- quently heard from hunters and those fond of the chase that at a certain regular time a worm develops in the horn of the mountain ram, and this causes an irritation which induces the ram to fight with its hind, and that if he finds no rival he strikes his head against a tree or rock to allay the irritation. After inquiry it seems that the same worm appears in the horn of the female sheep, and since the female does not fight, the statement is clearly untrue.”’ The reference no doubt is to the larva of the parasitic fly @strus ovis L. which occurs in sheep causing the well-known giddiness. THE ‘ RANG’ OR IBEX (Capra sp.) Jehangir+ thus describes an ibex shot and brought to him: “ It is like a mountain goat and there is a difference only in its horns. The horns of the ‘Rang’ are bent (backwards) and those of the goat (obviously meaning Markhor) are straight and convoluted.” In regard to 24 ibex which were captured alive in the course of a Qamargah hunt near Kabul, the Emperor observes? : ‘“ I had never till now seen a Xazg antelope alive. It is in truth a wonderful animal of beautiful shape. Although the Black-buck of Hindustan looks very finely made, the shape and fashion and appearance of this antelope is quite a different thing. They weighed a Rang and it came to 2 maunds 10 seers (Akbari) (equal to 774 ibs.). The Rang although of this ‘size ‘(1-e., heavy) ran -so that’. 10ior12 swift dogs were worn out and siezed it with a hundred thousand difficulties.”’ Jehangir describes his experiment of crossing the ibex witha Barbary goat in the following terms. The translation speaks of the former animal as ‘‘ Markhor ’’ but from the sketches of the goats, both parents and hybrids, made at the time (A.D. 1619) under the Emperor’s orders it is apparent that the ibex and not the markhor was the species experimented with. Says Jehangir,* ‘‘ At Ahmeda- bad I had two markhor(?) goats. As I had not a female in my establishment to pair with them, it occurred to me that if I could pair them with Barbary goats which they bring from Arabia, especially trom the port of the city of Darkhar* young of their form and qualities might be obtained. In short | paired them with seven Barbary ewes (she-goats) and after six months had elapsed each of the latter had a young one at Fatehpur. There were four females and three males very pleasing in appearance, of good shape and good colour. In their colour, those kids which resembled the male were dun coloured with black stripes on their backs. ... Of their liveliness and laughable ways and their manner of gamboling and leaping what can be written? Some of their ways are such that the mind derived uncontrolled pleasure from looking at them. When one month or even 20 days old, they would leap 2 Jeh., vol.i, p. 109. ?J6id.,p. 121. — % Lbid., vol. ii, p. 8& * The ancient Dhafar on the south coast of Arabia, known as Mirbat. ‘UMROAG MI4AT — “SNY SOT ay, Aapun GULUIDY UDIPUT , SABYSIIQNGY 3Y) fo AsapAénors AG ‘sllvg ‘9}j0MI9q "J JO UOT}DaTIOD { BTOT ‘av pejuled ) (,X8a1, AHS) SdIMH#AH LVOD-XHaI AO SHHDLANS wg a 5 = (‘Avquog ‘wmnasnyy savy — : ae a Sg , ee : JO IDUIAT IY] Ut SUIJUIDE JNYSO]{T V M01,7) 3 oh we ‘IVOTIN : ‘90C ‘ISILy ‘1eAr Avawiod Cumor % ; CGE AE ‘UMOAT AIAIT— that while in Kashmir, the Zamindar of Tibet brought him a Musk Deer as offering. About this he writes: ‘‘ As I had not tasted its flesh, I ordered it to be cooked ; it appeared very tasteless and bad for food. The flesh of no other animal is so inferior. The musk bag when fresh has no scent, but when it is left for some days and becomes dry it is sweet scented. The female has no musk bag.’’ ICM VOI. pe 1120; 2 Ain; Vou. i. p. 338. 2 AU NOly Wi, * Ain, vol, ii, p. 280. “JEM NOla ly, Dy Lol, 6 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXi1 It is interesting to compare Jehangir’s verdict on the flesh of this species as an article of food with Blanford’s, who considers it as excellent and free from any musk flavour. THE INDIAN WILD BOAR (Sus cristatus) According to Abul Fazl! the Wild Boar was much hunted in the Sarkar of Tattah (Sind) where it is still plentiful and a serious pest to cultivation. Jehangir mentions ? that two pigs formed part of his bag in a Qamargah hunt which took place at Rawalpindi. Sir Thomas Roe, the English Ambassador from James I to the court of Jehangir, writes in his journal ? that on one occasion the king returning from a hunt ‘sent me a wild boar so large that he desired the tusks might be sent him back for their extra- ordinary size, sending word he had killed it with his own hand and bidding me eat it merrily.’’ Some time later, he again notes: ‘‘ The king returning from hunting sent me a wild boar.”’ THE GANGETIC DOLPHIN (Platantsta gangetica) The animal referred to by Babur as Ahik-e-abz is doubtless this species. From the fact that he describes it along with his crocodiles and fishes, it may be doubted if the Emperor realized its true position. Of course, by analogy of habitat alone it has at least as much right to be classed with the fishes as Babur’s Flying Fox had to be with his birds. The cetacean is thus described : ‘‘ It is found in all the rivers of Hindustan. Itsprings up from the water with a jerk, puts up its head and plunges it down again, leaving no part of its body visible except the tail. The jaw of this animal too is like that of the crocodile. It is long and has the same kind of ranges of teeth; in other respects its head and body are like that of a fish. While playing in the water it resembles a water bag (mushak). The khik-e-abi (water hogs) that are in the River Saru (the Sirju or Gogra) while sporting leap right out of the water. This animal too resembles the fish in never leaving the water.” BIRDS THE Crow (Corvus splendens ssp. ?) In dealing with the birds of his new dominions, Babur describes * what he calls the ‘‘ d/a-khurgeh of Hindustan’’ as follows: ‘‘ It is slenderer and smaller than the Ala-khurgeh of my native country and it has some white (? whitish) on the neck.’’ Babur undoubtedly refers to the Hooded Crow (Corvus capellanus) in speaking of the crow of his country. In a footnote, Sir Lucas King suggests that the bird referred to may be the Carrion Crow (Corvus cornix sharpi) but as this is by : Ain, vol. il, p. 338. 2 Jeh Wola, peo: ’ Pinkerton’s Travels, vol viii, * Babur, vol. ii, p. 221, MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 43 no means a common species (being a somewhat rare visitor to the extreme north-west of India only) and besides has no grey or white about the neck which is glossy black, I am _ inclined to believe it highiy probable that Babur’s bird is no other than our vulgar friend the House Crow—possibly C. s. zugmeyerz the Sind Crow, which has a particularly pale, almost whitish neck. THE TREE Pir (Dendrocitta ruta ssp. ?) ‘¢ Another is the Aakeh of Hindustan; they call it mzfa. It is a little smaller than the common aakeh (magpie) which is particoloured black and white, while the #zfa is particoloured brown and black.”’ ! THE GREEN MAGPIE (Cissa chinensis chinensts) Babur’s description of what may possibly be this bird is very vague. He compares it in appearance to the Skhigraqg which according to King, is the Arabic name for the Green Magpie, and says, ‘It lives close among and about trees, and may be about the size of a shtkrak. It is green-coloured like the parrot.’’ Abul Fazl’s reference to it is somewhat more definite. Among the birds found in the Sarkar of Sylhet (Assam) he mentions one as the Sherganj and says, ‘‘It is of the same kind (as the Racket-tailed Drongo) but its beak and legs are red; in imitating sounds it matches the other, and pursues sparrows and the like and eats them.’’ Among the vernacular names of this bird in the -.2./. Azrds, vol. i, Ist and 2nd editions, both Oates and Stuart Baker give Sivganj as the Bengali. The latter states that its food consists of insects, small unfledged birds, etc. THE RACKET-TAILED DRONGO (Dissemurus paradiseus ssp. °) Abul Fazl? describes this bird from the Sarkar of Sylhet (Assam) thus: ‘‘ The Bhangra is a bird of biack colour with red eyes and a long tail. Two of the feathers extend to the length ofa gaz. They are snared and tamed. It catches the note of any animal that it hears and eats its flesh.’’ THE SCARLET MINIVET (Pertcrocotus speciosus ) Another bird which Babur compares in size to the Sazdulaj- mamula, (which according to King is the Arabic for Wagtail) is probably this bird. The Emperor says ‘‘ It is of a beautiful red, and on its wings has a little black.’’ THE DIPPER Jehangir writes in Kashmir as follows: ‘‘I rode to see Sukh Nag." It is a beautiful summer residence (//ag). The waterfall is in the midst of a valiey and flows down from a lofty place. -UBOUOUs NOL, 11, Dy 2226 Sage VOlnis, 2a. 3 Perhaps this is the Shakar Nag of Jarrett (Az, vol. ii, p. 361). The Sukh Nag River is mentioned by Laurence, 16. It may also be the waterfall mentione by Bernier who says Jehangit visited the place and had a rock levelled in order to see properly. 44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII There was: still ice on its sides.... In this stream I saw a bird like. a Sa7...The Sa7 is ‘of a’ black colour with white spots, while this bird is of the same colour as a bulbul (brown) with white spots, and it dives and remains for a long time underneath and then comes up from a different place. I ordered them to catch and bring two or three of these birds that I might ascertain whether they are waterfowl! and were web-footed, or had open feet like land birds. They caught two and brought them. One died immediately and the other lived fora day. Its feet were not webbed like a duck’s. I ordered Nadir-ul-asr Ustad Mansur (the celebrated animal painter) to draw its likeness. The Kashmiris call it Galkar that is ‘ Water Sa7’.”’ This bird is either the Kashmir Dipper (C7zzclus c. cashmertensts) or the Indian Brown Dipper (Czzclus pallasi tenutrostris). The Sa7 to which it is compared may be the Spotted Forktail. Unfortunately I have no access to a reproduction of Ai Mansur’s painting referred to. This would doubtless have set the matter at rest. STARLINGS, MYNAHS, ETC. Babur mentions! the Skdérak whichhe says ‘‘ abounds in the Lamghanat and everywhere lower down over the whole of Hindustan. The Sha@rak is of different (various) species. One is that which is found in great numbers in the Lamghanat. Its head is black, its wings white, its size is rather larger than the Chughur and slenderer. It learns to speak.’’ In a footnote to this, King says: ‘‘ The Persian has /a@/ which is the Bokhara lark—Jelanocorypha torquata—-a common cage bird in India. Chughur is a large species of lark: ‘The bird referred/to here must be some sort of stariing, possibly Sturnus humzz.’’? I can hardly imagine that King is correct in his conjecture. I have never heard of Sturnus humii sporting white wings! Mrs. A. S. Beveridge, in her translation of the Wemoirs, remarks ‘‘ Chughur-chug in E. D. Ross’s Polyglot List of Birds (p. 314) is the Northern Swallow. The description allows it to be Sturnus humti—the Himalayan Starling.” (? ?) Babur proceeds: ‘‘ There is another sort which they call Pzzda- wel1. They bring’ it from Bengal. It.is:all black. It is much larger than the other Sharak. In its two ears are yellow leathers which hang down and look vety ugly. They call it the Wyuna. It learns. to speak well and fluently.’’ This bird is obviously the Hill Mynah (4ulabes intermedia), a favourite cage bird, talker and mimic. “There is another kind of Sarak a little sienderer than this last (the Persian adds, they call it Wan Shadrak). It has red round the eye. This kind does not talk.” King suggests in a footnote that this is possibly Calornis chalybeius—the Glossy Starling or Tree Stare. It is possible that his surmise may be correct though this species has no red round the eye, unless the irides are meant. To my mind the description suggests Acridotheres ginginianus, the Bank Myna. 1 Babur, vol. ii, p. 216 MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 45 THE Baya (Ploceus baya) Abul Fazl says, ‘‘ The Baya is like a wild sparrow but yeilow. It is extremely intelligent and docile ; it will take small coins from the hand and bring them to its master, and will come to call from a long distance. Its nests are so ingeniously constructed as to defy the rivalry of clever artificers.”’ THE SPARROW Abul Faz] remarks upon the scarcity of these birds in the Province of Kashmir, and ascribes it to the general use in that country of pellet bows fitted with bow strings. Some doubt may be pertinently expressed as to the bird referred to in this note. One of Akbar’s diversions was to catch sparrows by the agency of frogs trained for the purpose. THE WAGTAIL One of the things Jehangir records from the fortress of Mandu (in the present Dhar State) which he had never seen before in Hindustan was ‘‘ the nest of a Wagtail (//a@mzila) which they call in Persian Dim-sicha (‘Tail wagger’). Up till now, none of the hunters had pointed out its nest. By chance in the building I occupied there was its nest, and it brought out two young ones.”’ This wagiail would obviously be Motactlla lugubris maderas- pbatensts-—the Large Pied Wagtail, which is the only resident species that breeds in India south of the Himalayas. This is the species, moreover, that is especially partial to holes in walls atid buildings both empty and occupied for nesting sites. THE Prrp CRESTED CuCcKOoO (Clamator jacobinus } Jehangir says,‘ ‘‘ In Hindustan there is a bird called Papiha of a sweet voice, which in the rainy season utters soul-piercing (7a-siz) lament. As the Koyel lays its eggs in the nest of a crow and the latter brings up its young, so I have seen in Kashmir that the paptha lays its eggs in the nest of the ghaughdz (probably some species of babbler) and the ghaughai brings up its young.” Abul Fazl writes about this cuckoo as follows: ‘‘ It is a smaller bird than the koel with a shorter and slenderer tail. Its love is chanted in story. It is in full song in the beginning of the rainy season and has a peculiar note, and its plaintive strain is heard oftenest at night and makes love’s unhealed wounds bleed anew. It is from its note that the word pzu is taken, which in Hindi signifies ‘ Beloved.’ ”’ THE KOEL (Audynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus ) Babur says about it :—‘‘ Its length may be equal to the crow but is much thinner. I[t has a kind of song and is the nightingale of Hindustan. It is respected by the natives of Hindustan as much as the nightingale by us. It inhabits gardens where the trees are close planted.’’ t Jeh.; Voli, pi. 164. 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1} At a later date, Abul Fazl in his fauna of Hindustan refers to the bird as follows :—‘‘ The Koel is like a myna, jet black with crimson irides and a long tail. The romance sings of its loves as of those of the bulbul.”’ Jehangir’s observations on the bird and its parasitic habits are remarkably thorough. He writes:—‘‘ The koel is a bird of the crow tribe but smaller. The crow’s eyes are black and those of the koel red. The female has white spots but the male is all black. The male has a very pleasant voice quite unlike that of the female. It is in reality the nightingale of India. Just as the nightingale is agitated and noisy in Spring, so is the cry of the koe) at the approach of the rainy season, which is the Spring of Hindustan. Its cry is exceedingly pleasant anda penetrating, and the bird begins its exhilerations (#astz) when the mangoes ripen. It frequently sits on the mango trees and is delighted with the colour and scent of the mango (a fruit of which the emperor himself was inordinately fond !) A strange thing about the koel is that it does not bring up its young from the egg, but finding the nest of the crow unguarded at the time of laying, it breaks the crow’s eggs with its beak and throws them out, and lays its own in the place of them and flies off. The crow thinking the eggs its own, hatches the young and brings them up. I have myself seen this strange affair at Allahabad.”’ THE CROW PHEASANT (Centropus sinensis) Babur describes the bird! as follows :—‘‘ This (bird) bears some resemblance to the Carrion Crow. Inthe Lamghanat they call it the Wood Fowl. Its head and breast are black, its wings and tail red; its eyes a very deep red. From its being weak and flying ill, it never comes out of the woods whence it gets its name of the Wood Fowl.”’ PAROQUETS On the subject of the Paroquets of Hindustan, Babur writes? ‘There are many species of parrot; one is that which they carry into our countries (i.e. Turkestan) and teach to talk (Palgornis nepalensis ?). There is another species of smaller size which is also taught to speak. They call it the ‘Wood Parrot’ (P. torgquatus ?). Great numbers of this species are found in Bajour, Sawad and the neighbouring districts, insomuch that they go in flights of five or six thousand. These two species differ only in bulk—both have the same colours. There is another species of the parrot which is still smaller than the wood parrot. Its head is red as well as its upper feathers ; from the tip of its tail to within two fingers’ breadth of its feet it is white. ‘The head of many of this species is lustrous, and they do not speak. They call it the Kashmir Parrot.’’ I am afraid this last bird cannot be placed with any degree of certainty though it may of course be P. cyanocephalus, the Blossom- headed Paroquet. This species, however, has none of the white mentioned in the description, unless the pale yellowish-green © Ba0ur, NOl. 11, °p. 222. 2 Ibtd., pp. 214-15, MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 47 undertail coverts are so described. Moreover, the upper feathers are not red, unless the reference is to the wing-patches only. Babur continues: ‘‘ ‘here is another species of parrot like the wood parrot but a little less. Its beak is red; round its néck is a broad black circle like a collar. Its upper feathers are crimson ; it learns to speak well.’’ ‘This would appear to be P. zepalensts, the Large Indian Paroquet, a favourite cage bird in India, though in size it is larger, and not smalier, than P. torguatus. ‘‘ There is another kind of parrot of a beautiful red colour, it has also other colours, as I preciously do not recollet its appearance, | therefore do not describe it particularly. It is a very elegant bird and learns to talk; it has one great defect that its voice is particularly disagreeable as if you rubbed a piece of broken china on a copper plate.”’ The identity of this bird is obscure. It certainly does not appear to be Coryllis vernalts as suggested by King, as the colour of this species is green with scarlet patches on the rump and uppertail coverts only. Besides, I have never heard of a Lorikeet learning to talk, and its voice cannot be said to agree with Babur’s graphic description. The only Indian bird that strikes me as being possibly referred to is P. fasciatus the Red-breasted Paroquet, which is found throughout the lower Himalayas, although its cry according to Blanford is much less harsh than that of either FP. forguatus or P. nepalensts. LORIKEE? (Coryllis vernalts) Once, when Jehangir was at Ajmere he narrates that ‘ they brought a bird from the country of Zerbad (Arrakan, Sumatra, etc.) which was coloured like a parrot but had a smaller body. One of its peculiarities is that it lays hoid with its feet of the branch or perch on which they may have placed it and then makes a somersault and remains in this position all night and whispers to itself. When day comes it seats itself on top of the branch. Though they say that animals have worship, yet it is most likely that this practise (whispering ?) is instinctive. It never drinks water and water acts like poison upon it, though other birds subsist on water.”’ A curious observation indeed! In captivity at least the bird drinks freely without dire consequences. EAGLES, KirEs, FALCONS, ETC. The Zumej described by Babur as being of the size of a burguat or falcon and of a black colour, may for all we know be the Black Hawk-eagle (/etinactus malayensts) as suggested by King. According to the commentator Zume; is the Arabic name for Dubara or Du-baradaran (i.e. ‘‘ Two brothers ’’) so called because they hunt in couples. He thinks éwzquat, to the size of which the Emperor compares the bird, may be the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaétus). In Hindi the Imperiai Eagle (4. heliaca) is known as JSimiz or Barajumtz, 48 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATORAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volw XXX Babur? refers to another bird, the Sav and all he teils us about it is that ‘its tail and back are red.’”’ I am unable to conjecture what grounds King has for suggesting that it may be the Rosy Pastor (Pastor roseus). According to Mrs. Beveridge the word Sas in Turki means a buzzard, and this, coupled with the fact that it is inciuded by Babur with his birds of prey, is I think good justification for the alternative surmise that the description may refer to the Brahminy Kite (Afalzastur indus), a bird held in some esteem by the later Moghuls and looked upon as favourable omen in time of battle. Abul Fazl, after a brief account of ithe birds and animals found in Kashmir, goes on? to enumerate the various aitractions of the country and says: ‘‘ The people take pleasure in the skiffs upon the lakes, and their hawks strike the wildfowl in mid-air and bring them to the boats; sometimes they hold them down in the water with their talons and stand on them presenting an exciting spectacie.”’ | Fr. Monserrate, the Jesuit already referred to in the foregoing pages, writing about the popularity of the sport of hawking in the reign of the Emperor Akbar states: ‘‘ The Moghuls are not very fond of hawking. it is regarded however, as a mark of royal dignity for the King to be accompanied on the march by fowlers carrying many birds on their wrists. These birds are fed on crows to save expense.’’ It would appear from another statement of the same writer elsewhere that hunting leopards were much more popular at this period, though Abul Fazl’s accounts indicate that both forms were equally in vogue. Jehangir chronicles’ that about the year 1618 A. D. an ambassador he had sent to tne King of Persia sent him an adshyauz falcon. meaning ‘‘ a bird from the uest’’—evidently much prized by falconers. He remarks that in the Persian language, such a bird is known as Ukna (an Arapic word signifying ‘‘nest’’). ‘‘Outwardly’”’ the Emperor observes, ‘‘ one cannot distinguish between these and the baz-e-dami falcons by any particular mark, but after they have been flown the difference is clear.’’ Baz-e-damt apparently means hawks reared in captivity. It is maintained that birds taken young and trained by man never attain the standard of wild birds trained by the parents. Whenever the king visited a nobleman at his house, which, as Jehangir puts it, ‘‘increased his dignity among his equals and neighbours,” it was customary for the host to otter the monarch horses, daggers, hawks and falcons the very best he possessed— which were usually exchanged by the emperor with similar presents. Describing Kashmir, Jehangir* mentions that ‘‘among the ex- cellencies (of that Province) are the Hawks (/andwar-e-shtkar1). Hawks and Falcons are taken in netss...-s. lt has alsom (nest (zkna) sparrow-hawks (dasha) 1.e. taken from the nest and not reared (in captivity) and the nest sparrow-hawk is not bad.”’ 1 Babur, vol. ii, p. 221. 21272, VOL, Jit pool, ° Jeh., vol. ii, pp. 10-11 * Tbid., p. 178. MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 49 The information which Abul Fazl furnishes with regard to the prices current for hawks and falcons in the time of Akbar is interest- ing. The historian writes! ‘‘ From eagerness to purchase and from inexperience, people pay high sums for falcons. His Majesty allows dealers very reasonable profits ; but from motives of equity he has limited the prices. The dealers are to get their gain, but buyers ought not to be cheated.”’ We learn that the hawks were divided into various classes accord- ing to their merits, and their prices scheduied accordingly as follows : First Class—Ahana kurz, i.e. Birds that had moulted whilst in charge of experienced trainers and had got new feathers. These baz (hawks) cost 12 muhurs (equivalent to 192 rupees). There was also a second grade in this class of falcons. Second Class—Choz, i.e. Birds that had not yet moulted. The price fixed for this class was 10 muhurs (Rs. 160). Third Class—7arinak, i.e. Birds that had moulted before capture. These were somewhat cheaper than Choz. It will be seen that the ubiquitous profiteer is not a product of modern times, but that his nefarious activities needed curbing legislation as long ago as Akbar’sday ! GREEN PIGEON In his avifauna of Hindustan, Abul Fazl mentions the AHaria/ (Crocopus phenicopterus?) which he describes as having green plumage, a white bill and crimson irides and as being smaller than the ordinary pigeon. He states: ‘‘ It never settles upon the ground, and when it alights to drink it carries with it a twig which it keeps beneath its feet till its thirst is quenched.”’ | 7 This fanciful notion no doubt owes its origin to the exclusively arboreal habits of the bird. Mons. de Thevenot* who visited India during the reign of the Emperor Aurangzebe, writes: ‘‘ There are pigeons in that country all over green, which differ from ours only in colour: The Fowlers take them with Birdlime in this manner; they carry before them a kind of light Shed or Screen, that covers the whole Body and has holes in it to see through; the Pigeons seeing no man are not at all scared when the Fowler draws near, so that he cunningly catches them, one after another, with a Wand and Birdlime on it, none offering to fly away. In some places Parrocquets are taken after the same manner.”’ It will be noticed that the method described by the traveller differs little from one in vogue at the present day. THE PIGEON . The Emperor Akbar was a fervent pigeon fancier, and Abul Faz). informs us? he kept more than 20,000 pigeons, divided into ten classes at his court. BAD eV Olea. 04.200. 7 50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII In reference to these pets, Fr. Monserrate writes : ‘‘ Not a little is added to the beauty of the palaces by charming pigeon-cotes partly covered with rough cast and partly showing walls built of small blue and white bricks. The pigeons are cared for by eunuchs and servant maids. Their evolutions are controlled at will when they are flying, by means of certain signals, just as those of well-trained soldiery are controlled by a competent general by means of bugles and drums. It will seem little short of miraculous when I affirm that when sent out, they dance, turn somersaults all together in the air, fly in orderly rhythm, and return to their starting point, all at the sound of a whistle. They are bidden to perch on the roof, to conceal themselves within their nesting places and to dart out of them again, and they do everything just as they are told.”’ This flighting of trained pigeons was known as J/shgbazi. On the subject of these pets, Akbar’s chronicler writes: ‘In former times pigeons of all kinds were allowed to couple ; but His Majesty thinks equality in gracefulness and perfor- mance a necessary condition in coupling and has tuus bred choice pigeons. The custom is to keep a male and a female pigeon, if not acquainted with each other, for 5 or 6 days together, when they be- come so familiar that even after a long separation they will again recognize each other.’’ Further: ‘‘ At the time of departure and breaking up of the camp, the pigeons will follow, their cotes being carried by bearers (Auzhar). Sometimes they will alight and take rest for a while and then rise again.”’ Jehangir makes the following observations concerning Carrier Pigeons.2 — ‘¢ Tt had been stated to me in course of conversation that in the time of the Abbaside Caliphs they taught the Baghdad pigeons, who were styled ‘ letter carriers’ (zama-bar) and were one half larger than the wild pigeon. I bade the pigeon fanciers to teach their pigeons and they taught some of them in such a manner that we let them fly from Mandu in the early morning, and if there was much rain they reached Burhanpur by 24 pahars (watches) of the day, or even 14 pahars. Ifthe air was very clear, most of them arrived by one pahary in the day and some by 4 gharzs of the day.”’ _A ghar according to Babur was equivalent to about 24 minutes. Four gharts would therefore mean 1 hr. 36 minutes. As the crow flies, Burhanpur is about 100 miles $.S.E. of Mandu in the Central Provinces, and this would make the speed of the birds a trifle over 60 miles an hour: According to Thomson? a carrier pigeon can keep up 40 miles per hour for a considerable time, but this will be halved against the wind, and nearly doubled with the wind in the bird’s favour. It will be noticed at once how very accurate Jehangir is on this point. Writing some years later, in the reign of the Emperor Shah-Jehan, Manucci states with regardto pigeons:* ‘‘ The Mohomedans are very keen on breeding pigeons in large numbers ; tVAUH, , WOl. 1, Py eoo: 2 Jeh., vol. 1, p. 387. > A Biology of Birds. * Storio do Mogor, vol. i, p. 107. MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 5] they make them fly all together, calling out, whistling and waving with a cloth fastened at the end of a stick, running and making signals from the terraced roofs, with a view to encouraging the pigeons to attack the flock of someone else. In this way the flocks are so trained that they fight in the air. Then when the Owners whistle and make the signs above described, the pigeons assemble and fly away to their homes, except a few, who losing their way in the confusion, allow themselves in their innocence to be carried along with their adversaries. It is for this end they fly these flocks, and over and over again they send them out to win more pigeons. Every owner is overjoyed at seeing his own pigeons the most dextrous in misleading their opponents.’’ Manucci further describes a use to which trained carrier pigeons were put by the nobles of Shah Jehan’s court which, being a substi- tute for the modern telephone, is both amusing and ingenious. Says he,? ‘‘ As I have said the Moghuls rear pigeons for amusement, it is necessary for me to inform the reader how they employ these pigeons to give intelligence if the King leaves his house and comes into the public hall to hold audience. Let the reader be aware then, that these nobles are very pleased not to have to move from home uselessly. Many have their dwellings far from the royal palace, about a league away. They order their retinue to be kept in readiness, first of all having sent to court a servant with two pigeons of different colours. If the King leaves his house or holds audience, the noble’s servant releases one of these pigeons at court and by reaching its home it serves as a messenger. If it is the one that denotes the King’s leaving home or sitting in audience, the noble at once rides with his cavalcade in all haste to be present as is his duty. If the other comes it notifies the contrary, the retinue are dismissed and the master takes his ease at home.’’ THE SAND GROUSE Babur includes in his avifauna what he calls Saghri-kara of Hindustan which, he remarks, ‘‘ is less than the Bagh7t-kara@ of the west and slenderer ; its cry too is sharper.’’ King suggests that the Indian bird is probably the Common _ Sandgrouse (Plerocles exustus) and the western species to which it has been compared the Black-breasted or Imperia: (P. orzentalts). In the absence of a description of Babur’s bird, any conjecture as to its identity is a difficult one. Perhaps King was acquainted with the Turki name of the bird. THE PracocK (Pavo cristatus) Babur writes 2 at some length about this bird. Hesays: ‘‘ The peacock is a beautifully coloured and splendid animal; it is less remarkable for its bulk than for its colour and beauty. Its size may be about that of acrane, but it is not so tall. On the head of the peacock and of the peahen there may be about twenty or thirty * Storio do Mogor, vol. ii, p. 467. 2 Babur, vol. ii, pp. 214-15. 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII feathers rising two or three finger-breadths in height. The peahen is neither richly coloured nor beautiful. The head of the male has a lustrous and undulating colour. Its neck is of a fine azure. Lower down than the neck its back is painted with the richest yellow, green azure and violet ; the flowers or stars on its back are but small; below they increase in size, still preserving the same colour and splendour down to the extremity of the tail. The tail of some peacocks is as high as a man. Below the richly painted feathers of its tail it has another smaller tail like that of other birds, and this ordinary tail and the feathers of its side are red. It is found in Bajour and Sawad and in the countries below, but not in the Kuner or Lamghanat or in any place higher up. It flies even worse than the karkawel (pheasant) and cannot take more than one or two flights ata time. On account of its flying so ill, it either frequents a hilly country or a jungle. It is remarkable that wherever there are many peacocks in a wood, there are also a number of jackals in it, and as they have to drag after them a tail the size of a man, it may easily be supposed (? imagined) how much they are molested by the jackals in their passage from one thicket to another. The Hindustanis call it #oov. According to the doctrines of Imam Abu Hanifa this bird is lawful food. Its flesh is not unpleasant: it resembles that of the quail but is eaten with some degree of loathing like that of the camel.”’ The Emperor would appear to share the modern depreciation of the peacock as a bird for the table though in earlier days it was highly esteemed as such. Classical works contain many allusions to its high appreciation at the most sumptuous banquets, and medizval bills of fare on state occasions nearly always included it. In the days of chivalry one of the most solemn oaths was taken on ‘‘'The Peacock ’’ which seems to have been served up garnished with its gaudy plumage. THE JUNGLE FOWL (Gallus ferrugineus) Babur observes ! that on the outskirts of the hillocks in Dun— the Jaswan or Una Dun—a fertile valley in the Hoshiarpur District ‘‘ there are many fowls resembling barn-door fowls ; they resemble them in shape but are generally of a single colour.”’ By ‘‘ single colour ’’ is presumably meant they were not of different or various colours as is the case with domestic fowls. The Emperor after mentioning it as one of the common birds of Hindustan describes it thus: ‘‘ The difference between the mzrgh-e -sahr@ (or ‘fowl of the wild’) and the barn-door fowl is that the ‘fowl of the wild’ flies like a karkawel (pheasant) ; it is not of every colour like the barn-door fowl. It is found in the hill-countries of Bajour and the hill-countries lower down. It is not met with above Bajour.”’ Jehangir notes! that this jungle fowl was plentiful in the neighbourhood of the fort of Nirpur * where one day he captured 1 Babiur, vol. ii, p. 173. ® Jeh., vol. ii, p. 226. 3 See Imperial Gazetteer, new edn., vol. xix, p. 232. n., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. | A FALCON. rom a Moghul painting in the Prince of Wales | Museum, Bombay.) PEA FOWL. (Probably painted by Mansur, c. A.D. 1625; from the collection of Baron Maurice Rothschild, Paris.) By courtesy of the Publishers ‘ lndian Painting under the Moghuls’,—Percy Brown, ‘UMRO0AG AIsAJ—*, SINYBOPL IY] Aapun suyulwg uowpuy , ‘saaysygud 34, jo dsajano7 Ag (‘slivg ‘p[iqosyjoy soliney woleg Jo UoHoe][09 ‘ SZOT “a'v ‘2 ‘ansuey Aq A[qeqoid pojuieg) ‘“INVSVHHd YdaHo (‘Avquog ‘mnasnyy SAD JO a2UIAg 9Y] UL SuIuiog ynysoyy Y ‘SQUVS AO UlVd V ULOAL ) "20 ‘3s'3H{, ‘FeN Aequiog ‘“uanor MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 53 four birds. He says about them: ‘‘ One cannot distinguish them in shape and colour from domestic fowls. One of the peculiarities of these birds is that if they are caught by the feet and turned upside down wherever they are taken, they make no sound and remain silent contrary to the domestic fowl which makes an outcry. Until the domestic fowl is plunged into hot water its feathers do not come off easily. The jungle fowl like the partridge or fodna (quail) can be plucked when dry. I ordered them to roast them. It was found that the flesh of the full-grown ones was very tasteless and dry. The chickens had some juiciness, but were not good to eat. They cannot fly farther than a bow-shot. The cock is chiefly red and the hen black and yellow.” PHEASANTS Jehangir remarks that ‘‘Of the wild birds they call Zadru (Pheasants) till now it has never been heard that they breed in captivity. In the time of my revered father (Akbar) they made great efforts to obtain eggs and young ones, but it was not managed. I ordered them to keep some of them male and female in one place, and by degrees they bred. I ordered them to place the eggs under hens and in a space of two years 60 or 70 young were produced and 50 or 60 grew up. Whoever heard of this matter was astonished. It was said that in the Vilayet (Persia) the people there had made great efforts, but no eggs were produced and no young were obtained.’”’ Elsewhere Jehangir inentions that a certain Zamindar of Tulwara (which according to Abul Fazl was situated in the Bari Doab Sarkar) brought him a bird which the hill people cailed J/an-bahan. ‘lis tail’’ he observes, ‘‘resembles the tail of the gurgawul (pheasant) which is also called tazru (or tadru as above) and its colour is exactly like that of a hen pheasant, but it is half as large again. The circle round the eyes of this bird is red while the orbit of the pheasant is white. The said Basoi(the Zamindar) stated that this bird lived in the snow mountains and that its food was grass and other stuff. I have kept pheasants and have reared young ones and have often eaten the flesh of both young birds and mature ones. One may say that there is no comparison between the flesh of the pheasant and this bird. The flesh of the latter is much more delicate.”’ The bird referred to in the above narrative is no doubt the Cheer Pheasant (Catveus wallicht). One of the vernacular names quoted by Blanford is Cha man which may well be a corruption or variation of Jehangir’s Jaz-bahan. As abird for the table it may be noted that Blanford considers it far inferior to the Koklass. The Emperor had asketch of the bird made at the time. The plate—here reproduced—is said probably to be the handi- work of the ceiebrated animal painter Al Mansur. Though the picture may appear somewhat stiff and ‘‘ wooden ”’ if judged from the modern Gronvodldian standard, it leaves little doubt as regards the identity of the species. 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII THE MONAUL PHEASANT (Lophophorus impejanus) Babur ! mentions the Lujeh or Lukeh which bird according to him was also called Bikalemzn. It is described as follows: ‘‘ From the head to the tail it has four or five colours. Its neck has a bright glancing tinge like a pigeon’s. Its size may be equal to the Kabk-e- durrt (Tetrogallus casptus). It may be regarded as the kubk-e-dirri of Hindustan. As the kubk-e-dirr7 inhabits the summits of mountains, this also inhabits the tops of mountains. They are met with in the country of Kabul and the hill-country of Nijrau and from thence downward, wherever there are hills, but they are not found any higher up.”’ In a footnote, Sir Lucas King comments on the above as follows: “This may be the Monaul Pheasant (Lophophorus impeyanus), though Bukalemun is the Persian word for the turkey. The kabk-e-dirrz is much larger than the common fabs of Persia and is peculiar to Khorasan—/TZetvogallus caspius. It is said to be a beautiful bird. The common kadbk of Persia is the Chukor of India (Caccabis chukor).”’ The present habitat of this bird, which was tillnot very long ago common about Mussoorie and Simla, is throughout the Himalayas from Bhutan to Kashmir and even further west. The bird has been recorded from Chitral and from the Safed Koh in Afghanistan. It occurs also in Sikkim. 4 What Jehangir? refers to in the following words may also very probably this bird. He says, ‘‘ Another bird is of a golden (res- plendent ?) colour called in Lahore Shax. The Kashmiris cali it Put. Iis colour is like that of a peacock’s breast. Above its head is a tuft (kakul). Its tail of the width of 5 fingers is yellow, and is like the long feather (Sah par) of the peacock, and its body is as large as that of a goose. The neck of the goose is long and shapeless; that of this one is short and has a shape.’’ THE TRAGOPAN (T7vagopan, sp.) Babur? describes this pheasant as follows: ‘‘Another bird is the Pulpetkar (i.e. ‘Flower-faced’). Its size is equal to that of the kubk- e-durvi(Tetrogallus caspius). Its figure resembles the dung-hill cock, and in colour it is like the hen. From its forehead down to its breast it is a beautiful scarlet colour. The Phulpetkar inhabits the hill- country of Hindustan.”’ Jehangir* describes the Phulpetkar—one of the birds he saw in the hill-country (of Kashmir)—which the Kashmiris called Sonlu, as follows: ‘‘It is § less than a peahen. The back, tail and wings resemble those of the bustard, and are blackish with white spots. The breast to the end of the bosom is black with white spots and some red ones. The ends of the feathers are fiery red and very lustrous and beautiful. From the end of the back of the neck it is also brilliantly black. On the top of its head it has two fleshy 1 Babur, vol. ii, p. 216. 2 Jeh., Ol; 11, =p: 220: 3 Babur, vol. ii, p. 218. + Jen. MOL ip. 220- MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 55 horns of a turquoise colour. The skin of its orbits and round its mouth is red. Below its throat there is a skin round it enough to cover the palms of two hands, and in the middle of this the skin is of a violet colour of the size of a hand, with blue spots in the middle. Around it, each streak is of a blue colour, consisting of 8 plumes (?); round the blue streak it is ‘red to the breadth of two fingers like the peach flower, and again round its neck is that blue coloured streak: it has red legs also. The live bird which was weighed came to 152 tolas. (3 Ibs. 13 OZ.) After it was killed and cleaned it weighed 139 tolas.’ QUAILS On this subject Babur says: ‘‘ The Budineh (Quail) is not peculiar to Hindustan, but there are 4 or 5 species of it peculiar to that country. There is one species that visits our countries.! Itis larger and more spreading than the common dudineh that visits us. Its wings and tail are reddish. This dudineh goes in flights like the chir (Catreus walichtt).”’ The bird referred to is no doubt the Bush Quail (Perdzcaula sp.). Babur continues: ‘‘ There is still another species which is smaller than the dudineh that visits our country. They are generally black on the throat and breast. There is another species which seldom visits Kabul. It is small, somewhat larger than a kharcheh (wagtail). In Kabul they cail it Auvatu.’’ The former bird is obviously the Rain Quail (Corturnix coromandelica) and the latter may be—it is difficult to say——the Lesser Button Quail (7uruzx dussumiert). The thoroughness with which Babur has dealt with this family of game birds is apparent, and bespeaks an interest and knowledge possessed only by an Bia ally keen observer. THE SEE-SEE PARTRIDGE (Ammoperdix griseigularts) Writing from camp at the fort of Rohtas (Punjab) Jehangir notes in his diary as follows :—‘‘ At this stage 772% were obtained. The flesh of the 77a is better than that of the kadk’’ (partridge or chukor). It may be mentioned that 77hz is still one of the names by which this little partridge is known in some parts. THE BLACK PARTRIDGE (/vancolinus vulgaris) The Emperor Babur refers to this bird as the Darraj? and says ‘Tt is not peculiar to Hindustan. It is found everywhere in the countries of the Garmsil* but as certain species of it are found only 1 i.e. the countries northof the Oxus. Assuggested by King, this metry species may. probably be the Common Grey Quail (Coturnix coturnix). Babur, vol. ii, p. 219, footnote. z According to Mrs. Beveridge, Dirra7 in Arabic means ‘‘ one who repeats what he says ’’; a “‘ tell-tale.’’ S Afghanistan 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII in Hindustan, I have included it in this enumerative description. The partridge may be equal to the kabk-e-dirri in size.1_ The colour of its beak is like that of the female of the mérgh-e-dashti (Jungle Fowl). Its neck and breast are black, with white spots. On both sides of both its eyes is a line of red. It has a cry of shir-darem- shakrek (‘1 have milk and a little sugar’). From its cry it gets its name. It pronounces shzy short, dadvem-shakrek it pronounces distinctly. The colour of the hen resembles that of a young karkawel (pheasant). They are found below Nijrau.’’ Jehangir records having met this bird in the stony country near the village of Bakkar (Sind) in the course of one of his periodical marches to Kashmir about the year A.p. 1620. THE GREY PARTRIDGE (francolinus pondicertanus) What appears very likely to be this bird is described by Babur thus :—‘' There is another kind of fowl! of the partridge kind which they call kazjel. It is about the size of a kabk. Its cry is very like that of a kab& (chukor) but shriller. There is little difference in colour between male and female. It is found in the country of Peshawar, Hashnagar and in the countries lower down but in no higher district.’’ Abul Fazl mentions that partridges in Kashmir afforded good sport. They were probably hunted with hawks—a form of sport which is still extremely popular in Hindustan. Jehangir relates that one day while hunting, he saw a tuyghun or albino partridge suchas he had never before seen, which he caught witha hawk that likewise happened to be an albino. He? continues: “T ascertained by trial that the flesh of the black partridge (ordinarily coloured ? ) was better than that of the white. THE CRANE Jehangir describes a Aulang* hunt with falcons, a sport, he states, of which his son Shah Jehan was particularly fond. The birds employed on this occasion were Shahin (either Falco peregrt- nator or f. barbarus) He relates: ‘‘ At Shah Jehan’s request I rode out early in the morning and caught one dé#rna (crane) myself whilst a falcon my son had on his wrist caught another. Certainly of all good hunting amusements this is the best. I was exceedingly pleased with it. Although the Sarus is large, it is lazy and heavy on the wing. The chase of the d#rva has no resemblance to it. I praise the heart and courage of the falcon that can sieze such strong bodied animals, and with the strength of his talons subdue them. Hassan Khan, chief huntsman of my son was honoured with an elephant, a horse and a dress of honour as a reward for his exhibition of sport, and his son also received a horse and a dress of honour.’ 1 Apparently here only kads (chukor) is meant, as we have been told above that the £uvbk-e-dirri is the size of the Monal Pheasant. 2 Jeh., vol. ii, p. 284. * Kither Grus communis or Anthropoides virgo. MOGHUL EMPERORS OF [NDIA AS NATURALISTS 57 The Emperor records! that once while hunting waterfowl in Kashmir, a boatman caught and brought him a young Demoiselle Crane (?) ‘‘ It was very thin and miserable’ continues the royal naturalist, ‘Tt did not live longer than a night. The gargara (Demoiselle Crane ?—perhaps from its cry) does not live in Kashmir. This had became ill and thin at the time of coming from, or going to Hindustan and had fallen there.’’ The last passage would tend to indicate that the Emperor was well acquainted with the fact of bird migration. THE SARUS CRANE (Gras antigone) Babur? describes this bird asfollows: ‘* The Turks who are in Hindustan call the Sarus 77zweh turneh(Camel crane). It is alittle less than the dzzg (Adjutant). Its head is red. They keep it about their houses and it Lecomes very tame.’ Jehangir appears to have entertained a special regard for this bird, concerning which his observations and notes are particularly exhaustive. The reputed devotedness of the pair to one another and their attachment to their young seems to have particularly arrested his fancy. He relates that once when encamped in the neighbourhood of Deogaon (Gujerat) one of his eunuchs caughttwo young sarus on the bank of a large tank hard by. ‘* At night’’ he notes, ‘‘ two large sarus appeared making loud cries near the ghusal khana (lit. ‘Bath chamber’) which they had placed (erected) on the edge of the tank, as if somebody were exercising oppression on them. They fearlessly began their cries and came forward. It occurred to me that certainly some kind of wrong had been done to them, and probably their young had beentaken. After enquiry was made, the eunuch who had taken the young sarus brought them before me. When the sarus heard the cries of the young ones, they without control threw themselves upon them, and suspecting they had had no food, each of the two sarus placed food in the mouths of the young ones and made much lamentation. Taking the young ones between them, and stretching out their wings and fondling them, they went off to their nest.” The Emperor has recorded some extremely useful and interesting notes concerning the breeding habits of the sarus, from pairing onwards, to the time the young were hatched, which I think deserve to ce quoted zz extenso. They bespeak the keen and lively interest of the writer in his subject, and their minuteness and accuracy are such as would do justice to any modern work on Natural History. He writes:* ‘At this time the pairing of the sarus which I had never before seen, and is reported never to have been seen by man, was witnessed by me. The sarus is acreature of the crane genus, But somewhat larger (dah diuwazdeh, \it., ten, twelve; i.e. its is + larger).’ On the top of the head it ‘has no feathers, and the skin is drawn over the bones of the head. ——_—_—_—._ PIE. NOle ll, Pal /G. 24 iBabur, vol. ii, p 220. Jer. “Vol, it, pe 16: 8 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII From the back of the eye to six fingers breadths of the neck it is red. They mostly live in pairs on the plains, but are occasionally seen in flocks. People bring a pair from the fields and keep them in their houses and they become familiar with men. In fact there was a pair of sarus in my establishment to which I had given the names of Laila and Majnun (the ‘Romeo and_ Juliet’ of Persian story and song). One day a eunuch informed me that the two had paired in his presence. I ordered that if they showed an inclination to pair again they should inform me. At dawn he came and told me that they were about to pair again. I immediately hastened to look on. ‘The femaie having straightened its legs, bent down a little: the male then lifted one of its feet from the ground and placed it on her back, and afterwards the second foot, and immediately seating himself on her back paired with her. He then came down, and stretching out his neck, put his beak on the ground and walked once round the female. It is possible they may have an egg and produce a young one. Many strange tales of the affection of the sarus for its mate have beentold. ‘The following case has been recorded because it is very strange. OQiyam Khan, who is one of the Ahanzadas (house-born ones) of this court, and is well acquainted with the arts of hunting and _ scouting, informed me that one day he had gone out to hunt and found a sarus sitting. When he approached, it got up and went off. From its manner of walking he perceived signs of weakness and pain. He went to the place where it had been sitting. He threw a net round it and drew himself into a corner, and it tried to go and sit in the same place. Its foot was caught in the net and he went forward and siezed it. It appeared extremely light, and when he looked minutely he saw there were no feathers on its breast and belly ; a handful of feathers and bone came into his hand. It was clear that its mate had died, and that it had sat there from the day it lost its companion. Himat Khan, who is one of my best sevants, and whose word is worthy of reliance, told me that in the Dohad Parganna (Gujerat) he had seen a pair of Sarus on the bank of a tank. One of his gunners shot one of them and in the same place cut off his head and stripped it of its feathers. By chance we halted two or three days at that place, and its mate continually walked round it and uttered cries of lamentation. ‘My heart,’ he said, ‘ached at its distress but there was no remedy for it save regret.’ By chance, twenty-five days afterwards he passed by the same spot and asked the inhabitants what had become of the sarus. They said it died on the same day and there were still remains of feathers and bones on the spot. He went there himself and saw it was as they said. There are many tales of this kind among the people which it would take too long to tell.” A few days later, Jehangir continues his diary: ‘“‘.... the sarus, pairing of which has been related in the preceding pages, collected together some straw and a little rubbish in the little garden and laid first of allone egg. Onthe third day after this it laid a secondegg. This pair of sarus were caught when they were about a month old and had been in my establishment five years. After 54 years they paired and continued doing so for a month; on the ' MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 59 21st ofthe month of Amurdad, which the Hindus call Savan (Shravan: August-September) the hen laid the eggs. The female used to sit on the eggs the whole night alone, andthe male stood near her on guard. It was so alert that it was impossible for any living thing to pass near her. Once a large weasel (mungoose) made its appearance and he ran at it with the greatest impetuosity and did not stop till the weasel got into ahole. When the sun illuminated the world with its rays the male went to the female and pecked her back with his beak. The female then rose and the male sate in her place. She returred and inthe same manner made him rise and seated herself. In short the female sits the whole night and takes care of theeggs and by day the male and female sit by turns. When they rise and sit down, they take great precautions that no harm shall come to the eggs.’ The Emperor continues his observations as follows: ‘‘ From Sunday 3rd till the eve of Thursday the 7th rain fell. It 1s strange that on other days the pair of sarus sate on the eggs five or six times in turns, but during this 24 hours when there was constant rain and the air was somewhat cold the male, in order to keep the eggs warm, sate from early in the morning till mid-day, and from that time till the next morning the female sat without an interval for fear that in rising and sitting again, the cold air should affect them and the eggs become wet and be spoilt. Briefly, men are led by the guidance of reason, and animals according to Divine Wisdom implanted in them by Nature. Stranger still is it that at first they keep their eggs together underneath their breast, and after 14 or 15 days have passed they leave a little space between them for fear that the heat should become too great from their contact with each other. Many become addled in consequence of (too great) heat.” | Further, ‘‘Onthe eve of Thursday the 2lst the sarus hatched one young one, and on the eve of Monday the 25th a second; that is, one young was hatched after thirty-four days and the other after thirty-six days (from the time the first egg was laid or also thirty-four days for this). One might say that they were },th larger than the young of a goose, or equal to the young of a peafowl at the age of amonth. Their skin was of a blue colour. On the first day they ate nothing and from the second day the mother taking small locusts (grasshoppers) in her mouth sometimes fed them like a pigeon, or sometimes like a fowl threw them before them to pick up of themselves. If the locusts were smallit went off well, but if they were large she sometimes made two or three pieces of it so that the young ones might eat it with ease. AsIlhada great liking for seeing them I ordered them to be brought before me with every precaution that no harm might happen tothem. After I had seen them I ordered them to be taken back to the little garden inside the royal enclosure, and to be preserved withthe greatest care, and that they should be brought to me again whenever they were able to walk.’’ The diary continues afew days later: .... At frst the male sarus used to hold its young one by its leg upside down in its beak, and there wasa fear that he may be unkind to it and it might be 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII destroyed. I had accordingly ordered them to keep the male separa- tely and not allow it nearits young ones. I now ordered by way of experiment that it should be allowed near them, that the realdegree of its unkindness or affection might be ascertained. After allowing it, it displayed much attachment and kindness, and his affection was found to be no less than that of the female. I thus knew that this performance was out of real love.’’ [Further on, the following entry made at Agra(?) appears: ‘The pair of sarus that had had young ones had been brought from Ahmedabad on Thursday the 25th. In the court of the royal enclosure which had been placedon the bank of atank, they were walking about with their young ones. By chance both the male and the female raised acry and a pair of wild sarus hearing it, and crying out from the other side of the tank, came flying towards them. Themale with the male andthe female with the female engaged in afight and although some people were standing about the birds paid no heedto them. ‘The eunuchs who had been told off to protect them hastened to sieze them. One clung tothe male and the other tothe female. He who had caught the male kept hold of it after much struggling, but the one who siezed the female couJd not hold her and she escaped from his hand. I with my own hand put rings inits beak and on his legs and set him free. Both went and settled in their own place; whenever the domestic sarus raised a cry they responded.’’ THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (Choriotes edwards?) ‘The Kharchal’”’ (or Bustard) according to Babur ‘ which may be about the size of a ¢wghdak is in reality the taghdak of Hindustan. Its flesh is very savoury. The flesh of the leg of some fowls and of the breast of others is excellent; the flesh of every part of the kharchal is delicious.’’ The real tughdak it would appear isthe Great Bustard (Otzs tarda) with which Babur seems familiar from his Central Asian home. The Indian bird above referred to is no doubt the Great Indian Bustard, which in some parts of India is known as 7Zughdar or Tugdar, a possible corruption of the original tughdak, as suggested by King. THE FLORICAN . Babur says:! ‘“ The size on the Charz is somewhat less than a tughdari. The back of the male is like that of the taghdarz; its breast is black. The female is of a single colour. The flesh of the charz is very delicate. As the kharchal resembles the tughdak, the charz resembles the /aghdar7.”’ This bird can be either the Likh or Lesser Florican (Sypheotzs auritra) or the Bengal Florican (Sypheolis bengalensis). Most probably, however, the reference is to the latter species as it seems hardly credible that the peculiar elongated feathers of the upper throat and ear coverts of the former bird, should have escaped mention at the hands of a keen naturalist like Babur. From the fact —— 1 Babur, vol. ii, p. 219. MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 61 that no description of the twghdarz is furnished it may be concluded that this bird also (undoubtedly the Houbara—Chlamydotts undulata macqueent) was familiar to the Emperor and his readers at home. Writing of this bird, Jehangir1 says: ‘“‘ I formerly thought that there were two species, one a mottled black and the other dur (a kind of dun colour). I now discovered that there are not two kinds but that which is a mottled black is the male and that which is dun coloured is the female. The proof is that in the piebald there are testicles and inthe dun one there are eggs (ovaries). This has repeatedly been found on examination.’’ Jehangir’s personal research is laudable, but it seems strange that though Babur recognized at first that ‘‘ the female is of a single colour’’ his naturalist great-grandson should have made this disco- very only at a comparatively late stage. The Emperor further observes as follows: “ Itis a strange thing that the windpipe in ali animals (Aaztwanat) which the Turks call hulq, is single from the top of the throat to the crop (chzza-dan), while in the case of the charz it is different. In this case it is four fingers breadths from the top of the throat single and then it divides into two branches and in this form reaches the crop. Also at the place it divides into two branches there is a stoppage (sav-band), and a knot (girth) is felt by the hand.”’ Ido not know what peculiarity Jehangir is referring to. I can find no mention anywhere of anything extraordinary in regard to this part of the florican’s anatomy. THe Wuairte Isis (/b7s melanocephala) Another bird, which Babur cails the White Buzek, is no doubt this species. Its Hindi name is Safed baza. The Emperor says: ‘“ Its head and bill are black. It is considerably larger than the dbuzek of our country” but less than the duzek of Hindustan.’’* Another species of Ibis is also described by Babur whichI am unable to place. Tur WHITE-NECKED STORK (Dissoura episcopa episcopa) Babur * observes. ‘‘ There is another sort of stork which has a white neck while the head and all the rest of its body are black. It migrates to ourcountries. It is rather less than the common stork. This stork the Hindustanis call Yakding.”’ King suggests that this may be the Painted Stork (Pseudotantalus leucocephalus). 1 do not see precisely what justification he has for doing so, as the description appears to fit this species much better though it must beadmitted that the underparts of our bird havea considerable amount of white in them. eee Pete VOl. M5 Pa 292. 2 Which according to Mrs. Beveridge may be Plegadis falcinellus, the Glossy Ibis, a winter visitor to most parts of India. 3 King suggests that by this last may be meant the Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia) called in India Chamach-buzek. . * Babur, vol. ii, p. 220. 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII THE ADJUTANT STORK (Leptoptilus dubtus) Babur! writes: ‘One of the fowls that frequent the water and banks of rivers in the Vizxg, which is alarge bird. Each of its wings is the length of a man; on its head and neck there is no hair. Something like a bag hangs from its neck; its back is black, its breast white; it frequently visits Kabul. One year they caught and brought me a dizg which became very tame. The flesh which they threw it, it never failed to catch in its beak, and swallowed without ceremony. On one occasion it swallowed a shoe well-shod with iron: on another occasion it swallowed a good sized fowl right down, with its wings and feathers.”’ The Emperor also records the popular superstition, prevalent even in his day, that if you split the head of an Adjutant before death, you will extract from it the celebrated Zahir mohra (Poison-killer) or ‘‘ Snake stone’ of great virtue and repute and a potent antidote against all kinds of poison. ; Tue PAINTED STORK (Pseudotantalus leucocephalus) Babur describes this bird as ‘‘ nearly the height of a sarus, but its size.is less. It resembles the stork (Lalag—Czconza alba) but is much larger. Its bill is longer than a sarus’s and black. Its head is polished and shining, its neck white, its wings parti-coloured. The edges and roots of the feathers of its wing are white and the middle biack.’’ Both King and Mrs. Beveridge are of opinion that this may be the White-necked Stork (Dzssuva episcopa). From the clue however that its head is ‘“‘ polished’ (although the bill certainly is not black) it is possible that the Painted Stork is meant. Babur is unmistakably clear in other places when describing shine or gloss of feathers (cf. Pigeon and Monal Pheasant) and the word rendered as ‘“ polished ”’ by the translators would appear to indicate the bare facial skin of this bird which extends back to the crown. The description of the plumage, moreover, points more to its identity as this rather than to the species suggested by King and Mrs. Beveridge. Babur called the bird Minkisa. THE OPEN BILL (Anastomus oscitans) The bird described by Babur as follows may be this species: ‘“ It reseinbles in colour and shape the stork that visits our countries. Its beak is generally black and white, and is much smaller than the other.”’ . GREETS In view of much recent interest and the proposed legislation for licensing egret farms in Sind and elsewhere so as to make it a com- mercially profitable industry without detriment to the birds produc- ing the plumes, it is interesting to read Abul Fazl’s account 2 relating to the Sarkar of Kashmir where he says: ‘“ In the village of Matalhamah is a wood which is a heronry. The heronries are Lb a i *Babur, vol. ii, p. 220. ? Ain., vol: ii, p. 362. MOGHUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS NATURALISTS 63 strictly guarded and in the Spring when their long feathers fall from their necks, there is a watchman in attendance who picks them up. The feathers are taken for plumes and the birds here are regularly fed.” Jehangir remarks that ‘‘ among the excellencies of Kashmir are the plumes of feathers (falgz)’’ presumably from these very heronries, ‘© of which as much as 10,700 feathers are yearly obtained.”’ THE NuKTA OR ComsB Duck (Sarcidiornis melanonotus) Babur’s Shah-murgh described as follows, is obviously this duck. ‘There is another waterfowl which they call Shah-margh. It may be rather less than a goose. It has a swelling above its nose. Its breast is white, its back black and its flesh is excellent.”’ THE SPOT-BILLED Duck (Anas pectlorhyncha) Babur describes a species of duck as follows: ‘‘ There is a water- fowl which they call Gheret-paz. It is larger then the Sona-burchin. The male and female are of the same colour. It is always found in. Hashnagar and sometimes visits the Lamghanat. Its flesh is very delicate.’’ ee In a footnote, Sir Lucas King suggests that this may be the Spot- billed Duck, which is called Garm-pai by the falconers. Sona according to him is the name for the Mallard. Mrs. Beveridge in her translation of Babur’s Wemozirs, renders the word as Gharm-pat and remarks that Dr. Ross’ notes from the ‘‘ Sanglakh’”’ that Szza is the drake and Burchin the duck of Anas boscas, and that it is common in China to call a certain variety of bird by the combined sex names. This practice, it may be mentioned, is frequently adopted in India also, thus Chakwa-chakwi is the name by which the Brahminy Duck (Casarca rutila) goes in many parts of the peninsula. (To be continued ) THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN BY CLAUD B. TICEHURST, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S. Part III (With a plate) (Continued from page 881 of Volume XXXT) Tyto alba javanica (Gmel.) The Indian Barn Owl. Murray says he obtained the White Owl at Siri Bolan in the Pass on May 18, 1880. W. D. Cumming informed me that one was seen about the Telegraph Station at Ormarra fora week in March 1902. No other record. Possibly a rare resident. Asio otus otus (L.) The Long-eared Owl. The Long-eared Owl is a rare vagrant in the north; one was obtained at Quetta on December 2, 1908 and Murray records it also from the Quetta Valley. Huttoa and St. John both obtained it at Kandahar. Asio flammeus (Pont.) The Short-eared Owl. A wicter visitor in small numbers, the Short-eared Owl kas been obtained on several occasions in the Quetta Valley, Mach, Gulistan and Fort Sandeman between January 10 and April 21. In the Mekran Hotson met with it twice, in the Hingol Valley on September 3 and at Dizak on November 18; probably scarce. I saw one on the Sind side of the Habb River on November 14. Strix aiuco biddulphi, Scully. Scully’s Wood Owl. Col. Venning obtained this owl on January 10, at O!d Shinghar in the Zhob Valley ; the specimen is in the Bombay Museum. No other record. ? Rare resident in extreme N.E. Strix butleri (Hume.) Hume’s Owl. The type of the species was collected. ‘in Mekran by Nash for Butler ; it is in the British Museum. Nash was for many years stationed at Ormarra and so possibly this bird came from there. This Owl, which was described by Hume in 1878, has never been met with there since. There is in the Liverpool Museum an earlier bird obtained by Claude Wyatt in Sinai in 1864. In the /dzs 1870 Wyatt no doubt refers to this Owl as Phasmoptynx capensis ; he says one of his men was working at the ruins of Feiran when he saw this owl looking out of a hole in the wall and by closing the hole with a stone he captured it. This was the only specimen Wyatt got though he heard what was apparently this species in the Wadi Hebran and ‘nerhaps half a dozen times in the Peninsular.’ This was in January. In September 1911 Schrader heard this ow] in the Wadi Feiran and on the 23rd obtained one which was so blown to pieces that only parts, just sufficient for identification, could be preserved. A fourth example was obtained by Philips in tne Wadi Feiran on March 31, 1914. (Zhe Auf, 32, p. 282 and plate). Pro- bably too it was this Owl which Kaiser got in August 1891 and July 1892 in the Wadi Bedr and in the Wadi Arka on March 31, 1893. (Le Roz Jour. f. Orn., 1923, pp. 65-66). It seems clear then that this Owl’s home is the Sinai peninsula where it is evidently not uncommon though perhaps very local and that it is resi- dent there. How comes it then that Nash got iton the Mekran coaSts ? ; it seems unlikely that it is a normal resident there. Cumming tried at various places there for years and did not come across it and other naturalists—Blanford, Zarudny, Zugmayer, Hotson—all failed to meet with it. If it is very local and also very scarce it yet may have possibly eluded all these people. On the “*STAJSOALINID VIJIAPUBID) AO LUOSHA ALIMNOAVA V ‘IHAMT MAdINAL MOING STIIH HUVE ‘"VILHNO ‘Ssvd VWNNVH "90G ‘ISIF] ‘WeN Aequiog “usanoe THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 65 other hand. cyclones occur sometimes on this coast and bring birds which are not usually met with and this may account for its occurrence but even then one must suppose it occurs somewhere in Arabia nearer than Sinai. Unfortunately there are no details of the capture of this bird at Ormarra. Bubo bubo turcomanus (Evers.) The Turkestan Eagle Owl. ‘ Boom ’, Bal. The Eagle Owl is resident and sparsely distributed in the hills of N. Baluchis- tan. Marshall received a young one taken from the nest and there are two half grown young in the Quetta Museum taken near there on June 3, 1915, where there are also three adults. It has been obtained at Khozdar in S. Kalat and at Kandahar. Besides those in Quetta Museum I have examined three in the British Museum obtained at Quetta, Kandahar, and Kalat and they appear to be typical ¢urcomanus which is very near ruthenus—W. 450-460 mm. Neither Bubo \bengalensis nor Bubo coromandus are recorded from Baluchistan put 1 have seen the former between Karachi and the Baluch boundary. Otus scops pulchellus (Pall.) The Eastern Scops Owl. The distribution and status of the three species of Scops Owl is not clear and there are very few records of any of them. It seems fairly clear however that this Scops Owl is a summer visitor in small numbers and locally distributed in N. Baluchistan. It apparently arrives about the middle of April. St. John says itis common in the juniper hills and Swinhoe records it (as Sennatus) in the orchards at Kandahar. I have examined specimens obtained at Chaman on April 16, at Kandahar on April 11 and 12 and a half-grown young one from Ziarat on July 2. Murray records this bird in several places between Quetta and Kandahar and says pennatus (rectius sumia) occurs at Mach, Dozan and Quetta, however there are no specimens to bear this out or that the Indian Scops Owl occurs at all in Baluchistan. The only record from the south is from Ormarra on the coast where Cumming obtained one on passage in September. Otus brucei (Hume.) The Striated Scops Owl. The Striated Scops Owl must be resident (or a summer visitor) in small numbers. I have seen one (in British Museum) from Chaman obtained on April 23 and also a half-grown young one from the same place on June 6. These are the birds recorded by Barnes and St. John. One from Toba Achahzai obtained in June is in the Bombay Museum and W. D. Cumming sent me a full grown young one from Sheik Mandah on August 16, 1923. In Central Mekran Hotson obtained one at Shireza Patk (Kharan) on the Panjegur-Kalat road. Otus bakkameena deserticolor (Ticehurst.) The Desert Collared Scops Owl. The only certain record is a bird obtained by Murray (now in British Museum) at Killi Abdullah (5,100 ft.) on the road from Quetta to the Khojak on May 3, 1880, where it must have been breeding. Scops Owls (? this) are said to occur in Las Belas. Athene brama indica (Frankl.) The Indian Spotted Owlet. Meinertzhagen obtained two specimens at Quetta on Apri! 6 and June 7, Swinhoe says it is common in the lower parts of the Boian but he did not find it west of Mach ; he obtained an adult and a young bird at Pir Chowki at the entrance on May 15. Murray, on the other hand, says itis found as far as Gulistan and is replaced beyond the Khojak by éactriana. The distribution is not quite clear but it can be safely said that this owl comes up as far as Quetta where it breeds and is resident. Common at Sibi in the plain. It is fairly common throughout the Makran in suitable places and is resident ; it occurs as far west as Bampur in Persian Baluchistan and Hotson obtained it far as north in the Makran as Gajar in the Mashkai valley. Athene noctua bactriana (Hutton.) Hutton’s Little Qwl. The Little Owl is fairly common and resident over the whole of N. Baluchis- tan inhabiting banks, rocks, old walls, etc. Barnes records young in a hole in atreeon June3 at Chaman while at Kandahar Swinhoe found several nests with young in the fort walls early in April. J have examined numerous adults and young in the Quetta Museum obtained in that district. It apparently does not-occur in the Bolan, and it is curious that St. John does not refer to it in 7) 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCORATVAIST “SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Kalat as it certainly occurs, as Hotson obtained it at Surab in S. Kalat on July 1. i In the Makran there are no records of it but Hotson obtained it at Magas just over the Persian boundary on December 3, where he says it was scarce. Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (L.) The Osprey. It is remarkable that there is no record of the Osprey in N. Baluchistan. On the Makran coast it is common enough in winter and according to W. D. Cum- ming it is found throughout the year but he had no evidence of its breeding there, though there is no reason why it should not do soin such places as Ormarra Head, as it certainly breeds at the eastern end of the Persian Gulf. On the other hand non-breeding birds may be seen on the Sind coast all through the hot weather. AEgypius monachus (L.) The Cinereous Vulture. The Black Vulture is resident in small numbers throughout the higher hills of the north (8,000-10,500 ft). The huge nest is nearly always built in the top of a large juniper, a single egg in March orearly April is laid, though a much incubated egg is recorded in May. In winter it spreads out to the lower plains and valleys and so reaches Sibi and Kandahar. It wanders to the Makran coast where Cumming has noted it in the hills near Ormarra but its status in S. Baluchistan is not known. Gyps fulvus fulyescens (Hume.) The Griffon Vulture. The earlier writers considered the Griffon to be less common than the Black Vulture but the concensus of opinion now seems to be that it is the commoner of the two in N. Baluchistan. It is resident and breeds at the higher elevations. Betham records an egg on April 5 and Marshall one young hatched on April 25. Itisacliff breeder. During the Afghan War of 1879 Swinhoe noted that vultures became much com:moner than before. Probably a winter visitor to the Makran coast ; Cumming has noted it at Ormarra ; status elsewhere not known, but almost certainly breeds in the Khirthar Range. Gyps himalayanus (Hume.) The Himalayan Griffon Vulture. A bird in Quetta Museum obtained at Quetta on February 10, appears to be a young bird of the species. A wanderer ? Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmel.) ‘The Indian White-backed Vulture. St. John records that in 1878 the White-backed Vulture followed the troops marching from Sukkur to Afghanistan, profiting by the numerous dead animals left ez route. The laying of the railway across the Sibi plain in 1879 depriving them of food on the first part of the journey, they disappeared. Murray how- ever records it at both ends of the Bolan Passin 1880. There are no recent records of this ‘ Plains’ bird, nor did I nieet with it even at Sibi in December. It wanders tothe Habb Valley doubtless from Karachi where it is common and may go further into Las Belas but I have no record of it from anywhere else in Makran; but Zarudny lists it as a breeding species in Persian Baluchistan. Neophron percnopterus percnopterus (L.) ‘The Egyptian Vulture. The Neophron isa very common summer visitor to the hills of N. Balu- chistan arriving at the beginning of March. It appears to breed all through the higher hills ; young are recorded as hatched at the end of April and both cliffs and trees are utilized as nesting sites. The birds have left the hills by September and young appear in the Quetta valley by the end of July, in which locality and others of similar altitude some birds may be seen into November. It is common in the Sibi plain in winter. Throughout Central and Coastal Makran it is probably more or less resi- dent ; it breeds round Ormarra in March making its nest usually on a ledge near the top of the lower hills and difficult of access; fresh eggs were found by Cumming en March 1 and March 31. Zarudny anc Harms described the Neophron from S, Persian Baluchistan as N. bercnopterus rubripersonatus (Orn, Monats., 1902, p. 52) differing from the THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 67 typical race in having the bare parts of the head orange-red instead of yellow. W. D. Cumming who found Neophrons conimon at Charbar in 1920 paid parti- cular attention to this point at my request and sent me a description and water colour painting of birds examined at close quarters and he added that he could see no difference between these Charbar birds and Karachi ones, and judging by the painting and description I agree. He never saw any with orange-red onthe head. Zarudny’s race cannot be, I think, a good one and must be founded on stained birds. Gypaetus barbatus grandis Storr. The Lammergeier. One of the ornithological sights of N. Baluchistan is the quantity and tame- ness of the Bearded Vultures. It isa constant resident and breeds in all the higher hills from the Suleimans westward. It lays early in March, the nests being on ledges of (mostly) inaccessible cliffs. It is common in the Bolan Pass but does not reach the Sibi plain. Round Quetta it is distinctly a scavenger and attends at carcasses with Neophrons and ravens and may be seen often enough right in the Cantonment swooping round low down in search of morsels ; Meinertzhagen records attempts of one to carry offa puppy from a barrack room verandah! At Ziarat, too, I have had this magnificent bird sailing round within few feet of my head. Not recorded in central and coastal Makran. Aquila chrysaetus daphane (Menzb.) The Golden Eagle. Locally in the higher hiils of N. Baluchistan the Golden Eagle is not un- common and is resident, wandering to the lower valleys in winter. At Ziarat in the autumn one or two of these magnificent birds were seen almost daily soaring high overhead. Radcliffe records that a young one taken from an eyrie was sent to the Karachi Zoo and that he received an egg taken by natives which was thought to be of this species. Marshall too had eggs brcught to him and saw an eyrie and obtained an adult. They hunt in pairs for Chukar and readily take wounded birds; Meinertzhagen records that one even swooped on a covey and took a bird on the wing. Inthe Quetta Museum are specimens from Quetta on January 29, and Harboi August 30 and I have a young one just. out of the nest picked up dead near Quetta in my collection. No record in S. Baluchistan for I am doubtful if the bird recorded by Hume at Gwader on February 18 could belong to this species. Aquila heliaca (Savigny.) ‘The Imperial Eagle. Swinhoe records the Imperial Eagle as common in winter at Kandahar whence there are specimens in the British Museum ; it is therefore rather surprising that there are no records of it in Baluchistan except Murray’s statement that Dupuis collected several at Quetta on May 2, 1880 and July 7, 1888. Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodg.) The Steppe-Eagle. Hotson obtained a Steppe-eagle at Hazarganji in the valley of the Dhor (Hingol R.) Jhalawan on September 19. No other record ; scarce winter visitor ? Aquila rapax vindhiana (Frank].) The Indian Tawny Eagle. Meinertzhagen records that the Tawny Eagle is not uncommon in the plains of N. Baluchistan between February and September; a local specimen obtained on July 22 is in the Quetta Museum. Hotson obtained one at Gidar in S. Kalat on June 29; I have seen it in the Habb Valley in June and Cumming says it is occasionally seen at Ormarra from October to May. How much further west it occurs is not known. Nor is its status clear ; Zarudny lists it as nesting in Persian Mekran. -Aquila clanga (Pall.) The Greater Spotted Eagle. The Spotted Eagle should be commoner than records indicate. Murray records it at Siriab in March, at Nuskhi and at Kirta on May 22! Cumming obtained one at Ormarra on October 29. No other records. 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU Heraetus fasciatus (Vieill.) Bonelli’s Eagle. Bonelli’s Eagle is doubtless resident in small numbers throughout Balu- chistan. Marshall records nests in the Quetta district with one egg on May 14 and with two eggs on May 26. Meinertzhagen noted several at Ziarat in July. Cumming informed me that it is resident at Ormarra on the Mekran coast and breeds there in January whence there is a specimen in Bombay Museum. Hieraetus pennatus (Gmel.) The Booted-Eagle. The Booted Eagle is not uncommon in Kalat and the Quetta Valley to the Khojak whence it is recorded by St. John, Murray, Meinertzhagen and seen by myself. The records range from March to August so it is apparently a summer visitor. No nesting records. Duke obtained it at Nal in S. Kalat on May 18 but there are no certain records from Mekran. Circaetus gallicus (Gmel.) ‘he Short-toed Eagle, All there is on record concerning the Short-toed Eagle is St. John’s statement that it is not uncommon in Kalat and 8. Afghanistan; there is a specimen of his in the British Museum from Kandahar obtained 0 August 24. Butastur teesa (Frankl.) The White-eyed Buzzard. Radcliffe records that the White-eyed Buzzard is fairly common in the Quetta Valley in winter, not seen in summer; but St. John’s records one obtained in Quetta in the summer of 1887. I think it must be only a wanderer up to that district. All through Central Mekran and as far north as Baghwana, N. of Khozdar, it is resident or at the most a local migrant. In coastal Mekran too from Las Belas to Gwader and on to Charbar and Jask in Persian Mekran it is fairly common and is said to occur as far west as Bunder Abbas. Cumming found a nest with three eges at Jask on April 15 and he informs me that a bird at Charbar attacked a brown dove which had accidentally got under some netting, and he has seen one try to catch a sparrow. Haliaetus leucoryphus (Pall.) Pallas’ Fish Eagle. There is very little information as regards Pallas’ Fish Eagle ; Barnes records an egg which he supposed to be of this species, which was brought to him at Chaman on March 18. It occurs at Ormarra between December and April according to Cumming, but he did not know whether it bred there. Haliaetus albicilla (L.) ‘Che White-tailed Eagle. Only recorded from the Mekran coast where Planiord saw it at Gwader in December and Hume in February. Cumming has seen it at Ormarra occasion- ally in winter and I saw a magnificent adult bird at the Habb River on November 14. There are no records in the north. I have no certain record of Halzastur Indus in Baluchistan but it is almost certain to occur at least in Las Belas. Murray lists it without comment. Milvus migrans migrans (L.) The Black Kite. The Black Kite is a fairly common summer visitor to N. Baluchistan. Barnes says it arrives at Chaman early in the spring and breeds at the end of March ; Marshall obtained eggs in the hills near Quetta on Aprii 12, and Meinertz- hagen found young in Murdan on May 4. Other breeding places mentioned are Khojak, Kushncb and Ziarat. It would seem that this race replaces govinda in the higher hills but the distribution of both wants further working out. It is said to visit the Quetta Valley on passage and I found all had left Ziarat by the third week in September. Five adults examined—Chaman, Quetta, Khawash, and ‘S. Afghanistan’ appear to be typical mzgrans. Whether it breeds throughout Kalat and at all in Central Mekran is not known ; Hotson obtained one in Panjjur District on April 1, and I saw one at sea off Gwadar on March 13, so that some must pass through W. Mekran on passage. Milvus migrans govinda, Sykes. The Pariah Kite. Most observers are agreed that the Indian race is resident and breeds in the Sibi plain, Quetta valley, north to Pishin. Meinertzhagen says a number visit THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 69 the Quetta vallev too from the south during the rains ; this would be when young are on the wing. It breeds in April. Some may leave in the winter as Marshall noted they were scarcer at that season. Swinhoe records migrans from Kandahar on February 14, 1881, but this specimen, an adult, is in the British Museum and I consider it to be, by its drown streaked head, govinda, as may be alsoa young one thence on November 17. The status at Kandahar is not certain as many kites wandered thither during the Afghan War. At that time our knowledge over the rest of Baluchistan is not at all full. This Kite is common and resident in the Habb Valley and probably too in the Las Belas plain; Cumming says it wanders to Ormarra in winter, Blanford noted that kites were scarce in West Coastal Mekran at the end of January but he un- fortunately obtained no specimens. Hotson too unfortunately got none there and made no notes concerning the species which however he met with at Ornach in the Hingol Valley (EK. Central Mekran) in September and obtained a specimen. The status, if it occurs at all throughout Mekran, needs working out, though Zarudny lists it as a rare breeding species in Persian Mekran, Milvus lineatus (Gray.) The Black-eared Kite. Though unrecorded in Baluchistan this kite must surely occur. Kites were unusually common during the Afghan War of 1879 and three obtained (Juv.) at Kandahar September 13, December 18, and February 23, by their size and new brown feathers on the crown I judge to be /zmeatus. W. 480, 495, 495. In British Museum. Elanus ceruleus?ceruleus ( Desf.) The Black-winged Kite. A straggler in N. Baluchistan of which there are three or four records, adult seen July 7, immature obtained April 7, adult seen August 16, and one obtained by Griffith in ‘ Afghanistan ’ was perhaps in what is now Baluchistan. _St. John obtained it at Baghwana near Khozdar (S. Kalat) in August ; Blanford obtained it at Sonmeani on February 20, and Zugmayer at Las Belas on March 18. No records elsewhere ; status uncertain. : Circus macrourus (S.G., Gmel.) The Pallid Harrier. A fairly common winter visitor to the lower plains and valleys but commoner as a passage migrant ; Barnes noted it as very common at Chaman in the wheat fields. It passes through in March to the end of April in the Quetta valley and at Kandahar. St. John records it on spring and autumn passage in Kalat. Murray thought that it bred on the Khojak—‘ building in May’ — but this requires verification. ? | On the Mekran coast Cumming records it at Ormarra in winter and spring and Blanford obtained it at Gwadarin December. Zugmayer got it in Las Belas in March and April; it is probably not uncommon throughout the Mekran in winter and on passage. Circus pygargus (L.) Montagu’s Harrier. Montagu’s Harrier is probably a passage: migrant in small numbers in the north. ‘There is in the Quetta Museum one obtained at Baleli on April 19, 1914 (lab. macrourus) and there is one from Quetta in the British Museum ; St. John obtained one on the Khojak on September 9, 1881—perhaps the same bird. Circus cyaneus (L.) The Hen Harrier. The Hen Harrier is recorded as a fairly common winter visitor from mid- October to April and also on passage though I doubt if sight records can be trusted. I have seen several'specimens obtained in the Quetta district in winter, and one from Kandahar. There is no record in the Mekran but Hotson obtained it at Bampur in Persian Baluchistan in Deceinber, so it should occur. Circus zruginosus (L.) The Marsh Harrier. - The Marsh Harrier is fairly common in suitable spots in N. Baluchistan and Kandahar from October to March. It occurs here and there in the’ Mekran in winter. Buteo ferox ferox (S.G., Gmel). The Long-legged Buzzard. _ The statusin the north’is not clear. Radcliffe says it is resident and breeds in the Ziarat District; Barnes believed that it bred in the Chaman District ; 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXi) Murray says she found it common at Gulistan in May and obtained on May 7, two young about two weeks out of the nest. On the other hand Meinertzhagen considered it to be absent from March to August though odd birds were seen in May and St. John says that it is not seen in Kalat in the summer. I know of no actual nest having been found. If it breeds at Ziarat all had gone from there in September. Itis certainly found throughout the plains and lower valleys during the non-breeding months. Throughout central and coastal Mekran and in Kalat it is a common winter visitor. Accipiter badius cenchroides (Severtz.) The Shikra. Duke and Meinertzhagen both record the Shikra from the Quetta valley in spring and autumn ; it is not a very common bird in the north where however it must breed here and there. Thus Cumming flushed a bird off the nest in Woodcock Spinney near Quetta on June 16, 1922, and St. John cbtained it at Kandahar on June 9, where Swinhoe also got one on April 17. So too it must breed in S. Kalat as Duke secured one at Khozdar on June 12. Throughout Central Mekran it is not uncommon at least .in winter; Hotson obtained four between September 1 and December 12 and Blanford one at Bahu Kalat on the frontierin February where he found it not uncommon. It is not certain whether it breeds in central Mekran. In coastal Mekran it no doubt occurs here and there; Cumming noted it at Ormarra in March and September. Birds from central Mekran, S. Kalat, Quetta, and Kandahar (8 sp.) all belong to the race cenchroides and not to the Indian form, as also one from Wana in S. Waziristan (N.W.F.P.). Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (‘Tickell.) The Asiatic Sparrow Hawk. This race of sparrow hawk which is so widely distributed through Asia is a common winter visitor to and double passage migrant through N. Baluchistan in October and April. It is rather a scarce winter visitor to coastal Mekran and there are no records of it, though it must occur, in central Mekran. Accipiter nisus melanoschistus (Hume.) ‘The Indian Sparrow Hawk. Radcliffe records that he thinks Sparrow Hawks breed in the juniper forest at Ziarat, where Meinertzhagen also found them in June. However, I think that it is not 2zsoszmilzs which is said to breed there as the latter suggests, but this Himalayan race. There are birds in the Quetta Museum from Ziarat in July, doubtless breeding birds, and resemble well birds I obtained there in September when it was very common. All these adults are very dark blue above and also very large in size and match quite well birds from the Himalayas. M7zsoszmzlis from the plains of India are paler than the typical European race and a series measure W. ¢ 207-216, 2 240-258, and this is about the range of measurement of melanoschistus which is darker than the European bird. It is interesting to find this Himalayan bird extending to N.E. Baluchistan together with others of the Himalayan fauna. Its chief prey I found to be /smberiza stewartt. Laubmann records 4.7. pallens from Pishin-Quetta and Loralai but remarks that they are not so grey as Japanese birds. Pallens seems a somewhat doubtful race and probably his birds are mzsoszmlis. A female too from Panjgur, central Mekran with a wing of 198 mm. obtained on July 8, is also recorded as pallens. If this is sexed correctly it can hardly be a sparrow hawk at all but a Shikra which too is much more likely to be at Panjgur in July. Acctpiter virgatus said to have been obtained by Murray, I do not credit, oe two birds from Quetta recorded by St. John as Accipiter breripes are in the British Museum and are in fact Accipiter nisus nisosimtilts. Falco peregrinus calidus (Lath.) ‘The Siberian Peregrine Falcon. Peregrines are recorded as occasional winter visitors from the end of October onwards wherever jheels exist in N. Baluchistan. It would seem to be scarce and possibly some records refer to dabylonicus. There is one from Quetta in the British Museum. Cumming has noted it at Ormarra in winter, otherwise there are no records in the Mekran. ——= LTE BERS OF BRI TISE BALOCEHISTAN 71 Falco peregrinus babylonicus, Sci. The Red-capped Peregrine. This is the common falcon of N. Baluchistan and is no doubt resident though I have no records of actual nests. Meinertzhagan obtained it at Ziarat in July and saw others in June where I too saw it in September. St. John consider- ed it common in Kalat and at Kandahar. I saw it in the Quetta Valley on August 17 and there is one from there in the Quetta Museum obtained on May 24 and several in the British Museum from Kandahar, Quetta and Kalat, It occurs at Sibi in winter. At Ziarat I watched for some time some very pretty play-acting by a Shahin which was stooping in turn at each successive magpie which crossed the valley to its roosting haunt. I saw a shahin at the Habb River on November 14 and Cumming records it from Ormarra on October 21; probably a winter visitor throughout the Mekran as it is in Sind. ~Meinertzhagen records that he obtained /. peregrinator at Kushdil Khan on October 26, but, as he no longer has the specimen, he informs me he is not sure that he is correct in his identification. Falco cherrug milvipes (Hodg.) The Saker Falcon. The ‘ Cherrug’ is apparently a scarce winter visitor to N. Baluchistan. There are two specimens from Quetta in the Quetta Museum obtained in January and another from Kushdil Khan on May 17. Murray records it in May and September. No records elsewhere. All examined areof the above race, Blanford (F. B. I., iii, 422) states that St. John obtained one at Quetta ; the latter does not record it nor can I trace the specimen now. Falco jugger (Gray.) The Laggar Falcon. The status of this falcon in the north is not clear. Barnes records it as very rare at Chaman but says he sawa pair in April; St. John regarded it as not uncormmon and says he obtained it twice at Quetta; Marshall too thought it fairly common in the cold weather and located a pair nesting in a cliff in April. Swinhoe records it from Chaman in May and Murray records it in this month at several places between the Bolan and Chaman. Of recent years however no one has met with it. In S. Kalat it probably is not uncommon. Duke obtained it at Nal on May ? and Hotson too at Chuttok near Nal on August 26 ; in central Mekran at Jebri in the Mashkai Valley on August 31, and west of Kolwa on April 8; so presumably in S. Kalat and central Mekran it is resident as it must be too in Las Belas. Cumming has noted it at Ormarra. Zarudny does not list it for Persian Baluchistan whichis apparently beyond its limit of distribution. Falco subbuteo subbuteo (L.) The Hobty. I have examined a specimen in the Quetta Museum shot at Pishin-Quetta on October 1. Murray records it from Nushki and Meinertzhagen saw a pair at Ziarat on July 24. Rare; status unknown. Cumming records it as a winter visitor to Ormarra ; no other records. Falco concolor (‘Temm.) The Sooty Falcon. The addition of this falcon to the Baluchi avifauna is remarkable and un expected. Labelled as F. amurensis, I found in the Quetta Museum an undoubted specimen of /. concolor—an adult male-—; it was obtained by W. D. Cumming at Charbar cn August 31, 1912 (not October 24, 1912, as labelled). Mr. Cumming tells me that he saw another about the same time in the hills near there ; he further tells me that on May 4, 1901, after a cyclone he took two falcons alive at Ormarra, which he thought at the time were, and of course may have been, /. amurenstis ; however, they were not preserved. This is the first record north of Arabia; one recorded from Muscat (/6zs, 1886, p. 163) is in such a bad condition that it is hard to say whether it has been correctly identified or not. The Charbar bird measures W. 278, T. 133. Bill from cere 13. Ts. 33.5 Md. toe 32.5. It hassince been sent to the British Museum where Mr. Kinnear kindly compared it with Madagascar specimens, and he finds that it is a verv pale bird, but there are insufficient skins in England to define any races, ‘ 72 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Falce esalon insignis (Clark.) The Merlin. Swinhoe records the Merlin as common in winter at Kandahar: Murray says it is common everywhere north of Quetta and probably breeds in the Khojak, but this requires confirmation. He however says that a bird he examined from Mundi Hissar was a young one with underwing coverts not fully grown. Not recorded of recent years, and no records elsewhere. I have examined two from Kandahar in January and February and two from Pishin-Quetta in December and all are referrable to the above race. Falco chiquera chiquera (Daudin.) The Red-headed Merlin. Nicoll Cumming records the Red-headed Merlin from the Sibi plain where it may well oecur. Murray says he obtained it at Bibi Naniin the Bolan and also at Kili Abduila in May but even if this is correct I cannot credit his statement that it is fairly common throughout the country, if by this he means hill Baluchistan. No one has since met with it. No records elsewhere. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus (L.) ‘The Kestrel. The Kestrel is common ‘throughout N. Baluchistan and is resident asa species though very likely some are winter visitors and some summer visitors or passage migrants. It breeds plentifully in cliff faces, holes or ledges in perpendicular river banks at 5 te 10,000 feet and in old Magpie nests. Marshall records 4 fresh eggs on May 14, Betham a clutch of 5 on April 12, but at the lower elevation of Kandahar Swinhoe notes young by the beginning of April. It breeds as far south at all events as S. Kalat; in central Mekran it is common enough at least in winter and Blanford met with at as late as March 31, and I see no reason why it should not breed there since according to Cumming it is common on the Mekran Coast range round Ormarra and breeds on the headland at the end of March or early in Apri}. To the Las Belas and Sibi plains it is probably only as a winter visitor. The question is what is the breeding race of Kestrel in Paluchistan? In the North I have only seen birds from Kandahar which at the end of March one may suppose are breeding birds and these are undoubtedly of the typical race até W. 249, 250 T. 172; 2 W. 253, T. 165. All winter birds from Quetta-Pishin and Kandahar in the north and from the Mekran I consider also to belong to the typical race but whether the Mekran breeding bird is also, remains to be proved. Hlartert and Zarudny record fF. ¢. saturatus as resident in Persian Baluchistan but none from British territory appear to be of this race 6 44 W. 236-250 ; IT’. 163-172 ; 5 92 W. 244-268, T. 164-185. The largest and the smallest birds are precisely alike in colour. Columba livia neglecta (Hume.) The Rock Pigeon. ’ Kapoth’ s(Bal.).* Kattar aers) : Throughout the whole of N. Baluchistan, except perhaps in the forest area, the Rock Dove is common in most places and especially in the valleys and cliffs while in winter it congregates into huge flocks. Besides cliffs, etc., it nests freely in the underground water channels (Karezes) which at intervals have shafts leading into them ; eggs and young are recorded in May but probably as elsewhere the breeding season is a prolonged one but not extending to the winter months. Throughout central and coastal Mekran it is likewise common and _ resident and one of the characteristic birds of a small resident avifauna ; Hotson records eggs on August 21. I have examined a fair number of these birds, eight from N. Baluchistan and three from the Mekran and I consider all belong to the race weglectus the type of which came from Ladak; in Ladak are found Rock Doves with white rumps, /zzza of older authors, alongside birds with blue-grey tinged rumps (zntermedia of some authors) ; the same obtains in Kashmir, Gilgit, Punjab, Sind and in Baluchistan. In size their wings vary from 219 ‘in females to 238 in males and Baluchistan birds have the same range of measurement and colour. Laubmann records zatermedia from Gwadar ; I have seen no intermedia from Baluchistan or plains of N. W. India; it is the bird of the Indian Peninsula with dark slate rump and I should much doubt its occurrence, at Gwadar. Laubmann’s specimens (four) are small W. 211-214 but perhaps THE BIRDS. OF BRITISH BALUCHISTFAN iV. 23: they are not in good feather. North of Gwadar, near Dizak in Persian Mekran, I have seen two typical neglectus with wings 231 and 235 and here too may be found whitish or greyish rumped birds ; in the extreme east in the Habb. valley neglectus also breeds. Columba palumbus casiotis (Bonap.) The Eastern Wood Pigeon. The Wood Pigeon is fairly common in the juniper forests at 8,000 ft. at Ziarat and breeds there as it probably does on Harbdéiin Kalat ; Cumming records it from Zarghun in summer. A good many must leave the forest for the winter as very few were to be seen at Ziarat early in October ; St. John too says in the autumn it is found in the lower hills. Barnes records it at Chaman in winter, leaving for the hillsin June. Radcliffe noted it in the Zhob Valley from March to May. It seems to be only a straggler to the Quetta Valley ; Murray recorded it from Kirta, Dozan in the Bolan and Sagee. Swinhoe met with it between the Khojak and Kandahar in April. South of Kalat the only record is of one obtained at Turbat in Southern Central Mekran on November 27 by Hotson. Columba eversmanni (Bonap.) The Eastern Stock Dove. It is strange that this bird is unrecorded in British Baluchistan. One was obtained and another seen at Charbar on September 24, 1912 by W. D. Cumming and it has been obtained in April at Kandahar. Streptopelia turtur arenicola (Hart.) The Persian Turtle Dove. A straggler on passage in N. Baluchistan. Swinhoe obtained one at Quetta on May 7. Murray records it at Chaman on April 7 and on the Khojak on May 5 Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gm.). The Little Brown Dove. Chiefly a summer visitor to N. Raluchistan and widely distributed in cultivated parts up to 8,500 ft.; here and there in the lower valleys some winter while in the Sibi plain it is doubtless resident, as it is at Kandahar breeding there at the end of February. Barnes says it is absent from Chaman from October to March, which probably represent the months of departure and arrival, and breeds in April. Throughout the Nuskhi district it is a characteristic bird. ‘At Sheik Mandah near Quetta eggs are recorded on April 17 and a late brood of young on August 28. In central and coastal Mekran and in Las Belas it is one of the commonest and one of the few well distributed species and is resident ; it is particularly common in the date groves and cultivation. It extends further west than the Perso-Baluch boundary and iscommon at Charbar, Bampur, said to occur at Bunder Abbas and has been recorded even in Iraq. Eleven examined from Baluchistan and Kandahar; there is no doubt that the breeding bird belongs to the race cambayensis,; their wings measure 125-131'5 as in a topo-typical series. ‘lwo from Kandahar in March .may belong to the larger Turkestan race ermannz ; they measured 135 and 139 mm. but a female shot also at Kandahar on the same day is the smallest of any —125 mm. Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Fulv.) The Indian Ring Dove. ‘Jungli-Kapoth.’ (Bal.). A summer visitor to N. Baluchistan arriving in the second week of March and leaving in October, the Indian Ring-Dove is very common: eggs are recorded from end of April to end of June. It is not found above 6,000 ft. and only occasional birds are seen in winter. In Kandahar and Sibi plains however it is resident ; it is common enough in the Nushki district in April. A common and characteristic bird of central and coastal Mekran and Las Belas and is resident; its distribution extends a long way westward of course. Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes.) The Indian Rufous Turtle Dove. Meinertzhagen informs me that he obtained two on passage at Quetta on October 1 and June 3. 10 74. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII (Enopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Herm.) ‘The Red Turtle Dove. Murray recorded this Dove from Sibi where it may well occur as a hot weather visitor ; it is quite likely to occur in Las Belas too. Pterocles orientalis (L). The Imperial Sand Grouse. The Imperial Sand Grouse is a resident and also a passage migrant in N. Baluchistan. During September and October enormous numbers pass through the Quetta District doubtless bound for the Punjab and N. Sind, etc., the return passage taking place in March and April. At lower elevations however it is common in winter; Swinhoe records it as plentiful all the year in the plains west of the Khojak and Hotson found it in numbers coming to water at Nushki on December 15, when a bag of 67 was made; it is common too in the Sibi plain at this season. It is he common winter Sandgrouse in the Zhob and Loralai districts from early September to mid-March. Some breed round Quetta ; there is a half grown chick in the Quetta Museum obtained on September 12, and Capt. Hanna tells me he saw chicks there in July. Numbers breed at Chaman in May (Barnes) and eggs are recorded thence on June 29. Meinertzhagen has seen them in pairs at Kushdilkhan on July 29, where too W. D. Cumming saw numbers coming to drink on June 28. In the Zhob Valley it is recorded in Apriland May. Under Harbéi Hotson met with it on July 2. South of Kalat it must breed also; Zugmayer obtained it on July 13, at Panjgur and Hotson found pairs in several places in this district at the end of April. It is the common Sand-Grouse of the Persian Highlands. Pterocles lichtensteini tichtensteini (Temm.) The Close-barred Sand Grouse. In North Baluchistan the status of this Sand Grouse is not clear; D. Radcliffe believes that he saw it once. Tufnell records that two were shot and several seen on the Bhor Plain (locality?) in 1879. Newnham records it from near Quetta. It must I think be rare and Kalat and N. E. Baluchistan mostly too high for it. Throughout central and coastal Mekran however it is in places common and resident affecting as elsewhere rocky desert and scrub at the foot hills. Hotson met with it at Mand and at many places in the Panjgur and Kolwas Districts in April and July and records it as far north as Zayah in Kharan where it must breed (obtained June 27). Cumming has found it in rocky nullahs near Ormarra and it occurs on the Pabb Hills in Las Belas up to the Sind boundary. It extends to Persian Mekran on the one side and to Sind west of the Indus on the other. I cannot recognize an Asiatic race of this Sand Grouse ; the markings are subject to great individual variation, some are coarsely barred, others more finely in both Asiatic and the typical bird and in both sexes also there isa yellowish and a greyish type in both ; in both the size is alike; I have examined all the specimens in the British Museum and Tring Museum and my own collection—a large series in all. Pterocles coronatus atratus (Hart.) The Coronetted Sand Grouse. Barnes considered the Coronetted Sand Grouse to be less common than the Imperial in the neighbourhood of Chanian but a few breed there. He found two nests on April 30 and in May ; the nests were just depressions scratched out by the birds in the open plain. It appears nowhere to be common in the north ; it is recorded from the Zhob Valley in January and Lt. Searight met with two flocks there on October 4, 1924. ‘There is a specimen in the Quetta Museum from Said Hamid obtained on December 23 ; Tufnell in 1881 recorded it from ‘Vitakri years azo.’ St. John on the other hand says this is the only small Sand Grouse in S. Afghanistan and generally distributed in smail lots and that between Kandahar and the Helmund in July it was common. I havea recent record of it at Chaman in July and there is an egg in the British Museum taken there on May 27, 1908. In central and coastal Mekran it is according to Hotson the commonest small Sand Grouse, moving about locally in the cold weather. Apart from winter records he met with it at Teghat W. of Khozdar in the valley of the Dhor on August 26th and saw several flocks at Harbud S. E. of Panjgur on April 27. Barnes’ eggs measured 38 X 26°75 and 41-* 27:3; shell fine with moderate gloss, creamy white with blotches and streaks of washed-out yellow-brown and ——— THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 75 pale sepia. Anegg in the Quetta Museum obtained (addled) at Panjgur by Mr. Wilson of the I. E. T. may be of this species also; the ground colour is almost white and it has a few pale lilac grey spots all over ; it measures 42 X 29. Pterocles alchatus caudacutus (Gmel.) The Large Pin-tailed Sand Grouse. Barnes thought that this Sand Grouse was resident at Chaman though he never found its nest, but in suitable places throughout N. Baluchistan it is a common Spring and Autumn passage migrant in early March and in November ; Meinertzhagen gives Said Hamid as the best place in the Quetta District. St. John considered it not so generally distributed as the Imperial and a more strictly desert bird ; it must breed on and over the Afghan boundary as he noted it between Kandahar and the Helmund in July. To the Sibi plain it is probably a winter visitor as it is found in enormous flocks round Jacobabad at that time. In Lower Baluchistan records are lacking save that Laubmann records one from Panjgur, Central Mekran, on July 13, 1911 so it apparently breeds there too. Pterocles senegalensis erlangeri (Neum.) ‘The Common Sand Grouse. There is very little information concerning this Sand Grouse in N. Baluchistan Marshall says it passes through the Quetta District in September and October and D. Radcliffe also mentions it as a Spring and Autumn passage migrant ; it is doubtless found as a resident in the Sibi plain. All along the Mekran coast and in Las Belas plain it is common and resident. Hotson obtained it on the Persian boundary at Mand otherwise I have no records of it in central Mekran, Jhalawan or S. Kalat ; it would appear to avoid the more hilly country. Pterocles senegallus (L.) The Spotted Sand Grouse. ‘Kuttu’ (Bal.) There are very few records of the Spotted Sand Grouse in the hill country of N. Baluchistan ; one in the Quetta Museum was obtained at Said Hamid on November 26. However at the entrance to the Bolan Pass and in the foot hills of the Sibi plain it is common enough and doubtless resident. In S. Kalat Hotson met with it at Surab in August. Throughout Coastal Mekran it is met with here and there and is resident moving about but locally. Hotson came across it in the valley of the Nihing in May; it extends into Persian Baluchistan (Jask, Pahrah) and to Bampur but not to the Persian Highlands. Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis (Brandt.) The See see. The See see is common and resident in N. Baluchistan in all suitable country ; it avoids the open plains of course and is not found as high as the forest area but I have seen it at 7,000 ft. and it may be found at much lower elevations than the Chukar is. It especially delights in broken rocky ground at foot hills and the borders of cultivation in the smaller valleys. It occurs too all the way down the Bolan Pass to an elevation very little above that of the Sibi plain. It nests in mid April and May. Throughout central and coasta) Mekran it is common enough also, especially in the lower hills and stony ravines about the bases of the higher ranges. In the hills near the coast it may be found at quite low elevations. During the heat of the day Hotson found that these birds shelter in the Karez pits or openings to the underground water channels. In the south nests may be found by the middle of March. I have examined a good series from Baluchistan. They vary very much in coloration but are not distinguishable from the typical race. Alectoris greca koraikovi (Zar.) The Chukar. ‘Kabak.'’ - (Pers. Bal.) In the North the Chukar is common throughout the hill country up to 11,000 ft. and in some places exceedingly abundant ; it is very resident hardly moving down at all in winter and so is not found in the lower valleys and plains. The home of the Chukar may be said to be the hillsides above 7,000 ft. where a few bushes, grasses, and other plants are dotted about on the boulder strewn slopes of the higher ranges ; from here they work their way down to some “76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1 stream in the hill valley to drink about 8 a.m. and also to feed in the adjoining cultivation. But in some seasons they are equally at home in the juniper forest (8 9,000 ft.) ; in 1919—a bad Chukar year—they were practically absent from the Ziarat forests. The breeding season begins in mid-April and 6 to 9 eggs are recorded but nests of 15-20 which are said to occur (Barnes) may be the _product of two hens. Chukar may still be found, but not so commonly as of yore, on Gatacre and Kitchener Hills close to Quetta and they certainly breed there (6,000 ft.) The gathering together of coveys to drink at favourite places is made use of in Chukar. shooting ; the birds must water every day and so if kept off their drinking places by beaters all the Chukar on the hillside may be found scattered about in coveys on the lower slopes near the stream. This does not sound a very sportsmanlike procedure but if a bag isto be made at all it is the only way ; the area is so vast and climbing and walking so difficult and exhausting that without some concentrating of the birds but few coveys would ever be found. In good years some exceptional bags have been made on the best grounds ; thus near Khawash Col. Ramsay informed me that he and two other guns shot over 700 in two mornings shoot. In 1919, a bad year, I shot with Col. Ramsay and the late Major Finnis on the same ground and our bag was only 54. Heavy spring rains are one cause of bad Seasons and the other is a very dry winter and spring. Thus in 1902 the birds kept in packs all the summer and never bred as there was no grass seeds, etc. for the young ; the old birds subsisted by digging up roots and the hillsides were scored by burrows 4 to 6 inches deep in places which they had excavated out for this purpose. Throughout the hills of Central Makran and in the Coastal Makran ranges as low as 3,000 ft. (in Persian Baluchistan as low as 1,600 ft.) this Partridge is common while in Las Belas it occurs in the Khirthar and its outliers, the Pabb and Khuda ranges. I have examined the following specimens, Quetta District6, Kalat 6, Panjgur 1 Khirthar (Sind) 3, Persian Makran 2 (topotypes) and all appear to me to be the same though there is some individual variation, and I assign them all to Zarudny’s race koriakov1. Wings 148-164 mm. Birds from the Suleiman Range in the extreme N.E. I have not seen. Francolinus francolinus bogdanowi (Zar.) The Black Partridge. ‘Port.’ (Bal.) In the North the Black Partridge is found in cultivation and suitable jungle, in some places, up to 3,000 ft. It is common enough on the Sind frontier and at the other end of the plain in the Sibi District and is found in the Marri and Bugti country below 3,000 ft. In the Loralai District it apparently reaches up to 5,000 ft. and is found at Gumbaz, Mekhtar, Musa Khel, Toi Sar and eastward of this line according to Lt. Searight. I have no records from the “Bolan but it occurs as far as Babar Kach in the Harnai Valley ; odd records of birds in the Quetta Valley are doubtless due to escapes. It occurs again in the Kandahar District. In S. Kalat it occurs as far north at all events as Khozdar (3,000 ft.) and St. John says even to 4,000 ft. In central and coastal Mekran it is common in many of the valleys such as those of the Habb, Dhor, Mashkai, Hingol and Nihing Rivers. The Sibi plain and Las Belas birds are almost certain to belong to the Sind ‘race henrici but I have not examined any. I have examined twelve birds, those from W. Coastal Makran. (Dasht. R.) Central Makran (Mand, Nihing River, Buleda District, Kolwa District), are dogdanowz ; 3 birds from Hingol River S. Kalat and Jhalawan are rather intermediate between henrici and bogdanowt. Many of Zarudny’s points of diagnosis of this race do not hold good but I think that d0gdanowz7 is distinguishable through its paler coloring and paler neck ring from henrici. Wing 10 ¢¢ 153-164, 2 29 156-160. Francolinus pondicerianus mecranensis. (Zar.) The Grey Partridge. The Grey Partridge is found in suitable spots round the Sibi plain and in the lower end of the Bolan to Kundilani: Col. Ramsay informs me that it occurs too in the lower hills of the Marri and Bugti country. Ball records it from the valleys of the Suleimans and Lt. Searight informs me it is very numerous on the Rakhni plain below Fort Munroe and is found in the Loralai District in the same localities as given for the Black Partridge. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 77 Common in Las Belas it extends throughout coastal and central Mekran in suitable scrub jungle to Pe1sian Baluchistan and on to Lars and Bunder Abbas in E. Persia. It occurs in S. Kalat and Hotson found it at Wad 4,000 ft. in Jhalawan and in the valley of the Mashkai at Pirander 2,000 ft., but it does not as arule appear to ascend as high as the Black Partridge does. Ten examined from Jhalawan and Mashkai Valley west to Persian Baluchistan and all belong to the paler greyer form described from the last locality. None seen from the Sibi district or Las Belas which may be zuter- positus or .intermediate between the two races as are some from S. W. Sind. | Coturnix coturnix coturnix (L.) The Quail. ‘Kurrak’ (Bal.) In the North the Quail is chiefly a passage migrant and in small numbers, a few however must breed as a nest with eggs 1s recorded by Meinertzhagen | taken by anative near Quetta at the end of May; at Kandahar Swinhoe recorded that the Quail arrives at the end of March and St. John says it breeds there in April and May inthe cultivation and in similar places elsewhere as perhaps at Fort Sandeman, where birds have been seen in May though it is chiefly a passage migrant there in April and September. In Coastal Mekran it is a passage migrant in mid-August to the end of September, at times fairly plentiful while a few over winter. W. D. Cumming tells me that on August 20, 1901 a flight attracted by lights entered the offices of the telegraph station at Ormarra and many were also killed by the wire cable round the compound. In Central Mekran it has only been noted on passage. Coturnix coromandelica (Gm.) The Rain Quail. The Rain Quail is only recorded from the Habb Valley where Le Messurier saw old and young on September Ist. Probably some occur every good monsoon. Marshall records in the Quetta-Pishin Gazette that another Quail, other than the common, is occasionally seen in the hills but none has been shot. On October 2, 1912 W. D. Cumming saw at Charbar a Quail of a species quite unknown to him. Rallus aquaticus korejewi (Zar.) The Water Rail. A straggler in winter to N. Baluchistan; only records :—one near Pishin January, 1899, Quetta two in November, one in December, one March 1]. Porzana parva (Scop.) The Little Crake. St. John obtained the Little Crake in the autumn at Quetta. Swinhoe found it rather common near Kandahar and obtained specimens in February and March. There is in the British Museum one from the Bolan Pass where Murray records it as common. There is a specimen in the Quetta Museum from Quetta August 31. (lab. puszlla). Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pall.) The Eastern Baillon’s Crake. Baillon’s Crake isa passage migrant in N. Baluchistan in August and September, probably not uncommon. Barnes noted it as abundant at Chaman in September ; St. John met with it at Quetta in the autumn. Two specimens obtained August 24 in different years are in the Quetta Museum. It has been obtained at Nushki in September and at Chagai on October 7. | Status in Lower Baluchistan unknown ; probably a winter visitor as in Sind. One was obtained by Butler in Mekran, ‘and one by Hotson on September 10 at Sib on the Persian side. Porzana porzana (L.) The Spotted Crake. Status probably similar to last. There are specimens in Quetta Museum October 1 and November 1. W. D. Cumming obtained it at Ormarra in Mekran on September 20. Zurudny’s Porzana p. maculipennis described from Seistan appears to be an aberration. 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXII Gallinula chloropus parvifrons (Blyth.) The Waterhen. St. John obtained one at Kandahar in April; Barnes had several brought to him at Chaman in March; Murray got it there April 31. In Lower Baluchistan, Blanford obtained it on the Persian side at Sibi March 26, and Hotson saw it at Harbud Central Mekran on April 27. Mr. Ludlow has a clutch of 6 eggs from Sirunda jheel, Las Belas, taken on June 20, 1915 which certainly seem to be of this species. Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus (Lath.) The Purple Waterhen. ‘ Bistuni.”: (Pers:) Porphyrio poliocephalus seistanicus Sar and Harms. The Seistan Purple Water- hen. It is possible that afew Purple Waterhens may be resident in the Quetta district ; Marshall records seeing 7 or 8 in thick reeds in a small river near Quetta in August and thought that they bred there; Barnes records that it is a straggler at Chaman after rain (September 10). St. John says a few occur yearly in the autumn at Quetta. Swinhoe obtained it at Kandahar in March whence Murray also received specimens. In suitable jheels in the Sibi District it doubtless occurs. It is recorded from Nushki in January. Further south, however, it is commoner. Hotson met with it numerously in August and September in the valley of the Mashkai and northwards to Kalat as high as 5,190 ft. Hemet with it too in the valley of the Hingol at Korak (Kolwa) and Rekin (Arawan) on April 18. It is common also in Las Belas. I have examined 4 Baluchi specimens ; two females near Kalat measure W. 268 and 258, and must, if sexed correctly, be sezstanicus and a Nushki male. W. 269 is probably also of this race. One from the Hingol River however, is too small W. 242 and must be placed under the typical race as almost certainly too will be found to be the Las Belas and Sibi birds. Fulica atra (L.) The Coot. The Coot is a non-breeding visitant to N. Baluchistan, common enough on larger sheets of water (Kushdil Khan, Seranan, etc.) while odd ones occur in the small rivers also. At Kandahar and Cnaman it has been noted on passage in February and March. Common in suitable spots in the Sibi district. Though no doubt, the majority are winter visitors quite a number remain throughout the summer; it has been noted on Khushdil by Meinertzhagen and W. D. Cumming in May, June and July, and it has been obtained at Sibi at the end of May. One which Cumming obtained at the end of June was flightless through moult. In Mekran it doubtless occurs in suitable waters though there are few records; W. D. Cumming obtained it at Ormarra in November and December, Megalornis grus. ‘The Common Crane, Cranes are recorded migrating north over the Quetta district. In the Mekran too Blanford saw them performing a similar migration. Hotson noted the first arrivals in S. Kelat on September 24 to 30. Probably here also a passage migrant; but there are so few records anywhere that the status is uncertain. A. virgo probably also occurs, but there are no positive records. Tetrax tetrax orientalis (Hart.) The Little Bustard. Swinhoe obtained a Little Bustard at Kandahar; Murray records one from near there on November 13. Cumming obtained one at Ormarra in Mekran in 1904 and its wings are inthe British Museum. Evidently a rare straggler anywhere. Otis tarda has been obtained in S. Afghanistan at Bala on the Murghab R. but not so far in Baluchistan. Chiamydotis undulata macqueeni (Gray.) The Houbara. ‘Charz’ and‘ Charras.’ (Bal). ‘ Thukder,’ ‘ Thukderri.’ (Pers.) The Houbara occurs in N. Baluchistan mostly as a passage migrant, but here and there in the valleys and plains some may be met with in winter. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 79 It has been found at the end of March and in April in large numbers especially on the plains between Pishin and the Kwaja Amran ; Meinertzhagen records that 60 were shot there in one day by 4 guns. It passes through again in the autumn, while to the Sibi Plain it is a winter visitor in suitable places, as also noted by Masson over eighty years ago. Throughout the Mekran it is found in winter in fair numbers wherever there are sandy plains and scrub jungle, and it even frequents the sandhills of the coast, while cultivation such as rape, etc., or date groves are an attraction ; so too is water. Cumming tells me he has seen 12 or 15 of these birds at a time in the vicinity of shallow rain-pools in the sandhills waiting to come to drink (5.30 p.m.). When the water fails they will come in to drink at spills from wells But in the Mekran some, however, nest. Hotson obtained one at Nikin Daf, 53 miles out on the Panjgur-Kalat road on June 8, and had a half grown young one brought in alive oa June 11 at Panjgur. Cumming too has met with a family party; he tells me that once at Ormarra six were driven towards him, two adults and four small ones; unsuspicious of his presence, the male ran on and went behind a bush and then faced round to the others, working his neck plumes to cover and uncover the white in front, waiting until the female ran up which then went through a similar performance whilst the male took charge. Cumming further informs me that his predecessor at Ormarra had Houbara chicks brought in. Sypheotides indica (Gmel.) =aurita auct. The Florican. The Florican occurs at least in the eastern part of Coastal Mekran in some years. Le Messurier records that on October 3, 15 were shot on the Baluchi side of the HabbR., and that one at least was only ‘ nearly fledged’ and all were in brown dress. Cumming once came across a couple at Ormarra and obtained one. Hotson too obtained one in the river bed of the Hingol R. at Gilion September 10. Probably it is a rain visitor as in Lower Sind. (Edicnemus edicnemus astutus (Hart.) The Stone Curlew. ‘Kurwanak ’. In N. Baluchistan the Stone Curlew is probably not so rare as records indicate and its status is doubtful. Marshall obtained it in March, Meinertzhagen got a pair in the Popalzai Forest on April 9; W. D. Cumming tells me he has seen recent footprints of this bird at Sheik Mandah near Quetta on July 16. Lt. Searight informs me that he saw these at Loralai on March 13, 1925, and that one at Kuria Wasta on May 23, 1924, certainly had young. I have examined two in the Quetta Museum obtained at Saranan on October 12, and at Mithri near Sibi October 25, and both these belong to the race astutus, as does one in the British Museum from Gandaka (Sibi plain) ; in this last locality it is probably not uncommon and resident. In Central Mekran it must be fairly common as it was well known to Mr. Wilson of the Indo-Persian Telegraphs at Panjgur, and the natives there nad the above name for it. Throughout Coastal Mekran it is fairly common ; Cumming met with it fairly often at Ormarra and Charbar, and found a nest at the former place on April 16. The only Mekran bird I have seen comes from Gili in the Hingol valley ; this is a tresh moulted bird and is far more rufus than any astutws 1 have ever seen, and I cannot pick it out from a series of sahare / It isa male W. 236 B. 32. It may benoted I have recorded both these races from Iraq; these Asiatic Stone Curlews want further study with more material. Esacus recurvirostris (Cuv.) The Great Stone Plover. : The Great Stone Plover extends its range at least as far as Ormarra along the Mekran coast where W. D. Cumming has met withit. It breeds at Sonmeani whence I have seen eggs in Mr. Ludlow’s collection taken in June. Swinhoe found a nest in the Habb R. near Minad Khan on May 24. It doubtless breeds in other suitable places. aad Dromas ardeola Paykuki. The Crab Plover. Bishop obtained three on the Mekran coast in°January and Cumming shot one on the beach at Ormarra on September 4. Probably a rather uncommon winter visitor. 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmel.) ‘The Indian Courser. The only record within our area relates to birds shot by Cumming at Roumii in the Pabb Hills, Las Belas. It should occur throughout Las Belas in suitable places as it is common in the plains on the Sind side of the Habb Valley. Cursorius cursor cursor (Lath) = gellicus. The Cream-coloured Courser. Brahui. ‘ Askalo’. This courser would seem to be uncommon, judging by the records, in N. Beluchistan ; Barnes says it was not often met with at Chaman; Marshall obtained it in September ; W. D. Cumming has seen it near Quetta in September and October ; St. John met with it at Pishin in August. Meinertzhagen came across a few pairs near Quetta in April and one in the Quetta Museum was obtained therein March. At Sibi it occurs and might well breed in the plain and the same applies to the Nushki plain where Hotson found it at Munchi Chah. T.P..on April 18. In S. Kalat and Central Mekran it is evidently not uncommon as Hotson came across it there a good many times in August and September. Along the Mekran coast it occurs in suitable places and Cumming notes it as a winter visitor August to April at Ormarra but at Jask on the Persian side he had eggs brought him on March 1 which he considered were of this species. I cannot differentiate an Indian race of this courser. Glareola pratincola pratincola (L.) The Pratincole. Swinhoe obtained one at Bibi Nani in the Bolan Pass on May 18, 1881 and St. John got another at Kandahar, April 23, 1879. Otherwise no other records in N. Baluchistan, though Cumming tells me he thought he saw it at Khusdil- khan June 27, 1923. It probably breeds at the Sirunda theel in I.as Belas, as a shikari, whom Mr. Ludlow sent there, and who knew the birds well in the Sind colonies, reported that he saw them there in May. Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scop.) The Pheasant-tailed Jacana. One was seen near Quetta by Meinertzhagen, doubtless a straggler, on July 11. It should, however, occur in jheels near Sibi, as it is common in N. Sind. Arenaria interpres interpres (L.) The Turnstone. Not uncommon on the coast of the Mekran, associating with other surf- feeding waders. Latest date May 25. No records inland. Lobivanellus indicus aigneri (Laub.) The Red-wattled Lapwing. Falco ix, p. 30, 1913—Sonmeani in Las Belas. The Red-wattled Lapwing is not very common in N. Baluchistan, but a few pairs are probably resident in the Quetta district. Both Meinertzhagen and myself have met with pairs on the Lora R. in August, and Cumming has seen them there in June and also at Khusdilkhan. Radcliffe saw a few at Ziarat in June and July. Barnes considered it uncommon at Chaman owing to lack of water but founda nest on May 10. Ball records it from the higher parts of the Suleimans 3-5,000 it. in July where it must also breed. It is common and resident on the Anumbar River from Wahar to Gumbaz (Loralai District). There are scattered records from Quetta in winter. According to Swinhoe it is common at Kandahar and in the Bolan Pass, while at Sibi it is of course, plentiful, as it is in parts of Kalat. As regards Central Mekran, information is lacking, but it is sure to occur. From the Habb R. through Las Belas and along the Mekran coast it is resident in suitable places and thence extends to Persian Baluchistan, Persia (Henjam, Bunder Abbas, Shiraz,) Muscat and to Iraq. I have already (/dzs, 1923, pp. 665-6) dealt. fully with this race. Briefly it has less green and purple sheens than the typical race and averages very slightly larger. Murray records the Yellow-wattled Lapwing Sarciophorus malabaricus from Soriab and Quetta as not uncommon in the last week of March ; as by this date the fivst have only just reached Lower Sind, and asI have on records of this species from Upper Sind at all, it isextremely unlikely to be found at 5,000 ft. in the Quetta valley. It may, however, well occur in Las Belas. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 81 Vanellus vanellus (L..) The Lapwing. The Lapwing occurs in the Quetta Valley, Kandahar and in suitable spots in Kalat as a winter visitor, sometiznes in large flocks; earliest record August 2. In Mekran, Hotson met with it at Turbat in the Nihing Valley on November 28, otherwise there are no records though it probably occurs in suitable places. Chettusia gregaria (Pall.) The Sociable Lapwing. Barnes noted the Sociable Lapwing as very uncommon at Chaman ; Murray records it thence in April. Chettusia leucura (Licht.) The White-tailed Lapwing. The. White-tailed Lapwing occurs in the Quetta Valley chiefly as a spring and autumn passage migrant, but it has also been obtained in December. To Kandahar, however, it is a common witter visitor, as it is in Kalat and probably to the Sibi plain in suitable spots; earliest record September 11. it should occur in winter in the watery parts of the Mekran and Las Belas, but the only records come from the Persian Mekran in March and Noveinber. Squatarola squatarola squatarola (L.) The Grey Plover. A not uncommon winter visitor to the coast of the Mekran. Mostly singly or in pairs as a rule. Pluviatis apricarius (I..) The Golden Plover. One was obtained by Blanford at Gwadar in December. Murray records that he saw. P. d. fulvus near Sibi. It should occur, but I have no positive record ; it has been obtained at Kalati-Ghilzai in S. Afghanistan and at Karachi. The European bird is but a vagrant. Charadrius leschenaulti (Less.) Geoffroy’s Sand Piover. Charadrius mongolus atrifrons (Wagler.) The Mongolian Sand Plover. Both these Sand-Plovers were obtained according to Mr. Finn on the 1896 Baluchi-Afghan Boundary Expedition ; no locality given. The larger species has been obtained at Quetta in March, a flock of six were noted, doubtless on passage. Poth species are common on the coast of the Mekran in winter, Charadrius dubius curonicus (Gmel.) The Little Ringed Plover. Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge). The Indian Little Ringed Plover. The Little Ringed Plover is fairly common in suitable spots throughout N. Baluchistan ; to the Quetta District it is a summer visitor arriving at the end of February or early March and leaves in August; it breeds freely round such waters as Khushdil Khan and on the gravelly stretches of the Lora R. Meinertzhagen thus records them and noted eggs in the first half of June. At lower altitudes, St. John indicates that it is a winter visitor, as he says that this and the Kentish Plover are common in cold weather ‘ beyond the passes ’. Swinhoe too found it at that season at Kandahar whence it disappears in April. Throughout Central and Coastal Makran and S. Kalat it certainly occurs not uncommonly, but all records and specimens relate to dates between August 25 and April 15 so it is uncertain whether it breeds or not. In Las Belas I believe it .breeds, however. I shot a pair in the Habb R. on June 16, which had the appearance of having bred. As regards the races which occur ; three March birds from the Quetta District which I have examined are certainly curonicus, as are two April birds in Meinertzhagen’s collection, and he tells me that he was in error in recording them as jerdoni ; spring and autumn birds from S. Baluchistan also are all curonicus. The only jerduni I have seen from Baluchistan are the above recorded birds from the Habb Valley. Charadrius alexandrinus alfexandrinus (L.) ‘Tne Kentish Plover. The status of the Kentish Plover in N. Baluchistan is much the same as that of the Little Ringed Plover; it arrives according to Meinertznagen in the Quetta District early in April and leaves in September. It nests freely at Kushdil Khan on the dried muddy margins and islands of the Jheel; eggs were. found by Meinertzhagen on May 18 and June 2, on the latter date a 11 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1 clutch of four. Cumming found several nests with 1 to 3 eggs on June 26. To Kandahar it is a winter visitor. In the rest of Baluchistan it is recorded from the Mekran Coast where it appears to bea common resident though the only note of an actual nest is from Jask on the Persian side (young 10 days old on May 24). In Las Belas I found a pair or two on June 16 in the Habb Valley which seemed to have finished breeding. It must occur here and there in Central Mekran but the only record is from Isfandak on the border where Blanford obtained one on March 8. Hoematopus ostralegus longipes (But.) The Oyster-catcher. The only record inthe north is Meinertzhagen’s who has seen this bird at Kushdil on April 29 and May i7. A winter visitor to the whole of the Mekran Coast in variable numbers. Himantopus himantopus himantopus (L.) The Stilt. To the very few suitable localities the Stilt is a summer visitor in variable numbers in the north. It breeds at Kushdil Khan where Meinertzhagen found nests in 1913 and 1914 and Cumming in 1923. It arrives early in March and leaves in August; at Kandahar it is common too in March but there is no information as to whether it breeds there Full cultches are recorded on June 10 and June 17 in different years. Many eggs get taken by natives and at times many are destroyed by sudden rising of the waters. I have no record of the Stilt breeding on the Mekran Coast except in Las Belas ; here at the great Sirunda Jheel at Sonmeania good many nest on the dried margins. Ludlow has eggs taken there on May 20 and I have young in down thence taken July 13 ; here it is practically resident but in the rest of the Mekran it is a fairly common winter visitor. Recurvirostra avocetia avocetta (L.) The Avocet. Meinertzhagen records that a tew pairs arrive at Khushdil early in March and that in 1913 one pair bred; after disturbing the nest the eggs were transported by the birds across the lake (600 yards) to the other side ! None bred in 1914 and in 1923 Cumming saw a fairly large flock on June 26 which was very wild so presumably were not breeding. No doubt variations in local conditions determine whether any breed or not. Murray records it at Sibi in March otherwise there are no other records in the north. To the Mekran Coast it is said to be a winter visitor in smali numbers. Limosa limosa limosa (L.) The Black-tailed Godwit. It is peculiar there are so few records of this bird in N. Baluchistan ; Marshall obtained one at Babar Kach in March. Murray records it in the Bolan Pass in March and April; at Kandahar Swinhoe found it numerous on passage in March. Noone seems to have met with it in recent years but surely it must occur? It is fairly common in Central and Coastal Mekran in suitable spots in September and October (earliest September 4) and probably it overwinters but records are lacking. Limosa lapponica lapponica (L.) The Bar-tailed Godwit. There is specimen from Baluchistan in the British Museum ; doubtless from the Mekran Coast where it should be numerous in winter. Numenius arquata lineatus Cuv. The Curlew. The Curlew does not seem to halt much on passage in N. Baluchistan as Meinertzhagen considered it uncommon, he met with it only on April 9, August 12 and September 30. Capt. Hannainforms me he heard many passing over Chaman on the night of July 31, 1919. There is one in the Quetta Museum from Saranan on April 9. There are no records from the rest of Baluchistan save from the Mekran coast where it is fairly common in the mangrove swamps in winter. Numenius pheopus pheopus (L.) The Whimbrel. I can find no record of the Whimbre! in the north where it surely must sometimes occur on passage. Some winter on-the Mekran Coast but it THE BIRDS'OF BRITISH BALOCHISTAN®~ 83 probably is commoner on passage there. W. D. Cumming informed me that both Whimbrel and Curlew on the Mekran sometimes come inland and feed in the sandhills. Hotson obtained one at Sibi on the Persian Mekran on September 9. Phalaropus lobatus (L.) The Red-necked Phalarope. The Red-necked Phalarope must occur annually on autumn passage in N. Baluchistan. Barnes met with itin September and St. John on October 19 at Chaman ; there is a specimen from Kusndil in the Quetta Museum obtained on September 10 and Cumming picked up a dead bird near Quetta on Septem- ber 23 ; at Sibi I haveseen it on October 8. On spring passage it is recorded on March 6 and 28, April 30 and on May 5. As in Sind so in S. Kalat, Jnalawan, and Central Mekran it is not uncommon on autumn passage, Hotson meeting with several small lots at various places between September 2 and October 4. Having reached their winter quarters few linger on land on the Mekran coast but Cumming once saw a pair in a rain water pool at Ormarra. At sea off the Mekran coast it is an excessive- ly abundant winter visitor though its distribution is patchy ; onemay steam for hours and never see one and then come across flock after flock each con- taining 100 or more individuals and they are always very wild allowing no boat to come within 200 yards asarule. Sometimes they come as near the land as Ormarra May but they are more often met with 4 to 10 miles and even to 30 miles from the coastline, as soon however as very deep water (over 200 fathoms) is reached not one is to be seen. Butler records them from this coast as late as May 20 but asin Sind few or none appear to halt on spring passage inland in Mekran. Numerous off the coast by mid-November Hume’s notes under Phalaropus fulicarius (S.F. vol.i) and Blanford’s (Eastern Persia, vol. ii, p. 284) all refer in reality to the above species. Limicola falcinella falcinella (Pont.) The Broad-billed Sandpiper. Occurs throughout the Mekran Coast in winter where it is probably quite common. Hotson obtained it on passage on the Rhotak River on August 3 but there are no other records away from the coast, but it is likely to occur on passage. Terekia cinerea (Gulden.) The Terek Sandpiper. Recorded from Sonmeani and Ormarra on the Mekran in winter; probably common along the whole coast line. No records elsewhere. Erolia minuta minuta (Leisl.) The Little Stint. ‘ Tanki’, Baluch for small waders. A double passage migrant in N. Baluchistan, passing in numbers in April (latest date May 28) and again in September and October; a few are said to over-winter. In Central Mekran the only records refer to September and April so it is probably a passage migrant ; on the Mekran Coast it winters in numbers having arrived there by mid-September. Erolia temminckii (Leisl.) Temminck’s Stint. There are curiously few records of this very common Indian bird but this is probably due to its being overlooked. Hotson obtained it on the Nihing River in winter and Blanford and myself met with it in the Habb Valley in October and November. Erolia alpina alpina (L.) The Duntin. In N. Baluchistan it has only been noted at Khushdil Khan and Quetta on passage on November 30 and in third week of May; it may be commoner on passage than records indicate. Very common on the Mekran Coasts in winter but unrecorded elsewhere. Erolia ferruginea {Briin.) The Curlew Sandpiper. Meinertzhagen found it common at Khushdil Khan on May 16 to 20 ; Murray records it from Quetta on March 22. It occurs in winter on the Mekran Coast. Erolia canutus canutus (L.) The Knot. Meinertzhagen obtained a solitary bird at Khushdil on March 26 the only record for Baluchistan and India. 84 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATORATA IHS TSO GlEATIG. Veln XOGay) Erolia tenuirostris (Horsf.) he Great Knot. The Great Knot was seen by Hume near Gwadar in winter ; this is the only record but it probably occurs in other places on the Mekran Coast although it is unknown anywhere west of Gwadar. Calidris alba (Pall.) The Sanderling. Only recorded from the actual coast line of Mekran where it is abundant in winter. The Sanderling must be capable of immense flights, it has never been found on passage on land in India. Machetes pugnax (L.) The Ruff. A spring and autumn passage migrant in N. Baluchistan, not uncommon in suitable spots. Marshall obtained one in February but most pass through the Quetta Valley in March and the same applies to Kandahar. Odd birds are recorded from Khushdil Khan in December ; it has been noted on passage again in October. Both in Central and Coastal Mekran it has been obtained in September and in winter. Totanus totanus eurhinus (Oberh.) The Redshank. In N. Baluchistan the common Redsnank does not appear to be very com- mon. Meinertzhagen only noted it twice—small flocks at Khushdil on October 26 and May 19. St. John considered it common in winter till mid-April but this very likely referred to the Kandahar plain whence Swinhoe recorded it as comimon in winter. W WD. Cumming saw non-breeding birds at Khushdil on June 26. To Coastal Mekran it is a not uncommon winter visitor, earliest noted on August 20, and it occurs in Central Mekran also in winter. Meinertzhagen must have made a slip in recording as 7. erythropus a bird he shot at Khushdil on October 26; this bird is in the Quetta Museum and is undoubtedly a com- mon Redshank ; specimens of erythropus in the Quetta Museum reccrded by D. Radcliffe were in fact obtained in Sind. However this bird should eceur in Baluchistan and Murray lists it without comment. Totanus stagnatilis (Bech.) The Marsh Sandpiper. There is one in the Quetta Museum obtained on August 15, at Saranan. W. D. Cumming informed me that it occurs at Ormarra in winter. ‘These are the only records and like the Greenshank it is probably overlooked or badly recorded. Totanus nebularius (GGunn.) The Greenshank. St. John records the Greenshank as not uncommon in Kalat and 8. Afghanistan in winter and Swinhoe considered it a winter visitor to Kandahar. In the Quetta District it appears to be uncommon as there is only one record —a bird obtained at Bostan on November9. In Coastal Mekran Cumming noted it at Ormarra in winter and I have seen it in the Habb Valley; it probably occurs here and there throughout the Mekran. Tringa hypolencus (L.) The Common Sandpiper. During spring and autumn passage the common Sandpiper is common on the streams and waters of N. Baluchistan ; the birds pass through from early April to the end of May returning again in August. Delmé Radcliffe thought it possible that odd pairs breed at Khushdil but no further evidence has been obtained of this. Meinertzhagen however has brought forward strong circum- stantial evidence that a pair bred on the Arak stream at 9,000 ft. in 1914. it would not be surprising to find that here and there at that elevation a pair or two do nest in the forest area. To the Sibi plain and the rest of Baluchistan it is a-winter visitor in fair numbers. Tringa ochropus (L.) ‘The Green Sandpiper. The Green Sandpiper is probably the most generally distributed and least rare of all the waders in N. Baluchistan since it can adapt itself to the merest puddle or trickle; moreover besides being a bird of both passages it is also a winter visitor, Odd birds also may be seen throughout the summer months as obtains in THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 85 many parts of N.W. India, though none of course breeds. It has been recorded at 8,000 tt. but is equally at home in winter in the Sibi plain. Throughout Kalat, Central and Coastai Mekran it isa common winter visitor wherever there is any water and here too some over-summer. Tringa glareola (L.) ‘The Wood Sandpiper. In N. Baluchistan the Wood Sandpiper is a common passage migrant in April and May, rather less common on autumn passage in August ; odd ones are recorded in winter. In Kalat St. John remarked that it is common in summer but he probably meant in May and August. In Central Mekran it must be common enough at least on passage but records are very few and relate to March, April and September. Scolopax rusticola rusticola (L.) ‘The Woodcock. A few occur every year in N. Baluchistan from 5-8,000 ft. Newnham records 20-30 were shot in the winter of 1888 and that the main arrivals came early in December, earliest November 11. Swinhoe states that 5 were obtained in one day. Meinertzhagen gives October and February as the extreme dates. No records elsewhere. Capella solitaria (Hodg.) ‘The Solitary Snipe. An annual visitor to N. Baluchistan in October, earliest September 29, but more appear to come in some years more than others. In Quetta it has been found in gardens in the cantonment, suitable places being few, while at Ziarat one for several days haunted a piece of swampy grass a few feet square caused by a leak in a water pipe. Some must over winter as Duke obtained one at Kalat in December and I have heard of one shot in January somewhere between Quetta and Fort Sandeman while another was obtained near Loralai on March 13, 1925. Capella gallinago gallinago (L.) The Common Snipe. A common passage migrant in N. Baluchistan while a few over-winter in suitable places. Meinertzhagen gives mid-August as the earliest date, most arriving in September and passing through again in March and a few till the end of April: 83 couple is the largest bag for one day. To the Sibi plain, Central and Coastal Mekran it is a winter visitcr arriving at the end of August (24 and 28 in two years), corresponding pretty well with the first arrivals in Lower Sind. A creamy white specimen obtained at Sibi on March 22 is in the Quetta Museum. I have no record of the Pin-tailed Snipe in Baluchistan (C. stenura) but odd ones are almost certain to occur. Limnocryptes minima (Briinn.) The Jack Snipe. Occurs throughout Baluchistan in suitable places arriving in mid-October (Quetta and Mekran; as also in Sind) ; it is particularly conimon on spring passage in the north according to Meinertzhagen who has seen al00inaday. At Kandahar Swinhoe noted it asa weather migrant at the end of December, I know of no certain record of the Painted Snipe though Murray lists it without comment. Larus fuscus taimyrensis (But.) ‘Che Lesser Black-backed Gull. Larus argentatus cachinnans (Pall.) ‘The Yellow-legged Herring Guil. Both these Gulls are very common along the Mekran Coast in winter from carly November at all events up to March 24 and probably later. They act as scavengers at all the coastal villages. Meinertzhagen records a flock of cachinnans at Khushdil Khan on April 17 otherwise there is no record in N. Baluchistan for either species but they doubt- less do halt on passage on suitable waters. Larus ichthyaetus, (Pall.) The Great Black-headed Gull. One shot at Saranan on March 29 is the sole record of this bird in the North. It is fairly common along the Mekran coast in winter; Hume obtained one on February 17, which had already attained breeding dress. 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Larus brunneicephalus Jerd. The Brown-headed Gull. Marshall records a large flock at Khushdil in March: in the Makran W. D. Cumming has noted it as a winter visitor as far west as Charbar, so it probably occurs here and there along the whole coast. Larus ridibundus ridibundus (L.) The Black-headed Gull. A commom winter visitor throughout Baluchistan wherever suitable spot exist. Meinertzhagen says it arrives in the Quetta Valley by mid-October, most leave in April but some remain till the end of May. Hesavs that he has never seen any near Quetta in breeding dress, which is curious since many assume the brown head before leaving Sind. It is of course especially common throughout the Makran Coast where it arrives by mid-October. Larus genei(Breme.) The Slender-billed Gull. ‘Kothar ’ Bal. The Slender-biiled Gull is one of the commonest gulls on the Makran Coast and it isa constant resident though very likely their numbers are augmented in winter. Large flocks may be seen fishing a mile or so nut at sea on surface swimming fry. Considerable numbers breed at least in some years on the large island in the Sirunda jheel at Sonmeani, Las Belas. Mr. Ludlow has eggs taken there on May 15 but most are nct laid till the first week in June. I have both eggs and young in down obtained there on July 16. The nests are quite considerable structures and Caspian and Gull-billed Terns breed in the colony with them. In some years when the jheel is very full few or perhaps none breed there. It doubtless breeds in several other places in Makran. On May 28, 1878, Mr. Nash of the I. E. T. found a small colony in a swamp at the head of a creek about 8 miles N. N. W. of Ormarra called Moorputti. The nests contained 1 to 3 fresh eggs on that date. The nests were solid pads of seaweed about 8 inches in diameter. There are no records elsewhere in Baluchistan of this bird. Larus hemprichii (Urach.) HWemprich’s Gull. This is probably the commonest Gull on the Makran Coast and is resident. It is a tame confiding bird and may often be seen round boats scavenging fish offal, but unlike the larger gulls does uot frequent the villages for this purpose. Early in June these gulls begin to draw in along the Sind coast to the breeding grounds and they congregate in thousands to breed on the island of Astolah, 24 miles S. W. cf Pasni. Butler who landed there on May 29, found the plateau of the island already covered from end to end with gulls which were absurdly tame but breeding had not commenced ; scrapes in the sand were plentiful but these may have been for dusting purposes (?) He subsequently sent on August 6 a boat tothe island and the natives obtained many fresh eggs for him. The nests were said to be large affairs composed of twigs built in bushes and well concealed! This is a good example of the inability of the native to describe accurately anything he has ‘seen; asa matter of fact the nests area slight depression with afew bents of grass and salsola scrub situated at the szde of and sheltered by a tuft of salsola, according to Sir Percy Cox who visited the island on July 17, 1907. The maximum number of eggs appears to be 3, Chlidonias leucopareia indica (Stev.) The Whiskered Tern. Meinertzhagen records that several were seen on Khushdil Khan in May 1914 there is onein the British Museum from Quetta May 22. Evidently a passage migrant, as it also is in Central! Makran ; Hotson found it on the Rohtak R. near the Persian boundary on September 24, andin the Hingol valley on the 19th. W. D. Cumming observed it at Charbar on August 6. Hydroprogne caspia caspia (Pall.) The Caspian Tern. ‘ Kothar ’ (in Makran.) The Caspian Tern visits such waters as Khushdil Khan and Saranan on pas- sage. Meinertzhagen has noted them from April 30 to May 17, and a pair till June 20. No evidence of breeding. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 87 On the Makran coast itis common and resident. It breeds with the Gull- billed Terns and Slender-billed gulls on a large island in Sirundha jheel in Las Belas ; laying had just begun on May 15, many eggs were obtained on June 14, and by July 16, most were hatched ard some young were nearly ready to fly. A great many eggs I believe are addled by the heat, and the mortality in young too appears to be great. The legs and feet of newly hatched chicks are vellowish-flesh colored. Geochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gm.) The Gull billed Tern. ‘ Kothar’ (in Makran.) No record in N. Baluchistan. Common and resident on the Makran Coast: a very large colony breeds in the Sirunda jheel (sse above). Mr. Ludlow had many eggs brought him thence on June 16, and I had a few eggs and young up to half grown birds on July 13. Both adults and young had fed on locusts. Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis (Lath.) The Sandwich Tern. The Sandwich Tern is a winter visitor to the Makran Coast in fair numbers. Barnes was informed that it bred there. However this suggestion is not as yet confirmed, nor is it ever likely to be. Unrecorded elsewhere. Sterna bengaiensis bengalensis Less. ‘Che Lesser Crested Tern. The Lesser Crested Tern is common all along the Makran Coast in winter and at all events up to the end of May. Birds shot at the latter date are in full breeding dress. It is however not known to breed in the Makran Coast as yet. Sterna bergii velox Cretz. The Greater Crested Tern. The Greater Crested Tern is common and resident on the Makran Coast breeding in large numbers onthe island of Astolah off Pasni. Butler who landed there on May 29, 1877 found that this Tern had just commenced to lay. The colony consisted of four large groups nesting together on the bare ground on the most exposed part of the island; each nest was about one foot apart from the next and he actualiy found 47 eggs in a space of 8 feet square. As many as 7,000 fresh eggs have been gathered there by natives early in June. As is well known the eggs of this tern vary so much that hardly two are alike. Asin other Tern colonies elsewhere the eggs are liable to be pillaged by Gulls—in this case by Hemprich’s Gulls. From an examination of a large series of this Tern from the Makran Coast, I am of opinion that S. dergiz bakert described thence is not a good race and is indistinguishable from 7é/ox. Sterna melanogaster Temm. ‘The Biack-bellied ‘Tern. Barnes records that this Tern is not uncommon inthe Bolan Pass and he obtained a straggler at Chaman on June 3. St. John obtained another at Quetta in the autumn 1881. ' Murray lists the Indian River Tern (S. seena) but I have no definite record. Sterna repressa Hart. (= aléigena auct). The White-cheeked Tern. Butler met with the White-cheeked Tern in flocks commonly along the Makran Coast in the latter half of May and he remarks that it is one of the commonest terns at that time. Zarudny records it at Charbar on March 16, I think that itis probable that this tern is only a passage migrant on the Makran Coast, to and from its breeding grounds in the Persian Gulf, though there seems to be no reason why it should not breed there. Sterna hirundo hirundo (L.) The Common Tern. Meinertzhagen has recorded this tern as plentiful in May and early June on Khushdil Khan. It must be a passage migrant in Lower Baluchistan but the only record refers toa bird obtained by Hotson at Sib on the Persian side on September 10. Like the Sind birds the Baluchi ones appear to belong to the typical race. Sterna albifrons. The Little Tern. Little Terns are only recorded from the Mekran Coast; Butler mentions seeing this species at Jask in May. W. D. Cumming informed me that 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII saundersi may be found throughout the year at Ormarra and he has noted it at Charbar in November but as no specimens were obtained it isnot certain. I saw two or three on the Habb River on June 16 but failed to get a specimen. A little tern is very common on the Sirunda jheel in Las Bela nesting in a different part to that occupied by the Caspian Terns, etc.; Mr. Ludlow had eggs brought him thence on May 28, 1915 which Mr. Stuart Baker identified as saunderst and on June 16, 1916 he received further eggs and a parent bird, the latter was identified by Mr. Baker as aédifrons so that it still seems quite doubtful which race breeds on the Mekran and there are no specimens in the British Museum. One from Muscat belongs to the typical race. Major Cheesman obtained saunders: from Bahrein Island in April, from Handramaut Coast on May.8 in which month I have seen birds from Port Sudan. Sterna anetheta fuligula (Licht.) ‘The Red Sea Sooty Tern. Butler noted this Tern as common on the Coast at Gwadar in the last half of May; Mr. W. D. Cumming has seen it in small flights at intervals during the winter and probably it is only common on passage to its breeding haunts in the Persian Gulf. It frequently roosts on ships passing up to the Gulf. Anous stolidus pileatus (Scop.) The Phillipine Noddy Tern. Butler noted a few between Pasni and Jask two or three miles from land at the end of May. W. D. Cumming caught five alive at Ormarra ‘after a cyclone on May 4, 1901 ; they had taken shelter in some tamarisks. Evidently a wanderer tc the Mekran Coast and its status is not known ; it does not breed so far as is known in the Persian Gulf. One of Butler’s specimens in the British Museum is of this race. Murray in his vague way said Ahynchops albicollis occurred on the coast; I know of no record; it may however be found as Zarudny records it from Rud-i-Sarbas in Persian Baluchistan. Stercorarius parasiticus (IL.) Richardson’s Skua. Richardson’s Skua is not very uncommon along the Mekran Coast where Hume met with it at sea off Ormarra, Pasni, Gwader, etc., from the middle to end of February. Butler too saw about a dozen between Pasni and Gwader as late as May 13-17. Hume obtained one and made it the type of his S. aszaticus ; it is in the British Museum where I have examined it ; it is a young light-barred bird moulting body, wings and tail (February 16) to the light adult phase. I did 10t see this bird for certain along this coast in Marchand November. Curiously enough the oldest record of a Baluchi bird must refer to this species and perhaps is the earliest record of the Skua’s habits. Early in the year 1604 a Portuguese mariner, one Pedro Texeira, of the coast off Oman ‘saw certain ‘ birds chasing others from natural enmity. The weaker soar upward to escape ‘from the stronger and in terror void the contents of their stomachs. The bird ‘ below hunting the others to this end or from natural spite as fast as this ‘happens, opens his beak, catches the same droppings and eats them. I have “it from natives that on this matter he subsists.’ Pelecanus onocrocotalus onocrocotalus (L.) The White Pelican ‘Phe White Pelican is said to be resident in suitable places such as Kbushdil Khan and Saranan in N. Baluchistan by which presumably is meant that birds may be seen there at any time of year; actual records relate however to the months December, February, April (latest 29). I have examined two in the Quetta Museum ; one is certainly onocrocotalus, the other is smaller (W. 635 mm.) but it is a mounted bird and certainly the wing would measure more ;if straightened out; it is said to have 22 tail feathers but Pelicans’ tails seldom have the full number of feathers ; this bird probably is a small female onocroco- talus. ‘This species is unrecorded in Mekran where it surely must occur. Pelecanus crispus (Brtich.) The Dalmatian Pelican. ‘ Mesh-murg ’, Common in the bays and inlets on the Mekran Coast in winter : it has also been obtained at Sonmeani in Las Belas. Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (Shaw and Nodder). The Eastern Cormorant ‘Sth-murgh’. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 89 Some Cormorants are always to be met with at Khushdil Khan and Saranan from November to July but apparently they do not breed there. This species is an abundant winter visitor to the Mekran Coast, and is also found in suitable rivers in Central Mekran such as the Mashkai, Nihing, etc. and on the Sirunda Jheel in Las Belas. Latest date April 26. Phalacrocorax javanicus (Horsf.) The Indian Little Cormorant. The Indian Cormorant was obtained in the Valley of the Mashkai by Hotson on September 3. It probably occurs commonly in suitable spots in the eastern part at all events of the Mekran, as may also P. fuscicollis which is common in the Karachi mangrove swamps. Anhinga melanogaster (Penn.) The Indian Darter. Murray records a pair from Pir Chowki at the entrance to the Bolan Pass on March 10: it may well occur in the Sibi Jheel. Sula dactylatra melanops (Hartl.) (= cyanops auct ). The Masked Booby Hume recorded this Gannet from Gwadar in February and Butler too met with it in May at intervals along the Mekran Coast. He noted that it fed on flying fish and was often in company with Phaéton indicus. A young bird which hit the telegraph wires at Charbar on July 3lis in the Quetta Museum so W. D. Cumming informed me. This bird is not known to breed on the Mekran Coast but I think it may possibly nest on one of the Kurya Muria Islands off the Arabian Coasts; one of these islands (Haski) is covered with guano. Two obtained by Butler on May 14 are in the British Museum. It breeds according to von Henglin on Burda Rebschi, Somali Coast. Phaeton etherius indicus (Hume.) ‘The Indian Tropic Bird. Hume found this Tropic Bird commonly off Ormarra in February and Butler met with it from there to Gwadarin May. I too saw it between Pasni and Gwadar fairly often and again off Ormarra Head in March; Cumming has noted it there in September. Sir Percy Cox has seen it off Astola in July. Though not yet proved to breed on the Mekran Coast I think it most likely does so on Ormarra Head ; it breeds in the Persian Gulf in March. Oceanites oceanicus oceanicus (Kuhl.) Wilson’s Petrel Butler saw several of these small Petrels along the Mekran Coast between May 13 and 29 and obtained oie ; it was nowhere common but more were seen between Pasni and Charbar than elsewhere. Zarudny too saw it at Charbar on March 12. Cumming has met with it at Ormarra, mostly storm driven birds on various dates between July 7 and September 23. It is of course a non-breeding visitor from the southern hemisphere. Puffinus persicus (Hume.) The Persian Shearwater. Hume found the Persian Shearwater at Korebutt on February 15 and obtained it between Gwadar and Muscat on February 21 (the type). Butler noted it commonly along the Makran Coast to Henjam in the Straits of Oman on May 13-20 and remarked on its shyness. I did not actually see this bird off the Baluchi Coast but found it very abundant in the Straits of Oman on March 22. Numbers were seen sittiig on the water and in one place we passed a flock of quite 200 but they never allowed the steamer to approach within 200 yards. The type specimen in the British Museum is in full moult wings, etc.; the breeding quarters are still unknown but must be on islets in the eastern part of the Persian Gulf oron the Arabian Coast. Birds suggestive of a species of Prion have been recorded from the Makran but so far as no specimens have been obtained. Puffinus tenuirostris tenuirostris (Temm.) The Slender-billed Shearwater. In the Bombay Nat. His. Soc. Journal, xii, p. 767, W. D. Cumming records a Shearwater as P. chlororhynchus which had been brought to him at Ormarra, May 1899; it had been shot by Mr. Walter Scott of the P. G. Telegraph, Cumming tells me ‘that strong S. W, winds were blowing at the time and 12 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII the weather generally had been unsettled for two or three days. This Shearwater is now in the British Museum where I and Mr. Kinnear have ex- amined it and it is undoubtedly P. fenuirostris and not chlororhynchus. Its breeding ground is unknown. Ridgeway records it from the N. Pacific and cites a specimen from Kotzebue Sound. In the British Museum there are specimens from Japan in May, Behring Island in June, and Bonin Island in May. It has not been recorded: from Indian seas before. On March 14 I saw off the Mekran Coast a Shearwater in the distance which was not P. persicus. Threskiornis melanocephalus melanocephalus (Lath.) The White Ibis. Mr. Ludlow’s shikari found a colony of the White Ibis in tamarisks at the Sirunda Jheel in Las Belas and brought back a breeding bird and eggs on July 8, 1915. There is no other information regarding this bird in Baluchistan. Murray lists the Black Ibis for Baluchistan but I know of no certain record. Plegadis falcinellus faicinellus (L.}) The Glossy Ibis. The Glossy Ibis is not uncommon in suitable spots in the Quetta district on spring passage; D. Radcliffe says it occasionally occurs in winter. Large flocks visit Khushdil Khan and Saranan in April and May and Meinertzhagen records non-breeders. there on July 12 and W. D. Cuniming in another yéar saw them there on June 28. There is onein the British Museum from Pishin on August 27. No records trom the rest of Baluchistan where it must occur in suitable spots. Piatalea leucorodia major (Temm and Schleg.) The Spoonbill. The Spoonbill visits Khushdil Khan on passage; Meinertzhagen records a flock of 100 there on October 26, a few in November and again on May 17. Cumming saw a flock there on June 28 doubtless non-breeders. A specimen from Nushki in the Quetta Museum was obtained on Noveniber 9. Murray records a single bird from Pir Chowki in the Bolan on March 10. On the Mekran Coast Cumming has noted it at Charbar in winter but at the Sirtnda Jheel in Las Belas a few apparently breed in some years as Mr. Ludlow’s shikari brought in an egg which was said to be and certainly seems to be that of a Spoonbill on July 8, 1915; the nest was in a large tamarisk standing in the Jheel. Ciconia ciconia (L.) The White Stork. The White Stork does not appear to be common. St. John noted it as occasional at Pishin and Kandahar in spring and autumn. There is one specimen in the Quetta Museum from Kahan shot on September 12. It must occur occasionally at all events in lower Baluchistan. Hotson met with it at Magas on the Persian boundary on December 5, where Zarudny has also noted it. Zeugmayer obtained one at Panjgur on August 20. Meinertz- hagen records the Kahan bird as aszatica; I have not examined it but Zeugmayer’s bird, a female, measures W. 520, B. 154 (Laubmann) and so it must belong to the typical race. Aszatica does not seem to be at all a well-marked race. Ciconia nigra (L..) The Black Stork. Occasional odd birds occur in the Quetta district in winter; Meinertzhagen has seen such in October—November and at the end of April. There are specimens in the Quetta Museum from Saranan, November 16, Bolan River, March 18, and Quetta, January 10. There are only two records from the rest of Baluchistan ; a bird was shot by Cumming on the Vindar R. Mekran coast on November 19 and one was seen by Hotson near Pasni on February 23. [Zarudny records Dzssoura episcopa (one obtained and three seen) in Persian Baluchistan but I have no record in British territory. Murray lists the Painted Stork and the Open-bill for Baluchistan. Both might wander to Las Belas and Sibi plains but I have no definite record. | Ardea purpurea manillensis (Meyen.) The Eastern Purple Heron. Ardea purpurea purpurea (L.) ‘The European Purple Heron. Purple Herons do not seem to be common in Baluchistan. ‘There is one in the Quetta Museum from Sibi, March 26, which I have examined and belongs THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN ‘ 91 to the eastern race manzllensis ; Meinertzhagen refers to two birds from Quetta and Nushki as belonging to the typical form A. purpurea purpurea. Purple Herons are not uncommon at Ormarra in winter according to Cumming ; they should occur elsewhere in Lower Baluchistan but there are no records and no specimens. Ardea cinerea cinerea (L.) ‘The Common Heron. The Grey Heron is not uncommon as a winter visitor in N. Baluchistan and is commoner as a passage migrant in October and again in March and April. Some however spend the summer as Cumming has seen it at Khushdil Khan on June 28; there is no evidence of its breeding there. Meinertzhagen has seen this Heron at times far from water searching for lizards and toads. So far as-is known it is a winter visitor to the whole of the Mekran area on suitable streams and pools and ‘is numerous on the coast; it is said to breed at Kalmat but this is only native information. Egretta alba (lL.) The Large Egret. The Large White Egret is not very common at Khushdil Khan in winter ; it ts recorded thence in February, March and November by Marshall and Mein- ertzhagen. It occurs occasionaily at Kandahar. Odd birds may be seen from time to time on the Mekran Coast in winter and probably elsewhere. No specimens examined. Egretta garzetta garzetta (1..) The Littie Egret. Murray records the Little Egret from N. Baluchistan, probably from Sibi district. Blanford says it occurs occasionally on the Makran coast and Cumming too has noted it at Ormarra. Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.) The Cattle Egret. Noted by Murray at Pir Chowkiin the Bolan and at Sibi. St. John records that he got a dubulcus at Quetta in May 1887. Demiegretta sacra asha (Sykes.) The Indian Reef Heron. The Reef Heron is common along the Mekran Coast and is doubtless feene Blanford noted the blue phase only ; I have seen both white and blue phases in the Habb River which they ascend to at least fifteen miles from the mouth. Ardeola grayii (Sykes.) The Indian Pond Heron. Outside the plains it is only recorded at Chaman iene Barnes saw several on July 15, after rain; in the Sibi plain however it is common and doubtless resident. - In the south Cumming has seen it at Ormarra in winter and I have found it in the Habb Valley in November ; it is probably resident in Las Belas. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (L.) The Night Heron. ‘ Machi Giratch ’ (Bal.) The Night Heron occurs occasionally in the Quetta Valley; there are specimens thence in the Quetta Museum obtained in March, April and September. It certainly occurs in winter at Sibi and is possibly resident in that district as Murray records that a small colony were building in Pistachio trees at Bibi Nani in the Bolan on May 21, where hill streams formed a small marsh. St, John recorded that there was a colony in a garden near Kandahar. It occurs here and there in suitable spots throughout Coastal and Central Mekran but its status is not clear but it is known well enough to have a native name. Ixobrychus minutus minutus (L.) ‘The Little Bittern. So far as is known the Little Bittern is a passage migrant in small numbers in the Quetta District, records and specimens relating to August and September April and May. Meinertzhagen however obtained one at Khushdil Khan on July 11, and St. John recorded it as not uncommon at Kandahar in summer. Cumming informed me that one hit the telegraph wires at Ormarra on October 11, and that he has sometimes heard them passing over at night, 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11 Blanford found it in spring at several places on the Persian side of the boundary. [Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmel.) The Yellow Bittern. Mr. J. W. N. Cumming records that he obtained a Yellow Bittern at Quetta in March 1907 ; both I and Meinertzhagen have failed to find this specimen in the Quetta Museum and so possibly there has been some mistake. ] Botaurus ste!laris stellaris (L..) The Common Bittern. In suitable spots especially near Khushdil Khan the Bittern is a common winter visitor ; Meinertzhagen records that fifteen were flushed in ove day when snipe shooting there ; he further states that ne has good reason to believe that a pair bred there in 1914, as on June 19, he heard a bird booming and the next morning flushed an adult and a young one just able to fly. From Lower Baluchistan there is only one record—from Las Belas in March but suitable spots are doubtless few, Pheenicopterus ruber antiquorum (Temm.) The Flamingo. The Flamingo visits N. Baluchistan chiefly on passage ; thus Marshall records a large flock at Khushdil Khan‘in March; Meinertzhagen in early May and at Saranan in April, while it has been noted at Abigum, Harnai and Nari Bank. A flock which settled on Khushdil Khan were so exhausted that six were captured alive. Cumming has seen a flock there on June 28, but there is no evidence that it breeds anywhere in the north. It is very common at the Sirunda Jheel in Las Belas and all along the Mekran Coast but I could never hear of anything which suggested that they breed on Sirunda. The status is not clear; W. D. Cumming was informed by the telegraph officer at Ormarra that in one year some bred near there, probably at Kalmat and this was confirmed by the natives ; it appears however that the swamp there is not always in a suitable state. Pheenicopterus minor (Geoffr.) The Lesser Flamingo. W. D. Cumming informs me that he saw one at Ormarra on September 16, 1903. A rare straggler as elsewhere. Cygnus minor (Keyser and Bl.). (= 7ankowskiz, But). Alpheraky’s Swan. A female was shot by Aitken on Khushdil Khan on December 17, 1913 and is in the Quetta Museum. The evidence at present seems to show that this swan is a separate species and distinct from Bewick’s Swan. W.D. Cumming in 1914 took measurements of this speciinen anu made a coloured drawing of the head and sent them to the British Museum from which this specimen was identified as above by Ogilvie- Grant. Cumming’s measurements :—W. 19 in., B from frontal feathers 32 in., from gape 3; in. Black narrow edging on bill bordering the frontal feather. Cygaus olor (Gm.) The Mute Swan. Mute Swans visit N. Baluchistan from time to time. In 1900 when there was quite an invasion of these in N.W. India eight were seen and four shot at Bostan and others were seen on Kushdil about this time where single birds were noted by Meinertzhagen in February 1911, and November 1913. On January 10, 1900, nine were seen on the Habb River in Las Belas and two obtained by Mr. Jones, I.E.T.; at Jask in Persian Mekran two were shot by Mr. Griffith on February 11, 1911. Anser anser (L.) The Grey Lag Goose. The Grey-lag is a regular winter visitant to the waters of Khushdil and Saranan arriving at the end of October and the bulk leaving in April; not very seldom however some may spend the summer there ; thus Meinertzhagen records six in the summer of 1913 and Cumming saw some there on June 28, 1923. Mr. A. Gordon informs me that geese always halt at the smal! tanks at Jhatpat in the Sibi plain at the migrating season, these being the last waters before the hills are reached. Geese were particularly abundant at Saranan in the winter of 1918-1919 in which year water in Sind was reduced to a minimum by failure of the monsoon. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 93 It visits the Mekran Coast in winter but not in any numbers except perhaps at Sirunda. Anser albifrons (Scop.) The White-fronted Goose. Recorded by Murray from Sagee. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.) The Lesser Whistling Teal. There are no records of Lesser Whistling Teal in Baluchistan but it must occur at least in Las Belas. A shikari whom I sent to the Sirunda Jheel at Sonmeani brought back an egg, one of a nest of seven, which he took there on July 13,1918. The nest was situated in thick reeds. The egg is nearly pure white and measures 47 X 35°55 mm. My identification has kindly been confirmed by Mr. Stuart Baker. Tadorna tadorna (L.) The Common Shelduck. The Shelduck is not common but it occurs in winter at Khushdil Khan and once as late, according to Meinertzhagen, as May 19, other records come from Said Hamid, Fort Sandeman, and Nushki. The only record from S. Baluchistan comes from Turbat in the Nihing Valley where Hotson got one and saw others in the last week of November. Casarca ferruginea (Pall.) The Ruddy Shelduck. A few visit Khushdil and other waters on passage more especially in February and March. To Kandahar and Nushki Districts it isa not very un- common winter visitor. No records from Mekran. Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha (L.) ‘Che Mallard. The Mallard is common in suitable places arriving in early September and leaving at the end of March. Three pairs remained in Khushdil during the summer of 1914 and a flock was there on June 28, 1923; such over-summering non-breeders probably led Capt. Aoosmalcocg to believe that they bred there ; I know at all events of no actual proof of breeding beyond the latter’s bare statement in the Proceedings of the Quetta N. Hist. Soc. It must occur throughout the Mekran in favoured spots in winter but I only have records from the coast. Anas pacilorhyncha pecilorhyacha (Forst.) ‘The Spotbill. Recorded from Baluchistan by Murray without comment; the Sibi: plain is the only likely place. Anas strepera (L.) The Gadwall. The Gadwall is a common winter visitor from late September 15 to early April, a few lingering on till mid-May. It occurs in suitable spots throughout Central-Coastal Mekran. Anas penelope (L.) The Wigeon. Common in winter from late September to April; a pair at Khushdil were seen by Meinertzhagen on June 20. It occurs here and there throughout the Mekran ; earliest October 3. Anas acuta, L. The Pintail. The Pintail in the north is chiefly a passage migrant, most passing through in October and November and not recorded after April but at lower elevations as at Nushki, Kandahar and Sibi a good many winter. It is found here and there throughout the Mekran, earliest September 10. Anas angustirostris, Ménét The Marbled Duck ‘Mow’ (Bal.) To North Baluchistan Meinertzhagen considers the Marbled Duck to be 4a winter visitor in small numbers and a summer visitor at irregular intervals. Aitken saw a pair in June 1913, frequenting a small island in Khushdil and saw others apparently not paired ; later on he found an old bird with 14 duck- lings. Meinertzhagen saw 6 pairs in June and July 1914 but could get no evidence of nesting. 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII At Ormarra Cumming tells me that he has met with this bird and it is said to have bred occasionally there in the rain water tanks; Butler obtained what were evidently eggs of this duck from Moorpatti, north of Ormarra, taken by a native on June 19, 1878 ; the nest was under a babool bush in a large salt marsh. Ludlow secon that He received eggs of this duck with the parent bird taken by his shikari on June 14, 1915 at Sirunda Jheel, Las Belas; according to his shikari it breeds freely there and the eggs are gathered for eating. The nests were in thick tussocky grass, well concealed and with a tunnel through the grass leading to the nest. Two nests contained 9 fresh and 14 incubated eggs. I too received eggs and an adult thence on July 16, 1919. Querquedula crecca crecca (L..) The Common Teal. The Teal is common everywhere in suitable places and is the best distributed of allthe ducks. The first few arrive in the last week of August, most come early in-September and they have left by the end of April, latest record May 9. It forms 30 to 50 per cent of most ‘ bags’. Webb-Ware records that between Nok Kundi and Tratoh near Munshi Chah Telegraph Post, he picked up 3 ducks and a Teal with broken wings apparently injured against the telegraph wires and the natives informed him that such birds were often found at this spot at the migratory season. In winter it is found throughout the whole Mekran, earliest August 31. Quefquedula querquedula (L.) ‘The Garganey Teal. A few Garganey visit the waters of N. Baluchistan mostly on passage but. it is never very common ; it is recorded as late as May 15. Small numbers visit the Mekran on passage, earliest September 1, last October 23, and again in spring. Some were still on the Sirunda Jheel in the middle of May one year but had gone in June. Spatula clypeata Ge The Shoveler. The Shoveler is common as a winter visitor inthe north but more so as a passage migrant; latest date May 19 and three stragglers were seen on the Zhob River on June 1, 1924. It occurs on the Mekran Coast as a winter visitor and is very common on the Sirunda Jheel where some were still present in the middle of May. Netta rufina (Pall.) The Red-crested Pochard. Though Meinertzhagen records the Red-crested Pochard as an uncommon winter visitor from October to March others have considered it not so rare. St. John regarded it as commoner than the common Pochard as did Radcliffe, and Marshall found it to be one of the commonest ducks in Khushdil at the end of February. Cumming saw some there on June 28, 1923. Probably its status varies in different years according to the state of the jheels, a circumstance I have already noted in the Sind jheels. It occurs in the Mekran Coast but suitable spots are very few except the Sirunda jheel. Nyroca ferina ferina (LL.) The Common Pochard. The common Pochard is very common on the few open waters of the north ; it arrives at the end of September and leaves at the end of April. On Khushdil it is perhaps the commonest duck and Marshall records that at the end of February it composed a third of the bag of 110. Some appear to annually over-summer there without breeding as with other ducks; Meinertzhagen has noted hundreds in May and June and a few in July ; Cumming too saw a flock there at the end of June. It occurs on the Mekran Coast, no doubt commonly on Sirunda Jheel. Nyroca nyroca nyroca (Giildenst ) The White-eyed Pochard. A not uncommon winter visitant ; Swinhoe regarded it as the next commonest duck to the Gadwall and says that he flushed many pairs from reeds and tamarisk on water courses from Pishin down to Kirta in the Bolan during May and thought that they might breed there. This however wants confirmation, though it would not be very surprising. Not recorded in Mekran but sure to occur. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 95 Nyroca fuligula (L.) The Tufted Pochard. A fairly common witter visitor from late September to April. Meinertzhagen records it as early as August 14 and as late as May 17, Swinhoe also noted it in May and says it was very common at Kandahar and from Pishin to the Bolan in that month,—doubtless still on passage. It is recorded from the Makran Coast. Of ducks generally it may be said that the numbers are greatest in October and November and in March and April as the winter birds are reinforced by passage migrants to and from the plains; aiso opinions will vary as to the commonness or otherwise of any particular species according to where and when the sportsman looks for it and to a less extent perhaps from year to year. The chief duck haunts are Khushdil Khan and Saranan in the Quetta District, Zangi Nanar in the Nushki District and Sirunda Jheel in Las Belas. Glaucion clangula (L.) The Golden Eye. A few Golden-eyes annually visit Khushdil from December to March and they are also recorded at Saranan and Zangi Nanar. Not recorded in Mekran. Oxyura Ieucocephala (Scop.) The Stiff-tail. The Stiff-tailed Duck is not very common but is more often met with than the golden-eye and when it occurs quite a flock may be met with ; most records relate to the months of November to February but Meinertzhagen records it also in April. Though met with from time to time on Khushdil and Saranan it seems to be a fairly constant winter visitor to Zangi Nanar in the Nushki District whence there are numerous specimens in the Quetta Museum. On waters where they occur they are very local keeping all the time to one particular spot. Further west in Seistan it is common. Not recorded in Mekran. Mergus albellus (L..) The Smew. Fairly common winter visitor in the north, more abundant in some years than in others. Recorded as late as May 19 by Meinertzhagen and May 24, by Murray. Not recorded in Makran. Mergus serrator (L.) ‘The Merganser. One was obtained at Khushdil on April 3, 1902. A not uncommon winter visitor in small ‘flocks to the Mekran coast keeping much to the bays ; it is recorded from Ormarra, Charbar and Jask in December and January. Birds recorded as Mer ‘gus merganser by Bishop. (S. F. iv, 496) as occurring every winter on the Mekran coast undoubtedly refer to this species. Podiceps cristatus cristatus (LL.) The Great Crested Grebe. ‘Though D. Radcliffe records the Great Crested Grebe as a winter visitor to Khushdil Khan it undoubtedly in some years at all events breeds there. In 1913 three nests were found on August 12, by Mr. Aitken one containing 5 eggs ; the following year a pair were there in June and July but breeding was not established. Nesting doubtless depends on the state of the water. It no doubt occurs in winter also and there is a specimen in the Quetta Museum obtained there in March. In winter this Grebe is common on the Mekran coast becoming quite maritime in habit ; it is generally to be met with in small parties keeping fairly close to the shore and especially to the bays. The earliest date is September 3 and the latest April 23. It.is always very wary and wild. W. D. Cumming informed me that when feeding close in these birds sometimes get washed ashore by the breakers. Gwadar and Pasni Bays are particularly affected by them. Podiceps ruficollis capensis (Salvad.) The Little Grebe. ‘ Birir’? (Brahui). The Little Grebe is cominon on all the larger sheets of water in the North; on Khushdil Khan a great many breed. Meinertzhagen records 150 breeding there in 1913 while on June 6, 1914, he found over 100 nests, mostly with 3 eggs several with 4, one with 6 and one with 7. The nests were all floating structures composed of weed foliage, none exceeding 12 inches across the top. On June 8, 1923, W. D, Cumming found a.good many nests there containing 1 to 6 eggs. 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL\ AIST. (SOCIETY, Vol. Xd Elsewhere there are no breeding records ; it oocurson the Mekran coast in winter and Hotson met with itin August and September in S. Kalat and in the Mashkai R. and again at Harbud in Central Makran on April 26. Podiceps nigricoilis nigricollis (Brehm.) The Black-necked Grebe. The Black-necked Grebe was unknown in N. Baluchistan till 1914 when Meinertzhagen discovered five pairs in the first week of May ; on June 20, in that year he saw hundreds of pairs and examined over 70 nests all situated in about an acre of water 2 feet deep. The nests contained mostly 3 eggs but two had Seggs each. The nests, made cf weed stalk, were 15 to 18 inches across and attached firmly to the bottom of the jheel, consequently when the water rose after rain a week later all the nests were flooded and the Grebes deserted the locality. ‘The Little Grebes whose nests were floating all survived the flood. I cannot hear that the Black-necked have attempted to breed at Khushdil again since. On the Mekran coast it is a winter visitor and not uncommon especially in the bays such as Sonmeani and Gwadar. Colymbus stellatus (Pont.) (-—septentrionalis auct.\. The Red-throated Diver. There is only one record of the Red-throated Diver ‘in Baluchistan and it has not as yet been recorded in India proper. On November 17, 1901, a bird was brought to W. D. Cumming at Ormarra by a native who had knocked it on the head as it came up close to his ‘ toney’ ; it was said that several were seen and that a few visit the coast occasionally. The bird is now in the British Museum. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Masson, Travels in Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Panjab and Kalat, 1844. [Mentions a few birds in Las Belas and Sibi Plain. | 2. Bianford, Hastern Persta. Journeys of Persian Boundary Commission. 1870-72. Vol. ii. Devoted to Zoology and Geology ; [a fair number of birds are mentioned from the Perso-Baluchi boundary. | 3. Stray Feathers i-xi. Besides various notes, the chief papers are as follows :— 1872 Vol. i. Hume’s zfer. [Karachi to Gwadar; mostly maritime Species noted. | 1875 Vol. iii. V. Ball. Birds observed in the Suleiman Hills West’ of Dera Ghazi Khan in July 1874. [19 species noted. | 1877 Vol. v. Butler, Astola Island in May 1877 and the Gulf of Oman. [16 species noted. | 1881 Vol. ix Barnes on nidification of certain species in the neighbour- hood of Chaman. [31 breeding species and a few others. | Barnes. A list of birds observed in the neighbourhood of Chaman. [100 species listed. ] 4. Lombay Natural History Society Journal i-xxviii. Various notes ; chief papers as follows :— Vol. iv. Newnham. Notes on Birds at Quetta in the winter of 1888. Vol. xiv. T. E. Marshall. Notes on Birds near Quetta. (150 species.) Vols. xvi and xvii. Betham. Notes on Birds nesting round uette - Vols. xxiii and xxiv. Delmé Radcliffe. List of the Birds of Quetta. (224 species. ) Vol. xxiii. Meinertzhagen. Birds nesting at Quetta. (Bare lists of 68 species.) 5, bis. 1882. Swinhoe. Birds of S. Afghanistan. (Sibi to Kandahar.) [199 species ; an excellent contribution. ] 1889. St.John. Birds of S. Afghanistan and Kalat. [235 species ; a useful paper. ] 1920. Meinertzhagen. Birds of Quetta. [A valuable contribution enumerating 262 species. ] THE BIRDS OF BRITISH BALUCHISTAN 97 6. Annals and Magazine of Indian Natural History. Murray, Zoology of Afghanistan and Beluchistan. 3 parts, the remainder being published in pamphlet form by the Bombay Educational Society Press. [Founded on a journey by Murray from Sibi to Chaman and back, March 7 toend of May 1880, and notes and specimens supplied to him by Barnes from Chaman, Dupuis at Quetta, Hutchings from Nushki, Quetta, etc., and Babing- ton Peile and E. Watson. A considerable list but not always reliable. | 7. Murray 1884, Vertebrate Zoology of Sind. Appendix. [A bare list of 257 species]. 8. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Ixv. 1896. Finn. List of Birds collected by the Afghan-Beluch Boundary Commission. [List of 56 species, mostly from Sahib Zada Kili in Afghan territory of ‘ Shorawak ’.] 9, Trans. Linnean Society, London. 1889. Aitcheson. Zoology of the Afghan Delimitation Commis- sion. [Nearly all the birds were collected beyond our area. (Helmund, etc.)] 10, Gazetteer of India. Quetta-Pishin Gazette. List of Birds by T. Marshall in Appendix. ll. Ornith Monber, xiii. Otto on Zarudny’s ‘Die Vogel Ost Persiens.’ [Zarudny collected extensively in several years in Persian Baluchistan ; very few birds are mentioned as from within our area. | 12. Abh. I. Kon. Bayer. Ak. der Wissenchatten Math-Phystk. Klasse xxvt1. Band 9. 1913. Waubmann on Birds collected by Zugmayer in Mekran in ODT: [Karachi to Gwadar by land thence to Panjgur and back to Pasni; 276 specimens of 89 species. Very bad specimens ; practically no field notes. | 13. Oologtist’s Record. March 2,1925. Notes from Baluchistan. Williams. 14. British Museum Catalogue and Register. [Specimens from Hume, Blanford, Swinhoe, St. John, Duke, Barnes, Butler, Radcliffe]. 15. Manuscripts. W. D. Cumming. MS. Notes on Makran Coast and Quetta. J. W. Nicol Cumming. MS. Notes on Quetta birds supplied to him by various people (in Quetta Museum). ~ J. E. B. Hotson. MS. Notes on Birds observed and collected in Makran 1916-1918. [415 specirnens of 142 : species. | N. B. Kinnear. MS. notes on Baluchi birds in Bombay Museum. Collections examined. Quetta Museum. Hotson’s collection. British Museum. Meinertzhagen’ collec- Bombay Museum (part). tion (part). Karachi Museum, Author’s collection, 13 THE POTTER WASP (RHYNCHIUM NITIDULUM) BY MaAsor R. W. G. Hrncston, I.M.S. (With two plates and three text-figures) BART If we examine the ceilings of our rooms we are likely to dis- cover a cluster of pots, four or five perhaps in number, all neatly glued together so as to lie parallel side by side. Each little pot is likea small bird’s egg, and all are fixed by their bases to the ceiling from which the ciuster projects. It is obvious that these cells are built of mud, but they have not that appearance of weli-kneaded pottery which we saw in the work of the Mason Wasp ( Aumenes conica ).' This isarough and granulated structure. Its surface is smeared with viscid mucilage : it is studded all over with irregular nodules of a brown sticky gum. These pots are the work of a delightfui little species, the Potter Wasp Rhynchium nitidulum of Smith (see Plate I). Like Humenes conica, she is remarkably fearless, entering boldly through open doors, hovering confidingly about the room in search of some secluded corner for her nest. Her character is well suited to observation and experiment. Being highly domesticated, she sticks close to her nest. She is so fearless as to remain on her cell while I cut pieces out of its wail. Her patience is untiring. She will face difficulty after difficulty in order to achieve the purpose in hand. Her industry is infinite. The work she tojis at is particu- larly tedious, and she sticks to it the livelong day. Lastly and the point of special importance, this wasp shows wonderful intelli- gence. Experiment discloses arational behaviour, so clear, so in- controvertible, that it forces me to modify established views on the capacity of the insect mind. Inthis paper I will describe her plan of architecture. The next will be devoted to a series of experiments to illustrate the rational working of her mind. First a word on her general appearance. She is scarcely larger than a honey-bee, and dressed in unassuming garb. Her jaws are not unlike those of Aumenes, a pair of narrow triangular blades that cross in the middle line. Her head is wedge-shaped with black shining eyes. From between these spring stout antennz. Above them is the punctured vertex studded with tiny pits. Behind comes the thorax, free from fur, decorated in front with a pattern of points and prolonged behind into a pair of spines. Her abdomen is pale and silky. Her wings, which are folded along their length, glisten with a purplish sheen. Though dark, she is patched with silver. 1 Our. B.ANOS., VOl. RE X1 NOS 2) oy THE POTTER WASP (RHYNCHIUM NITIDULUM) -° 99 In a velvet pile it grows above her jaws; it forms a white collar round the front of the thorax, and clothes her abdomen in a satiny gloss. ARCHITECTURE Now for her cell, a delicate piece of work. As arule she fixes her nest to wood. I have seen her build on a plastered wall. This, ‘however, is very unusual. For some reason she has a preference for wood. Thus she often selects a rafter, or perhaps the lintel of an open door, or the under surface of a wooden shelf. She seems to like some structure overhead, for she often builds on a wail or ceiling close beneath the shelter of a beam. We naturally seek for some explanation as to why she should prefer wood. Her nest will adhere to other materials. Like Eumenes she might have chosen metal or glass. The explanation I give is this. Her preference is a relic of an old instinct. Bunga-— lows are recent innovations. There must have been a time when this little architect had to build in more natural sites. In the jungle these sites will be the underside of branches or the hollows in the trunks of trees. No doubt it was there that she originally nested, and wood was the material on which she built. Now she has invaded human habitations. But this trace of the old instinct still remains. She will not have the walls and plaster; only the beams of wood. Now let us watch her building operations. I! find a nest with two finished celis. The wasp is about to commence athird. In she comes with steady flight. The sound of her approach precedes her, for like Eumenes she comes humming through the air. She alights on her nest. Before her are two cells likea pair of eggs side by side. >; PA a PET.) 3159s Depiuiz.49 ly, Dep niG.13: 5, Dep,.3.4k. 5; THE POTTER WASP (RHYNCAHIUM NITIDULUM) 103 Architecturc—(contd. ) 13..Arr. 3.43 p.m. 1G Paner 452° pam. [D7 t Air. 4207 p.m Dep: 3.45" ,, Dep. 4.4. -,; Dep. 4,22 ,, Uae Arr. 3.40% Wis pera Sore, 20, “Arr. 4.23 —,, Mep.'3.45) v5 Deprt7 as: Dep.4.78. 45 ge ATT Sto TS) PArrs, 407 4 2S MALT ABS 5 Dep. 4.1 .,, Dep. 4:19: | Dep. 4.40 __,, 22. Arr. 4.42 p.m. and finishes cell. Dep. 5.3 p.m. 23. Arr. 5.34 p.m. with first load of gum. Fumenes, immediately her cell is finished, introduces the egg. It is very easy to observe the act. We see her large conica] abdomen go down through the cell mouth. But Ahyxchtum is far more reclusive. Her egg-laying takes place in secret, at the bottom of her dark pot. Sodeep is the cell and she is so concealed in it, that I fail to witness the vital act. But there comes a time when suspi- cion is aroused. I see her absolutely motionless, rigidly fixed. This must be the moment of emission, when she fulfils the purpose of her life. Of this, at least, I am quite certain. ARhynchium lays her egg when the masonry is finished, but before the smearing of gum. During the short interval between building and smearing I make a hole in the cell wall. This gives light to the dark interior, and enables me to see a single egg anchored to the bottom of the pot. White in colour, of fusiform shape, it is gently curved, about three- sixteenths of an inch long, and fixed by one extremity to the cell wall. Surely this seems a strange occurrence, this egg-laying in an open cell. For remember that all the smearing must be done before the gate can be closed. This is a work of many days. In the meantime the egg is exposed to any enemy which can enter the gate. Gum smearing, I am sure, is a protective measure; then why is the egg left open to invasion during those days when the smearing is being done? Would it not be safer to retain it tiil all the protective glue was applied ? It would certainly appear so. The nature of the enemy may explain the inconsistency. Parasites do not enter by the ordinary route. They are not accustomed to open doors. ‘Theirs is a more insidious plan. Armed with ovipositors, they penetrate masonry. Perforation is part of their instinct of attack. Against such devices Rhynchium must guard. Her enemy has probably only one way of entrance, by driving its spear through the rampart of mud. It does not understand the open gateway, for it is not its instinct to enter by that route. Consequently the open gate is un- important provided the cell is covered with glue. The egg is laid, the wall strengthened. Now comes the storing of supplies. Off goes the wasp in search of plunder. This is a new and brighter occupation, so she swings and hovers in the air. I wait her return. She arrives with a caterpillar in her jaws. She has her victim gripped behind the head with its body supported in her front iegs. The caierpillar is a green or brownish species, sometimes of moderate size, but often very small, only about quarter of an inchlong. She stuffs it skilfully through the gate- way. First pushing it with her head, her body follows, then grasping it farther and farther backwards, she presses it before her 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIATY, SVok XX to the bottom of the cell. With her vertex as a ram she forces it well down. A little time is spent adjusting it, screwing it about, compressing it, packing it, making it fit economically inside. This finished, she withraws her head and goes off to get more spoil. If supplies are abundant she may be back in ten minutes. A second victim is added to the store. At other times half an hour is insufficient. In gloomy weather, or when rain threatens, she may not get acapture for the whole day. Again there are times when she can get nothing. On such occasions all her work may be wasted. Famine may force her to abandon the cell. Alli this foraging is done as quickly as possible. Whenever not engaged at hunting she keeps strict watch on her accumulating store. For example, she always sleeps in the cell, seated on top of the pile of caterpillars, with body bent into the cavity and tips of antenne projecting outside. Also, when the sky is overhung with clouds she similarly keeps close guard over the store. Provisioning continues till the cell is full, packed tight to the very mouth. This may require fifty or more caterpillars, they are often so miserably small. And not only must she find them; they must also be paralysed. Such is the method adopted by her tribe. What infinite labour does not this involve ? Let us make a search for her kind of caterpillar ; if fortunate, in an hour we may find one or two. Yet the wasp has to hunt out fifty or more of them before she can close her cell. We have seen her industry at building operations ; she is equally persistent at pursuing prey. The stores are in; they are tightly packed, the chamber is filled to the mouth. The next piece of work is to seal them down, a lid must be placed over the gate. Here we see a rapid operation. The mason brings a pellet of the usual type, and in a minute constructs round the opening a narrow ledge of mud. Sometimes there may be a slight interruption. since the wasp may have to push in her head in order to press the squirming larvee down. This first ledge closes the aperture partially, but after a minute she brings a second load. ‘This is moulded to the first ledge, and is usually sufficient to complete the lid. Then comes the touching and testing with antennze to make sure that the work is sound. Without a moment’s delay she proceeds to strengthen it. She does not even go off for material, but cuts a little resin from the outside wall and spreads it over the lid. Ten or fifteen minutes are spent reinforcing it, and the gate is permanently closed. Now surely is the hour of rest. Building, smearing, provisioning are done. But this mason is indefatigable. No sooner is this cell finished than she immediately commences the next. What a laborious builder to toil so incessantly dav after day. The largest nest I have seen contained twelve chambers. If we give an average of five days for the building of each, then the work of the whole nest must have occupied about two months. Rhynchtum is well able to defend her nest. Her attitude within it has protective value. She is bent double; her back thrust down into the cavity, the end of her abdomen and tips of antennze turned up into the gate. I bring my finger to the gateway. No sooner have I touched it than out comes the sting which the wasp im- vy HE. POTTER WASP (RHYNCHIUM NITIDULUM) .-- 105 mediately drives home. For a minute the pain is acute, almost equal to that of the hive bee. But the poison of ARhynchium 1s less lasting. There is no numbness. Her defence is just enough to repel an enemy when it appears at the open gate. Now that the work is finished, let us see what goes on within the cell. DEVELOPMENT Cells are examined at successive intervals. I open the first after the lid has been secured. The wasp has spent three days in provision- ing it, but this has not prevented egg-development. The egg has hatched, though the cell remained open. Indeed by now it is a vigorous larva that lies curled at the bottom of the pot. Above it are the caterpillars heaped in a solid mass. The larva has begun to feed: From below it is eating up into the supplies. In this particular ceil are forty-one caterpillars, and some have already been devoured. All are of the slender kind, and are pressed firmly together so as to occupy the smallest space. ~~ T open the next cell two days after the lid is sealed. The larva has grown into a tiuge maggot, stout and fleshy, that almost filis the cell. Pale yellow, curved in outline, its separate segments are’ visible as rings. Its head end is pointed with curved jaws which are fixed in the tissues of the prey. The hind end is distinctly larger and distended with succulent food. Its length is now three- quarters of an inch, but its body is so neatly curved that it fits economically into the cell. By this time the food is almost con- sumed. Only two caterpillars remain. One is still alive. I touch it with a pin. Its body bends, limbs twitch, it lies in the same half paralysed state as when first pushed into the cell. The other caterpillar is partially consumed, and the jaws of the larva are embedded in its flank. The others have disappeared. They have passed into the tissues of the larva and a few nodules of stercoral matter that lie at the bottom of the pot. Two weeks after egg-laying I open a third cell. The iarva has changed into a pupa, a miniature of the future wasp. It rests motionless without a sign of life. Eyes are now distinct, antenne well formed, even the delicate mouth filaments can be distinctly seen. It is pale white, almost colourless, with on either side a dark stump which marks the developing wing. Three weeks after egg-laying a fourth cell is examined. A weli- formed wasp now occupies the chamber, filling the available space. Its head is just within the door with jaws in position to cut through. Now black like the adult, its wings are still unfolded as though not quite ready to emerge. It moves freely in the narrow prison, legs quiver, antenne tremble, it even protrudes a sting. Nevertheless these movements are nampered since the whole body is enveloped in a skein. Emergence takes place on the twenty-sixth day. The young wasp excises the lid by gnawing round the edge. She comes out through the opening, but does not immediately take to flight. I observe that for some days she remains on the cluster, often sitting in the cell for hours with only the tips of her antennz outside. A 14 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX short flight may be taken at intervals, but her wings are still weak and she soon returns. At length she disappears. The cell becomes an empty pot with only some refuse inside. Still it is not useless. Humenes builds a cell, closes it, abandons it; but Rhynchium will utilize her cell again. She will sweep it of refuse, again lay in it, reprovision it, and close it with a new lid. But even more. Winter supervenes. Rhynchium disappears coinpletely, probably to hibernate in some sheltered hole. Her nest remains stuck firmly to the woodwork and thickly grimed with dust. April arrives. ARhynchium awakens from her long slumber to resume the unremitting toil. Unexpectedly I see the nest re-occupied. Surely it is the builder of last year returning to the old cell. I cannot be certain. A wanderer of the same species may have chanced upon it. But Rhynchium, as we have seen, is very constant; and I prefer to think that the original foundress remembers the first home. Now we see how Ahynchium gains by expending such labour on her cell. Compared with Aumenes the toil is immense. FAumenes builds a cell in a few hours, lays in it, provisions it, then sees itno more. But ARhynchium spends days at architecture: the buiiding of her cluster occupies weeks. The difference is that Rhynchitum makes a permanent habitation. She sticks to it throughout the season and may return to it the following year. GEOMETRY I come now to some points about geometry. I want to show how the mason measures, how she gets the shape and limits of her cell. There are certain geometrical principles underlying this delicate work. Fic 1. DIAGRAM TO SHOW PENDULUM MECHANISM OF WASP. Pendulum corresponding to wasp. Surface of completed cells. Pellet at point of pendulum. Top of wall. Wall of cell undergoing construction. otter GES) Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. ENE YEP ELE TFN IL RTL PL EAN SPA LE IT LE TI IT THE POTTER WASP. (Rhynchium nitidulum) . Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. - ! NEST OF THE POTTER WASP] (Rhynchium nitidulum). : | La | 2 | | & | Rhynchium BUILDING LOWER HALF OF CELL. THE POTTER WASP (RHYNCHIUM NITIDULUM) 107 I recall the method of building. First the wasp hangs head down- ward, swings from side to side, rolling her pellet from the centre to either end of the wail. Then she reverses, sits upright in her cell and rolis her pellet from end to end. Now I want to explain all this. Why are these attitudes and changes necessary to the shape and perfection of the cell. First the wasp hangs head downward and swings from side to side. In fact sne isa kind of pendulum. But her swings are not quite those of an ordinary pendulum. ‘They not only swing her from side to side, but they also carry her forward inacurve. Thus at first we see a simple mechanism, a pendulum that swings and eens a forward curve. (Fig. 1.) But there is more geometry about it than this. As the wall grows higher the wasp does not retreat upward. In fact the base of the pendulum remains fixed. What then must happen as the wall rises ? Since the pendulum will not retreat, then it must tilt more and more forward after each fresh addition to the wall. It will occupy successively the'positions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, as shown in the accompanying sketch. (Fig.'2.) 3 ;What will be the consequence? MThe'pendulum, FIG. 2. DIAGRAM TO SHOW FORWARD TILT OF PENDULUM. A. Wall of cell. B. Line of pendulum. C. Front wall of cell. 1-5. Successive levels occupied by pendulum. after each addition to the wall, will swing through a larger arc than it did on the previous swing. Each successive pellet will be moulded into a larger curve. Hence the capacity of the growing cell will uniformly and geometrically increase. Another point. The pellet, as I have said, is at this stage first placed at the centre of the wall, and from there rolled to one or other end. Why is this? When we regard the wasp as a pendulum I| think we can explain the act. For, as we have seen, the curve increases 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII at each fresh addition to the wall. But this increase in curve is mainiy at the centre; there is little increase at the ends of the wall. There the wall is fairly straight without very much change in curve. Therefore when the mason is shaping her curve she will estimate it better by commencing at the centre instead of at the ends of the wall. By commencing there she tilts out the pendulum to the full extent of the new curve, and then gradually diminishes the arc as she rolls the pellet to either end. This is no doubt an easier operation than if she were to try to draw a curve by one sweep from end to end. When the wall is half-built the change in method of construction takes place. The mason now gets into hercell, sits erect with head at the edge, and rolls her pellet along the wall. There must be a reason for this change. I think this is the explanation. ‘The change takes place when the cell has reached its greatest width. During the lower half of its construction the size has been increasing ; from now on its width becomes less. In order to effect this change in size the mason has to alter her method of work. The principle of the pendulum, as I have shown, increases the curve at every swing. If she persisted at the pendulum mecha- nism then her cell would grow -larger~and-larger; it could never graduate into an egg shape. Hence a change of some kind is necessary. See how it works. She gets into the cell, sits upright in it, and rotates from side to side. She is no longer a swinging pendulum, but a vertical pivot that rotates. Her head is bent over the edge of the wall. Andas she turns within the cell, she draws out the clay intoacurve. Now as the wali grows higher it becomes necessary for her to stretch further upward in order to mould the pel- leton the edge. In order tocompensate for this she makes each curve a little smaller than the preceding curve. And since the curves become successively smaller, therefore the size of the upper half of the cell grows gradually less. Nor need the mason now commence at the centre and roll her pellet to one or other end. This was necessary in the lower half, for the curves were then increasing at each swing, and the wasp could do better by taking her measurement from the point farthest away on the curve. But now the reverse happens. ‘The curves are decreasing at every swing. Hence the mason must change her method. Now she measures from the nearest point, therefore commences at one end and rolis the whole length of the wall. My description may not'be sufficiently clear. I will illustrate it by a simple comparison. Imagine a man standing upright with his arm hanging down in front of him. The right arm represents the pendulum, the hand corresponding to the head, the arm to the body of the wasp. Now the hand is going to trace the building movements, First it oscillates from side to side like the wasp lJay- ing its first layers. As construction advances, the hand, of course, is raised. It is at the same time tilted forward. Asa result it traces a curve and each curve is larger than the preceding curve. Thus the action of the hand is like that of the wasp when ea the lower half of her cell. THE POTTER WASP (RHYNCHIUM NITIDULUM) ‘109 At length the arm becomes horizontal. That will correspond to the point when the cell is half built. The arm is now out at full length and the greatest diameter of the curve is reached. A change in direction must now take place. The wasp, I have shown, reverses position. From working head down, it changes to head up. A ~similar reversal occurs with the arm. Follow the hand upward. It gets above the horizontal. The shoulder is still the pivot. But up till now the hand had worked below the pivot: henceforward it will work above. It continues to draw out curves, but, as it rises, it approaches the plane of the body. Consequently each curve is smalier than the one which precedes it. If the hand were building a cell, then the capacity of the cell will decrease. This is a very rough comparison, but it represents the mechanism of the wasp. Just one more point before we leave the architecture. How does the architect estimate height? How does she know when to cease adding to the wall? It might be thought that the problem would present itself only at the building of the first cell. After that she would have a standard of measurement. The first cell would serve as a pattern, and the others could be raised to an equal height. But a simple observation disproves this. The wasp does not compare heights. There is one plan of measurement which she applies to all the cells. For, sometimes, when adding a cell to the cluster, she may. not commence at the same level as she did with the preceding ‘cells.. On the contrary, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 3), she Fic. 3. CELLS OF ARhynchium nitidulum AT DIFFERENT LEVELS Order of construction: 1, 2, 3, 4. begins a littie higher up. It will then be observed that the top of this cell is not finished off flush with the preceding cells, but is raised as much above their tops as its point of commencement is above their bases. 110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII It seems, therefore, that the wasp can estimate the height of each separate cell. Watch her and see the method of measurement. No- thing could be more simple. During the second half of construction she works, as I have said, within the cell. Her attitude is erect, tip of abdomen at the bottom of the chamber, antennz at the edge of the wall. These are the points by which she measures. She knows that her cell is sufficiently high when the tip of her abdomen just touches the bottom and the tips of her antenneze just reach the gate. The height of a cell is three-quarters of aninch. That too is the length of the wasp between these extreme points. I have frequently shown how insects measure. Here we see one of the simplest mechanisms. The mason employs her own length to measure the cell height. Honey-bees are the most skilful architects. Working in darkness they shape pyramids and hexagons. They are geometricians in the highest sense. These workers in clay have not their efficiency. Nevertheless they are geometricians. The particular shapes and dimensions of their cells depend on mathematical skill. Different species display different methods, Aumenes, by expanding her antennae widely, can measure out the cell base, by employing them as a pair of dividers can shape a circular door, by using them asa vertical plumb line can determine the cell depth. In Rhynchium we observe the pendulum and pivot. Also the simplest of all mechanisms, the measurement of cell height by comparing it with body length. (To be continued) ptt ihe Korn Ms) i ~ EMCEE Sater oie mem de tomy hath gate ok aetna ales Si oe rs o ee eo Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. THE LEFT OF THE PICTURE ARE eo) PANORAMIC VIEW OF A SMALL TORRENTIAL STREAM BELOW DUMPEP IN THE KHASI HILLS. THE ROCKS. ea CUTTING 7 TRATITIRIITT. A De ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS! [A Public Lecture delivered at the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Indian Science Congress at Lahore on January 8, 1927.] BY Dr. S. L. Hora, D. Sc. (Published by permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of [ndia) (With one plate and ten text-figures) Sir JAGDISH, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, The subject which I have the honour to bring before you this evening is that of Animal Life in Torrential Streams. I presume that most of you are familiar with what I mean ,by torrential streams because they are so abundant in all our hills and especially in those hills where the rainfall is high. Just to refresh your memory I shall take you to the Khasi Hills, which are noted for the heaviest rainfall in the world. ‘The average annual rainfall at Cherrapunji, a village on the southern face of the hills, is no less than 458 inches. Enormous though this rainfall is, it is little more than half of the maximum on record. In 1861, 905 inches fell, 366 of which were assigned to July alone. The maximum for a single day was, however, recorded in 1876, when 41 inches of rain fell in 24 hours.’? = It will not be out of place to point out for the sake of comparison that the average annual rainfall of the city of Lahore is nearly 21 inches, which is approximately half of the actual rainfall recorded on a single day at Cherrapunji. The Cherrapunji plateau is admirably drained, and the water is quickly carried off. The streams inthe deep gorges sweil immensely during and after a heavy fall of rain. Mr. Oldham,?* who visited one of the streams in these hills after a heavy and sudden fall of rain, describes the scene thus :—‘ The water had then arisen only about thirteen feet above the level at which it stood a few days previously; the rush was tremendous—huge blocks of rock measuring some feet across, were rolled along with an awful crashing, almost as easily as pebbles in an ordinary stream. In one night a block of granite, * The lecture was illustrated with 39 lantern slides, most of which were pre- pared either from specimens collected by the author or from sketches and photographs made by Babu D. N., Bagchi in the field under the author’s supervision. ? Allen, Assam District Gazetteer, vol. x, p. 30 (1906). $ Oldham, Mem. Geol. Surv. India, vol. i, p. 174 (1859). 112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXII which I calculated to weigh upwards of 350 tons, was moved for more than 100 yards ; while the torrent was actually turbid with pebbles of some inches in size, suspended almost like mud in the rushing stream.’ We have here to consider how animals manage to live under such adverse conditions. Besides the rapidity of the flow of water we find that the only kind of food available consists of algal slime covering stones and rocks, for there is little chance of any other type of vegetation to grow as it is liable to be up- rooted and carried away by the strength of the current. Very rately a growth of moss and of higher plants is found in swift cur- rents. Insect larve of various kinds are found in fair abundance in these streams and they form a valuable supply of fish food, but it should not be forgotten that the ultimate source of food is the algal slime. Among other conditions that influence the fauna of hill- streams may be mentioned the abundance of shelter, the clearness and shallowness of water during the non-rainy season and conse- quently intense light during the day-time and lastly the presence of a large quantity of air dissolved in the water. To adapt themselves to such a peculiar environment the animals have modified their entire organization. In the case of fishes; for instance, we notice that modifications have taken place inthe external form, the scale covering, the fins, the mouth, the lips; the jaws, the eyes, the gill-openings, the air biadder, the skeletal and muscular frame work and lastly we find that special modifications of the skin have occurred in places. I have not enough time this evening to discuss the entire set of adaptations, but with your per- mission I shall confine myself to the external form of the animals and to the special structures that enable them to withstand the swiftness of the currents. oe In 1891, Nikolsky? dealt with the correlation between the shape of the body of fishes and the strength of the current of streams, but unfortunately his work is not available in India and I have not been able to consult it. I have, however, made extensive observations on this point and I propose to give you a summary of my views on the subject. In general, fishes are boat-shaped, adapted for swift progress through water. They are longer than broad or deep and the great- est width is in front of the middle leaving the compressed paddle- like tail as the chief organ of locomotion. We get such forms in the sluggish waters of our rivers in the plains and in tanks and ponds, but at the base of the hills where streams possess rocky beds and water flows with some rapidity, the fishes that are met with are more or less of a cylindrical form and are provided with a strong caudal peduncle and a weil developed tail fin. ‘The cylindrical form probably does not present so much surface to the strong flow of water as the usual form of the fish and the muscular tail becomes a great asset for progression in swift currents. As we go higher up * Hora, Aec. Ind. Mus., xxiv, pp. 33-61 (1922). * Nikolsky. Rev. Soc. Nat. St. Petersb, pp. 137~139 (1891). ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS WS Fig. 1.—Balitora brucei, Gray, from Nong-priang Stream below Cherrapunji. in the hills and study the fish fauna of the torrents, it is found that the form is greatly depressed from above downwards, and in some cases it has become almost leaf-like. The under sur- face is greatly flattened and has developed adhesive organs for clinging to the rocks in these rapid waters and the tail has become very muscular and whip-like to enable the fish to dart about from one rock to another in swift water. The upper surface has assumed a stream-line form so that it presents less resistance to swift currents. CG b. Dh. Fig. 2.—Transverse sections of fish showing evolution of form for life in rapid running waters. (a) Section of an ordinary pond fish (Ladeo). (6) Section of a fish living in moderately swift currents and relatively deeper waters (Schizothorax). (c) Section of a typical torrent-inhabiting fish (Balztora). ate) 114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1 Among fishes I have been able to find two types of adhesive organs,! firstly a rounded or elliptical structure with a iarge callous portion in the centre and a loose membranous flap all round it and secondly an organ composed of grooves and ridges. ‘The former functions as a true sucker by the creation of a vacuum, while the latter in my opinion acts as a mechanical frictional device and pre- vents the fish from slipping. The true sucker is present in the members of the genus Garra, while some sort of a frictional device is present in almost a]l hill-stream fishes. The latter device posses- ses one great advantage over the former and it is this :—a vacuum of acertain capacity can have only limited power of adhesion where- as in a frictional device the friction increases with pressure, which under the circumstances is proportional to the rapidity of the flow of water. In streams subject to a sudden rush of water an adhesive apparatus of variable efficiency is very beneficial. Moreover, adhesion by a sucker requires constant exertion on the part of the animal using it, whereas a frictional device acts mechanically, meeting effectively the exigencies of the circumstances. A powerful sucker occurs in the tadpoles of the section Rana formosa. 1 was afforded an-opportunity of testing the efficacy of this mechanism by making a series of observations on the living tadpoles of Rana afghanain the Khasi Hills and at Dharmsala in the Kangra Valley. A tadpole was held by its tail and was then placed ona loose piece of stone in water in sucha way that its sucker touched the stone. The animal was then lifted out of water by the tail and it was found that the stone was also lifted with the tadpole. By repeating this experiment with stones of different sizes, it was found that a tadpole weighing one-tenth of an ounce could easily, when lifted out of the water, retain a hold on a stone having a weight of about six ounces. I have here to refer to some very peculiar tadpoles of certain species ofthe genus Megalophrys. Great controversy has raged round the function of the funnel apparatus and a considerable literature has grown round the subject. I made the acquaintance of these tadpoles at Dumpep in the Khasi Hills and found them in abundance in a rapid flowing, rocky stream among weeds and under stones or in crevices in the rocks in sheltered places. To me? it at first seemed probable that the two inwardly curved horns of the folded funnel enable the animal to anchor itself among weeds in fairly rapid currents. But further observations carried out in the stream bed itself have convinced me that the peculiar funnel is only a device for gathering plancton on which the animal feeds and that it helps to keep the anterior end buoyant, so that the animal does not knock against rocks if it happens to be swept away by a strong current. The structural modifications of the fish and of the Batrachian larvae that inhabit our small mountain torrents afford a remarkable instance of bara evolution or what Annandale and myself? have * Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxv, pp. 587-591 (1923). ? [bid., pp. 585-587 (1923). 3 Annandale and Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxiv, pp. 505-509 (1922). ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS iS called ‘communal convergence.’ You must have noticed the great similarity in external form and in the structure of the sucker of Garra and of the tadpole of Rana afghana.* In the former we know that these modifications are the results of a series of gradual changes to be observed both in the post-embryonic development, in individual variability and in specific differentiation. In the larvae of Rana formosa, however, we know, so to speak, the finished product of evolution in the highly perfected organ of adhesion. Inthe case of Garra at any rate, we have evidence that these changes have resulted, not through mutation or by any Mendelian segregation of characters, but through a gradual accumulation of small changes.t The close correlation between these structural changes and differences in the flow of water in which species and even individuals live is at any rate suggestive. Whether in these particular cases we are witnessing the survival of the fittest in the Darwinian sense, which means the evolution of new structures through the agency of small fluctuating variations, or must accept a frankly Lamarckian explanation, which means the evolution of new structures by the constant use or disuse of the parts affected, only experiment can prove. The Gastropod molluscs that live actually in rapid waters, such as species of Paludomus, or which live on rocks at the sides of streams subject to a sudden rush of water, such as Cremnochonchus syhadrensts, Neritina perotettiana, Lithotis rupicula and Turbinicola saxea, have solved the problem of existence in their particular habitat by the greatly increased size of the foot and a consequently increased power of attachment. Inthe case of Paludomus the upper whorls are usually worn and the shell comes to resemble the small rounded pebbles among which it usually lives. Among the Gastropod molluscs, however, special mention may be made of the various species of the genus Azcylus which inhabit swift currents and are limpet-like inform. They probably stick to stones or other objects by the creation of a sucker in the strict sense of the term. Certain bivalves, such as Corbicula, are also found in rapid water, but they manage to live during floods by seeking shelter under rocks or by burrowing in sand. One species of bivalve from the Surma Valley,?, Assam, has developed this habit to an extraordinary degree. It lives, firmly anchored by its extensive foot, in regular burrows formed either in hard blue clay or in friable sand-stone rocks. It has thus avoided the dangers of swift currents in a most ingenious way. I shall have occasion to refer again later to this mode of life in hill-streams, when dealing with the insect larvae. Leeches are also met with in hill-streams but you are probably aware that these animals are provided with well-developed suckers. Those from rapid waters have these suckers better developed. I also found a colony of Polyzoa, or moss-like animals, in rapid water in the Kangra Valley.? This is an encrusting form, so that once it is attached to stones it needs no further specialization. The * Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxii, p. 640 (1921). rah Journ. Astat. Soc., Bengal (in Press). td. 1146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII occurrence of Polyzoa in running water is a rare phenomenon and Annandale observed it only once, in Plumatella frutticosa, in a small jungle stream in Travancore. My specimen from the Kangra Valley also belongs to the same species but it is remarka- ble that only the form stricta of this species occurs in running water, and it seems probable, as Annandale has pointed out, that this form is found only in those places where there is reason to suspect a lack of minute life and, therefore, of food.4 I have collected a number of Turbellarians or flat worms in hill-streams, but have not so far made a special study of these animals. They are broad, flat and leaf-like and encrust stones and rocks in rapid waters, and Prof. Stanley Gardiner of Cambridge University has very kindly informed me in a private communication that these forms also possess specially modified clinging organs. Insect larvae of various kinds occur in mountain torrents in large numbers and are remarkably well adapted for life in such situations.” I propose to deal with the various groups one by one. The dragonfly larvae of our torrential streams can be divided into four groups. The first group bury themselves in the sand at the bottom of pools instreams. These are generally found to belong to the Gomphines with a torpedo or stream-line body adapted for push- ing forward through sand or facing heavy currents. The legs are Water fall. : Level of stream. (From a drawing by Col. Fraser) Fig 3.—The form and habitat of Gomphine larvae. short and adapted for burrowing. ‘These iarvae frequent particular spots, usually in front of the foot of a falling column of water, where the water has scoured out the sand and heaped it up down stream. I have illustrated this type by Macrogomphus wynadicus and Megalo- gomphus hameyngtoni. The siphon-like tube at the posterior end of * Annandale, Faun. Brit. India, Freshwater Sponges, Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, pe 219 CISI1). * Musgrave and Campbell, Austral. Mus. Mag. Sydney, iii, pp. 28-31 (1927). ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS 17 the abdomen of the former is the only part of the larva which projects from the sand. These larvae are rectal breathers and hence the utility of such a device is perfectly obvious. The second group includes limpet-like forms such as /cfinus and Zygonyx which are actual water-fall dwellers. The belly is abso- lutely flat and is very broad, the back is highly arched like a limpet and slopes steeply away oneither side. They live on rocks and are able to hold their own against the heaviest torrents. It has been believed that adhesion is due to the close application of the ventral plates to a rock and by the creation of vacuum by contract- ion of the plates. Personally I have no idea as to how far this view may be correct but my examination has revealed the presence of definite adhesive pads on the ventral plates; these pads are very much like the lamellae on the sucker of Achenez or the ship holder and are provided with spines, thus forming an efficient fric- tional device. /ctzmus and Zygonyx belong to widely-separated families but from a similarity of habitat have become modelled alike. The former are Gomphines and the latter Libellulines but the resemblance is so close that an expert might be deceived. These two provide another instance of communal convergence. The third group comprises root-dwellers and these are found clinging to roots along the river banks, swayed from side to side with every eddy of the current. These are long, thin, attenuated larvae resembling stick-insects. They lie close to the roots and Fig. 4.—Root-dwelling dragonfly larvae of torrential streams. (a) Macromzia ida, Fraser ; (6) Matrona basilaris, Selys. thus offera very small surface to the force of the current. I shall mention here two instances illustrating this group, firstly M/atrona bastlaris, a Calopterygine larva, and secondly the spidery-legged Macromia ida a Libelluline larva. There is yet a fourth group which is found hidden amongst the leafy debris collected in deep pools in the course of mountain streams. These are broad, flat and leaf-like. I must express here my great indebtedness to Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII for sending me valuable notes regarding the habits of the fly larvae of hill-streams and for supplying me with specimens for illustrating this lecture. Among the mayfly nymphs we find adaptations similar to those that | have already shown you in the dragonfly larvae. Here we have burrowing larvae such as those of Palingenia and Polymitarcys, creeping larvae that anchor themselves on water weeds and stones in swift currents and lastly those larvae that possess flattened bodies. These last are of the Ecydurus and the Heptagenia type and are usually met with either on the under side of stones in swift current or on the upper sides of rocks in deeper waters. Some of these larvae, both of the clinging type, which are long and thin, and of the flattened type which possess a limpet-like form, frequent bare rocks in very rapid waters. In all these forms very strong claws are developed for grappling on to the rocks and stones, but in certain larvae of the fiattened type that frequent the upper sides of rocks in strong currents the tracheal gills are greatly enlarged and are arranged in such a way that a complete or a partial sucker is formed on the under side of the animal when needed. In addition they are provided with a series of pads beset with spines on the under surface of the tracheal gills. A combination of these two devices makes the under surface thoroughly non-slippery. The highest development of the sucker is reached in the nymphs of the archaic genus Prosopistoma, which, according to Eaten? ‘is excep- tional in having the body oval in outline, convex above and flattened beneath ; and it possesses the faculty of adhering firmly by suction, like a limpet, to stones.’ The stone-fly nymphs usually occur in situations similar to those of the mayfly larvae of Ecydurus and Heptagenia types. They are fairly common, but always on the under side of the stones, in such places where water runs swiftly over a bed of comparatively small pebbles. The nymphs cling closely and lie flat with legs outspread ; they hold on by means of stout paired claws that are like grappling hooks. Their legs are flattened and laid down against the stone in such a way that they offer little resistance to the passing current. The efficiency of the claws for grappling can be readily tested by allowing a larva to crawl on the back of one’s hand or on one’s arm. They are very quick in their movements and are known to be the worst carnivores of torrent fauna. The larvae of the 7vichoptera or the so-called caddis-worms are- found in all sorts of inland waters. They build a shelter for them- selves and drag it along wherever they go. ‘The case or shelter is held fast by the two very powerful, hooked claws at the hinder end. Several of them are found in rapid waters where they have devised several interesting ways to withstand the rush of water. Some fasten their cases to rocks in swift currents by means of their salivary secretion in such a way that a stream-line form is presented to the current and the animal lives with the open end of the case up-stream. The case itself is greatly flattened on the under surface to come 1 Eaton, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London. Zoology (2), iii, p. 13 (1888). ANIMAL LIFE [IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS 119 in close contact with the support. Some weave a sort of a conical web on the rocks or on water plants growing in swift currents and themselves sit comfortably in its pointed portion and wait for any booty that the current may bring into their web. I have observed Fig, 5.—Trichopterous larvae (caddis-worms) from torrential streams in India. certain others that live on the under side of rocks in swift water forming a barricade of small stones and spinning a web over it with a hole for the animal to come out through. Most remarkable among these worms are those in which the case has taken a limpet-like form and the animai is thus enabled to cling fast in very rapid waters. From among beetles I want to draw your special attention to the remarkable larvac of the genus Psephenus, commonly known as ‘water-pennies.’ They occur in swift streams chiefly on the under- side of stones and are known to be especially abundant in the rapids of Niagara, but are by no means uncommon in our Himalayan streams from Darjeeling to the Kangra valley and in the Khasi Hills. They are greatly depressed from above downwards and are almost 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1L scale-like in appearance. Their form is either rounded or ovoid. The whole of the under surface of the body appears to act asa sucker and itis very difficult to dislodge these larvae with the fingers. Fig. 6.—Psephenus larva and pupa from the Kangra Valley, Punjab. (a) Three views of a larva; (6) Pupa soldered on toa rock; (c¢c) Scars left on a rock after the pupal skins are washed away. The pupae are more or less similiar to the larvae, but they are soldered down to the rocks. After the emergence of the beetle, when the pupal skin becomes disintegrated and is washed away, a black oval ring is left to mark the place. The black outline shows the marginal region along which they had been soldered down to the stones. This sort of a permanent adhesion is effected by the secre- tion of some sticky substance, which leaves black marks on the stones. ‘The beetles of the family to which Psephenus belongs are found for the most part near running water or clinging by means of their strong claws to water plants or other submerged objects. Certain other beetles have also been observed in similar circumstances, but they do not possess any special organs of attachment other than their powerful claws. The under surface is more or less flattened in all beetles, but it is more so in those that frequent rapid waters. Among the Diptera, Nematocera or the midge-like flies, there are two remarkable families, whose larvae live on bare rocks in the course of very rapid waters. I here refer to the blood-sucking biack-flies (Szmultidae) and the net-winged midges (Blephars- ceridac). A Sitmulium larva is a small bag-shaped, cylindrical creature somewhat broader at the posterior end. It is usually found sticking by its so-called posterior sucker either to water plants that ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS 121 grow in swift currents or to the upper surface of rocks and stones in rapid waters. It hangs from its support with the head pointing My < Fig. 7.—The larvae and pupae of the blood-sucking black-flies! (Szsallidae) . (a) Larvae and pupae on water weed (Ariocaulon miserum) growing in very swift current. (The artist has not been able to do full justice to the number of larvae that are usually found in similar situations.) (6) A blade of the same weed showing larvae and pupae in various postures. (c) Shows a larva crawling back to its support. (d) A portion of the track left behind by a Szmulium larvae on a glass slide (highly magnified) . down-stream in such a way that a stream-line form is presented to the current. Its posterior appendage, or the so-called sucker, has received considerable attention. The earlier writers considered it a sucker in the same sense as that found at the posterior end of a 16 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII leech, but Tonnoir?! not finding any muscles inserted in the middle of the disc doubted its utility as a sucker. Dr. Puri 2? who has quite recently published a monograph on the structure of these larvae, has found definite muscles and has observed ‘ that they con- tract when a larva fixes itself by its posterior end.’ He further points out that ‘in spite of the presence of these muscles the larva cannot fix itself effectively without the further help of the sticky salivary secretion.’ A very close study of the habits of these larvae enables me to say that the posterior appendage does not act as a sucker, and the larva fixes itself with the help of hooks and the sali- vary secretion alone. The larva spins out this salivary secretion into a fine silk thread which is very sticky and very strong. I have watched a fairly large specimen of a mayfly nymph struggling to free itself from the silk thread of a Szmulium,and it has been observed time and again that if a larva is disturbed it lets go its hold and is carried away by the current for some distance but all the time it keeps hanging on to its support by a fine silk thread. By means of this rope-way the larva can crawl back to its former support. The consistency of this thread must be very remarkable for it can bear not only the weight of the animal when it presents an inverted stream-line form to the current (for the larva climbs with the head pointing up-stream), but also the tremendous rush of the current at one and the same time. The posterior ‘sucker’ is provided with a rosette of hooks and the function of these hooks and, therefore, of the ‘ sucker’ is to grip firmly acluster of silk threads which the animal secretes on the spot where it wants the posterior appendage to be fixed. The necessity for the presence of muscles in connection with this appendage is obvious, for in order to disengage the hooks from the salivary secretion a strong and sudden muscular pull is needed. The muscular action noticed by Dr. Puri at the time of the attachment of the sucker is a manipula- tion on the part of the animal to enable it to fix its hooks properly in the secretion. Needham and Lloyd ° give an interesting account of the general habit of the Blepharocerid larvae. They say that though ‘ Not the most Jimpet-like but yet the best adapted for hanging on to bare stones in torrents is the curious larva of the net-veined midge, Blepharocera, an inhabitant only of clear and rapid streams. The depressed body of this curious little animal is equipped with a row of half a dozen ventral suckers, each of which is capable of powerful and independent attachment to the stones. So important have these suckers become that the major divisions of the body con- form to them and not to the original body segments. On these suckers, used as feet, the larva walks over the stones under the swiftest water, foraging in safety where no enemy may follow.’ They further observe that ‘the naked pupa is found in the same situation and is attached by one strongly flattened side to the 1 Tonnoir, dun Biol. Lucustre, xi, pp. 163-172 (1923). 2 Puri, Parasitology, Cambridge, xvii. pp. 311, 312 (1925). % Needham and Lloyd, Life of Inland Waters, p. 368 (New York : 1916). ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS 123 f supporting surface.’ These larvae are indeed the most highly specialized of ali the torrent-inhabiting animals, but in a suitable habitat they are found in countless numbers. I have observed the young larvae in comparatively calm waters either at the side of tpg ser aT 2 , Ss 7 H “ > 2 ’ us a - BA j ‘ bs ul Ye = BO. he, — HY yy Nj ra % ; ‘s 'y py fi)! MY, Yen fie Yj), As rama | bnQ pete ey UY a] \ i ed i = ie gf YL We / Wf ee = ry yl 'f iff ik ca ro ¥ ~ UMA Wy; a ie a nd PT Ph = rad Oy, tLe ents Me GEE: : Fig. 8.—Habitat of Blepharocerid larvae and caddis-worms. At the head of the waterfall a large number of larvae of the net-veined midge were found, while on the sides of rocks in the course of the fall were found caddis-worms in their peculiar cases. the strong current or actually in places where the current does not run very fast. There appears to be a regular correlation between the stage of growth of a larva and the rapidity of the current in which it lives. The pupz were also found along with very young larve or in small nooks and corners where they were comparatively safe. They usually occurred on vertical rocks over which the water fell and thus kept them moist. Ladies and gentlemen! You must yourselves have noticed from what I have said, and from what has already been pointed out by Needham and Lloyd,‘ that ‘ the impress of environment is seen not only in the form of a living animal but also in that of the non-living shelter that it builds. In this there is a parallel of form in the secreted shell on the back of the snail,-Azcylus, and in the manufactured shell of the back of the caddis-worm, Helicopsyche. One would have to search widely to find better examples of the effects of environ- ment in moulding to a common form these representatives of many groups of very diverse structural types. ‘Two of them, at least, were sufficiently like lotic mollusca to have deceived their * Needham and Lloyd, op. ¢2¢., p, 374 (1916), 124. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII original describers. Psephenus was first described as a limpet and FHlelicopsyche as a snail.’ With your permission may I avail myself of this opportunity to thank the successive Directors of the Zoological Survey of India who have given me every possible encouragement and facility to pursue the study of this subject. I am _ especially Fig. 9.—Showing impress of environment on the form of the non-living shelter. . (a) Ancylus, a snail; (6) and (c) cases of two caddis-worms from Pashok in the Darjeeling District. indebted to Major R. B. Seymour Sewell, who very kindly allowed me to tour in the Kangra Valley, the Khasi Hills and the Darjeeling Himalayas in the course of the last yearto check my results gained from the study of the ‘lotic’ fauna in previous years. It has thus been possible for me to present to you this evening fresh views on the various aspects of the life of the animals that inhabit the swift currents of our torrential streams. ADDENDUM In my public lecture I had to content myself with a few typical instances illustrative of adaptations for life in rapid waters. In this note I propose to complete my account of ‘ Animal Life in Torren- tial Streams’ by citing examples from three other groups of insects whose larvae, pupae or adults frequent swift currents. Caterpillars of certain moths of the sub-family Ay drocampane are known to lead an aquatic existence. Our familiar examples?! of such larvae are inhabitants of sluggish or stationary waters; they make a shelter out of the leaves on which they feed and which they fasten together by means of silk. In recent years, however, a third type of aquatic larvae has been found in rapid-running streams. In 1908, Muir and Kershaw? found caterpillars of Aulacodes simplicalts 1 Miall, Zhe Natural History of Aquatic Insects, pp. 226-235 (London) : 1895 ; Needham and Lloyd, Lzfe of Inland Waters, pp. 218-220 (New York: 1916); Imms, 7ext Book of Entomology, p. 492 (1925) ; Needham in Ward and Whip- ples’ Fresh Water Biology, p. 903 (New York : 1918). 2 Muir and Kershaw, Proc. in Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. x1-xlv (1909). ANIMAL LIFE IN TORRENTIAL STREAMS 125 Snell in a very fast current at Lappa, a mountainous island on the western side of the harbour of Macao in China, and Lloyd! has described larvae of EAlophila fultcalts that live on stones in rapid streams of Ithaca, New York. I have found larvae of similar habit both in the Darjeeling Himalayas, 2 miles below Pashok, and in the head waters of the Nerbadda River. ‘These larvae weave an irregular shelter of thin-spun silk which is attached to a piece of stone at irregular intervals leaving a series of holes for the larva to come out through for the purpose of feeding, etc. Each larva at the time of pupation manufactures a dome-shaped pupal shelter under some portion of the larval cover and this it fastens very care- fully to the rock leaving rows of marginal openings on either side for free circulation of water and air through it. When the pupal case is completed the unused portion of the larval shelter is washed away. The pupal case shows a remarkable similarity to the limpet- like non-living shelters to which 1 have referred:to already. On reference to the Museum Collection I have found similar caterpillars collected by Dr. F. H. Gravely at Hoshangabad and Pachmarhi in the Central Provinces and provisionally referred to the genus Aulacodes. Dr. B. Chopra collected a number of these larvae at Kurseong in the Darjeeling Himalayas. Al] these are a b Fig. 10.—Larval and pupal shelters of a Pyralid moth. (a) Larval shelter; (6) Pupal case. * Lloyd, New York Journ. Ent. OC. ! XXii, pp. 145-152, pp. iii, iv (1914). 1246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII flattened from above downwards and are provided with branchial filaments for aquatic respiration. Drs B. Chopra and H. S. Rao have drawn my attention to certain creeping Water-Bugs (Family Maucoride) recently col- lected by them in Burma from underneath stones in swift currents. These insects are flat-bodied and are oval in outline. The femora of the front legs are greatly enlarged and are fitted for grasping, while the middle and hind legs are suited for crawling about. The under surface of each half of the posterior segments is provided with a group of strong spines, which probably act as adhesive pads in the same way as the spines on the sucker of Achenezs. Neuropterous larvae of various kinds are found in swift currents, but they are not by any means specially modified for such an exist- ence. They live under stones and are not affected by the rapidity of the current. Several other kinds of beetle and dipterous larvae are found under stones and are not modified for stemming the swiftness of a current except for the fact that they possess very strong claws. I want to express here my great indebtedness to Mr. S. Ribeiro for the valuable assistance he has rendered to me in sorting out my insect material and in looking up references for me on various points. WILD ELEPHANTS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BY F. W. CHAMPION, I.F.S. (With four plates) All along the forest belt at the base of the United Provinces’ Himalayas wild elephants are to be found in small numbers and a few also occur in the terai forests of Oudh, as well as in the Zemin- dari forests of Bijnor and elsewhere ‘The iargest number live in the dense bamboo forests of the Garhwal Bhabar, in the Lansdowne Forest Division, where there are probably about fifty permanent residents, but elsewhere the numbers are smaller and the total head of wild elephants in the whole of the United Provinces probably does not exceed some 250 individuals, divided up into anumber of small herds, with numerous semi-solitary tuskers and maknas scattered about in the forest areas. A fairly large herd has recently appeared in the terai forests of the Pilibhit Forest Division, in Oudh, and it is probable that this herd has recently emigrated into British India from the neighbouring forests of Nepal. In the earlier part of the last century these wild elephants were greatly persecuted by sportsmen, particularly in the neighbourhood of Dehra Dun, and it is probable that they were saved from anni- hilation only by the Elephant Preservation Act of some fifty years ago. This Act prohibits the shooting or killing of elephants entirely, except in the case of proclaimed rogues, and it is a great pity that some of the other species, such as rhinoceros, were not saved from destruction in the same way. Elephant-catching opera- tions have taken place afew times since elephants have been pre- served, but certainly not more than 100 have been caught, whereas the number of proclaimed rogues that have been shot could not exceed twenty, yet the number of elephants at present in existence seems remarkably small after fifty years of protection, and it would appear that they are not breeding as prolifically as one would have expected under the circumstances. ‘The number of young calves to be seen is extremely small and it has been suggested that this may be due to in-breeding as the result of segregation from the large numbers of elephants in Nepal, of which these United Provinces’ elephants originally formed a part. At one time large stretches of the Nepal terai forests adjoined the forests of the United Provinces and there were then numerous opportunities for wild elephants to pass from one country to the other, but much of the Nepal elephant country has since been opened up for cultivation and few elephants now come over from Nepal to inter-breed with the survivors in the United Provinces. The new herd in Pilibhit already referred to has apparently come from Nepal, and itis to be hoped that these animals will spread over the Province and infuse new blood into what seems to be a dying race. The ordinary wild elephant of the United Provinces appears to be a very inoffensive individual and does not ordinarily do any harm 128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST SOCILTY SVol ees, to mankind, although he is held in terrible awe by the local inhabi- tants and men working in the jungles. Indeed, in Lansdowne Forest Division—the main home of the wild elephants—there has been no casualty from them for the last ten years, although one rogue killed a number of people about the beginning of the Great War, before he was finally shot by the then Divisional Forest Officer, Mr. R. St. G. Burke, within a few hundred yards of the Forest Rest House at Kotwara. These wild elephants are, however, extremely destructive to bamboo forests and also destroy a considerable number of young sal trees, so that some Forest Officers are of the opinion that they should be caught or destroyed in the interests of Forestry. The Balrampur trackers consider that the number of animals at present in the forests is insufficient to justify the heavy expense of ‘khedah’ operations, and it would indeed be a pity if Govern- ment were to allow the few remaining wild elephants in Northern India to be slaughtered for the sake of the very slight increase in forest revenue which might result upon their destruction. How- ever, one is glad to be able to write that there is no immediate prospect of such a calamity occurring. The United Provinces’ elephants do not appear to carry very large tusks and I have never seen one with tusks which I should estimate at over 50 lbs. each. There is, however, said to be one famous tusker, known locally as the ‘ Paiak-danta,’ which wanders about in the Reserved and Zemindari ferests of the Bijnor District, and this animal is reported to be one of the very finest elephants in India, worth a huge sum should it ever be captured. Once or twice agitations have been made by interested people to have this animal proclaimed as a rogue, but fortunately the evidence against him is very weak, and, so far, it has been possible to protect this magnificent creature from an ignominious death at the hands of some local sportsman. Ihave never had the good fortune to see this beast, or try my camera on him, although I have been in his neighbourhood a number of times and still hope that we may yet meet one day. Even though large tusks are rare in the United Provinces, the elephants often grow to a large size and two rogues have been shot within recent years measuring well over ten feet at the shoulder, the details of these two animals being recorded in the current numbers of the /nzdian Forester at the time. Of these, one was shot in the Ramnagar Forest Division in 1914 and measured 10 ft. 4 in. high, the tusks being 6 ft. 4 in. and 6 ft. 34 in. in length and each 56 Ibs. in weight. The other was much the same size and was shot at about the same time in Haldwani Forest Division. Wild elephants make a most interesting and exciting subject for the animal-photographer and I have managed to make some 50 negatives of individual elephants during the last five years, although IT have yet to succeed in making a satisfactory picture of a herd. Some of these pictures have already been reproduced in Country Life and elsewhere and some typical examples—which have not yet been published—are included in this article. The first picture “14 BIAAGOD UHAO NUNL OL 4 fat YH LHA LON AAVH SWIa YUVA WHddQA AAL HOIHM NI WAASAL JNNOA V NS S\ "uolgmvy 7 MA A Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. igh Sov" Copyright. AN OLD TUSKER WITH ONE TUSK BROKEN F. W. Champion. WILD ELEPHANTS [N 1HE UNITED PROVINCES 129 represents a young tusker whose ear fringe has not yet begun to turn over; the second, a middle-aged makna (tuskless male)—a fine muscular elephant; and the third, an old animal in which the ivory was worn and yellow and one of the tusks broken off in the middle. These elephants were all photographed with a reflex camera used from the back of a staunch tame female Forest Department elephant which does not exhibit the fear of wild elephants so common among tame elephants. Indeed, many tame elephants cannot be induced or driven to approach anywhere near one of their wild cousins and the mahawats are often even more afraid. It is somewhat difficult to understand why tame elephants and mahawats should be so afraid of wild elephants, which are normally not dangerous, and which have allowed me to approach within a few yards on numerous occasions without any damage resulting therefrom. True, we were once charged viciously by a ‘masth’ bull in charge of a herd, and on this occasion we were saved from a bad accident only by firing two barrels of a shot gun over his head, thereby causing him to swerve and rush past us at two or three yards’ range; but this was an exception as the ‘masth’ discharge was clearly visible at some distance, and we were simply asking for trouble by attempting to photograph this particular beast. The usual semi-solitary bull will either bolt the moment one attempts to approach him on a tame elephant, or else he will stand and watch one’s approach with deep interest. Indeed, he will sometimes advance towards one as one is taking photo- graphs, and such was the case with the old tusker figured with this article, who approached so close that his whole body could not come within the field of my camera. It is somewhat nervous work taking photographs of a wild elephant—who after all is never fully to be trusted—approaching one in this way; but if one’s mahawat fires a shot gun over his head whenever he comes uncomfortably close, in most cases he will retreat, or, at least, not advance any further, so that such photography provides one with a good deal of excitement without being unduly dangerous. I have not attempted to photograph wild elephants on foot, as one’s view-point is so low that intervening branches and grass more often than not utterly ruin one’s chances, which at all times are none too numerous owing to the bad lighting in the denser forests which the elephants frequent during the daytime. It is, however, perfectly practicable tc photograph wild elephants on foot when they are bathing or drinking in open pools, but they seem to prefer the night for such operations and I have never been sufficiently fortunate as to catch one in the act in photographically-possible daylight. Perhaps the most remarkable feature connected with wild elephants—a feature which has puzzled all who are intimately acquainted with them—is the extraordinary paucity of records of elephants which have been found dead after having died a natural death in the forests. Indeed this subject has been exploited by novelists to a considerable extent in the shape of romances dealing with the hidden stores of ivory which are supposed to exist in Africa and elsewhere as a result of the accumulations of centuries of remains of elephants which have all collected in the same place 17 130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII when they felt death approaching upon them. It is said that expeditions have actually been financed in Africa with the sole object of finding these supposed treasure-troves of ivory, but none has ever been found, and the mystery still remains as to what happens to the bodies of wild elephants when they die. It is to be noted that even Mr. Marius Maxwell, whose recent splendid book Stalking Big Game with a Camera is practically a monograph on the African elephant, never found a dead wild elephant during his expeditions, and in his writings seems rather studiously to avoid this subject, which is of such extreme interest to all who are interested in these magnificent creatures. I have therefore attempted to collect all records of wild elephants which have been found dead in the United Provinces forests during recent years and have tried to ascertain the cause of death in each case. The particulars of each record are as follows :— (1) A dead middle-aged bull elephant with biggish tusks was recorded in 1921 by my brother, Mr. H. G. Champion, 1.F.s., from Harai, in Haidwani Division, where it was found on a fireline about two days after death. The distance from water was about half a mile and the cause of death was uncertain, there being no sign of externalinjury. Some arsenic had been used in the neighbourhood for killing Rohini (/allotus philippinensis) trees, but, as elephants do not eat either the leaves or bark of Rohini, it seemed unlikely that this was the cause of death. (2) A second dead elephant, a small female, was also found some four days after death at Goria Rau in Haldwani Division the same year. It was not inspected by any officer, but it was said to show a number of wounds on the throat and neck, and may possibly have been killed by a tiger, although such an occurrence is very rare in these forests, however frequent it may be in Burma (vide Mr. Hopwood’s recent article in the /udian Forester). (3) A third case is recorded by Mr. E. A. Smythies, 1.F.s., also from Haldwani Division—which, incidentally, appears to be a very fatal place for wild elephants. This animal was a fine solitary tusker with six feet tusks and was found in November 1925 by a marking gang. He had apparently died about the beginning of October in a patch of what would have been swampy ground—but not quicksand— at that time of the year. His legs were embedded in the ground about 24 to 3 feet deep, and he was half-squatting, half-lying, on his left side. It did not appear that he had been caught in a quick- sand—elephants are very clever in avoiding such danger-spots—as . there was a solid bank with trees and shrubs about two yards in front of him, and he was not so deeply embedded that he could not have struggled out somehow. He was not an old or feeble elephant, and it is possible that he may have been sick at the time and thus have temporarily iacked the strength to struggle out, or he may have been bitten by a hamadryad. None of these elephants, however, was a particularly old beast, so that the finding of their carcases does little to help towards a solution of what happens to old elephants when their time comes to depart from this world. ‘The same remark applies to the two dead elephants recorded by Lt.-Col. Faunthorpe in his articles entitled ‘VNMVN GHOV-HICGCGIN HOUAVI V ‘uorgueny) “Mf "2Yyslitgo7D Ee ae SEE "206 “}SIH{ ‘WWN Avquicg ‘'uanor Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. FY. W. Champion. A FEMALE ELEPHANT WHICH PRESUMABLY DIED OF OLD AGE, Copyright. WILD ELEPHANTS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES 131 ‘The Most Dangerous Sport,’ which were published in the Proneer during 1926; but a dead elephant has now been found in this (Lansdowne) Division which appears to be a genuine case of a wild elephant dying of old age. A photograph of the corpse is published with this article, and the case is sufficiently interesting and remark- able to justify my giving a full description of it here. At the beginning of November, 1926, I received a report from one of my Range Officers to the effect that on October 28, 1926, a female wild elephant had died in the Zemindari’ Forests of the Bijnor District and that he had gone to see it on October 30, 1926. I instructed him to see that the corpse remained as intact as possible so that I could come to inspect it personally as soon as opportunity offered. This occurred on November 5, 1926, so that I saw the corpse exactly a week after death. It was lying on its side in open grass-forest containing a few scattered trees, and was only about 400 yards from the huts of some graziers, -who had brought in the news of its death. Decomposition had already set in and the meat had been attacked by vultures, pigs and hyzenas, but, owing to the very thick skin, they had not been able to eat very much of it. I had one shady Ber (Zizyphus Jujuba) tree removed and then took the accompanying photograph of it exactly as it was lying. It was a large female in a very emaciated condi- tion, and the general appearance suggested advanced age. ‘There was no hair on the skin, which was very light in colour, and the upper rims of the ears were very markedly turned over, although the lower fringes were not frayed. At the time of death there had not been any diarrhoea, which generally occurs with cattle disease, and there was no blood or any sign of an external wound. The graziers who found the corpse said that they had known this elephant for the last year and that she was so old and weak that she could not run away with the other wild elephants when driven from the crops of the neighbouring villagers. To prove their statement they pointed out the droppings, which contained whole leaves and pieces of grass quite undigested, this being one of the main signs of old age and failing teeth. I then had the jaws cut open with an axe and found that, in the upper jaw, only one molar remained, the grinding surface of which was worn right down toa perfectly smooth surface, whereas the molars in the lower jaw were mere stumps. Under these circumstances it is remarkable that the beast could have managed to remain alive as iong as she did, and, to my mind, this appears to be a clear case of a wild elephant dying of old age in open tree forest, which it had fre- quented for a year or more before death. It is to be noted that, unless death overtook her suddenly, which seems unlikely under the circumstances, no attempt was made to seek seclusion in the very dense and mountainous Reserved Forests which border on the site of death. A remarkable feature of this case is that the Ranger saw the corpse on October 30, 1926, and noted its position carefully, but when he came with me on November 5, 1926, we found that it had been moved to a different position. A dead elephant weighs something in tons, and the spot is practically uninhabited except for a few 132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII graziers, so that I am certain that the corpse was not moved either by man or by scavenging animals such as pigs or hyenas. The graziers state that one or two other wild elephants visited the place while the corpse was lying there and it appears that they almost certainly tried to move her away or to lift her up. Wild elephants are very long-lived animals so perhaps they do not understand what death is and thus attempted to help one of their fellows in distress. I would suggest that the tradition of wild elephants collecting in some secret place to die has little foundation in fact, and that the hidden treasure-troves of ivory exist only in imagination. Elephants live in very sparsely-populated districts in tropical forests and their life-span is very long. Deaths are therefore not common and may occur anywhere within immense tracts of forest. In tropical coun- tries corpses are attacked by innumerable scavenging creatures such as vultures, crows, hyzenas, jackals, pigs and porcupines, whose work is soon supplemented by ants, termites and fungi. Foliowing upon these agents comes the annual monsoon, which produces in afew months, grass and other rank vegetative growth twenty or more feet high, so that a single season may easily remove the entire body and muchof the skeleton of an animal even as large as an elephant. The tusks may easily be covered with vegetation and they are certainly largely gnawed by porcu- pines ; they must also be very old, worn and broken by the time an elephant dies of old age, so that they also might easily disappear . after a few year’s exposure to a tropical climate and its attendent decomposing influences. However, records of wild elephants which have died of old age are extremely scanty and one cannot argue from a particular case. Perhaps some of the numerous readers of this Journal can throw more light on this subject ? SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY Now XLV Ii On THE GENERIC POSITION OF THE AFGHAN JERBOA (Alactaga indica) BY OLDFIELD THOMAS, F.R.S. (By kind permission of the authorities of the British Museunt.) In his valuable Summary of the Indian Mammal Survey, Mr. Wroughton placed the Afghan Jerboa, the only Indian member of the family, in Nehring’s group Alactagulus.* But this placing appears to have been done by a misunderstanding of Nehring’s paper on the subject, a misunderstanding which I may have been partly responsible for, and in any case it is better to put the proper position on record for the benefit of Indian naturalists. Nehring formed the subgenus Alactagulus to contain Alociaea acontion, contrasting the species throughout with A. elater, which he rightly took as representing true Alactaga. But it is not to acontion but to A. elater that the Afghan Jerboa is allied, indeed very closely allied, and it is certain that the two are congeneric, while acontion is quite a distinct animal, with a different dental formula. In consequence the proper name of the Afghan Jerboa is, as stated by Blanford, Alactaga indica, Gray. ' Journal, Bombay Nat. His. Soc., vol. xxvi, p. 777, 1919. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR BY B. B. OSMASTON, M.B.O.U. PART WT (Continued from page 999 of Volume XXX1) (With a plate) 122. Motacilla alba personata. The Masked Wagtail. This is not a common species in Kashmir but it occurs in the valley as also in Ladakh. Females and young of Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail (the common Pied Wagtail of Kashmir) are so like this species that they are very apt to be mistaken for it. A nest of the Masked Wagtail with 4 eggs, was found by a stream at Shusha in Ladakh at 14,000’. It contained 4 eggs which resemble those of Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail. The average of 4 eggs is 20°3 by 14:5. 123. Motacilla alba hodgsoni. Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail. This is the common Pied Wagtail of Kashmir and Ladakh. It is a migratory bird, the great majority leaving Kashmir in the late autumn and returning in March. A few birds may, however, be seen occasionally near Srinagar in winter. They are very numerous throughout the main and side valleys of Kashmir proper frequenting waterways, canals, big and small streams and the margins of lakes and jhils from 5,000’ up to about 10,000’. In Ladakh they are found on the Indus and its tributaries up to about 12,000’. They breed in May and June, the nest being placed generally under a stone or dense low bush on a stony island or in part of the dry river or stream bed. Five, more rarely 6 eggs are laid which resemble those of the English Pied Wagtail. The average of 10 eggs is 21'9 by 15'6. 124. Motacilla cinerea melanope. The Grey Wagtail. This is a common species bothin Kashmir and Ladakh. ‘They arrive in the valley in March and gradually move up to their breeding grounds up the side streams. Nidification commences in May at altitudes of from about 8,000’ up to 13,000’ Nests are composed of dry grass and weeds lined with hair, and are placed among stones, under a stone, in a stone wall or in any pile of rubbish generally near a stream. Five is the ordinary full complement of eggs which are freckled all over with pale yellowish or greyish-brown and which measure (average of 15 eggs) 18°2 by 14°10. 125. Motacilla citreola citreoloides. Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail. This is an exceedingly common bird in the summer both in Kashmir and in Ladakh. In Kashmir they chiefly breed in the big swamps and jhils, e. g. Hokar Sar at about 5,100’ above in sea-level. Here they are very numerous. The nests are placed on the ground in tufts of grass, a few inches above the swamp level and are well concealed. They were alsofound breeding at about 11,500’ in an extensive patch of swampy ground near the Gangabal Lake (Haramukh.) On crossing the Himalayan Range into Ladakh they are found again breeding in large numbers in the Dras and Suru Valleys at from 10,000” to 12,000’as well as in the Indus Valley and around Shushal, etc., at 14,000’. Also at Puga in Rupshu, at 14,000’. The breeding season is May and June in the Valley of Kashmir, June, July and August of Ladakh. Cock birds are very striking and handsome with their lemon-yellow heads and breasts and black backs. The hen birds are found in two distinct phases of plumage. BIRDS OF KASHMIR Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist Soc MIR pucerers PATH NEAR SONMARG. A CORNER OF WULAR LAKE, a ee eee r NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 135 (1) Young birds, presumably one year old, where the yellow of the male bird is replaced by very pale yellow, almost white. (2) Birds of two years and over much yellower than (1) but paler yellow than the males. Both these varieties are found breeding. Nests are well concealed on the ground among grass, rushes, etc., often on the ‘ bunds’ alongside irrigation channels between cultivated fields. Four is the ordinary full clutch of eggs but 5, 3 and 2 incubated eggs are found, They are of a mottled pale khaki or yellow-brown with often a black streak at the broad end. Eggs from Ladakh average larger than those from the Valley of Kashmir as will be seen from the following comparative figures :— Ladakh Hokra Average 80 eggs. Average 60 eggs. 20°9.><15°1. 20°15 14:5. ho sa 22S 10 pee Wace 0-0 oo 9, Sip ice L/°O OG Lae] Na sc. 204 Xi IFC, 126. Anthus trivialis haringtoni. Witherby’s Tree Pipit. Not uncomnion in the summer just above the tree limit at from 11,000’ to 12,000’ on the Kashnuir side of the Himalayan Ranve. A nest found on the open mountain side above Zogpal in the Lidar Valley at about 11,500’ was made of grass and lined with finer grass. It contained three fresh eggs on July 12, the average measurement of which is 19°3 by 15:2, 127. Anthus similis jerdoni. The Brown Rock Pipit. This is a common bird in the summer months on the lower, base, rocky and stony slopes of the hills bordering the Kashmir Valley from 5,000’ to 6,000’. They frequent rocky slopes devoid of shrubs as well as those upon which there is a certain amount of low scrub, but they never enter the forest. They are early breeders, nests with eggs being found from April throughout May and June. Nests are composed of dry grass, lined with the same and are placed on a steepish slope under atuft of grass or at the base of a low bush. ‘Three or four eggs are laid which are white rather heavily marked with spots and blotches of brown, greyish-brown or reddish-brown—which measure as follows :— . . 92. . bm HEISE Bo BASIS average ee, 200206 The bird has no song, only asingle note, uttered at short intervals, sometimes higher and sometimes lower in tone. 128. Anthus roseatus. Hodgson’s Pipit. This is a fairly common bird in Kashmir. In winter they are to be found in damp ground in the Valley of Kashmir and in summer on the open grassy slopes on the Himalayas and Pir Panjal Range at from 10,000’ to 13,000’ above the tree limit, and here they breed in June. A nest found above Liddarwat in the Lidar valley at 10,500’ was placed under a small tuft of grass on a steep grassy slope. It was composed of dry grass, lined with the same material, and contained 4 fresh eggs very handsomely marked with dark purplish-brown. They measure (average) 21°8 by 16:0. 129. Otocorys alpestris longirostris. The Long-billed Horned Lark. This large, handsome lark is common in summer at high altitudes on both sides of the Himalayan Range but especially so on the Ladakh side, and less common on the Pir Panjal Range. They occur chiefly between 11,500’ and 13,500’, on open dry sandy hillsides with scattered tufts of grass and her- bacious plants, especially where there is much artemisia. The male bird has a short rather loud and sweet song of afew notes uttered from a fixed perch generally from the top of arock. ‘These birds do not ever soar in the air like the skylark. Nests are placed in a small depression in the ground scraped out by the parent bird, which is placed under the shelter of atiny Artemisia or other small herbacious plant. The nest is composed of a few bits from of dry neatly lined with very fine cottony down from the Artemisia plant. 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX. Three or 2 eggs only are laid, which resemble generally those of the skylark, but are larger. They measure :— Lig 3 SIRT 6 B. ... 27°S X 776) Average (11 eggs), 24°5 X GS. oar. 92d 0X 1679 NE Pace cou pK 17°4. 130. Otocorys alpestris elwesi. Elwes’ Horned Lark, This species is common throughout Ladakh at high elevations, from 13,000’ to 17,000’, except in Western Ladakh, on the slopes of the Himalayas, where it is replaced by the preceding species. They prefer stony, sandy ground, especi- ally where there is a sprinkling cf weeds or grass, and they are specially fond of localities where Artemisia is found. The male has a short, rather shrill, song of a few notes, uttered from the top of a rock or stone, which somewhat resembles the song of the corn-bunting. Nidification commences early in June, and 2 more rarely 3 and sometimes only one, eggs are laid. Nests are placed in small circular depressions scratched in the ground, often in the shelter of a small plant or stone and are lined with soft vegetable down. The eggs are more or less densely mottled all over with yellowish or greyish- brown with a darker cap or zone at the broad end. Eggs give the following measurements :— L:, from 26°1 to 21°6. ~ B., from 17:4 to 16:2. Average (24 egos), 24:4 oby 163, 131. Alauda guigula guttata. The Small Kashmir Skylark. This is a very common bird in ;Ladakh in the Indus and Nubra Valleys as well as in the Dras and Suru Valleys. They arrive in Ladakh in the end of April and are found wherever there is permanent cultivation between 10,000’ and 12,000’. They frequent the barley, lucerne and grass meadows. The song of the male resembles that of the English skylark and it is uttered while soaring, as well as from a fixed perch on a bush or rock. They may often be heard singing before sunrise, but chiefly a little later in the day. Breeding commences in the end of May and fresh eggs are obtainable throughout June and July. Nests are placed on the ground in a slight depression among grass, lucerne or young barley. Four is the usual full complement of eggs laid, but sometimes 3 only, and more rarely 5 are found. Fees resemble those of the English skylark in colour. They measure :— Ton etn te ee Be 2 425°6 X777 lAverage (Ai coos) 28clmy. SR 9 ev Oe Toes) Nietpase 22 WPA oes ahig LG oe A very similar skylark, which appears to be the same sub-species, is found breeding in the Kashmir Valley at 5,200’. The eggs of this bird are similar, but smaller on the average as is shown by the following measurements :— ; Lit un 2A XK 164 By ts: 420°9-X 7701). Averace 4(1s:eges) 22115 Cu tent? OY AD Ne ie cl ea ely 16,5, 132. Calandrelia acutirostris tibetana. Brook’s Short-toed Lark, This is an exceedingly common bird throughout Ladakh being found almost everywhere from 10,500’ to 16,000’, except on steep ground. They are also found in the Dras and Suru Valleys, where however they are not so common. They affect sandy plains and gentle hill slopes dotted with stones and small rocks and with here and there scanty herbacious vegetation. The song, emitted from the top of a rock or stone, is poor and monotonous. The nesting season commences in the end of May and fresh eggs may be found throughout June and the first half of July. Nests occupy slight de- pressions in the ground scantily lined with a little dry grass and finished with a dense, warm lining of very fine vegetable down. They are placed in the shelter of a stone or small plant, more rarely quite exposed. Three eggs is the full clutch, but not infrequently 2 only are laid. They are rather elongate ovals, spotted all over with pale greyish or yellowish ~ brown, occasionally in a zone at the broad end. They measure :— Pe CHES WO Bae soo 5. x is's 2°0 'K°75*0 ae (49 eggs), 21°0 by Sit ee ag INGE eee e3'O DK ASO 14°6, NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 137 ‘133. Zosterops palpebrosa elwesi. ‘The Western White-eye. This is not a very common bird in Kashmir, but it is found occasionally in fhe valley and on the lower wooded slopes of the hills up to about 6,000’, where it breeds. It is also occasionally seen in the spring and autumn in Srinagar. It is probably common on the lower south-west slopes of the Pir Panjal, in Jummoo and Punch. 134. Picus squamatus squamatus. The Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker. Occurs in Kashmir, in wooded areas up to about 8,000’ altitude, but is not very common. In winter they descend to the lower hills and valleys and may some- times be seen in and near Srinagar. 135. Dryobates himalayensis. The Western Himalayan Pied Woodpecker. Common in well-wooded areas on the slopes of the main and side valleys and, hills generally up to about 9,000’. They are found both in fir and in mixed forest. ‘They are early breeders, i Two nests, each containing 4 fresh eggs, were found in the Sind Vailey in the third week of April in holes in willow trees about 12 from the ground, Eggs glossy, and of course pure white. They measure :— L. and B. ... 28:0 X 19°9 | S. aad No. 24°5 Ms ta \ Average of 8 eggs, 26°5 by 19°1. 136. Dryobates auriceps. The Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker. Occurs on the lower wooded slopes in the main oe but is not common. 137. lynx torquilla japonica. The Kashmir Wryneck. This is a common bird in Kashmirin the summer, especially in and around Srinagar. They are most numerous in the willow copses in the main valley, but they ascend the valleys and hills up to 11,000’. A bird was heard call- ing at Kargi! 9,000’, but they are very rare in Ladakh. They arrive in the last week of March and‘are very noisy, calling throughout April and May. Their call is identical with that of the European Wryneck. Breeding commences in the middle of May, eggs being laid in holes in trees, chiefly in rotten portions of willow trees, excavated by the parent birds. ‘The eggs are laid on the bare wood, or on a layer of fine chips. Two nests found on May 23 and 24, contained 6 ang 7 nearly trésh eggs respectively, pure white with slight gloss. They measure :— Wey eee e ce lL Oe L4G B. foe 72 y) ; ‘0 x 16'1 oe tee of 13-eggs, Se we 207K 1S'9 N. 21-1 by 15:5, 138. Coracias garulla semenowi. ‘The Kashmir Roller. A fairly common bird in the valley of Kashmir and in the side valleys up to about 6,500’. ‘They arrive in the spring and leave again, in the autumn, gener- ally in October. In their habits they resemble the Indian roller and are often to be seen perched on the telegraph wires or on the dead branch of a tree from which they have a commanding and uniterrupted view (of their surroundings. Breeding commences in June, a hole in a steep bank, often the river bank, or in a hollow tree being selected as a nesting site. Five or 6 eggs are laid, pure white and rather elongate ovals, with conside- rable gloss. The eggs are not infrequently speckled all over with small dark brown spots, which are readily removed by washing. The origin of these spots is not known but exactly similar spotting has been observed ‘in the case of the eggs of Ceryle rudis and Melittophagus erythrocephalus in other parts of India. Kees’ measurements are as follows : —_ eee to Lee O Dita cecevoOr ds OG. 29: ee (16 eges),, 36°3 Deb. poe co K29°4 IN er cep BOL OM CL" by 29°0. 139. Merops apiaster. The European Bee-eater. This is a common bird in the main valley of Kashmir and for a short distance, only up the larger side valleys during the summer months. They arrive in the end of April or early in May and leave in thefend of ‘August or early iy 18 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII September. They frequent the foothills and the lower slopes of the Takht-i- Suleiman, especially wherever there are soft alluvial banks or cliff. Breeding commences early in June and the birds usually nest in small scattered com- munities. For the reception of the eggs a hole about 2 inches in diameter is excavated in moderately soft alluvium or clay-loam. The hole slopes gently upwards for a distance of about 3 ft. at the end of which there is a spacious egg-chamber 9 inches or so in diameter, which is unlined. Five or six rather spherical, glossy, white eggs are laid which measure as follows :— Lind sae Hee 2 (2h 1 B: .. 2699 96) 22x2. | Amenage, (23 eggs) 25°8 by Smee Vcore hell N..... 28° Mer i e2aco: 140. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura. The Indian Pied Kingfisher. A fairly common bird in the main valley of Kashmir, along streams and the borders of lakes, e.g. the Wular, Dal and Anchar Lakes. This isa resident species, and an early breeder, fresh eggs having been observed on March 1, while snow was still lying about. Nest holes are excavated in steep banks often but not always near streams. The hole is about 3’ long and the nest cavity contains as arule a Jayer of fine fish bones, doubtless thrown up in ‘ castings ’ by the parent birds. Five or 6 eggs are laid, not very spherical, nor very glossy. ‘They are, of- course, pure white and measure :— ne ee Seats a oe eee ous .4 ) Average (15 eggs), S andB.... 282 X 22:45 N. .., JOB XK 224 1 3.03% hy 23-6. 141, Ceryle lugubris guttulata, The Himalayan Pied Kingfisher. This is rather a rare bird in Kashmir, being only occasionally met with along the larger rivers and side streams, up to about 6,000’ altitude. This handsome bird, the largest of all the Indian Kingfishers, would un- doubtedly be commoner in Kashmir if it were not for the ruthless persecution they are subjected to in the interests of fish preservation. They are early breeders, nesting in holes excavated in the banks of streams and rivers. Unlike the preceding species they never hover in the air but dive after fish from a fixed perch. 142. Alcedo atthis pallasii, The Central Asian Kingfisher. This is an extremely common bird throughout the Valley of Kashmir being found along every river, stream and water course as well as along the borders of the lakes and in the larger jhils. They are resident birds but they do not appear to be so numerous in the winter, so possibly some birds move down to more congenial altitudes in the frosty weather. They are found up the side valleys to about 7,000’ elevations, rarely higher but a single bird was seen near Dras (Ladakh) on May 2, at 10,500’ and a second bird above Leh at 12,000’ towards the end of May. With these exceptions the species was not met with in Ladakh. Breeding in Kashmir commences in April and fresh eggs may be found till the end of May. From 5 to7 glossy, rather spherical, pure white eggs are laid measuring :— pete cove OS 1729 Bs ees 6 20U2 yo 2 te (37 eggs), 21:2 by Sn 4! ee ed the Nis sit a COS xe 700. 1726; Nest holes are excavated in clay or alluvial banks, sometimes close to water, but not infrequently at a considerable distance away, nests having been observed on the slopes of the Takht-i-Suleiman, at least a quarter of a mile from the Dal Lake 200’ to 300’ above the level of the same. This beautiful little Kingfisher is very tame and confiding in Kashmir, perching on the house boats and other river craft in complete disregard of its human occupants, and it would be a good deal commoner than it is were it not that large numbers are destroyed annually by the staff of the Fishery Department. Such slaughter is to be deprecated, in that it is improbable that this King- fisher, even if unchecked, would perceptibly affect the stock of trout, and the bird is undoubtedly a great asset to scenery of lake and stream in Kashmir, and one probably more generally appreciated than the fish. 143. Upupa epops epops. ‘The European Hoopoe. This is a very common bird in the Valley of Kashmir, especially in and around Srinagar, It is also found up the larger side valleys, where it may he ——————————— a NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 139 seen occasionally as high as 9,000’ or even higher. It is also toutd, though much less common, in Ladakh, especially near irrigated land and about villages and in Leh, up to about 12,000’. It is probably commoner in Kashmir than anywhere, certainly than anywhere in the east, an abundance of food being everywhere and always available in the ever-moist grassy meadows and ardens. They feed largely in Kashmir on the grubs of Cockchafers which they dig up in the grass lands, but they are often robbed of their prey as soon as they have obtained it, by the cheeky and ubiquitous Sparrow. The majority arrive in March and leave in September, but a few birds may be seen occasionally even in winter. Breeding commences in April, 6 or 7 eggs being laid on the ground with no nest, sometimes in a hole in a mud wall, often in a stone wall, and less frequently in a hole in a hollow tree. More than once eggs have been found laid on the floor of a large dark ‘ godown ’ to which the bird has found access through some small hole. The eggs are pale skim-milk blue when quite fresh, but they become rapidly discoloured even after 24 hours, and they are then a dull pale dirty greenish- grey. They measure :— Weieiacs 2 1/59 Bae geet 20:5. 6 eon Average (26 eggs), 26°2 by Sie ae e420, 16°7 25°4 X 16°7 17°6. 144. Micropus melba melba. The Alpine Swift. Not common, but occasionally seen at high elevations in flight. 145. Micropus apus pekinensis. ‘The Eastern Swift. Not uncommon between 9,000’ and 12,000’, both in Kashmir and in Ladakh, breeding in precipitous rocky ground. Many were observed in the last week in May in the Indus Valley near Leh at 10,500’, hawking flies. They had probably only just arrived. Later they were noticed in the Shyok Valley at 10,500’ in July and below Khardong, near Kharchar, they were breeding in cliffs at 11,000’. They also breed in the crags above Sonamarg (10,000’) and near, Tosha Mundan (in the Pir Panjal) at 10,500’. 146. Micropus pacificus leuconyx. Blyth’s White-rumped Swift. Occasionally seen on the wing at higher elevations on the great Himalayan Range. 147. Micropus affinis galilegensis. The Kashmir House-Swift. Fairly common in and around Srinagar. 148. Cuculus canorus telephonus. The Asiatic Cuckoo. This is by far the commonest cuckoo found in Kashmir. ‘They arrive towards the middle of April and leave during September. They are found throughout the summer, in fairly large numbers, on the Pir Panjal, as well as on the Himalayan range, alike in the valleys and on the higher hills. They breed during May, June and July from about 6,000’ up to 13,000’. At the lower elevations they chiefly parasitize the Indian Bush-Chat (Saxicola torguata indica) and at higher levels, the Himalayan Ruby-throat (Calliope pectoralis pectoralis) the Redstarts (both Phenicurus frontalis and Pheenicurus ochrurus pheenicuroides) and Hodgson’s Pipit (Anthus roseatus). In Ladakh they are very scarce except in the western portion i.e., in the Dras and Suru Valleys and slopes of the great Himalayan divide, where they are common from 10,000’ to 13,000’. Their call which exactly resembles that of the european cuckoo, is heard throughout May and June and even as late as July 24. An egg obtained on? July, in the Lidar Valley at 7,000’ elevation in the nest of the Indian Bush Chat was white with rusty spots. It measured 24°0 & 17-4. A second egg, from the nest of Calliope pectoralis was found on July 26, at the head of the Wardwan Valley below the Bhotkhol Glacier at 11.000’. It was of a uniform blue, and measured 25°4 by 19°5. 140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXL _ 149... Cuculus optatus. ‘The Himalayan Cuckoo. This cuckoo, so common in Garhwal and Kumaon is relatively scarce in Kashmir. Its characteristic note—Hoo-Hoo-Hoo-Hoo—resembling somewhat the call of the Hoopoe—was heard occasionally below Gulmarg and in the Lidar Valley in June, at about 8,000’. 150. Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephatus. The Small Cuckoo. This species is decidedly commoner than the last being found from about 8,000’ up to 12,000’, on all the higher ranges including the Pir Panjal, but chiefly at about 10,000’ to 11,000’. The call of this Cuckoo is peculiar and unmistakeable. It consists of a rather unmusical cackling call of from 4 to6 notes, first 4, then 5 and then 6 the call of 6 notes being repeated several times in a gradually descending scales I agree with Colonel MacGrath that the call of the bird resembles the syllables ‘ That’s your smoky pepper.’ This cuckoo lays two distinct kinds‘of eggs, viz. (a) pure white and (6) uniform chocolate pink one would expect to find the latter type of egg laid in the nest of Horornis, but although I have found many nests of this bird in Kashmir in localities where this cuckoo was in evidence I was never fortunate enopgh to discover its egg. In the Darjiling District several eggs the chocolate pink type were found in nests of the Short-wing (Heteroxenicus) and again in Garhwal in the nest of Puepyga squamata ; in both cases in company with whzfe eggs. 151. Clamator jacobinus. The Pied Crested Cuckoo. 1 was surprised to find this species, so characteristic of the plains of India, as a Summer visitor to the Valley of Kashmir. They are local and not common. 1 found them frequenting the lower bush-covered slopes of the hills near Sri- nagar between 5,000’ and 6,500’. In the plains of India they parasitize chiefly the common Babbler, Argya caudata, but this bird is not found in the Valley of Kashmir. It is most probable that in Kashmir this cuckoo lays in the nest of the Streaked Laughing-thrush (Zvochalopterum lineatum) which is common in the jungle frequented by this cuckoo. j 2 152. Penthoceryx sonneratii souneratii. The Bay Banded Cuckoo. I never personally met with this bird in Kashmir but Mr. S. L. Whymper obtained one in the Lidar Valley in July 1905. It must, I think, be a rare bird in Kashmir. 153. Psittacula schisticeps schisticeps. The Slaty-headed: Paroquet. Fairly common in the lower mixed forests of the main and side Valleys up te about 6,500’, and occasionally higher. 154. Tyto alba:javanica. The Indian Barn Owl. Not uncommon in the vicinity of Srinagar where it ay) be heard calling a hight. 155. Strix alice biddu!phi. Scully’s Wood Owl. This Owl is common in Kashmir in all wooded areas from the level of the main valley (5,100’) up to the tree limit at 11,000’. It also occurs in Srinagar and a specimen was obtained in the winter in Peshawar. They are nocturnal in their habits, and, when discovered, are mobbed in the .day time by crows and other small birds. One was seen near Srinagar being chased and eventually killed, by a pair of Hawk Eagles. The ordinary call'.of this Owl is a loud Hoo......... OOs San Hoo-o00-00-00. With an interval of some four seconds between the first and the second Hoo, and about half a second between the second Hoo and the final rolling note a loud ‘ Quack’ is also sometimes heard as well as a_ soft ‘coo’ very similar tothe call of the Ring Dove. 156. Bubo bubo bengalensis. The Rock Horned Owl. Fairly common on the lower rocky hillsides on all sides of the main Kashmir Valley between 5,000’ and 6,000’. A couple of pairs are resident on the NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 144 Takht-i-Suleiman near Srinagar. These birds are not very nocturnal and they may often be seen in the mornings or evenings perched on a rock on precipitous hillside, but they avoid direct sunlight. They feed almost entirely on rats, with an occasional Musk Shrew, as may by seen from their castings. The call, heard in the dusk before dawn or after sunset, is a loud. Hoo (a single, not a double note.) Nidification commences in March, three eggs being laid in sheltered holes or small caves among rocks on steep, almost percipitous, rocky hillsides. On one occasion a jungle crow was observed in close proximity to a nest con- taining three fresh eggs. On being scared away it was found that he had just broken into one of the three eggs, all of which would doubtless have been sucked in due course. The eggs are large broad ovals without gloss measuring :— PandsBe ic. 613 G47 ae Sand N. 2. 587% 464 | Average (6 eggs), 60°1 by 47°3. 157. Bubo bubo. (2 subsp.) A large Horned Ow! was observed on three occasions in Ladakh. (1) In the ruins of the Lamasery at Basgu (Indus Valley) at 10,000’. (2) On the rocks above Puga (Rupshu) at 14,000’. (3) On the Lamasery Hill at Nimu Mud (Indus Valley) at 13,500’ ‘They undoubtedly breed in all these three localities. 158. Glaucidium cuculoides cuculoides. ‘The Large Barred Owlet. A pair were seen in the olive grove near Garhi (elevation 3,000’) on the Jhelum Valley road. 159. Glaucidium brodiei. The Collared Pigmy Owlet. This Owlet, so common in the upper hill forests in Garhwal and Kumaon, from 8,000’-9,000’ is decidedly rare in the Kashmir. It was heard calling on 2 or 3 occasions only below Gulmarg on the Pir Panjal Range. Thecallis a clear bell-like whistle repeated four times, with a short pause between the first and second and again between the third and fourth notes thus: Hoo—Hoo-Hoo-Hoo. 160. Pandion haliaetus haliaetus. The Osprey. Not infrequently seen on the Wular Lake and along the Jhelum River as far up as Srinagar. They are chiefly seen in the cold weather months but a pair were seen as late as April 24, and the birds are reported to have bred in the neighbourhood of the Lake. . 161. AAgypius monachus. ‘The Cinereous Vulture. This bird is rarely seen in Kashmir. 162. Gyps himaiayensis. The Himalayan Griffon. Common in Kashmir from the level of the valley up to at least 12,000’. As many as fifty were counted round the carcase of a buffalo at 10,000’ in the Lidar Valley. They are much less common in Ladakh but a few were seen in May near Dras. ‘They breed on rocky precipices from 6,000’ to 8,000’ nests being usually inaccessible without ropes. Two nests were obtained on February 11 and 15, at 6,500’ while snow was still on the ground. ‘They contained one fresh egg each, spotless white, which measure 96:0 X 69°0 and 88°4 X 69:7 respectively. 163. Neophron percnopterus percnopterus. The Egyptian Vulture. Not common in Kashmir, but is found generally distributed in the valley. Two pairs breed on preciptous ground on the Takht, Srinagar, at 5,500’. These birds appear to be summer visitors only, presumably retiring to the plains in winter. Two eggs are laid in a nest composed of sticks and lined with dead leaves, rags,, paper, etc. They are white richly marked with deep reddish brown They measure (average of 6 eggs) 66°4 by 51°8. Fresh eggs are obtainable about the middle of April. 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII 164. Gypactus barbatus grandis. The Eastern Bearded Vulture. This great bird is found commonly in Kashmir on all the hills surrounding the valley from about 6,000’ upto 13,000’ and also in Ladakh, where however it is rare. They are usually to be seen quartering the open hillside on motionless wings, only rarely having recourse to a few measured wing-flaps. They may frequently be observed to rise upwards of a thousand feet in a few minutes in big circles, without a single stroke of the wing evidently taking advantage of rising currents of air. They feed on carrion, including bones, and have never been observed by the writer attacking or threatening a living animal. 165. Aquila nipalensis nipalensis. The Eastern Steppe Eagle. Occasionally seen in the vicinity of Srinagar and elsewhere in the Valley in the winter months. 166. Hieraetus fasciatus. Bonelli’s Eagle. Not common but occasionally seen singly or in pairs in the main and side Valleys of Kashmir below 7,000’. 167. Hieraetus pennatus. The Booted Eagle. Not uncommon in the Valley of Kashmir where they breed in May. At least two pairs breed near the tops of very big chenar trees in Srinagar and they are responsible for most of the thefts of domestic fowls, attributed to the black- eared kite. A single egg, obtained on May 15, was pure white, fresh, and measured 51°7 by 41°9. 168. Cuncuma leucorypha. Pallas’ Fishing Eagle. A fairly common bird in the vicinity of lakes and jhils in the main valley of Kashmir, where they are resident, nesting in early spring or late winter on the summits of huge chenar trees. They also occur in Ladakh, a pair having been seen at 10,600’ in the Indus Valley and another pair near the Tso Moriri Lake at 15,000’ in Rupshu. This was in June. Col. Meinertzhagen informs me that he found a pair ensconced near the jhil at Shushal (14,200’) which had killed off practically all the young zeese (Anmser indicus) on the water. 169. Milvus migrans lineatus. The Black-eared Kite. This is the common kite of Kashmir. It is found throughout the main valley, and is specially numerous in and around Srinagar, They are also seen on the surrounding mountains up to at least 11,000’, but they probably all breed in the valley between 5,000’ and 6,000’. A few were seen also in Ladakh, especially near Leh, where they also breed. This kite is resident in Kashmir throughout the year. Breeding commences about the middle of March. Nests are usually placed high up in a fork of a big chenar tree, from 50’ to 100’ from the ground and are generally difficult to reach. ‘They are occasionally also built in poplars and large mulberry trees and are there more easily accessible. The nest is a large mass of sticks, lined with wool, hair, rags, paper, etc. ‘'wo eggs—more rarely 3—are laid which resemble those of the common pariah kite, but are larger on the average. The ground colour is white, and the eggs are blotched, spotted or sometimes lined in various degrees, with chestnut brown. ‘They measure :— e See eee ae SY7 X 47-4 Average of 59 eggs, 57°9 by 45°3. The average of 47 eggs of WM. migrans govinda taken in Rawalpindi is 52°4 by 43:0. 170. Circus macrourus. The Pale Harrier. 171. Circus cyaneus. ‘The Hen Harrier. Both the above species may often be seen during the autumn winter and early spring months quartering the ground in the valley. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 143 172. Circus exruginosus xruginosus. ‘The Marsh Harrier. This is a common bird in all the jhils and marshes in the Valley of Kashmir. They arrive as a rule early in September and leave again in April or May, but occasionally a bird may be seen in summer and it is probable that rarely a few stop and breed in the valley. 173. Buteo ferox. The Long-legged Buzzard. This bird is not rare at high elevations on the Himalayan and Pir Panijal Ranges, on both sides of the vailey. They are usually found near the upper limit of the forest or well above it up to about 13,000’. They usually place their nests in precipitous rocky ground. They feed to a large extent on small voles. The cry is a loud ‘ mewing’ call. 174. Accipiter nisus melanochistus. The Indian Sparrow Hawk. This hawk is not uncommon in Kashmir at all elevations up to about 11,000’. A pair was also observed at Khalatze on the Indus, at 9,500’ in Ladakh. They breed in Kashmir. 175: Falco peregrinus calidus. ‘The Siberian Peregrine. Occasionally seen in Kashmir in the cold weather. A single bird was seen in the Indus Valley, Ladakh at 13,500’. It had captured a chough. ‘This was early in July. 176. Falco subbuteo subbuteo. The European Hobby. With the exception of the Kestrel this is the commonest falcon occurring in Kashmir. It is found in the main valley as well as on the hills and mountains, and on rocky mountain sides as well as in rather open forest. It is also found in Ladakh where it is not rare. ae July is the month when nidification takes place. The nest is placed fairly high upinatree. A nest found in the Indus Valley at 10,500’ above Chushot was in a poplar grove. The nest was incomplete in June. A second nest at Kargil 9,000’ in Ladakh was also in a poplar tree, in the nest of a carrion crow from which I bad previously (in May) removed the eggs. On August 4, it contained three young in down. A third nest was half-way up a spruce fir standing on an island in the Lidar River near Pahlgam at 7,000’. It contained 3 fresh eggs on August which resemble kestrel eggs in colour. A fourth nest was at the top of a silver fir in Gulmarg, in July. The average measure- ment of 3 eggs is 39°5 by 31°'5. 177. Falco tinnunculus. ‘The Kestrel. A kestrel, possibly the Indian Kestrel, is common throughout Kashmir at all elevations from 3,000’ up to at least 14,000’. They breed on rocky cliffs. A kestrel, possibly the same species, is found throughout Ladakh up to 16,000’. They are common in Leh where they buildin poplar trees. Two nests taken in the first week of June contained 4 fresh eggs in each, rather paler in marking than those of the European kestrel. They vary in length from 41°2 to 38°7 and in breadth from 33°8 to 30. The average of 7 eggs being 40°0 by 32°3. 178. Columba livia intermedia. The Indian Blue Rock Pigeon, Common in the Kashmir Valley, as well as in the lower and upper hills, up to about 9,000’. They are chiefly found on the lower rocky hills, where they breed from May to August. Their eggs average about 39°8 by 28:0. 179. Columba livia neglecta. Hume’s Blue Rock Pigeon. Common in Ladakh, in the Indus, Shyok and their side valleys up to about 11,000’ They are chiefly to be seen in and around cultivation, where they often associate in large flocks, mixed with the blue hill pigeon and occasionally also with the snow pigeon. They breed in rocks and ruined buildings. A nest in the Basgu ruined Fort in the Indus Valley at 10,500’. Contained a single fresh egg on May 1] and another single egg in the same nest on July 23. These eggs averaged 40°6 by 28°5, 144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII 180. Columba rupestris turkestanica. The Indian Blue Hill Pigeon. This is the high-level pigeon found throughout Ladakh, including the Dras and Suru Valleys at elevations of from 10,000’ to 16,000’. They frequent rocky, precipitous ground, but often come down to feed in the fields or aniong stony ground by streams. They were observed drinking the brackish water of the Tsomoriri Lake. They breed in holes in rocky cliffs, caves, etc., and several old nests were seen near the Tsomoriri and Tsokar Lakes in Rupshu at 15,500’. These nests were solitary, and fairly easily accessible. They are probably rather late breeders, as no eggs were seen in June. 181. Columba leuconota leuconota. The Snow Pigeon. This is a common bird in the higher hills and valleys of Kashmir, being found to a less extent in the eastern slopes of the Himalayas, towards Ladakh, at the head of the Dras and Suru Valleys. ‘They are generally to be seen in small flocks feeding on the grassy slopes, among rocks below the snow-line. They breed in rocky precipices, often near rivers and streams between about 10,000’ and 13,000’. 182. Streptopelia orientalis meena. The Himalayan Turtle Dove. This isacominon species in the well-wooded areas on the slopes of the mountains throughout Kashmir, chiefly between 6,000’ and 10,000’ a few are also to be seen on the Ladakh side of the Himalayan Range in the Indus Valley as well as in the Suru and Dras Valleys, where they also breed. The breeding season is from Mayto August. Nests are built in small trees or dense bushes in forest generally at no great height lose the ground. Eggs average 32°3 by 24°0. 183. Streptopelia decaocto decaocto. ‘The Indian Ring Dove. Very numerous in the Valley of Kashmir being found also up the side valleys to about 6,500’ only. This species is not found in Ladakh, except on migra- tion. A party of about 10 birds was seen at Dras 10,000’ on May 2, but they move evidently only on passage. They breed in the Valley at 5,000’ in May and June, the nests bieng placed in small trees or large bushes. The eggs average 30°2 by 23°4. 184. Syrrhaptes tibetanus. The Tibetan Sand Grouse. This species is found in the stony sandy desert areas in the higher parts of Ladakh. ‘They were met with by the writer only in Rupshu near the. Tsomoriri Lake where a pair of freshly hatched chicks in down were found on June 18. About 10 pairs of these birds frequented the stony level plain at the south end of the lake, but no eggs were discovered. 185. Catreus wallichii. The Cheer Pheasant. This is rather a local bird in Kashmir, not being found in the main Valley, but is believed to be not uncommon towards the Kishenganga and on the outer slopes of the Pir Panial Range. 186. Lophophorus impejanus. The Monal. This handsome pheasant is found generally distributed on the mountains surrounding the Kashmir Valley, in summer between 8,000’ and 11,000’. They are not common, except in the less frequented parts, e.g., the Kishanganga Valley, the Wardwan Valley; etc. Young just able to fly were seen with their parents above Battal (9,000’ ) in the Sind Valley on June 29. 187. Pucrasia macrolopha biddulphi. ~The Kashmir Koklas. Generally distributed but not very numerous in the big fir forests of northern Kashmir. ‘They are chiefly found between 7,000’ and 10,000’. The ‘ crow’ of the male bird is similar to that of the common koklas. This latter bird is said to be found in South Kashmir. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 145 188. Gennzus hamiltonii. ‘Che White-crested Kalij. This pheasant is not found in the main valley of Kashmir nor on the surrounding hills. It occurs however in South Kashmir and on the outer lower slopes of the Pir Panjal. 189. Alectoris greca chukar. ‘Che Chukor, Extremely common on the lower slopes of the hills bordering on the main valley, and found up to at least 11,000’. They afford excellent shooting in the cold weather months. Breeding commences early in April. About 12 or 13 eggs are usually laid under a rock or bush often on a steep mountain slope, and generally well concealed. Eggs are laid at intervals of 48 hours. In one nest 21 eggs were found, probably the property of two hen birds! Eggs measure as follows :—L., 46°3X31:0. S., 37°9X28'9. B., 444K 32° @, INS AC Lx 25°O Average, 38 esos, 42° 1X 30:7. 190. Alectoris greca pallescens. The Northern Chukor. This chukor takes the place of the common chukor in the drier portions of Ladakh proper, and is found at elevations of from 9,000’ to 14,000’ more especially in the neighbourhood of cultivation. A pair of birds shot near Gya weighed respectively 184 and 14 ounces, the male being the heavier bird. A nest concealed at the base of a dwarf berberis bush near Khardong Pass at 13,000’ on the Shyok side of the Khardong Pass in Ladakh was dis- covered on July 22. It contained 12 nearly fresh eggs, indistinguishable from those of the common chukor. They measure :— L., 45°4XK31'4. S., 437X309. B., 44°4&K37°6. N., 43°4%&30°0. Average of 12 eggs, 44:2 by 31°0. 19]. Francolinus francolinus asia. ‘he Northern Indian Black Partridge. Not found in the Valley of Kashmir but occurs in the Jhelum Valley below Uri and on the outer lower slopes of the Pir Panjal Range. 192. Francolinus pondicerianus. The Grey Partridge. Not found in the valley of Kashmir, occurs in the plains and foothills only. 193. Perdix hodgsonie hodgsonia. The Tibetan Partridge. Found at high elevations, 14,000’ to 17,000’ in Ladakh, but is local and rare. It is not uncommon in Rupshu, especially from the Polokonka Pass down the Puga Valley, and also towards Hanle. It is found on rocky hillsides, especially in patches of caragana scrub. 194. Tetraogallus himatayenis himalayensis. The Himalayan Snow-Cock. This large, handsome bird is found at high elevations throughout the mountains of Kashmir including the Pir Panjal Range. In Kashmir proper it is found fror 12,000’ up to the snow line, and frequents open rocky or grassy slopes above the tree limit. It is also found in Ladakh especially Western Ladakh. They are noisy and pugnacious birds in the spring. The call of the cock bird is of two kinds: (1) A clear whistle repeated 3 or 4 times at regular intervals of about a second, the notes rising in the scale so that the 4th or last note is an octave above the first. (2) Acry beginning with kuk, kuk, which is repeated about a dozen times, gradually quickening and also rising in the scale until the last high pitched notes follow each other so rapidly as_ to remind one of the acceleration of a ping-pong ball. Two lots of eggs were brought to the writer from the hills above Leh at about 14,000’. They consisted of 7 slightly incubated eggs probably a full clutch, and two fresh eggs, In the first lot the ground colour is cafe-au-lait, spotted and speckled all over with chocolate markings. In the second lot the ground colour is a dull pale green, and these are marked with pale pinkish brown. The eggs vary in length from 71°0 to 62°5 and in breadth from 47°5 to 45°0, the average of one clutch being 70°7 by 47:2 and of the other 65°6 by 46:1. i) 1446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALFATS 1.550 CIETY. Wooly OT 195. Tetraogallus tibetanus tibetanus. ‘The Ladakh Snow-Cock. Occurs in Eastern and Southern Ladakh at even higher elevations than the last species, which it much resembles generally in its mode of life and habits, 196. Rallus aquaticus aquaticus. The Water Rail. Common throughout the summer months and possibly resident in Kashmir. It is found throughout all the extensive jheels such as Hokar Sar, Anchar Lake, etc. They call chiefly in the early morning, a curious cry somewhat reminding one of the squeal of asmall pig. They are extremely shy and wary keeping to long grass and reeds standing in shallow water. They breed throughout June, July and August, 6 to 8 eggs being laid in-a nest composed of reed-leaves on the ground in a swamp. well concealed in standing grass and water plants. The birds are difficult to flush and specimens are therefore difficult to obtain. The eggs are pale cafe-au-lait rather sparingly spotted—chiefly at the broad end, with pinkish brown. They measure :— Veet CO9. Kaeo 1 B. ... 36°6 X 27:1) Average-of 34 eggs, 3673 Des Rue XZ Ni: ies. B3!2 Ceo a DY {25 10. | 197. Porzana pusilla pusilla. Eastern Baillon’s Crake. This is a common bird inthe Valley of Kashmir, being found throughout the summer months in all the swamps, edges of lakes, etc. It is however much more frequently heard than seen, being a skulker in grass and swamp vegeta- tion, and one that is flushed with difficulty. On one accasion, when searching for nests of this bird, one was seen running through the grass at the writer’s feet and was mistaken for a rat. It was captured in the hand with some difficulty. Nests are placed on the ground, in a swamp, well concealed in compara tively short grass and dwarf rushes, etc. From five to eight eggs are usually laid from May to August which are dull greenish brown in ground, mottled with dusky brown on markings. They measure :— Ls Wie DOS Seal B.- ... -28°7 XK 27°5 1 Average of S2vecos 28:4 Se, ssecoto X< 2083 INS Pree 729 OK 19:2} by 20°6. 198. Amaurornis fuscus bakeri. The Northern Ruddy Crake. This species is even commoner than the last being found in paddy fields as well as in swamps. In its skulking habit it resembles Porzana. Breeding commences in June, but July and August are the chief months. Nests are composed of dry grass and the leaves of aquatic plants placed ‘on the ground among grass, reeds or rice plants. Six to9 eggs arelaid which are pale cafe-au-lait spotted all over chiefly at the broad end with pinkish-brown and pale purplish-grey markings. Eggs measure :—— Teer tye Sonex see B. «.... 32°0 X'24:5 ) Avetage: (92 e009) 5 732°6 Sr Reo CORO el LO INGE Be eu 0 x, a6 f by223°5. 199. Gallinula chloropus parvifrons. ‘Che Indian Moorhen., Very common on all the lakes and larger jhils in the main valley, especially where beds of bulrushes abound, as in the Dal and Anchar Lakes. In their habits they do not differ from the common moorhen of Europe. Breeding commences in May and extends on into July. Hight or 9 eggs are commonly laid, but occasionally as many as 12. They resemble those of the Western Moorhen. The nest is composed of a mass of bulrush leaves and is placed in dense patches of standing bulrushes, about a foot above the level of the water. Eee meesurements are as follows :— Looe cs UPSESEX Lb B. ... 44°8 X 32:9) Average (71 eggs), 41°4 Sao BO DK COW IN; 2d. SO9UO RK 2/eF by229°6..7. (A pigmy ege measures 22'5 X 18°5) 200. Fulica atraatra. The Common Coot. Not uncommon on the lakes and jhils of the main valley, but not nearly so numerous as the Moorhen. A nest of the usual type was found in rushes on NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 147 the Anchar Lake on May 20. It contained 8 eggs which measure (average) 52°4 by 35:0. 201. Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus. The Purple Coot. A rare bird in Kashmir, but a few are usually to be found in the Anchar and doubtless other lakes in the valley. They undoubtedly breed in Kashmir but I have not seen a nest. 202. Megalornis nigricollis. The Black-necked Crane. Occurs in Ladakh, in summer, at high elevations wherever the conditions are suitable. Three birds were seen early in June near the Tsokar Lake in Rupshu: at 15,000’, and a pair near the Tsomoriri Lake at the same eleva- tion in the third week of June. They did not appear to be breeding then. Later in the first week of July several pairs were seen in the swamps near Shushal at 14,000’ east of the Indus, but no nests were seen and no young birds. They undoubtedly breed in these swamps, but exactly when I was unable to ascertain. ‘The call of these birds is trumpet-like and resembles that of the Sarus Crane. 203. Hydrophasianus chirurgus. ‘The Pheasant-tailed Jacana. Fairly common throughout the summer months onthe extensive jheels and weedy lakes in the main valley, especially in Hokar Sar and the Anchar Lake. The cry of the bird is loud and peculiar. Breeding commences in May and continues until July, the eggs usually 4 in number but sometimes only 3, are peg-top shaped and of a dark olive- brown colour. The nest isa slight accumulation of aquatic plant stems, placed in among floating plants, the eggs being only just above the water level. Eggs measure :— Te een Sone 2S) GOL) et, OORen ON pee (14 eggs), 37:2 Dene JOU ow 20.0 IN eee OO OS CO 7 by 27°8. 204. Lobivanellus indicus indicus. The Red-wattled Lapwing. The ‘ Did-he-do-it’? is not a common bird in Kashmir, but it is found occasionally in the main and larger side valleys up to about 6,000’. A nest found near Shalabug in damp waste land contained four fresh eggs on May 25. The average measurement of these eggs is 42°9 by 31°]. 205. Vanellus vanellus. The Peewit. A not every common winter visitor, found in the neighbourhood of wet ground inthe main valley. 206. Charadrius mongolus atrifrons. The Central Asian Lesser Sand-Plover, This pretty little plover is not uncommon in South and East Ladakh in summer between 13,000’ and 15,500’. They are found near lakes and streams as well as along the Indus River, and are very partial to stony or sandy plains provided water is not toofar away. _ The note of this bird is a peculiar one, a vibrating call, reminiscent of the note of the ice-bird (Caprimulgus indicus). These birds were found breeding in Rupshu near the Tsokar and Tsomoriri Lakes (about 15,000’.) On the Indus at 13,000’ between the Indus and Shushat at 14,000’ to 14,500’ and along the Pangkong Lake at 14,000’. They were also found breeding in the upper portion of the Suru Valley at about 13,000’. Egg laying commences about the middle of June and continues to the middle of July. ; Three eggs only are laid in a slight depression scraped in the sand among stones or shringle. The nest or rather nest cavity, for there is no nest, is very difficult to locate. The parent bird if disturbed by the approach of a man when incubating, gets up off the eggs very quietly and slinks away with lowered head after the manner of many other plovers. When returning toits eggs the approach is made very cautiously, and great care is necessary, even with the aid of a pair of field glasses, not to lose sight of the bird in the stretch of sand and stones among which it moves in a series of short runs. 1448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII The eggs are slightly pyriform and without gloss. The ground colour is café-au-lait, sometimes with a distinct warm tinge, speckled more or less all over with dark brown markings. Eggs vary in length from 38:2 to 35'4 and in breadth from 27:2 to 25'6, the average of 12 eggs being 36'°7 by 26°3. 207. Charadrius dubius jerdoni. Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover. Not very common in Kashmir, but found by some of the larger streams where they enter the valley. A nest with four fresh eggs was found by the Sind River near Ganderba! (5,000’) on sandy, shringly ground on May 28. They also breed earlier than this, as on the same date a fully fledged young bird was observed. The eggs are drab or pale khaki in ground finely speckled with very dark brown. They measure (average of 8 eggs), 28°9 X 21°5. 208. Himantopus himantgpus himantopus. ‘The Black-Winged Stilt. This bird is not common in the Valley of Kashmir and its distribution is local. The only place where the writer met with this species was in swampy ground near the mouth of the Lidar River, but they undoubtedly occur in other parts of the valley. They breed in the swamps in the valley. 209. Ibidorhynchus struthersi. The Ibis Bill. This remarkable bird is not rare on some of the larger rivers of Kashmir and Western Ladakh. They frequent stony, sandy shores and especially islands. They emit when disturbed, a rather shrill mournful cry, something resembling that of the green shank. They breed on stony, sandy islands often difficult of access in the summer, owing to the swollen condition of all streams from the melting snow. They were observed breeding on the Sind and Lidar Rivers at from 7,000’ to 8,000’ and again on the Ladakh side of the Himalayas in the Suru Valley from 9,000’ to nearly 12,000’. Eggs, usually 4in number, are laid in May and June on islands of sand, shingle and stones, with or without bushes of tamarisk, etc. The eggs are large for the bird, broad ovals, the ground colour being drab grey, and they are spotted and speckied, chiefly towards the broad end, with dark brown. The eggs are laid in a slight depression in the sand, excavated by the parent bird, among stones or shingle. The nest cavity, in oneinstance, was found completely surrounded with hundreds of small stones, the size of a small split pea. Two eggs found in the Lidar River {a full clutch) on June 14 (probably a second nest, the first having been destroyed by a flood) measure 49°8 X 38°6 and 52:0 X 38:9 respectively. 210. Tringa hypoleuca. The Common Sandpiper. Common in Kashmir throughout the summer months breeding up all the shief streams and rivers, and especially in the Sind and Lidar, between 6,000’ and 9,000’. They also breed on the Ladakh side of the Himalayan Range in the Dras and Suru River beds from 9,000’ to 11,000’. Eggs are laid during May and June chiefly on low islands in mid-stream, especially such as bear low shrubby vegetation of tamarisk, coarse grass. wild indigo, etc. Nests are composed of dry leaves and grass scraped together in a depression under the shelter of some small tamarisk or indigofera bush and are well concealed. Eggs, 4in number, are pyriform and slightly glossy, creamy white, spotted chiefly at the broad end with reddish-brown and sepia markings. They meastire :—L., 37°39 X-25°G. S;, 32°95 X 25"2.. BG 5015 X12 077 IN ee cows Average of 16 eggs, 35'5 X 26°0. 211. Tringa glareola. The Wood Sandpiper. A fairly common winter visitor to the Valley of Kashmir. 212. Tringa ochropus. Seen cheifly on the spring and autumn migration, both in Kashmir and Ladakh. They apparently return very early from their breeding haunts, birds having been noted in the Suru Valley at 12,000’ as early as July 18. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 149 213. Tringatotanus eurhinus. The Eastern Redshank. A not uncommon winter visitor in the Valley of Kashmir, breeding in Ladakh in swamps at from 13,000’ to 15,000’. They are wild and wary birds and their nests which are generally placed in tussocks of grass in a swamp are difficult to locate. They were found breeding by the Tsokar Lake and in the Puga Valley, at 15,000’ and 14,000’ respectively, in Rupshu. Also in the extensive swamps near Shushal, at 14 000’ and in the Rungdom swamps at 13,000’ in the Suru Valley. Eggs both fresh and incubated, were taken in the first week of July near Shuskal, and freshly hatched young in down were also seen. Eggs are elongated, pyriform and rather glossy, pale yellowish café-au-lait, marked with dark reddish-brown, chiefly at the broad end. They vary in length from 48°9 to 43°9 and in breadth from 33°0 to 31°2, the average of 5 eggs being 46°1 by 31°8. 214. Tringa nebularia. ‘Che Greenshank. A not uncommon winter visitor to the main valley. 215. Philomachus pugnax. ‘The Ruff and Reeve. A regular winter visitor but rather rare. 216. Erolia temminckii. Temminck’s Stint. A small party met with by the Indus River in Ladakh in May at11,000’. 217. Erolia minuta. The Little Stint. Occasionally seen in small parties on mud flats by the Jhelum River and Wular Lake in autumn and winter. 218. Scolopax rusticola rusticola. The Wood-Cock. A resident in Kashmir but not so common as in Kulu and Garhwal, In the summer they are found in fir and mixed forest, chiefly on northern aspects, both on the Pir Panjal and Himalayan Ranges, but especially the former and also in the Kishanganga Valley. They breed in June and July at from 8,000’ to 10,000’. A nest near Gulmarg was in silver fir forest among dead leaves, etc., in the shelter of a skiminia bush, It contained 3 incubated eggs on July 20. Eggs are dull whitish in ground marked with large pale reddish-brown and grey blotches. The average of 5 eggs is 40°9X33'8. 219. Gallinago gallinago gallinago. The Fantail Snipe. This is mainly a bird of passage, being found in fairly large, but varying, numbers, in the main valley in the early spring and late autumn, a certain number of birds remaining to breed. By April and early May birds may be seen ‘drumming’ over the marshes around the Hokra Jhil, which is carefully preserved. Fresh eggs, four in number, may be found in these swamps from the middle of May. They are pale ereenish- -buffin ground, more or less richly marked with umber brown and grey spots and blotches. Eggs give the following ineasurements :— ee 59°OX27°2e Sy 30:76 25'04 B., SO'SKES/< NN... 38:5 X%25°9! (average,. 29 eggs), 37°1XK 26'8. 220. Lymnocriptes minima. ‘Che Jack Snipe. A fairly common winter visitor. 221. Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis. ‘Che Painted Snipe. This species is common and resident in the swamps of the main valley. They are found breeding in the Hokra Jhil along with the common snipe. They chiefly breed in May, the nest being placed in similar situations to that of the common snipe. Although the bird is larger than the common snipe its eggs are decidedly smaller. They are yellowish in ground boldly and heavily marked with dark brown almost black blotches, and are glossy. 150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII ‘They measure :— ne Li, 370K 252. 955,928 XK 24:8. 1B, oS XC IN oo 4X 250. eA Vee ene eves, 35°4X 25'3. 222. Larus ridibundus ridibundus. ‘The Black-headed Gull. A common winter visitor in the valley, especially in the vicinity of the Wular Lake. 223. Larus brunnicephalus. The Brown-headed Gull. This gull is occasionally seen inthe Valley of Kashmir as a cold weather visitor. In the spring they leave for higher altitudes and in summer they are found breeding in coloniesin Ladakh by the salt lakes. In Rupshul, by the Tsokar and Tsomoriri Lakes they are fairly numerous, but no eggs had been laid up to June 21st, but judging from the behaviour of the birds, they were then about to commence “breeding. ‘The cry,-of these birds ‘on their breeding grounds is very like that of the jungle crow. A few birds were seen near the Pangong Lake in July but no breeding colony was met with. 224. Childonias leucopareia indica. ‘The Indian Whiskered Tern. Exceedingly common throughout the summer on all the lakes and larger jhils in the Valley of Kashmir. Most of the birds arrive in April and breeding commences towards the end of May. Two or three eggs are laid on an apoiogy for a nest consisting of a collection of the stems of water plants among floating water lilies, lotus and other aquatic plants. The nests rise and fall with the water, upon which they float, and the eggs are usually only a fraction of an inch above the water level. Two or three eggs constitute a full clutch, but four or five have more than once been found in one nest, but in such cases the eggs were evidently the joint property of two hen birds. The eggs vary in size and colourto a great extent. They are, in ground, usually some shade of yellowish-brown or pale green, marked chiefly in a zone at the large end with deep brown chocolate brown or purplish sepia spots. The eggs are collected in large numbers by the villagers and sold to the European visitors in Srinagar as ‘ Plovers’ eggs ! Eggs measure as follows :— ., FLEXT. 29.5: 32582017 ea, POORe ON Ate Nas pOOLO ONC D TO ae VET Ae (72 eggs), 37°0X27'4. ) 225. Sterna hirundo. hie A tern which is either S. 2. hirundo or S. hk. tibetana was seen fairly frequently by the Tsomoriri Lake in Rupshu, at Puga, on the Indus and along the Pangong Lake between 13,000’ and 15,000’. This was in June and July. They were also seen in July on the upper reaches of the Suru river at about 13,000’. They evidently breed in all these localities, but no nests were seen. 226. Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis. The Indian Large Cormorant. Comunon in the lakes and larger jhils in the Valley of Kashmir. Probably resident. 227. Plegadis fatcinellus fatcinellus. The Glossy Ibis. A solitary bird was seen feeding by the Dras River, near Dras, at 10,000’ on May 3. It was evidently a straggler. . 228. Ardea cinerea cinerea. The Common Grey Heron. Very common and resident in the Valley of Kashmir, being found near all the lakes and larger jhils, and penetrating up the larger side valleys, e.g. the Lidar up to about 7,000’. They breed in colonies in the largest and most inaccessible chenar trees. Breeding commenees in Marci, at which time many fresh eggs may be found lying broken below the trees in which they are nesting. Possibly these eggs are ejected in the struggle for nesting sites. 229. Ardeola grayi. ‘he Indian Pond Heron. This bird is locally common, e.g. on the Anchar Lake where they are resident. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 15] They breed in May in the willows around the edges of the lake, usually in small colonies. Four or five eggs are laid, which are blue and glossless. Eggs measure :— Na AL OO 2976 Bet radeu oO ls sae | Average (27 eggs), 38°0 by Siu shop doy Oe 29°21 INAS tS XG 270 ot Oo. 230. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax The Night Heron. Very common in the lakes and larger jhils in Kashmir. They breed in large colonies, either alone or in company with the grey Heron, in May, laying 4 eggs similar in colour to those of the pond heron. They measure :— i Bee 2a KOOL 0 BD. (2. 023 oor Wl Averace (1S esos), 49°5 by Dy ote OF Koo 32 IN seu (494 XS: Oarf 34°8. . 231. Ixobrychus minutus minutus. The Little Bittern. Extremely common in the beds of bulrushes in the Dal and other lakes and jhils in the valley. They breed throughout May and June in the bulrush beds, which stand in water about 2 feet deep. The nests are composed of the leaves of the rush and are attached to the rushes about a foot above the water level. From 5 to 7 eggs are laid which are rather elliptical in shape, pure white and elossless. They measure :— ieee OT OG oe f. Be eee SOS es 2 \ Average (78 eggs), 34°5 by Se agen | Soll rood INA bt do OL Oe 2on% 29'3) 232 ~+Botaurus stellaris stellaris. The Bittern. This is not a common bird in Kashmir but it occurs in some of the denser, more extensive reed beds e.g. near Shalabug. The natives assured me that they had found the nest and eggs on several occasions and it is probable that the bird does breed in the valley though I failed to find a nest. 233. Amser anser. The Grey Lag Goose. Visits the Kashmir Valley in winter in huge flocks, 234. Anser albifrons albifrons. The White-fronted Goose. Also a winter visitor to Kashmir, but not usually common. 235. Amser indicus. ‘The Bar-headed Goose. This small goose is found in fairly large numbers in Ladakh in summet where they breed between 12,000’ and 15,000’. Eggs are laid from the last week in May to the first week in June. They were found breeding near the Tsokar and Tsomoriri Lakes in Rupsht: at 15,000’ elevation between the June 8 and 21. Acolony of 15 pairs had nests on a silt island in the Tsomoriri lake. The nests were in slight depressions scraped in the silt or 3” or 4’ above the water level and were not concealed, the island heing absolutely devoid of vegetation. Six appears to be the maximum full clutch. The eggs are large for the size of the bird ; a goose shot from the nest weighing 45 lbs. and her 6 eggs, 29 ounces ! They are rather elongated ovals, pale creamy white where fresh, but becoming much discoloured as incubation proceeds. When islands are not available as nesting sites, these birds will lay on rocky cliffs. One such nest was found in a deserted raven’s nest on a vertical cliff near the Tsokar Lake. In every case the eggs are surrounded or covered with down. Other breeding localities noticed were the Indus River near Nimu Mut (13,500’) and a small swampy lake near Shushal at 14 200’. Egg measurements give the following figures :— In length, from 87°2 to 72:3. In breadth from 58°5 to 51°2. Average 47 eggs, 82°6 by 55°3. 236. Casarca ferruginea. The Branminy Duck. A not very common winter visitor to Kashmir, retiring to Southern and Eastern Ladakh in summer to breed, Fairly large numbers were found 152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII breeding in the hills in Rupshu around the Tsokar and Tsomoriri Lakes, as well as at Puga. Breeding commences early in May, ducklings being first observed on the water on June 12. Nests ate usually at a considerable distance from the water, in holes in the rocky hillside or among boulders, on rocky cliffs. ‘The young ducklings are brought down to the water by their parents as soon as they are hatched. They appear to bring them down two at atime, for on one occasion I saw a pair fly down from the hills and alight on the water and then noticed they had 2 ducklings with them. I did not unfortunately see how the transporta- tion was effected. When at Puga, in Rupshu, where there are hot springs and sulphur and borax deposits, I saw niany families of these ducklings running about among the swamps. They were of various ages—some very young, others fully 2 or 3 weeks old, but none could fly. This was on June 26. The maximun: number of ducklings in one family was 8. No eggs were found. 237. Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha. The Mallard. One of the commoner ducks which visit Kashmir in the winter. A fair num- ber of birds remain in Kashmir to breed. Breeding commences about the middle of April and fresh eggs may be found throughout April and May. a The nest is usually well concealed in reeds or rushes—as many as 12 eggs are laid which are very pale greenish ‘ khaki’ in colour. hea They measure :— Ly 59°F X 42°2.S.5 532 Ali2, Bo, 58:3 XK eere uN. oo X39? average (11 eggs) 56°3 by 41°3. é 238. Chaulelasmus streperus. ‘Che Gadwall. A fairly common winter visitor. 239. Mareca penelope. ‘he Wigeon. Also fairly common in winter. 240. Querqueduia querquedula. ‘The Garganey. Common on the spring and autumn migrations. 241. Nettion crecca crecca. The Common Teal. Very numerous throughout the winter months. A few are occasionally seen also in summer and possibly they may rarely breed in the valley. ‘These are probably ‘ pricked ’ birds. 242. Dafila acuta. ‘The Pintail. Common onthe spring and antumn migrations. A few birds remain throughout the winter. 243. Spatula clypeata. ‘The Shoveller. Fairly common in the winter. 244. Marmaronetta angustirostris. The Marbled Duck. Rather a rare winter visitor. I have onlyseen two birds shot in three years. 245. Netta rufina. The Red-crested Pochard. Common in winter. 246. Nyroca ferina ferina. ‘The Dunbird, Fairly common in winter. 247. Nyroca marila marila. The Scaup. A rare winter visitor. 248. Nyroca rufa rufa. ‘The White-eyed Pochard. Common and resident. Breeding commences in May, and fresh eggs may be found throughout May and June. ‘The nest is placed on or near the ground NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR 153 in dense reeds, grass or bulrushes and is well concealed. About 11 eggs is the full clutch. They are coloured a rather warm café-au-lait. Ege measurements are as follows :— ioe ce On Suro) SO°S XK ONS. Bey oe. do, 379s. Nig 4ST 95'S. Average (27 eggs), 50°5 by 36°9. 249. Nyroca fuliguia. The Tufted Pochard. Not uncommon on the spring migration. 250. Glaucionetta ciangula clanguia. ‘The Golden-eye. A rare winter visitor. 25. Erismatura leucocephala. The Stiff-tailed Duck. Not common but a regular winter visitor. 252. Mergus albellus. The Smew. Not common, but occasionally seen in the winter months on the Wular Lake. Colonel Ward found them breeding on the Shyok river in Ladakh. 253. Merganser merganser orientalis. ‘The Eastern Goosander. Occasionally seen in Kashmir, it isa regular summer visitor to Ladakh where it breeds on the Indus river and near the lakes in Rupshu, as well as near the Pangong lake in June. 254. Podiceps cristatus cristatus. ‘The Great Crested Grebe. Rare in Kashmir (Ihave seen one bird shot). They were found breeding in a colony by Col. Meinertzhagen by the Tsokar Lake at 15,000’ in Rupshu (Ladakh). 255. Podiceps ruficollis albipennis. ‘The Indian Little Grebe. Very common throughout the Kashmir Valley in jhils and reedy lakes in summer, Not nearly so numerous in winter. Breeding commences from early May and continues till July. From 4 to 6 eggs are iaid which are pure white the day they are laid, but they very rapidly become stained, but not uniformly a dirty brown, occasionally they may even become a deep chocolate. The eggs are laid on a floating mass of decaying vegetable matter collected by the birds, and the eggs are only raised an inch or so above the water. When the parent bird leaves the nest she covers the eggs with a portion of the nest material. Eggs give the following measurements :— iO OM 2 Oh ey FS eo l. B., 363 KX 265.0 'N., GSS Xe 2s; Average (32 eggs), 36°6 by 25'1. ON THE BREEDING HABITS AND FECUNDITY OF THE SNAIL LIMNAL:A LUTEOLA.* LaMarcK (FORMA-TYPICA) BY R. V. SESHAIVA, M.A. Natural Science Assistant, Mahaut’s School, Tirupati (South India} (With two plates and two graphs) ‘he breeding habits and fecundity of Limnea luteola Lamarck forma typica * were the subject of my observations during the past three years. The observations were made on (1) individuals reared in the aquaria in the laboratoy, (2) individuals kept isolated in the laboratory, (3) individuals kept in big troughs of water in the open air (in a garden), and (4) individuals in their natural haunts. The species in question is the only species available in Tirupati and iy observations are practically confined to it. But I had an occasion once to get live specimens of Limnca acuminata from elsewhere and they also were under observation for some time. So far as fecundity is concerned Limucu acuminata also presents the same features as Limuca luteola. Limnea luteola seems to attain sexuai maturity in about ten months. It is not definitely known how many times an individual breeds during its lifetime. In attempting to find out this, two difficulties were experienced. One was that the exact duration of life of individuals could not be definitely ascertained, for the adult individuals could not be kept alive in the aquaria for over five or six months in spite of all possible care bestowed on them. Young individuals hatched from the eggs could however be kept alive much longer. But from observations made on the rate of growth of the individuals, on the size attained in a year by individuals kept under natural conditions in open surroundings, and judging from the maximum size attained by individuals we may assign to this species of Lzmnuca three years as the duration of life. On the strength of my observations, | can confidently asser: that it is more than two years. Ine other difficulty was that of ascertaining the exact breeding season. I could collect eggs at all times of the year. At first it seemed.as though the species was breeding right through. But! kept the individuals isolated in the laboratory and observed that they breed for about four to five months. Indi- viduals lay eggs in abundance for a time and then gradually cease their breeding. That eggs are found in abundance at all times of the year is to be explained as due to different sets of individuals reaching sexual maturity at ditferent periods of tae year, and thus some individuals or other in a tank are found breeding right through. We cannot therefore speak of any definite breeding season for this species of Lzmn@a. ‘The individuals of the species have each their own breeding period of life, but there seems to be no breeding season for the species as a whole. Limnea is of course oviparous like the majority of Mollusca. An individual about to lay eggs attaches itself by its foot to a leaf, or in the aquarium, to the wall of the aquarium. It remains steady for a short while and as the mass of egys embedded in the jelly-like substance issues out, the animal recedes very slowly. It takes about twenty to twenty-five minutes for an animal to lay a batch of about 120 eggs. 1 From a paper read before the Indian Science Congress (1927) held at Lahore. 2 My thanks are due to Major Seymour Sewell and Dr. H. S. Rao for the identification of species. BREEDING HABITS OF THE SNAIL LIMNAA LUTEOLA 155 The eggs are laid as indicated above in capsules embedded in a jelly-like gelatinous substance. This jelly is more abundant than in the case of egg masses of /udoplanorbts exustus and the egg capsules are unlike those of Zzdo- pblanorbts exustus in not being tough. Each batch of eggs contains usually three or four rows of oval eggs capsules. The egg masses are laid on some substratum like leaves, stones, shells of other Mollusca like Vivipara, Pula globosz, etc. The length of the batch varies according to the number of eggs. ] have often come across batches nearly 2” long. The average number of eggs in a batch is about thirty-two. ' For observations on their fecundity, I kept a number of individuals isolated. The statistics for the frequency of laying eggs and for the variation in the number comprising a batch are given in the end. It will be sufficient here to refer simply to the general feature of the fecundity of Lzmnca luteola. (1) Average frequency of laying eggs per individual :—Once in two days. (2) Average number of eggs individuals per batch :—Thirty-two. Generally speaking an individual under normal conditions lays eggs once in about two to three days, sometimes more frequently, sometimes with regularity. In the course of about three months an individual could iay as many as forty- seven batches. The average number of eges per batch for this individuai was thirty-four. Mr. Ramanan? speaking of the Madras specimens, says that the spawn was laid once in a fortnight. Professor J. A. Fhomson? speaking of Limuca stagnallis says, ‘the eggs are laid through the summer and attached in clumps of about thirty to water weed, each clump being surrounded by a curved mass of jelly about an inch Jong. ... -They hatch out in a month.’ It is evident that Limnea luteola of Tirupati differs in these respects not only from its British cousin but also from the Madras cne, for in the species under consideration, eggs hatch out in about ten days and the egys are laid throughout the year. The number of eggs in the successive batches laid by an individual alter- nately rises and falls—(vzde statement and the graph, page 160). Hf, for example a large number of eggs, say fifty in number, are laidina batch, the number in the next batch will be something less; and after one to three batches it usually goes up again, only to fallagain. Below are noted the number of the eggs in the successive batches laid by an individual. More or less the same phenomenon has been noted in a large number of individuals. Batch No. No. of eggs | Batch No. No. of eggs 1 39 | 14 28 Z 54 15 6 6) 39 16 Zn 4 20 17 30 N) 60 18 30 6 2) 19 42 7 45 20 25 8 ag Zk 30 i) 51 22 16 10 33 23 23 fa 2 24 29 12 on 25 19 13 a2 Another feature worth noting and which has been observed in some of the individuals examined, is that with the increase in the number of batches laid * Non-marine Mollusca of Madras and Its Vicinity by V. V. Ramanan (1900), Premier Press, Madras. * The New Natural History, by J. A. Thompson, page 906 (1926). George Newnes, Ltd... Lendon. / 156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII by the individual, the number of eggs in the batch generally tends to decrease. The following figures show the average for every successive batches of eggs laid by an individual. Ist five batches .... sae Bas 5 42 2nd ,, 5 see oe sine HN 38 SUG. # sere sae ee aa 33 4th ,, Ae dials sie eae Ce 25 tlt .,5 ese ae mae Ae 25 It is clear that the average tends to fall with the rise in the number of batches laid by the individual. Taking three years as the minimum duration of life of Lzmuca it is possible to estimate the number of eggs laid by asingle individual. An individual seems to breed for about four months in the year, though all the individuals in a tank do not breed at the same time of the year. During these four months about forty to fifty batches of eggs are laid, with about thirty-two eggs in each batch on the average. Thus in three years a single individual might lay about five thousand eggs. This is quite a prolific breeding. In their natural environment the Pecos appears to be more prolific, for, I come across egg masses which are often much longer than those laid in captivity. Ordinarily one embryo is contained in an egg, but rarely two, three, seven or even nine embryos are found. The young ones hatch in about ten to eleven days in the cold season and in about nine to ten days in the summer season. Limnea are hermaphrodite. Annandale and Prashad? state that certain species are functionally protandrous and pair when the male organs are ripe. Annandale and H. S. Rao? state that they have much indirect evidence to show that this condition prevails in most species. They also state that pros- trate and spermatheca are fully developed in the same individual only rarely and that egg masses are rare in tanks in which the snails are mating and conversely, when individuals are mating, egg masses are not common. 1 cannot speak the same of the species in Tirupati. I find the egg masses are common right through the year but the mating of the individuals takes place only from March to August. That is, even when the individuals are mating, the egg masses are quite plenty. I have closely watched the mating individuals and after separating them immediately after mating, kept a record of their subsequent behaviour. First as to mating :—-Of the two individuals that pair one is frequently slight- ly bigger and this is usually the functional male. The other is a little bit smaller and is the functional female. The copulation between the individuals lasts for about forty minutes and is not reciprocal. The individuals that are to mate come to the surface of the water. The functional female attaches itself by means of its foot to some foreign object, the side of the jar in my aquarium, and remains steady. ‘lhe other individual attaches itself to the shel of the former and protrudes the whitish penis sheath and introduces it into the other animal. The movements of the penis as the sperm passes along are clearly visible through the translucent penis sheath. The mantle opening which can be seen by the side of the penis sheath is opened about every three minutes to renew the air in the mantle cavity. Sometimes the air is renewed at much longer intervals. On one occasion three individuals were found copulating together. Sometimes both fioat to the surface. After mating both the individuals sometimes lay egys that very day: some- times one day or two later but never much later. So we cannot always con- ceive of the sperms being stored up for any length of time before the ova are fertilized. 1 Reccrds of the Indian Museum, vol. xxvii, p. 138 (1925). * Llbid. “SOAUAWH ANIN HIIM DOH ‘Pp "DIOIJN] VDPUMIT NY ONLY € ‘AVAT AO AOUId ONILVOTHA V AO HOVANNS AHANN AHL NO CIVT SOO \ 00.0 0@ 000 0 08909 ° o o Gv 0 ¢oo0? ‘“UVE SSVID V HAO HdGIS FHL NO SODA ONIAVI VLUMIT LT G Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Nv Oven a ue Pr. = Prostrate Gland ; S. = Spermatheca. SKETCHES SHOWING RELATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF MALE AND FEMALE GENITALIA AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF LIFE, BREEDING HABITS OF THE SNAIL TLIMNAA LOUTEOLA 157 Below is the record of two individuals that mated on the 23rd August, 1925. COPULATING INDIVIDUALS Inte Functional female Functional male : No. of eggs No, of eggs 23rd August, 1925 mo Ae 23 a7 24th oF ae sie be 25th a Re ae me ee 2 26th . a mae se ~ 49 27th iG a Bee ae 20 on 29th 3 - oe Mee iW 24. 31st ss af Bed ot 14 13 2nd September, and so on ane 16 19 29 21 2Q) 16 16 ilies 1] 15 12 18 7 13 es) 12 6 16 clied 13 12 3 5 9 3 4 Then again the reproductive organs of two mating individuals were examin- ed. In the functional female the prostrate and the spermatheca were both well deveioped. The spermatheca and its duct contained sperms. ‘The herma- phrodite gland showed sperms and ova well developed. In the functional male also both the spermatheca and prostrate were well developed but in the spermatheca there were no sperms as in the functional female. This would show that in both the mating individtials both sperms and ova are ripe and the male and female genitalia are equally ripe. And we have already seen that both the mating individuals begin to lay eggs soon after mating. A few individuals that had been laying eggs for a long time were examined. They showed both sperms and ova well developed in the hermaphrodite gland, The spermatheca also contained sperms. Young individuals of about four months or a little younger were examined. ‘The spermatheca was minute and the uterus was small. In the hermaphrodite gland, sperms were developing but noova. Again individuals of about 7 or 8 inonths were examined. ‘The spermatheca was not yet of its maximum size but the prostrate was well formed. The hermaphrodite gland showed sperms but Ova were not quite ripe. Individuals are certainly protandrous in the first year of their life, but con- siderable time does not lapse between the development of the two sets of genitalia. In older individuals both ova and sperms are ripe and both the genitalia are ripe at the same time. This suggests the possibility of self-fertili- zation, for I note that isolated individuals can breed for a long period of four months and of the mating individuals, the functional male also lays eggs soon after mating, though it does not show signs of having received sperms from another individual prior to laying eggs. This problem needs a thorough in- vestigation probably from a cytological standpoint. The fact that isolated individuals can lay considerable number of eggs for a long period would show that the ova get fertilised batch after batch. And as the stock of germ cells gets exhausted there is a decline in the number of eggs laid. But the significance of the interesting features shown elsewhere about 158: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ATSTNSOGIETY) Vol Xe] the fecundity is not known. Sometimes I find that the number of eges laid by an individual having come very low, suddenly rises up. Sedgwick mentions of cases of Limnee that have been kept isolated for life and that have laid eggs. These, he says, might be cases of partheno- venesis. But there is no parthenogenesis in the species I have been observing. Another interesting feature of breeding of Limne@ has been noticed. The fecundity seems to be susceptible to environmental influences. Though I am not in a position te give detailed statistics at present to show the relation between fecundity and environment, yet sufficient evidence is available for me to state that environmental variations do affect the breeding of Lzmncea /uteola. For a month anumber of individuals were kept isolated in separate jars. The water was not changed and the food which consisted of leaves of Vallis- nevia was not renewed. Many of these individuals had been laying eggs regularly but under the changed conditions the breeding ceased abruptly. Again a number of individuals were kept crowded for about a week without food. The number of eggs laid was verylow. But the same individuals after being placed in fresh water with a fresh supply of leaves, began laying eggs regularly. This was observed on many occasions. It is worth finding out what exactly is the connection between fecundity and nutrition here. In fine the breeding habits of Lzmnca luteola present many problems of interest which need elucidation. The regular rise and fall of the number of eggs laid, the capacity of isolated individuals to breed tor a prolonged period, the phenomenon of both the mating individuals laying eggs soon after mating, though mating is not reciprocal, the influence of environmental changes on breeding,—these are some of the problems that require explanation. It is also necessary to find out where in the genitalia, and how, when, and how often, the fertilization of ova takes place. NOTE ON THE STATEMENTS AND GRAPHS APPENDED TO: THIS: ARTICLE, STATEMENT A, PAGE 160 This statement shows the variation in the number of eggs in the successive batches laid by an individual. STATEMENT B, PAGE 162 'This shows the total number of eggs in the batches recorded and the average per individual per batch. STATEMENT C, PAGE 162(A) This shows the frequency with which eggs are laid. (FRAPH I ‘This graph shows the variation in the number of eggs in successive batches laid by an individual. It will be seen that after rising high the number of eggs per batch comes low and after one to three batches rises again. Then it comes low and so on. GRAPH II This graph will give an idea of the frequency with which the eggs are ‘aid. It will be seen that eggs are laid successively for two to four days and then there is a break after which eggs are again laid regularly. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Graph | 100 990 TO Number of evgs in a batch é 30 a0 [ 10 Ceased laying eggs o 40 &O 30 ‘40 50 GRAPH SHOWING‘ THE NUMBER OF EGGS IN SUCCESSIVE BATCHES “LAID BY INDIVIDUAL C. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Graph II Yo 40 70 bo iS) Ww ° Successive Days > Qe BY) 2.0 to O 5: \o 1S Ao ons 30 35 40 45 50 55 5 Successive batches of eggs laid by an individual GRAPH SHOWING THE FREQUENCY OF EGG LAYING BY INDIVIDUAL C. 1 0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. 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UIEGe ey Ope Sh ebS.e) 098 1c | | SS [tS | SE SE | €9 |S | 62 | Ge | | Sh | S2 | SE | OF | FS | Sh | se | 6 | 98 | T | | | | ( | | ca cae tae es he ie | em pe Z a el FO eae Oe) NiO NE is oo Bd Ee he ee | ae |e a | V |woe | | | ! | | | | | lp On SHUVNAY | i io | | | | | at oe IVAGIAIGN] dO ANYN Kare STVNGIAIGNI dO AAGWAN V A@ GIVT SHHILVA AAISSHIINS NI SDDFT AO AXAWAN FNL ONIMOUS INSWALVIS ‘V BREEDING HABITS OF THE SNAIL LIMNASA LUTEOLA 161 CUNTIIXCUL OY} JWeserdal JOU SOP papsOdeI $8.89 Jo Jo seyoyeq jo Joquinu oq, ‘o19Y pojOU 91e PouUle}UleUr AIOUL PIV] SAVY STVNPIAIPUL asoy} ‘(Q) JUeTIa}V}G WoIZ paj}ou aq [IIA SV O ) “OLF 9€8 GLE d O cSt N 8 | 9ZS‘T We eh | ! = GL die O€ GG - ear 694 | ISh \0ch 1| €S8 Ee } —_—_———— d O a Vv 248 | 1RIOL = a ; 4. STATEMENT SHOWING THE NUMBER OF EGGS IN SUCCESSIVE BATCHES LAID BY A NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS nS NAME OF INDIVIDUAL . JE PRATER, 2 C.MiZ.s. Curator, Bombay Natural History Society (With four plates) Perhaps the most impressive phase of museum activity in America is the work done by these institutions for the public schools. The Museum has become a vital factor in the educational life of the people and this ideal of service has developed and is developing so rapidly, that, with new facilities anda fuller com- prehension of the scope of museum responsibility, the museums of the country will become to an even greater degree one of the leading agencies for the culturai development of the nation. The main principle which governs the teaching service the museum offers to the schools is that this teaching shouid not add to the work of the school teacher, but on the contrary, should be planned to assist him in the work he actually has to do. It should not add to his burden but is intended to lighten it both by affording him such information as will simplify his task and by giving him greater facilities for conveying this information to his pupils. In short the museum’s teaching service does not add to the school curriculum but conforms to it—this is the secret of its success—success which can only be achieved by the closest co-operation between the museum and the educational department. Every phase of museum instruction to be successful must be the result of experiment and discussion between the museum authorities and the schools, and the growth and development of this service, if it is to be effective, must follow the helpful suggestions of school teachers who have previously associated themselves with museum educational work. EXTRA-MURAL SERVICE In America the scope of the museum’s service has not been confined to assisting the teacher in the museum galleries but is extended to afford him facilities for instruction in the class room. This is effected by placing at his disposal information which will be of service to him in the teaching of various subjects prescribed by the school syllabus, in the shape of lantern slides, prepared lectures, and special exhibits and also by sending museum lecturers to the schools to assist the teacher and to simplity the work he has to do. Lantern Slides and Lectures The lectures and the slides illustrating them cover a wide range of subjects dealing with History, Geography, Hygiene, English Literature, Domestic Science, Nature Study and High School Biology ; in brief, the subjects selected conform to the courses of 22 170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII study prescribed for the schools. The effectiveness of this ‘ visual instruction’ which the museum is in a position to offer to the school can be readily recognized. We are most of us visual minded, any- thing that has been presented to the eye has the best chance of being retained and recalled. By putting an idea into visual form we increase its power both by the swiftness and clarity with which it is received and the ease by which it isrecalled. Visuai instruction, by bringing the pupils in visual, and therefore more graphic, contact with the-subjects about which they are learning, helps to drive the lesson home and simplifies the task of the teacher. The object of the museum’s lecture service is a means to an end—not the end. Its object is to plant the seeds of desire for knowledge, to suggest to the children many interesting things that lie about them, to give them some idea of the cities they live in, to interest them in the world without, both animate and inanimate, to plant in them ideals of good citizenship, to help them to realize what the public ins- titutions of the city are doing for them and the duties they owe to those institutions; in fine it aims at giving the child a saner outlook and a better understanding of life, its principles and relationships. Some idea of the magnitude of the service rendered in this manner by various museums in the country to the schools can be arrived at by a study of the figures. In New York city the lectures and slides placed at the disposal of the schools by the American Museum of Natural History reach over 50,000 children annually. In 1915 40,000 slides were issued by this museum to the public schools, while in 1926the number rose to 726,028. The material is delivered tothe schools by a fast messenger service and the American Museum maintains a fleet of 4motor trucks and motor cycles for this purpose. At Buffalo between 1925 and 1926 a total of 113,776 slides in 3,346 sets were loaned to the public schools. The service is also extended to private schools and institutions. In Buffalo the loan service is extended to the general public. The museum maintains, in addition to a stock of slides and lectures, a set of lanterns which may be borrowed by private individuals wishing to use them. ‘The extent of this service may be gauged from a passage in the report of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences which indicates that a total of 1,941,827 or nearly 2 million slides were issued by the museum to the educational Institutions and to the general public during the 7 years the department was in operation. Lectures in the Schools The second method of extra-mural service adopted by museums is the system bywhich lecturers, attached to the museum staff by the Board of Education, visit the schools during class hours and deliver a definite and systematic programne of lectures covering both school terms. A word about the museum lecture. Dr. Fisher, Curator of Education at the American Museum of Natural History, in speaking to me about museum lectures said ‘It requires a special type of lecturer to handle and interest an audience of school children as it PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE IN AMERICA 171 does to handle an audience of adults. The best lecturers are born not made, others achieve the art through training and experience. Though many of our lecturers are university men, the ablest men are quite often found amongst those who have not had the advantage of a university career.’ The subject matter of the lectures, selected by the museum for delivery in the schools, is again entirely correlated with the courses prescribed by the Board of Education, for use in schools. ‘The advantage of the system is that it affords facilities for instruction which the schools would not ordinarily have—and which a museum is well able to provide, that it enables a larger number of schools to benefit by the museum’s educational work and thus permits the museum to extend largely its sphere of utility. In 1925, more than 200 schools in Cleveland were visited by the museum lecturers and the museum was thus able to be of service to more than 60,000 children. At the Field Museum, Chicago, the school extension service covered 259 schools with an attendance of 96,158 children. Circulating Collections The third method by which a museum can increase its utility as a medium of popular education is by sending properly prepared exhibits to schools where they become a medium of instruction. A museum cannot perform its full mission for the welfare of school children by merely maintaining its galleries, however well they may be equipped, and inviting the school children to visit them. Whatever pains and trouble the museum authorities may be put to in their endeavours to induce the school children to visit their institution, 1t will generally be found, especially in the larger cities, that the number of children who actually visit the museum is small in comparison with those attending the schools. The system of circulating suitable material from their collections to aid in the teaching in the schools is therefore generally adopted by museums in America as a direct method of increasing the scope of their educational work. These circulating collections are made available to the schools day after day, month after month, thus becoming an infiuence in the lives of thousands to whom the museum might otherwise have been a stranger. This direct method of effectively associating the museum with the schools is in harmony with the views and desires of progressive school teachers, who realize that the method not only adds to the reality of the teaching but becomes an aid to a better understanding of the subject taught. thereby lightening the task both for the teacher andthe pupil. In general the cases are designed to show the pupils examples of local animal and plant life. The exhibits are usually mounted in natural surroundings with painted or photographic backgrounds, showing the environment in which they are found. Besides natural history specimens, the circulating collections also include exhibits illustrating industrial and commercial products a: d the methods of their manufacture, etc. The subjects selected being products that are in daily use or observetion by the child. The educational value of these exhibits lies mainly in their realism. I append a series of photographs showing exhibits 172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII circulated among the schools by the Field Museum, Chicago and by the American Museum of Natural History, New York. The photos illustrate the different methods employed in the treatment of these exhibits. In addition to the public schools these circulating collections are also loaned to various public institutions such as public libraries, art institutes, Y.M.C.A., etc. The libraries co-operate by having on hand books relative to the subject of the display. The direct influence of these exhibits is to stimulate a desire for knowledge of the subject on the part of users of the library and it results in the more extensive use of educational literature. The report of the Field Museum, Chicago, for 1925-26, shows that the total number of cases prepared for the use of schools is 908, of this number 706 were in daily circulation and 353 schools benefited by the scheme. It is estimated that nearly § million pupils had the opportunity, every day of the school year, of studying two of these cases and as the cases are changed at regular intervals, thirty-six different cases were placed at the disposal of each school during the period under review. It will be seen that the system makes it possible for the museum to reach a large number of pupils than it could otherwise have reached and, besides providing pleasurable instruction, it creates a greater interest and a greater appreciation of nature; it increases the friends and frequenters of the museum and rouses in them a spirit of enquiry and a keener desire to make use of the many advantages the museum affords. Circulating collections offer greater advantages than permanent loan collections. The latter are apt to deteriorate, and being permanent objects in a class room, the interest they occasion is apt to wane. Circulating collections are better looked after, they cover a wider field and the interest in them is constantly renewed. Damage to the specimens occasionally occurs, but no great heed is paid to this, mainly to encourage the teachers to take and make use of them. I have tried to indicate the principles that govern the educational work carried on by the museums of America outside the walls of the museum andto give an idea of the extent and magnitude of this extra-mural service. In the great cities not everyone, and parti- cularly the little ones, can go to the museum but the museum can go to them and by means of its stores of slides and lectures placed at the disposal of the school teacher, by its direct lecture service in the schools and by its circulating collections it can become a direct influence in the lives of thousands it might otherwise never have reached. The benefit the children derive from sucha logical and intimate connection between the museum and the schools can readily be realized ; its influence goes beyond the mere teaching of natural history, for every agency which directly increases the attractiveness of knowledge and the ease of acquiring it becomes an agency for national culture, for better citizenship, and for greater stability in civic conditions. And therein after all lies the secret of what we, as human beings, are after. We make life increasingly successful as we are able to minimize the time spent on certain tasks in order that our energies may be released for other worthwhile tasks and opportunities. EINE ‘ “SUL JOVANI JO utnasnpy Uva ‘SNOLLOA tu I IOO ACOL S HYOLVN ONILTV Pius : f hy yijiat) TOOULO say o tO? Ag IF ‘"ASVD NOLLOATION ONILVINDAIN V AO HIdWVXH NV YAOX MAAT ISLET JVANIJDAT JO WLNASN{T UVILAIMLE™ ASapAnor Ag Cees *20G “JsIP] (WeN Aequiog “‘uanor PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE IN AMERICA 173 SERVICES WITHIN THE MUSEUM So much for the extra-mtural service of museums in America, | will now pass to a review of the principles and systems in use for carrying out educational work within the walls of the museum. The teaching offered by the museum in its galleries must foliow the lines of the work it conducts directly in the schools. Here again the system demands the closest co-operation between the museum authorities and the teaching staff in the schools. We must look to the teacher for guidance both in the selection of our subject and the method of presenting it. The type of visual instruction the museum offers is comparatively new and museum instruction has not arrived at that degree of science reached in school instruction. The school instructor instructs chiefly through words, and uses pictures to illustrate his word-formed ideas. The museum teacher instructs chiefly through objects, and uses words to develop in his pupils ideas formed through a study of these objects; but all museum instructors must labour under the disadvantage of having been themselves educated mainly through verbal instruction. Till the visual instruction offered by museums, by experiment and practice, can be made to attain its fullest effect so long will it be dependent for guidance and inspiration on the methods of instruction used in the schools. It should be remembered that all educational work is largely experimental; it is useless to formulate a fixed policy, the system must be elastic and the methods employed must be discussed from time to time with people who have actual experience in education in order that a true judgment might be formed as to the measure of its effectiveness. Teachers’ Guides One of the methods by which the exhibits in the museum galleries are brought into the service of the school teacher is revealed by the system in vogue at the Field Museum, Chicago. The Museum has prepared a leaflet which gives an outline of the public school syllabus and shows the correlation between the courses laid down for study in the schools and exhibits in the museum galleries. The leaflet covers History, Geography, Natural Science and Manual Arts. The teachers are thus made conversant with the material in the museum galleries which will directly assist in the teaching in the schools. This classification of museum material places the museum collections more effectively at the service of the schools. A teacher is able to select his subject and bring his class for instruction to the gallery where this subject is illustrated. Museum Lectures Apart from lectures to the pupils in the galleries, the majority of the museums provide a regular lecture hall or auditorium where a systematic programme of lectures is delivered to school children. An idea of the scope of the museum lecture service to the schools is obtainable from a study of the numbers of school children attending these lectures at the various museums. 174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII In New York over 30,000 pupils from the local schools attend the lectures annually. At the Cleveland Museum of Natural History in 1925-1926, 831 classes were held for schools in the museum which were attended by 27,557 children; while at the Field Museum, Chicago, 348 lectures were given last year, with an attendance of 11,821 children. In selecting the subject matter for the lecture it is essential that the lesson should have a definite aim, the object of the lesson is not to make a scientist out of the child but it aims at instruction in ‘the art of life’; at affording both food and training for the mind. This cannot be done by marshalling whole series of facts—these will soon be forgotten but the principles governing these facts will remain—-the teacher must keep in mind the principle and select the best medium by which he can develop his subject and drive his lesson home. Take for example the principle that life is absolutely dependent on food. We can broaden the child’s concept of this principle by showing how the structure of an animal is adapted to the conditions and manner by which it obtains its food. A lesson on adaptations in Nature is indicated. Can the subject be best taught and illustrated to children through the medium of a lecture on mammals? If so, we might develop the theme as follows :— 1. A review of the various types of vertebrate animals. Il. A discussion of the importance of food to all forms of life. Ill. Grouping of mammals according to food—Carnivorous, Herbivorous, etc. IV. Examination by the class of the teeth of each of these groups of mammals. V. Study of the feet of these animals. VI. Summarize the lesson and draw conclusions how these various animals are adapted to fit into their environment and to obtain the food they require. Museum Examination Courses and Games An important feature of the lecture is that the teacher should be able to judge its effect on the class. At the American Museum of Natural History examinations are held for the children at the museum. A series of printed questions 1s prepared, the answers to which are to be found not in the text books but in the exhibits and their labels in the Museum galleries. At the Cleveland Museum the lectures are concluded by what is knownasa‘ Museum game.’ The pupils are given a printed card of questions which bear reference to the subject matter of the lecture. A definite time is set for answering the questions at the end of which the percentage of correct answers obtained is recorded. The museum is thus able to judge the efficiency and influence of its teaching. At Cleveland the children attending the schools are subjected to an intelligence test and the pupils in the various classes are divided accordingly i.e. an ‘X’ class would mean children of high intelligence, ‘ Y’ class less intelligent and ‘ Z’ dull children. It necessarily follows that the lectures at the museum and the games that follow must be suitedto the grade of children attending them. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE [IN AMERICA 175 An ‘xX’ class of children was given problems of its own to work out. A clever child will jump at an answer and if his mind is not given something to worry him further he will quickly lose interest. So the idea was to give them something difficult which would take sometime worrying out, to leave them at it and to keep them at work. The less intelligent children were treated quite differently, they were given simpler tasks and told to take plenty of time over them and encouraged to find out the answers themselves, made to try again and again and only helped when necessary. The success which met their own unaided efforts gave the children a new confidence in themselves and had a remarkable effect on their outlook. The value of these museum courses is that they force the child into independent enquiry for the information he or she desires. Their object is to help the pupil by permitting him to work independently and by inducing him to find out things for himself, and to the naturally curious and inquisitive mind of the child this method of instruction is both attractive and effective. Work tor the Scouts Apart from their work with the schools the museums in America take a deep interest in the field of activity offered by the Scout organizaticns. At the Brooklyn Museum and at other museums a special Scout instructor is retained on the staff of the museum and a branch of the museum is generally established at the Scout training camps. The museum spirit is even carried out of doors by the establishing of what are known as ‘trail museums’. A certain trail or path through a forest is treatedas a museum. The trail is divided into two sections the ‘training trail’ and the ‘testing trail’. Inthe ‘training trail’ chatty labels and classical quotations draw attention to the objects of interest to be seen on the way. The ‘training trail’ leads to the ‘testing trail’ where the labels take the form of aseries of questions. The visitor walks through the ‘ training trail’ and then answers the questions in the ‘testing trail’. Contests were held by this means between Cifferent troops of scouts. Finally the musuem helps the scout in carrying out his nature tests and obtaining his merit badges. Special demonstrations are also held at the museum for local troops. The programme of entertainment on these occasions is made up of Nature talks, motion pictures, etc., in short the museum is able to offer the scout wholesome and instructive entertainment and amusement. Work for the Blind The last and perhaps most sympathetic feature of Museum educational activity in America is the work done for the blind, and the crippled. One of my photographs shows a class held at the American Museum of Natural History for blind children. The method adopted is to give a lecture to the blind pupils and to illustrate it by something which they can handle, and feel. The plate illustrates special exhibits suitable for study by blind children. The specimens are arranged on trays and placed at the disposal of 176. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTETY, ‘Vol: XXXII the class who are thus able to study and handle them. A lecture by Commander Peary, the discoverer of the North Pole, given especi- ally for blind children, was illustrated by a raised map of the Polar region, showing the route taken by the expedition, and by the actual sleigh used on the trip which was equipped with its full complement of dogs and with its driver in Polar costume. The audience was first permitted to examine the exhibits, they then heard the lecture after which they re-examined the material with greater interest. I have endeavoured to review the principles and the extent of the service rendered by museums to the cause of popular edu- cation in America. They are essentially museums for the people, seeking every channel of activity whereby their sphere of useful- ness might be increased, entering into every sphere of the people’s lives and working with all the resources in their power for their people’s betterment and uplift. One cannot help but realize that the museum in America has developed and is developing into a great and powerful instrument for moral and spiritual development; it is to be reckoned among those great civilizing influences that are helping man to a broader understanding of life, to an appreciation of its interest and its beauty and to that conception which engenders the spirit of love to all things created. The great religons of the world are doing that, the great writers, poets and painters have done that and the museums are endeavouring to follow in their wake by an ably organized, definitely controlled and far reaching system of service to the people. I have submitted for consideration of the committee detailed working plans showing how the various systems outlined in the above report are made to operate—unfortunately space does not permit of their being included here. I will therefore pass to the recommendations as to methods we should employ in establishing a service for the schools in our own museum. RECOMMENDATIONS Before making my recommendations on the lines we should fol- low in establishing an efficient educational service it would perhaps be as well to study the methods employed by one of the museums preparatory to launching its educational programme. The educational service rendered to the city of Cleveland by the Cleveland Museum was built up gradually. The museum authori- ties, having a desire to take up a programme of educational work among the schools, worked on a system which had for its policy the idea that the schools themselves should say what they required and the museum would do its best to meet them. They had to feel their way: it was no use drawing up a definite programme and forcing it upon the teachers; such a policy, they believed, would end in failure or, at best, obtain very limited support. It 1s difficult to force a new system on to teachers and useless to dictate to people who have no, or perhaps very little, interest in the pro- gramme you have to offer. The first essential to success is to make the teachers understand that you are not proposing to add to their work by forcing on them new subjects but that you are out to help ‘ANIIG AHL YOA SLIAIHXA YAOX MAINT ‘ISLEY JVANIVNI JO Unasny{y uUvILAIULE ASIJANOZ AIF ‘20G “ysIpj ‘yex_y Aequiog ‘‘usanor’ Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. By courtesy BLIND American Museum of Nat.' Hist.,: New York. CHILDREN STUDYING THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE IN AMERICA 177 them by simplifying for them the teaching of subjects they are actually engaged in. The Curator of the Cleveland Museum first held at the museum a very informal meeting forteachers and principals of the local school at which meeting he outlined his programme and told them what he had to offer; he then asked their advice as to the methods by which he could best co-operate with them. To awaken their interest still further a preliminary lecture was given to the teachers and principals in the local schools. It was a purely informal affair which concluded in the cordial atmosphere produced by tea and light refreshments. After the lecture suggestions came from the teachers that the same lecture, in a modified form, might be given in their own schools ; requests came from so many schools that the curator was no longer able to cope with the work. A special lecturer was then appointed from the regular staff of the education department to take over the work. The system grew and in a year or two they had two lecturers who visited each school in the city at least twice during each term. This led to the forming of a very definite and systematic service of lectures at: the schools whereby more than 200 schools in the city were visited and the museum reached some 60,000 children. As the lectures were illustrated either with museum material or with photos of museum material, naturally a new interest in the museum was created which resulted in a desire on the part of the teachers to visit the museum and bring their classes there. This led to classes for children being held at the museum. The lecture service at the museum thus grew up normally; it was not forced and there was nothing compulsory about it. This system of classes at the museum was started in a small way, the schools telephoning for an appoint- ment or writing; gradually a considerable proportion of the local schools commenced to avail themselves of the service the museum offered and it became. necessary to draw up a regular schedule whereby four classes were held for each school during the year, i.e. two classes during each term. More schools came into the scheme till in 1925-26, 831 classes were held at the museum attended by 27,577 children. As the system grew two lecturers were appointed to the museum staff who lectured alternately to the children each giving three lectures per day. This briefly explains how the museum’s school extension service was established and placed on a firm footing. Now a consideration of the policy and methods employed by museums in America in their educational work for the schools reveals the main principle that all such service should be correlated to the courses of study prescribed for the schools by the Board of Education, that the service should not add to the burden of the school teacher but should assist him, and that the development and growth of this service is dependent on a natural desire on the part of the school teacher to make use of the opportunities and advant- ages the museum offers him. The first step would be therefore to consider, by a study of the Syllabus prescribed by the Education Department for the use of Primary and Secondary schools, the ways and means by which the oo 178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1 teaching service the museum proposes to offer can be correlated with and be made to conform to the courses of study laid down by the department. The points for consideration would be whether the different sections of the museum can obtain and supply information that would be directly helpful to the teacher in the teaching of such subjects as History, Geography, Nature Study, Civics, Hygiene, etc. Can the Art and Archeological sections help in the teaching of History by making available for the use of teachers in the local schools an outline of the exhibits in their collections which would be directly helpful in the teaching of this subject and by supplying information in the shape of lectures and lantern slides relative to, let us say, places of historical interest in the city of Bombay, historical monuments in India, the Moghul period, the Peshwa dynasty, etc. ? Can the Natural History Section help in the teaching of such a subject as Geography by supplying information through its exhibits and by lectures relative to the natural resources, and industries of the country ? i.e. Rice-growing, Wheat, Tea, Coffee, Forestry, Coal mining, Cotton and Cotton manufacture, Fisheries, Iron and Steel, etc. How far and by what methods can it co-operate in the teaching of Nature Study and High School Biology ? As regards Geography very little can be done at the present time as the space at our dis- posal in the museum is inadequate for the development of such sections as would particularly lend themselves to the task; but as regards Nature Study and Biology much may be achieved. Can the Museum help the schools by offering information on what the great Public Departments of Government and the Municipality are doing for the welfare of the country and the people in the city ? Our programme of work, whatever it is, can only be effectively arranged by consultation with the educational authorities who should be in the best position to advise the museum as to the lines on whiich it should proceed. It is recommended therefore as a preliminary that this report should be circulated for opinion and advice among those who would best be able to offer it. A meeting could then be arranged at which the proposals put forward could be further discussed. The next step would be to awaken the interest of the schools, by holding a special entertainment (I purposely call it entertainment because the gathering should be perfectly informal and conclude with refreshments) for the principals and teachers of the local schools where we could tell them briefly how we propose to help them. A lecture on the work of museums in America might serve as an introductory eye-opener. The lines on which we could help are as follows :— School Catalogue of Museum Exhibits The preparation by each section of the museum an outline of the exhibits in its galleries which could be of direct assistance to the PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE IN AMERICA 179 teacher in the teaching of various subjects prescribed in the curri- culum for Secondary schools. From this outline the teachers would be able to know exactly what exhibits in the museum would be helpful in the teaching of a particular subject and could arrange with the museum for aclass to see them under the guidance of the Cura- tor or his assistants. Lectures to Classes at the Museum The preliminary lecture should always take the form of a conducted tour through all the galleries of the section, as, before interesting a child in a particular part of the museum, it would be necessary to satisfy his curiosity as to the contents of the museum asa whole. The ultimate aim of the guide lecturer should be to prepare a specific programme of lectures which should follow as far as possible the courses of study laid down in the school syllabus. This programme should be available for circulation among the schools at the commencement of each term. While this is in preparation classes might be held in the museum with the object of interesting the children in local forms of animal and plant life and other material the museum contains. These talks could be illus- trated with museum material and should be givento the children in the lecture room. Butin developing his programme of lectures the lecturer should remember that his objective is to establish a sympathetic relationship between the children and their environment viz. the city child’s relationship with the world in which he lives. Subjects which concern the health, habits of life, the skill, intelli- gence, building, food getting, and other activities of man are as of vital interest to the child as the study of the lower forms of animal life. The schedule of lectures should be so arranged so as to give pupils from each school the opportunity of attending them at definite intervals during the school second term. During the present year while these classes are being held and the interest of the schools in the projects is being roused, work might continue on the preparation of a definite programme of lectures which should be ready for circulation among the schools at the commencement of the school term in 1928. In the preparation of this programme the lecture programmes of various American museums which are avail- able might be studied with benefit. The guide lecturer will go through a list of the schools who are co-operating in the scheme, he will give each school certain hours and dates at which lectures can be arranged for. ‘he principal of the school will receive this notice specifying the time and the dates at which his classes could be accommodated and will signify his approval or suggest a change. The lecturer will thus know what his programme of lectures is to be, the time and the dates and the number of pupils he can expect. Museum Courses When the system of lectures has been developed sufficiently a eommencement might be made with museum examination courses, 180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: XXXII when sets of printed questions might be given to the pupils, the answers to which are to be arrived at by examination of museum material exhibited in a particular gallery. The examinations should be conducted as in aclass room and attendance should be com- pulsory. A prize might be offered to the pupil obtaining the highest percentage of marks, or classes from various schools might compete. Museum games, as described in the body of this report, might also be held at the close of the lectures as a valuable method of judging the efficiency of the teaching and giving good brain-stretch- ing exercise to the child. Museum entertainment We should consider the possibility of holding at the museum during the year one or two entertainments to which as largea number of children from the local schools as possible should be invited. The programme should be made up of motion pictures of educational interest, i.e. travel films, nature and health films, etc. (I feel certain that the local firm of Pathe Freres would help if properly approached. The Haffkine Institute also has some suitable films and I believe the Railway companies also have suitable films of trave] in India which they might possibly loan). Lantern lectures and nature talks could help to fill the programme. EXTRA-MURAL SERVICE As [have already stated, a very important phase of the museum’s extra-mural service is the providing of lantern slides, and lectures for the use of teachers in the schools. We should endeavour there- fore, while developing our lecture service in the museum galleries gradually to amass the material for this purpose. The cheapest way would be for the museum to prepare its own slides by engaging a photographer and giving him the material and the facilities for carrying out this work. A large amount of material could probably be collected by appealing to various public departments, railway and transport companies, and commercial and industrial concerns. The American Museum built up a large proportion of its stock of slides in this manner. As the museum was offering publicity to these organizations in the work it proposed to do there was a natural desire to co-operate on the part of those to whom the museum appealed. Lastly a number of slides might be obtained through exchange. The American museums are anxious to obtain Indian material for their collections. Specimens illus- trative of American animal life which they would normally give us in exchange would not be of much use to us as our sphere is limited at present to the Oriental Region but they could and are willing to help by supplying us with material from their Education Department. A glance through their catalogue of slides will show how many of the subjects covered would be directly applicable to our own use. After consultation with the Director, I am able to state that the PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICE IN AMERICA 181 American Museum, New York, would be glad to enter into this system of exchange which would be mutually helpful. In collecting the material a definite policy should be adopted, viz., that the subjects selected should have a direct bearing and relation to the teaching in the schools. In the appendix to this report which I am unable to publish here, | have endeavoured to indicate the lines on which we should collect our slide material, I have grouped them under subject headings, and have tried to show the possible sources of supply. I have already indicated the various methods adopted for cataloguing and storing these slides but this is a matter which can be more fully considered when we have amassed a sufficiency of material. Lectures delivered by the Museum Lecturer in the Schools The advantages of this method, which enables the museum considerably to extend its sphere of utility and to reach a far larger number of pupils than it would by its normal lecture service in the galleries, need not be stressed. We could perhaps commence by setting aside one day in the week on which our lecturer could visit say three schools, the next week three others could be visited. We would by this means be able to take in a large percentage of the schools. The system would have the direct effect of increasing the interest of the schools in the museum and would also have a good effect on our lecture service in the galleries. I recommenda trial of the system and the formation of a programme of work suitable to conditions in the city. Circulating Collections The tormation of suitable exhibits for circulation among the schools is purely a question of funds. I propose during the year to prepare one or two cases suitable for this purpose, as an experi- ment. At the Field Museum the whole cost of preparing these cases was covered by a single donation. At the Brooklyn Museum the circulating collections for the schools were established and financed by the Women’s League, an organization similar to our Bombay Women’s Council. Here is a field of activity which might be offered to the local Women’s Council by which they could actively co-operate in the education of the children of the city. Itis possibly a source from which we might obtain assistance and is worth trying. The Museum and the Scout Organizations The Boy Scout and Girl Guide organizations in Bombay present a very suitable tield for our activities and it is recommended that the passages in this report which have reference to the work done by museums in America and thes organizations be forwarded to those who have control of the movement in Bombay. A meeting might 182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX] then be arranged at which we might formulate pians by which we could co-operate with the scouts both in the museum and in the training camps. The holding of classes and demonstrations for Boy Scouts and Girl Guides at the museum and the methods by which we could help at the training camps are points which might be considered. Work for the Blind Finally we should consider the possibility of holding at least once or twice during the year a class for the children from the local blind school. Examples of corals, shells, mounted birds, mammals and reptiles might easily be arranged in trays so that the children could handle them. They would then be given a talk on these specimens and then be allowed to re-examine them. It would bea means of bringing pleasure into their otherwise colourless lives. INDIAN DRAGONFLIES BY Lt.-CoL. F. C. FRASER, I.M.S,, F.E.S. Part XXVII (With one Text-figure and four plates) (Continued from page 889 of Vol. XXXT) Suborder-——Z YGOPTERA Head transversely elongate; eyes more or less widely separated, usually more so than in genus Gomphus ; vesicle usually absent, ocelli lying free in middle of vertex ; labium with middle and lateral lobes approximately equal, the midlobe deeply fissured ; wings usually identical in shape, the hind dilated occasionally at their middles, never at the base: trigones represented by a foursided, irregular structure (hereafter called the dzscotdal cell), which may be squared, or obtusely or acutely pointed outwardly; pterostigma usually present, occasionally absent in one or all wings, variably shaped; antenodal nervures numerous or reduced to the two primitive pairs ; winys usually held closed together when at rest ; a pair of superior anal appendages at end of 10th abdominal segment, and a pair of inferior anal appendages at sides of anal orifice ; female with well-developed ovipositor somewhat similar to that of Gynacantha. ‘ Larve variably shaped, possessing caudal gills, two to three in number which show a great variety in shape and size, spine-like, vesiculated or padddle- shaped ; breeding in still or running water, more often in the latter. [Since this series of papers was started in 1918, our ideas on the venation of a dragonfly’s wing has undergone very radical changes, and this the result of the finding of several mest important fossil dragonfly wings which throw a flood of light on the problem. We now find that instead of a many branched medius, we have a many branched radius, and that the vein we have known as Cuz is really Cuzz, the former being absent in living Odonates, and further that the vein we have been accustomed to regard as Cuz is in reality 7A. We are indebted to Lameere and Dr. R. J. Tillyard for this interpretation, and as it now brings the dragonfly venation into line with other orders of insects, and is certain to be generally adopted in the future, I prepose to take the opportunity offered by the introduction of a new suborder, to introduce the new nomen- clature. The following table and figure will assist the reader in rearranging his ideas on the venation and will be amplified from time to time. | New Notation (Tillyard’s) Old Notation (Needham-Comstock ) Costa... nt eran Costa oe eet wes Sabcosta ses yee. Subcosta see ia, OC: Radio-median ... eee ee Mie Radio-median .. R+M. First Radius (main stem) ... Ri. Radius a ae ce Arc. is pe AGT Cs Arc ar see) AEC Second Radius (first branch). Rii. First branch of median... Mi. Intercalated branch of Azz ... IRii. First intercalated branch of median ... ia ita, Third Radius (second branch) _ Riii. | Second branch of median Mii. Intercalated branch of A7zzz... IRiil. | Subnodal sector bee NSE Fourth and fifth Radius com- | bined ee ..» Riv-+v. Third branch of median. Miii. Anterior median (medius ant.) MA. Fourth branch of median. Miv. Posterior median (medius Absent in post.) ed vee, MP: all dragonflies. 184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALVATST SOCIETY, WV ol Xe New Notation (Tillyard’s) Old Notation (Needham-Comstock). First cubital nervure seas Coll | (Absent in all dragonflies) Second cubital nervure eee Ci | First cubital meryure ... Cui. First Anal nervure er AN | Second cubital nervure... Cuil. Cubito-ana! nervure we (Coie TAR | Cubital nervure igual Second Ana! neryure NG: ' Postcostal nervure Be ey a The Zygoplera are divided up into two large families distinguished by the number of antenodal nervures, as follows :— 1. Only two antenodal nervures : discoidal cell usually entire ; arc midway between base of wing and node, or nearer node than base; usually smail insects. 7 Cenagrionide. 2. More than two antenodal nervures, never less than five ; discoidal cell ae usually traversed but sometimes entire ; arc nearer base of wing than node ; larger insects. Agrionide. The Agrionide are divided up into three large sub-families as follows :— 1. Sectors of arc arising from the lower third of arc ; discoidal cell convex coastalwards and as long as or nearly as long as the basal space ; pterostigma often absent in both sexes, or much reduced or false in character. Agrionide. 2. Sectors of arising from the middle or above the middle of are ; discoidal cell rarely convex costalwards and shorter than basal space ; pterostigma elongate and well developed in both sexes. Epallagine, 3. Wing characters same as last, but male sometimes with the pterostigma occasionally absent in forewing; abdomen much shorter than wings; epistome (or nose) enormously developed so as to form a tumid nasal structure on the front of face. Libellagixne. Subfamily—LIBELLAGINA, Laid. ' t RaNt %.. aie Ke >. Se Wiig > : ony SEEN SAO Ce ony ee SASSO mas ey ef J “an ira. qureest® iN j Si : abel TTT me, er et) e Toate Tal Pt" Sl Fig. 1.—ARhinocypha spuria, Selys, male Mt.==Mesothoracic triangle Head robust, triangular ; eyes oval, large, projecting posteriorly, moderately separated from one another; frons horizontal, rather longer than broad ; occiput linear, very narrow ; face projecting, as long as the head is broad, INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 185 ante- and post-clypeus very tumid and projecting, rounded and vesiculated ; labium slightly longer than broad, split nearly to its base into two narrow triangular parts; labrum oval; antenna with rudimentary first segment, second segment cylindrical, the most robust of all, third segment slenderer and longer, with its apex slightly tumid, terminal or apical segment longer than the third. Prothorax elongate, narrower in front than behind, the anterior border raised, the hind with a large lobe, tumid and oval in shape. Thorax moderately robust, compressed, forming about one quarter the total length of body, elongate, the dorsum flattened, the midthoracic carina often bifid so as to enclose a triangular space variable, in length, extending from one-fourth to the whole length of carina (when present, known as the ‘ midtho- racic triangle,’ and important for differentiating species). Legs long and slender, extending to the apical end of segment 4 in males, to the end of segment 7 in females. Femora and tibiz with long hair-like spines; tibiae sometimes dilated, often densely pulverulent on the flexor surface ; tarsal claws with 2 small spine at end, barely visible in some (Rhinocy pha). Wings hyaline or opaque, metallic or iridescent in the males, usually uncoloured in the females, of the same shape and size, but in some genera, the hindwings distinctly broadened, always longer than the abdomen, especially in the female long and narrow, markedly petiolated ; reticulation close, cells tetragonal in shape. zz and J Azz vot fused with Azv 4+- v- node nearer base of wing than apex; basal space entire, slightly longer than half the cubital space; discoidal cell straight, very narrow, traversed by one or several nervures, about one-third shorter than the basal space, its ends squared or the outer oblique; are nearly straight or markedly bent, its sectors arising from near the middle from a single point or moderately separated ; Cuzz neariy straight or making a costal-wards curve after leaving the discoidal cell; /4 without an inferior branch, straight or curved posteriorwards or undulated ; no intercalated sectors between Cuzz and /A , most sectors running straight, with but a little curve towards the termen of wing ; many intercalated sectors ; 4 to 20 antenodal nervures, the first and second or third being the primaries, all others not coinciding in the costal and subcostal series; pterostigma present in all wings, except in the forewings of J/icromerus males, long and narrow. Abdomen broad, depressed, especially in the male, short, segments ] and 2 very short, the remainder nearly equal in length, squared. Anal appendages all very similar, the superiors twice as long as segment 10, cysindrical, slightly broader at base, curved pincer-like towards one another at apices ; inferiors very short, more robust, cylindrical, blunt at apices. Genitalia variable in the genera. Distribution. Africa, S. Asia, the Philippines and Australia. Four genera found within Indian limits :-— Wings uncoloured in both sexes; /A unduiated from its origin ... Mes i ... Ltbellago, Selys. Genus—RHINOCYPHA, Ramb. Rhinocypha, Ramb. Ins. Nevrop., p. 232 (1842); (Libellago, pars) Selys, Mone uibs. Hur, py. 200 (1840): Id. Syn. “Calop:;,. p. 759 :(1853) + Id. 24 ( Sectors of are separated at origin; a pterostigma | present in all four wings of both sexes wes 2 1 4 Sectors of arc arising from a common point ; fore- | wines of male without a pterostigma... ai Micromeris, | Ramb. ( Wings stalked (petiolated) to far distal of the nervure | ac (cubital nervure) ee Ns 4a Calocypha, ae gen. nov. | Wings petiolated to slightly proximal of the cubital | nervure aa ee fan ee 3 ( Wings (at least the hind, except in zmmaculata) | coloured in the male; /A not undulated at its 3 J origin = Lehinocy pha, Ramb. { | 186° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALGTIST SSOCTE TY Vol axes Mon. Calop., .p.-198, (1854); Walk. List; Neur. Ins. B-- Ms, “iv, pii645 (1853);;, Burm.) (Calopiteryx,. pars) Hawlbs Bat... 11, fps! S820) (1sso)e Percheron (Agyzon, pars); Gen. Ins. Neur-3i220(1835).; “Guerin (eyo, pars) Mag. Zool. i. Ins. t., 15 1831). Characters as for the subfamily ; wings of male, less rarely of female also, coloured vividly with metallic blues, violet, green or fiery coppery, at least in the hindwings, often with clear vitreous spots and stripes on hindwings which glow with opalescent rainbow tints; antenodal nervures numerous, always more than six in number; /4 not unduiated at its origin ; petiolation always ending proximal to ac ; shape of wings very variable, either all four very long and narrow, or the hindwing considerably dilated. Mesothoracic triangle nearly always present and brightly coloured in most species, of variable length, sometimes extending up to the alar sinus, but often much shorter than this. Legs long and slim, the hind pairs of tibize nearly always pruinosed white or yellow. Anal appendages as for subfamily. Larva. Body short and robust, head squarish, the eyes representing the outer angles, antennze seven jointed, the segments becoming progressively smaller from base to apex; prothorax small, furnished with feur small protuberances on the dorsum ; wing-cases lying parallel along the dorsum ; abdomen short and cylindrical; legs of great lengthin the earlier instars, of moderate length in the adult, hind tibize extending to a short distance beyond anal end of abdomen, minutely spined, striped with pigment; mask deeply bifid in the final instars, the edges of the fissure usually overlapping to enclose asmall foramen, very long and flattened, extending as far as base of middle pair of legs in the adult, furnished with two lateral setze and three hooks which may be bifid at the apex, moveable hook of great length; caudal gills two in number, triquetral in shape, heavily spined, the 11th abdominal tergite present as an appendix dorsalis unmodified as a gill. Gizzard with sixteen folds each bearing four to five teeth. Found in running water, usually montane or submontane streams, clinging to weed or submerged twigs, etc. The Rhinocypha as a whole, forma large genus of medium sized dragonflies, which possesses some of the most beautiful insects of the world. Not only do their wings display an inimitable play of scintillating colours, ranging through blues, greens, violet, pink to gorgeous fiery coppery red, but the bodies in most cases are also gaily decorated with red and blue or yellow of many shades. ‘The picture afforded by a couple of males, circling round one another, their wines glittering with multitudinous rainbow hues, as they compete for the affections of an admiring female, is not readily forgotten. They are the living eems of tropic streams and delight the eye of even a casual observer. When mating, the males perform a kind of nuptial dance before the female, during which they make a great display of the white pulverulent flexor surface of the hinder pairs of tibize. The legs are trailed and show up dazzlingly white in the strong sunshine. Meanwhile the forewings flutter rapidly to support the insect, whilst that the hinder pair are held flat to display their wealth of colour. The female, perched on a prominent twig beside the stream, appears to be totaliy un- concerned by its mate’s efforts to attract her. One very rarely sees a pair in cop, althougk vast numbers of both sexes may be present on the banks of the stream. Less rarely a female may be seen ovipositing on a floating twig or broken reed: In spite of the large number of species, it is extremely difficult to establish relationships, and their distribution presents many apparently insoluble problems. Roughly the whole genus may be split up into two large divisions. Those with narrow wings, the hind scarcely broader than the fore, and in which /e777 is widely separated and distad from the subnode. (E.g.,—bzforata, perforata, bisignata, etc.). ‘Those with broader wings, the hind usually being much broader than the fore, and in which #2277 comes off from the subnode. (E.¢.,—cuneata, spuria, guadrimaculata, ignipennts, etc.). Lenipennts, trimaculata and unimaculata are clearly fairly closely related, not only from the colour of the wines, coppery in all, but also from the fact that all have an aborted mesothoracic triangle. /ridea which shares this latter character, I am inclined to view also as closely related as the forewings are often coppery. (*}x9] 94} UI UAALS UOTVION Jo 91GB, 94} 9as ‘uoleJeid19}UI 104 ) AINO SHYNANAN GHSOdUAINI GNV NIVW AHL ONIMOUS ‘SATHS ‘v7V]NIvIUUL VYPAIOULYY AO INIMANIH I °3%Id "20S *FSIpT ‘ey Aequiog “uainor Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II PiG.7 1 gqguniies 2 gettin wnat cane Fie. 2 Fic. 1. Wincs oF Rhinocypha cuneata, SELYS, MALE. Fie. 2. Wincs oF Rhinocypha guadrimaculata, SELYS, MALE. The black areas are steely blue or green, the shaded areas are vitrified and glow with blue, green, violet reflex according to the angle from which viewed. INDIAN DRAGONFLIES ; 187 A quite natural series, which may indicate a possible line of evolution is as follows :— R. timmaculata—hilarye —bitasciata—trifasciata—bifenestrali—s puria—and so on to the fenestrella group. So far as the seventeen Indian species are concerned, it is possible to place them in four more or less natural groups, of which group perforata appears to be the most primitive. Group Il. Fenxestrella The third branch of radius (A272) arising at the subnode; wings opaque black with iridescent vitreous spots of blue, violet, or emerald green; hind- wings considerably broader than the fore ; ‘mesothoracic triangle very large, extending to antealar sinus, coloured .—cuneata—spuria—fenestrella—quadri- maculata. Group il. Fasczata The third branch of radius arising at the subnode or very slightly distad to it; wings hyaline or the hind marked with one or more opaque black bands running from costa to posterior border ; hindwings only slightly broader than fore ; mesothoracic triangle very large, extending’ to antealar sinus, coloured.— tmmaculata—hilarye — bifasciata—trifasciata—bitenestrata. Group Ill. Onimaculata The third branch of radius arising from the subnode or slightly distad of it ; wings fiery coppery metallic with iridescent vitreous spots ¢f pink, violet or vreen (zvz7dea has the hind wing and costal border of forewing opaque black with golden, or violaceous vitreous spots and stripe); hindwings usually broader than the fore; smesothoracic triangle obsolete.—unimaculalta—ignti- pennis—trimaculata and iridea. Group lV. Perforata Third branch of radius arising well distad of the subnode ; hindwings not broader than the fore, both pairs very narrow ; hindwings cpaque only in the outer third or half, this area marked with one or two rows of iridescent vitreous spots ; mesothoracic triangle short, not extending more than half-way towards the antealar sinus.—perforata—biforata—bisignata—whitehead?. (To ‘this eroup also belongs deatifica, Fras., a race of perforata, and beesont, Fres.,a race of bzforata.) For the rest adamantina, Forst., is synonymous with cuneata, or at the most, merely a race of that species, whilst Aemzhyalina, Fras., is a race of guadrimu- culata. Lastly /atdlawi is transferred to a new genus. Key to Indian species of AAznocypha. 1. Wings uncoloured in both sexes zmmaculatu, Selys. (Assam. ) Wings colowred, at least partly, in the male. Z 2. Dorsal mesothoracic triangle extending as far as root of wines xe an ae 3 Dorsal mesothoracic triangle either absent, un- coloured or extending not more than half-way up to root of wings ... bs bee 5 3. Hindwings of male with opaque bands 4 6 Hindwings of male opaque with vitreous spots of 4. Hindwings of male with the apex narrowlv black and an incomplete (more rarely complete) black band just proximal to pterostigma .... us . Mlarydé, Pras. (Upper Burma.) Hindwing with the apex narrowly black and a black band lying about midway between pterostigma and node ve fa ee ... Otfasciata, Selys (Assam.) Similar to last but witha third, incomplete black band at the level of node ... oat Ae 5 188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII io al 6. Ni 10. 1a —y Le) Apical, medial and noda! bands separated ... tvifasciata, Selys. (N. W. Provinces.) All three bands connected narrowly along costal and hinder borders of wing, thus enclosing two large spaces .. oe xe aie ... ifenestrata, Fras. (Assam. ) The large apical vitreous spot separated from the costal border by not more than one or two rows of celisne. sie re aa ... CUNCALA, SelYS: (Assam and Bengal.) Apical vitreous spot separated from costal border by at least three or four rows of cells si 7 Apical vitreous spot moderately small, lying exactly under pterostigma, medium-sized species .. fenestrella, Ramb. (Burma, Indo- China, Borneo.) Apical vitreous spot large, lying almost entirely proximal to line of pterostigma, large species, hindwing 27-28 mm., mid row of vitreous spots more or less confluent wt ay sae e SPUILE PCL YS. (Bengal, Assam and Sikhim.) Apical vitreous spot moderately iarge, lying partly proximal to line of pterostigma, small species, hindwing 20-24 inm., mid row of vitreous spots always well separated, the costal one extending much nearer to node than the middle spot .. guadrimaculata, Selys. (N. India.) Mesothoracic triangle uncoloured, or entirely obso- . lete ; hindwing distinctly broader than forewing... 9 Mesothoracic triangle coloured, extending from one- third to half-way Up dorsum ; eye nearly the same breadth as fore es eZ Wings fiery burnished coppery “metallic ; ‘no Opaque ares in forewings.. 10 Wings opaque black, the hind with a sickle- shaped vitreous spot at distal end, which partially encircles the outer row of vitreous spots; costal border of forewing narrowly black nearly asfarasnode ... «vided, Selys. | (Upper Burma.) Hindwing witha large subquadrate violety green vitreous spot at its centre ; very large species .. unimaculata,Selys. (Bengal and Assam.) Hindwing with a medial row of vitreous spots and an inner linear spot Aon lat Small species, hindwing 23 mm. or ‘less ; inner vitreous spot very elongate .. .«. Lrimaculata, Selys. Larger species, hindwing 26 mm. or more ; inner vitrecus spot much shorter ... he .. tgnipennts, Selys. | (Both from Assam. } Only the apical third of hindwing opaque; a single row of vitreous spots ae ee air 13 The apical half of hindwing opaque, two rows of vitreous spots ras ae ae se SPEFLOKALG, Perehey and race dcatifica. (Assam, Burma, S. Asia. ) Mesothoracic triangle very small, pink ; vitreous spots elongate; only extreme apex of forewing tipped with black Ee a mh ... btforata, Selys. (Burma.) Mesothoracic triangle larger, extending half-way along dorsum, pink ; vitreous spots shorter: apex INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 189 of forewing tipped with black as far as inner end of pterostigma ... ae shy ... Otforata, race, beesont. Fras. (Burma, Assam.) Similar to the last, but nearly the apical third of forewing black ... ... Odtsignata, Selys. (Peninsular India, south of the Himalayas. ) Mesothoracic triangle small, blue; an isolated vitreous spot distal to the row of vitreous spots ; opaque area of forewing equal to that of hind, intensely black, the vitreous spots peacock blue ; wings markedly rounded at apices... ... whiteheadi, Kirby. (Assam. ) 1. Rhinocypha cuneata, Selys. Syn. Calop. p. 60 (1853); Id. Mon. Calop. p. 206 (1854) ; Walk. (Lzbellago cuneata), List. Neur. Ins. B.M., iv, p. 650, n. 14 (1853) : Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 113 (1890) ; Will. Proc. DES: Nat. Mus., vol, RKVilign PPaelioe 174 (1904) ; Laid., Rec. Ind. Mais.,, vole. xiit, D. 36 and Pl. 11 (1917). Forst. (adamantina), Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung., p. 547 (1903). Male. Abdomen 24mm. Hindwing 27-28 mm. Head. Ground colour velvety black, labium black, labrum black witha pale blue spot on either side, rest of head unn:arked save for a tiny spot of rust red on the outer side of the ocelli, and another smaller, bluish, on each side of occiput. Eyes brown. Prothorax black with a pale blue longitudinal streak on the middorsum of posterior lobe. Thorax black, the mesothoracic triangle very large, extending as far as the antealar sinus, pointed at apex, palest blue in colour, a tiny humeral point just behind the upper end of the humeral suture, a linear streak along the anterior border of the second lateral suture, not extending up as far as wing roots, and dividing into two small spots below ; lastly an upper short streak on the mete- pimeron, all reddish yellow. Legs black, the two hinder pair of tibice pure white on flexor surfaces from dense prtiinescence, the distal portion of the hind femora less so, Wings opaque from apices to about 5-7 cells proximad of node, the bases hyaline, palely saffronated. The opaque area in forewings occupying roughly about the costal half of the wing, the hinder border of this area serrate. In the hindwings this area begins 4-5 cells proximad of node and runs obliquely back and out from this point in a very irregular and serrate manner, leaving a vitreous streak of pale violaceous anterior to the discoidal cell, which deeply indents the opaque area and runs inward to a little beyond the inner end of discoidal cell. The inner border of the opaque area, posterior to the dis- coidal cel! is also violaceous vitreous. The opaque area presents a medial row of spots, all more or less confluent and presenting an infinite variety of patterns. The anterior or costal spot lies between “Az and A777 (first and second branches of radius) and is usually separated from the hinder two, it extends inward well beyond the others. The hinder spots usually confluent, extending to within one cell row of hinder border of wing. In addition to this medial row, a very large preapical spot extending from Az nearly to hinder border of wing, oval in outline, its inner and outer borders serrate, its outer border in line with the inner end of pterostigma. The latter black with an elongate spot of pale blue at its centre. The iridescent spots and vitreous hinder area of forewings peacock blue or pale violaceous according to which angle viewed from. Abdomen black, unmarked. Superior anal appendages slender, sub-cylindrical, simple, curved in at apices; inferior half the length, moderately separated, slightly curved in at apices. Female. Hindwing 28-30 mm. Abdomen 21 mm. The female has hitherto been undescribed. The following description is made from specimens from T'urzum, near Darjeeling :— Head marked as for male but with the following additional spots, all bright gamboge :—a small pot on each side of the anterior ocellus and just anterior to its level; a large spot at the base of antenne, a pyriform spot on each side of the frons, the cheeks narrowly, the bases of mandibles, and finally a small spot or stripe on each side of rhinarium. 19) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Prothorax black marked with bright gamboge as follows:—a median streak on dorsum of posterior lobe as in male, a short streak on sides and a large oval spot laterally, just below posterior lobe. Thorax black marked with bright gamboge as follows :—fine lines on the humeral and median lateral sutures, incomplete below, the same markings as seen in the male but considerably broader, especially the metepimeral marking which is broad and roughly triangular, finally a minute antehumeral streak on the lower part of thorax. The mesothoracic triangle mapped out in lines of yellow. Legs black, not pruinosed. Wings hyaline, evenly enfumed throughout, so that they appear brown when overlapping and folded over dorsum. Abdomen black marked with gamboge as follows:—the dorsal carina finely as far as segment 7, a zigzag lateral stripe on segment 1, a lateral basal longitudinal stripe and an apical spot on segments 2 to 4, and the spot only on segments 5 to 7. A ventro-lateral stripe on segments 2 to 6. In some specimens many of these markings are more or less obsolete, the younger specimens being as a rule the better marked. Anal appendages black, pointed, cylindrical as long as twice the length of seginent 10. Vulvar scale very robust, extending to end of abdomen. Pterostigma brownish black clouded with enfumied white, oblique and rather squared distad, pointed within. Distribution. Northern Bengal and Assam. I possess specimens from Gopaldhara, Assam and Turzum, Darjeeling District, also from Mangpu, in the latter district, collected by Messrs. H. Stevens, Oscar Lindgren, and Chas. M. Inglis. The type is said to have come from Thibet and may weli have done so, it is a male in the Selysian collection. R. adamantina Forst. (Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, p. 547 (1903), is obviously inerely a variety of this species. The species is easily distinguished by the apical vitreous spot encroaching to within one or two cells of the costal margin of the wing. 2. Rhinocypha spuria, Selys., Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), xlvii, p. 388 (1879) , Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 113 (1890) ; Selys, Ann. Mus. civ. Genov. (2) x (Xxx), p. 59 (1891); Will. Proe..U. S.) Nat. Mus.) volo xxvitiipp: 173, 174 and 177 (1904) ; ‘Laid...Rec. Ind Mus.; vol. xutspo;367and 37 (1917). Male. Hindwing 27-28 mm. Abdomen 24 inm. Head black marked with citron yellow as follows :—a small oval spot on, the outer side of each posterior ocellus and 2 tiny occipital spot on each side, these markings being similar to those of cumeata. Labium black, labrum unmarked. Prothorax black marked with citron yellow as follows:—a linear streak on the middorsum of posterior lobe and a small spot at each of its outer angles, another larger spot below this anda large triangular spot on each side of middle lobe. ‘Thorax black marked with yellow :—an upper linear antehumeral spot, an upper humeral stripe breken above, hugging the hinder border of humeral suture, a broad irregular stripe on the sides on the hinder part of the mese- pimeron and an elongate triangular streak on the hinder part of metepimeron, which is often broken in two ; lastly and occasionally a small spot on the upper part of mesepimeron and a tiny streak along the upper part of first lateral suture. Ail these markings, both prothoracic and thoracic subject to variabi- lity, the prothoracic and the smaller markings on the thorax often obsolete. Mesothoracic triangle very long and broad, lilaceous. Legs black, the two hinder pairs of tibize snowy white from pruinescence on the flexor surface. Wings opaque black with a steely blue or green reflex in the outer three- fourths, marked with vitreous spots and areas of lilaceous or purple. In some lights these spots have a mother-of-pearl] reflex. In the forewing, the opaque area covers the costal three-fourths of the wing, the vitreous area posterior to it having a beautiful violaceous reflex, the border of the opaque area markedly serrate Inwardly it begins four cells proximad of node and has a markedly jagged border. In the hindwings the same area begins about 2-3 cells proximad of the node and is indented by two vitreous areas, the anterior of which extends in for a distance of 4-5 cells, the hinder, INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 191] which is on the wing border, for a distance of 3-4 cells. The vitreous areas in this wing consist of a middle row of spots and an apical, the latter lying with its outer two-thirds under the pterostigma, and nearly quadrate in shape, being bounded by /Azz and //722. The middle row of spots are rather variable, consisting of four linear spots, the anterior or costal one made up of 2 rows of cells, the next of 2 or 3 at its outer end, the third of some isolated cells and the hinder of 2 o0r3 rows at its outer end. The inner border of these four rows form a slightly convex outline, the second being a little more distad than the others. About 20 antenodal nervures in both wings; four to five traversing nervures to the discoidal cell. Pterostigma blackish brown, marked with a very large elongate lilaceous spot in the hindwings. Abdomen black with dark metallic reflex, Segment 1 with a small lateral yellow spot, 2 and 3 with a linear streak along the ventral border. Anal appendages similar to those of cuneata. Female. Abdomen 22mm. Hindwing 30 mm. Head velvety black marked with bright ochreous spots, labium black, the lateral lobes white, labrum black, the whole of the central area yellow, deeply notched by a tongue-like prolongation of the black at base of labrum. In addition to the spots found in the male, the basses of mandibles broadly, the cheeks and basal segment of the ntenne, a small triangular Spot on each side of rhinariuin. a large triangular spot on each side of upper surface of frons, a small spot on each side of the anterior ocellus and lastly a Small medial oval spot on occiput yellow. Prothorax marked as for the male but rather more extensively. Thorax with similar yellowish markings as in the male but these greenish yellow in hue and much more extensive. The upper and ariterior lines border- ing the humeral and first lateral sutures are generally complete and the antehumeral marking becomes a well-marked stripe extending in a curved manner inwards from the upper end of the humerai suture towards the antealar sinus and then straight down the whole length of the dorsum parallel to the mesothoracic triangle which is finely outlined in yellow. Wings evenly enfumed and palely saffronated throvghout, hyaline, unmarked. Pterostigma black, its central area ochreous. Fourteen to sixteen antenodal nervures in hind and forewings. Legs black, the two hind pairs of tibie pruinosed. Abdomen black metailic with the following yellow markings : -segments 2 to 7 with the middorsal carina narrowly yellow, segment 1 with its apical border and a large curved or angulated lateral spot, segments 2 to 5 with a longitudiual basal stripe and an apical spot, as well as a ventro-lateral stripe. On segment 4, and sometimes 7, the apical spot only. Segments 2 to 6 with the apical border laterally yellowish. Anal appendages and vulvar scale as in cuneata. Distribution. Shillong, Assam, Kalaw, S. Shan States, Upper Burma, and Chin Hills. This species is one of the largest and most beautiful of the genus. It is specifically distinct from guadrimaculata, which is one of the smallest species of the genus. The difference in size isso striking, that when placed side by side, there 1s never any doubt as to which is which. Both Williamson and Laidlaw however express the opinion that, so far as descriptions go, the two are conspecific, so that it seems advisable to settle this point once and for all by pointing out thé differences. In a large number of species 1 find :— R. spuria Distribution. Assam and Burma. Reticulation of wings rather open. Vitreous stripes in hindwing invad- ing the opague black area for a distance of 3-5 cells. Apical vitreous spot nearly square, limited. posteriorly by the nervure / Ri. Middle row of spots always 4 in number, the second spot from costal border equal in length to the hinder, inset but slightly, the inner border of pots shallowly concave. R. quadrimaculata Distribution. Kashmir to Burma. Reticulation verv close. Vitreous stripes extending distal- wards into opaque area for a distance of 7-8 cells. Apical vitreous spot transversely elongate, much narrower than long,ex- tending one celi row posterior to /A777. Middle row of spots almost always 3 in number, the middlespot much shorter than the hinder and inset markedly to the others so thatthe inner border of spots is deeply concave. 192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Abdomen 24mm. Hindwing28mm. Abdomenl9mm. Hindwing 21mm. ‘The extent and shape of the apical spot is the best guide. 3. Rhinocypha quadrimaculata, Selys. Syn. Calop., p. 60 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Calop. p. 202 (1854) ; Walk. (Lz6ellago quadrimaculata), List. Neur. Ins..B. M., iv, p. 651; sa.015 9(1853) sa Kinby,"CatOdon qpallZ ans (1890) ; Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxviii, pp. 153, 174, 175 and 177. (1904) ; Gaid.; (Ree: pind. Mus volt@xiil, «pp. 9 cGy 37. & Fras. Mem. Pusa, Ent. Series, vol. vi, p. 54 (1921). Male. Abdomen 19mm. Hindwing 21mm. Head black with a small spot on the outerside of each posterior ocellus and a smaller spot on each side of the occiput. Labium and labrum black, unmarked. Prothorax black unmarked. ‘Thorax black marked with yellow as follows :— a fine humeral line interrupted below, and a moderately broad lateral stripe on the anterior border of the hinder lateral suture. Occasionally a small elongate spot on the metepimeron, but this, as weil as the humeral marking, usually absent (Teneral specimens have markings very similar to those of sfurza, both on the prothorax and thorax, but although re- tained in adults of this species, they are invariably lost in adults of guadrz- maculata, excepting the broader lateral stripe.) Mesothoracic triangle narrow, long, pink in colour. Legs black, the distal halves of the two hind pair of femora and the tibiz snowy white on the flexor surfaces from pruinescence. Wings shaped as for cuneata and spuria, the hind considerably more broad than the fore, and dilated at the middle, opaque black with dark plum coloured - steely reflex, and marked with vitreous areas and spots as follows :—an apical spot much broader than long, bounded by Azz costalwards, overlapping by one row of cells /Az7z posteriorly, its inner and outer borders serrate. A medial row of spots usually 3 in number but occasionally 4, the anterior or costal spot made up ot 2 rows of cells, and extending in towards the node much nearer than the other two spots of the series, the second or middle spot much shorter than the other two, and situated more distal than either. The third spot, when it exists, made up of 2or3cellsonly. Lastly the posterior spot situated obliquely, so that its outer posterior corner may be in apposition with the hind border of wing, made up of 3 rows of cells. At the inner border of the opaque area, which is very irregular, are seen two deep indentations due to invasion of hyaline vitreous areas. These vary in extent but usually invade the opaque area for a distance of 6 to 8 cells. In the forewing, the opaque area covers the. costal three-fourths of the wing, its hinder border being markedly serrate, and its inner border, which extends 4-5 cells proximad of the node, markedly dentate. The area posterior to the black area, vitreous and peacock blue or purple in colour according to the angle of view. The vitreous spots and areas in the hindwing purple or emerald green according to the angle from which viewed. Antenodal nervures 16-18 in number: discoida! cell traversed 4-5 times. Abdomen black with a vestigial lateral spot on the sides of the first segment and ventro-lateral stripes on third and fourth. Anal appendages as for spuria. Female. Abdomen 20mm. Hindwing 25mm. Head velvety biack marked with ochreous spots as follows :—a reniform spot on the outer side of each posterior ocellus, a iargish rounded spot on each side of the occiput and a medial oval or linear spot between and behind them on the hinder border of occiput. An oval spot in front of and on each side of the anterior ocellus, a large triangular spot on each side of the frons, a large spot on each side the rhinarium and a larger on the summit of that structure. The cheeks, bases of mandibles broadly, the second joint of the antenne, and lastly two larger triangular spots on the labrum, Labium black, inner borders of lateral lobes yellowish white. Prothorax black with a longitudinal medial stripe on the posterior lobe, and another rounded or triangular at each of its outer corners. A large oval medio- lateral spot. Thorax black marked with ochreous as follows :—the mesothoracic triangle finely mapped out in yellow, an antehumeral fine stripe, which begins at the upper end of the humeral suture, curves rapidly in and then down to anterior INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 193 border of thorax, running parallel to the mesothoracic triangle. A fine’ post- humeral line, complete, running close to and behind the humeral suture, another finer line running close to the first lateral suture and separated narrowly from an upper spot on the mesepimeron. A broad irregular stripe bordering the anterior aspect of the second lateral suture and finally an elongate spot on the metepimeron. Legs black, hind two pare of tibia and femora sparsely pruinosed. Wings moderately, deeply and evenly enfumed with brown ; pterostigma blackish with a diffuse yellowish centre more conspicuous distad. Antenodal nervures 14 to 15 in number. Abdomen black marked with yellow as follows :—a very large spot on each side of segment 1, a broad elongate spot at the base and an apical spot on the sides of 2, which are repeated on the sides of 3 to 7, but the elongate longi- tudinal basal spot linear and gradually shortening from segment to segment, segments 8 and 9 with only a lateral spot, largest on the latter segment. The dorsal carina narrowly yellow from segment 2 to 7. Segment 10 unmarked, anal appendages and vulvar scale similar to cuneata. Distribution. Rare in Burma, its zoo-centre seems to be about Nepal. I have seen specimens from Almorah in Kumaon, Falodhi, and there is a speci- men in the Vienna Museum from Kashmir. Mr Chas. Inglis has taken it in Sikhim and around Darjeeling, but sparingly, whilst Col. F. Wall, has sent me specimens from Maymyo, Upper Burma. It has also been collected around Dehra Dun. It would appear therefore that guadrimaculata is gradually replaced east- wards by sfuria and fenestrella, but that itis specifically distinct from both. The differences between the former are set forth above under the description of spuria. Race hemihyalina. Fras. Pusa Mem.,1.c., p 64 (1921). Male. Abdomen 23 mm. Hindwing 23 mm. Differs from typical guadrimculata by the opaque area of the forewing cover- ing only the costal half and by the apical vitreous spot in hindwing extending back to 3 rows of cells posterior of /A7zzz, instead of only one. The mesothoracic triangle is lilaceous as in spurta. The opaque area of the hindwing is sharply bevelled off proximad so that the vitreous spots indenting it are merged in the adjacent vitreous area, and the border appears regularly indented or serrate. There is a fourth row of cells vestigial in nature in the medial row of spots. Female. Abdomen 21 mm. Hindwing 28 mm. Not differing from the type. A pair from Shillong, Assam collected by Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, now deposited in the B.M. It is uncertain where the type of guadrimacutata is, but it is probably in the Brussels Museum, in the Selysian collection. In a male from the Naga Hills, in my own collection, the apical spot is similar to that of hemihyalina, but the forewing is as broadly opaque as in typical guadrimaculata. 4. Rhinocypha fenestrella, Ramb, Jns. Nevrop., p. 236 (1842) ; Selys. Syn. Calop., p. 60 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Calop., p. 204 (1854) ; Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xlvii, p. 387, (1879); Walk. (Lz6ellago fenestrella), List. Neur. Ins. B.M., iv, p. 650, n. 15 (1853) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 113 (1890) ; Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Hist. Mus., vol. xxviii, pp. 173-179 (1904) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xiii, p. 35-37 (1917). Male. Abdomen 19mm. Hindwing 21 mm Head velvety black with an oval ochreous spot on the outer side of each posterior ocellus and another rounded spot cn each side of the occiput. In the type, the former of these spots is vestigial and the latter obsolete, but in specimens frcm Borneo and Burma which I have examined, they are clearly visible. Prothorax black with a longitudinal middorsal stripe on the posterior lobe, white. (Absent in the type.) Thorax black with a bright citron yellow irreyular stripe bordering the second lateral suture anteriorly, aud an elongate spot on the metepimeron. The type has also a fine incomplete line on the humeral suture and another on the upper part oi the first lateral suture. The mesothoracic triangle extending to the antealar sinus, palest pink or lilaceous. Four yellow spots beneath thorax. 25 194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Legs black, the two hinder pairs of tibize pulverulent white on the flexor surface. Abdomen glossy black with steely reflex, the first segment with a small bright citron yellow spot on each side. Wings hyaline at base, opaque black for the distal, three-fourths, the hyaline area tinted yellow, the opaque area steely green or blue, marked with vitreous spots which glow emerald green, lilaceous, mother-of-pearl or a beautiful rose pink according to the angle from which viewed. The opaque area in the forewing occupies variably the anterior three-fourths or half of wing, and in specimens from Sintang, Borneo, the vitreous area extends up at the apex as far as the pterostigma. The hyaline area posterior to it in this wing and for some distance proximad at the base, is a beautiful vitreous peacock blue. The dark area has a very irregular border basad, and is markedly serrate behind. In the hindwing, the opaque area begins about 5 cells proximad to the node and extends back in a very ragged manner as in guadrimaculata, leaving two deep indentations made by the bordering vitreous area exactly similar to guadrimaculata. In the Bornean examples the opaque area has a very oblique border, as seen in hemzhyalina, so that these two indentations are barely visible from the other irregular serrations, and the bordering vitreous area is corres- pondingly broadened, At the apex of wing, and situated exactly beneath the plerostigma is a variably sized spot, but usually much smaller than the corres- ponding apical spot found in cuneata, spuria and guadrimaculata, being rarely more than 4rows of cells in depth. Costalwards it is bounded by /Azz, and posteriorly it extends about one row of cells beyond 722, but is subject to slight variation from this. The middle row of spots shows even greater variability, consisting of 3 or 4 spots, the two middle of which are often confluent. The spots do not vary markedly in length as arule, as in guadrimaculata, and their inner and outer borders form a regular curve. Pterostigma black, broadly lilaceous beneath, in the hindwing. Antenodal nervures 13 to 16 in number ; discoidal cell traversed 3 to 4 times. Anal apendages similar to those of guadrimaculata. Female. Abdomen 17mm. Hindwing 24 mm. (Rambur type). a 19 min. 5 25.1m. Prom Upper Burren: Head black, marked exactly the same as in guadrimaculata, Prothorax similarly marked to guadrimaculata, but the two lateral spots much larger. Thorax witn an antehumeral fine line broadening below, and curved out above along the border of the antealar sinus as far as the upper end of the humeral suture ; a fine line which starts above and behind the humeral suture, crosses its middle and ends shortly before the anterior border of thorax. Laterally the markings are similar to those of guadrimaculata. Below are found two long yellow spots shaped like the broad head of a stabbing spear. (These two spots serve to separate this species from the female of gzadrimaculata.) ~ Legs black, the two hind femora distinctly pruinosed white. Wings faintly and evenly entumed tinted with yellow at the _ bases. Antenodal nervures 16-17 in number; discoidal spaces traversed four times ; pterostigma black, dark yellow for the greater part of its centre. “Abdomen black marked with ochreotis spots as follows :—a largish lateral ‘spot on segment 1, a smaller apical spot on segments 2 to 7, and a ventro- lateral stripe on segments 2 to 4. The middorsal carina very finely from segments 2 to 7. Anal appendages and vulvar scale similar to cuneata. Distribution. The type, a male taken in 1825 is supposed to have come from ‘Malacca, and is in the Paris Museum. A second male was taken at Pulo-Penang Isle— Prince de Galles. A third male, which was in the Dale collection, now in the B.M., is labelled ‘India.’ The co-type female described by Rambur, is in the Paris Museum and is labelled as coming from China. I have males from Sitang, Borneo and a pair from Gokteik, just above Maymyo, Upper Burina, ‘collected by Col. Wall. It is apparently found scattered throughout Southern Asia in submontane areas. The Rambur female is teneral and incomplete, the description given above is the first complete one and was made from Col, Wall’s specimen. Fenestrella is easily determined by the position of the apical spot on the hindwing, situated exactly under the pterostigma, whilst the female may be ‘yécognized by the markings on the underside of the thorax, Plate II] Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. SOT? TPP RLIT = aes nn ing, tian Tape oe BirD NOTES FROM THE MOUNT EVEREST EXPEDITION OF 1924 (With a plate). By Major R. W. G. Hingston, TENE SUA « Mrccenes oss Tur Rick RATS OF LOWER SIND AND THEIR CONTROL. (With a plate ONE ARILE GLO CLUS), BY: Biz Ni; NVAGIC, MAG: 9 ncnspcececesiegecserssccens GAME PRESERVATION IN THE NILGIRIS. By Major E.G. Phythian- ENGAIS MOU HA Me (INC CON ln, cae ccacecatesccceseccsstesvccessecisscterecssesssetersestecser’ SoME FURTHER NOTES ON THE SECOND EDITION OF THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA—BirRDS, VOL. III. By C. B. Ticehurst, M.A., M.R.C.S., PVE OMW apmeEG REG sO ghecssie cae neseaccestaes\ om eacseseeverioess s0isicvuceeeesedeelagessceucseses Two NEw SPECIFS OF GRASSES FROM PANCHGANI. ((With two panes) Byeikever be smlattenmandy'C. MeCab1is.. s..ssietesdccess=sotdseresysnseue reset sve GAME PRESERVATION IN INDIA. By the Editors FSU UGE OR ANIME aera ec rea eer aca hes vo ae arene Saisie bia ciciole ods ke% de becdbaee sds vamscuebeecdeGewes eee MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I.—Tigers and Elephants. By A. J. W. Milroy Il.—Tigers preferring Carrign to Live Bait. By W. H.O. Shortt III.—A Panther committing Suicide. By W. H.O. Shortt IV.—The Colour Change and Sexual Differences in Colour in the | Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat (Zaphozous longimanus). By W. W.A. Phillips 000080 08S FHF 220 GHATS HHT HHL OHHTHHT88GHT020G881 0209080 V.—Habits of the Flying Lemur (Galeopterus peninsule). By W.S. Wood eeoeteoeest2oseseeeeees Or SOKCHSHHCHHKESHHHHH*FSHHHGHFTHOSHLHHKRHFTHHKHEOHHBD GH HOD VI.—Flying Squirrels in Tenasserim. By W. S. W000 ..........cceceeesees VII.—Albino Goral (Nemorrhedus goral) in Chamba. By Raja Ram stl Meer cace doses ten Ms eeees Secteeee co eedicsesesvesusrteccssscdceeooesee saadeautle VIIl.—Is the large Hornbill (D. dtcornis) Carnivorous? By W. S. Wood eer ceess senor ce ne COOP M HM Seve Ee Oe a OCHT ED HOSEL OHO OOHTE TFET OOO HELD O TEE ERLOHOOD 237 246 253 339 344 357 359 366 370 370 371 371 374 il CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXII No. 2 PAGE IX.—A Jungle Fowl Problemy” By Rii@. Mortis finest esse eeceee 374 X.—A Lost Snipe. By Capt. R. H. Stable, ra. ............ San eeecees 374 XI.—‘ The Arrival of Snipe in Mysore.’ By George Brown ............ 375 XII.—Addenda tothe Avifauna of Sind and of British India. By C.B: “Bicehurst, (F.Z:S., M-B.OUs, HOUREG:Sa seats. csc ssete acne eee 376 XIII.—Corrigendum to Fauna of: ae By C. B. Ticehurst, FiZ.S.5 M.BsO.Ui, MoR«GiSe cece eeecaastncewendeensnn: decesc cate caacteemient 376 XIV.—Birds ‘eatine “Butterflies:- By'G. “Ev Shaw —ce..c.cstececeateces tere 377 XV.—A _ Short-cut by Birds to the Honey in the Flowers of Sesbanta srandttlora.. By Ne K: Tiwary, MSCs oii. .as otenseuies 378 XVI.—Artificial and Natural Mimicry. By H. Jouguet ............... 372 XVIIL—A List of Snakes and Lizards from crus By J. P. Mita." icas voncececeacete s eaaut cone cocec tanec ace aerate saan meee pk eae, 380 XVIiIl.—Preying Habits of the Tent-building Spider. By H. F. Knight, TCS .05 or kisticactenatic senate ata naecncenaccnen ce ee ceeene tes 381 XIX.--Some Observations on the Common Indian Millipede Spzros- treptus Brandt. (Witha plate.) By M.L. Bhatia, m.sc. and S, S. (Chatid hurry, sMcAs a MaSC,. ccc nesoneutas caters cectme steerer 382 XX.—A Plague of Green Bugs (Nezara viridula). By R. C. MOLrvis \dsecccss sasdvsciessnhecaaslnoesaecesscduas swactsetmauecnaee sonata tenets 384 XXI.—The Use of Patent Bulletsin Shot Guns. By W.H.O. Shortt. 384 MEMORANDUM. “OF -ASSOCEATION( so05ccecss0 cules avctcisce nee ceessaseace ate 385 PROCEEDINGS cance: cabcnie stctecets wt nat teceees cnuce cece cusces cee tt aesen rome arenas 394 en) JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. THE EASTERN BAILLON’S CRAKE Porzana p. pusilla ; natural size VITTY & SEABORNE LTD LONDON ; = JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Naturai History Society OcToBER, 1927 VoL. XXXII No.2 THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE | BY EB. C. STUART BAKER, F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U., H.F.A.0.U. Vou. V THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS BART LY, (With a coloured plate) (Continued from page 13 of this Volume) PORZANA PORZANA The Spotted Crake Rallus porzana, Linn., Syst. Nat.,.12th.ed., 1, p. 262° (1766) (France). | Porzana maruetta, Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 166. Vernacular Names.—Gurgurt-khatvt (Beng.); Venna-mudi-kodt. (Tam.). Description.—Centre of crown, nape and neck and whole upper plumage rufescent olive-brown, each feather from crown to tail with broad back central streaks ; hind neck and upper back spotted with white; the lower back, rump, upper tail-coverts, scapulars and innermost secondaries streaked narrowly with white; outer wing- coverts immaculate except along the edge ; inner wing-coverts with arrow-shaped white streaks edged with black ; inner secondaries the 238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII same but with golden rufous margins to the inner webs; quills brown, the first primary edged with white ; lores and round the eye blackish; a line behind the eye rufescent; supercilium, sides of the head and neck and whole breast grey, speckled with white and washed with brown across the breast ; centre of chin and throat and abdomen white ; flanks brownish-grey barred with white; vent and under tail-coverts buff; edge of wing white; remaining under wing-coverts and axillaries barred brown and white. Colours of soft parts.—Iris reddish-brown to red; bill yellow, orange at the base and darker, more greenish at the tip and along the culmen ; legs and feet bright olive-green. Measurements.—Length about 200 to 220 mm.; wing 112 to 119 mm. ; tail 47 to 52 mm.; tarsus about 33 to 35 mm. ; culmen 19 to 21 mm. Young birds are more brown below and have the white on the chin and throat more extensive. Nestling.—Down all black. Distributton.—EBurope and West Central Asia. In Winter it migrates into Northern Africa and into India. It is not uncommon in Northern India from Sind to Bengal. Both Coltart and I found it in Assam and it has been recorded as far east as Arrakan. To the south it has occurred in Belgaum, and Jerdon stated that it occurred almost all over India but it is probably an exceptional visitor south of Bengal or to the east of Bombay in Southern India. Niditication.—-The Spotted Crake is only a migrant to India and it does not breed within our limits. In Central Europe it breeds principally during May and early June, but in Finland eggs may be taken as late as the middle of July. The nest is the usual rail-like affair of coarse grass and rushes lined with finer grass, placed in amongst vegetation around the edges of swamps, at other times in a dry patch in a marshy field and, less often, away from water in amongst long grass or standing crops. The eggs generally num- ber 8-10 but frequently larger clutches are found, up to 15 having been recorded. The ground colour varies from greyish to greenish- buff and they are profusely marked all over with small spots and blotches of reddish-brown or purplish-brown with underlying spots of neutral tint and lavender grey. The eggs though quite galline in character can be separated at a glance from any of the other rails’ either resident in India or migratory. The average of 100 eggs is given by Witherby as 33°62 & 24:57 mm., maxima 37:5 XK 24:8 mm., 33:0°* 26°38 mm., 772777720 '29-1 23:0 and 32:0 > c2-2eimim. Hlabits.—-Generally speaking there is little to record about the Spotted Crake which is different from that of its nearest allies. It arrives in North India in early October, the first few birds coming in some ten days earlier and they leave again in March or April. Like all the family it is a confirmed skulker and one but seldom sees it except when out Snipe shooting with a good line of beaters. It runs well, and in spite of the long distances it has to migrate, it is neither a very fast nor a very powerful flier. Like all the rails it swims well. Its food is both insects, small mollusca and worms as well as all sorts of seeds and shoots of aquatic inland plants. ; THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 239 PORZANA PARVA The Little Crake Rallusparvuss scop: Ann. 1, “His, Nat., ‘p..108 (1769) (Karn- then). Porzana parva, Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 164. Vernacular Names.—None recorded. Description.—Male: Centre of crown and neck dark, slightly rufous- brown ; remainder of upper parts more olive-brown, darkest on the rump ; upper back, scapulars and innermost secondaries with broad black streaks and a few narrow white streaks, these latter also extending to the lower back, rump and upper tail-coverts ; wing- coverts light brown ; quills darker brown; supercilia, sides of head and neck, chin and throat and whole lower plumage rather dark ashy-grey, the extreme posterior acdomen, flanks and under tail- coverts banded brown and white; under wing-coverts and axillaries light slaty-brown. Colours of sott parts.—Iris red, brown in young birds; bill green, the base red in summer; legs and feet yellowish-green to dull pale slaty-green. Measurements.— Total length about 200 mm. ; wing 95to 106 mm. ; tail 50 to 60 mm. ; tarsus 90 to 31 mm.; culmen 18 to 20 mm. Female.—Supercilia and face paler grey; chin, throat and fore neck almost white becoming isabelline-buff on the rest of the lower parts, the vent and surrounding parts with under tail-coverts barred white and brown. Very young birds have the supercilia, face and whole lower plumage white, barred with blackish-brown. These bars gradually disappear and in a more advanced stage the young become replicas of the female with very pale, almost white underparts. Nestling.—AI\ black. Distribution.—-Throughout South and Central Europe and South- Western and Central Asia migrating in winter to Northern Africa and to India into Sind and Baluchistan ; Scully also obtained it in Gilgit. Niditication.—The Little Crake breeds throughout South and Central Europe as well as in Western Asia, probably as far East as Persia and Turkestan. The breeding season lasts from early May to the end of June though a few continue to breed as late as the middle of July. The nest differs in no way from that of the other rails, and like them is placed in any thick vegetation around lakes, swamps or the banks of streams. The eggs number from 6 to 12, generally 7 or 8. The ground colour is a pale ochre or buff brown, sometimes with a rather greenish tint, whilst the markings consist of numerous blotches and spots of darker brown scattered fairly numerously over the whole surface. There are also a few under- lying spots of neutral tint and in some eggs these are rather more numerous and make the general tone of the egg more dull and grey. The surface is smooth and generally glossless. The average of 100 eggs is 30°45 K 21°73 mm., maxima 30°5 K 23:0 mm., minima 28:0 & 19:0 mm. Habits.—The Little Crake must be a very rare visitor to any part of India, but it is such an inveterate little skulker that it is quite 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII possible that it is not so rare as its very scanty records would make it out to be, so that sportsmen shooting on the borders of Baluchistan and the North-Western Frontier Provinces anywhere in the vicinity of water, should be on the look-out forit. Like all rails, it will not rise until almost trodden on and then gets up with a soft whirr of wings and flies rapidly away for two or three hundred yards when it drops suddenly into cover. In flight it rather reminds one ofa quail but it has the usual littie rail habits of keeping its legs hang- ing down until it gets well on the wing. Apparently this bird is almost entirely insectivorous in its diet and it appears to be especi- ally fond of coleoptera and aquatic insects and in search of its diet it keeps almost exclusively to swamps and marshes, very seldom being found in dry grass or crops away from water. PORZANA PUSILLA PUSILLA The Eastern Baillon’s Crake Rallus pusiilus; Pallt,, (Reis; Russ.) Weich.4. 211, Vp. \A00m Clie) (Dauria). Porzana pusilla, Blanf. and Oates, iii, p. 165. Vernacular Names.—J/hiliz (Nepal). Description.—Upper plumage rufous-brown, the feathers streak- ed with black, the streaks on the hind neck inconspicuous and the wing-coverts without any ; scapulars, back, rump, upper tail-coverts and inner wing-coverts curiously streaked or marked with white as | if smeared with white paint; quills brown, the first primary conspi- cuously edged with white; lores next the eye and a small streak behind it rufous brown; supercilium, sides of head and neck, breast and anterior abdomen grey sometimes tinged ashy: posterior abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts barred brown and white. Colours of soft parts.—lIris red in adults, red-brown in younger birds and dull blue-brown in nestlings; bill horny-green to green, the culmen and tip darker; Jegs and feet yellowish-green to dull green, claws horny-brown. Measurements.—T otal length about 200 mm. or less; being 84 to 91 mm.; tail 40 to 46mm.; tarsus 27 to 28 mm.; culmen 14 to 16 mm. | Young birds have the underparts almost white, the sides of the neck, breast and flanks suffused with pale ruddy-brown ; the brown eye streak is broader. Nestling.—All black, a greenish tinge to the tips of the down. Distribution.—Ceylon, all India, Burma and the Andamans ; as far West as Afghanistan and East te the Indo-Chinese countries and all China. It occurs through the Malayan Archipelago to the Philippines. Niditication.—Baillon’s Crake breeds in Kashmir in all the larger swamps and lakes, and Osmaston, Betham and others have taken many of their nests. Osmaston found it breeding almost entirely in and round the lakes and swamps, the nests, made of grass and weeds, lined with dry grass, being well hidden amongst thick cover either of reeds or of grass and weeds. In some cases the nest is built amongst reeds actually standing in the water, the bottom of THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 241 the nest resting on debris or on some of the broken reeds. They are very difficult to find for the bird sneaks away as arule before one has a chance of spotting her or, if seen, it is not until she has got some yards away from her home. The eggs number 5 to 8 and differ from those of the Little Crake in being much darker and more richly coloured and also in the surface of the shells being much more glossy. In the plains this Crake often breeds in rice fields as well as in swamps and lakes, whilst Butler took one nest built ina small clump of bullrushes in a bank three or four feet above the level of the water, a very unusual position for a crake’s nest. ‘The breed- ing season in Kashmir is from the end of April to the middle of June but many birds continue to lay up to the middle of August, though possibly some of these may be second nests. Inthe plains, like all other water birds, they do not set about their domestic affairs until after the rains break in June. Habits.—Baillon’s Crake is a common bird in suitable localities practically all over India and Ceylon but itis very seldom seen except when out snipe shooting or perhaps when after quail or on bits of dry cultivation between swamps. Its flight is exactly the same as that of the Spotted Crake already described, but its flights seldom last longer than 100 yards or so and once down it is extreme- ly difficult ever to get a sight of it again. They are very fragile little birds and fall easily to very small shot at great distances but of course are quite unworthy of being shot and practically unfit to eat when they have been brought to bag. As arule these birds are found singly, occasionally in pairs and, being resident in India, they do not congregate in small parties as most crakes do on their first arrival and prior to their departure from India. At the same time itis quite possible that a large percentage of our Indian birds do not breed in India or, if they do, they wander up from the plains into the swamps and lakes of the Himalayas for the purpose of nesting. Their diet is both vegetarian and insectivorous and they feed large- ly on tiny shoots and seeds of aquatic plants. One shot by myself had its stomach full of grasshoppers, these ranging in size from the smallest to others more than half an inch long. Mixed with these were a lot of tiny white roots, probably of a water plant, and one or two small land shells. Another bird seemed to have fed princi- pally on very small black round seeds, but what these were I have no idea. They are very quick runners and moving amongst the grass from one place to another it is often very difficult to convince oneself as to which quarter their call is coming from. The call itself is distinctly crake-like, rather high pitched, it starts with a single loud ‘Crake’ and then after a pause another and yet another in quick succession until the last few notes seem to run into one. CREX CREX The Corncrake or Land Rati. avuss\crex,) Lint, yet. “Nats: lOth: eds, 1,7 p. 153-1758) (Sweden). Crex pratensis, Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 163. Vernacular Names.—None recorded. 942 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII Description.—The feathers of the crown, hind neck, back and scapulars to tail with blackish centres and ashy margins, the two colours linked by chestnut brown; upper and under wing-coverts and axillaries chestnut ; primaries, secondaries and primary coverts rufous-brown edged and tipped lighter; supercilium, lores, cheeks, chin, throat and breast ashy-grey, the chin and throat almost white and a darker brown line through the eye to the neck; flanks and sides of abdomen rufescent-white with rufous-brown cross bars; centre of abdomen almost white and unbarred. In summer the supercilium, sides of the head, neck and breast are browner and less grey. Colours of sott parts.—Iris hazel to red-brown; bill pale horny- brown, a little darker on the terminal portion of the culmen; legs and feet pale brown or fleshy-brown. Measurements.—3% wing 135 to 150 mm.; tail 40 to 50 mm.; tarsus 34 to 43 mm.; bill 20 to 23mm.; & wing 130 to 145 mm.; culmen 19 to 23 mm. (Witherby). Young birds have the wing-coverts barred with white. Nestling.—Black, the tips of the down in the upper parts dark buff. Distribution.—Practically the whole of Europe and West and Central Asia. In winter it migrates to North Africa and a speci- men was obtained by Scully at Gilgit. Nidification.—The nidification of this bird is almost too well known to require description. It of course never breeds within our Indian area but it is still comparatively common in many parts of Great Britain. The eggs number anything from six to fourteen whilst clutches of eggs of eighteen have been recorded. The ground colour varies from a yellowish-or greenish-stone colour to light reddish whilst the spots consist of primary blotches of rather dark reddish-brown with others underlying them of neutral tint and grey. Witherby gives the average of 100 eggs as 37:26 & 26°75 mm., maxima 41°6 XK 25:9 and 38°3 K 29:0 mm., minima 34:0 X 25:0 and 34°3 &K 24:1 mm. The breeding season is principally during June but eggs are occasionally taken both in May and in July. The nests of the Land Rail are almost invariably placed in fields of grass and are often destroyed when these are cut for hay. Occasionally they will be found in nettle beds or masses of weeds alongside hedges, but such sites are exceptional. Habits.—This rail is a migratory bird and the only really authentic instance of its occurrence within our limits is that of a specimen obtained by Scully in Gilgit. It is one of the most confirmed skulkers imaginable and even with dogs is extremely hard to put up, so that though one may hear its loud harsh crake sounding on all sides, one may hunt long and hard without successfully obtain- ing a sight of the birds uttering them. Its food is almost entirely insectivorous, but it occasionally eats seeds and will also eat any caterpillars, larvee or earth-worms it may come across whilst hunt- ing for food. Small grasshoppers form a very favourite article of diet. THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 243 HvYPOTANIDIA STRIATA The Blue-breasted Banded Rail There are three well marked forms of this rail; the typical form from the Philippines and Borneo, a small dark bird with a moderate sized bill, which is A. s. stviata; a large dark race with a large bill from the Andamans, 4. s. obscuriora and, thirdly, a paler form first described by Horsfield from Java which is found all over India, Burma, Malay Peninsula to Java and East into South China and Formosa. The titles and first references to these birds are as follows :— (1) HyporTa:NIDIA STRIATA STRIATA The Philippine Blue-breasted Banded Rail Rallus ‘striatus; Lann.; syst. Nat., 12th ed., 1, p. 262. (Phi- lippines). (2) HyPOTANIDIA STRIATA OBSCURIORA The Andaman Blue-breasted Banded Rail Hypotentdia obscuriora, Hume, Str. Feath., ii, p. 302 (1874) (Andamans). (3) HYPOTANIDIA STRIATA GULARIS The Indian Blue-breasted Banded Rail Rallus gularis.—Horsf., Trans., Lin. Soc., xiii, p. 196 (1821) (Java). Vernacular Names.—Kana kolit (Tam.); Wadi-kolt (Tel.); Yay- gyet (Burm.). Description.—Malée: Crown to hind neck rufous ; upper parts dark- brown marked with wavy white bars, broken into spots on the lower back and primaries, and each feather edged with olive-brown, much abraded in worn plumage; chin and throat white; sides of the head, foreneck and breast ashy-grey ; abdomen flanks, under tail- coverts, axillaries and under tail-coverts dark brown barred with . white. Colours of sott parts.—Irides light brown in younger birds to Indian red in old adult breeding birds, upper and tip of lower mandible horny-brown to dark brown, lower mandible and com- missure dull yellowish-red to bright red; legs and feet olive-grey, olive or fleshy-grey. Measurements.—H., s. striata, wing 100 to 118 mm.; tail 38 to 41 mm.; tarsus 34 to 39 mm. ; culmen 31 to 36 mm. #4. s. gularis, wing 108 to 131 mm. JZ. s. obscuriova, wing 129 to 134mm. Females are a trifle duller, the chestnut of the head more inclined to be streaked with blackish and the abdomen paler, more whitish. Young birds have the feathers of the back streaked with dark brown and the white bars and spots obsolete or absent; the crown and neck are rufous brown freely streaked with dark brown. Distribution.—The Indian form is found practically throughout Ceylon, India and Burma in suitable localities where there are sufficient marshes and swamps and it extends, as already noted, to South China and Formosa. The Andaman form is restricted to 244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII the Andamans and Nicobars whilst the Philippine bird is also found in Borneo and the Celebes. Nidtfication.—This Rail commences to breed as soon as the rains are fairly set in and the various swamps and jheels which it inhabits have begun to fill up. Over the greater part of India and Burma, August and September are the principal months during which eggs are laid, but I have found them as late as the end of October and also in the last week of June. The nest is generally a well-built one, a mass of weeds and rushes and, although that part of the material at the bottom of the nest may be decayed and wet, the upper layers seem to be always warm and dry. It may measure anything from five to seven inches in diameter whilst the depth varies according to the site. If built on dry ground, it will probably be only two or three inches deep but if on wet ground or in amongst rushes and plants in the water, I have seen them as much as a foot in depth. As a rule it is built either well in the swamps where there are plenty of weeds and vegetation or amongst the reeds, grass or bushes on the edge. Occasionally, however, it is built some distance from water but always amongst thick vegetation and well hidden. A pair of these birds built every year in a dry ditch running alongside the bungalow of-the Police Officer at Jalpaiguri in Bengal, laying each year five or six eggs from which one or two chicks at the outside ever reached maturity. Unless the eggs are hard set the bird is not a close sitter but sneaks quietly off the nest whilst intruders are still at some distance. The number of eggs laid varies from five to eight, but six seems to be the normal full clutch. They are decidedly handsome eggs, the ground colour varies from almost pure white with just a faint tinge of cream or yellowish-stone to a warm salmon buff. The markings consist of reddish or purplish blotches and spots scattered rather sparsely over the whole surface of the egg but rather more numerous at the iarger end though they seldom tend to form either a ring or cap. Some eggs have the markings feebler and paler consisting more of freckles and small longitudinal blotches of light red plentifully scattered all over the egg. In shape the eggs are generally rather broad ovals occasionally somewhat longer and rather pointed at the smaller end. The texture is strong, smooth and close and some few eggs have quite a fair gloss. Incubation is said to take from nineteen to twenty-two days but I have no personal ex- perience about this. The nesting of the Andaman form differs in no way from that of the common Indian bird. It is extremely plentiful in several of the islands and Mr. B. B. Osmaston during his stay in the Andamans took a wonderful series of their eggs. These are decidedly | handsomer on an average than the eggs of its Indian cousin. Many eggs are a most beautiful salmon-pink in ground colour, others of light brick-red and others again are of pinkish-buff. The markings also are rather bolder and richer in tint, whilst eggs of the profusely but feebly marked type seem to be very exceptional. 200 eggs of the Indian bird average 33:7 & 25:8 mm.; maxima 36°6 X 286 and 36:3 XK 28:8 mm.; minima 30°6 K 25:0 and 33°9 x 23:9mm,; 150 of the Andamans eggs average 36:0 K 27:5 mm., THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 245 maxima 39:2 X% 28:7 mm., 37:0 K 29:4 mm., minima 32:7 K 25°0 mm. Habits.—The Blue-breasted Banded Rail is one of the most familiar water birds over the whole of the Oriental region and there is hardly a village pond which does not contain a pair of these birds. In such places they become extremely tame and familiar and even on the larger swamps and lakes they seem to be aware that they are of no use as food and that consequently nobody cares to shoot or trap them. They are of course adepts at swimming and are quite capable of diving, but seem very seldom to resort to it. They are excellent walkers and may very often be seen, especially in the early mornings and evenings, wandering about the edges of swamps and even in the fields some distance therefrom. They progress with rather long deliberate steps, bobbing their heads and jerking their tails up as each foot advances. When undisturbed their carriage is very upright, their tail being held almost at right angles to the body, but if disturbed, they at once slink off, crouching low down amongst the grass or, if there is no cover, scuttle rapidly along for a few paces and then take to flight. Their flight is poor and laboured and they never seem to care to travel far at a time. They feed both on small water snails, insects, etc., as well as on seeds and shoots but |! think their diet is mainly insectivorous. When searching for water insects or those which are found on floating vegetation, it moves about very nimbly upon the latter, constantly picking here and there as it goes. In the stomach of one bird I examined which was shot in Mymensingh on the banks of one of the big tidal rivers, I found a mass of tiny scarlet crabs, measur- ing barely 4” across the carapace. I have also found worms, beetles and grubs in their stomachs. The only notes I have heard uttered are a short jerking scream, not however very loud, and a deep low note probably uttered only by the male and quite inaudible to the human ear at a very short distance. They are pugnacious birds and I have often seen the males fighting during the breeding season, but the fights never seem to be long sustained and no damage ever appears to be the result. Their methods of courtship seem to be much the same as that of other rails. The male approaches the female with wings held low and vibrating constantly whilst the head, instead of being held upright as at ordinary times, is held compara- tively near the ground and the tail very erect as usual. When within a few inches of the female, the cock draws itself up to its full height, spreads the wings still more and then crouches again, after which the performance ceases, perhaps to be gone through again in a few seconds. _ They are resident birds wherever found though local movements may occur in times of excessive drought or of excessive rainfall. (Zo be continued) THE POTTER WASP BY Major R. W. G. HINGSTON, I.M.S. Part II (Continued from p. 110 of this volume.) EXPERIMENTS I now pass to a series of experiments. They have been made with the usual purpose of investigating the psychology of the wasp. I remind the reader of the architectural sequence as detailed in the last paper. It consists of four stages: First, a cell is built of clay; second, the cell is coated with gum; third, the cell is stuffed with caterpillars; fourth, the cell is closed with a lid. Our experiments may be divided into two classes—(1) experiments relating to instinct, (2) experiments to prove intelligence. It is the old question. Is the wasp moved by instinct only, or can she view a problem. intelligently; in other words, must her actions follow a strict routine, or can she alter her mode of behaviour in order to meet some particular need? Let us see what the experiments disclose. EXPERIMENTS RELATING TO INSTINCT Experiment 1.—I find a nest of four cells. The fourth cell was finished two days ago. Since then no more work has been done. I cut away this last-built cell, excise it completely, and, of course, leave a deep gap in the nest. I watch to see what the potter will do. On the next day she discovers the damage, and sets about building her fifth cell in the place from where I had excised her fourth. So much for the first experiment. There is nothing very particular about it. It is a plain manifestation of instinct. For the wasp had recently finished a cell. Her next operation in the ordinary routine would be the commencement of the fifth in the series. Therefore when she builds in the gap that I had made, she is only doing in a different place what she would otherwise do elsewhere. Experiment 2.—I wait till she has finished this fifth cell. When the lid has been secured I excise the chamber. That is, I open up the gap a second time. The wasp sets to work, and builds her sixth cell in the gap. I cut away the sixth cell, thus opening the gap for the third time. The wasp now does not seem so eager. She waits for seventeen days before rebuilding, then constructs her seventh cell so as to fill the empty gap. In all this we again see plain instinct. The wasp is following ordinary routine, But it THE POTTER WASP 247 shows us how persistent instinct is, and how stubbornly the architect sticks to her work. Experiment 3.—Let us proceed. A wasp is building the cell wall. While the wall is undergoing construction I cut a strip of mud out of the edge. The deficiency is filled up without much trouble. When the wasp comes with her next pellet she just rolls in into the gap. This again is mere instinct, for when I remove the strip the wasp is engaged at building, the continuation of the act of building will of itself fill up the gap. Experiment 4.—When the wasp is building her wall I cut a V- shaped piece from the middle of the edge. The damage is greater than in the previous experiment. The wasp, on returning, seems a little perturbed. She uses her pellet to fill the V. This we might expect. It is in accordance with the course of instinct. But the point of interest was that she did not thus employ the whole of her pellet. Her ordinary behaviour is to roll her pellet; that is her way of spreading it on the wall. In this experiment she puts part of her pellet in the V, and the remainder she rolls in the usual way. Thus the one pellet fulfils two purposes. One part repairs the gap; the other part increases the height of the wall. Again I see nothing in this but instinct, or at most just a trivial deviation from the course of ordinary routine. Experiment 5.—A cell is built. It is being stuffed with cater- pillars. While the wasp is away in search for a caterpillar I cut a wedge from one side of the gate. The wasp brings her cater- pillar, stuffs it in, and returns again and again with more. But she never notices the broken gate. Yet the breach is large and the damage inconveniences her. For she now cannot fill her cell completely owing to the caterpillars falling out through the breach. Nevertheless she takes no notice, nor makes any attempt at repair. Nothing is done till provisioning is finished. Then she fills up the wedge-shaped deficiency when the time comes to close the lid. Blind instinct, we may say, is the moving impulse. The wasp is provisioning, collecting caterpillars. This is not her time for masonry, hence she cannot repair the gate. Such might be the conclusion were our experiments to cease here. Experiment 6.—Here is more convincing testimony. Not only does it show the blindness of instinct, but the futility to which it leads. A cell is about half-built. The mason is busy at work. During her absence I fix to the edge of her wall a tiny pellet of mud. The nodule is no bigger than a pin’s head, and I place it on the edge just at the point where the mason begins to roll her clay. The wasp returns. The strange excrescence strikes her immediately. She has been accustomed to an even edge. Here is something quite out of her experience; she has never met with anything like this before. What will she do? I expect to see her grip it and throw it to the ground. But this does not happen. She becomes agitated, first thoroughly examines the nodule, then withdraws into the cell and seems disinclined to build. Clearly she is very concerned at the unexpected state of affairs. But the nodule remains; she makes no effort to cut it away. Then she does 248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.\XXXI1 something quite peculiar. She climbs out on one of her completed cells, tears from it a particle of gum which she smears on her half-constructed wall. Now this is very unusual behaviour. I have described how Rhynchium builds first her masonry, then applies the layer of gum. That is her ordinary sequence. Yet here, because of my nodule, she smears gum over a cell that is only half built. She fetches more gum, brings piece after piece, works with extraordinary energy, smearing as she never smeared before. This strange occupation keeps her busy till nightfall. By then the wall, though only half built, is thoroughly smeared and studded with gum. Her night is spent clinging to the nest. Next morning she takes up the task. The useless gum-smearing now ceases, and the work of building is resumed. Now for the interpretation. The wasp will not ordinarily com- mence smearing until the cell is completely built. Yet here, because of my nodule, she begins to smear feverishly a cell that is only half-built. Is not this a fruitless mode of behaviour? What purpose can it have in view? I regard it as misguided instinct. Its meaning is as follows. The application of gum is a protective instinct, a device to keep parasites out of the cell. The wasp, when she finds the strange nodule, feels immediately on guard. To her it indicates intrusion. An enemy has been here. Her natural instinct of protection is aroused. This consists in collect- ing gum and spreading it on a cell. The instinct is most valuable, no doubt essential, when employed at the correct time. But here it is called forth by a strange experience introduced at an unexpected time. Hence the futility. The wasp is involved in many hours of utterly fruitless toil. Experiment 7.—One last experiment, another display of blind instinctive force.