: ■ APRIL 2003 BOARD OF EDITORS Editor J.C. DANIEL M.R. ALMEIDA M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN B.F. CHHAPGAR R. GADAGKAR INDRANEIL DAS A.J.T. JOHNSINGH AJITH KUMAR T.C. NARENDRAN A.R. RAHMANI J.S. SINGH R. WHITAKER Assistant Editor GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS 1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere should not be submitted. 2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using MS Word. 3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. 4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. 5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus: Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66. Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, pp. 35-48. 6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words, and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names of important species discussed. 7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles and new descriptions. Authors of miscellaneous notes, will be sent a free copy of the Journal. 8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. 9. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent refer to Buceros\/ ol. 6, No. 1 (2001). Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. Editors, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society VOLUME 100 (1): APRIL 2003 CONTENTS EDITORIAL : 1 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS IN ASSAM, INDIA ( With one text-figure and two plates) By Hillaljyoti Singha, Asad R. Rahmani, Malcolm C. Coulter and Salim laved 9 CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN, PLATANISTA GANGET1CA IN THE RTVERS KOSI AND SON, BIHAR, INDIA ( With one text-figure) By R.K. Sinha and Gopal Sharma 27 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE ALONG THE EASTERN BOUNDARY OF THE KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA (With two text-figures) By Punidan D. Jeyasingh and Priya Davidar 38 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIR1S, SOUTHERN INDIA: THEIR ECOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY By Kartik Shanker 46 THE EFFECTS OF CATTLE GRAZING AND HABITAT ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CHITAL (AXIS AXIS) IN THE MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, SOUTHERN INDIA By Guha Dharmarajan, M. Raman and Mathew C. John 58 DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE (MAC AC A SILENUS) IN AN UNDISTURBED RAINFOREST OF SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK, KERALA, INDIA ( With two text-figures) By Gigi K. Joseph and K.K. Ramachandran 65 NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW HUMAN BLOOD FEEDING BITING MIDGE FROM INDIA, DIPTERA: CERATOPOGONIDAE: FORCIPOMYIA MANASI (With three texU figures) By G Irish Maheshwari 72 A NEW SPECIES OF EUGENIA L., MYRTACEAE, FROM SEITHUR HILLS, TAMIL NADU, INDIA ( With one text-figure) By R. Gopalan and S.R. Srinivasan 78 SONERILA LONGIPETIOLATA MANICKAM ET AL A NEW SPECIES OF MELASTOMACEAE FROM TAMIL NADU, INDIA ( With one text-figure) By M.M. Josephine, V.S. Manickam, C. Murugan, V. Sundaresan and G.J. Jothi 81 A NEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE GENUS TIB ELL US SIMON (ARANEAE: THOMISIDAE) FROM JHENIDAH, BANGLADESH ( With six text-figures) By V. Biswas and D. Raychaudhuri 84 FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO BIOSYSTEMATICS OF CHEN OP ODIUM, REPORTING THREE NEW SPECIES FROM NORTH INDIAN PLAINS ( With three text-figures) By S.C. Pandeya and Amita Pandeya 87 OBITUARY PROF. M.S. MANI (1908-2003) REVIEWS 94 1 . BEAUTIFUL ORCHIDS OF NEPAL Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 96 2. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PLANT SCIENCE OF NEPAL Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 96 3. AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANTS — YIELDING ESSENTIAL OIL FOR PHARMACEUTICAL, PERFUMERY, COSMETIC INDUSTRIES AND TRADE Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 96 4. RAPTOR WATCH: A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF RAPTOR MIGRATION SITES Reviewed by Rishad Naoroji 98 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. The Harvard collection of South Asian mammals By Kristofer M. Helgen, John Mathew and Christine A. Monta 100 BIRDS 2. Little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis\ An addition to the avifauna of Ladakh By Harkirat Singh Sangha, Rishad Naoroji and Maan Barua 104 3. Sighting of lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel Gray in the Kole Wetlands of Thrissur, Kerala By E.A. Jayson and C. Sivaperuman 106 4. Indian pond-herons Ardeola gray 'd feeding on dragonflies By V. Santharam 108 5. Variation recorded in the iris, bill, leg and foot colouration in cattle egret Bubulcus ibis By Tushar M. Sanghani 109 6. Record of a nesting colony of painted stork Mycteria leucocephala at Man-Marodi Island in the Gulf of Kutch By Abdul Jamil Urfi 109 7. First sighting of lesser adjutant-stork Leptoptilos javanicus from Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai By Anish Andheria 1 1 1 8 . Black ibis Pseudibis papillosa feeding on frogs from crab holes By J. Mangalraj Johnson Ill 9. Note on breeding of Andaman teal Anas gibberifrons in south Andaman Islands, India By Sarang Kulkami and Manish Chandi 112 10. Some observations on nesting of Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot) By Deepali Kulkarni and Banda Pednekar .... 113 11. Status of white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra By Vishwas Katdare and Ram Mone 1 13 12. Cannibalism in Indian white-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan By Gargi Rana and Vibhu Prakash 116 13. Wintering site fidelity in western marsh-harrier Circus aeruginosus (Linn.), in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan By Ashok Verma 1 1 7 14. Southernmost record of eastern calandra-lark Melanocorypha bimaculata and sighting of lesser kestrel Falco naumanni from Matheran, a hill station near Mumbai By Anish Andheria 118 15. Unusual feeding association between Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus and wild boar Sus scrofa in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan By Gargi Rana and Vibhu Prakash 120 16. Common coot Fulica atra from Kyongnosla in East Sikkim By Usha Ganguli-Lachungpa and Bishnu Lai Sharma 121 u 17. Sighting of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica in Gir interpretation zone, Devaliya, Gir Sanctuary By B.P. Pati 1 8. Grey-headed lapwings Vanellus cinereus seen around Machilipatnam, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, India By Colin Conroy 19. The grey-headed lapwing in Tamil Nadu - A rejoinder By V. Santharam 20. A sight record of buff-breasted sandpiper Tryngites suhruficollis in Goa By Paul I. Holt and Rick Heil 21. Group fishing of house crows ( Corvus splendens) with river terns ( Sterna aurantia) By Sattyasheel N. Naik 22. Terns of the Vengurla Rocks, a review and update By Heinz Lainer 23. Range extension of Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria in Gujarat By Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad and B.M. Parasharya 24. Mimicry of a crow chick by an Asian koel Eudynamys scolopacea as a defence against attack by house crows Corvus splendens By Colin Ryall 25. Buffy fish-owl ( Ketupa ketupu) in Sundarbans, Bangladesh By Gertrud Neumann-Denzau and Helmut Denzau 26. A note on the circumorbital skin colour of Indian grey hornbill Ocyceros birostris By Aasheesh Pittie 27. Sighting of Malabar pied hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai By Anish Andheria, Supriya Jhunjhunwala and Paritosh Khanvilkar 28. Nocturnal feeding by white-bellied drongo Dicrurus caerulescens By Satish Kumar Sharma 29. Total albinism in large grey babbler Turdoides malcolmi By Satish Kumar Sharma 30. Yellow-rumped flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia in Kerala By Paul I. Holt 31. Breeding records of the Asian brown flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica in southern India By V. Santharam 32. Crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparcija seheriae in Madhya Pradesh By E.P. Eric D’Cunha 147 33. Incubation period of crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja By Vishwas Katdare, Rohan Lovalekar and Ameya Modak 148 34. The Spanish sparrow Passer hispaniolensis found nesting in Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan By Manoj Kulshreshtha and Harkirat Singh Sangha 149 35. Termite removal from nest material and repair of damaged nest by white-rumped munia Lonchura striata By R. Shyama Prasad Rao 151 36. Birds of Goa — Some supplementary notes By V. Santharam 151 37. Birds of Tabo: A lesser known cold desert in the western Himalaya By Arun P. Singh 152 OTHER INVERTEBRATES 38. Occurrence of Triops granarius (Lucas), Crustacea: Notostraca, from Madurai, Tamil Nadu By C.S. Velu and N. Munuswamy 154 39. Occurrence of rare jumping spider Harmochirus brachiatus (Thorell) (Family: Salticidae) in the banana agro-ecosystem of Vadodara, Gujarat By Siliwal Manju and Dolly Kumar 157 40. Description of female Amyciaea forticeps (Cambridge), Araneae: Thomisidae, with a redescription of its male from Kerala, India By K. Sunil Jose, Samson Davis, A.V. Sudhikumar and P.A. Sebastian 157 41. Rare sighting of ogre-faced spider Dinopis goalparaensis , Araneae: Dinopidae, in the banana agro-ecosystem of Vadodara, Gujarat By Siliwal Manju and Dolly Kumar 160 BOTANY 42. Observations on Bauhinia malabarica Roxb, Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae. shape of calyx is not correlated with sexual nature of flowers By S. Bandyopadhyay 161 43. Rediscovery of Ceropegia evansii McCann, Asclepiadaceae, from Maharashtra By P. Tetali, Sujata Tetali, P. Lakshminarasimhan, P.V. Prasanna and B.G. Kulkarni 162 122 122 123 123 126 126 135 136 138 141 142 144 144 145 146 Cover Photograph: Waterfall by Varad Giri ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. CITATION OF I C/EC NUMBERS FOR GENETIC MATERIALS It is brought to our notice by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012, India, that authors writing papers on particular plant materials (genetic materials) should indicate IC numbers for Indigenous Collections and EC numbers for Exotic Collections. Authors can directly procure these single accession numbers for each genetic material from NBPGR. In the present Intellectual Property Rights regime, it is in our national interest that all the germplasm material possess a single national accession number. Authors are therefore requested to procure IC/EC numbers from NBPGR and state them on the manuscript, without which papers will not be accepted for publication. Editors Editorial A Web of Rivers The idea of linking the rivers of India to provide water security to a region dependent on the vagaries of the monsoon has so far been a dormant pipe dream. Beset by legal and political problems over the waters of the Cauvery river, the highest judicial and administrative authorities of the country seem to have clutched at a nebulous last straw, a project to link the rivers of the country, as a palliative to a persistent problem. In a memorandum to the Prime Minister, signed by 58 concerned conservationists, including three retired bureaucrats who had been involved in the administration of the water resources and environment of the country as Secretaries to the Govt of India, state : “The idea of the ‘linking of rivers’, dormant for a long time, has acquired new prominence now, particularly in the context of the acute form that the Cauvery dispute took in the course of the year 2002, as well as the drought that afflicted several parts of the country in that year. In response to a public interest writ petition, the Supreme Court has desired that the project for the linking of the rivers of India be accelerated. The Prime Minister has announced the setting up of a task force to consider the modalities of implementing the project, and declared that it would be taken up “on a war footing”. The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha has welcomed this undertaking. The project has been the subject of much reporting and comment in the media in recent months. It has been presented by the Government as a major initiative and the definitive answer to the future water problems of the country, and it has been so hailed by some. However, some others have expressed apprehensions. We, the signatories to this memorandum, feel that this decision is fraught with serious consequences, and that the Government should carefully reconsider it before proceeding further. Without commenting on the Supreme Court’s observations in this case, we shall set forth our reasons for urging a reconsideration of the decision by the Government. Outline of Proposal Our understanding of the project, derived partly from the Report (September 1999) of the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP) and partly from presentations currently being made by governmental agencies, is briefly outlined here for confirmation or correction. Without going into the history of the idea of the linking of rivers of India, we note that the ‘Ganga-Cauvery Link’ proposal mooted by Dr. K.L. Rao and the ‘Garland Canal’ idea put forward by Captain Dinshaw Dastur were examined and found impractical, the former on the grounds of the very large financial and energy costs involved, and the latter because it was technically unsound; and that the proposal now taken up is based on the work that the National Water Development Agency has been doing during the last two decades after its establishment in 1982 in pursuance of the ‘National Water Perspectives’ brought out by the Ministry of Irrigation in 1980. There are two main components in it, namely the Himalayan Rivers component and the Peninsular Rivers component. The Himalayan component envisages a number of links, including some within the Ganga system (Kosi-Ghagra, Gandak- Ganga, Ghagra- Yamuna Sarda- Yamuna, etc); some between neighbouring rivers in the Brahmaputra system (Manas-Sankosh-Teesta); a couple between those two systems (Teesta- Ganga, and an alternative Brahmaputra-Ganga link); one long link from Sarda to Sabarmati through the Yamuna and Rajasthan; one from the Ganga to Subamarekha via Damodar and then on to Mahanadi; and a few others. The general idea is to transfer waters from ‘surplus’ eastern rivers to ‘deficit’ central, western and southern regions. The Peninsular Rivers component again involves a number of links, of which the most important would be those connecting Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Cauvery. The idea is to transfer the surpluses estimated to exist in the Mahanadi and the Godavari to the deficit southern basins (Cauvery, Vaigai). Other links in the Peninsular component would include Ken-Betwa, Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal, Par-Tapi-Narmada, Damanganga-Pinjal, etc. Another idea is the partial diversion of certain rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea eastwards to link with rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal (Bedti - Varda, Netravati-Hemavati, Pamba - Achankovil - Vaippar). Mandate of the Task Force We note that the Task Force has been asked to examine not the soundness or viability of this project but the modalities of its implementation. Three main difficulties have been recognized: the formidable challenge presented by the accelerated time-frame indicated by the Supreme Court; the magnitude of the financial resources needed (roughly and tentatively estimated at Rs. 5,60,000 crores); and the problem of bringing about the necessary political consensus on the transfers involved. The Task Force appears to be concentrating on these three tasks at present. However, there are some prior questions that need to be asked: Why has this project been proposed? How did it emerge? How does it fit in with the national planning process? Is it necessary and feasible, and is it likely to be beneficial on the whole? As these questions seem beyond the mandate of the Task Force, we propose to raise them here. Sudden Emergence The project appears to have suddenly emerged into prominence. If the Government had been contemplating a monumental project of this kind, there would have been some indications. There were none. The Ninth Plan made no reference to it. Even the Tenth Plan (which lays special emphasis on water and wishes to be regarded as a ‘Water Plan’) refers to many important approaches, policies, programmatic initiatives, and so on, but says nothing about any river-linking project. The Prime Minister’s important Address to the National Water Resources Council ( 1 April 2002) did not mention it. It seems clear that the Government were not seriously thinking of any river-linking project. The NWDA’s proposals were non- starters for various reasons. The Government’s own initial submissions to the Supreme Court were very cautious and lukewarm. The Supreme Court’s direction (if its observations can be so regarded) and the Government’s enthusiastic response to it have changed all that. A project that was not on the anvil has suddenly become the most important undertaking of the Government. This seems to us to be a bypassing of the planning process. 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 National Commission’s Observations Not very long ago the high-level National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP), the first national commission on water, set up in 1996, submitted its Report (September 1999). Its Terms of Reference specifically included ‘Inter- Basin Transfers’ as an item. It reviewed the NWDA’s studies. It did not discuss the proposed Himalayan links in detail because the data are classified as confidential, but did observe that the costs involved and the environmental problems would be enormous; that the further expansion of irrigation in the desert areas of Rajasthan would need examination from all angles; that the NWDA’s Himalayan component would require more detailed study; and that the actual implementation was unlikely to be undertaken in the immediate coming decades. On the Peninsular component, after a careful examination of the water balances of the various basins, the Commission observed: “Thus there seems to be no imperative necessity for massive water transfers. The assessed needs of the basins could be met from full development and efficient utilization of intra-basin resources except in the case of Cauvery and Vaigai basins. Therefore, it is felt that limited water transfer from Godavari at Ichampalli and Polavaram towards the south would take care of the deficit in Cauvery and Vaigai basins... Though surplus is available in Mahanadi also, the transfer from that river would require much longer link and is in any case not required for the immediate future....” (The Commission then takes note of some uncertainties that may affect the above judgment and says that further studies as to the future possibilities of inter-basin transfers need to be continued.) The decision to embark on this massive project “on a war footing” seems difficult to understand in the light of those observations of the National Commission. Rationale of Project However, there is now a project, and we must consider its rationale. The project is claimed to be the answer to the country’s problems of recurring floods and drought in different areas; the generation of hydroelectric power is also put forward as a justification. Neither flood control nor hydroelectric power calls for a linking of rivers. In the case of hydroelectric power, the usual practice is to postulate a ‘potential’ in some rivers or areas (for instance, Narmada, Brahmaputra, the Northeast of India, Nepal) and propose large projects (Sardar Sarovar, Dihang, Subansiri, Tipaimukh, Karnali, Pancheswar, and so on) to exploit that potential. Each such project will have to be looked at carefully, but what needs to be noted in the present context is that while the need for hydroelectric power may lead to the formulation of particular projects in specific locations, it would not by itself take us to the idea of linking rivers. (Incidentally, the linking of rivers or inter-basin transfers would in the generality of cases require much energy - normally in excess of what the project might generate - but in this case we are told that the project will be a net generator of large quantities of power: a figure of 30,000 MW has been mentioned. That strains our credulity and will need careful examination with reference to each link.) Similarly, the problem of recurring floods in certain rivers or areas may lead (rightly or wrongly) to the formulation of specific projects with flood control as one of the objectives (or a primary objective) — for instance, the DVC projects, a high dam on the Kosi, and so on — and will not by itself call for a linking of rivers. It must also be noted that opinion on JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 3 flood control has changed over the years. It is now generally recognized that big dams play only a modest role in flood-moderation; that even in those projects (not many) where flood cushions have been built in, that cushion tends to get eaten into partly by excessive silting and partly by the more powerful demands of irrigation and power generation; that considerations of the safety of structures sometimes necessitate the release of waters causing ‘man-made’ floods downstream; that by and large, the old notion of ‘flood control’ has to change to the newer ideas of learning to live with floods and minimizing damage; and that this requires a relatively greater reliance on non-structural than on structural measures. By now, this has almost become conventional wisdom. Even if all the river-linking proposals are implemented, the contribution that this will make to the mitigation of the flood problem will not be substantial. Dr. Bharat Singh, a doyen among engineers and the former Vice- Chancellor of the Rourkee University, has observed: “Any water resources engineer will immediately discard inter-linking of rivers as a flood control measure”. As regards drought, we have the answers already. Rajendra Singh has shown in Alwar District in Rajasthan that rainwater-harvesting can be practised successfully even in low- rainfall areas. Earlier, Anna Hazare had brought about a transformation through water- harvesting (along with other measures) in Ralegan Siddhi (which is also a low-rainfall area). The Madhya Pradesh Government has initiated large Statewide programmes of water- harvesting and conservation. In the water-scarce parts of Gujarat, some good NGOs have remarkable achievements in this regard to their credit. Dhan Foundation has been doing good work in the southern States. The large numbers of tanks in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh were remarkable water-management systems that have gone into decline, and efforts are on to restore and rehabilitate them. Similar efforts are also needed, and are in progress, in respect of other traditional systems such as ahars and pynes in Bihar, johads in Rajasthan, and so on. In brief, the primary answer to drought has to be local; it is only thereafter, and in some very unpromising places, that the bringing in of some external water may need to be considered. Besides, the river-linking project, if implemented, will take water only to a small part of the arid or drought-prone areas; large parts of such areas will remain unserved and will have to meet their needs through the local augmentation of water availability. It was in recognition of the importance of such local, community-led initiatives of rainwater- harvesting and watershed-development that the Prime Minister strongly urged the promotion of such initiatives on a nationwide basis in his Address to the National Water Resources Council on 1 April 2002. (Incidentally, the project as now outlined essentially envisages the addition of waters to certain existing rivers. The additional waters will thus go to areas that are already being served to some extent by that river or by a canal from a reservoir on that river. How will this benefit the uplands and plateaux that are unserved by the existing rivers or are drastically water-short? A glance at the two maps showing the proposed links does not provide a clear answer to this question. However, it is being claimed that irrigation will be extended to additional areas. This may well be true in the sense that areas unreached earlier in the vicinity of a river or within the command area of a project may now receive some irrigation, but will the waters reach the country’s drylands?) 4 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 A further point to be kept in mind is that it is not primarily drinking water needs but the large demands of irrigation that lead to proposals for long-distance water transfers, though the waters so transferred may also be used to meet drinking water requirements. Water transfers for irrigation may be proposed either for providing additional water to areas already under irrigation or for extending irrigation to arid or ‘rainfed’ areas. In both cases, difficult questions arise. In irrigated areas (for instance, the Cauvery basin), the question is whether large demands for additional irrigation water should be unquestioningly accepted and met through supply-side solutions such as large dams or inter-basin transfers, or a serious attempt made to improve water-use efficiency in irrigated agriculture, get more value out of a given quantum of water, reduce the water-demand, and minimize the need for supply-side projects. In the context of the prevailing low efficiency of water-conveyance in canal systems and water-use in irrigated agriculture, bringing in more water from another basin would really amount to the provision of more water for being wasted. It would also mean that there would be no motivation at all for changing cropping patterns and shifting from water-intensive crops to crops that need less water; on the contrary, the tendency to grow water-consuming crops would receive strong encouragement. (It may be added that cropping patterns and water-use practices that lead to or aggravate water-scarcity are often the results of government policies relating to agriculture and water, and what is called for is the rectification of those policies rather than the importation of water.) In arid or drought-prone areas, the introduction of irrigated agriculture of a kind appropriate to wet areas may be unwise. ‘Development’ in arid areas should perhaps take other, less water-intensive forms. The slogan of ‘making the desert bloom’ is not necessarily a sound one. It can be argued that the Rajasthan Canal project was not a good idea but a misconceived one. These are difficult but important questions that need careful consideration. In both irrigated and rainfed areas, the bringing in of external water may also have other secondary consequences: the need to bring in farmers from elsewhere and the resulting social tensions (as in Rajasthan); increased incidence of conditions of water-logging and salinity (a concomitant of irrigated agriculture in many places); the possibility of the repetition of the ‘Green Revolution’ patterns of agricultural development and the related phenomena of monoculture, loss of biodiversity (disappearance of indigenous varieties of seeds of plants and grains), the problems arising from chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the loss of micro- nutrients from soils, and the replacement of healthy indigenous varieties of food crops by high-yielding, commercially viable, but nutritionally deficient crops; social inequities of diverse kinds; and so on. These are not unavoidable consequences, but they are dangers that have to be kept in mind. Subject to all those caveats, the idea of taking water from ‘surplus’ to ‘deficit’ basins may seem prima facie a good one. That indeed is the principal driving force behind the project, and that is also what gives it its popular appeal in water-scarce States. However, there are many serious difficulties with that plausible proposition, which need to be noted. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 5 Some Difficulties Gigantism / Altering Nature To start with, there is the fundamental objection, not to the idea of ‘inter-basin transfer’ per se (though that aspect does need consideration), but to the grandiose nature — the gigantism — of the undertaking. This will be a massive intervention in nature, an ambitious attempt to alter nature. That it is to be compressed into a short span of time may aggravate the intervention but that is a secondary point, the main one being that it amounts to nothing less than the redrawing of the geography of the country. It appears to us that this is a severe case of technological hubris of a kind that (we thought) had been discredited and was a thing of the past. Criticisms of gigantism are sometimes responded to with the answer that no gigantism is intended; that the project will proceed carefully and slowly, in a piecemeal manner, from the minor and relatively less problematic links to the more difficult and ambitious ones. Is such a careful, exploratory, step-by-step approach in fact intended? This seems inconsistent with what we have been seeing and hearing in recent months: the Supreme Court’s desire that the project be accelerated and the time-frame compressed; the Prime Minister’s announcement that the project will be taken up on a war-footing; the setting up of a Task Force; the references to the order of investments involved; the publicity surrounding the project; and so on. It appears that the Government wants to make dramatic announcements, and at the same time claim that it is adopting a slow, careful, modest, exploratory approach. The general impression in the country is certainly that a massive project has been undertaken. If that is not the case, the Government should make the position clear. Strange Idea There is in fact an oddity about the proposition that we have tended not to notice. One can understand if the planners start from an identification of the needs of particular areas, proceed through a consideration of options and alternatives, and finally arrive at a decision to link two or more rivers as the only or the best option in a given case. Instead, the present project starts with the proposition that the rivers of India must be linked, and then proceeds to consider possibilities of storages, links, transfers, etc. What is the basis for that a priori proposition (even if it is an old one)? How did we arrive at this strange idea that all the rivers of India — or the major ones — must be linked? The analogy sometimes put forward with the linking of highways or with a national power grid is inapt and misleading. Human creations or productions such as highways or power can be manipulated by humans. That does not necessarily apply to rivers. Rivers are not human artefacts; they are not pipelines to be cut, turned around, welded and re-joined. They are natural phenomena, integral components of ecological systems, and inextricable parts of the cultural, social, economic, spiritual lives of the communities concerned. (So too are related features, both natural and man-made, such as lakes, wetlands, tanks, beels , ahars and pynes, and so on.) Serious Consequences The project is potentially fraught with serious consequences. It will necessarily involve dams, reservoirs, diversion of waters, canal systems, and so on. By now there is adequate 6 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 1 00(1). APR. 2003 knowledge of what all this entails: violent disturbance of pristine areas and of the lives of (tribal) communities living there, disruption of the habitats and movement routes of wildlife, loss of bio-diversity (flora and fauna), changes in river morphology and water quality (arising from the stilling of flowing waters), submergence of forests and agricultural lands, changes in the micro-climate, public health consequences, displacement of people and their livestock and the related problems of resettlement and rehabilitation, reduction of downstream flows, the consequent alteration of the river regime (reduction of the capacity of the river to cope with pollutants and regenerate itself; reduction in nutrient content in downstream flows; diminution of groundwater-recharging, reduction in freshwater outflows into the sea), and the impacts of these on aquatic life, riparian communities and their livelihoods such as agriculture or boat-plying, and on estuarine conditions (including estuarine fish populations) and possible salinity incursions; and so on. These impacts and consequences have been observed in many projects, and will need to be studied carefully in the case of each of the proposed links. (Incidentally, much harm has been done in the past by the tendency to regard only water abstracted from the stream as ‘used’ and water flowing in the stream and particularly into the sea as ‘wasted’. To minds so conditioned, the fact that floods occur in some areas and drought is experienced elsewhere immediately suggests that water must be transferred from the former to the latter places. Behind this lies an ignorance of the multiple purposes served by flowing water — even floods — and the importance of water flowing into the sea, and a failure to recognize the consequences of a diversion of flows. Rivers must flow if silt is to move and nutrients are to reach the plains, the deltaic region, and mangrove areas such as the Sunderbans. Such flows and nutrients also enter the coastal waters and contribute to the increase of marine wealth, whether it be shoals of fish or algae and other organisms which hold the key to the future nutritional, medicinal and other needs of our country and even of humanity at large. Before diverting waters and reducing downstream flows, we must make sure that the alluvial deltas will not die, forcing the migration of populations and causing distress in the coming generations. Rivers must have enough water to support riverports, inland navigation and riverine fauna and flora, and to check the incursion of salinity in coastal areas. The concept that no water is to be allowed to go waste into the sea needs to be seriously challenged on hydrological and meteorological grounds.) It has been argued that similar projects have been undertaken elsewhere without catastrophic consequences, but that is a questionable statement. Water-resource projects are part of the kind of ‘development’ that the world has been pursuing, which has in fact had many catastrophic consequences. But leaving that aside and confining ourselves to projects on rivers, it is well-known that old-style planning in the former Soviet Union led to the diversion of two rivers that were flowing into the Aral Sea, resulting in the virtual death of that sea. That is now recognized as a great environmental disaster, perhaps the greatest ever, and desperate attempts are being made to reverse it. With the ‘linking of rivers’ project we may be headed for other unforeseen disasters and may discover this too late. A degree of caution seems warranted before the Government embarks on this enterprise. (It may be added that there is a move in some countries away from the past history of interference with the natural flows of rivers towards a restoration of the original flows to some extent.) JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 7 Those who advocate caution are apt to be accused of timidity and exhorted to look at China which has embarked on the massive Three Gorges Project. That is not necessarily a good project; the disasters that it will bring will be seen in the future. The opposition to Three Gorges in China is muted because dissent is not easy in that country. Those who are envious of China’s ability to ‘get things done’ must reflect on how far they are prepared to go in emulating that system. Announcement in Advance of Examination Clearance This is a ‘concept’ that consists of some twenty or thirty projects. For each project, some small and some big, a proper feasibility study will have to be prepared as an interdisciplinary exercise, fully internalizing economic, social, sociological, human, environmental and other aspects ab initio. Thereafter, the projects will have to be examined and evaluated, again in an inter-disciplinary manner, and cleared by the appropriate agencies. Thorough Environmental Impact Assessments, comprehensive Cost-Benefit Analyses covering direct and indirect financial, economic, environmental, ecological, social and human costs and benefits (quantifying these wherever possible), qualitative assessments of non- quantifiable considerations, and based on these, rigorous investment appraisals, will need to be undertaken. We do not know what the outcome of that process will be: all projects may pass the test; all may fail; or some may survive a stringent scrutiny while others may not. In advance of that process, a project has been announced and expectations raised in the general public. The presumption is that the project or projects will be found acceptable and cleared. We fear that this may reduce the whole process of examination, evaluation and clearance to a mere formality, a mockery. With the conclusions already presumed and announced at the highest level, it seems difficult to believe that the governmental agencies concerned (the CWC, the Technical Advisory Committee, the Ministry of Environment and Forests and its Committees, the Task Force that has now been set up) will be able to undertake a serious and objective examination. The pressure on them to be ‘positive’ will be very great. Incidentally, we are told that NWDA has prepared feasibility studies for some five or six links, and that these have been “ratified by engineers, sociologists and economists”. If indeed there are feasibility studies of some of the proposed links, we would strongly urge that they should be put into the public domain for engineers, geographers, environmentalists, economists, agronomists, soil scientists, sociologists, social anthropologists, financial analysts, and others outside the Government to examine and offer their comments. This massive undertaking is too important a matter to be left entirely to the internal processes of the Government.” Such a massive environmental intervention will result in substantial human displacement, and it is the poor, the invisible people who will harvest the Grapes of Wrath. — J.C. DANIEL 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY April 2003 Vol. 100 No. 1 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS IN ASSAM, INDIA1 ( With one text-figure and two plates) Hillaljyoti Singha2-3 4, Asad R. Rahmani24, Malcolm C. Coulter5 and Salim Javed2-6 Key words: Greater adjutant-stork, Leptoptilos dubius , breeding behaviour, incubation period, fledgling We studied the breeding behaviour of the greater adjutant-stork Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin), the rarest stork in the world at north Haibargaon — its traditional breeding colony in Nagaon (26° 21' N, 92° 45' E), Assam, India — during 1995-1997. Focal nests of early (September- October) and late (November-December) breeding storks in both the seasons, from nest building to fledging of the last young, were observed from dawn to dusk. Development of young from hatchling to fledgling and the associated parental behaviour were recorded in detail. The incubation period was 35 days while the fledging period was 142 days. Parents left unguarded chicks at the age of 4 weeks; at 6 weeks the chicks could defend themselves, and at 9 weeks they attained juvenile stage. The overall breeding behaviour of the greater adjutant-stork was found to resemble its congeneric the Marabou stork Leptoptilos crumeniferus. Introduction Of the 20 storks found in the world, the greater adjutant-stork Leptoptilos dubius is perhaps the most endangered. Earlier widely 'Accepted February, 2001 ^Department of Wildlife Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. 'Present Address: Department of Zoology, Birjhora Mahavidyalaya, Post Office and District Bongaigaon, Pin 783 380, Assam, India. Email: hqrgilq@sanchamet.in 4 Present Address: Bombay Natural History Society, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. Email: bnhs@bom3.vsnl.net.in 5P.O. Box 48, Chocorua, NH. 038 1 7, USA. Email: coultermc@aol.com Email: sjaved@erwda.gov.ae distributed in Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and South Vietnam (Baker 1929, Flemming et al. 1979, Ali and Ripley 1987, Hancock et al. 1992), this largest of Asian storks has drastically reduced in number, and is confined to the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam, India (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1989, Rahmani et al. 1990) with a small breeding population of 100-150 birds in Cambodia (Mundkur et al 1995). The greater adjutant-stork is a colonial breeder. Very little information was available on its breeding biology (Kahl 1966, 1970, 1971; Baker 1935; Hume and Oates 1890; Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1990) prior to our study. We studied the breeding biology of the stork JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 9 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREA TER A DJUTANT-STORK intensively in the north Haibargaon breeding colony at Nagaon for two successive breeding seasons from 1995-1997, right from its arrival at the breeding colony, including the development of the chick(s) to fledgling, up to its departure. The results were compared with those of other stork species. Study Area The study site, north Haibargaon, is a traditional breeding site of the greater adjutant- stork at Nagaon (26° 2T N, 92° 45' E). It is a small, semi-urban town situated in middle Assam, on the southern bank of the River Brahmaputra. New buildings are being made very near the nesting trees, which are on private property, near human habitation. A few busy public roads intersect the nesting colony. Behind the houses, there are isolated patches of forest and mixed plantations. Shrubs are present under the tall bamboo Bambusa sp. and betelnut Areca catechu dominates the area. Kolong a small river, flows about 1 00 m from the colony. The Brahmaputra Valley has four seasons: winter (December-February), pre-monsoon (March-May), monsoon (June-September) and the retreating monsoon (October-November). The average rainfall during monsoon is 286 cm. Methods Chronology: The greater adjutant-storks aggregate at the colony in early September (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1996a). Eggs are laid from September in Assam (Hancock et al. 1992). Storks were monitored daily from the first week of September, when they arrived at the site, till the end of May when all the nests were vacated. The adult storks on nests, and on nesting and non-nesting trees were monitored twice (morning and evening) daily. Analysis: Monthly average of storks was calculated from the data collected. For analysis, data of only those days when both morning and evening counts were taken was considered. Each nesting tree and nest(s) on it were assigned a code number to avoid counting error. General Breeding Biology: Each year a tall watchtower ( machan ) was built to observe the colony. The height of the machan was equal to or just above the nests. Care was taken not to disturb the birds while building the machan. Once the birds started incubating, they did not desert the nest. They were observed till the focal nests were either vacated or abandoned. A nest was considered abandoned when the stork pair stopped visiting before laying the eggs, or if the eggs did not hatch and the pair left the nest, or if all nestlings died and the parents stopped attending the nest. A nest was considered vacated when the last nestling of the clutch fledged. During the first breeding season, from November 1 , 1 995 to April 21,1 996, we observed five breeding pairs from a 20.5 m high machan. There were two trees with one nest each and one with three nests. From the last week of November to the first week of December 1995, three more nests were built on a tree where there was only one nest earlier. Out of the eight nests, five early ones (categorised as early breeders) were observed from the incubation stage, while the later nests (categorised as late breeders) were observed from the nest building stage. Since two nests were abandoned before the eggs hatched, and all the nestlings in one nest died, only five nests were observed till the fledging of juveniles. The average distance between the machan and the nests was 13 m. During the second breeding season, from Novembers, 1996 to May 12, 1997, we observed breeding pairs on three nests on three trees from a 23 m high machan from incubation till the juveniles fledged. The distances between the machan and nests were 12 m, 30 m and 60 m. The breeding behaviour of the focal pairs was monitored continuously from dawn to dusk, 0500 to 1700 hrs, six days a week. However, the 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK duration of observation decreased to 1 1 hrs (0545 to 1645 hrs) a day during the shorter days of winter. It was assumed that the individuals seen in the late evening stayed through the night, as they were seen there again the next morning. Individuals of the focal pairs were identified by their natural markings, facial and bill patterns and individual variations. Gender was determined by the copulation position. We found that the males were slightly larger than the females, which also helped to identify a male and a female of a pair (see also Kahl 1972a). We sketched facial patterns and noted the identification characters on ‘face cards’ (Coulter and Bryan Jr. 1988, Coulter 1989). The sketches were redrawn as the facial pattern of the stork changed. We observed the breeding behaviour of other storks in the colony as far as possible. The morphological and behavioural changes from chick to fledgling stage were recorded. A chick was distinguished from a juvenile when blackish- brown feathers replaced its snowy white down feathers. Incubation and Fledging Period: Incubation was estimated as the period from the initiation of incubation till the hatching of the first chick. The initiation of incubation was considered when, soon after nest building, the parents began behaving as if they were brooding eggs (Coulter 1989). It was difficult to know the exact date of hatching despite daily monitoring. The hatching at each nest was assumed on hearing the first call of the chick, or finding fresh broken egg shells below the tree, or observing the parent’s posture and behaviour in the nest. In the focal nest, just after hatching, the parent stork would stand with its legs apart, point the bill towards the floor of the nest (to the new hatchling) and regurgitate or re-ingest food. Otherwise, when the chick was first seen, its probable age was subtracted to get the hatching date ( Kahl 1966 and Pomeroy 1978a). In three cases where incubation period exceeded 55 days, it was considered as probable re-laying of egg(s) and such nests were excluded from the analyses. The mean incubation period was calculated from five nests of both seasons, where egg laying and hatching was observed from the machan. The fledging period was considered as the duration from the hatching to fledging of the juvenile, assuming that the same juvenile was the first chick. Before finally leaving the nest, juvenile(s) make exploratory flights and remain away from the nest for some time, and could be missed during a daily census. It was logistically difficult to see the first flight of all juveniles in the whole colony. Therefore, if a juvenile was not seen continuously for a week, it was regarded as fledged, and the fledging date recorded as the date it was last seen. We recorded the date of first flight in 12 nests from both the seasons, to calculate the fledging period. Results Chronology: Data were collected over seven and nine months (November 1995 through May 1996 and September 1996 through May 1997) in the first and second breeding seasons, respectively. Storks were found to arrive at the breeding site from the first week of September. In both the seasons, the number of storks increased to a peak in the early part of the season and gradually declined to almost zero in May. In the first season (1995-96), the highest aggregation of storks was found in December, while in the second breeding season (1996-97), it was in October (Figs la & b). But the overall population trend in the study area was similar in both the breeding seasons. In all the months, in both breeding seasons, fewer number of storks were counted in the morning than in the evening. General Breeding Biology Pre-Chick Hatching Period: (a) External morphological changes: At the onset of the 1 1 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK 60 50 o «*■» CO 4=1 ° 30 Ut X g 3 £ 20 10 0 NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY Months Fig. la: Population trend of greater adjutant-stork in North Haibargaon Nesting Colony (1995-96) 40 30 «/> M O +-» CO 4-* ° 20 u, 4> X 6 3 z 10 o SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY Months Fig. lb: Population trend of greater adjutant-stork in North Haibargaon Nesting Colony (1996-97) 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY / 00(1). APR 2003 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK breeding season, the stork underwent conspicuous morphological changes to become a brilliantly coloured bird (Plate 1, Fig. 1). The pale whitish wing band of the greater secondary coverts of the non-breeding season became bright silvery white. The upper parts of the body including back, wing, tail and mantle turned to bluish-grey from slaty grey or blackish-grey. The under-tail coverts, which were white at their base and dark smoky grey at the tip, became fluffier. The head and nape became bright red. Black pigment appeared on the pale red part between the head and forehead. The skin of the face and forehead appeared rough and encrusted with dark spots. The base of the bill, just below the dark skin, turned pinkish. The neck turned bright yellow with a pinkish tinge. The dorsal air sac became bright red, encircled by a ruff of white feathers. The gular pouch appeared bright red. We found that the female was brighter than the male. All breeding pairs wore the breeding plumage except one dull coloured male. There were some storks in the colony which, despite being brilliantly coloured, were smaller than an adult in size, and had a few erect ‘hairs’ on their head, and black ‘hairs’ hanging from the tip of the gular pouch. They were most probably younger storks or first time breeders. As breeding progressed, the breeding pairs gradually regained their non-breeding colour. By mid January, the upper part turned ashy grey; head, neck and forehead became paler from bright red and black respectively. The silvery white wing band also faded. In April, they looked like non-breeding storks with blackish upper parts and a dirty wing band. (b) Flocking: Breeding storks flocked in the beginning of the breeding season. There were some aggressive interactions, including chasing, fighting, squealing, bill clapping and frequent flying from branch to branch and tree to tree. Flocking occurred due to competition for pair formation and nesting sites. One stork would follow another, and within a short time many storks would gather on a tree. At this time, a stork perched on a branch would stretch its wings, with a forward curve, bend its neck down and bring the open bill between its feet. At the same time, the tail would be cocked and the stork would make a long squeal ‘qui-e-e-i’, similar to the call of the black kite Milvus migrans , or a loud booming nasal sound ‘we-i-nh’. The storks were also found to make loud and deep ‘woom’ sounds like the “lowing of a cow” (Hume and Oates 1890). The female was more vocal than the male, generally squealing and making nasal ‘we-i-nh’ noises, which gradually became faint later in the breeding season. This high-pitched vocalisation would be accompanied by occasional bill clapping with the bill pointed upward. A dull coloured stork and some subadult storks also visited the colony. However, they did not take part in the flocking. Flocking would occur on one or two trees in the colony at the same time. Each stork made a small territory of its own and refused entry to other storks, whose approach resulted in ferocious fights. Sometimes flocking (crowding) occurred continuously for ten to fifteen days on a particular tree. These activities started in the morning, gradually declined at noon and again increased towards evening. While some storks formed pairs and selected nesting sites, the remaining moved to other trees for flocking. These activities increased sharply to a peak in the beginning of the breeding season, and gradually ended in the latter part of the breeding season. While many storks settled down for nesting, some that were unable to find a partner still crowded around to disperse the pairs and invade the nests. We termed these as ‘floating storks’, most of which were probably first time breeders. Crowding was seen as late as the last week of January. (c) Pair formation and courtship: During the process of crowding, a male stork would create a territory on a potential nest site, and chase other storks that came near him. He JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 13 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK announced his territory by frequent, loud bill clattering, pointing the bill upward, downward, or horizontally, and prodded the air with frontal arched body and half folded wings towards its breast. When he accepted a female stork, both perched closely to form a pair. A third stork, usually a female, was often found trying to break the pair bond. The female of the pair was more aggressive than the male in chasing away her rival. In two cases in the first breeding season 1995-96, we found that the third stork temporarily replaced the female of the pair, but was finally driven away. The male easily accepted the new partner. In some cases, the new pair was found to perch close together continuously for two to three days, without foraging, before building the nest. We saw the pair take initiative in the courtship display, which varied only slightly among different pairs. A male would pluck a fresh twig from a nearby branch and put it near the feet of the female, or drop the twig after holding it for a few minutes. He would touch and gently grasp one of the female’s tarsi with his bill. Sometimes the female also touched her own legs. She would withdraw her foot whenever a male grasped it. Once, a male pulled at one of her primaries. He gently clasped her bill, touched her breast in a preening gesture and gradually came closer to her. During this process they leapt to another branch or made a short flight to another tree with the second partner following behind. When a female approached a male, she would lower her head to touch the male’s breast with both her bill and head. He would cross his neck over hers and she adopted a submissive posture. Typical ‘swaying twig-grasping’ and ‘up-down’ displays (Kahl 1971, 1972a) were shown by both; however, the former was mostly shown by the male. The stork perched close to its partner bent its neck downward, pointing the bill down about 45°, and oscillated gently from side to side four to five times at half an oscillation per second. Sometimes, at the extreme ends of an oscillation, it would pull or touch a twig and give a mild jerk. Both the partners perched side by side, sometimes preened themselves and showed an up-down display simultaneously or one by one. The bill was then sharply brought down almost touching the breast, or abdomen or feet with a sudden loud nasal ‘we-i-nh’ immediately followed by throwing it upwards pointing vertically towards the sky. Thus, they clattered their bills, stopping only after the bill was again brought down below the horizontal position. The clattering ceased before the bill was brought to a horizontal position in brief bill- clattering sequences. (d) Mating and nesting: Usually, the courtship display was followed by mating which occurred on the nest-branch or in the nest. Only twice was mating seen outside the nesting tree. Just before mating, in most cases, both the partners stood side by side in close contact. The male lifted one of his legs onto the back of the female and mounted (Plate 1, Fig. 2). He either mounted from the side, or from the front or rear, standing on her shoulder for a few seconds and then positioning himself for copulation. As soon as the male mounted, the female bent her ‘knees’ in a submissive posture, both the wings spread for balancing. During copulation, the male flapped his wings vigorously and sometimes snapped his bill frequently. The bill clattering usually started as soon as he copulated, at times simultaneously with mounting. On a few occasions, the sound of the bill clapping was not heard. During copulation, the female lowered her open bill 45°, swayed it from side to side and made a moaning sound. The male usually clasped the female’s bill and clattered against her bill. After copulation, he stood on her shoulder for some time. Mating was sometimes followed by preening. The whole process of mating ranged from 1 1 to 68 seconds (average 25.56 ±10.38 sec, n = 52). Mating occurred 1-6 times a day, between 0545 and 1635 hrs. Out of 141 matings observed, 14 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK Singha, Hillaljyoti et al.\ Leptoptilos dubius Plate 1 Figs 1-4: Greater adjutant-stork Leptoptilos dubius : 1. Adults in breeding plumage, 2. Adult male mounting on a female, 3. Parent tending one week old chick, 4. Adult feeding two week old chicks JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 15 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK Singha, Hillaljyoti et al.\ Leptoptilos dubius Plate 2 7 Figs 5-7: Greater adjutant-stork Leptoptilos dubius: 5. Parent with four week old chick, 6. Parent tending six week old chick, 7. Nine week old juvenile 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK 81 (57.45%) occurred in the forenoon, and 59 (41.84%) in the afternoon. One was seen at mid-day. Mating was more frequent during nest building and early incubation. However, late mating was seen in four pairs whose first chick was 26, 32, 43 and 45 days old, respectively. Simultaneously with mating, nest construction began. The male would place a green leafy twig on a flat horizontal branch, with or without an erect limb. The female stepped on it to hold it down, and soon the base was formed by piling one twig upon another. During the initial stages of nest construction, the female stood guard at the nest, while the male brought most of the nest material from the same or other trees in the colony. The stork did not go beyond 200 m to bring nest materials. Usually, mating occurred after frequent nest material trips by the male. During nest building, the female became more vocal, making a loud booming sound, accompanied by bill snapping. The male responded by clattering his bill when he reached the nest. Both sexes arranged the nest material. They would remove leaves from the nest and drop them as if cleaning the nest. In the early stages of nest building, the male generally roosted with his partner in the nest or near the nest. The nest construction took 2 to 4 days. Soon after that, the female spent more time on the nest, until she laid the eggs. Then the male took care of the nest, relieving the female for longer periods. During nest construction, the male and female never left the nest together, but on two occasions the storks were absent from the nest (11 and 36 minutes) to collect nest material. Incubation: The eggs were laid asynchronously and the incubation started as soon as the first egg was laid. The newly laid eggs were chalky white, with a green and blue tinge, which became soiled as the incubation proceeded. Both male and female incubated. During incubation (34.6 ±2.70 s.d. days, n = 5), the incubating stork preens, flaps and stretches its wings, it rearranges and repairs the nest, rotates the egg(s) and protects the nest from other storks and birds. When the bird stands up after a long bout of incubation, it shakes its body, stretches its neck forward with an open bill slightly downwards and changes its orientation for the next phase of incubation. It rotates the eggs to different positions by grasping them with the bill or shovelling them towards its feet with the tip of the beak. It then tilts the nest slightly with its feet, and the eggs roll back to the depression in the middle of the nest. Post-hatching period: a) Growth of chicks and associated behaviour of parents: The growth rate of the chick varied in different nests. A general pattern of growth and behaviour of the chick is described below. The chicks hatch at intervals of one or two days. The newly born chick is about 10 cm tall, and has a pale yellow, slightly curved down beak and a large blackish head, and neck with yellow patches. Dorsally, the body has bluish-black down feathers, and pink underparts. The eyes are large and black; the swollen eyelids are blackish, while the forehead is sky blue. The chick grows fast and becomes doubie its size within a week, with white down feathers almost covering the back. During the first week of their life, the chicks spend most of the time sleeping. When a chick hatched, the parents stood with legs apart and tended the baby frequently. The behaviour and posture of the parent indicated egg hatching (Plate 1, Fig. 3). The chick made feeble sounds, which became louder with time, into chittering. Both parents fed the young. The parents regurgitated food on the floor of the nest and the chicks picked it up. Soon after hatching, the parents started regurgitating black, granular half-digested food matter, so that the hatchlings could feed easily. The feeding frequency by regurgitation was higher in the early stages. Initially, the chicks could not consume all the food brought to them; the excess was re-ingested by the parent, and regurgitated iater. While re- ingesting, the parent pressed large portions of JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 17 BREEDING BE HA VIOUR OF GREA TER A DJUTANT-STORK food between its mandibles to soften and crush it, so that the chicks could devour it easily. We found that although the parents would not feed the young bill to bill, it would help by holding the food such that it could be easily swallowed. The chick would jerk the food, toss its head forward and backward quickly and swallow the food. The chicks were found to be voracious feeders right from hatching. Even a day old chick tried to swallow a frog, much larger than its head! In one case, a three-day old chick gulped a fish that was larger than its body length; for some time the tail of the fish protruded outside its bill. At two weeks (Plate 1, Fig. 4), the white down feathers completely covered the body of the chick, however, the underparts were still pinkish. The yellow patches on the head almost disappeared. The eyelids became whitish. The forehead or shield turned white with black spots. Dark black pigment spreads over the cheek. The ventral side of the throat was covered with dark black pigment in longitudinal bands. Dorsally, the neck was greyish and the shoulders black. Erect grey and white ‘hairs’ grow on the head and neck. The ill-developed sky-blue pouch could be distinguished. Beneath the wings and near the flanks, black feathers developed. The legs and toes became pinkish in colour. Generally the parents relieved each other after more than 24 hrs. The reliever brought food for the chick(s) once a day. For about two weeks, most of the parents’ time was spent in brooding the chicks and after that, in standing guard. However, in the morning and evening, and during rain they brooded and sometimes shaded the youngs. The parents also provided shade to the chick(s) by stretching their wings and standing against the sun. The 3-week old chick is covered all over with snow white foamy down feathers, except ventrally. The bill is pale yellow with black marks at the base. Black ‘hairs’ hang from the tip of the pouch and on the shoulder. Pupils black, iris brown. Legs pinkish-white. The 4-week old chick is about 30 cm in height. The shield is still white with black spots. The grey and black crest of thick ‘hairs’ grows longer. Down the throat, and ventrally, longitudinal black patches are prominent. Black primaries and secondaries start to grow. Black tail feathers also appear. At 4 weeks, a chick can stand on its feet and flap its wings 4-5 times at a stretch (Plate 2, Fig. 5). The wing span is approximately 60 cm. The chick walks in the nest. The parents also gradually start leaving the nest, initially for short durations only. When the parents return with food, the young ones perform typical begging displays. They drop down to their tarsi opposite each other (if more than one young), wings half folded, slightly lifted upward, body bent forward, tail cocked and toss their heads up and down rhythmically with open bill and nasal ‘honk- honk’ sound. In the 5-week old chick, the primary feathers of the wings start developing. Initially they have a black tip and bluish rachis. The primaries at the tip of the wings are now larger, about one and half inches. The tail feathers become more prominent. The pinkish white legs turn whitish. The longitudinal black patches of the throat become concentrated only on the pouch. The ear opening is surrounded by a white mark. At this stage, a chick tries to leap in the air, frequently flapping its wings. It defecates over the edge of the nest and swallows food very fast. A 6-week old chick is fully covered by thick down, which has changed from snowy white to dirty white (Plate 2, Fig. 6). The black spots on the shield are almost gone. The sky blue throat pouch, with pink tinge at the base, and sparse black pigments, becomes elongated. The black ‘hairs’ hanging from the pouch become longer. Black feathers on the shoulder around either side of the base of the neck turn brownish and grow to meet at the breast, forming a necklace-like band. The wings develop four layers of feathers: the lowermost black primaries are concealed by 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHA VI OUR OF GREATER A DJUTANT-STORK a broad brownish band of greater secondary coverts, and two more black layers above the second layer. Twelve broom-shaped fan feathers with blue rachises grow at the tail, black horse- shoe shaped flat feathers at the tip, followed by thin grey ‘hairs’ hanging from it. At this stage, the parents even stay away from the nest at night as the chick is able to defend itself. It would even threaten a crow or a kite hovering overhead by poking its head towards the intruder, with a harsh ‘khll-o-ck’ sound. When other storks came near the nest, it sat down on its tarsi, faced the intruder with half folded wings, and tossed its head up and down, emitting a nasal ‘khll-i-ck khll-i-ck’ sound rhythmically with movement of the head till the intruder flew off. At this stage, the chicks also clean the nest like adults. By 7 weeks, another row of black feathers developed just above the fourth layer on the wings. Two longitudinal rows of black feathers were growing on either side of the midline of the mantle. When the wings were folded, three- fourths of the upper part was covered by black feathers. At this stage, the parents came to the nest only to feed the chick(s). The chick flapped its wings more frequently, 10 to 12 times at a stretch. At 8 weeks, six rows of black feathers appeared on the wing. The tail fan became elongated and expanded. While flapping the wings, the chick tried to lift itself up in the air. Throughout the fledgling period, the parents occasionally nursed the chick. Up to 3 weeks, they would gently touch the head and body of the chick, but later they also preened the chick. (b) Growth of Juvenile and associated parental behaviour: At nine weeks, the chick attained juvenile stage (Plate 2, Fig. 7). It almost equalled its mother’s height. The upper parts became completely black. The broad brown layer of the secondary coverts became more distinct. The shield was white with very few black spots. The bill was pale yellow. The ear opening surrounded by white mark became more prominent. The pupil was black and the iris brown. Near the eyes and on the cheek, black spots were sporadically present. The thick crest of black and grey ‘hairs’ on the crown and neck were longer, and so were the ‘hairs’ at the tip of the whitish pouch. The legs became creamish- white. The juvenile’s food was supplemented with pieces of meat and intestinal parts of mammals in addition to fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds. Gradually, it can leap straight upward 1-2 in in the air with vigorous flapping of wings. This leaping is more frequent when the wind blows. At about four months, the juvenile flies from one branch to another and then to the other trees in the colony. It can chase other intruders from its nest. Sometimes it flies outside the colony and comes back to the nest to be fed by the parents. It can also be seen on other nests in search of food and nest material. The parents feed the juvenile till it fledges. The fledging period was about 142 days (141.94 ±22.45 days, n=35). The first flight of the juvenile was seen at 126.25 ±9.35 s.d. days (n=12). The fledging period ranged from 96 to 173 days in the first breeding season, and 1 10 to 197 days in the second breeding season in different nests. The juvenile fledeed asynchronously; not necessarily the older sibling leaving earlier. Other Breeding Behaviour: Greeting display: Greeting display between a pair commences soon after pair formation. It gradually declines by the time the chicks reach juvenile stage, because the parents hardly come to the nest at the same time. Among the greeting display, the up-down display and bill clattering were common. Usually when a partner arrives at the nest, the other partner greets it by upward bill clattering. Then both demonstrate an up-down display. Each stork could recognise its partner from a long distance; even about 100 m. When nest material was brought by the male, he JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 19 BREEDING BEHA VJOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK generally uttered a low pitched ‘kis-kis’ sound with one second pause after each ‘kis\ The female brought nest material with nasal ‘we-i- nh we-i-nh’ sound. In the early part of the breeding season, a female greets the male with her long typical squeal, swaying the bill from side to side. When a female arrives on the nest, the male sways his bill from side to side, bowing down his head with a typical ‘kis-kis’ sound. When a male reaches the nest, the female sways her down-pointed bill from side to side, and places the nest sticks in accordance with the movement of the bill. Downward short duration bill clattering was also observed to greet each other. Sometimes there was no greeting display. Aggression: Agonistic behaviour was seen more in the beginning of the breeding season. Aggressiveness also varied according to the individual and the situation. Generally, the female appeared to be more aggressive. Storks were found to chase other storks, which approached their nest, sometimes leaving behind an unprotected nest with egg(s) or chick(s). A stork could chase another stork up to 100 m, flying at it with a stretched neck and loudly snapping bill. Loud bill clattering was not only a greeting display, but also a threat to the other storks. Sometimes a breeding stork was found to tolerate the presence of other storks and even crows very near its nest. In the early part of the breeding season, during nest building, and even during incubation, some storks try to invade other nests for occupation or to replace a partner from an established pair. A case of nest invasion occurred in the first breeding season when one pair occupied the nest of another pair. Once a stork was also found to snatch food from another stork’s nest. While fighting they poked their bills at each other’s head in quick succession. Post flying juveniles were also found to be aggressive towards other adult storks that tried to enter their nest. Nest arrangement: Storks repaired and cleaned their nest throughout _the breeding period, but this activity progressively decreased as the young grew up. The storks cleaned the nest by removing egg shells and decomposed old leaves from the interior of the nest. They frequently picked up leaves by inserting one third of the bill into the huge nest and threw rotten leaves outside the nest. They grasped sticks and placed them, pulling and pushing them all along the nest rim and also at the bottom. Standing on one leg at the centre of the nest, the bird slowly placed the sticks along the periphery, so that a shallow depression developed at the centre of the nest. Sometimes this would continue for more than half an hour. Nest material stealing: On finding an unguarded or vacated nest, storks stole nest materials. Even a five-month old juvenile was seen stealing sticks from empty nests. Sometimes they would rob nest material in the presence of its owner. Father-offspring mating: What appeared to be father-offspring mating was seen in one nest in both the breeding seasons. The adult male suddenly placed one leg on the back of one of his young and mounted it. He stood on the back for 12 to 20 seconds and came down. Sometimes he appeared to copulate with the young, with or without mild bill clattering. The young uttered harsh chittering. In the first breeding season, this was observed ten times when the young were 9 to 1 1 weeks old. In the second breeding season, it was observed twice when the young ones were 5 and 9 weeks old. Discussion Chronology: The greater adjutant-storks arrive at the North Haibargaon breeding colony just after the monsoon, when the dry season begins. In both the breeding seasons, the time of arrival was identical suggesting that the storks follow a definite time frame for breeding. The 20 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK nesting period synchronises with the reducing water level in the lakes and ponds (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1996a, Bhattacharjee and Saikia 1 996). All other breeding storks in India, painted stork Mycteria leucocephala, white-necked stork Ciconia episcopus , black-necked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Asian openbill stork Anastomus oscitans and lesser adjutant-stork Leptoptilos javanicus breed just after monsoon (Ali 1996). In Assam, from September onwards water level gradually recedes with the decreasing rainfall. This period also coincides with the increase in availability of prey species, as many species of fish and frog breed during monsoon in the inundated low-lying areas. When water level drops, they concentrate in drying pools and puddles and become easy prey for the stork. Most bird species breed around the time when food supplies are readily available (Thompson 1950). In the congeneric Marabou stork Leptoptilos crumeniferus , breeding usually begins in dry season and ends in rain (Brown et al. 1982). Pomeroy (1978b) also states the possibility of an intrinsic (circannual) rhythm for nesting period in the Marabou stork. The American wood stork Mycteria americana initiates nesting when water level goes down (Kahl 1964). Seasonal rains strongly influences the beginning of nesting in the Maguari stork Ciconia maguari (Thomas 1985). It seems that food supply and seasonal change with shorter days correspond to initiate breeding of the greater adjutant-stork in North Haibargaon breeding colony. The population trend throughout the breeding season in both years of our study suggests that as the breeding season progresses, the greater adjutant-storks start leaving the colony. The storks that did not build nests leave the colony; the parent storks also spend less time in the colony when the young grow up. In the second breeding season it was seen that the number of storks reached a peak in October (Fig. lb) when almost all breeding storks had arrived in the colony. In both the seasons there was a small population peak in December (Figs la & b). This could be due to the late breeders who returned to the colony. A similar second small peak was seen in a painted stork colony by Urfi (1993), which he speculated could be due to a second breeding attempt or prolonged breeding effort. In Maguari stork also, late- arriving individuals begin to build nests well after the beginning of the breeding season (Thomas 1986). The reason for smaller numbers of storks in the morning count is probably because some storks leave very early for foraging, much before sunrise. In the evening, all the storks returned to roost, so more birds were seen. General Breeding Biology External morphological changes: The external morphological changes in the greater adjutant-stork during the breeding season were similar to the observation of Saikia and Bhattacharjee (1996a) and, Bhattacharjee and Saikia (1996). Similar changes occur in the Marabou stork also (Brown et al. 1982). Pomeroy (1977b) found that males of the Marabou stork were considerably larger than females, which we found in greater adjutant-stork also. Kahl (1972a) has reported this earlier. In painted stork (Desai el al. 1977) and American wood stork Mycteria americana (Kahl 1962), males are larger than females. The brighter coloured female approaches the male to initiate courtship. Competition for pair formation was between females for the male who had selected a potential nest site. Flocking and aggressive behaviour: Lack (1968) also observed that in some colonial species, the sub-adults also come to the breeding sites, form pairs, occupy nesting sites and build nests, but do not proceed further. We found some sub-adults and some probable fresh adults arriving in the colony. Bhattacharjee and Saikia (1996) also observed that both sub-adults and JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1), APR. 2003 21 BREEDING BEHA VIOUR OF GREATER A DJUTANT-STORK non-breeding greater adjutant-stork also came to the nesting colony, but Pomeroy (1977a) observed that it does not necessarily follow that all storks in breeding plumage are sexually mature. The minimum age at first breeding is 4 years in Marabou stork (Pomeroy 1977b), and 3 years in male and 4 years in female in Maguari stork (Thomas 1984). According to Bhattacharjee and Saikia (1996), the greater and lesser adjutant-stork become sexually mature at 3-4 years. Lack (1968) has explained the arrival of the sub-adults at the breeding colony as the preparatory year to learn the best feeding areas around their nest without the strain of finding food for a brood. Bhattacharjee and Saikia (1996) reported rigorous vocalization and 14 to 16 storks flying together from tree to tree in the early part of the breeding (September), what we have called ‘flocking1. Coulter (1989) has termed the aggressive interactions in American wood stork as ‘mobbings’ and Kahl (1972b) has referred to them as “bachelor parties”. Although aggression was always associated with crowding, fight was not between two storks; instead a flock of five to fifteen greater adjutant-storks took part together in this activity. The aggressive interactions of ‘mobbings’ in American wood storks were moderately frequent in the early part of the breeding season, and rose to a peak in the following weeks correlating with an increase in nest building, and declined gradually (Coulter 1989). We observed the same in the greater adjutant-stork. We observed that in greater adjutant-storks aggressiveness varied individually, and female storks seemed to be more aggressive. While Thomas (1986) noted that attacking Maguari storks were mostly males. Though female American wood storks are generally less able to defend themselves (Coulter 1989), we found that greater adjutant-stork females even invaded other nests. As Coulter (1989) recorded nest invasion in American wood stork, we found a similar case in greater adjutant-storks too. The replacement of one incubating female American wood stork by another pair and throwing out the former’s egg was observed in greater adjutant-storks also, but in the case of greater adjutant-storks the aggressor was a female. Moreover, while guarding a nest with eggs or chicks, a female sometimes chased away others near the nest, leaving the nest unguarded. Such behaviour was not seen in American wood storks by Coulter (1989) who found that unguarded chicks were thrown out by neighbouring storks. Similarly, in greater adjutant-storks, while pulling nest sticks from an unattended nest, the “robber” stork attacked the defending chicks, of which, two 3-week old chicks fell out. The ‘aerial clattering threat’ described by Kahl (1972a) was also observed in the greater adjutant-stork. According to him, lesser adjutant remains silent while chasing another stork in the air, but Marabou clatters loudly as the opponent is approached closely. Similar behaviour was observed in the greater adjutant-stork. The other hostile display described by Kahl (1972a) such as snap display, pre-flight snap, erect-gape and anxiety stretch were noticed in the greater adjutant-stork. However, forward poking, which is similar to ‘forward display’ behaviour in herons (Meyerriecks 1960; Tomlinson 1976), was not mentioned by him. In this behaviour, two greater adjutant-storks stand erect on their nest or branch face to face and poke at each other, sometimes with a bill snapping sound, frequently but hardly any physical contact. Sometimes a greater adjutant- stork was also seen shooting its bill sharply in horizontal direction in the air when the opponent was at a distance. Pair-formation, courtship and greeting display, mating and nesting; In many aspects of morphology and behaviour, the greater adjutant resembles its African cousin, the Marabou stork (Kahl 1974), but it is closer to the lesser adjutant (Kahl 1 970). We saw the same 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHA VI OUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK ‘swaying twig-grasping’ as described by Kahl (1972a) for the greater adjutant and Marabou stork. For the first time we observed side to side swaying of the bill by a male greater adjutant to greet a female partner at her arrival to the nest with “kis-kis” sound. This behaviour can be compared with the ‘advertising sway’ of the Asian openbill stork described by Kahl (1971). The differences are; (a) greater adjutant-stork did not lift its feet with each oscillation; and (b) greater adjutant-stork makes a typical sound. The female greater adjutant also greeted the male in the nest by swaying downward pointing bill and arranging nest sticks. Similar ‘twig passing display’ is seen in the great white egret Egretta alba (Tomlinson 1976), where the female greets the male on his arrival to the nest by ‘stretch display’. The most common greeting display in the greater adjutant-stork is the up-down display that Kahl (1971) has seen in all except the Saddlebill stork. He has mentioned that all the three species of Leptoptilos give frequent up-downs whenever a member of a pair returns to the nest. But we found that the greater adjutant did not give an ‘up-down’ display every time its partner arrived at the nest. Kahl (1970, 1971, 1972a and 1974) emphasised on the difference between Marabou storks and both the adjutants in up-down display. In the former, the bill is first thrown upwards and vocalizations are made, then the bill is pointed downwards and clattered. In the latter the bill is directed upward during both vocalizations and clattering. We also observed the upward bill clattering, but would like to stress that the clattering did not always cease before the bill reached horizontal position; sometimes clattering stopped only after the bill pointed downwards. On some occasions we observed one member of the pair greeting the other by short downward bill clatterings. Vocalization of the lesser adjutant is hoarser and more rasping than the greater adjutant (Kahl 1970). There is no literature regarding the mating behaviour of greater adjutant-storks. However, it was found that the loud copulation clattering of greater adjutant-storks resembles that of other storks, except Asian openbill storks where the male does not clatter his mandibles loudly (Kahl 1970). The balancing posture of the female during copulation is similar to that of other storks except the white stork where the female does not spread her wings wide (Kahl 1971) and the Jabiru stork where the female usually opens her wings fully at first and then closes them partially after the male is in position (Kahl 1973). The occasional post copulation preening in greater adjutant-storks is also found in other storks, e.g. painted storks (Desai et a/. 1977) and Maguari stork (Thomas 1986). The copulation duration of greater adjutant-storks (25.56 ±10.38 sec) is found to be the longest among storks: 10 sec in painted stork (Desai et al. 1977), 8.77 ±1.15 sec in Maguari stork (Thomas 1986), 24 sec in black- necked stork and 15 sec in Jabiru stork (Kahl 1973). Late mating, as we found in greater adjutant-storks, is also reported in painted storks where copulation occurred even after the fledging of the young (Desai et al. 1977). However, attempted father-offspring mating behaviour is not reported in other storks. It was, however, not known if the young was a male or female. Development - egg to fledgling: Our description of freshly laid eggs of greater adjutant-storks is similar to what was described by Hume and Oates (1890). The asynchronous laying of eggs is also reported by Saikia and Bhattacharjee (1996a). Lack (1968) states that in Ciconiiformes, the successive eggs in a clutch are laid two or more days apart, incubation starts with the first egg, and the young hatch one or more days apart. The development of the chick to fledgling stage and associated parental behaviour are more or less similar with other storks. The stork nestlings spend most of their time between meals sleeping and thereby reduce energy demands JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1). APR. 2003 23 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK (Kahl 1962). The rapid early growth pattern exhibited by altricial birds, aids to survival in several ways. A four- week old greater adjutant tried to leap in the air with flapping wings. The Marabou chick can stand and flap wings in 17 days (Brown et al. 1982) and Maguari chick can stand in 22 days (Thomas 1984). The postures, movements, and vocalizations in the begging display and nesting defence display of both Adjutant species were quite similar to the Marabou stork (Kahl 1972a). However, in solitary breeding storks, vocalization of the chicks are not as loud as those in colonial species (Kahl 1973). Incubation and Fledging Period: Pomeroy (1978a) estimated the age of the young “ fairly accurately” from their appearance to get the date of hatching, but our observations on different nests indicated that it would definitely vary. We found that individual chick growth was quite varied, i.e., a particular stage could not be always assigned to a particular age. Some chicks grew faster than the others. The incubation period of the greater adjutant is around 35 days as observed in the five focal nests. Except for the five nests, prolonged incubation period exceeding 35 days was noticed in some other nests. In one case, even when the first chick had grown to 30 days, an egg was still being incubated. Finally, it was dropped from the nest. Prolonged incubation has been reported in a number of bird species (Skiitch 1962, Afik and Ward 1989). Drent (1975) suggested that prolonged incubation was a functional response caused by the inherent variability in incubation period. Marks (1983) thinks that prolonged incubation behaviour is related to the time interval in which the entire clutch would normally hatch. This does not seem to be the case in greater adjutants whose clutch size is small and eggs hatch simultaneously. Prolonged incubation is also reported in painted stork (Desai et al. 977). Pomeroy ( 1 978a) reports that one pair of Marabous’ incubated for 1 50 days, and eventually one young fledged from that nest. He regarded it as re-laying of eggs in the same nest, which he found was 8% in Marabou stork. We also found 7.5% cases of probable re-laying in greater adjutant-storks. In three nests, we also noted a prolonged incubation period of 93, 97 and 107 days, which we suspect was re-laying. According to Lack (1968), the incubation period in Ciconiidae varies between 30-33 days. Incubation period in greater adjutants reported earlier is 30 days (Saikia and Bhattacharjee 1996b). It seems that our estimate of incubation period of 35 days is longer than in other storks: 32 days in American wood stork (Heinzman and Heinzman 1965), 32 days in white stork (Schuz 1972), 29-32 days in Maguari stork (Thomas 1984, 1986), 32 days in painted stork (Desai et al. 1977), 30-31 days in white-necked stork (Scott 1975), 28-30 days in Abdim’s stork Ciconia abdimii (Farnell and Shannon 1987) and 29-3 1 days in Marabou stork (Brown et al. 1 982, Kahl 1966, Pomeroy 1978a). The fledging period of greater adjutant- storks was about 142 days. The fledging period in Marabou stork was 1 32-135 days (Kahl 1 966, Pomeroy 1 978a). There was a gap of 67-74 days between first and last fledging in the greater adjutant-stork colony. We also found that young which hatched earlier did not necessarily fledge earlier. Even siblings of the same nest fledged asynchronously. However, we could not find out the exact fledging period according to the first flight of the nestling, as it was impossible to monitor all the nests of the colony continuously. However, we were able to calculate the duration of hatching to first flight in a few nests (c. 120 days, n=12) which was closer to the fledging period in Marabou stork. Comparing its biology with other storks, it appears that the greater adjutant-stork resembles, in most of its behaviour and biology, its congeneric the Marabou stork. The long breeding season of this colonial bird is an 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1). APR. 2003 BREEDING BEHA HOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK important phase in its life cycle, during which the crucial need seems to be food. 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Lack, D. (1968): Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds. Methuen and Co. Ltd. London, 409 pp. Marks, J.S. (1983): Prolonged incubation by a long-eared Owl. J. Field Ornithol. 54(2): 199-200. Meyerriecks, A.J. (1960): Comparative breeding JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 25 BREEDING BEHA VJOUR OF GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK behaviour of four species of North American Herons. Nuttak Ornith. Club 2: 1-158. Mundkur, T., P. Carr, Sun Hean & Chhim Somean (1995): Survey for large waterbirds in Cambodia March-April 1994. Gland: IUCN. Pomeroy, D.E. (1977a): Marabou Stork Leptoptilos cntmeniferus breeding colonies in Uganda../ East Africa Nat. His. Soc. and National Museum. 31(161): 1-11. Pomeroy, D.E. (1977b): The biology of Marabou Storks in Uganda. I. Some characteristics of the species and the population structure. Ardea 65: 1-24. Pomeroy, D.E. (1978a): The Biology of Marabou Storks in Uganda 11. Breeding biology and general review. Ardea 66: 1-23. Pomeroy, D.E. (1978b): Seasonality of Marabou Storks Leptoptilos cntmeniferus in Eastern Africa. Ibis 120: 313-321. Rahmani, A.R.. G. Narayan & L. Rosalind ( 1 990): Status of the Greater Adjutant-Stork (Leptoptilos dubius ) in the Indian Subcontinent. Colonial Waterbirds 13: 138-142. Saikia, P & P.C. Bhattacharjee (1989): A Preliminary Survey of adjutant storks in Assam. Asian Wetlands News 2(2): 14-15. Saikia, P & P.C. Bhattacharjee (1990): Nesting records of greater adjutant-storks in Assam, India. Specialist group on Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills Newsletter 3(1 &2): 2-3. Saikia, P & P.C. Bhattacharjee ( 1 996a): Studies on some aspects of the breeding biology of greater adjutant- stork, Leptoptilos dubius from the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam. Tropical Zoology 1(1): 57-64. Saikia, P & P.C. Bhattacharjee (1996b): Some aspects of the breeding biology of greater adjutant-stork Leptoptilos dubius in Brahmaputra Valley, Assam. In: Abstracts: Salim Ali Centenary Seminar on Conservation of Avifauna of Wetlands and Grasslands. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Schuz, E. (1972): Other stork species. In: Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia, (Ed. Grzimek, H.C.). Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Scott, J.A. (1975): Observations on the breeding of the Woolly-necked Stork. Ostrich 46(3&4): 201-207. Skutch, A.F. (1962): The constancy of incubation. Wilson Bull. 74: 115-152. Thomas, B.T. (1984): Maguari Stork nesting: juvenile growth and behaviour. Auk 101: 812-823. Thomas, B.T. (1985): Coexistence and behaviour difference among the three western hemisphere storks. Pp. 921- 93 1 . In: Neotropical Ornithology. (Eds: Buckley, P. A.. M.S. Foster. E.S. Morton, R.S. Ridgely and F.G. Buckley) Ornithology Monogr. No. 36. Thomas, B.T (1986): The behaviour and breeding of adult Magauri Storks. Condor 88: 26-34. Thompson. A.L. (1950): Factors determining the breeding seasons of birds: an introductory review. Ibis 92: 173- 184. Tomlinson, D.N.S. (1976): Breeding behaviour of the great white egret. Ostrich 47: 161-178. Urfi, A.. I. (1993): Breeding pattern of painted storks (Mycteria leucocephala Pennant) at Delhi Zoo, India. Colonial Waterbirds 16(1): 95-97. 26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN, PLATANISTA GANGETICA IN THE RIVERS KOSI AND SON, BIHAR, INDIA1 ( With one text-figure ) 2 3 R.K. SlNHA ' AND GOPAL SHARMA2 Key words: Platanista gangetica , population, threats, conservation, River Kosi, River Son, Bihar Surveys were conducted in February and March, 2001 to assess the current status of the Ganges river dolphin in the Rivers Son and the Kosi. No dolphin was sighted in the entire stretch of about 300 km of the Son, in Bihar. The local fishermen reported total elimination of dolphin population in c. 100 km stretch of the Son from the Uttar Pradesh - Bihar border to the Son Barrage at Indrapuri. During monsoon, the dolphins migrate for about 200 km from the mainstem of the Ganges into the Son up to the barrage. Dolphins were sighted in the entire stretch of about 300 km of Kosi between the Kosi Barrage at the Indo-Nepal border and its mouth at Kursela in Bihar. A total of 87 dolphins were sighted in the Kosi during the survey, however, many must have been missed due to the highly braided channel of the river. In both the rivers, no apparent source of pollution was found. Siltation and construction of the barrage were observed to be the main cause of habitat degradation in both the rivers. Introduction The Ganges river dolphin Platanista gangetica , commonly known as susu, is distributed in the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of India, Nepal and Bangladesh, between the foothills of the Himalaya and the estuarine zone. All the three Asian species of freshwater dolphins are classified as Endangered or Critically Endangered. Listed in order of most to least threatened, are baiji ( Lipotes vexillifer) in River Yangtze of China (population: a few tens), bhulan ( Platanista minor ) in River Indus of Pakistan (population: a few hundreds), and susu ( Platanista gangetica ), population about 2,500. The fourth freshwater species, boto ( Inia geoffrensis) is found in the Amazon River System in South America, population of which is estimated to be about 5,000. These four are the 'Accepted August. 2001 Environmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Patna University, Patna 800 005, Bihar, India. Email : rksinha@mail .girija.net. in only freshwater dolphin species found in the world. Obligate river dolphins live only in fresh water, their physiological and ecological requirements apparently make it impossible for them to live in marine waters. Other small cetaceans are normally associated with the marine environment, but they do range far upstream in large Asian rivers. These include, the finless porpoise ( Neophocaena phocaenoides) in the Yangtze river of China, and Irrawaddy river dolphin Orcaella brevirostris in the Ayeyarwady (formerly Irrawaddy) river of Myanmar, Mahakam river of Indonesia, and Mekong River of Lao P.D.R., Cambodia, and Vietnam. Sotalia fluviatilis is another such species found in the Amazon-Orinoco river systems of South America. The freshwater dolphins have a longer snout than marine species, which probably help them in collecting their food in the mud bottom of rivers. The two species of genus Platanista found in the Ganga and Indus system are practically blind, as they have eyes without crystalline lenses (Herald et al. 1969) and the JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 27 CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSI AND SON transparency of their cornea is limited as it is vascularised (Dawson 1980). While visual acuity is reduced in these species, they may be able to form crude images using the narrow aperture of the pupil in a manner analogous to a pinhole camera. Amazon and Yangtze river dolphins have very limited vision. Evolutionary adaptation to a fluviatile environment has resulted in a regression of the eye and the development of a sophisticated echolocation system, which allows Odontocetes, the suborder of toothed whales, to ‘see’ their environment through sound. Pulsed vocalization produced in specialized air sinuses in the nasal passages is focused by the ‘melon’ (forehead), which functions as an acoustic lens. The reflected pulsed sounds are received back through the jawbone, transmitted to the middle ear, and then analysed by the comparatively large brain. Although the meta-population of the susu totals over two thousand, isolated subpopulations, especially in Nepal and in the Karnaphuli-Sangu Pviver System of Bangladesh, have become extinct or critically reduced by the barrier effects of dams and barrages (Haque 1976, Smith et al. 1994). The distribution range of susu is shrinking, as evinced by their elimination from many of the smaller tributaries and upper reaches of the Ganga, where they were found earlier. Their population in the mainstem of the larger rivers is declining as they are being killed both incidentally as well as directly. Also, they compete unsuccessfully with humans for shrinking water and prey resources. The IUCN recently changed the status of the species from Vulnerable to Endangered (Baillie and Groombridge 1996). Dolphins swim almost constantly on their side. Shortly after a dive, they spin 90° on their lateral axis and 180° on their longitudinal axis, to swim on their side in the direction opposite to their surfacing direction. The head sweeps up and down in a scanning motion and the deeper pectoral fin, or flipper, trails along or slightly above the bottom. The flippers are thought to have an important tactile function. Shortly before surfacing, the dolphins reverse the spin back to the direction in which the dive began. In the Karnali river of Nepal, in their far upstream range as well as in the mainstem of the Ganga, susu are found most often in ‘primary habitats’ where convergent streams create an eddy counter-current system in the mainstream flow (Smith 1993). Less often, the dolphins are found in “marginal habitats” where the river meanders and creates similar eddy counter- current systems, which are also areas of high human use, making them particularly vulnerable to local environmental disturbances. The river dolphin often takes advantage of the ecotone created by the transition between scour pools and running waters, visible as eddy turbulence. They prey on species migrating along the mainstem, while monitoring foraging opportunities from within the hydraulic refuge of counter-currents. Current Status of the Ganges river dolphin The total population of the susu was roughly estimated to be only 4,000-5,000 (Jones 1982). Dolphins are sighted throughout the Ganga from the Middle Ganga Barrage, Bijnor (129 km downstream of Haridwar) to its mouth at Sagar Island in the Bay of Bengal. About 35 susus have been isolated between the two barrages at Bijnor and Narora (166 km) in Uttar Pradesh (Sinha et al. 2000). The population between Narora and Allahabad (about 500 km) in low water season (January-March) is very sparse (a few tens) (Sinha 1999). In the lower reaches of the Ganga in West Bengal, only 152 susus were sighted in the Bhagirathi- Hooghly river system below Farakka Barrage (Sinha 1997). Maximum dolphins survive in the Ganga mainstem between Allahabad and Farakka. Less than 100 have been estimated in Chambal river, a tributary of the Yamuna. A total of about 2,000 dolphins have been estimated in 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 CURRENT STA TUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSi AND SON the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems in the Indian territory (Sinha 1999). A few hundreds are present in Bangladesh. A comprehensive review of the susu’s status in the entire Ganga system including tributaries has recently been documented (Sinha et at. 2000). In the nineteenth century, dolphins were plentiful in the entire distribution range, though no actual data on populations is available. They were found in the Yamuna as far as Delhi, even in May when water was very low (Anderson 1879). In the last couple of decades, no dolphin has been sighted in the Yamuna at Delhi. Their current distribution in the Yamuna is mainly beiow the confluence of the Chambal and Yamuna near Etawah. In most of the small tributaries, dolphins have become locally extinct or are sighted only in the rainy season. Platanista gangetica is legally protected, being included in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and in Appendix I of Convention of international Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which prohibits trade in dolphin products by signatory countries. Past Distribution in Bihar Anderson (1879) has mapped the distribution of dolphins in the entire stretch of the Ganga, all its tributaries both large and small, in the state of Bihar. No detailed study, especially in the Ganga and some of its tributaries was conducted until more than 100 years later (Sinha 1996). Flowever, even this study was far from complete, as it was mainly conducted in the mainstem of the Ganga. When interviewed, the locals in North Bihar reported that about 40-50 years ago during monsoon, the susu were frequently sighted in all the rivers, including very small rivers, and connected water bodies. But, unfortunately, no baseline data on the status are available. Though a few papers on the Ganges river dolphin were published from Bihar earlier (Nath 1974, Gupta 1986, Ali 1992, Singh and Ahmed 1994, Kumar 1996) nothing specific is mentioned about its status and the reports carry only a general account of the species. Moreover, the papers record only casual observations on the animal in the River Ganga. Based on a systematic study, Sinha (1996, 1997 and 1999), Sinha et al. (2000) reported the current status and distribution of the susu in the Ganga and many of its tributaries. Though the overall estimate of susu abundance in the entire distribution range is not known, the largest sub-population occurs in the mainstem of the Ganga and its tributaries in Bihar. Most of the tributaries or parts thereof are yet to be surveyed thoroughly and these surveys were conducted in an effort to bridge this gap- Study Area (Fig. 1) River Son: The River Son originates from Amarkantak Hills at Sonabhadra, in Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of 600 m. It flows northwards through Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar before it discharges into the Ganga at Haldi-Chhapra village near Maner, about 35 km upstream of Patna. In Uttar Pradesh, it receives the Rihand tributary across which the Rihand dam was constructed in 1963. Though the Son is a perennial river, the main source of water is rain. Its total length is 784 km of which about 300 km are in Bihar. It enters the state of Bihar near the village Domarkhoha in Rohtas district. After flowing for about 35 km in Bihar, it receives the River North Koel from Chhota Nagpur Plateau of South Bihar (now Jharkhand State). About 65 km downstream of the confluence, the Son Barrage was constructed in 1965 at Indrapuri, about 15 km upstream of Dehri, to divert the river water through three irrigation canals — Patna Canal on the right side and Western Canal, which is divided into Buxar and Ara Canals on the left side. A weir JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 29 CURRENT STA TUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSI A ND SON 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 Fig, 1 : Map showing course of the Rivers Kosi and Son in Bihar CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSIAND SON constructed at Dehri in 1869-79 provided water for irrigation of 0.35 million ha of land. As the weir became old, the new barrage at Indrapuri was constructed which created a physical barrier for the migratory aquatic animals including dolphins of the river. The irrigation canals have converted the entire command area into a ‘Grain Bowl’ in Aurangabad, Jehanabad, Patna, Rohtas, Bhojpur, Kaimur and Buxar districts of Bihar. But this left almost no water downstream of the barrage to maintain its status as a river. The bed of the river consists mainly of coarse sand, which can retain little organic detritus. Extraction of sand as building material throughout this stretch of the river has added to the degradation and destruction of the river habitat. River Kosi: The River Kosi (965 km) originates in Tibet at an altitude of 5,490 m and flows through Nepal; after running for c. 285 km in Bihar it joins the Ganga near Kursela in Katihar district. The Kosi is formed by the convergence of three rivers, the Sun Kosi, Arun Kosi and Tamur Kosi in Nepal. After the confluence, the river flows through a narrow gorge for 10 km and enters the plains at Chatra, traverses another 25 km and enters India near Hanuman Nagar. The total drainage area is 74,500 sq. km of which 1 1 ,000 sq. km lies within India. The Kosi basin is the third largest in area in India. Its waters have the highest rate of siltation among the rivers of the state (average annual suspended load is 2,774 tonnes/sq. km) and it has a steep gradient. The Kosi is a torrential river of the mountains that has a catchment area too large for its relatively short course. Due to these topographical and meteorological features it is rated as one of the most problematic rivers of the world and is noted for its rapidity and unstable banks. Thus, in about 200 years, the river has moved 1 12 km laterally from Purnea to its present position. Average discharge in normal years for the Kosi is estimated to be 1,75,000 cusecs. The average run off during monsoon (June- September) is about 83% and only 17% in the rest of the year. July-August is the period of peak flow, whereas January-February is the leanest period (Datta Munshi and Datta Munshi 2000). The Kosi Barrage at Hanuman Nagar was commissioned in 1965 from which two canals take off on either side to irrigate nearly one million hectares of land in Nepal and India. The barrage is intended to prevent the river from moving sideways. The important tributaries of the Kosi are rivers Bagmati and Kamala Balan. Survey Methodology Downstream survey was conducted using country boats along the entire stretch of the rivers Son and Kosi. Following the recommendation of international experts (Perrin et al. 1989), direct count method was used to record the number of dolphins. Although searches were conducted continuously along the total length of the river under study, areas of confluence, meandering, downstream of sandbars etc. received greater attention. Search effort in these areas was maintained for at least thirty minutes to avoid missing extremely quiescent or long- diving animals. During survey, best, high and low estimates of the number of animals in the groups were recorded. The high and low estimate was used to reflect confidence in the accuracy of the best estimate. The low estimate was considered to be an absolute minimum count and the high estimate as maximum count. Identical best, high and low estimates were used to indicate a high level of confidence in our best estimate. Occasionally the dolphin appears to follow the boat, which adds uncertainty to whether the subsequent sighting is of a new or the same animal. In this case, a low estimate of zero was used to reflect the possibility of making double counts. The dolphin’s long dive time, unpredictable movements and quiescent behaviour also make single counts unreliable. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 31 CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSIAND SON During quiescent behaviour, the dolphin surfaces without an audible blow exposing only the uppermost dorsal surface of the melon. If subsequent surfacing, or confirmation by a second member of the team did not substantiate such a sighting it was given a best and low estimate of zero and high estimate of one. Estimates were arrived by concensus among the team of observers that initially sighted the dolphin. When a sighting was made the size, sex and colour among other features were ascertained. Diagnostic characters for individual animals (visible scarring and deformities, ratio of rostrum length to the height of melon, etc.) were noted and sketched. Photographs were taken by a 35 mm SLR camera, equipped with a 300 mm telephoto lens and motor drive. Data on the frequency of dolphin sightings per visit to habitat locations was recorded throughout the study and later processed. Results and Discussion River Son: A field survey was conducted in River Son between February 22 and 28, 2001. The survey started from a small tribal village Domarkhoha located at the Uttar Pradesh - Bihar border. Markings of large soft-shell turtles on the sand bar were seen, but no dolphin was sighted. Farther 5 km downstream at Belduria ghat / Newaria ghat, the locals informed that no aquatic wild animals except large soft-shell turtles were found in the area. However, a good number of dolphins and crocodiles had been reported in the river about 40-50 years ago. The Kaimur hill range is on the left bank (Rohtas district, Bihar) of the river between Domarkhoha and Newaria ghat. After this ghat, the river channel meanders towards the right bank (Garhwa district, Jharkhand) and a large island of about 100-150 sq. km has been formed which is used for farming. On the left bank, a 1-3 km wide plain is heavily cultivated for wheat, potato and vegetables. The river flows close to the left bank again at Teura ghat. No dolphin was sighted in this stretch. As reported by a fisherman, there used to be many deep pools of water in the river, but a high rate of siltation had filled up all these pools resulting in loss of habitats of dolphins and crocodiles. About 10 km downstream of Teura ghat is Uli ghat on the left bank. Opposite Uli, the River North Koel from Daltongunj and Garhwa districts discharges into the Son. However, the main channel of the Son flows close to the left bank. In spite of good habitats for dolphins near Uli ghat, no dolphin was sighted. It was learnt that about 10 years ago there used to be some dolphins in the area, but after the construction of the Rihand Dam in Uttar Pradesh the flow of the river had reduced which had affected the dolphin population. Another local fisherman informed about the killing of one dolphin about 15 years ago at village Jhitikia opposite Amjhore, about 30 km downstream of Uli. Earlier, the fishermen of village Deuri, located near Jhitikia, practised dolphin oil fishing. Frequent sightings of otters by the locals were reported near this ghat (river bank). The river channel is highly braided and several small as well as large sand bars have been formed in the river downstream of Uli. The bed consists of coarse sand, mainly quartzite. The flow in the river increases after the North Koel joins the Son at village Tilothu, about 10 km upstream of Son barrage. It was reported that after construction of the barrage at Indrapuri in 1965, dolphin migration stopped and no more dolphins are sighted now. However, during the flood every year juvenile gharials occasionally drift into this area. Locals reported the killings of soft-shell turtles and presence of otters in the river in this area. About 200 fishermen fish in the river at Tilothu. The depth of river water was only about 50 cm to a metre at most places and many times it was difficult for a boat to float down in the highly braided river. A large number of sandbars occupied by grasses and other thick vegetation have formed 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 CURRENT STA TUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSI A ND SON behind the barrage. They provide good habitat for otters and many species of migratory birds. The local fishermen informed us of sightings of dolphins below the barrage during the high floods every year. They migrate up to the barrage from the Ganga river about 200 km downstream. About 18 km downstream of the barrage is the 3.06 km long Dehri Road Bridge, commissioned in February 1965. The river channel is highly braided and the depth of the river flow is insufficient to float even a country boat. Farther 30 km downstream of Dehri — a ferry ghat, is Mahadeva ghat on the left bank and Daud Nagar on the right bank. The river bed is more than 3 km wide and is widely used for vegetable farming, both at Dehri and Mahadeva ghats. Most of the fishermen were busy in farming activities. A few of them were found doing subsistence fishing using small drag nets. A local fisherman informed us of the sighting of dolphins occasionally during flood season only. Otters are also sighted during the rainy season. The soft-shell turtles are found and killed during summer season. About 40 km downstream of Mahadeva ghat is Malhi Patti ghat on the right bank near Baiderabad. No dolphin could be sighted in this stretch; however, locals informed that during monsoon 3-7 dolphins were sighted every year. Heavy siltation in the river has destroyed the habitat of the susu. Otters are reportedly sighted occasionally near the Malhi Patti ghat. Turtles are found mainly during the monsoon. Farther 5 km downstream near Arwal is Ahiyapur ghat where a very good habitat for dolphin with eddy counter-current exists, but no dolphin was sighted. However, locals informed that during monsoon 10-15 dolphins are sighted here. Reportedly otters and turtles are also found. It is an important fish spawn cpllection centre in the monsoon. Sighting of five adult dolphins during the last monsoon of 2000 at Mohammadpur ghat, 20 km downstream of Arwal was reported by a local fisherman. During the survey, water flow in the River Son at this ghat was not enough to sustain a dolphin population in this season. Similarly, at Udaipur ghat near Pali, otters were found in the boulder pitched river bank, but no dolphin was sighted. It was reported that dolphins could be seen only during monsoon. The killing of a dolphin, three years ago, was reported by the locals. At Koilwar, the biggest site of sand mining in the River Son, 1 5-20 susu were reported during the monsoon. Earlier the dolphins used to be killed here by harpooning. The local fishermen consume both the meat and oil of the dolphin. The drift gillnets with large mesh size are dangerous for dolphins during monsoon as they get entangled in these net. River Kosi: A survey in the River Kosi was conducted between March 2 and 10, 2001. Sighting records of dolphins are given in Table 1. The survey was started from the Kosi Barrage at Birpur. Water depth in the reservoir of the barrage was only about 5 m. The river water was being diverted to irrigation canals and almost no water was allowed to flow into the river downstream of the barrage. Hence, the river water below the barrage was very shallow, and not enough to sustain dolphin population below the barrage. When the gates of the barrage were opened in April, the dolphins from farther downstream moved to the barrage site. In April 1994, dolphins were sighted here (Sinha et al. 2000). One or two dolphins are reportedly killed here every year. The locals reported that the dolphins cross the barrage gates both ways in the monsoon season. This needs to be confirmed, but if true it is good for the survival of the dolphins not only in India but also in Nepal. Further 42 km downstream of the barrage at Bhaptiahi, two dolphins were sighted. Here the water depth was about 5 m. As water in the river in this stretch was quite low no dolphin was sighted between the barrage and Bhaptiahi. Poison-fishing in the floodplain wetlands was reported by the local fishermen, as also killing of soft-shell turtles. The river channel was highly JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 33 CURRENT STA TUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSI AND SON Table 1 : Status of the Ganges dolphin in the River Kosi during March, 2001 Place GPS Reading Distance from Kosi Barrage (in km) No. of Dolphins H B L No. of Groups of Dolphins Kcsi Barrage 26° 31 .24’ N 86° 56.03! E 0 - - - Bhaptiahi 26° 18.31' N 86° 44.06' E 42 - - - * Sujanpur 26° 13.18' N 86° 37.48’ E 60 8 7 6 3 SituharGhat. 26° 05.39' N 86° 30.40’ E 72 6 5 5 1 E 2 Ghat 26° 00.98’ N 86° 28.10' E 78.3 9 8 8 2 Baluaha Ghat 25° 52.49' N 86° 27.05 'E 92 2 2 0 1 Dengrahi Ghat 25° 43.49' N 86° 30.07' E 102 9 8 8 2 Badla Ghat 25° 34.17' N 86° 35.34' E 135 10 9 9 2 Chautham Ghat 25° 33.01' N 86° 39.32' E 156 4 4 4 1 Dumri Bridge 25° 32.46’ N 86° 42.89' E 167 3 3 3 1 Vijay Ghat 25° 25.1 7’ N 87° 05.1 3' E 220 20 17 16 3 Kursela 25° 25.39' N 37° 13.57' E 270 16 14 14 3 H - Highest, B - Best, and L - Lowest; Total No. of the dolphins: H-87, B-78, L-73; * - Reported by locals braided and shallow in this stretch. Farther downstream, four aduits, two sub adults and one calf dolphin were sighted at Sujanpur, a village on the left bank near Thirbitia. The locals were expecting the number of dolphin to increase up to 20-25 after the gates of the barrage would be opened in April. At this site, two channels of the Kosi join resulting in increase in water flow. The water depth near the village was 6 to 8 m. Locals here do not kill dolphins, though turtles and avifauna were poached. Otters were reported in the area. About 9 km downstream, a very good dolphin habitat was found near the spur, but no dolphins were sighted. However, just 3 km further downstream at Situharghat three adults, two sub-adults and one calf dolphin were sighted (Highest 6 - Best 5 - Lowest 5) in one group. The locals reported killing of a dolphin at this site. Farther downstream, a highest of 9 and 8 each of best and lowest count of dolphins 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY / 00(1), APR. 2003 CURRENT STA TUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSI AND SON (4 adults, 3 sub-adults and one calf) were sighted at E2 Ghat (93.2 km from the barrage). About 20-25 hard-shell turtles were also sighted. Erosion of the left embankment was noticed here. The locals reported degradation of dolphin habitat due to the erosion. Incidental killings of dolphin by gillnets were reported, however, no intentional killing was reported. Soft-shell turtles of 20-40 kg were reported at this site. Poison- fishing in floodplain wetlands was reported by the locals. The fishing activity was found to be very low. Fourteen kilometres further downstream is Baluaha ghat, another Ferry ghat. The river flows close to the left bank in this stretch. One dolphin was sighted here, however, the locals reported sighting of a good number of dolphins around the year. A large number of small turtles were also sighted. Ten kilometres further downstream is Dengrahi ghat where a highest of 9 and 8 each of best and lowest counts of dolphins were sighted in two groups including 6 adults and 3 sub adults. It was a very good habitat for the dolphins and the river was flowing mainly along the left bank. Gharials were reportedly sighted here. Soft-shell turtles up to 50 kg are killed regularly, however, dolphins are not killed here according to the locals. About 23 km further downstream is Koparia, 125 km downstream of the barrage. The east embankment of the Kosi terminates here. The river channel was highly braided and it was impossible for a boat to float downstream from Koparia. The survey was resumed from Bad la ghat in River Bagmati, an important tributary of Kosi. In this area, the highly braided channel of River Kosi flows parallel to Bagmati being separated only by 7 km. A channel of Kosi discharges into Bagmati upstream of Badla ghat. Near the Badla ghat railway bridge, a highest of 10 and 9 each of best and lowest counts of dolphins, including 6 adults, 3 sub-adults and one neonate were sighted in two groups. The river water was quite deep and meandering, and with erosion, eddy counter-currents were creating a good habitat for the dolphins. The water current in the river was very slow but the deeper zone sustained a good population of the dolphins. At Chautham ghat, 2 1 km farther downstream, 4 adult dolphins were sighted. Ten kilometres downstream of the Chautham ghat, the Bagmati joins the Kosi near Dumri Road Bridge. The Bagmati is deeper than Kosi near the confluence. Absence of dolphins, at the confluence of Bagmati and Kosi, was disappointing. The local fishermen reported non- availability of fish in the area as a reason for the absence of the dolphins. Three adult dolphins were sighted about 2 km downstream the Dumri bridge. Dolphins are reportedly neither killed nor eaten by the locals in this area. The dolphin oil is used only as folk medicine. Otters are occasionally sighted farther 35 km downstream at Vijay ghat, Naugachhia where a highest of 20, best of 17 and lowest of 16 dolphins in three groups were sighted. The villagers here killed dolphins and reportedly over 30 containers of dolphin oil were available on that day in the village. Here the river channel was very wide (about 3-4 km) and water near the right bank was about 15 m deep. Downstream from Vijay ghat and about 1 km upstream of Kursela Bridge a dry channel of Kosi, Chhoti Kosi joins the main channel — the Bari Kosi. At the confluence of the two, a highest of 16 and 14 each of best and lowest counts of dolphins including 8 adults, 4 sub adults, one calf and neonate each were sighted. Four dolphins were sighted in the dead channel. Subsistence fishing with lift-net and cast-net was observed here. A local businessman accompanying our team up to this point informed us that a large (20 1 .5 kg) dolphin was caught at Kursela in 1 995 and he had transported it to Siliguri fish market himself. Otters were reported to be abundant here. The Kosi discharges into the Ganges 3 km downstream of Kursela Bridge. Thus, in the Kosi a highest of 87 and best of 78 dolphins were sighted distributed almost along the entire stretch of the river. As the river JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 35 CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSI AND SON channel is highly braided many more must have been missed. Threats to the Survival of Dolphins The main threats to dolphin survival are the construction of barrages, heavy siltation, farming in the river bed using chemical fertilisers and organochlorine pesticides, use of detrimental fishing gill nets, shortage of fish in the rivers, and incidental as well as intentional killings of the dolphin for oil and meat. The barrages have created a physical barrier for all the migratory species of the rivers, including dolphins. As there is no industry and urban settlement on the banks of the two rivers, the possibility of organic pollution is remote. However, non-point sources of pollution, namely chemical fertilisers, organochlorine pesticides and heavy metals cannot be ruled out. Conservation Measures The heavy siltation in the rivers has degraded the dolphin habitat. There is a serious need for mass scale plantation in the catchment area of the rivers to reduce the silt load entering the river system. For this, international efforts are required as the Kosi flows through Nepal and the greater part of the silt load originates there. A minimal flow of water in the rivers must be allowed even during the lean season, so that the Refe Ale Mohammed S. (1992): The Gangetic Dolphin. Myforest 28(3): 245-250. Anderson, J. (1879): Anatomical and Zoological researches: comprising an account of zoological results of the two expeditions to western Yunnan in 1 868 and 1 875; and a monograph of the two cetacean genera Plcitanista and Orcaella. B. Quaritch, London, Vol.I&lI. Baillie, J. & B. Groombridge (Eds) (1996): IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Conservation International, Washington DC, pp. 70+368 and 10 annexure. Datta Munshi, J.S. & J. Datta Munshi (2000): The dolphin population can survive and migrate. Another serious need is fishery regulation in the rivers. No effective regulation exists. The detrimental gill-nets must be banned and only dolphin friendly nets should be allowed. The efficacy of legal measures to protect dolphins is non-existant. Hence, there is a need to motivate wildlife and other administrative officials to implement the Wildlife (Protection) Act efficiently. An alternative fish attractant, other than dolphin oil that is used throughout the state, should be identified. Recently, fish scrap oil has been field-tested for three years and found to be a good alternative to dolphin oil as fish attractant (Sinha 2002). However, there is again a serious need of a long term extension programme for educating the fishermen to use the alternative fish attractant. Education and awareness programmes to educate the target group, i.e. fishermen, officials, school and college children, and the common man will be helpful in conserving the dolphin. Periodical monitoring of the dolphin population will help in evaluating the effects of Dolphin Conservation Programmes, if any. Acknowledgements Financial help by WWF-India is duly acknowledged. Help rendered by the local fishermen was valuable and praiseworthy. ENCES sustainability of hydrological cycle of wetlands of Kosi river basin on North Bihar, India. In: Water Recycling and Resource Management in the Developing World (Eds: Jana, B.B., R.D. Banerjee, B. Gusterstam & J. Heeb). University of Kalyani, India and International Ecological Engineering Society, Switzerland. Pp. 665-674. Dawson, W.W. (1980): The cetacean eye.. In: Cetacean Behavior: Mechanisms and Functions (Ed.: Hannan, L.M.). Wiley-Interscience, New York. Gupta, D. (1986): The Gangetic dolphin Platanista gangetica (Lebeck, 1801 ). Pp. 553-562. In: Wildlife Wealth of India (Resources and Managements) 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN IN THE RIVERS KOSI AND SON (Ed.: Majupuria, T.C.). Teepress Service, L.P. Bangkok. Haque, A.K.M. Aminul (1976): Comments on the abundance and distribution of the Ganges susu Platanista gangetica , and the effects of the Farakka Barrage on its population. FAO ACMRRR, Scientific Consultation on Marine Mammals, AGMRR/MM/SC 132. Herald, E.S., R.L. Brownell Jr., F.L. Frye, E.J. Morris, W.E. Evans & A.B. Scott (1969): Blind river dolphins: first side - swimming cetacean. Science 1 66: 1408-1410. Jones, S. (1982): The present status of the Gangetic susu Platanista gangetica (Roxburgh), with comments on the Indus susu P. minor Owen. FAO Advisory Committee on Marine Resources Research Working Party on Marine Mammals. FAO Fish Ser. (5)4: 97- 115. Kumar, Arvind (1996): Impact of industrial pollution on the population status of endangered Gangetic dolphin {Platanista gangetica) in the river Ganga in Bihar, India. Pol. Arch. Hydrobiol. 43(4): 469-476. Nath, Bhola ( 1 974): On some aspects of habit and habitat of the Gangetic dolphin {Platanista gangetica) (Lebeck) in the river Ganges at Patna. The Naturalist, Bull, of the Bihar Natural History Society Vol. 1 , pp. 6-7. Perrin, W.F., R.L. Brownell Jr., Zhou Kaiya & Liu Jiankang (Eds) (1989): Biology and Conservation of the River Dolphins. IUCN Species Survival Commission Occasional Papers 3. Singh, A.K. & S.H. Ahmed (1994): Gangetic Dolphin. Fishing Chimes , pp. 9-1 3. Sinha, R.K. (1996): Bioconservation of the Gangetic Dolphin Platanista gangetica. Final Technical Report, Patna University, submitted to National River Conservation Directorate, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, New Delhi. Pp. 69 + 42 Tables + 21 Plates + 5 Appendices. Sinha, R.K. (1997): Status and Conservation of Ganges River Dolphin in Bhagirathi-Hooghly river systems in India. Int. J. ofEcol. Env. Sc. 23(4): 343-355. Sinha, R.K. (1999): The Ganges river dolphin — a tool for baseline assessment of biological diversity in River Ganges, India. Final Technical Report, Patna University. Tech. Rep. No. 1/99 submitted to Biodiversity Support Program (BSP), a Consortium of World Wildlife Fund, The Nature Conservancy and the World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Pp. 34+16 Tables + 6 Figures. Sinha, R.K. (2002): An alternative to dolphin oil as a fish attractant in the Ganges river system: Conservation of the Ganges river dolphin. Biol. Conserv. 107: 253- 257. Sinha, R.K., B.D. Smith, G. Sharma, K. Prasad, B.C. Choudhury, K. Sapkota, R.K. Sharma & S.K. Behera (2000): Status and distribution of the Ganges susu {Platanista gangetica) in the Ganges River system of India and Nepal. In: Biology and Conservation of Freshwater Cetaceans in Asia (Eds: Reeves, R.R., B.D. Smith & T. Kasuya). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. viii + 1 52 pp. Smith, B.D. (1993): 1990 Status and conservation of the Ganges River dolphin {Platanista gangetica) in the Karnali River, Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 66: 159-170. Smith, B.D., R.K. Sinha, K.U. Regmi & K. Sapkota (1994): Status of Ganges river dolphins Platanista gangetica in the Mahakali, Karnali, Narayani and Saptakosi rivers in Nepal and India. Marine Mamma! Science 10(3): 368-375. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 37 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE ALONG THE EASTERN BOUNDARY OF THE KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA1 ( With two text-figures ) PUNIDAN D. JEYASINGH2'3 AND PR1YA DAVIDAR2 Key words: Sus scrofa cristatus , wild pigs, crop loss, crop raid, human-wildlife conflict, electric fence Crop raiding patterns by wildlife at ten villages along the eastern boundary of the Kalakad- Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR), southern India were studied. The Indian wild pig (Sus scrofa cristatus) was identified as the major crop pest in this area and the crop loss caused by it was quantified. The effectiveness of an electric fence to prevent crop raids by wild pig was also assessed, comparing (1) mean group size of pigs, (2) extent of damage in sq. m, (3) actual and potential loss, and (4) frequency of wild pig raids. The actual loss was estimated at 257. 19 kg ha1 accounting for approximately 7% of the actual produce. The electric fence was not effective in preventing crop raiding by the wild pig. The number of wild pigs was not correlated with the extent of damage. Extent of damage might be a factor of time spent in the paddy field, suggesting that wild pigs might raid paddy fields for habitat requirements rather than for nutritional requirements. It is vital to understand crop-raiding patterns prior to the implementation of control strategies. Introduction Strategies for reconciling human needs and conservation interests in areas abutting nature preserves are critical to the success of conservation plans (Gradwohl and Greenberg 1988, Western and Pearl 1989). Crop depredation by wildlife can occur more frequently than the highly publicized and prioritized, but sporadic livestock raids. Over the years, farmers have developed a variety of measures such as fencing, culling, dogs, firecrackers, fire and drums to chase away pest species and reduce crop loss to wild animals. Today, when many crop raiding species are protected by law and are focal points for conservation, the need for effective and long- term control methods is felt. Some of the control measures include physical barriers, selective culling and environmental control methods, such 'Accepted July, 2002 2Salim Ali School of Ecology, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry 605 014, India. 3Present Address: Department of Zoology, University of Oklahoma, 730 Van VleetOval, Room 314, Norman, OK 730 19-0235, USA. E-mail: puni@ou.edu as providing better habitat in the forest interiors, away from human habitation (Sukumar 1992). Recently, electric fencing has become one of the methods widely used by both private farmers and the government to prevent crop raids by wild animals. In a predominantly agricultural and densely populated country like India, conflicts between humans and wild animals are frequent, and preventing conflict should be a conservation priority (Sukumar 1992). Damage by the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) has been estimated at c. $0.5 million/per year in southern India (Sukumar 1989). Although considerable work has been done on the crop damage patterns and management strategies for larger wildlife, such as the elephant and tiger (landmark studies include Sanyal 1987, Sukumar 1991), work on wild pigs is sparse, except for Tisdell (1982), and Ahmed (1991). Crop damage patterns along the eastern boundary of the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve by different wildlife species and wild pigs in particular were analyzed and crop loss due to wild pigs, the major pest in the area, were 38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE estimated. The study also attempted to understand the possible cues for crop raiding by the wild pig in the area, and to suggest effective control measures. An electric fence, erected with the aid of the World Bank, was assessed for its effectiveness against the wild pig. Study Area The study was carried out from December 1998 through March 1999 in ten villages located in the eastern boundary of the Kalakad- Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR), southern India. KMTR is situated at 08° 25' - 08° 35' N and 77° 25' - 77° 35' E and covers 795 sq. km of the southernmost protected area in the Western Ghats complex. Along the northeastern boundary of the Reserve, an 8.7 km long electric fence was erected in 1996 with partial funding from the World Bank to control crop damage by wildlife (Fig. 1). The fence is about 160 cm high and consists of 7 wires running parallel to the ground attached to granite posts at intervals of 2.5-3 m. Wires 2 and 5 are ground wires. The rest of the wires have an output of 36V generated from a 12V solar battery. The lowest wire is c. 10 cm from the ground and the second wire (earth wire) is c. 30 cm from the ground. Ten villages located along the 26 km eastern boundary of the KMTR were selected for the study. Four villages were located in the Mundanthurai area and were separated from KMTR by the electric fence. The fifth village abutting the Mundanthurai section (Pudukudierrupu) was not protected by an electric fence. The other five villages bordered the Kalakad section of KMTR (Fig. 1). All the study villages had lowland teak dominated deciduous forests, thickets, and scrub jungles, representative of the vegetation of the buffer zone of KMTR. All the crops grown along the boundary, such as paddy, banana, sugarcane, and groundnut, were also cultivated in the 10 study villages (Table 1). Table 1: Details of the Study Villages S.No Village Vegetation type adjoining the village Electric Fence 1. Pothigaiadi Secondary Thicket * 2. Anavankudierrupu Secondary Thicket * 3. Kilanai Secondary Thicket * 4. Arunachalapuram Secondary Thicket * 5. Pudukudierrupu Rocky/ Grassland X 6. Sivapuram TDDD X 7. Mungiladi Secondary Thicket X 8. Manjuvelai TDDD X 9. Kalliyar TDDD X 10. Chidamparapuram Secondary Thicket X TDDD = Teak Dominated Dry Deciduous, Present - *, Absent -x Methods Farmers’ Perceptions A questionnaire was circulated among farmers in the 10 study villages to estimate wildlife raids, crop loss, and other relevant information. Results from the questionnaire indicated the actual or realized yield and crop loss due to wild pigs. Potential yield and crop loss estimates were based on quadrat data. Both the questionnaire as well as quadrat data were used to estimate crop loss because farmers tended to underestimate production and overestimate crop loss due to wildlife. Crop Raids Information regarding the wildlife species involved in the raid, group size, and the time of raid were obtained from the farmer who had witnessed the raid or through direct observation. The species responsible for the highest proportion of raids and damage in the area was identified as the major crop pest species. Crop Damage Crop damage was assessed within 24 hrs of the damage. The site was visited, and the mean plant density (MPD) was estimated to assess crop loss. MPD measurements were determined in the JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 39 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE Fig. 1: Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve damaged and undamaged sites in the field. MPD was estimated by laying 12-30 quadrats (30 cm x 60 cm) at random in the undamaged part of the field. The field area was noted. The total number of plants in the field (P ) was estimated by Pu = MPD x Area of the field in sq. m (Eq 1) A sample of five plants was taken from each quadrat for which the number of grains and mean weight per grain were calculated. The damaged area was identified as the portion of the field where all the stalks had been 40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE flattened to the ground and could not be harvested. The average length and width or radius within the damaged areas were measured and the area of the closest resembling regular shape, i.e., square, rectangle, or circle was calculated in sq. m. The total number of damaged plants (P ) was calculated using the formula Pd = MPD x damaged area in sq. m(Eq 2) The number of grains per damaged plant was counted and weighed. The potential produce (standing crop) was estimated by P =P N W / 1000(Eq 3) p u g g V i 7 where, Pp = Potential produce in kilograms, Pu = total number of plants in the field, Ng = mean number of grains per plant, and = mean weight of one grain in grams. The potential loss (P,) in kilograms due to crop damage can be estimated by P =P,N W / 1000 I d g g where Pd = total number of damaged plants The average actual produce (kilograms of paddy sold by the farmer in the market) was estimated using the farmer’s claim and a brief survey of the buyers. The market value of the crop was obtained from the farmers and wholesalers to arrive at the actual loss in kilograms and rupees. The potential loss was the loss measured during this study based on the yield measured by the quadrat study. Loss per raid thus calculated was used to extrapolate the loss for a month using the mean number of wild pig raids in each of the ten study villages. Effect of the electric fence The villages were divided into villages protected by an electric fence and unfenced villages. A t test or its non-parametric equivalent, the z test, was used to test for significant differences between the two in the following parameters: 1 . Mean group size of pigs. 2. Extent of damage in sq. m. 3. Actual and potential loss. 4. Frequency of wild pig raids. 5. Frequency of larger wildlife sightings on cropland. Results Crop raiding patterns A total of 121 farmers were interviewed, and 39 instances of fresh crop raids were observed. Of these, 35 were on paddy fields, 3 on banana plantations and 1 on sugarcane. The results show that of the 1 1 species of crop pests reported, wild pigs were the most and accounted for 99% of the crops damaged during the study (Table 2). Crop raiding patterns of wild pigs on paddy were dependent on the age of the crop (Ahmed 1991, Jeyasingh 1999). The ears of paddy were nipped off, chewed well, the juice ingested and the fibre spat out. In banana plantations, wild pigs fed on the stem, flower, and fruit by reaching up on their hind legs and biting the stem to bring down the canopy. On younger plants, they nosed around the plant to expose and feed on the tender shoot. Sugarcane stems were consumed voraciously from the bottom for the juice and fibre. Other wildlife reported to stray outside the Reserve boundary included larger herbivores like the sambar ( Cervus unicolor ), chital (Axis axis), Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) and carnivores such as leopard ( Panthera pardus ), wild dog (i Cuon alpinus ) and sloth bear ( Melursus ursinus). Apart from these, smaller mammals such as black-naped hare ( Lepus nigricollis), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and the jungle cat (Felis chaus) were also sighted (Table 2). Data on wild pigs only, the major pest on paddy crop, was considered for analysis. The frequency of wild pig raids in the ten study villages was proportional to the area of land under cultivation (Table 3). The mean number of crop raids per month by wild pigs in the fenced JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 41 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE Table 2: Wildlife raids on croplands in 1998-99 in the ten study villages Common name Local name Latin name IUCN Status Number of sightings Villages F UF Leopard Puli Panthera pardus EN 4 1 3 Wild dog (Dhole) Chen Nai Cuon alpinus EN 2 1 1 Sloth bear Karadi Melursus ursinus EN 6 1 5 Sambar Mila Maan Cervus unicolor LR/CD 14 4 10 Chital Pulli Maan Axis axis LR/CD 4 1 3 Black-naped hare Muyal Lepus nigricollis DD 12 5 7 Jungle cat Kattu Punai Felis chaus VU 86 54 32 Common palm civet Mara Nai Paradoxurus hermaphroditus VU 3 3 0 Bonnet macaque Korangu Macaca radiata VU 7 6 1 Indian wild pig Kattu Panni Sus scrota LR/CD 121 68 53 IUCN = International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, F = Fenced villages, UF = Unfenced villages, EN = Endangered, LR/CD = Low risk/ conservation dependent, VU = Vulnerable, DD = Data deficient villages was 2 1 .80 and 22.54 in unfenced villages (Table 4). The mean group size was about 11 animals in each category (Table 4). The crop loss between the fenced and unfenced villages was not significantly different (Table 4). The regression between the number of wild pigs and damaged area was not significant (r2 = 0.09), suggesting that the extent of damage was not dependent on the number of pigs involved in the raid. Economic value of crop loss The overall crop damage in all the villages studied was estimated to be Rs. 16,270.65, at Rs. 4.40 per kg of paddy (Ministry of Agriculture, Govt, of India) in all the ten villages during the study. The approximate loss of paddy to wild pigs was 7% of the actual produce in all the villages (Fig. 2). Potential and actual yield were estimated at 5270.29 kg ha*1 and 3697.93 kg ha*1 respectively. The potential loss was estimated at 366.56 kg ha-1 and the actual loss was 257.19 kg ha'1 (Fig. 2). Effects of the electric fence on crop loss There were frequent large mammal sightings in the unfenced villages compared to the fenced villages (Table 2). The mean quantity Table 3: Sampled area and estimated crop loss per village Village No. of raids studied Area of the Field (m2) Damaged Area (m2) Estimated Potential Produce (kg) Loss in kg Loss per raid in kg Sivapuram 4 928.2 69.405 632.77 44.85 11.21 Chidamparapuram 4 617.5 43.65 530.75 33.95 8.48 Mungiladi 3 183.93 30.54 132.71 22.04 7.34 Kalliyar 2 125.6 28.05 106.10 13.51 6.75 Manjuvelai 4 713 63.42 626.94 57.91 14.47 Pudukudierrupu 3 1450.8 68.52 714.03 31:50 10.5 Anavankudierrupu 5 655.05 50.84 583.45 50.12 10.02 Pothigaiadi 5 123.2 67.26 1387.3 71.88 14.37 Kilanai 3 172.5 26.08 143.7 21.49 7.16 Arunachalapuram 2 424.14 15.32 355.42 12.81 6.4 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1 00(1), APR. 2003 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE of paddy lost per pig raid in fenced villages was 9.48 kg, with Pothigaiadi recording a maximum of 14.376 kg/raid. In the unfenced villages, the mean loss was estimated at 9.65 kg/raid, with Manjuvelai recording the highest at 14.47 kg/raid (Table 3). There was no significant difference (P = 0.05) in the loss estimates, raiding frequency, and wild pig group size between the fenced and unfenced villages during the study period (Table 4). Discussion The study indicated that the wild pig was the major crop pest along the eastern boundary of the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. The wild pig causes significant damage to paddy, the major crop in the study area, accounting for about 7% of the actual yield. The extent of loss might vary, depending on the season and the year. The crop is damaged as the wild pigs wallow in the abundant mud and water in paddy fields. They consume the grain at only one stage, the ‘milk maturity stage’; otherwise they do not eat any part of the paddy plant (Ahmed 1991, Jeyasingh 1999). The Indian wild pig is a forest loving omnivorous mammal. Its diet includes roots, tubers, bulbs, fruit, insects, molluscs and remains of tiger and wild dog kills (Prater 1980, Tisdell 1982, Seshadri 1986). As it does not have sweat glands, the wild pig must drink regularly and wallow to regulate body temperature (Ahmed 1991). Therefore, it requires water sources, especially during the hot season. It prefers to remain in the shade of reeds and shrubs, which help in thermal regulation, and prefers open canopy and dense undergrowth at night (Tisdell 1982). It is crepuscular, although in areas where human interference is high, it is known to become nocturnal (Prater 1980). The home range of a sow tends to be 5-30 sq. km and that of a boar about 50 sq. km. The boar is mobile Fig. 2: Schematic representation of loss calculations and is known to move long distances for food and mating opportunities (Prater 1980, Tisdell and Fadeer 1981). Group sizes vary with climatic conditions and a sounder of 10-15 individuals is common (Brander 1923, Prater 1980). Until the 1 960s, forests adjoining the study villages were disturbed periodically: clear cutting deciduous forests and planting commercially important species, construction of dams, intense cattle grazing and frequent fires (Joshua and Johnsingh 1989). As a result, plant species composition is dominated by fire resistant and JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 43 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE Table 4: Difference between raid frequency, group size of wild pigs and crop loss in fenced and unfenced villages Parameter Fenced Unfenced 95% C 1 Z P= 0.05 N Mean SD n Mean SD Frequency 49 21.80 3.60 59 22.54 4.53 0.74+1.53 0.9526 * Group size 45 11.27 7.05 56 11.26 7.53 0.01 +2.85 0.2158 * Crop loss 16 9.48 5.86 19 9.65 6.87 0.33 +3.13 0.1078 * *-not significant highly silicified species (Johnsingh 1986). Moreover, the two major reservoirs within the Reserve, Karaiyar and Servalar may desiccate all potential wild pig wallows along the rivers inside the Reserve. The non-significant regression between number of pigs and extent of damage suggests that the extent of damage might be a factor of time spent in the cropland, suggesting that wild pigs might prefer the paddy fields mainly for the ambience rather than for forage. The 8.6 km long electric fence erected with World Bank aid in 1996 does not appear to be effective against the major crop pest. There was no significant difference in raiding patterns of wild pigs and crop loss between the fenced and unfenced portions of the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve’s boundary. It is apparent that the fence was designed to deter larger mammals such as the elephants, sambar and chital. This might be because the fence is designed in such a manner that there is a gap of 40 cm (approximate to 10 different places in the fence) between the lowest live wire (first wire) and the next live wire (third wire), making it possible for smaller animals to slip through. Moreover, the second wire at about 30 cm from the ground is an earth wire, which might enable the larger pigs to penetrate the fence without getting an electric shock. We suggest that the gap between the three lower wires be reduced to eliminate penetration by wild pigs. The scrub dominated hills and private irrigation canals along the border are refuges for the sounders of wild pig once they are outside the fence. It is evident that the fence has not been designed to control the wild pig. Preliminary studies must be carried out before a control or management project is conducted. The success of such a venture depends on its effectiveness in reducing crop damage by wildlife. The project should be monitored to assess its effectiveness. If crop damage continues despite such a project, it may create distrust among villagers towards the Forest Department, reducing their goodwill towards conservation efforts in the area. Human use of the landscape is a reality and must be dealt with in reserve design (Kramer et al. 1 997), the importance of people in the success of conservation schemes has been stressed in both developed and undeveloped countries (McNeeley and Norgaard 1992, Kothari et al. 1996). It is suggested that the wild pig raids reported in this study be controlled as soon as possible, before local villagers completely lose faith in the forest department. It is further recommended that suitable habitats such as wallows be created within the Reserve for wild pigs, and wild pig incidence in cropland be tested after such environmental control measures. Crop loss to wildlife in a country like India is a bane for conservation efforts, where farmers compete with wildlife for space and resources. Quantifying crop loss and identifying the cues J' y for wildlife to raid crops are vital in developing efficient conservation strategies. Correct management and control measures are needed to ameliorate the economic loss incurred due to wildlife, and to cultivate conservation awareness among local communities. 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE Acknowledgements This study was funded by a grant from the MacArthur Foundation to the University of Massachusetts-Boston and Pondicherry University. The authors wish to thank Dr. K.S. Refer Ahmed, B.H.M. (1991): Man and wild boar, Sus scrofa cristatus (Wagner) interaction from the Western Ghats region of South Maharashtra. Ph.D. thesis, Shivaji University, Kolhapur. 183 pp. Brander, D.A.A (1923): Wild Animals in Central India. 1st Indian edition, 1982. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun, India. 296 pp. Gradwohl, J. & R. Greenberg (1988): Saving the Tropical Forest. Earthscan Ltu. London. 214 pp. JeyasingFT, P.D. (1999): Crop depredation by the Indian wild pig Sus scrofa cristatus at fenced and unfenced areas on the eastern boundary of the Kalakad- Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. M.S. thesis, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India. 46 pp. Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1986): Impact of fire on wildlife ecology in two dry deciduous forests in south India. Indian For. 112(10 ): 933-938. Joshua, J. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1989): Threatened gallery forest of river Tambiraparani, Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, South India. Biol. Conser. 47: 273-280. Kothari, A.,N. Singh & S. Suri (Eds) (1996): People and Protected Areas: Toward Participatory Conservation in India. Sage Publications, New Delhi. 276 pp. Kramer, R., C. van Shaik & J. Johnson (Eds) ( 1 997): Last Stand: Protected Areas and Defense of Tropical Biodiversity. Oxford University Press, New York. 242 pp. McNeeley, J.A. & R.B. Norgaard (1992): Developed country policies and biological diversity in developing countries. Arg. Ecosyst. Environ. 42(1- Bawa for interest in the project. The Forest Department of Tamil Nadu, in particular the office of the Field Director of Kalakad- Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, which provided facilities and logistical support and Dr. M. Sankaran for his input and support. ENCES 2): 194-204. Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 324 pp. Sanyal, P. (1987): Managing the man-eaters in the Sunderbans Tiger Reserve of India — A case study. In: Tigers of the world: The biology, biopolitics, management and conservation of an endangered species (Eds: Nelson, R.D. and U.S. Seal). Noyes Publication, Park Ridge, New Jersey. Pp. 427-434 Seshadrj, B. (1986): India’s Wildlife and Wildlife Reserves. Sterling Publishers, New Delhi. 241 pp. Sukumar, R. (1989): Ecology of the Asian elephant in Southern India II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns. J. Trop. Ecol. 6: 33-53. Sukumar, R. ( 1 99 1 ): The management of large mammals in relation to male strategies and conflict with people. Biol. Conser. 55: 93-102. Sukumar, R. (1992): The Asian Elephant. Its ecology and management. Cambridge University Press, London. Pp. 251. Tisdell, C.A. & E.V. Fadeer (1981): Dynamics of the northern limits of the area of distribution of the wild boar, Sus scrofa in eastern Europe. Biol. Nauk ( Mosc ). 10(9): 56-64. Tisdell, C.A. (1982): Wild pigs: Environmental pest or economic resource? Pergamon Press, London. 445 pp. Western, D. & M. Pearl (Eds) (1989): Conservation for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford University Press, New York. 365 pp. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 45 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIRIS, SOUTHERN INDIA: THEIR ECOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY1 Kartik Shanker2 Key words: rodents, Rattus rattus , Millardia meltada, montane forest, grassland, plantation Small mammals were studied in the montane ecosystems of the Nilgiris in the Western Ghats, southern India, from February 1994 to September 1996. A total of 35,000 trap-nights were sampled in various habitats including montane forests, grasslands, and man-made habitats such as Eucalyptus, Pinus and Acacia plantations. A total of nine species were trapped in the montane forest patches and three to four species in each of the other habitats. Rattus rattus was dominant in the montane forests, while Millardia meltada was dominant in the grasslands. Both species were found in plantations. The occurrence of M. meltada in the high altitude grassland is remarkable, as it is not found in such habitats elsewhere, nor is it found in intermediate habitats in the Nilgiris. Species richness and abundance of small mammals was high compared to other natural habitats in southern India. While various aspects of the demography, habitat utilisation and community structure were studied, many others, regarding small mammal population dynamics, which are pertinent to their conservation and that of their predators, still need to be addressed with extensive field studies. Though this particular field is in its infancy in India, it is hoped that this and other such studies will pave the way for more such work in the future. Introduction Small mammals have been studied extensively, including aspects of life history (see Fleming, 1979 for review) demography (Fleming 1975), insularity (Gliwicz 1980; Adler and Levins 1994), desert communities (Kotler and Brown 1988; Brown 1989), competition (Grant 1972) and habitat utilisation (August 1983). However, they have been largely ignored in India except in taxonomic accounts (Agrawal and Ghose 1969; Biswas and Tiwari 1966; Chaturvedi 1966; Ellerman 1961; Ellerman and Morris-Scott 1951; Ghose 1964), surveys and pest management studies in agricultural areas (Barnett and Prakash 1975; Sood and Guraya 1976; Prakash 1976, 1988; Prakash and Ghosh ‘Accepted December, 2002 2Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India. Present Address: H-Vl/2, Habib Complex, Durgabai Deshmukh Road, RA Puram, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: kartikshanker@vsnl.net 1992; Karim 1994). The lack of concern for murid rodents in particular is perhaps reflected in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972) where this family (which includes most rodents apart from the giant squirrels, flying squirrels and a few others) is relegated to Schedule V (vermin) and reduced to two entries, namely ‘rats’ and ‘mice’. There is, however, a fairly large body of work on the distribution of rodents in the country, largely due to numerous surveys by the Zoological Survey of India. Notable amongst these is the pioneering work of Dr. Ishwar Prakash (Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur) which includes extensive studies on the Indian desert gerbille Meriones hurrianae (Prakash 1964, 1969, 1981; Prakash et al. 1965; Prakash et al ., 1969; Prakash and Jain 1970; Prakash and Idris 1992), ecology of rodent communities in various ecosystems in northwestern India (Agrawal and Prakash 1992; Prakash 1975, 1994; Prakash and Gupta 1976; Prakash and Rana 1973; Prakash et al. 1971; Prakash et al. 1996, 1995) and rodents as pests in agriculture (Barnett and Prakash 1975; 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIR1S Prakash 1976, 1988; Prakash and Ghosh 1992). The Rodent Newsletter of the All India Coordinated Research Project on Rodent Control (Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur) has, since the mid 1970s, provided a forum for issues on rodents as pests. Apart from these efforts, however, the available information about rodents in natural habitats is minimal throughout most of India. Interest in small mammal studies amongst wildlife biologists and animal ecologists in India gradually increased in the early 1990s. While the latter are interested in theoretical aspects of community ecology and population biology, the former are more concerned about the role played by small mammals in ecosystems, especially as prey of small carnivores, some of which are endangered. Chandrasekhar (1989) and Chandrasekhar-Rao and Sunquist ( 1 996) studied small mammal communities in various habitat types in the Anamalais. Small mammal communities were also examined in the context of fragmentation of rainforests in the Western Ghats (Mudappa, pers. comm.; Prabhakar 1998) and in plantations in Kerala (Bhat and Sujatha 1986). Other recent ecological work includes studies on habitat utilisation in three rodents in sandy habitat in the Thar (Mukherjee 1 999), and rodents as a prey base for small carnivores in Sariska Tiger Reserve (Mukherjee 1998). I studied small mammal (rodent and insectivore) communities in montane (shola- grassland) ecosystems in the Nilgiris in southern India. The population dynamics and community ecology of small mammals have been dealt with extensively; I review these results briefly. Firstly, it is clear that density estimation methods have to be developed or modified with tropical forests and tropical small mammal populations in mind, especially when densities are low (Shanker 2000a). Alternately, one must focus on questions that do not deal directly with densities, but with other parameters that can be measured with precision in tropical systems. In examining the demography of small mammal populations in shola patches, a comparison between populations in small and large fragments showed that while population fluctuations between fragments were asynchronous, fluctuations within large patches were synchronous (Shanker and Sukumar 1 999). This requires closer examination in the context of fragmentation in the Nilgiris and other parts of the Western Ghats. The demography and community structure of these small mammal populations was related to fragment size and habitat characteristics of the montane patches (Shanker and Sukumar 1998). Interspecific competition appeared to be less important than other factors such as intraspecific competition and predation (Shanker 2000b). Differences in small communities in different habitats and the significance of plantations in the landscape were examined and metapopulation processes and landscape effects on these populations in the montane ecosystem were explored (Shanker, in press). Since small mammal community ecology is a relatively new field of study in the tropics, and India in particular, a great many questions remain unanswered. In many ways, this study threw up more questions than it answered. I attempted to address some of these questions with field and laboratory studies. In this paper, I give a brief overview of the small mammal study in the Nilgiris, with an emphasis on the natural history and ecology of the various species. I also present some hypotheses, and questions that remain unanswered during the study. Study Area The Nilgiris are located between 11° 10* - I I ° 30' N and 76° 25' - 77° 00’ E at the junction of the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats, in southern India. The study was conducted at higher altitudes (1,800-2,500 m above msl) of the Nilgiris which have a montane ecosystem, comprising of patches of stunted evergreen forest JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 47 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGJRJS (locally called ‘sholas’) surrounded by grasslands. Though most grasslands have been replaced by exotic species such as wattle (. Acacia spp.), pine (Finns roxburghii ), tea ( Camellia sinensis) and blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus ), the natural ecosystem remains intact in the southwest region of the Nilgiris plateau. The stunted montane evergreen forest patches, usually 1-10 ha in size with few exceeding 100 ha, are confined to depressions and folds in the mountain. They are extremely dense, with 5000+ woody plants (>1 cm d.b.h.) per hectare, and are dominated by the families Lauraceae, Rubiaceae and Symplocaceae (H.S. Suresh and R. Sukumar, unpubl. data). There is a sharply defined ecotone between the montane forest patches and the grasslands that are maintained by frost and fire (Meher-Homji 1984), The climate is highly seasonal, with a dry season extending from December to February, a pre-monsoon season from March to May, the southwest monsoon fr om June to August and a second wet season from September to November. Most of the areas sampled receive annual rainfall of 1,500- 2,000 mm. Methods Sampling Procedures Live trapping of small mammals was carried out between February 1994 and September 1996. Montane forest patches and grasslands were sampled using 0.49 ha and 1 ha plots. Traps were placed at intervals of 10 m so that each 0.49 ha plot consisted of 49 permanently marked trap stations, in a square grid of 7 x 7 traps (the 1 ha plots had 100 trap stations, in a 10 x 10 configuration). Due to their size and shape, plantations were sampled using 0.45 ha plots (15x3 trap stations). A standard Sherman live trap (22.9 cm x 7.6 cm x 8.9 cm) was placed on the ground at each station, close to a tree, log, or any other appropriate runway. The traps were baited with grated coconut and rice. All trapped animals were identified, uniquely marked (Ear-punch, National Band and Tag. Co., Kentucky # 1538), sexed, weighed, measured and released. The traps were checked once daily between 0800 hrs and 1200 hrs. The plots were run for five consecutive nights during February-October 1994. Trap mortality was found to be particularly high towards the end of the trapping period in some seasons, and the trapping duration was thus reduced to three nights for the rest of the study (Shanker 1998). Six montane evergreen forest patches, ranging from 2 to 600 ha, were extensively sampled using nine 0.49 ha plots and two 1 ha plots (see Shanker 1998; Shanker and Sukumar 1998). The sampling was primarily carried out in the Upper Bhavani region of the Mukurthi National Park and at Thaishola, about 20 km east of Upper Bhavani (which is about 65 km southwest of Udhagamandalam). Thaishola is the largest shola in the Nilgiris, (c. 600 ha) and the other sholas sampled ranged from 2 to 60 ha. Grasslands were also sampled using 0.49 ha plots. Both forest patches and grasslands were also sampled with 0.45 ha plots, which enabled comparisons with plots in anthropogenic habitats which had a similar design. Anthropogenic habitats - tea, gum, wattle and pine - were sampled using 0.45 ha plots, including wattle plantations of three different ages (Table 1). Additionally, a 0.90 ha plot was established in an old wattle plantation to study the interaction between Rattus rattus and Millardia meltada. Each plot was sampled several times, typically once during each season (= ‘session’). Data Analysis Various estimators were attempted using capture-mark-recapture models, but these could not be applied consistently to all species across all seasons (Shanker 2000a). Hence, we used the minimum number alive (Krebs 1966), which is the total number of animals of a particular species trapped during a trapping session. 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 10.0(1), APR. 2003 SMALL MAMMA LS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIR1S Table 1 : Trapping effort and habitat characteristics of the habitat types sampled in the Upper Nilgiris and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Habitat Plots Sessions Trap- nights Canopy cover Grass Woody stems Tree density Height (m) Grassland (0.45-ha) 9 19 3,486 Open High None None Wattle - young 3 6 810 Open Medium High None 3.2 Wattle - mid 1 4 540 Medium High High Medium 4.1 Wattle - old 3 9 1,800 Closed Low Medium High 9.9 Shola forest 15 89 c. 20,000 Closed Low High Medium 11.5 Bluegum 2 6 810 Open Low Low Medium 5.3 Tea 2 3 335 Open Low Medium None Pine 3 10 1,350 Closed None None Low 10.9 Results In all, 1,310 individuals were trapped in the sholas, grasslands and plantations with an overall trapping success of 10.6%. A total of 9 species were trapped, there were 8 species in montane evergreen forests, 3 species in the grassland, 3 species in wattle, eucalyptus and pine plantations, and 4 species in tea plantations (Table 2). Rattus rattus was the dominant species in the montane forest and comprised 60.9% of the total density, while Miliardia meltada was the dominant species in the grassland. In the natural habitat (forest and grassland), the two species are mutually exclusive. While the former was trapped in the forest patches, the latter was the only rodent trapped in the grassland. An analysis of wattle stands of different ages shows that Miliardia dominates young stands (grass- like habitat), while Rattus dominates the older Table 2: Average density (MNA/ha) of rodents and shrews in the various habitats in Upper Nilgiris Species/ Thai- Other Grass- Wattle Wattle Wattle Blue Tea Pine Habitat shola Sholas land young mid old Gum Rodents Rattus rattus R .r. rufescens Cremnomys blanfordi Mus famulus Mus platythrix Platacanthomys lasiurus Miliardia meltada Vandeleuria oleracea Funambulus sublineatus Ratufa indica Shrews Suncus montan us Suncus dayi Feroculus feroculus 14.7 12.4 0 0 5.0 16.6 R 4.0 8.4 4.0 S L L - - - - - R - R R - - - - - - - L R - - - - - - - e - 9.6 6.6 25.5 8.3 7.7 2.0 2.6 o V V V - - - - - - - 4.3 4.3 1.2 2.2 4.4 4.3 2.5 0.7 2.0 L L R - - - - - - * Thaishola is the largest shola in the Nilgiris at 600 ha. S - Single capture, R - rare species i.e. caught more than once, but only on a few occasions, L - low density i.e. caught during many trapping sessions, but usually only one or two captures during a session (density < 1 /ha), V - visual sighting, * - incidental capture JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 49 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIRIS stands (forest-like habitat). Suncus montanus, a shrew, was the only species captured in both habitats. The other common species in the montane forest included Mus famulus and Suncus dayi. The total density and biomass of small mammals were highest in the old and middle- aged wattle stands. While Rattus rattus accounted for the bulk of the density and biomass in the old stands, Millardia meltada was the dominant species in the middle-aged stands. Montane forests had intermediate densities and biomass, while grasslands had relatively low density and biomass. The density and biomass of the dominant species were substantially higher in some plantations than in the natural habitats. The density of Millardia meltada was significantly higher in middle-aged wattle stands than in grasslands, while the density of Rattus rattus was significantly higher in old wattle plantations than in montane forest patches. R. rattus attained a maximum density of 34 animals/ha and biomass of 3.3 kg/ha in November 1995 in an old wattle plantation. M. meltada peaked at 31 animals/ha (1.6 kg/ha) in June 1995 in a middle-aged wattle plantation. Seven species of rodents (Order Rodentia) and two shrews (Order Insectivora) were captured during the study period (Table 2). Two other species of rodents were sighted, but not trapped. These included the dusky striped squirrel Funambulus sublineatus, and the Indian giant squirrel Ratufa indica. The latter is a much larger species and is not relevant to the study. Kelaarf s long-clawed shrew Feroculus feroculus Kelaart, was caught once during preliminary trapping. This marks an extension of its territory from its previously known range (Pradhan et al. 1997). The small mammals considered here ranged in size from 6 to 206 gm, and could in theory have weighed up to about 300 gm, based on the size of the traps used. The suborder including rats and mice is the most widespread and has the largest number of species. Compared with other rodents, members of the Family Muridae (true mice) may have evolved most recently. One hypothesis suggests that murids evolved in southern Asia, as the earliest fossils of murids have been found in Pakistan. This would have been followed by adaptive radiation to the other continents. Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) (Muridae) The most common and well known of murid rodents is the common rat Rattus rattus , also known as the black, roof, house or ship rat. R. rattus is found worldwide, and owes much of its ubiquity to accidental human introduction. While the brown rat Rattus norvegicus , has successfully colonised temperate countries, the black rat has invaded and is widespread in most tropical countries, including India. Ellerman (1961) divides the black rats broadly into two categories, the white-bellied form, which is usually found in the wild and the dark-bellied form, which is usually commensal with man; he further sub-divides them into 16 subspecies. The white-bellied form, which was trapped in many habitats in our study, was identified as Rattus rattus wroughtoni Hinton (Dr. M.S. Pradhan, ZSI, Pune, pers. comm.). It was trapped in natural habitats and in plantations. The dark-bellied subspecies Rattus rattus rufescens , which is usually found in agricultural fields, was trapped in wattle plantations. Both subspecies were trapped in the same area, raising questions about their relative taxonomic status. However, in another study, all white-bellied individuals collected from the Nilgiris were identified as Rattus satarae based on chromosomal, morphological and isozyme studies (Francois Catzeflis, pers. comm.). There are two separate issues here: are the different forms (subspecies) of Rattus rattus in fact separate species, as Catzeflis suggests? Does the Rattus rattus trapped in the Nilgiris belong to the species/ subspecies ‘ wroughtoni' or ‘satarae'l Only extensive molecular genetic studies can provide 50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIRJS answers to questions surrounding the taxonomy of the various forms of Rattus rattus found all over India. Rattus rattus is highly arboreal in the wild. The females are territorial, while the males appear to be free ranging. Each female occupies a nest on her own and has 3-4 pups. The adult is about 15-20 cm long with a tail that is 20-25 cm long; large males weigh about 150 gm, while adult females weigh 100-120 gm. Though males rarely weighed above 1 50 gm, a single individual weighing 206 gm was trapped once during the study. Interestingly, the white-bellied form of Rattus rattus (wrought onil) was also dominant in lowland evergreen forests in the Nilgiris (Meena 1997), Anamalais (Chandrasekhar 1989; Prabhakar 1998) and Kalakkad (Divya Mudappa, pers. comm.). Millardia meltada Gray (Muridae) Millardia meltada , the soft-furred field rat, found in cultivated fields throughout India (Prater 1988), has adapted successfully to the grasslands of the Upper Nilgiris. The general colour is pale brownish-gray, grayish-white on the underside. It has large rounded ears and a hairy tail, has a head body length of 13-15 cm, a tail nearly as long, and weighs 50 to 70 gm. This rat is commonly found in agricultural land and lowland plantations and is a major pest in many areas in north, central and southern India. In natural habitat that was sampled in various studies in southern India, M. meltada was not trapped in the mid elevation forests or plantations in Kalakkad-Mundanthurai or Anamalais and in the mid elevation forests and grasslands in Mudumalai. Its occurrence in the high altitude grasslands of the Nilgiris is therefore a matter of some interest. It is also notable that it was not found in high elevation grasslands in Aravalli hills, though it was abundant at lower elevations (Prakash et al. , 1995). It is possible that this species colonized the Nilgiris grassland before the advent of man about 1 000 years ago, and subsequently occupied the plantations about 200 years ago. Alternatively, it may have arrived as a commensal with man and colonized the grasslands subsequently. While there has been a long standing debate on the origin of the grasslands in the Nilgiris (Bor 1938; Ranganathan 1938) recent studies indicate that it is a climax ecosystem (Sukumar et al. 1993; Rajagopalan et al. 1997). It can therefore be expected that some rodent species would have occupied this habitat. Whether Millardia meltada is the original colonizer or a more recent one that arrived as a commensal can only be ascertained by paleontological or molecular genetic evidence. Weight of animals in captivity Fifteen individuals of Millardia meltada were kept in captivity. Within three to seven days of capture, 4 individuals gained weight at an average of 9.3% of their body weight, 5 individuals lost weight (7.8%), and 3 showed no change in weight. Of 1 7 individuals of Rattus rattus that were kept in captivity, 15 (88.2%) showed an increase in body weight within three to seven days. Eleven of these showed an average increase of 3.14% per day within the first week, which would lead to an increase of about 20% within a week. The maximum increase was 40% of the body weight at capture in five days. Mus spp. (Muridae) Bonhote’s field mouse Mus famulus Bonhote is a small animal with a brown coat and a yellow underside. It is found at 1,507 m and above in the Nilgiris, and a few other hills in the southern Western Ghats. It is 5-8 cm long and weighs about 20 gm, and is probably less arboreal than the other rats and mice. It was found in areas of higher tree density in the forest patches (Shanker 2000b). The spiny field mouse Mus platythrix Bennett a species common all over India, is brownish above and white below. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 51 SMA LL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIRIS Its fur is composed of flattened spines (Prater 1988). It was trapped in the two largest sholas in the first year of the study and was not trapped subsequently. Some information on the ecology of Mus platythrix and Mus booduga (Chandrahas 1974) is available; the brood of the latter has even been found in abandoned baya nests (Kichtar and Tiwari 1992) Platacanthomys lasiurus (Muscardinidae) and other rare rodents (Muridae) Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth is light rufous brown above and a dull white below. The muzzle is pointed, the ears are thin and naked, and the hind feet are broad and elongated. It is 13-20 cm long and weighs about 70 gm. The spiny dormouse inhabits rocky hills and forests at altitudes of 600 m and above. It lives mainly in the cavities of trunks and branches, and in clefts in rocks. The long tail, covered with hair, serves as a balancing organ for this highly arboreal animal. This species appeared after several months of trapping in the two largest sholas, Thaishola and the 60 ha shola. It was trapped only from September to January. There is little information on the distribution of this species, however, a number of new locales have recently been documented (Rajagopalan 1968; Jayson and Christopher 1995; Prabhakar 1997). This is the only endemic small rodent in the Western Ghats, the other endemic rodents being the grizzled giant squirrel ( Ratufa macroura ) and a flying squirrel ( Petinomys fascocapillus). The white-tailed wood rat Cremnomys blanfordi Thomas is very similar to the common rat in appearance, except for the tail, which is brown for three quarters of its length, but white towards the tip. It is highly arboreal in forests, makes a large and untidy nest, and has a litter of 2-3 young. This species was represented by a single capture in Thaishola and is probably not common at higher altitudes. It was dominant in lower elevation Deciduous Forests in Mudumalai in the Nilgiris (Meena 1997). The long tailed tree mouse Vandeleuria oleracea Bennett can be distinguished by the fact that the first and fifth toe on all four feet are partially opposable and have a flat nail instead of a claw. It is about 7 cm in length, with a tail that is slightly longer. It is an extremely attractive creature, with a reddish coat and white underparts. It was trapped only once during two years of trapping in the Upper Nilgiris. Suncus spp. (Order Insectivora, Family Soricidae) Suncus murinus (Linnaeus), the common or grey musk shrew, is found all over India in all kinds of habitats, and is common in cities as well. It is about 10-12 cm long with a slightly shorter tail, and weighs about 20 gm. In the Nilgiris, Suncus montanus Kelaart, a similar looking shrew, is more common. Suncus dayi Dobson, a much smaller shrew, weighing just 6 to 10 gm, is also found in the Nilgiris. Shrews are highly aggressive animals and on occasions, when two shrews were caught in the same trap, one would devour the other. On one occasion, a shrew and a common rat ( Rattus rattus ) were released simultaneously from a trap, whereupon the shrew attacked the weakened rat and chewed off its ear. Shrews have been known to attack rats, and Prater (1988) suggests that presence of shrews in houses may deter rats. Saini and Parshad (1996) report the consumption of a gerbil by a shrew in a multi-catch trap. Shrews tend to die in traps as they have a high metabolic rate; also in this case, the food in the trap was usually vegetable matter such as coconut. The smaller shrew, Suncus dayi , was rarely captured live in the trap. Discussion Although ‘small mammals’ do not constitute a taxonomic entity, the term generally includes mammals from 2 gm to 5 kg (Bourliere 1975). Of the 4,200 odd mammal species, 90% 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIR1S weigh less than 5 kg. Ten out of sixteen mammalian orders contain mostly small species. In fact, both in birds and mammals, the below 1 kg class embraces the most successful order: of some 8,600 species of birds, 5,100 belong to the Order Passeriformes; of the 4,200 mammal species, about 1,700 are rodents. In India, there are about 100 species of rodents, with about 25 species in southern India. Most studies have recorded relatively few species of small mammals (three to five) in each habitat (Chandrasekhar 1989; Meena 1997; Divya Mudappa, pers. comm.). Prabhakar (1998) trapped 7 species of rodents and 1 shrew in mid-elevation rainforests. In comparison, the species richness in the high elevation montane forests of the Nilgiris is high with 6 species of rodents and 3 shrews. In addition, the grasslands had one rodent species. Trapping success (10.6%) was also high compared to studies in south India, where trapping success was 5% or lower (Chandrasekhar 1989; Meena 1997; Divya Mudappa, pers. comm.). A pattern that seems to have emerged from these studies is that mid to high elevation evergreen forest fragments support the highest species richness and abundance of small mammals in natural habitats in southern India. Another clear pattern is the dominance of the white-bellied form of Rattus rattus ( wroughtoni and/or others) in evergreen habitat at mid and high elevations (this study; Chandrasekhar 1989; Meena 1997; Prabhakar 1998; Divya Mudappa, pers. comm.) There has been a long debate on the importance of competition in structuring ecological communities (Connell 1983; Schoener 1983). The distribution of Rattus rattus and Millardia meltada in this ecosystem is particularly interesting. They are completely exclusive in the natural habitat, which is particularly notable in the shola grassland system where there is a sharp ecotone between the two habitat types. Rattus rattus would be found till the edge of the shola and Millardia meltada till the edge of the grassland, and therefore within metres of each other, but never in the other habitat. Though this initially indicated some competitive exclusion, the two species coexisted in the plantations. The distribution of the species may thus have been influenced more by the habitat parameters, trees in the case of Rattus rattus and grass in the case of Millardia meltada. This is also supported by the fact that Millardia meltada is dominant in young wattle stands, which have more ground cover, while Rattus rattus is dominant in older wattle stands with taller trees (for details, see Shanker 2000b). Removal and introduction experiments in the montane forests and grasslands did not show any competition between the species (Shanker 2000b). While the evidence for competition between the species is low, it would be interesting to carry out reciprocal removal experiments in the wattle stands where the species coexist. Gut content analysis should provide some evidence on the feeding habits of the two species. Since one is a grassland species and the other a forest species, another method of studying differences in foraging would be to look at stable carbon isotopes in bone collagen (DeNiro and Epstein 1978; Sukumar and Ramesh 1992). Food choice experiments would also shed light on their feeding habits. Small mammals such as rodents are considered to be especially important components of the ecosystem as they serve as prey for small and medium sized carnivores In the Upper Nilgiris, potential predators include several birds such as raptors, owls and crows and several mammals such as jungle cat, leopard cat, small Indian civet, ruddy mongoose, jackal and Nilgiri marten (listed in Shanker and Sukumar 1999). Study of the demography of small rodents in the montane patches revealed some interesting patterns. The population of Rattus rattus in the smaller fragments was asynchronous, which may be due to predation and demographic stochasticity (Shanker and Sukumar 1999). JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1). APR. 2003 53 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIR1S Further, population characteristics of small mammals were affected by patch size (Shanker and Sukumar 1998). Apart from Rattus rattus and Suncus montanus, the other species were not trapped during all trapping sessions in the forest plots. This indicates that some of these species might periodically go extinct in the smaller patches. These would thus be a good system for the study of metapopulation biology, especially in the context of the persistence of rare species in the patch network. The shola-grassland and shola-plantation habitats also provide different kinds of landscapes to study the effects of edge permeability and habitat connectivity on small mammal populations. The results show that plantations, especially old stands, have high small mammal densities. This could affect the population dynamics of small mammals in the forest patches. These factors need to be taken into account in the management of these areas, and may be important factors to consider in the conservation of predators that depend on these small mammals for food. The theory of island biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson 1967) was extended to isolated habitats on land with a study of mammals on mountaintops (Brown 1971). Since there are certain patterns in insular small mammal populations in the Nilgiris, similar patterns may exist in other montane ecosystems in the Western Ghats. Other studies on fragmentation in southern India have found effects of insularity and patch size on small mammal communities in lower elevation evergreen forests (Prabhakar 1998). It is possible that the patterns observed in the Nilgiris may be generalised to montane systems in the Western Ghats. It would also be interesting to look at the montane systems of various ranges as islands and examine the impact of isolation on the small mammal communities of ‘mountain tops’. One could also compare the distribution of Rattus rattus and Millardia meltada in the Nilgiris with other montane ecosystems. The relationship between population synchrony and geographical distance was not clear at smaller spatial scales. One of the ways to study population structure is through molecular genetic analysis. Populations of Rattus rattus from several montane forest patches and Millardia meltada from grasslands in the same areas were studied using multi locus minisatellite DNA fingerprinting. Patterns of inter-individual and interspecific variation in these rodent populations were examined. Inter-individual variation in Rattus rattus was found, which could be used in population genetic analysis (Kartik Shanker, Anindya Sinha and Trupta Purohit, unpubl. Data). More data is required before patterns of variation and population structure can be discerned. Currently, molecular tools such as microsatellite analysis are widely used for population genetic studies and can be used to answer these questions. It is clear that much work remains to be done on small mammals in tropical ecosystems. The montane ecosystems of the Western Ghats offer a fascinating landscape where ecological hypotheses of interest can be tested. It is hoped that future generations of Indian ecologists will address some of these questions. Acknowledgements The study was supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, USA. I thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department and Electricity Board for their assistance. I am grateful to my Ph.D. supervisor, Dr. R. Sukumar for his support, to my assistant, Jalendran and particularly to P. Mayavan for his assistance and companionship in the field. 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIRIS References Adler, G.H. & R. Levins (1994): The island syndrome in rodent populations. The Quarterly Review of Biology 69: 473-490. Agrawal, V.C. & D.K. Ghose (1969): A new field rat (Mammalia: Rodentia: Muridae) from Kerala, India. 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Rajagopalan (1997): Late Quaternary vegetational and climatic changes from tropical peats in southern India — An extended record 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIRJS up to 40,000 years BP. Current Science 73: 60-63 . Ranganathan, C.R. (1938): Studies in the Ecology of the Shola Grassland vegetation of the Nilgiri Plateau. Indian Forester 64: 523-541 . Saini, M.S. & V.R. Parshad(1996): Do shrews prey upon rats? J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91: 446. Schoener, T. W. ( 1 983): Field experiments on interspecific competition. American Naturalist 122: 240-285. Shanker, K. (1998): Community ecology of small mammals in montane ecosystems of the Upper Nilgiris, southern India. Ph.D. Thesis. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. India. Pp. 195. Shanker, K. 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Guraya (1976): Rats and their control. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Pp. 1- 31. Sukumar, R. & R. Ramesh (1992): Stable carbon isotope ratios in Asian elephant collagen: implications for dietary studies. Oecologia 91: 536-539. Sukumar, R., R. Ramesh, R.K. Pant & G. Rajagopalan (1993): A dnC record of late Quaternary climate change from tropical peats in southern India. Nature 364: 703-706. m m a JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1), APR. 2003 57 THE EFFECTS OF CATTLE GRAZING AND HABITAT ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CHITAL {AXIS AXIS) IN THE MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, SOUTHERN INDIA1 Guha Dharmarajan2, M. Raman3 and Mathew C. John4 Key words: cattle, chital, Axis axis, helminth loads, habitat Coprological estimation of helminth eggs per gram of faeces (epg) was used as an index to study how habitat and sympatric grazing by cattle affect helminth loads in chital ( Axis axis ) at the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Two distinct groups of chital were sampled, fortnightly, in Dry Deciduous forest (DDF) and Scrub forest (SF), one in areas with sympatric cattle grazing and the other in areas without cattle. The median helminth load (MHL) of chital in DDF without cattle (2 epg) and SF without cattle (1 epg) showed no significant difference (p>0.05). However, the MHL of chital in DDF with cattle grazing (2 epg) and SF with cattle grazing (4 epg) differed significantly (p<0.05). Chital in DDF with or without sympatric cattle had MHLs of 2 epg (p>0.05). However, the MHL of chital in SF with sympatric cattle grazing (4 epg) and without cattle grazing (1 epg) showed a significant difference (p<0.05). It is hypothesized that in nutrient-poor scrub areas where chital are further subjected to resource competition by cattle, nutrient levels may be lowered, making chital increasingly susceptible to either their own parasites or to those of cattle. Introduction In India there is increasing human pressure on protected areas, one manifestation is the growing domestic-wild animal interface and its resultant — increased chances of interspecific transmission of disease. Endangered wildlife populations are usually protected from virulent pathogens because they are usually well below the threshold population size (HT) (Lyles and Dobson 1 993). However, this may not be the case when wild and domestic animals share both pasture and pathogens. In this study, we examined the effects of both cattle and habitat upon parasitic worm loads in chital {Axis axis). We used a quantitative estimate of the number of propagules (eggs or larvae) in the host faeces as an index of parasite loads in the host. Egg 'Accepted July, 2002 2Centre for Ecological Science, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email: guha@fnr.purdue.edu 3 Dept, of Parasitology, Madras Veterinary College, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai 600 007, Tamil Nadu, India. 4 Dept, of Wildlife Science, Madras Veterinary College, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai 600 007, Tamil Nadu, India. output is considered to be an accurate indicator of parasite biomass because of its positive correlation with worm size and number (Skorping et al. 1991). Though this method has limitations (Foreyt and Trainer 1 980), being non- invasive it is useful in wildlife. Study Area Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park, and Sigur Reserve Forest (11° 32- 1 1° 93’ N and 76° 22'- 76° 43' E) have elevations between 900-1000 m above msl. A high diversity of vegetation types has been observed (Sukumar et al. 1992). There is a rainfall gradient from the western side (1,800 mm/year) which is characterized by Moist and Dry Deciduous Forests (DDF) to the eastern side (600 mm/year) composed mainly of Dry Thorn or Scrub Forest (SF). Material and Methods Hosts sampled Cattle and chital were sampled between 0700 and 0900 hrs at fortnightly intervals, from May to late July, 1999. As the maximum linear 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 EFFECTS OF CA TTLE GRAZING AND HA BITA T ON HELMINTH LOA DS OF CHITA L distance between sightings of individual chital is only 2 km (Barette 1991) they could be divided into non-overlapping groups: 1. Chital in Dry Deciduous Forest areas with sympatric cattle grazing. 2. Chital in Dry Deciduous Forest areas without sympatric cattle grazing. 3. Chital in Scrub Forest areas with sympatric cattle grazing. 4. Chital in Scrub Forest areas without sympatric cattle grazing. Since the same cattle grazed in both Dry Deciduous and Scrub Forest areas, samples collected from cattle in different habitat types had to be pooled. Coproiogical study A representative sample (approx. 2 gm) was collected from distinct, fresh dung piles in labeled, pre-weighed containers with 10 ml of 10% formalin. The exact weight of faeces was calculated by subtracting the weight of the container and formalin from the final weight. The intensity of helminth infection was determined by the quantitative Sedimentation- Flotation Technique of Watve (1992). Terminology Helminth loads are expressed in terms of eggs per gram of faeces (epg). We use the term to include Sungworm larvae. Due to the methodology used, definitions of some terms differ from Margolis et al. (1982). ‘Prevalence’ indicates the percentage of samples positive for helminth eggs or larvae. ‘Sympatric’ is defined as: (of biological speciation or species) taking place or existing in the same or overlapping geographic areas (Hanks 1979). Statistical Analyses Calculation of index of dispersion, d-statistic and fitting of the negative binomial distribution has been done as per Ludwig and Reynolds (1988). Green’s index was calculated as per Green (1966). The Mann-Whitney Test was performed as per Conover (1971). Result and Discussion The negative binomial distribution gave good fits to observed data in cattle and all four sub-populations of chital (Table 1 ). The d-statistic being > 1.96 (Table 1), a clumped parasite distribution is hypothesized (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988), implying that a few hosts harbour many helminths, while many hosts have few or none (Waid et al. 1985). Comparison of the median helminth loads between the four groups of chital are reported in Table 2. The median was used in preference to the mean since the data are non-normal ly distributed. The median helminth loads of chital in Dry Deciduous Forest areas without cattle grazing (2 epg) and Scrub Forest without cattle grazing (1 epg) showed no significant difference (p>0.05). Similarly comparison of chital in Dry Deciduous areas with sympatric cattle grazing and without cattle grazing showed that both had median helminth loads of 2 epg (p>0.05). However, the median helminth loads of chital in Dry Deciduous Forest areas with cattle grazing (2 epg) and Scrub Forest with cattle grazing (4 epg) differed significantly (p<0.05). And, the median helminth loads of chital in scrub forest areas with sympatric cattle grazing (4 epg) and those without cattle grazing (1 epg) showed a significant difference (p<0.05). It is thus clear that neither forest type nor cattle grazing affects helminth loads in chital if they act independent of each other. However, helminth loads in chital increase dramatically when they are sympatric with cattle in scrub forest. Since immuno- competence is affected by nutrition (Rolston 1992; Lyles and Dobson 1993), it is likely that chital in scrub forest with sympatric cattle grazing have high helminth loads due to increased competition with cattle for limited forage resources. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 59 Table 1 : Distribution of helminth eggs in chital sub-populations and domestic cattle at the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu EFFECTS OF CA TTLE GRAZING AND HABITA T ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CHITA L \ — ■ in n ■<- T- Q_ O d d d d A A A A A .8 -*— » C/3 i_ u> in c C/3 C if c i/) c TO c x — T“ O CN Is- 00 X — in TO -r- CO 03 03 c\i TO "r“ t — -d O Q m z CM in CO lO o 00 CD O) N- C\l CNJ 03 T— O r— T— d T — C/3 X 00 00 00 CO CO TO CD in o 03 CO M" TO "O jd o ■*— O t— o c O d d o d o o C/3 i_ TO Q. q TO -i — - * * * « * "O C/3 CD o Is- CO o M— c TO Is- m- o 00 CD in 03 Is- M- cb C/3 C/3 i CO T— CO co CO 8 70 T3 d CD o 0 TO xr T- CD in c k 00 CO CO T— 03 TO d TO e TO TO 00 t — 03 00 d CM 03 > E 03 TO Cl O CD 00 T — CO in CD^ d — CD o CO CO xz TO CD CO 00 CD TO TO O T— in M in O > r— T— jd ■*-> d d E TO SJ- o in TO X TO CD o 03 M" CO 8 in c\i c\i CM r-i d TO vO o CO 00 O r-. TO o CSJ CO O o CD o 03 OO o -z. 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C/3 03 03 CD ■ 03 CL CD C/3 CD i— O LL to o o o ■g 0 CD O b Ci 1 u_ Q Q C/3 CD X3 O 0 CO 1 ll CO CD > CD LO TO TO O d 03 'to -i— < o d C/3 d CO 03 A ■q q *-5— ' C/3 TO •+ — > C/3 i "O v*— o CD C/3 TO O d d TO O d 03 CO _>> TO q -4—< (/) * CO -*— » 03 i * 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 EFFECTS OF CATTLE GRAZING AND HABITAT ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CHITA L Chital in Scrub may get less nutritional resources than those in the Dry Deciduous for three reasons: differences in the primary productivity of the two areas, vegetation differences between the habitats and the time period of our study. In general, low-rainfall scrub areas have a lower primary productivity than the moderate to high rainfall Dry Deciduous Forests (Sukumar 1992). This is because of an almost linear relationship between net primary productivity and precipitation (Whittaker 1970). Secondly, while the Dry Deciduous Forests has higher levels of browse (Sukumar, 1992), Scrub habitat in Mudumalai is dominated by grass with little browse available, especially for the smaller herbivores. But most important was the time during which we sampled the chital populations. The first rainy season in Mudumalai usually begins in mid-May (N. Baskaran, pers. comm.). However, in 1999, the first rams were delayed to mid-June. Thus over half our samples were collected during the late dry season, when the grass is likely to have the least nutritive value (Sukumar 1990). However, grass does not always have low nutritive value and Ekaya (2001) found that the nutritive value was high during the short period of flush during the growing season. This growing season corresponds with the beginning of the rains in Mudumalai, and the high nutritive value of the grass is the reason why the more mobile species of wild herbivores, like elephants, prefer Scrub to Dry Deciduous Forests just after the rains (Sukumar 1990). Similarly, and in light of the arguments given pre viously, we found that chital in the scrub forest areas with cattle grazing began to show a significant downward trend in helminth loads as the wet season progressed, though they still remained higher than the other sub-groups of chital. This was likely because of improved nutritional status, due to increased availability of grass with high nutritional value. Similar downward trends were not observed for the other sub-groups of chital or other herbivore species examined. These results have been reported elsewhere (Dharmarajan 2000; Dharmarajan and John 2001). Sympatric cattle are likely to further reduce the availability of forage resources for chital. In large numbers, cattle tend to overgraze and cause outflow of nutrients from an ecosystem (Singer and Boyce 1996). Cattle grazing can increase the helminth loads in other ways too. First, due to a decrease in nutrient levels, the deer may roam larger areas and graze for longer periods to obtain adequate nutrition, which would increase chances of contact with infective stages of parasites (Gordon 1948). Secondly, overgrazing and trampling by cattle will reduce the height of the grass and leave more open ground, thus increasing contact with infective stages (Kauzal 1941; Gordon 1948). Thirdly, chital in the scrub areas grazed by cattle are under great stress (nutritional, heat, etc.) which reduces resistance to disease (Fowler 1986). The reduced nutritional levels of chital in Scrub with sympatric cattle could increase helminth loads either by increasing the susceptibility of chital to their own parasites or to cattle parasites. Our data shows that the latter is more likely to be the case in Mudumalai (Dharmarajan et al. in press.). Another finding supporting the view that cattle adversely affect chital from a parasitological point of view is that poor nutrient habitat on its own is not responsible for increased helminth loads. We find that helminth loads of chital in Dry Deciduous Forest without sympatric cattle do not differ significantly from those of chital in Scrub without sympatric cattle (Table 2). This may be because under “natural conditions” (i.e. absence of domestic cattle grazing) There is a balance between host and parasite (Gordon 1948) and in general, worm burdens do not become intolerable. Additionally, factors that contribute to poor nutrition of the host, like low moisture and vegetation cover, will adversely affect survivability of infective helminth larvae (Stromberg 1997). In such an JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 61 EFFECTS OF CATTLE GRAZING AND HABITAT ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CHITAL c 0 3 0 £ 3 .2 'D -K TO — 2* 3 _ CL F O C CL .TO XI . 3 ^ w to 3 t3 c TO CO (0 3 £ C 0 1 0 x> 0 "O TO O "O TO TO E 3 TJ 3 C £ 0 .c c TO d 0 E o c o CO ■fc_ TO CL E o O CM 0 X3 .0 c 0 1 CL E 0 CL 0 E TO 0 CO C _ .2 05 "D CL 0 0 0 <0 TO CL "O s> TO CL E o o 0 c Q TO 3 Q. O Q_ TO 1c O CM C o TO 3 CL O Q. c o -*—f TO 3 CL O D. c E 0 SZ 0 ! is 0 J8 I 8 5 C 3 0 Cl 1 a 2 I 8£ •S1 to CO -Q O To Z o co o O) d £ Li. CO c -§,i II c 5 x: TO LL " g Q ‘c ^ g> o 0 -a 0 m T3 *- TO 0 1 E X3 O C O E -2 X 8 o CM m- 05 CM CM c E 0 jc 0 c 0 0 3 s 5.s TO 8 c 0 3 CL 0 33 TO o u. -3 (0 o = sz TO | 0 > o ? TO « ID 05 O CO to to CM O 0} Q_ fc O '*% S ® o £ its *•— c O O) 0 0 "2 2 co o o CO 05 CO CM 0 0 -e— » 00 o 33 ^ , ^ ^ LL. a? 0 33 TO o lT 0 33 0 33 L-l Q 3 O 33 UL ra TO LL O 3 Q OQ d o3 ^ LL TO LL O SF TO O 75 w_ 0 SZ £ Q O Q £ Q -s Q o SZ a ^ O o sz <— • 3 O SZ > O o 3 x: £ -tr-t 0 w TO •4— » 0 33 TO 0 33 TO u.2 w o JC 0 TO 0 i_ TO C Z .2 0 33 f>3 3 5k O 8 * ti= 0 p 0 .iS 0 "K* 0 c "O TO TO £ £ ® f 1 E £ if * f'- CM 05 05 in CM CM c E 0 JC 0 c 0 0 £ g 2° 8 S c 0 3 CL o 05 Q. ~ O 2 3 c 8 0 JC c O 05 (0 0 "2 $ CO d o co o CD CM CM 0 33 — TO LL. O SZ 4-« $ 0 Q D 06 _ L1- ro fn 0 0 33 UL TO Q O Q x: 5 LL. CO c u_ 0 x: O) £ 0) 5k £ — TO C o TO -SC |1 •2> § w LL, •8 co TO C — C. SZ TO I - E -3> is * 05 O CO in in 05 co 0 f ft” 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1), APR. 2003 SF = Scrub forest; DDF = Dry deciduous forest; epg = eggs per gram of faeces; n = Number of Samples from Population 1; m = Number of Samples from Population 2; T1 = Mann-Whitney test statistic; ns = not significant at 5% level; * = significant at 5% level. EFFECTS OF CATTLE GRAZING AND HABITAT ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CHITA L unfavourable macro-environment, larval survival is greater in dung pats compared to pellets, because while pellets are generally dry, dung pats contain high amount of moisture (Soulsby 1 968). Additionally, due to the formation of a hard, dry outer layer, the interior of dung pats rerain moisture for long periods of time. Thus, larvae in cattle dung pats are likely to have improved survival as compared to those in chital pellets. This in turn could adversely affect helminth loads in chital, because chital under nutrient stress are likely to be susceptible to cattle parasites (Dharmarajan et al. in press). In conclusion, the increased loads in chital in scrub forest areas with sympatric cattle grazing is probably due to the interactive effect of poor habitat and inter-specific competition for limited resources. The finding that cattle may have an adverse effect on chital, from a parasitological perspective, in resource-poor and/or degraded habitats should be an issue of concern to Refer Barette, C. (1991): The size of axis deer fluid groups in Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka. Mammalia 55:207-220. Conover, W.J. (1971): Practical non-parametric statistics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 462 pp. Dharmarajan, G. (2000): Epidemiology of helminth parasites in wild and domestic herbivores at the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. Masters thesis submitted to Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai. 75 pp. Dharmarajan, G. & M.C. John (2001): Effect of season on helminth loads in wild herbivores in the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. XII National Conference of Veterinary Parasitology, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India. August 25 -27, 2001. Dharmarajan, G., M. Raman & M.C. John (in press.): Effect of cattle grazing and habitat on the helminth community structure in chital (Axis axis). Ekaya, W. (2001): Nutritional characteristics of selected grass and browse species from Kenya’s pastoral ecosystems. J. Hum. Ecol. 12: 171-175. Foreyt, W.J.& D.O. Trainer (1980): Seasonal parasitism changes in two populations of white-tailed deer in conservationists. Though the present work was restricted to chital, cattle may have similar adverse effects on other wild herbivores in and around Mudumalai Sanctuary. More detailed work is required to get a clearer picture of the effects of cattle on wild herbivores, from a physiological and pathological perspective, especially in terms of diseases caused by more serious pathogens like viruses and bacteria. Acknowledgements We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department; Mr. A. Udhayan, 1FS; Dr. V. Krishnamurihy (retd. Forest Veterinarian); Mr. A. A. Desai, Dr. N. Baskaran, Mr. S. Swaminathan (Bombay Natural Flistory Society); Dr. R. Sukumar, Dr. N.V. Joshi (Centre for Ecological Sciences); Dr. G. Rajavelu, Dr. S. Ramesh, Dr. M.G. Jayathangaraj (Madras Veterinary College) and Mr. Sachin Ranade. E N C E S Wisconsin. J. Wild l. Manage. 44: 758-764. Fowler, M.E. (1986): Stress. In: Zoo and wild animal medicine (Ed.: Fowler, M.E.). 2nd edn. W.B. Saunder’s and Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 33-35. Gordon, H.M. (1948): The epidemiology of parasitic diseases, with special reference to studies with nematode parasites of sheep. Aust. Vet. J. 24: 17- 45. Green, R.FL (1966): Measurement of non-randomness in spatial distributions. Res. Pop. Ecol. 8: 1-7. (Original not seen) Hanks, P. ( 1 979): Collins dictionary of the English usage. Collins, London, 1472 pp. Kauzal, G.P. (1941): Examination of grass and soil to determine the population of infective larval nematodes on pastures. A ust. Vet. J. 17: 181-184. Ludwig, J. A. & J.F. Reynolds ( 1988): Statistical ecology: A primer on methods and computing. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. 337 pp. Lyles, A.M. & A.P. Dobson ( 1 993): Infectious disease and intensive management: Population dynamics, threatened hosts and their parasites. J. Zoo Wild! Med. 24: 315-326. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1). APR. 2003 63 EFFECTS OF CATTLE GRAZING AND HABITAT ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CH1TAL Margolis, L., G.W. Esch. J.C. Holmes, A.M. Kuris & G.A. Schad (1982): The use of ecological terms in parasitology (Report of an ad-hoc committee of the American Society of Parasitologists). J. Parasitol. 66: 131-133. Rolston, H. (1992): Ethical responsibilities towards wildlife. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 200: 618-622. Singer, R.S. & W.M. Boyce (1996): Sustainable cattle production and livestock wildlife interface in tropical ecosystems. Ciencias Veterinaria Voi. especial, Pp. 101-104. Skorping, A., A.F. Reed & A.E. Keymer (1991): Life history covariation in intestinal nematodes of mammals. Oikos. 60: 365-672. (Original not seen) Soulsby, E.J.L. (1968): Helminths, arthropods & protozoa of domesticated animals. Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore. 824 pp. Stromberg, B.E. (1997): Environmental factors influencing transmission. Vet. Parasitol. 72: 247-264. Sukumar, R. (1990): Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns. J. Trap. Ecol. 6: 33-53. Sukumar, R. (1992): Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 273 pp. Sukumar, R., H.S. Dattaraja, H.S. Suresh, J. Radhakrishnan. R. Vasudevan, S. Nirmala&N.V. Joshi (1992): Long term monitoring of vegetation in a tropical deciduous forest in Mudumalai, Southern India. Curr. Sci. 62: 608-616. Whittaker, R.H. (1970): Communities and ecosystems. Collier-MacMillan, London. 162 pp. Watve, M.G. ( 1 992): Ecology of nost-parasite interactions iri a wild mammalian host community in Mudumalai, Southern India, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. 1 14 pp. Waid, D.D., D.B. Pence & R.J. Warren (1985): Effects of season and physical condition on the gastro- intestinal helminth community of white-tailed deer from the Texas Edwards Plateau. J Wild!. Dis. 21: 264-273. 64 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1 00(1), APR. 2003 DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE (. MACACA SILENUS) IN AN UNDISTURBED RAINFOREST OF SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK, KERALA, INDIA1 2 * 4 (With two text-figures ) 2 3 2,4 Gigi K. Joseph and K.K. Ramachandran Key words: Macaca silenus, demography, birth rate, survival rate, growth rate, sex ratio The demography of the liontailed macaque ( Macaca silenus) was studied in the Silent Valley National Park and its adjacent areas from 1993 to 1996. Birth rate, survival rate and growth rate were estimated by methods described by earlier authors (Caughley 1977, NRC 1981). Fourteen troops with 275 individuals were observed. The adult male:female sex ratio was 1:5.6. A low birth rate (0.22/adult female/year) and a high survival rate (0.98/individual/year) were the noteworthy features of the population. Birth rate decreased as the troop size and number of adult females increased. A marginal increase in growth rate was observed. The study provides estimates of population parameters of the endangered liontailed macaque in an undisturbed and contiguous rainforest for the first time. Introduction Factors such as habitat fragmentation, reduced habitat area, isolation of populations leading to inbreeding depression and vulnerability to random events make the liontailed macaque a highly endangered species (Kumar et ai 1995, Easa et al. 1997). Therefore, demographic studies of this species deserve utmost importance. The Silent Valley in Kerala and Ashambu hills in Tamil Nadu are perhaps the only two viable habitats left for these macaques (Green and Minkowski 1977, Ramachandran 1990, Joseph 1998, Joseph and Ramachandran 1998). The demography of this macaque has been studied in fragmented forests in Anamalai hills, Tamil Nadu (Kumar 1987). Recently, Umapathy and Kumar (2000) reported the occurrence and abundance of liontailed macaque in 25 rain forest fragments in the Anamalai hills in relation to several ecological factors. However, no long-term demographic studies have been attempted so far in any of the ’Accepted July, 2002 2Division of Wildlife Biology, Keraia Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Thrissur, Kerala, India. JEmail: gigiperiyar@yai3oo.co. in 4Email: rainachandran@kfri.org large contiguous habitats. The present study was conducted in order to estimate the demographic parameters such as troop composition, birth rate, survival rate and growth rate of this primate in the undisturbed rainforest ecosystem in Silent Valley, and to compare them with those obtained from Anamalai hills (Kumar 1987). Study Area The Silent Valley National Park is situated in Palakkad district, Kerala State (11° 3' to 11° 13' N; 76° 21' to 76° 35' E). It is one of the core areas of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The total area of the Park is 90 sq. km and it is contiguous with Attappady Reserve Forest in the east, Mukkurthi National Park in the north, Nilambur forest division in the west and Mannarkkad forest division in the south (Fig. 1). Kunthipuzha, a tributary of Bharathapuzha, originating from the northeastern hill ranges of the Park, drains the area. The altitude varies from 658 to 2,383 m and the terrain is quite undulating. Silent Valley is one of the highest rainfall areas in the Western Ghats, with an annual rainfall of about 6,000 mm. The annual mean temperature is around 20 °C. The major vegetation is of Tropical Wet Evergreen type. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 65 DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK Methods The demography of the liontailed macaque was studied in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas for three years from 1 993 to 1 996. The primate population was estimated by total count and sweep sampling methods (NRC 1981, Whitesides et al. 1988). Census surveys were made on foot, radiating from the four wireless stations (Sairandri, Nilikkal, Puchappara and Walakkad) situated inside the Park. Frequent stops were made to get the characteristic contact call of the liontailed macaque. The intermittent contact calls are audible up to 100 m. The troops located were followed until each troop was reliably counted or till it could not be followed. Poor visibility due to the closed canopy and highly undulating terrain, with intermittent inaccessible areas, were the major limitations in population count. Moreover, the foraging sub units or consort pairs were often far away from the troop. Several times, the survey was terminated due to the presence of elephant herds, continuous rain and mist. Complete counts were easy when the troop passed over a stream, path or some temporary gaps in the canopy. When minor differences occurred between successive counts, the larger number was taken as true. Animals were classified into four age-sex classes based on their morphological differences: adult male, adult female, subadult male and immature. Adult males were identified by their stouter body, long canines and large tail tufts. Adult females were identified by their elongated nipples and baggy breasts. Less developed musculature and comparatively shorter canines indicated subadult males. Other individuals were classified as immature. A total of nine troops were identified in 1993, of which seven (Sairandri, Aruvampara, Punnamala I, Parathod, Puchappara, Chembotty 1 and Nilikkal 1) were inside the National Park and two in the adjoining Panthenthod beat of the Attappady Reserve Forest (Panthenthod 1 and Panthenthod 11). Two more troops (Nilikkal 11 and Chembotty 11) were identified in 1994 and one (Punnamala 11) in 1995. Fission occurred in two troops (Aruvampara and Chembotty 1) during 1995 resulting in four troops (Aruvampara 1 and Aruvampara 11, Chembotty IA and Chembotty IB). All the troops were monitored once a year up to 1996. Disappearance of an animal between consecutive censuses was considered as a death. Recruitment to the troop was carefully tallied, considering the disappearances. A black eagle ( Ictinaetus malayensis) preyed upon an immature from the Sairandri troop in 1995. An incident of poaching by Muduga tribals occurred in one troop (Panthenthod 11). This troop was excluded from analysis. The newly formed troops after fission could be counted only once and were also excluded from analysis. Thus, data for analysis of population parameters such as birth rate, survival rate and growth rate, were taken only from 1 1 troops. Birth rate is estimated as the proportion of females giving birth in a year, out of the total number of adult females under observation (Caughley 1977, Kumar 1987). Survival rate was estimated as the proportion of individuals that survived in the observed year out of the total number of individuals under observation. Per capita rate of increase or finite rate of increase X is a simple measure of population growth rate and was calculated as: L = Nt+ 1/N{ where N is the number of individuals in a population at time t. When X is greater than one, the population has increased in the period t to t+1. When X is less than one, the population has decreased, and when X = 1 , the population size has remained constant (NRC 1981). Results Troop composition Fourteen distinct troops with a total of 275 individuals were identified from Silent Valley and JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 67 Birth rate DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK Fig. 2a: Mean birth rate during 1993-96 Fig- 2b: Mean birth rate of adult females in a troop during 1993-96 adjacent areas, when the field study ended in 1996 (Table 1). The troop size ranged from 9 to 36 individuals, with an average of 19.64 individuals (s.e. = 0.982). All troops together constituted 8% adult males, 45% adult females, 6% subadult males and 41% immatures. The adult male:female sex ratio ranged from 1 :3.5 to 1:8.5 with a mean of 1:5.64 (s.e. = 0.282). Birth rate A total of 295 adult female-years were monitored to estimate the birth rate during 1993- 1996. A total of 64 infants were bom in 1 1 troops, giving a birth rate of 0.22/adult female/year. Mean birth rate was higher in 1994-95 and 1995- 96 (0.23/adult female/year) than in 1993-94 (0.18/adult female/year). Birth rate decreased when the troop size increased (Fig. 2a). Birth rate also showed high negative correlation with the number of adult females (Fig. 2b), The Chembotty I troop had the greatest number of adult females and the lowest birth rate (0. 1 1 /adult female/year). Survival rate Table 2 shows the survival rate of all age/ sex classes together in 1 1 troops giving survival rate of 0.98/individual/year. Fourteen disappearances were recorded in the study period and these included eight adult females, three immature individuals, one adult male and two subadult males. The highest survival rate (0.99/ individual/year) was recorded for Nilikkal 1 troop, in which only one disappearance occurred Table 1 : Status of lion-tailed macaque troops in Silent Valley National Park and adjacent areas SI. No Troop name Adult male Subadult male Adult female Immature Total 1 Sairandri 2 3 16 13 34 2 Punnamalal 2 2 10 6 20 3 Punnamala II 1 1 7 12 21 4 Panthenthod 1 2 1 9 8 20 5 Panthenthod II 1 1 6 8 16 6 Aruvampara ! 1 2 7 4 14 7 Aruvampara II 1 0 5 7 13 8 Parathod 1 0 4 4 9 9 Puchappara 1 1 6 8 16 10 Chembotty IA 2 1 7 6 16 11 Chembotty IB 2 1 10 7 20 12 Chembotty II 2 1 11 7 21 13 Nilikkal 1 2 3 17 14 36 14 Nilikkal II 2 0 9 8 19 Total 22 17 124 112 275 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 DEMOGRAPHY OF UONTAILED MACAQUE JN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK Table 2: Survival rate of all the age/sex classes for each troop Troop Name Number of years monitored Total animal years monitored Deaths recorded Survival rate Sairandri 3 94 3 0.97 Punnamala 1 3 52 0 — Punnamala II 1 21 4 1 0.95 Panthenthod 1 3 49 0 — Aruvampara 2 42 1 0.98 Parathod *■% 0 22 1 0.95 Puchappara 3 47 0 — Chembotty 1 2 63 2 0.97 Chembotty!! 2 42 3 0.93 Nilikkal 1 3 97 1 0.99 Nilikkal II 2 36 2 0.94 Total 27 565 14 0.98 during the study period. The survival rate was lowest (0.93/individual/year) in Chembotty II troop, in which three deaths or disappearances were recorded. Growth rate The data for the estimation of per capita growth rate was taken from 1 1 troops. Table 3 shows the rate of growth recorded in different troops in each year. The highest mean growth rate (1.12/individual/year) was noticed in 1995 and the least (1 .07/individual/year) in 1996. The mean growth rate over the study period was 1 .09/ individual/year. There was considerable variation in the growth rate among different troops. The highest mean growth rate was estimated in Panthenthod I troop (1.19/individual/year). Out of the eight troops monitored in 1994, the highest mean growth rate was in the Puchappara troop (1.25/individual/year). Ten troops were moni- tored in 1995, and the highest increase was recorded in Panthenthod troop (1,29/individual/ year). Out of the nine troops monitored in 1996, there was no increase in four troops and the highest rate of increase was recorded in Punnamala I troop (1.18/individual/year). Table 3: Per capita rate of growth in various liontaiied macaque troops Troop name Per capita rate cf growth 1994 1995 1996 Mean Sairandri 1.00 1.07 1.10 1.06 Punnamala 1 1.00 1.13 1.18 1.10 Punnamala II nd nd 1.00 1.00 Panthenthod 1 1.17 1.29 1.11 1.19 Aruvampara 1.00 1.10 nd 1.05 Parathod 1.17 1.14 1.13 1.15 Puchappara 1.25 1.07 1.00 1.11 Chembotty 1 1.07 1.06 nd 1.07 Chembotty II nd 1.11 1.00 1.06 Nilikkal ! 1.07 1.07 1.13 1.09 Nilikkal II nd 1.12 1.00 1.06 Mean 1.09 1.12 1.07 1.09 nd = no data Discussion Successive monitoring of demographic variables provides the best means of assessing the status of a population and the effectiveness of management (Kyes et cil. 1 998). In the Western Ghats, the liontaiied macaque is present in small populations due to extensive fragmentation of the rainforest habitat. Such small populations often undergo random shifts in size due to natural events or human influence, and can lead even to local extinction. Out of the total wild population of nearly 4,000 liontaiied macaques, the Kerala part of Western Ghats holds more than 50%, while the rest is shared between the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Kumar et al. 1995). The present study indicates that the Silent Valley National Park population, with at least 14 troops and 275 individuals, is one of the most important populations in its entire range of distribution. This population is part of a larger population in the 400 sq. km of rainforest nearby in Attappady, Silent Valley, New Amarambalam area. The liontaiied macaque forms relatively small troops compared to other macaques, most of which have a mean troop size between 20 and JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 69 DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK 30 individuals (Caldecott 1986). Kumar (1987) monitored 10 liontailed macaque troops in the Anamalai hills and estimated a mean troop size of 19.9 individuals. The present study also revealed an average troop size of 19.64 individuals, with a range of 9 to 36 individuals. The adult male:female ratio is consistently less than 3 females per male in the genus Macaca, except for the pig-tailed macaque ( Macaca nemestrina ) and liontailed macaque (Caldecott 1986, Kumar 1987). In M nemestrina , the adult sex ratio goes up to 8.0 (Caldecott 1986). Kumar (1987) reported a mean adult sex ratio of 5.6 for liontailed macaque population in the wild. The present study closely agrees with the latter in having the mean adult sex ratio as 5.67 females per male. The remarkably high age at first birth and low birth rate as compared to other macaques, is characteristic of the liontailed macaque. Even though in most of the macaques the age at first birth is between 40 to 60 months, the lion-tailed macaque stands out with 80 months. The birth rate is also very low (0.28) in Anamalai hills (Kumar 1987), and 0.23 in this study. The low birth rate in Silent Valley population may be due to the presence of many large troops with greater numbers of females. In large troops with more adult females, fewer females show sexual Refer Caldecott, J .0. ( 1 986): Mating patterns, societies and the ecogeography of macaques. Anim. Behav. 34: 208- 220. Caughley, G. (1977): Analysis of Vertebrate Populations. Wiley, Chichester. Pp. 1-234. Easa, P.S., S. Asari & S.C. Basha (1997): Status and distribution of the endangered liontailed macaque ( Macaca silenus ) in southern Western Ghats, India. Biol. Conserv. 80: 33-37. Green, S. & K. Minkowski (1977): The liontailed monkey and its South Indian rainforest habitat. In: Primate Conservation (Eds.: Prince Rainier III and G. H. Bourne). Academic Press, New York. Pp. 289-337. Joseph, G.K. (1998): Ecology of liontailed macaque (Maccica silenus) in tropical forests of Southern swelling due to increased competition for food resources (Kumar 2000). When Kumar (2000) compared two group size classes of lion-tailed macaque, more births occurred in the small group size classes indicating the relation between the group size and birth rate. According to Kumar (1987), the high survival rate is a characteristic feature of the liontailed macaque. The present study corroborates his finding, in that the mean survival rate of different troops in Silent Valley is as high as 0.98/individual/year. The high rate of immature survival clearly shows increased investment, e.g. vigilance of adults over immatures. Various birds of prey like black eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis ) and crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela ) are considered the most important predators of immature liontailed macaque. Tigers and leopards also occasionally prey on them. Adults very often sense the presence of these predators and give alarm calls. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. J.K. Sharma, Director KFRI for encouragement, and the Wildlife Wing of the Kerala Forest Department for funding the primate research project in Silent Valley National Park. E N C E S Western Ghats, India. Ph.D. Thesis, FR1 Deemed University, Dehra Dun. Pp. 1-210. Joseph, G.K. & K.K. Ramachandran (1998): Recent population trends and management of liontailed macaque ( Macaca silenus ) in Silent Valley National Park, Kerala, India. Indian For. 124: 833-840. Kumar, A. (1987): The ecology and population dynamics of the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus ) in South India. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cambridge. Pp. 1-174. Kumar, A. (2000): Sexual harassment among female liontailed macaques ( Macaca silenus) in the wild. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97: 42-51. Kumar, A., S. Molur & S. Walker (1995): Liontailed macaque ( Macaca silenus) Population and Habitat 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK Viability Analysis Workshop- Report. Zoo Outreach Organization, Coimbatore. Kyes, R.C., D. Sajuthi, E. Iskandar, D. Iskandriati, J. Pamungkar & C.M. Crockett (1998): Management of a natural habitat-breeding colony of longtailed macaques. Trop. Biodiversity 5: 127-137. National Research Council (1981): Techniques for the Study of Primate Population and Ecology. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Pp. 1-233. Ramachandran, K.K. (1990): Feeding and ranging patterns of liontailed macaque in Silent Valley National Park. //?: Ecological studies and long term monitoring of biological processes in Silent Valley National Park. Research Report KFRI Peechi. Pp. 104-133. Umapathy, G. & A. Kumar (2000): The occurrence of arboreal mammals in the rain forest fragments in the Anamalai Hills, south India. Biol. Corner. 92: 311-319. Whitesides, GAD., GHEE. Oates, SUM. Green & RAP. Kluberdang (1988): Estimating primate from transect in a West African Rain Forest: A composition of techniques. J. Anim. Ecol. 57: 345-367. m m m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 71 NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW HUMAN BLOOD FEEDING BITING MIDGE FROM INDIA, DIPTERA: CERATOPOGONIDAE: FORCIPOMYIA MANASP ( With three text-figures) Girish Maheshwari* 2 Key words: F orcipomyia manasi sp. nov., vector, human Forcipomyici manasi sp. nov. was collected from the body of Mr. H.R. Sou, a research scholar, while it was feeding on his blood. Host-specilicity of the biting midge was further confirmed by the Precipitin Method. Mouth parts and feeding behaviour were found to resemble species of Culicoicles , which feed on human blood. Introduction Biting midges are vectors of numerous viral, protozoan and helminth pathogens. A number of viruses have been isolated from biting midges, namely the Simbu, Orbivirus, Rhabdovirus and Oropouche groups and specially the Culicoides species. The proven association of biting midges with transmission of Oropouche virus in man has now elevated the medical importance of biting midges. About a hundred species of Forcipomyici are reported from the world, of which seventeen are found in India (Borkent and Wirth 1997). The host-specificity of F orcipomyia is not very well studied and only a few species are reported feeders on frogs and birds. F orcipomyia manasi is perhaps the first record of Forcipomyian biting midges feeding on human blood. Material and Methods A wild population of F orcipomyia manasi has been used in the present investigation. Fed females of the species were collected from the field, and the Precipitin Method was used to assess the preliminary host-specificity. The material was prepared for taxonomic studies by ’Accepted May. 2000 2School of Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra 282 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. the following method adopted by the School of Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra, India. Adults were preserved in 70% ethanol and in 4% aqueous solution of formaldehyde (preserves coloration better than alcohol). Before dissection, the material was cleaned in cold KOH (10% solution in water) and 2-propanol. Volsella of male genitalia was removed and mounted separately under a cover slip in lateral view. The genitalia were first mounted laterally in Canada balsam and the shape of the apicolatera! process was noted. The male specimen was then reoriented to a dorsoventral position, and females to ventrolateral position. The terminology of Boorman (1990) and Wirth and Messersmith (1971) have been followed. Taxonomic Description F orcipomyia manasi sp. nov. Female imago: Length: 1.44 mm. Wing length: 0.75 mm, width 0.35 mm. Antenna: (Fig. la): Scape well-developed, with 8-10 setae; pedicel rounded, width more than length, with 6-7 setae. Flagellum with 13 flagellomeres; flagellomeres 1 to 8 beaded, 1st and 8th subequal, 2-7 wider than long, 9-13 elongated, ultimate flagellomere longest with distinct pointed tip. Length, width of pedicel (mm) 0.030, 0.050. Length, width of 72 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 0.02 mm NEW DESCRIPTIONS 0.1 mm Fig. 1: a. antenna, b. maxilla, c. mandible, d. hypopharynx, e. maxillary palp, f. labrum-epipharynx, g. labium, h. wing JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 73 0.04 mm NEW DESCRIPTIONS flagellomeres (mm) 0.024, 0.024; 0.013, 0.022; 0.015, 0.021; 0.015, 0.021; 0.015, 0.019; 0.015, 0.018; 0.015, 0.018; 0.018, 0.018; 0.044, 0.016; 0.047, 0.015; 0.052, 0.015; 0.055, 0.015; 0.079, 0.014. AR* = 2.08. Terminal elongated fl age Horn ere *AR (Antennal Ratio ) = Rest of the basal flagellomeres Head: Coronal suture absent, frontal tubercle present. Temporal setae numerous. Eyes bare, narrowly separated by small bridge, ommatidia moderate. Clypeus broader than long, U-shaped, with 1 0 setae. Length, width of clypeus (mm) 0.048, 0.079. Maxillary palp (Fig. le) with five palpomeres, of which third and fourth are ovoid, the former elongated with a large pit bearing capitate sensilla. Length, width of palpomeres (mm) 0.012, 0.009; 0.024, 0.012; 0.036, 0.020; 0.017, 0.0141, and 0.021, 0.012 and setae 2, 2, 5, 3, 5, respectively. Proboscis with well-developed cibarial pump and upwardly directed cornua. Mandible (Fig. lc) strong, serrated with 20-22 small teeth; maxilla (Fig. lb) scalpel-shaped with 15-17 backwardly directed teeth. Labrum-epipharynx (Fig. If) sclerotized apically with pointed hypopharynx (Fig. Id); labium (Fig. Ig) setose and flappy. Mouth parts adapted for blood- sucking. Thorax: Humeral pit and parapsidal suture absent. Antepronotum with 5 setae. Acrostichals and dorsocentralis numerous, scattered, not arranged in rows. Scutellum with two rows of scutellars, mid scutellum bears 8-9 large setae. and lateral with 7-8 small setae. Anapleural suture present; pre-episternals absent. Postnotum bare. Wing (Fig. Ih): Light brown; costa large, ending before 2/3 the wing. Radial sector large, densely covered with macrotrichia. First radial cell obliterated, second radial cell compact, R4 5 proximally with light pigmentation, false veins M, and M3+4 present. Media bifurcates distal to cross vein r-m. Wing densely covered with fine macrotrichia; microtrichia present on wing membrane. Brachiolum with 28-30 sensilla campaniformia. Radial sector with 3 sensilla campaniformia, Subcosta with two at wing base. Alula without macrotrichia; squama with two elongate setae. CR* = 0.64. Length of costa *CR (Costal Ratio) = Total length of wing Legs (Fig. 2i-m): Femora and tibia slightly swollen; fore and hind tibial spurs present, lengths (mm) 0.048, 0.032 respectively; mid tibial spur absent; width at the apex of fore, mid and hind tibia (mm) 0.036, 0.028, 0.028 respectively. Fore tibial comb absent; 5-7 elongated setae present at the apex; hind tibial apex with two combs; first comb with 8 large spines; third spine longest; second comb with 13 small spines. Pseudospurs and palisade setae present on first four tarsomeres; ultimate tarsomere with a pair of markedly curved claws and an empodium. Length and proportions of legs as in Table 1. Genitalia (Fig. 2n & 3o): Alimentary canal filled with blood. Spermatheca single, circular; spermathecal neck absent. Coxasternapodeme Table 1: Forcipomyia manasi sp. nov., female: lengths (mm) and proportions of legs Legs Fe Ti Ta1 Ta2 Ia3 Ta4 Ta5 LR P, 0.265 0.274 0.157 0.068 0.060 0.044 0.044 0.573 P2 0.298 0.338 0.153 0.080 0.060 0.048 0.040 0.452 P3 0.322 0.322 0.189 0.092 0.068 0.052 0.048 0.587 74 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 0.04 mm Fig. 2: i. hind leg, j,k,l. fore, mid and hind tibial apex respectively, m. apex of ultimate tarsomere, n. dorsal view of female genitalia JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 75 0.1 mm NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 3: o. ventral view of female genitalia highly sclerotized. Gonapophysis VIII divided into dorsal and ventral lobes. Postgen itai plate triangular with a pair of strong setae. Cerci club- shaped. Holotype: 9 on slide, india: Uttar Pradesh. Agra. St. John’s College Campus, I7.viii.1997, Coil. H.R. Sou, Det. Maheshwari, G. Paratype: 9 on slide, india: Rajasthan, Camel Farm (Bikaner), 15.x. 1997, Coil. H.R. Sou, Det. Maheshwari, G. Systematics: F manasi sp. nov. is, perhaps, the only known species of Forcipornyia which feeds on human blood. According to taxonomic characters, it comes closest to F. jhapogi Maheshwari et al. Since the species is haeinatophagous, the abdomen of the female is generally inflated by the accumulation of blood. F. manasi can be distinguished by the presence of a single spermatheca, highly sclerotized coxasternapoderne, large sensory pit on third maxillary palp and U-shaped clypeus. F. jhapogi can be separated from manasi by the presence of spermafhecal neck and antepronotum with eight setae. Etymology: Since the species feeds on human blood, it is named manasi. Discussion Only a few species of biting midges are known intermediate hosts feeding on human blood. These are Culicoides graham ii, C. inornatipennis and C. austeni. Forcipornyia spp. feed on a variety of hosts such as insects, amphibia, birds and mammals. Those feeding on invertebrates have lacinia with retrorse teeth and coarsely toothed mandibles. Forcipornyia manasi sp. nov. is characterised by the margin of the apical portion of the labrum having a continuous row of teeth and the absence of 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR 2003 NEW DESCRIPTIONS sensilla coeloconica on first flagellomere of the antenna, which indicates its adaptation to feeding on human beings. The fusion of the ramus with coxasternapodeme IX, the fusion of gonocoxite with tergite IX and absence of gonostyius in the female genitalia is a clear synapomorphy compared with other such as F confluens and F. conigera. Presence of a single spermatheca in F. manasi and jhapogi is an apomorphic character, which isolates them from other spp. of Forcipomyia. F. manasi also resembles F. barbipesi but by the presence of a spermathecal diverticulum, an apomorphic character, barbipesi Boorman, J. ( 1 990): Two new Forcipomyia (Lasiokelea) sp. (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) from Oman. Journal of Oman studies 10: 125-130. Borkent, A. & W.W. Wirth (1997): World species of biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Bull. Am. Mus. can be isolated from manasi. The mass culture of the species is being established in the laboratory for further studies on vectorial capacity. Acknowledgements 1 thank the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Govt, of India, New Delhi for financial support. 1 am also thankful to Dr. S.S. Shukla, Department of Forensic Sciences, Institute of Forensic Sciences, Agra for his valuable suggestion to determine host- specificity by the Precipitin method. N c e s Nat. Hist. 233: 1-257. Wirth, W.W. & D.H. Messersmith (1971): Studies on the genus Forcipomyia. 1 . The North American midges of the subgenus Trickohelea (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Ann. Ent. Soc. Am. 64: 15-26. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 77 A NEW SPECIES OF EUGENIA L., MYRTACEAE, FROM SEITHUR HILLS, TAMIL NADU, INDIA1 ( With one text-figure) R. Gopalan and S.R. Srinivasan2 Key words: Eugenia seithurensis sp. nov., southern Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu A new species of Eugenia , from southern Western Ghats Tamil Nadu, India, is described and illustrated. Introduction Seithur hills in Virudhunagar district (formerly Kamarajar district), Tamil Nadu in southern Western Ghats is one of the richest areas in biodiversity. Botanical explorations in this hilly terrain were conducted in early 1970s by one of us (SRS). During these surveys a member of the Family Myrtaceae was collected in a shola forest, which was misidentified as Eugenia discifera Gamble and deposited at MH. When E. discifera was later collected by one of us (RG) in the Agasthiyamalai (Pothigai) hills, Tirunelveli district, it did not match with the earlier determined E. discifera referred to above. On critical study of the specimen, it was found that it was not E. discifera and that it was an undescribed species, which is described and illustrated herewith. Eugenia seithurensis Gopalan & S.R. Sriniv. sp. nov. E. calcadensis Bedd. affinis, sed foliis obovatis, ad apicem abrupte acuminatis (acumine c. 3 mm longo); floribus axillaribus (solitariis vel binatis) vel terminaliter umbellatis; pedicellis 4-8 mm longis; stylo glabro; fructibus globosis differt. 'Accepted June, 2000 2Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, TNAU Campus, Lawley Road P.O., Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India. Allied to E. calcadensis Bedd. but differs in leaves being obovate, abruptly acuminate (acumen c. 3 mm long) at apex; flowers axillary (solitary or in pairs) or in terminal umbels; pedicels 4-8 mm long, style glabrous; fruits globose. Tree, up to 10 m tall; branches and branchlets terete, glabrous, ienticellate. Leaves opposite, simple; petioles 3-7 mm long, glabrous, rounded beneath, canaliculate above; lamina obovate, 3. 2-5. 4 x 2. 9-3. 5 cm, coriaceous, glabrous, punctate on both surfaces, attenuate at base, entire and recurved along margins, abruptly acuminate (acumen c. 3 mm long) at apex. Flowers axillary (solitary or in pairs) or in terminal 4-8-flowered umbels or cymes, bisexual, actinomorphic; pedicels stout, 4-8 mm long, hirsute; bract 1, linear-lanceolate or lanceolate- elliptic, c. 5 mm long, hirsute; bracteoles 2, linear-lanceolate, c. 3 mm long, hirsute. Calyx tube campanulate, 2-3 mm long, appressedly brown silky hairy; lobes 4 (2 + 2), subequal; outer sepals smaller, broadly ovate, 2. 5-3. 5 x 3-4 mm, thick, sparsely hairy, ciliate along margins, concave; the inner orbicular to suborbicular, 3-5 x 4-5 mm, punctate, sparsely hairy, broad at base, ciliate along margins, truncate or rounded at apex. Petals 4, obovate or elliptic-oblong, c. 1 1 x 7 mm, thick in middle, membranous along periphery, punctate, ciliate along margins above 1/3, obtuse at apex. Stamens many; filaments 4-10 mm long, glabrous; anthers globose, 2-loculed, basifixed. Ovary inferior, obconic, 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1: Eugenia seithurensis sp. nov., A-B. Twigs with terminal inflorescence & axillary flowers, C. Bracteole, D. Outer sepal, E. Inner sepal, F. Petal, G. Pistil, H. Fruit JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 79 NEW DESCRIPTIONS appressedly hairy, 2-3 (-4) mm long; style 5-7 mm long, thick, glabrous; stigma simple. Disc hairy. Fruits globose, c. 2 cm, crowned with persistent calyx lobes; seeds globose, c. 1 .4 cm. Holotype (S.R. Srinivasan 63532, CAL), isotypes (S.R. Srinivasan 63532, MH — acc. no. 120279 - 120283) and paratype (S.R. Srinivasan 65986, MH — acc. no. 120285 - 120292) were collected in between Deviar Estate and forest border of Kerala, Seithur Hills, Virudhunagar district, Tamil Nadu, at about 1,350 m above msl on June 12, 1979. Rather rare in sholas, only a few trees were seen. FI. & Fr.: April-October. Etymology: This species is named after the type locality. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. R Daniel, Deputy Director, BSI, Coimbatore for encouragement and facilities, Dr. V.J. Nair, Scientist Emeritus, for the Latin diagnosis, Shri. N.C. Rathakrishnan, former Scientist, BSI, Coimbatore, for confirming the novelty and Dr. A.N. Henry, Scientist Emeritus, for suggestionss. 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 SONERILA L ONGIPETIOLA TA MAN1CKAM ETAL., A NEW SPECIES OF MELASTOMACEAE FROM TAMIL NADU, INDIA' ( With one text-figure ) M.M. Josephine, V.S. Manickam, C. Murugan, V. Sundaresan and G.J. Jothi* 2 Key words: Sonerila longipetiolata sp. nov., Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu Sonerila longipetiolata Manickam et al ., a new species is described below with illustrations. During recent floristic studies conducted along the southern Western Ghats, we collected specimens of an interesting species of Sonerila Roxb. On critical study, it was found to be a new species. Hence, it is described and illustrated here. Sonerila longipetiolata sp. nov. (Fig. 1) Sonerila longipetiolata sp. nov. est affinis ad S. travancorica Bedd. sed est dissimilis folia base inaequali, petiolata longa, corolla emarginata, indumenta molle et floris numerosis. Typus: india: Tamil Nadu, Kanyakumari district, Muthukuzhivayal path c. 1,300 m, 22.xii.1999, Coll. V. Sundaresan and M.M. Josephine 20104 (Holo. XCH, Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai). Perennial herb, c. 30 cm high. Stem 3-5 mm in diam; adpressedly villous, branched, base terete, apex two channelled; internodes 2.5-11.0 cm long. Leaves opposite, unequal; petiole 1. 0-7.0 cm long, villous; blade ovate- elliptic, 1. 0-7.0 x 1. 5-5.0 cm, coriaceous, softly adpressedly villous, base unequal, slightly cordate, margins sub entire, ciliate, apex acute, veins 2-3 pairs, pinkish beneath. Inflorescence scorpioid cyme, terminal. Peduncle 3. 0-5.0 cm long, puberulous. Pedicel 1.0-1. 5 cm long, 'Accepted June, 2000 2Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, Research Department of Botany, St. Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai 627 002, Tamil Nadu, India. puberulous. Flowers 10-15 per peduncle, mauve- deep pink. Calyx 0. 7-1.0 cm long, tube infundibuliform, teeth 3, short, glandular hairy. Petals 3, free, 1.0-1. 2 x 0.7-0.75 cm, glabrous within, glandular hairy without mid nerve, apex emarginate, obovate-elliptic, 8-9 nerves, prominent. Stamens 3, equal, c. 1.0 cm long, free; anther c. 0.7 mm long, yellow, oblong, divaricated, much attenuated upwards; filament c. 6.2 mm long. Ovary inferior, 1.0 x 0.33 cm, glandular hairy; ovules numerous. Style simple, filiform, 1.0-1. 2 cm long; stigma small, capitellate. Capsule trigonous, 0.75-1.0 x 0.31- 0.33 cm, six ribbed, glandular hairy. Seeds numerous, c. 1.0 mm long, raphe excurrent on the side near the top. FI. and Fr.: December-January. Habitat: Understorey of evergreen forest, semi-shaded, associated with Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Table 1 : Comparison between S. travancorica and S. longipetiolata Character S. travancorica Bedd. S. longipetiolata sp. nov. 1. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate; ovate-eliiptic; 1. 0-3.0 xl. 5-2.0 1. 0-8.0 xl. 5-5.0 cm; cm; base equal, base unequal, narrow cordate 2. Petiole Short, 2. 0-3.0 cm Long,6.0-7.0cm 3. Indumentum Rough Soft 4. Inflorescence ±5 flowered ±15 flowered 5. Calyx apex acuminate apex obtusely acute 6. Corolla apex mucronate apex emarginate JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 81 lulu g z NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 1 : Sonerila longipetiolata sp. nov., A. Habit, B. Flower, C & D. Petal (Dorsal & Ventral view), E. Pistil with Calyx, F. & G. Stamens, H. ovary (l.s.), 1. Ovary (c.s.), J. Seed, K. Stern (c.s.) 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Sonerila longipetiolata is allied to S. tra\>ancorica but differs from it as shown in Table 1. Status: As the species is restricted to only one locality, it must be categorized as rare; since the number of individuals is small, vulnerable is probably more correct. Etymology: The species is named after its characteristic long petiole. Acknowledgements We thank Dr. R. Gopalan, Botanical Survey of India (S. Circle), Coimbatore for his critical comments on the taxon. Our gratitude to Chief Wildlife Warden, Field Director, KMTR for permission to carry out the survey. We also thank the University Grants Commission (UGC) for financial assistance. References Gamble, J.S. (1957): Flora of The Presidency of Madras. Vol 1. Adlard & Son Limited, London Pp. 352. Clarke, C.B. (1879): Melastomaceae. In: The Flora of British India (Ed.: Hooker, J.D.). Vol 2. L. Reeve & Co., London. Pp 534. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 83 A NEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE GENUS TIBELLUS SIMON (ARANEAE: THOMISIDAE) FROM JHENIDAH, BANGLADESH1 ( With six text-figures) V. Biswas2 and D. Raychaudhuri3 Key words: New species, spider, Tibellus, Araneae, Thomisidae, Bangladesh A new species of spider genus Tibellus Simon, T. shikerpurensis is described and illustrated from Jhenidah, Bangladesh. Introduction Spiders of the genus Tibellus Simon (Family: Thomisidae) are poorly known in Bangladesh although a few records, on different species, were found (Chowdhury and Nagari 1981, Biswas et. al. 1993, Okuma et. al. 1993, Begum and Biswas 1997). Several species on the other hand, of the genus are known from countries like India (Tikader 1980, Tikader and Biswas 1981) and Pakistan (Dyal 1935). The genus Tibellus Simon is being reported for the first time from Bangladesh and the same is being described as T. shikerpurensis sp. nov. The types are at present in the collection of the Department of Zoology, Government P.C. College, Bagerhat, Bangladesh. Materials and Methods Collection and preservation of the spider specimens were made following Kaston (1972) and Tikader (1987). The materials were studied with a Stereozoom Binocular Microscope, model Zeiss, SV8. All the measurements are taken with an eyepiece. The species was identified by following Tikader (1980, 1987) and was confirmed by the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. 'Accepted October, 2000 2 Department of Zoology, Government P.C. College, Bagerhat 9301, Bangladesh. 'Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology. University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal, India. Tibellus shikerpurensis sp. nov. (Figs 1-6) General: 9, Brownish-green; cephalo- thorax brownish-green; legs greenish; abdomen greenish-white. Measurements (in mm): Total length 6.40; carapace 2.20 long, 2.00 wide; abdomen 4.20 long, 3.10 wide. Cephalothorax: Broad, slightly longer than wide, wider near base, clothed with fine hairs and pubescence (Fig. 1); cephalic region raised and produced anteriorly, with straight anterior margin. Eyes in 2 rows, both the rows strongly procurved, ocular area wider than long; postero-laterals distally placed and larger than others; 2 longitudinal brownish bands running between the base of posterior eyes and posterior margin clothed with spines and hairs. Chelicerae strong and stout, clothed with sharp spines, each of inner and outer margins with 2 teeth (Fig. 2). Palps long, filiform, 1.2 mm in length (Table 1) each covered with sharp spines and setae. Maxillae longer than wide, medially wide and anteriorly scopulate (Fig. 3). Labium wider medially, anteriorly narrowing and scopulate (Fig. 3). Sternum heart-shaped, pointed, posteriorly clothed with spines (Fig. 4). Legs long and slender, with spines and hairs; leg formula 1243 and the measurements (in mm) as in Table 1. Abdomen: Longer than wide, posteriorly narrowing, blunt, clothed with hairs and pubescence; dorsum decorated with brownish 84 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 1 mm 0.5 mm i 1 Figs 1-6: Tibellus shikerpurensis sp. nov.. Female Holotype, 1. Female dorsal view (legs omitted), 2. Chelicera, 3. Maxillae and Labium, 4. Sternum, 5. Epigynum, 6. Internal genitalia JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 85 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Table 1 : Measurements of legs and palps for ( ? ) Tibellus shikerpurensis sp. nov. Leg Femur Patella Tibia Metatarsus Tarsus Total ! 3. S/3. 8 1. 0/1.0 2.512.5 2. 0/2.0 1.3/1. 3 10.6/10.6 II 3.513.5 0.9/0. 9 2.312.3 2. 0/2.0 1. 0/1.0 97/9.7 III 3. 0/3.0 0.5/0. 5 2.0/2.0 1.9/1. 9 0.9/0. 9 8.318.3 IV 3.4/34 - 0.5/0. 5 2.0/2. 0 1.9/1. 9 0.9/0. 9 8.718.7 Palps 0.3/0. 3 0.2/0.2 0.3/0. 3 — 0.4/0. 4 1.2/1. 2 markings and patches; epigyne and internal genitalia as in Figs 5 and 6. Materia! examined: Type-Data: Holotype: 9 in spirit will be deposited in the Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Type locality: Shikerpur, Jhenidah, 18.vii.1993, Coll. V. Biswas. Paratype: 1 9, same as for the holotype. Distribution: Bangladesh: District Jhenidah. Etymology: The species has been named after the type locality. Remarks: The species T. shikerpurensis sp. nov. resembles T. chaturshingi Tikader (Tikader 1980) but stands distinct because of the following 1. Cephalic region raised and produced. 2. Anterior row of eyes and posteromedians forming a hexagon. Refer Begum, A & V. Biswas (1997): A list of the spider fauna of Barisal division, Bangladesh (Araneae: Arachnida). Bangladesh J. Zool. 25(2): 207-210. Biswas, V., H.R. Khan, N.Q. Kamal & A. Begum (1993): A preliminary study of the rice-field spiders in Jhenidah, Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Zool. 21(1): 85-92. Chowdhury, S.H. & S. Nagari (1981): Rice-field spiders from Chittagong. Proc. Zool. Soc. Bangladesh , pp. 53-72. Dyal, S. (1935): Fauna of Lahore 4: Spiders of Lahore. Bull. Dept, of Zool., Panjab Univ. 1: 1-252. Kaston, B.J. (1972): Howto know the spiders. 2nd edn.. 3. Cephalothoracic bands nearly straight. 4. Abdomen not overhanging cephalothorax with several black markings. 5. Much different epigynum. These differences justify the recognition of the species as new to science. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Dr. S.C. Majumder, Scientist-SD, Sunderban Field Research Station, Zoological Survey of India, Canning, West Bengal, for confirming the identity of the species and the Head, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, for providing laboratory facilities. N C E S Wm. C. Brown Co. Pub., Dubuque, Iowa, 272 pp. Okuma, C., N.Q. Kamal, Y. Hirashima, Z. Alam & T. Ogata ( 1 993): Illustrated Monograph on the rice-field spiders of Bangladesh. IPSA-JAICA, Salna, Gazipur, pp. 1-93. Tikader, B.K. (1980): The Fauna of India, Spiders: Araneae, Vol. I, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 247 pp. Tikader, B.K. (1987): Handbook of Indian Spiders. Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Pp. 25 1 . Tikader. B.K. & B. Biswas (1981): Spider fauna of Calcutta and Vicinity. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Pap. No. 30: 1-149. 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO BIOSYSTEMATICS OF CHEN OP ODIUM, REPORTING THREE NEW SPECIES FROM NORTH INDIAN PLAINS1 ( With three text-figures ) S.C. Pandeya2’3 and Amita Pandeya2 Key words: Chenopodium adpressifolium sp. nov., C. sagittatum sp. nov., C. hastatifolium sp. nov., photonastic movements Three new species of Chenopodium aggregate occurring in the north Indian plains have been distinguished and described as Chenopodium ci> C. hastcitifolium sp. nov. Introduction Three new species of Chenopodium aggregate occurring in the north Indian plains have been distinguished and described as Chenopodium adpressifolium sp. nov., C. sagittatum sp. nov. and C. hastatifolium sp. nov. Earlier Pandeya et al. (1998) have communicated two new species of the genus from the north Indian plains. Further, in both extensive and intensive surveys over the last several years, three new species of the genus Chenopodium have been distinguished from the north Indian Plains (alt. 100-250 m). All the three species are edible and occur naturally as weed in winter crop fields, in gardens and other moist places. They start growing in November and flower from January to April. Ecoclimate of the region is Tropical semi-arid and soils are Pleistocene with fresh alluvium of great depths. The specimens are deposited in Raja Balwant Singh College, Agra, India. The three suspected species were put through a Provenance Trial (neutral garden experiment) at Agra for three consecutive years 'Accepted November, 2001 2Botany Department, Raja Balwant Singh College, Agra 282 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. ’Present Address: E-104 Murdhanya Apartment, Opp. Super Society, Nr. ISRO Colony, Ramdevnagar, Ahmedabad 380 015, Gujarat, India. ressifolium sp. nov., C. sagittatum sp. nov. and for observing any plasticity therein. In neutral garden experiments, the plants collected from various habitats are grown together side by side under similar soil and climatic conditions in order to eliminate features developed due to differences of habitat. The quantified description of the three new species pertains to the neutral garden experiments. Clt enopo diuni adpressifolium Pandeya & Pandeya sp. nov. Affinis C. album Linn. Sp. PI. 219, 1753. Differt a C. album Linn, f habitus, positus foliis, folia crasso, marginemque laminae, folia photonasticus, nervo rosea. Herbae annuae, erectae. Herba 1 m alta. Caule fibro, erecto, angusto costato, ramoso. Ramosae longior ad 10-25 cm, longis basales rosettus. Folia ovatus, dentatus, marginemque, laminae 3-5 cm to 1. 5-3.0 cm, pubescentia in primordiis, nervo rosea. Petiola 2. 5-3. 5 cm, rosea. Inflorescentia spikus, pedunculata 18 cm longum, brevis spikus 1-2 m ad folia axillaris. Flores perianthus 5, rosea. Stamina 5, longior quam perianth. Stigma pilosum, bifidis, brevis- brunnea. Semina brunnea 1.26-1.30 x 0.61- 0.67 mm. Holotypus 910 et positus Raja Balwant Singh College Agra, India, lectus Agra ad February 26, 1999. Isotypus Ibid. S.C. Pandeya & A. Pandeya. Fig. 1 . JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 87 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 5.0 Fig. 1: Chenopodium adpressifolium, a. Habit and maximum size of leaves, leaves turn crimson during senescence, b. Filaments longer than perianth, c. Purple perianth upon maturity, d. seeds with pericarp, e. seeds without pericarp 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR 2003 NEW DESCRIPTIONS An erect annual herbaceous plant. Starts growing in January, flowers in February /March and senesces by April/May; Height up to 1 m; Stem fibrous and hard, somewhat ridged, greenish-red to purple striped, turning homogeneously crimson upon maturity; Branches limited up to 10 cm from the base, decumbent, longest branch 20-25 cm; giving mature plant a rosette at the base with intemodes 2-3 cm; Leaves ovate, petiole and lamina in one line, erect, attached to the node at an angle of 70-75° during day and completely adpressed at night (photonastic movement), petiole 2.5- 3.5 cm, reddish-green; lamina olive green, veins reddish-green, dentate margin purple in mature leaves, dentations sharp and pointing upwards, lamina 3. 0-5.0 x 1. 5-3.0 cm, 0.56-0.8 mm thick and brittle, heavy mealiness on primordia, young stem leaves and perianth, lamina and petiole turn crimson upon maturity, terminal spike up to 18 cm long, few small spikes (1-2 cm) in axil of upper leaves; Flowers- perianth 5, central vein prominent; Stamens 5, longer than perianth, anthers coming out of flowers, feathery stigma bifid, small, purple, seeds covered with pericarp with a circular opening on the top, biconvex, disc- shaped, dark brown, 1.26-1.3 x 0.61-0.67 mm. Holotype deposited at Raja Balwant Singh College, Agra, India. No. 910. Fig. 1. Etymology: The species has been named so as its leaves get completely adpressed to the stem during night owing to photonastic movement. The specimen was sent to Prof. Pertii Uotila of Finland. He (1997, pers. comm.) opined that C. adpressifolium belongs to the group of C. album resembling in seed shape, size, and surface structure, as well as in the general shape of the leaves. The two species under discussion differ largely in their habit, position of the leaves, leaf size, leaf thickness and photonastic movement of leaves in the former species. He was of the view that the taxonomy of C. album in India needs revision. Chen op odium sagittatum Pandeya & Pandeya sp. nov. Affinis C. moquianum Aellen. C. moquianum Aellen affinis, ab ea differt: habitus, ramosa longior, folia gigantea, supra, lobi, lamina sagittus. Herbae, annuae, erectae, 3.65 m alta. Caule erecto, roseo, basales circumference c. 12 cm. Ramosa longior ad 65 cm. Folia petiolata c. 10- 12.5 cm longa, diam 21.5 cm, lamina sagittus 17-20 cm x 10-12 cm, lobus 2-2.5 cm. Inflorescentia terminalis, spikus, bracts lanceolatus, rosea, pubescentibus. Stamina 5, equilongus perianthus. Stigma bifidus, longa c. 0.64 mm, erectae, ovary diam 0.32 mm. Semina nigra brunnea, diam 0.91- 0.96 mm. Holotypus 911 et positus Raja Balwant Singh College, Agra, India, lectus Agra ad March 12, 1999. Isotypus Ibid. S.C. Pandeya & Amita Pandeya. Fig. 2. An erect annual herbaceous plant growing to 3.65 m height, starts growing in January- February, flowers from mid-April and spikes fully mature by May end; Stem ridged, red-striped, turning completely red up to apex upon maturity, circumference at the base up to 12 cm branching throughout, branches straight, stiff and at an angle of 30-40° from the node, branches parallel to each other in acropetal order, number of branches on mature plants 40-50. Several branchlets on each branch, longest branch up to 65 cm, when young red blotch on nodes; Leaves- petiole at an angle of 35-40° to stem and lamina 30° to petiole, at night both petiole and lamina become straight adpressed to the stem at an angle of 80-85°, lamina boat-shaped at night clasping the stem, exhibiting the photonastic movement. Petiole and lamina venation light purple, petiole 10-12.5 cm long, diameter 2.15 cm lamina arrow shaped (sagitate) with small side lobes pointing upwards, lamina 17-20 cm long and 10-12 cm at the broadest part, side lobes 2-2.5 cm, sometimes bifid, young lamina greyish-green. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 89 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 2: Chenopodium sagittatum , a. Habit with acropetal branching, b. Maximum size of leaves, old leaves turn crimson, c. Flowering branch, anthers coming out of the flowers, d. Crimson perianth upon maturity, e. Seeds with pericarp, f. Seeds without pericarp 90 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 NEW DESCRIPTIONS heavy mealiness. Both petiole and lamina turn crimson during senescence. Lamina 0.34 mm thick in vertical section, stele with both upper and lower epidermis red in colour. Inflorescence terminal along with branchlets up to 15 cm long, branches and branchlets bear up to 12 cm long spikes, spikes and lanceolate bracts all turn crimson upon maturity of seeds. Flowers 1 . 1 mm across, perianth 5, connate at case, greyish-green when young, crimson upon maturity, heavy mealiness. Stamens 5, anthers dehisce soon after opening of flowers, filaments equal to perianth. Stigma bifid, purple and erect, 0.64 mm long above ovary, diameter 0.32 mm. Seeds disc- shaped, notched, blackish-brown, diameter 0.91- 0.96 mm, width 0.6-0.61 mm. Holotype deposited at Raja Balwant Singh College, Agra, India. No. 911. Fig. 2. Etymology: The species has been named so as it has a characteristic sagittate lamina margin. For this species Uotila ( 1 997, pers. comm.) opined that it might be close to a taxon called C. moquianum Allen. C. sagitattum can easily be distinguished from the said group on account of its very large leaves. The leaves in C. moquianum are small and resemble Chenopod. Chenopoilium hastatifolium Pandeya & Pandeya sp. nov. Affinis C. ficifolium Sm. FI. Brit. 1 : 276 (1800). C. ficifolium Sm. Affinis ab ea differt folia tribus lobis obscuris, oblongo; foliis minuta, inferio. Herbae annuae, erectae c. 1 m alta, rarnosae 20-25, longior rarnosae 60-70 cm. Caulis rosea green, stripus basales circumference c. 2.7 cm, folia 3-lobus, lobus oblongo, dentibus - 2, lamina pubescens, petiolata 3-4.5 cm longa. Inflorescentia terminalis, spikes 5-10 cm iongis, Folia basales spikes parvi. Flores parvi, perianthus 5 basales connatis. Stamina 5 acquilongis perianthus, purplish. Carpella- stigma longo, bifidus. Semina biconvex, diameter 0.96-1.02 x 0.56-0.61 mm, brunnei. Hoiotypus 912 et positus Raja Balwant Singh College, Agra, India, lectus Agra ad March 15, 1999. Isotypus Ibid. S.C. Pandeya & Amita Pandeya. Fig. 3. An annual erect herb, up to 1 m, profusely branched (20-25 main branches), longest middle branches 60-70 cm, starts growing in November- December, flowers from February-March, fruits in March and senesces by April end. Stem greenish-red striped, ridged, circumference at base up to 2.7 cm. Leaves green, completely crimson upon senescence, 3- lobed, middle lobe oblong 3.5 x 0.6-1. 2 cm, with two dentations, basal two lobes pointing upwards, 0.6- 1.8 cm long, sometimes with 1-2 dentations, lamina 0.2- 0.26 mm thick with heavy mealiness when young. Petiole 3-4.5 cm long. Inflorescence greyish-green, turning crimson upon maturity of seeds due to perianth changing to crimson, terminal spike 5-10 cm, several small spikes in axil of leaves; Flowers-perianth 5, connate at base, central vein prominent. Stamens 5, equal to perianth. Stigma purple bifid, long and moustache-like, each arm 0.3-0. 4 mm long. Seeds biconvex covered with pericarp with a circular opening on the top. Seeds without pericarp 0.96-1.02 x 0.56-0.61 mm, dark brown with a small notch. Holotype deposited at Raja Balwant Singh College, Agra, India. No. 912. Fig. 3. Etymology: The species has been named on the basis of its hastate leaf margin. For this specimen Uotila (1997, pers. comm.) is of the view that it is close to C. ficifolium although the leaf shape is not very typical of that taxon. However, the interspecific taxonomy of the species is not completely known. Acknowledgements We thank Prof. Perti Uotila, Finish Museum of National History, University of JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 91 NEW DESCRIPTIONS Fig. 3: Chenopodium hastatifolium, a. Habit with maximum size of leaves, crimson old leaves, b. Heavy mealiness on flowers, c. Bifid stigma with long arms, d. Perianth turns reddish upon maturity Helsinki, Finland for critically examining the three specimens and giving his expert opinion. We thank Prof. A.B. Bhatt of HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar (UA) for critically going through the final manuscript, Dr. V.P. Bhatnagar, Head and Dr. Anil K. Bhatnagar both of Botany Department, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra for their cooperation and facilities, Dr. R.K.S. Rathore, Head Department of Botany, RBS College Agra for discussions and Dr. R.S. Parekh for permission to work on his farm at Poiya Ghat, Agra. Reference Pandeya. S.C. Geeta Singhal & Anil K. Bhatnagar (1998): Biosystematic study of two new species of Chenopodium from north Indian Plains. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(3): 477-487. 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 Professor M.S. Mani (1908-2003) OBITUARY PROF. M.S. MANI The year was 1 968, as a young postgraduate student of Zoology at the Department of Zoology, St. John’s College, Agra, I had the opportunity to meet Prof. Mani when he used to take classes while serving as Emeritus Professor. Thus, I had the golden opportunity to hear his lectures while I was in the final year M. Sc. class. I still remember the scholarly presentation and disposition of Prof. Mani. Professor Mani was an affectionate and highly respected man, who led a very disciplined life. He worked hard, and it is not surprising that he wrote over 35 books and more than 300 papers. Even at the age of 94, he went to Presidency College and worked. Personally, he was always extremely kind towards me. In 1979, when I asked him for some Chalcididae specimens for my studies on loan, he sent me several boxes of specimens with an affectionate letter saying that I need not return them. He gladly wrote a foreword for my book on Parasitic Hymenoptera in 2001. I consider myself fortunate to have been associated with such a great man. Prof. Mahadeva Subramania was born on March 2, 1 908 at Thanjavur (Tanjore), Tamil Nadu. After schooling at K.S. High School, Thanjavur, he joined the Govt. College, Coimbatore for his Intermediate in 1928. He later joined the Madras Medical College, but had to leave due to financial constraints. In 1933, he proceeded to Calcutta (Kolkata) in search of a suitable job and later joined as a tutor-cum-demonstrator in Physics on a part- time basis at Bangabasi College, Sealdah. At the same time, he worked at the Indian Museum of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta as an honorary research student. A few years later, he got a small job at the ZSI, started working on plant galls and gall insects, and soon became interested in Chalcidoidea. In 1 937, he obtained an M.A. degree from the University of Madras, on the basis of his research papers in Entomology. He was the only candidate to be so honoured. In 1937, M.S. Mani joined the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (now the IARI, New Delhi) as a Research Assistant under Dr. H.S. Pruthi. In 1940, he published his work "Biological Notes on the Chalcidoidea’ with Dr. Pruthi. In 1944, Dr. Mani resigned his post at IARI because of some differences between him and Dr. Pruthi. For some time, he had no job, but worked as a German language Translator for the Indian Army at New Delhi (Dr. Mani knew several European and Indian languages). In 1945, Dr. Mani joined St. John’s College, Agra as a lecturer, and there he prospered. He obtained his D.Sc. degree from the Agra University for his work on galls and gall insects of India in 1947. In 1950, he established the famous School of Entomology at St. John’s College, Agra, where he initiated research on various aspects of entomology. It was here that he initiated pioneering research on High Altitude Entomology and led several entomological expeditions to the Himalaya during 1953-56. These records were published in the JBNHS. Prof. Mani joined the Zoological Survey of India as Deputy Director in 1956 on an invitation from the Central Ministry, New Delhi and later served the Institution as Officiating Director. In 1968, he returned to the School of Entomology, Agra, as Emeritus Professor and continued there until 1984, when he went to Chennai. He worked at the Zoological Survey of India, Chennai Regional Station as a Principal Investigator of a DST Project and later shifted to the Botany Department, Presidency College, Chennai. Since 1990, he was working there as Emeritus Professor. Prof. Mani led an Indian delegation of Zoologists to the USSR in 1963. He represented India in the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Committee on Alpine and Arctic Ecology in Lillehammer, Norway in 1972. He was a Visiting Professor of Entomology at Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal in 1 975. Gordon Edwards of Colorado named him the Dean of High Altitude Entomology in 1971. He was awarded the Scientist of the Year award by Presidency College in 2000. Recently, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India awarded him the E.K. Janakiammal award for taxonomy, 2001, which carried a cash award of Rs. 1 Lakh. With the demise of Prof. M.S. Mani, not only India but the world has lost a renowned scientist. ■ T.C. NARENDRAN JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, / 00(1), APR. 2003 95 REVIEWS 1 . BEAUTIFUL ORCHIDS OF NEPAL by Keshab R. Rajbhandari and Sushila Bhattarai. Published by authors. 2001. Pp. i-viii + 1-220 (22 x 14 cm). Price Rs. 1,200/-. This book covers 101 orchid species belonging to 43 genera out of the 363 species belonging to 97 genera found in Nepal. Orchids attract professionals like botanists, horticulturists, florists as well as amateur plant lovers due to their showy flowers, fascinating structures and variety of colours. This handbook is useful for identifying some of the common showy orchids found in Nepal, and perhaps intended for the lay reader who generally does not want to read scientific terminology to identify plants. The book is mainly based on good and well-identified photographs, some of which are taken from potted cultivated plants. The book has limited value for amateurs, as it does not cover all the orchids from Nepal and it does not 2. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PLANT Keshab R. Rajbhandari. Published by The Museum, University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1 1-160 (25.5 x 18 cm). Price not mentioned, This is a supplement to the bibliographic book published in 1994 on the plant science of Nepal. It gives the titles published during the last 6 years. The first 78 pages of the supplement contain alphabetical entries arranged in the following order: author names followed by titles and publication data. The remaining 82 pages contain the subject index and index to scientific give identification keys, although the short descriptions given are sufficient to recognize the species. It has references to earlier works on the subject, index to scientific names and glossary of botanical terms used in descriptions. The book is printed on fine art paper, but this has resulted in unjustified wastage of paper space after each description. With careful layout, at least one-third of the printed pages could have been saved. These days, printing of coloured plates has become quite a costly affair, however, the price at Rs. 1,200/- is a little steep for this book. ■ M.R. ALMEIDA SCIENCE OF NEPAL (Supplement 1) by Society of Himalayan Botany [University , Tokyo 113-0033, Japan], 2001 . Pp. i-xiii + names of plants (with cross references to authors in the alphabetical bibliography). As stated by Samar Bahadur Malla in his foreword, documentation is a vital pillar in scientific research and technological development, and I am sure this Supplement will be useful in the study of plant wealth of Nepal. ■ M.R. ALMEIDA 3. AROMATIC AND MEDICINAL PLANTS - YIELDING ESSENTIAL OIL FOR PHARMACEUTICAL, PERFUMERY, COSMETIC INDUSTRIES AND TRADE by M.P. Shiva, Alok Lehri and Alka Shiva. Published by International Book Distributors, 9/3, Rajpur Road, Dehra Dun, Uttaranchal, 2002. Pp. i-viii + 1-341 (24 x 18 cm), with 12 line-drawing plates and 20 colour photographs. Price Rs. 1,950.00 or $ 65.00. The book mainly deals with aromatic plants, so its title “Aromatic and Medicinal Plants” is somewhat misleading. As ascertained by J.K. Rawat, Director of Forest Research Institute, the book describes 60 aromatic plants. The following subjects are discussed under each plant description: 1. Origin and 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 REVIEWS History, 2. Habit, 3. Morphology, 4. Phenology, 5. Distinguishing field characters, 6. Distribution, 7. Access and vulnerability, 8. Climate, 9. Soil types, 10. Silvicultural requirements, 11. Silvicultural characters, 12. Propagation, 13. Harvesting, 14. Grading and processing, 15. Storage, 16. Value addition, 17. Substitutes and adulterants, 18. Physico- chemical properties, 19. Active principles, 20. Production, 21. Uses, 22. Marketing and trade channels, 23. Export, 24. Recommendation and future vision, 25. References. There is a lack of good books on aromatic plants of India. But in my opinion this book is far below the required standard for such books. Many important aromatic plants are missing which makes the scope of the book very limited. Some of the important aromatic plants missing are: Murray a koenigii , Bothriochloa odor at a, Capillipedium asimilis , Canarium striclum and Vateria indica. Many references are incomplete and one wonders if the authors have referred to the publications cited or taken the information from secondary sources, e.g. Bacon (1909): Philipp. J. Sci. 4A, 131. (p. 100); Gupta (1964): Ind. Forester 90 - pp. 459 (p. 134) Both the references do not give the initials of the author’s name. The second reference mentions pp. (pages) and gives only one page 459. The manuscript has not been properly read before publishing it. Under “Vanilla” the botanical name Vanilla periflora Andr. with synonym V fragrans Ames is listed, but the title of the figure (not so good) is given as Vanilla planifolia Andr. The author of the Tropical American orchid Vanilla planifolia is Jackson (not Andrews). The availability of these two Vanilla species in the wild as mentioned by the authors requires validation. All the species appear randomly in the book with no specific system being followed. In some places, the order of appearance has been based on English names like Mint, Patchouli, Rosemary, Saffron, Sandalwood; while in the case of Ajowan, Ajmod, Am(b)a-haldi, etc. they have been arranged according to their Hindi names, while in still others like Matricaria chamomilla they have been arranged according to their scientific names. This has resulted in species of the same genera being separated by a number of pages, (e.g. Curcuma amada on p. 30 and C. aromatica on p. 314; Cymbopogon citrates on p. 204, C. jwarancusa on p. 1 77 and C. nardus on p. 110 all arranged according to English names). The Index lists some dubious names like Abelmoschus agallocha (p. 13). This name perhaps refers to Aquillaria agallocha. Cymbopogon nardus Rendle has been cited as a synonym under C. winter ianus Jowitt (see p. 1 10). However, these two grasses are distinct species (not conspecific). Cymbopogon winter ianus Jowitt is a grass having lower glume with three definite intracarinal nerves, while typical C. nardus (L.) Rendle is without them. If due to some reason (e.g. due to variability to a great extent) these two species happen to be the same (as they both originally come from Sri Lanka) Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle has priority and should be the correct name of this grass. Incidentally, native Indian grass cultivated in Tamil Nadu and elsewhere in the country is Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle var. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf ex Bor. The authors do not seem to be aware of the International rules on botanical nomenclature. For example: Acorus calamus (L.) Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Citrus Union (L.). When the author(s) name is cited in parenthesis it should always accompany the name(s) of the other author(s) outside the parenthesis. The name in the bracket indicates that the species was first published under another generic name, while the name outside parenthesis indicates the author who placed the taxon in its proper taxonomic binomial position. I do not wish to quote other nomenclatural errors in the book. It would suffice JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 97 REVIEWS here if we agree that no matter how much information you gather, if it is reported under an erroneous name it will serve no purpose. The photograph of Coleus aromaticus (now Solenosternon amboinicus ) has been wrongly labeled as Trachyspermum amrni (Ajowan). The book lacks a good index. The species index on p. 339 includes 111 binomials (including some synonyms); a number of specific names dealt in the book are missing in the index. Carum copticum given as p. 81 in the index is present on p. 23 (not given in the index) under synonyms of Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague. Considering the secondary information provided in this book, which can be retrieved from volumes of wealth of india among other books, the price of the book at Rs. 1,950/- is not justifiable by any standard. ■ M.R. ALMEIDA 4. RAPTOR WATCH: A GLOBAL DIRECTORY OF- RAPTOR MIGRATION SITES Compiled and edited by Jorje I. Zalles and Keith L. Bi'.dstein, 2000. BirdLife Conservation Series No. 9, BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K. Pp. 419, 22 black and white photos, 21 tables, 21 figures, 3 appendices (24 x 17 cm). $ 58.00. A global conservation undertaking was kick-started in 1988 called ‘Hawks Aloft Worldwide’. More than 800 raptor biologists and conservationists worldwide in more than 100 countries on six continents provided information on known and potential raptor migration sites. This compendium is based on the information submitted, and provides the information in a readable, accessible manner. The Introductory Chapters mention species of global conservation concern as listed by BirdLife International, the regional origin of breeding populations of migratory species, countries with taxa that are of conservation importance, and continental distribution and migration status (full vs. partial vs. irruptive migrants) of ail migratory species. In the ‘Global Analyses’ Chapter, one is told that at least 183 (62%), and possibly 193 (67%) of the world’s 294 species of raptors engage in seasonal migration. This involves full migrants 19 species (6% of all raptors) in which at least 90% of ail individuals leave the breeding area during the non-breeding season. Around 100-104 species (approximately 34%) are partial migrants, some of which range between breeding and non- breeding areas. Local or altitudinal migrants comprise 43-60 species (15% plus), their movements triggered by food availability or local weather conditions. Asia has the highest number (66) of migratory raptor species followed by Africa (6 1 ). Furthermore, 28 (37%) of the world’s 75 Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered and Critically Endangered raptors are known migrants. Their protection, which involves international networking, co-operation, combined political will and the generation of long term data bases, will prove to be a difficult, protracted, but challenging task. We are informed that 388 raptor migration watch sites have been identified worldwide, 252 occurring in protected areas. Furthermore, each observation or watch site that has annually recorded a minimum of 1 0,000 migratory raptors is collectively tabulated. The book contains sufficient information for the reader to decide where to go to observe migratory raptors, or where a species is most likely to be seen. The main part of the book consists of country and watch site descriptions under regional headings such as Africa; Asia, the Middle East, Australia and the Pacific Islands; Europe; South America, Central America, the Caribbean and Mexico; North America. Country 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 REVIEWS descriptions contain information on the size (sq. km), length of coastlines, neighbouring countries, human population size and growth rate, per capita GNP, major land-use patterns, whether party to International Wildlife Law (UNESCO, Ramsar Convention and CITES), biogeographical provinces, and total number of migratory raptors (full and partial migrants). The watch site descriptions are extensive, providing facts on location with coordinates, altitude, biogeographic province, site description, land tenure, protection status, land use, various threats if any, migration monitoring activity, main migratory periods, regular migratory raptor species, research and conservation activities undertaken, list of contacts and resource personnel for the site, and criteria for inclusion of the site in the global directory. A large country like North America has 129 watch sites, China 5, a smali country like Israel 8, and India, sadly none. Smaller countries like Indonesia have 7, Japan 6, Malaysia 2 and Nepal 2 watch sites respectively. Raptor migration in India is poorly known and little information exists, for example, on the lesser kestrel and Amur falcon, which migrate through India in huge numbers. The book highlights the lack of information on Autumn and Spring migration over the Indian Himalaya. Raptors migrate on a broad front of 1,000 km over the Himalaya, but watch sites need to be identified and established where climate and geography create conditions and ‘corridors’ in the form of N-S oriented river valleys such as the upper Kali Gandaki in Nepal. Appendix 1 lists major National (US) and International raptor organizations and Appendix 2 cites countries that have ratified the convention on biological diversity (CBD). The last eight pages are an Index of migratory raptors at Raptor Watch Global Directory (RWGD) watch sites with keys to migratory status, two- letter country codes and names for different watch sites and number of watch sites at which a particular species occurs. In conclusion, raptor watch is well- produced, both in content and production that took over 10 years to complete. An ambitious and pioneering project, it has great conservation potential through setting in motion conservation efforts and tourism promotion for watching migrating birds of prey. For example, more than 90,000 enthusiasts visit Hawk Mountain Sanctuary in North America annually. The book provides quick reference on the distribution and conservation status, highlights areas/ countries where intensive work is required and addresses pressing problems. St will help develop monitoring programmes to track migrating raptor populations and determine fluctuations and causes over a long term period. Besides promoting further research, it should help to motivate greater international collaboration in raptor conservation. The book would also encourage serious raptophiles to witness the spectacle of migration and experience wild raptors at close quarters as volunteers through trapping and banding programmes. Before migrating raptors can be protected, we need to know where, when and how they migrate. This book is the first step in that direction. B RISHADNAOROJI JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 99 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. THE HARVARD COLLECTION OF SOUTH ASIAN MAMMALS Founded in 1859, the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ) at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, possesses the oldest systematic mammal collection in the United States. While not ranked among the larger mammal collections in terms of number of specimens housed, the Mammal Department of the MCZ stands as one of the most complete collections in the world, in terms of taxa represented in its holdings. In a recent review of South Asian mammals in the collection of the MCZ, we have identified more than 700 specimens representing 160 different species from the South Asian region (here taken to include Pakistan, India including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Upper Myanmar). The species represented are listed in Table 1. The intention is to inform researchers, especially those in the South Asian Table 1 : List of mammal species from South Asian localities in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University Insectivora Hemiechirius collaris Hemiechinus micropus Crocidura horsfieldi Suncus etruscus S uncus mon tan us Suncus murinus Suncus stoliczkanus Nectogale elegans Soriculus caudatus Soriculus nigrescens Euroscaptor micrura Indian long-eared hedgehog Indian (Pale) hedgehog Horsfield's shrew White-toothed pygmy shrew Sri Lanka highland shrew Asian house (Grey musk) shrew Anderson’s shrew Elegant water shrew Hodgson’s brown-toothed shrew Himalayan shrew Himalayan (Eastern) mole Scandentia Tupaia belangeri Northern (Malay) tree shrew Chiroptera Pteropus giganteus Pteropus melanotus Rousettus leschenaulii Rhinopoma hardwickei Rhinopoma microphyllum Saccoiaimus saccolaimus Taphozous longimanus Taphozous meianopogon Taphozous nudiventris Megaderma lyra Megaderma spasma Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Rhinolophus iepidus Rhinolophus rouxi Hipposideros atra Hipposideros fulvus Hipposideros lankadiva Hipposideros pomona Hipposideros speoris Kerivoula picta Indian flying fox Black-eared flying fox Leschenault’s rousette (Fulvous fruit bat) Lesser mouse-tailed bat Greater mouse-tailed bat Naked-rumped pouched bat Long-winged tomb (Longarmed sneathtaii) bat Black-bearded (Bearded) sheathtail bat Naked-rumped tomb bat Greater (Indian) false vampire bat Lesser false vampire bat Greater horseshoe bat Blyth’s horseshoe bat Rufous horseshoe bat Dusky roundieaf bat Fulvus roundieaf bat Indian roundieaf bat Pomona roundieaf bat Schneider’s roundieaf bat Painted bat 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 : List of mammal species from South Asian localities in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University ( contd .) Eptesicus nasutus Sind bat Myotis longipes Kashmir cave bat Myotis muricola Whiskered myotis Myotis mystacinus Whiskered (Mustachioed) bat Pipistrellus affinus Chocolate pipistrelle Pipistrellus ceylonicus Kelaaifs pipistrelle Pipistrellus coromandra Indian pipistrelle Pipistrellus mimus Indian pygmy pipistrelle Pipistrellus paterculus Mount Popa pipistrelle Scotoecus pallidus Desert yellow bat Scotophilus heathi Greater Asiatic (Common) yellow bat Scotophilus kuhli Lesser Asiatic yellow bat Tylonycteris p achy pus Lesser bamboo bat Harpiocephalus harpia Hairy-winged bat Murina cyclotis Round-eared tube-nosed bat Miniopterus pusillus Small bent-winged bat Miniopterus schreibersi Schreibers’s long-fingered bat Primates Nycticebus coucang Slow loris Macaca mulatto Rhesus macaque Macaca silenus Liontailed macaque Macaca sinica Toque macaque Semnopithecus entellus Hanuman (Common) langur Trachypithecus johni Hooded leaf monkey (Nilgiri langur) Trachypithecus phayrei Phayre’s leaf monkey Trachypithecus vet ulus Purple-faced leaf monkey Hylobates hoolock Hoolock gibbon Carnivora Canis aureus Golden jackal (Jackal) Cuon alpinus Dhole Vulpes vulpes Red fox Catopuma temmincki Asiatic golden cat Felis chaus Jungle cat Neofelis nebulosa Clouded leopard Panthera pardus Leopard Panthera tigris Tiger Uncia uncia Snow leopard Herpestes edwardsi Indian grey (Common) mongoose Hetpestes javanicus Javan (Small indian) mongoose Herpestes smithi Ruddy mongoose Herpestes urva Crab-eating mongoose Hyaena hyaena Striped hyena Amblonyx cinereus Oriental small-clawed (Clawiess) otter Lutra lutra European (Common) otter Arctonyx collaris Hog badger Martes flavigula Yellow-throated marten Mustela sibirica Siberian (Himalayan) weasel Ailurus fulgens Red panda Melurus ursinus Sloth bear Ursus arctos Brown bear Ursus thibetanus Asiatic (Himalayan) black bear JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 101 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 : List of mammal species from South Asian localities in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University ( contd .) Paguma larvata Masked (Himalayan) palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphrcditus Paradoxurus zeylonensis Viverricula indica Asian palm civet (Toddy cat) Golden palm civet Small Indian civet Cetacea Platanista gangetica Platanista minor Ganges river (Gangetic river) dolphin Indus river dolphin Sirenia Dugong dugon Dugong Proboscidea Elephas maximus Asiatic (Indian) elephant Perissodactyla Equus kiang Rhinoceros unicornis Kiang (Asiatic wild ass) Indian (Great Indian one-horned) rhinoceros Artiodactyla Sus scrofa Sus salvanius Moschiola meminna Moschus chrysogaster Axis axis Axisporcinus Census duvaucelii Census elaphus Census eldii Census unicolor Muntiacus muntjac Antilope censicapra Gazella bennettii Bos frontalis Bos grunniens Boselaphus tragocamelus ' Bubalus bubalis Budorcas taxicolor Tetracerus quadricomis Capra falconeri Capra sibirica Hemitragus hylocrius Hemitragus jemlahicus Nemorhaedus sumatrensis Ovis ammon Ovis vignei Pseudois nayaur Wild boar Pygmy hog Indian spotted chevrotain Alpine musk deer (Musk deer) Chital Hog deer Barasingha (Swamp deer) Elk (Kashmir stag) Eld’s deer (Thamin) Sambar Indian muntjac Blackbuck Indian gazelle Gaur Yak Nilgai Water (Wild) buffalo Takin Four-horned antelope (Chowsingha) Markhor Siberian ibex (Ibex) Nilgiri tahr Himalayan tahr Serow Argali (Great Tibetan sheep) Urial Bharal Pholidota Manis crassicaudata Indian pangolin 102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 1 : List of mammal species from South Asian localities in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University ( contd .) Rodentia Callosciurus erythraeus Pallas’s squirrel Callosciurus pygerythrus Irrawaddy (Hoarybellied Himalayan) squirrel Dremomys lokriah Orange-bellied Himalayan squirrel Funambulus palmarum Indian (Threestriped) palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti Northern (Fivestriped) palm squirrel Funambulus sublineatus Dusky palm squirrel Funambulus tristriatus Jungle palm squirrel Marmota himalayana Himalayan marmot Menetes berdmorei Indochinese ground squirrel Ratufa bicolor Black (Malayan) giant squirrel Ratufa indica Indian giant squirrel Ratufa macroura Sri Lankan (Grizzled) giant squirrel Tamiops macclellandi Himalayan striped squirrel Hylopetes alboniger Particoloured flying squirrel Hylopetes fimbriatus Kashmir flying squirrel Petaurista petaurista Red (Common) giant flying squirrel Petaurista philippensis Indian giant (Large brown) flying squirrel Alticola montosa Central Kashmir vole Hyperacrius fertilis True’s vole Microtus sikimensis Sikkim vole Meriones hurrianae Indian desert jird (gerbil) Tatera indica Indian gerbil Apodemus rusiges Kashmir field mouse Bandicota indica Greater bandicoot rat Bandicota bengalensis Lesser bandicoot rat (Indian mole-rat) Golunda ellioti Indian bush rat Millardia meltada Soft-furred rat (Metad) Mus booduga Little Indian field mouse Mus mayori Mayor’s mouse Mus musculus House mouse Mus terricolor Earth-coloured mouse Nesokia indica Short-tailed bandicoot rat Niviventereha Smoke-bellied rat Rattus nitidus Himalayan field rat Rattus rattus House rat Rattus turkestanicus Turkestan rat Srilankomys ohiensis Ohiya rat Platacanthomys lasiurus Malabar spiny dormouse Hystrix indica Indian crested porcupine Lagomorpha Ochotona roylei Royle’s pika (Himalayan mouse-hare) Ochotona thibetana Moupin pika region, of the availability of good series of many The collection is historically an important different species in the collections of the MCZ. one. Specimens purchased from H.A. Ward and Recourse to the collection will assuredly serve E. Gerrard Jr. formed the original basis of the future investigations of systematics and of current South Asian collection at the MCZ. Collectors and historical patterns of mammalian such as W. Theobald, M. Carleton, and distribution in the region. C. Carpenter continued to add to this collection JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 103 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES during the 1860s and 1 870s with their donations of large natural history collections from India. Another period of significant growth in accessions from South Asia, especially of bats and primates, occurred under the enthusiastic tenure of the great mammalogist G.M. Allen as Curator of the MCZ, Mammal Department (during 1 924- 1 942). More recent additions to the collection have included specimens procured during expeditions to Nepal and Pakistan in the 1950s. There is one name-bearing type series of a South Asian mammal at the MCZ — the holotype and paratype of Pteropus ariel (= P. giganteus arid) described by G.M. Allen (1908) from the Maldives (see Helgen and McFadden, 2001 : 141). The department holds topotypes of many mammalian taxa from the region, including Buclorcas taxicolor , Capra falconeri cashmiriensis, Soriculus c and at us, S . nigrescens, Niviventer niviventer monticola , Niviventer eha and Miniopterus pusillus. Additionally, the collection also contains specimens of a large number of South Asian mammals that are rarely collected. In the list, taxonomy follows Wilson and Reeder (1993); common names follow Wilson and Cole (2000); where these names deviate from Prater (1948), that author’s common names are given in parentheses. December 22, 2002 KRISTOFER M. HELGEN Mammal Department, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, 26 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. JOHN MATHEW Entomology Department, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, USA. Email: jmathew@oeb.harvard.edu CHRISTINE A. MONTA Department of History of Science, Harvard University, USA. References Allen, G.M. (1908): Notes on Chiroptera. Bull. Mus. Wilson, D.E. & F.R. Cole (2000): Common names of Comp. Zool. 52: 25-63. mammals of the world. Smithsonian Institution Helgen, K.M. & T.L. McFadden (2001): Type specimens Press, Washington, D.C. of recent mammals in the Museum of Comparative Wilson, D.E. & D.R. Reeder ( 1 993): Mammal species of Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 157 : 93-181. the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Prater, S.H.( 1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay 2nd edn. Smithsonian Institution Press, Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 324. Washington, D.C. 2. LITTLE GREBE TACHYBAPTUS RUFICOLLIS : AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF LADAKH On the morning of July 1, 1999 between 1000 and 1030 hrs, three adult little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis in summer plumage were observed at Trishul Tso, a small lake created by the Army, near the headquarters of the Ladakh Scouts on the Leh-Srinagar road. The birds were immediately recognised as little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis , a species familiar to the observers. On July 3, 1999 only one bird was recorded at the lake. HSS checked for the birds again at the lake on July 9, 1999, but none were sighted. There are no previously documented records of little grebe from Ladakh to the best of our knowledge. Ali and Ripley (1981), Grimmelt et al. (1998) and Kazmierczak and van Perlo (2000) do not mention this area in the species’ distribution. 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 I MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Jayson, E.L. et al. : Fregata arid Gray Plate 1 Fig. la-b: Lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel Gray in the Kole wetlands of Thrissur, Kerala 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES The upper limit of the species is variously recorded as 1,800 m (Ali and Ripley 1981), 2,500 m (Ali 1996) and 1,372 m (Fleming et al 1984) for the Indian subcontinent. Interestingly, the site where the birds were observed is at an elevation of c. 3,500 m, considerably exceeding the record from Rara Lake in Nepal on April 1, 1976 at 3,050 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). Feb. 7, 2001 HARKIRAT SINGH SANG HA B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. Email: sangha@datainfosys.net References RISHADNAOROJI Godrej Bhavan, 4-A, Home Street, Fort, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India. Email: rnaoroji@vsnl.com MAAN BARUA 107, M.C. Road, Uzan Bazaar, Guwahati 781 001, Assam, India. Au, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. 12th revised and enlarged edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Fleming, Sr. R.L., R.L. Fleming Jr. & L.S. Bangdel (1984): Birds of Nepal. 3rd edn., Avalok, Kathmandu. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 998): Birds of the Indian subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1991): A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. 2nd edn. Christopher Helm. London. Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press. Robertsbridge. U.K. 3. SIGHTING OF LESSER FRIGATEBIRD FREGATA ARIEL GRAY IN THE KOLE WETLANDS OF THRISSIJR, KERALA ( With one plate ) Kole wetland in Thrissur district is one of the important wintering grounds for migratory birds coming to Kerala. The area lies in between 10° 20' - 10° 40' N and 75° 58' - 76° 11' E, extending to about 1 1 ,000 ha. Kole wetlands are situated below sea level and paddy is cultivated during the months of October to April, after draining water. During monsoon (June to September) the whole area is inundated. As a part of ecological studies on wetland birds initiated in 1998, we have been surveying the area regularly. During the period, a lesser frigatebird Fregata ariel Gray was recorded from Guruvayur, Thrissur district on June 16, 2000. The place is situated on the west coast and is about 4 km away from the sea. Local people noticed a live bird and brought it to the Thrissur Zoo. On examination, the bird was identified as an adult female of the lesser frigatebird. The bird had a black head and red eye rings, black throat and white breast extending into a complete collar around the neck. The bird stayed alive for a week in the zoo, after which it was skinned and preserved. Only a few sighting details of the lesser frigatebird are reported from Kerala State. Ferguson and Bourdillon ( 1 904) recorded it from Trivandrum. Ali (1984) has not reported the species from Kerala. Faizi (1985) reported the JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 107 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES species from Quilon, based on a museum specimen. This is the first report of the species from central Kerala and also from the Kole wetlands of Thrissur. The individual seems to be an accidental straggler that landed in the coastal zone due to the heavy monsoon winds prevalent in June. Refer Ali, S. (1984): Birds of Kerala. 2Md Edn, Oxford University Press. Delhi. 444 Pp. Faizi, S. ( 1 985): An additional record of the Lesser Frigate Bird Fregcita arid in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. 4. INDIAN POND-HERONS ARDEOLA Following the failure of monsoon in our area in 1 999-2000, Rishi Valley (Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh) wore a drab look with the drying up of ponds and other waterbodies. Even the percolation tank, which usually harbours water even in the lean period, was reduced to a muddy puddle. I was out on a walk along the road lined with trees such as Ficus and Spathodea outside the school campus, on the evening of March 5, 2000, when 1 noticed three Indian pond-herons (Ardeola grayii ) perched on a banyan tree Ficus bengalensis , c. 8 m above the ground. It was too early for them to roost and there was no major disturbance that might have forced them to fly to a tree. I paused to look around, and within a few minutes was able to find the reason. Just above the Indian pond-herons was a small group of dragonflies, flying close to the foliage of the banyan tree. Even as I was watching them, an Indian pond-heron attempted to snap at a dragonfly that was just a few inches above it. This and the attempts that followed were all unsuccessful for the few minutes that I observed them. A little later, the dragonflies moved away from the tree and the Indian pond-herons flew to forage in the dry, barren fields. A few days later, I noticed another Indian pond-heron on a November 25, 2000 *E. A. JAYSON C. SIVAPERUMAN Division of Wildlife Biology Kerala Forest Research Institute Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India. * Email: jayson@kfri.org E N C E S Soc. 82(1): 191. Fergusson, FI.S. & T.F. Bourdillon (1904): The Birds of Travancore, with notes on their Nidification. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 1-18. GRAYII FEEDING ON DRAGONFLIES tamarind tree outside my house attempting to catch dragonflies in flight. With the disappearance of waterbodies, the Indian pond-herons had to change their foraging strategies and had taken to vantage points on trees to catch dragonflies. A few others were seen stalking insects in dry fields and, following cattle and goats just like cattle egrets ( Bubulcus ibis ) which were also occasionally seen with the herons. I had, on an earlier instance, noticed Indian pond- herons attempting to catch dragonflies from the ground at Adyar Estuary in Chennai when the insects were flying low over the islets and water. Prasad and Hemanth (1992; JBNHS89 : 246) have reported Indian pond-herons perched on a 7 m willow tree in Bangalore, feeding on bees that came to the flowers. Jose noticed (1999; NLBW 39(2): 39) cattle egrets feeding on insects visiting flowerheads of mango Mangifera indica and Carissa trees. These observations show how birds adapt their behaviour to changed circumstances to survive. April 16, 2000 V. SANTHARAM Institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, Rishi Valley Education Centre, Rishi Valley 517 352, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India. 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 5. VARIATION RECORDED IN THE IRIS, BILL, LEG AND FOOT COLOURATION IN CATTLE EGRET BUBULCUS IBIS A nesting colony of cattle egret Bubulcus ibis was spotted at Zila Garden, Rajkot. They started nesting during early June, 2000. During regular observations, I recorded variations in four birds of the colony. The iris and bill colour of al! the breeding birds in the colony was golden yellow, but in these four birds, the iris was red and bill reddish-violet. This variation among breeding populations of cattle egret has not been recorded by Ali and Ripley (1987), Heinzel et al. (1973), and Sonobe and Usui (1993). The breeding birds had pink legs and feet, while the non-breeding birds had black legs and feet. The actual changing of colours was not recorded. (The author has submitted photographic evidence of the observations — Eds.) February 6, 2001 TUSHAR M. SANGHANI “Tushar” 1, Maruti Nagar, Aerodrome Road, Rajkot 360 001, Gujarat, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp.737 + 1 04 plates. Heinzel, H.. R. Fitter & J. Parslow ( 1 973): The Birds of Britain and Europe. William Collins Sons and Co. Ltd., London. Sonobe, K. & S. Usui (Eds.) ( 1 993): A Field Guide to the Waterbirds of Asia. Wildbird Society of Japan, Tokyo. 6. RECORD OF A NESTING COLONY OF PAINTED STORK MYCTERIA LEUCOCEPHALA AT MAN-MARODI ISLAND IN THE GULF OF KUTCH {With one text-figure ) Gujarat is well endowed with nesting sites of painted stork Mycteria leucocephala , both in the vicinity of freshwater inland wetlands and on the coast. Dharmakumarsinhj i (1955) observes that these birds nest “more numerously on the coastal areas where marine food is easily available”. However, very little is known about the coastal nesting grounds of the painted stork in Gujarat, with the exception of the heronries at Bhavnagar that have been well documented by Parasharya and Naik (1990). In this note, I wish to record the existence of a large nesting colony of painted stork on the Man-Marodi Island in the Gulf of Kutch. This site was studied while I was accompanying teams of students from the Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad, to the Sundervan campsite at Beyt Dwarka during 1999-2000. Man-Marodi is a rocky island quite close to the coast, off Positra, near the mouth of the Gulf of Kutch (Fig. 1). The island itself appears as a large block of rocks some 2-3 sq. km in area, rising at least 20 m above the level of the water. The chief vegetation on this island is scrub and small trees such as Acacia and Salvador a, interspersed by dense stands of Euphorbia. On a first visit to Man-Marodi on October 20, 1999, at least 1 00 nests of painted stork were observed. Most of the nests had 1 or 2 chicks. The nestlings were in an advanced stage, possibly a month old as suggested by the colour of their plumage and bill, indicating that nesting activity at this site must have started in end August i.e. towards the end of the monsoon. Since the principal vegetation of the island is quite short, most of the nests were observed at c. 1.5 m above ground JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 109 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 69° Fig. 1: Map of Man-Marodi Island (Indicated by arrow) in the Gulf of Kutch level and quite closely packed. Interestingly, some nests were made by stacking sticks and twigs on Euphorbia stands. On November 30, 2000, when this island was visited again, no painted storks were seen, although information gathered from local fishermen revealed that the birds had nested during that year too. This heronry has, of course, not gone unnoticed. In his exhaustive review on the birds of Gujarat, Khacher (1996) refers to Man-Marodi without actually naming it when he writes, “There is an unusual nesting colony of the painted stork on a sandstone island in the Gulf of Kachchh”. Possibly, what makes Man-Marodi unusual is that out here, in the absence of true thermals in the sea, painted stork appear to take advantage of the wind hitting the rock face, which creates the effect of thermals and enables the birds to soar in the sky and gain altitude when embarking on food finding missions (Lavkumar Khacher, pers. comm.). The use of Euphorbia Refe Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1955): The Birds of Saurashtra. Times of India Press, Bombay. Khacher, L. ( 1 996): The Birds of Gujarat - — A Salim Ali Centenary Year Overview. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 331-373. Parasharya, B.M. & R.M. Naik(1990): Ciconiiform birds as a nesting substrate is another interesting feature of this heronry. Why is this island preferred by large numbers of painted stork for nesting? Firstly, the closely packed vegetation affords a good substrate for nesting in colonies. Secondly, the Island being surrounded by the sea on all sides and not being visited by humans too frequently, the birds probably find it to be a safe place. But having said this, I may also mention the problems. For instance, common crows take their toll on painted stork eggs. Reportedly, jackals sometimes visit this island, swimming across from the mainland or from the neighbouring islands during low tide, and can pose a danger for the nestlings. Thirdly, although no humans are known to inhabit this island as of now, local fishermen sometimes anchor their boats in the vicinity of Man-Marodi and reportedly, poach upon the nestlings. Acknowledgements I thank Mr. Lavkumar Khacher for interesting insights about Man-Marodi Island and Mr. Rajindersinh Jadeja and Mr. Hembha Vader for providing logistical support, including a motorboat to visit the islands. I am grateful to Shri K.V. Sarabhai for encouragement. March 22, 2001 ABDUL JAMIL URFI Sundarvan Nature Discovery Centre, S.M. Road, Jodhpur Tekra, Ahmedabad 380 015, Gujarat, India. Permanent Address: c/o Dr. Jalil A-270, Jamia Nagar, Okhla, New Delhi 110 025, India. E N C E S breeding in Bhavnagar city, Gujarat: a study of their nesting and plea for conservation. Pp. 429- 445. In: Conservation in Developing Countries: problems and prospects. Proceedings of the Centenary Seminar of Bombay Natural History Society (Eds: Daniel. J.C. & J.S. Serrao). BNHS, Bombay. 110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1). APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 7. FIRST SIGHTING OF LESSER ADJUTANT-STORK LEPTOPTILOS JAVANICUS FROM SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI A solitary adult lesser adjutant-stork Leptoptilos javanicus was sighted at Vihar lake, Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Mumbai, on January 21, 2001 at 1000 hrs. When first sighted, the bird was searching for food at the bank of the lake. However, due to human disturbance, it took off, soared for a while, settled on a bare tree for 10 min and then resumed its feeding activities. While in the air, it was mobbed by three black kites Milvus migrans. However, the bird looked undeterred by these raptors. Subsequently, local birdwatchers sighted it thrice in six days, the last being on January 27, 2001. According to Ali and Ripley (1987), L. javanicus is resident, nomadic (during monsoon) and locally migratory. Apart from Assam, which is its stronghold, it is scattered across West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Kutch, Rajasthan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. Lainer (1999) and Choudhury (1995) have also reported the bird from Goa and Rf.f Ali. S & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh. Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 737+ 104 plates. Choudhury, A. (1995): Bird survey of Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary. OBC Bull. 22: 15. del Hoyo. J., A. Elliot & .1. Sargatal (1992): Handbook Arunachal Pradesh respectively. Though widely distributed, it occurs in very low densities along its entire range except Assam, and has been designated as a 'globally threatened species’ (del Hoyo et al. 1992; Grimmett et al. 1998). The breeding season of L. javanicus stretches from July to January (Grimmett et al. 1998) and thus the appearance of an adult bird at SGNP in January indicates that it might be breeding in northern regions of the Western Ghats. The poor monsoon during 2000 and the subsequent water scarcity may also have forced individuals to travel greater distances in search of food. A detailed study of its probable range is, however, essential to be able to comment on its breeding in northwestern Maharashtra. May 4, 2001 ANISH ANDHERIA 2, Sagar Building, V.P. Road, Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India. Email: anish@kidsfortigers.org R E N C E S of Birds of the World, Vol. 1. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Lainer, H. (1999): The Birds of Goa (Pt I). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 203-220. 8. BLACK IBIS PSEUD1BIS PAPULOSA FEEDING ON FROGS FROM CRAB HOLES On November 5, 6 and 8, 1999, at about 0700 hrs on the K. Sathanur Road, Kalaignar Karunanidhi Nagar, Trichy, Tamil Nadu, I saw a pair of black ibis Pseudibis papillosa running into shallow rainfed pools and beating their wings. Only on November 9, on closer examination, did I realise that the splashing of water and beating of wings, probably by the same pair, had frogs jumping out of the water into crab holes, situated on the margin of the dried portion of the pool. The crab holes were freshly formed. The ibis would thrust their in-curved bills fully into the crab holes, only the warts on their head visible, spreading out their muddy red legs and pull a frog out in c. 1-2 min. Once the bird had pulled the frog out, it would throw it on the ground, stab it with its bill and JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 111 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES then eat it. One bird ate about 10 frogs in 23 min in this manner. Tadpoles that jumped out and hid within the hexagonal cracks of the dried patches of loam were not eaten by the ibis. I have seen black ibis infrequently in Trichy. They do not breed around here. Nov. 14, 2000 J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON No. 11, 1 0th Avenue, Ashok Nagar, Chennai 600 083, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: mangalraj_j@hotmail.com 9. NOTE ON BREEDING OF ANDAMAN TEAL ANAS GIBBERIFRONS IN SOUTH ANDAMAN ISLANDS, INDIA The Andaman teal Anas gibber ifrons occurs in the Andaman Islands and Great Cocos Islands. The species is not globally threatened, but is considered ‘threatened’ in the Andaman Islands because of agricultural development and disappearance of wetlands (Andrews and Whitaker 1994; Vijayan et al. 2000). However, very little information was available on its status and population until recently (Vijayan 1996; Vijayan and Sakthivel 1996; Vijayan et al. 2000). We report here an instance of breeding of the Andaman teal from the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park (MGMNP), Wandoor in the South Andaman Island. MGMNP is spread over c. 281.5 sq. km and is comprised of 1 5 islands of the Labyrinth group, along the southwest coast of South Andaman Island. Only 60 sq. km of the Park is covered by landmass and the rest comprises open sea and creeks. The presence of marshy area and creeks in this Marine National Park provides an ideal breeding habitat for the Andaman teal (Harry Andrews pers. comm., Vijayan et al. 2000). On May 28, 1999, while looking for sea snake nests in and around the Redskin Island, we approached a small, unnamed islet about 50 to 75 m away from the northeastern coast of Redskin Island. The islet is about 2-3 m high from the high tide line, about 7 m long and 3 m wide. On approaching the islet we flushed two teals, which we later identified as the Andaman teal (Anas gibber ifrons). We searched the islet and found a neatly placed nest, with nine creamish eggs with small black spots all over, at the base of a small shrub at the northern tip of the islet. The nest was c. 20 cm in diameter and consisted of dried grass, thin twigs and down feathers of the adult. The nest was easily accessible to human as well as water monitor lizard (Varanus satvator andamanensis). Before landing on this islet, we had sighted a water monitor lizard basking on a small shrub, but it disappeared into the water on our arrival. A little away from the teal nest, four nests of black-naped tern (Sterna sum air ana) were noticed. Each of them had one or two eggs that were white with prominent black spots. When we left the islet we saw the parent birds return to the nest. The next day, when we returned to the islet to photograph the nest of the Andaman teal, eight of the nine eggs had hatched and the ninth chick was emerging when we reached. The newly hatched chicks were grey, with a faint white circle around the eyes, and a grey beak. The available definite breeding records to date are from August to October (Ali and Ripley 1983; Vijayan el al. 2000). July 13, 2001 SARANG KULKARNI Wildlife Institute of India, PB # 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India. Email: coralll0@usa.net MANISH CHANDI Andaman and Nicobar Environmental Team, PB # 1, Junglighat, Port Blair 744 103, India. 112 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References All S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka Oxford University Press, Delhi. 737 pp.+ 104 plates. Andrews. H.V. & R. Whitaker (1994): Preliminary observation on the Andaman Teal (Anas gibberifrons albogularis ) in North Andaman Island. Report submitted to Asian Wetlands Bureau. Malaysia. Vijayan, L. (1996): Status and conservation of the Andaman teal Anas gibberifrons albogularis. In: Proc. Anatidae 2000 Conference, Strasbourg, France, 5-9 December 1994. Gibier Faune Sauvage, Game Wildlife 13(1): 831-842. Vijayan, L. & R. Sakthivel (1996): Surveys of Andaman Teal in winter 1995/96. Threatened Waterfowl Research Group New/etter 9: 25-27 . Vijayan, L., R. Sankaran, K. Sivakumar & V. Murugan (2000): A study on the ecology, status and conservation prospectives of certain rare endemic avifauna of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Final Report. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural Flistory, Coimbatore. 184 pp. 10. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NESTING OF BONELLES EAGLE HIERAAETUS FASCIATUS (VIEILLOT) During our regular treks for bird watching, we have observed a rare phenomenon not reported elsewhere. This year, for the third year in succession, the same pair of Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaelus fasciatus (Vieillot) has nested at the same site, building their third nest on top of the previous two nests. The total height of the nest has now reached a massive 0.9 m; sticks of various trees gathered from the vicinity have been used to build this c. 1 m wide nest. The nest is at a height of c. 12 m on a jambui Syzygium cumini (L.) tree on the slope of Pavangadh, 962 rn above msi, 18 km northwest of Kolhapur city, and is lined with fresh green leaves. Nesting at the same site by the same pair is a phenomenon we have not observed in other Bonelli’s eagle pairs elsewhere in the surrounding hilly region. March 23, 2001 DEEPAL1 KULKARN1 BANDA PEDNEKAR 85, Ruikar Colony, Kolhapur 416 005, Maharashtra, India. 11. STATUS OF WHITE-BELLIED SEA-EAGLE HALJAEETUS LEUCOGASTER IN RATNAG1RI DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA The white-bellied sea-eagle Haiiaeetus leucogaster is thinly, but widely distributed and is listed as vulnerable in the Indian red data book. No data on the status and population of this species is available. Its present status, along the 164 km coastline, in Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra, is given on the basis of a survey undertaken in the district during 1996-97 and 1997-98. We located 62 nests during our survey. The identity of the bird was confirmed from the HANDBOOK. The species is resident along the seaboard and offshore islands from about 19° N of Mumbai down the west coast and up the east to Bangladesh, Laccadive Is. (now Lakshadweep), Sri Lanka, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands and is vagrant in Gujarat (Ali and Ripley 1978). We undertook a survey to determine the present status and distribution of the white- bellied sea-eagie in Ratnagiri district, as the species is found throughout the coastline of this district. Ratnagiri district is situated in the Konkan region of Maharashtra State (16.30°- 18.04° N and 73.02°-73.52° E). The coastline of the district is about 164 km long and is uniformly rocky and shallow. Various bluffs and promontories enclose small sandy beaches, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 113 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES interspersed by estuaries of the more important rivers and the mouths of numerous minor streams. Average width of the district is about 64 km. We surveyed the coastal line, which is 5 to 7 km wide. The Konkan region experiences a hot and humid maritime climate with plentiful rain during the monsoon (June to September ave. 3,000 mm). The mean annual temperature ranges from 22 °C to 30 °C. The mean relative humidity is 80% in the region. The eagle that affects the seacoast and tidal creeks and estuaries is seen occasionally a few miles inland along tidal rivers and at freshwater lakes (Ali and Ripley 1978). In our survey, we saw most of the nests along the seacoast, tidal creeks and estuaries. Of the 62 nests recorded, 4 1 nests were found up to 0.5 km from the seacoast and 20 nests were found from 0.5 km to 2 km. Only one nest was about 7 km away from the seacoast at Gavde Ambere, Ratnagiri taluka along the Purnagad creek. The nests were located while walking along the coast and collecting information from the iocals by showing them pictures from the PICTORIAL GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1995) and the book of Indian birds (Ali 1996). All the nests were visited in the nesting season and photographs taken wherever possible. According to Ali and Ripley (1978), the breeding season is October to January. However, we observed courtship and nest building from mid-September to January. Well-grown chicks were seen in the nest up to the end of March. Nest size: Most nests located in Ratnagiri district were 1 to 1 .5 m wide. At Rohile, Taluka Guhagar the size of a 1 0 year old nest was 1 .7 m x 1.2 m x 0.7 m. Height: Most nests located were 20-40 m high, in lofty trees. Only one nest was found below 10 m i.e. 7.5 m at Velneshwar, Guhagar taluka (Approximate measurements were taken). Table 1 : Nest height of the white-bellied sea-eagle in Ratnagiri district Nest height (m) No. of nests 1 Oto 10 1 2 10 to 20 15 3 20 to 30 41 4 30 to 40 5 Nest: At Rohile, Guhagar taluka the nest were made of sticks of Ficus bengalensis, Carissa carandas , Leea macrophylla, Crota/aria verrucosa , Loranthus longifolia, Bambusa arundinacea and other unidentified tree species. One nest stick was exceptionally long (86 cm) and thick (2.86 cm). Pieces of net, plastic paper, bits of woven bag were also used. Green leaves of Mangifera indica , Casuarina equisetifolia , Ficus bengalensis , Grewia asiaticia , Smi/ax macrophylla , Sapindus laurifolius, Bombax malabaricum were used to line the nest. The nesting trees of the eagle as observed by us are given in Table 2. Table 2: Tree species used for nesting by Haliaeetus leucogaster Taluka Tree species A B C D E T 1 Mangifera indica 4 0 2 8 6 20 2 Casuarina equisetifolia 2 7 5 5 0 19 3 Ficus bengalensis 0 0 4 3 2 09 4 Ficus religiosa 0 0 3 2 0 05 5 Cocos nucifera 0 0 0 1 1 02 6 Tamarindus indica 0 0 0 1 1 02 7 Sterculia foetida 0 1 0 0 0 01 8 Terminalia paniculata 0 0 0 0 1 01 9 Alstonia scholaris 0 0 0 0 1 01 1 0 Artocarpus heterophylla 0 0 1 0 0 01 11 Terminalia bellerica 0 0 0 0 1 01 Total 6 8 15 20 13 62 A = Mandangad; B = Dapoli; C = Guhagar; D = Ratnagiri; E = Rajapur; T = Total 114 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Table 3: Alternate nesting sites on same tree Place Nest No Distance between two nests Tree species Activity 1996-19971997-1998 1 Palshet 20 30 m Casuarina equisetifolia A 1 2 Palshet 21 - Casuarina equisetifolia 1 A 3 Narvan 26 15 m Ficus bengalensis A 1 4 Narvan 27 - Ficus bengalensis 1 A 5 Ambuvadi 33 Nest 33 and 34 were connected by sticks Ficus religiosa A A 6 Ambuvacli 34 Nest 33 and 34 were connected by sticks Ficus religiosa 1 1 A = Active Nest, I = Inactive Nest Age: Local enquiry revealed the approximate age of 44 nests out of a total 62 nests as follows: 21 nests of up to 5 years, 6 nests of 5 to 10 years and 10 nests of 1 1 to 25 years. Seven nests were 26 to 50 years old. Alternate nesting sites: We observed alternate nesting sites at three places, where both the nests were in good condition, but were used in alternate years. Details are given in Table 3. Territory: Ali and Ripley (1978) define territory as, “usually a single pair with vast territory, but not uncommonly several pairs and nests on the same island”. In our survey, we have seen two nests distant from each other. At times we have found more than one nest in a small area. We sighted 3 nests (nest no. 17 to 19) in Guhagar, and 3 nests (nest no. 51 to 53) in Kashali village, Rajapur taluka. The nests in both these villages are hardly 1 km apart from each other. Human-Bird Interaction: At Narvan, locals said that the eagle sometimes take poultry. At Jaitapur, local fishermen said that they get indications from the eagle’s calls about availability of fish in the sea and at times also scare the eagle to drop its prey and eat the fish. Names: Ali and Ripley (1978) give the local name as Kankan. It is also referred to as Sheshari in other regional (Marathi) books. Besides this we have found some more local names. In Ratnagiri district, this eagle is called as ghar (kite) and not garud (eagle). The other names used by locals are given in Table 4. Table 4: Local names of the white-bellied sea-eagle Area Taluka Local Name 1 Borya, Sakhari Guhagar Kakkan Ghar 2 Jaitapur Rajapur Kokati Ghar 3 Jaitapur Rajapur Sasan Ghar 4 Madban Rajapur SasaniGhar 5 Shirgaon Ratnagiri Kakran 6 Burondi Dapoli Kegai 7 Narvan Guhagar Kucheri Ghar 8 Golap Ratnagiri Kuran 9 Ambolgad Rajapur Kakar Hunting: Rare hunting incidents were recorded by the locals. One was on the White Sandy Beach at Ratnagiri, while two birds were killed for sport about 4-5 years ago. In Tavsal, Guhagar taluka one bird was killed for sport. Mango Trees: Out of 62 nests in the district, 20 nests are on Mango tree Mangifera indica. The spraying of insecticides on mango trees and nesting activity of eagles starts in October. Due to fear of attack from eagles the nests are first destroyed and then the spraying is begun. This causes loss of eggs or chicks. Cutting of trees also deprives the bird of suitable large nesting trees. Nest distribution in Talukas: We surveyed the white-bellied sea-eagle in 5 talukas of Ratnagiri district namely Ratnagiri, Guhagar, Rajapur, Dapoli and Mandangad covering about 164 km of coastal area. Out of 62 nests, there were 20 nests in Ratnagiri, 1 5 nests in Guhagar, 13 nests in Rajapur, 8 nests in Dapoli and 6 nests in Mandangad. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 115 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES A summary of the bird’s nesting activity is given in Table 5. Table 5: Summary of activity in 1 996-1 997 & 1 997-1 998 Particulars Activity in the year 1996-1997 1997-1998 1 Total nests observed 58 62 2 Total birds seen 80 67 3 Total chicks seen 20 12 4 Adult birds seen on the nest 49 52 5 Chicks seen on the nest 20 12 6 Number of nests with adult and chicks 15 10 7 Number of inactive nests 03 06 Acknowledgements This survey was supported by grant from the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund, BNHS, Mumbai. We thank Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director, BNHS and Mr. Rishad Naoroji for their comments on the report. We also thank Dr. S. Asad Akhtar for perusing the manuscript. February 26, 2001 V1SHWAS KATDARE RAM MONE Sahyadri Nisarga Mitra, Near Laxminarayan Temple, Chiplun 415 605, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra, India. Reference Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1978): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp 287-289. 12. CANNIBALISM IN INDIAN WHITE-BACKED VULTURE GYPS BENGALENSIS . IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN On May 22, 1997, at 0600 hrs, five Indian white-backed vultures Gyps bengalensis and a few crows Corvus splendens were observed feeding on a small carcass in the Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Some crows and four vultures were sitting on the ground close to the carcass waiting for their turn to feed. The carcass appeared to be small in size and could not be seen clearly as it was surrounded by the scavengers. Through the spotting scope, it appeared to be a carcass of a dark coloured bird. On closer approach, we found that it was a dead adult Indian white-backed vulture. It was a fresh half-eaten carcass. After a few hours, by 0930 hrs, the carcass was almost finished. The Indian white-backed vultures are carrion eaters, which feed mostly on large mammal carcasses (Ali and Ripley 1983). The reason for cannibalism in Indian white-backed vulture is not clear, but it was certainly not due to scarcity of food, as there was an abundant supply of food for vultures in the Keoladeo National Park (Prakash 1999). This observation was recorded when the vulture mortality was at its peak, at the beginning of the crash in the population of the Indian white- backed vulture. Cannibalism is observed in many predatory birds such as barn owls Tyto alba , short-eared owls Asio flammeus , Oriental honey-buzzards Pernis ptilorhynchus and some sea birds. We have not come across any reference to cannibalism in the Indian white-backed vulture, hence this observation is worth recording. Acknowledgements We are thankful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests for funding and sponsoring the project. Our sincere thanks are due to the Rajasthan Forest Department for permission to work in the Park. We are also thankful to the Bombay Natural History Society, especially Dr. A. R. Rahmani, Director, for encouragement and valuable comments. 116 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES November 7, 2001 GARG1 RAN A *VIBHU PRAICASH Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. Refer Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 737 + 104 plates. ^Present Address: BNHS Fieid Station, F-23, HMT Colony, Pinjore 134 101, District Panchkula, Haryana, India. Email: jatayuprakash@sify.com E N C E S Prakash, V. ( 1 999): Status of vultures in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, with special reference to population crash in Gyps species. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 96(3): 365-378. 13. WINTERING SITE FIDELITY IN WESTERN MARSH-HARRIER CIRCUS AERUGINOSUS (LINN.), IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN The Western marsh-harrier Circus aeruginosus is a common winter visitor to the Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan (27° 7.6' - 27° 12.2' N and 77° 29.5' - 77° 33.2' E). The Bombay Natural History Society has been carrying out intensive studies on the wintering ecology of the species in the Park since 1996. Six Western marsh-harriers were studied during the winter of 1999-2000. Four harriers were fitted with radio-transmitters, and two were ringed. One adult female was ringed with a black band on the right leg with ‘C’ etched on it, and two rings - one each of plastic (orange coloured) and aluminium on the left leg. The rings could be clearly seen with binoculars and telescope from a distance of 100-200 m. The bird was caught on January 20, 2000, in the wetland of Block ‘K’ of the Park by the Stick and Glue Method, on fish bait. It left for its breeding ground by the end of March 2000. The bird was seen every winter since 1996 in this area and was identified by its peculiar plumage and eye colour, before ringing. It was recorded again in winter in the same area on October 14, 2000. Site fidelity for breeding grounds has already been recorded in Western marsh-harriers (Witkowski 1989). However, 1 have not come across any reference on Western marsh-harriers returning to the wintering ground, year after year. Wintering site fidelity has been recorded in birds. Fischer (1981) found thrashers Toxostoma sp. in the same wintering territories for the consecutive year, and Price (1981) recorded greenish leaf-warblers PhyUoscopus trochiloides returning to the same wintering areas in southern India. Among raptors, Steppe buzzards Buteo buteo vulpinus in South Africa, rough legged buzzards Buteo lagopus in South Sweden, and common buzzards Buteo buteo in Europe have been found returning to the same wintering areas in successive years (Olsson 1 958, Newton 1979). One Buteo buteo was seen in the same place for eight consecutive winters, and another distinctive bird for twelve winters (de Bont 1952, Schuster 1940). Birds have been recorded returning to the same territories year after year, both at breeding and wintering grounds, because they are likely to be more successful as they have to spend less time in getting familiarised with the habitat, predators and to some extent food sources. Site fidelity in birds also reflects on the quality of habitat in terms of food and habitat availability. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Rajasthan Forest Department for permission to work in the JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 117 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Keoladeo National Park, especially Ms. Shruti Sharma, Director of the Park, for the facilities extended. I thank the US Fish & Wildlife Service for funding the project, especially Mr. David Ferguson for help and encouragement. Thanks are due to Mr. Peter Bloom for help in trapping the handers, Mr. J.C. Daniel, Hon. Secretary and Dr. A.R. Rahmani Director, BNHS for encouragement and critical assessment of the manuscript. Refe February 6, 200 1 ASHOK VERMA Bombay Natural History Society Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. Email: asokverma@hotmail.com Present Address: Sarafa Bazar, Rekha Naanga Gali, Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan, India. E N C E S De Bont, A. (1952): Breves communications. Le Gerfaut 42: 255. Fischer, D.H. (1981): Wintering ecology of thrashers in Southern Texas. Condor 83: 340-346. Newton, 1. (1979): Population ecology of Raptors. T. and A. Poyser Ltd. England. Olsson, O. (1958): Dispersal, migration, longevity and death causes of Strix aluco , Buteo buteo , Ardea cinerea and Lams argentatus. Acla Vertebratica /: 91-189. Price, T. (1981): The ecology of the greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides . in its winter quarters. Ibis 123: 131-144. Schuster, L. (1940): Langjahrige Weederkehr eines Mausebussards ( Buteo buteo) an denselben Uberwinterungsplatz. Vogelzug //: 86. W itkowski, J. (1989): Breeding biology, and ecology of the marsh harrier. Circus aeruginosus , in the Barcycz valley, Poland. Acta Orn. 25: 223- 320. 14. SOUTHERNMOST RECORD OF EASTERN CALANDRA-LARK MELANOCORYPHA BIMACULATA AND SIGHTING OF LESSER KESTREL FALCO NAUMANNI FROM MATHERAN, A HILL STATION NEAR MUMBAI Matheran is situated at c. 73° 18' E and 18° 28' N in the Western Ghats and is about 105 km from Mumbai. This tiny hill station has an area of 7.35 sq. km, out of which 3.87 sq. km is reserved forest while 3.48 sq. km is under buildings, plots, tanks, roads etc. It has a maximum elevation of 803 m and an average rainfall of about 7,500 mm. I was in Matheran during the second week of April 2000. During the two day visit, I had the good fortune of sight- ing the eastern calandra-lark Melanocorypha bimaculata , of which this was the southernmost record and the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni , a Red Data species. The following is a brief account of the same. Eastern Calandra-lark Melanocorypha bimaculata On April 8, 2000, while returning from Charlotte Lake, a man-made reservoir in Matheran, I spotted a solitary, relatively large member of Alaudidae. It moved hurriedly in the dry leaf litter, along the bank of the lake, stopping intermittently to peck at some edible morsel. The two very distinct features that caught my attention were its broad white supercilium and a black patch on the side of the breast. The tail was short, with a stroke of white on its tip. The bird was well camouflaged against the leafy background. It was noticeably stockier and more upright than the greater short-toed lark Calandrella brachydactyla. All the field characteristics pointed at only one candidate - the eastern calandra-lark. Later, on April 9, two more birds were sighted near One-Tree-Hill, the southernmost tip of Matheran. They were foraging in a rocky slope interspersed with dry grass beds. They remained in sight for over 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 15 min before disappearing behind a ledge. The handbook states that M bimaculata is a winter visitor to Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and an occasional visitor to Kutch. Himmatsinhji (1960) and Tiwari (1993) have also reported the bird from Kutch. According to the handbook, there is no record of the bird from Maharashtra. However, Grimmett et al. (1999) mention its presence up to NW Maharashtra. There is also a confirmed unpublished record of two birds near a waterbody in Nasik dist. (Raha, B. pers. comm, in 1999). The present record is therefore the southernmost one for M. bimaculata. Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni On the afternoon of April 9, 2000, I saw a bird of prey that had just landed on a barren tree on the rocky slope; 50 m separated the two of us. It was difficult to decipher its identity from that distance, but from the size, it looked like a falcon. On a keener view, it resembled the female of the common kestrel Falco tinnunculus. After preening for a few minutes, the bird began hovering in a typical kestrel-like fashion with short bouts of rapid wing beats interrupted by equally short flights. 1 needed a closer look to see other characteristics to confirm my initial identification. The bird glided in my direction and was below me, providing a dorsal view. The flight was definitely less laboured than that of the common kestrel. Just when 1 was weighing up its true identity, the bird got hold of a strong wind current that carried it at least 20 m above me in a fraction of a second. The underbelly was streaked while the wings had darker wing margins. Meanwhile, the bird spotted something in the grass and swooped down on it. At this juncture it went out of sight while I waited to get another glimpse of it. Within moments it returned with something in its bill and settled on a Ficus sp. jutting from the vertical rock face to my right, but at a lower level than me. While the bird dismembered its booty, I crept up to almost 15 m from it. The head was pale and the conspicuous moustachial stripe of the common kestrel was not visible. The bird was holding on to a grasshopper with its claws. The claws lacked the dark tinge of the common kestrel and by then 1 was convinced that it was a female of the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni. According to Ali and Ripley (1987), Falco naumanni is more patchily distributed than its larger cousin, F. tinnunculus and is an irregular passage migrant to East Africa. A few stragglers are known to remain behind and have been sighted between November and April in Ambala, Delhi, Lucknow (U.P.), Dinapur (Bihar), Balasore (Orissa), Kolkata (Bengal), Dibrugarh, Naga hills and N.E. Cachar (Assam), Manipur, to as far south as Chennai (Coonoor-Nilgiris). Within Maharashtra, a flock of several hundred birds has been sighted in Sholapur, apart from a flock of a dozen birds in Ahmednagar in January. Apart from this, there have been unpublished records of the bird from Nasik (Raha, B. pers. comm., 1999). F. naumanni is also recorded from Sri Lanka (Hoffmann, 1996). Though rare, it is widely distributed in India. The inadequate data on the bird could probably be attributed to its resemblance to F. tinnunculus. The females of the two species are difficult to differentiate in the field. Only a trained eye can distinguish between the two birds from their hovering styles — instead of the up and down wing strokes of the common, the lesser kestrel beats its wings forward and backward. This is apparently because the body of the lesser kestrel is raised 45° while that of the common is held parallel to the ground. The most important identification is the paler, almost colourless claws of F. naumanni compared to the black ones of F. tinnunculus. This is the first record of this red data book species from Matheran and therefore worth mentioning. November 25, 2000 ANISH ANDHER1A 2, Sagar Building, V.R Road, Andheri (W), Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India. Email: anish@kidsfortigers.org JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1), APR. 2003 1 19 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp.737 + 104 plates. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 999): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1960): The Eastern Calandra Lark ( Melanocorypha bimaculata ) in Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 408. Hoffmann, T.W. (1996): New bird records in Sri Lanka and some connected matters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 382-388. Tiwari, J.K. (1993): Sighting of Eastern Calandra Lark, Melanocorypha bimaculata (Blyth) in Kutch. In: Proc: Changing Scenario of Bird Ecology and Conservation, Ornithological Society of India, Bangalore. 15. UNUSUAL FEEDING ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SIBERIAN CRANE GRUS LEUCOGERANUS AND WILD BOAR SUS SCROFA IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN Siberian cranes Grus leucogeranus are wetland-dependant birds and unlike other cranes that often forage in dry upland areas near wetlands, they usually forage in ankle deep shallows (Sauey 1985). Three Siberian cranes were observed feeding in dried up areas of wetland in the Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India. The cranes were in areas where the soil appeared ploughed and were observed picking up tufts of grass and putting them aside, and then picking up small items of food. After the cranes had moved away from the foraging sites, we noticed that the area had wet soil and was dug up by boars Sus scrofa , as was evident from the hoof marks and droppings of wild boars. All the grass was uprooted; tufts of roots and partly eaten insect larvae were lying all over. A bunch of larvae were wriggling under the tufts of grasses, which were lying all over the dug up areas. Wild boars are known to feed on roots of grasses and sedges, and also on insects (Prater 1971). They had probably uprooted the grasses to get to these larvae. The cranes took advantage of the ploughing by the wild boars, as they themselves would have found it difficult to uproot the grasses in the dried up area where the soil had hardened after drying. The insect larvae were very small and individually not of much food value to cranes, but since they were available in abundance, the cranes may have found it profitable to feed on the larvae, which are not on their regular diet. Only the captive bred released birds, which were a part of an experiment to augment the wild population of Siberian cranes, were observed feeding on larvae. It was probably behaviour learnt from sarus cranes, as the Siberian cranes were associated with them more than with the wild Siberian cranes. The captive released birds would often venture out with the sarus cranes to forage in the dry areas. The Siberian cranes are known to feed largely on vegetable matter and occasionally on aquatic insects in their wintering grounds (Ali and Ripley 1983, Vijayan 1991). Birds are known to benefit from feeding associations with other animals. Egrets Egretta spp., drongos Dicrurus spp., starlings Sturnus spp., mynas Acridotheres spp., and many other species follow grazing animals and pick up insects disturbed by the movement of these animals in the grass (Ali and Ripley 1983). However, we have not come across any reports of Siberian cranes, which are largely wetlands birds, getting direct benefit from the action of a terrestrial animal like the wild boar. 120 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1). APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Acknowledgements We thank the Rajasthan Forest Department for permission to work in the Park, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for funding the project and the Bombay Natural History Society, especially Dr. A. R. Rahmani, Director, for encouragement and valuable comments. Refer Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 737 + 104 plates. Prater, S.H. (1971 ): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 324. November 7, 2001 GARGI RANA ♦VIBHU PRAKASH Bombay Natural History Society *Present Address: BNHS Field Station, F-23, HMT Colony, Pinjore 134 101, District Panchkula, Haryana, India. Email: jatayuprakcish@sify.com N C E S Sauey, R.T. (1985): The Range. Status and Wintering Ecology of Siberian Cranes Gms leucogeramis . Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Pp. 411. Vu ayan. V.S. (1991); Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study. Final Report 1980-90. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp 337. 16. COMMON COOT FULICA ATRA FROM KYONGNOSLA IN EAST SIKKIM In early March 2000, there were reports of migrating water birds in groups of 50+ from the Kyongnosla area of east Sikkim (c. 3000 m). On March 15, 2000 one bird that had fallen from the sky from its group of c. 1 00 birds was caught and taken to a nearby settlement. Mr. Bishnu Sharma, Supervisor, Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, immediately retrieved it and brought it to my office at Deoral i, Gangtok the next day in a cardboard carton. The bird was an adult common coot Fulica atra. It was alert and active, stabbing at my hand with its bill, and it drank water copiously. It seemed unhurt and had no external injuries. As I had no apparatus to ring or measure it, or take photographs, I took it to my residence at the Forest Colony, Baluakhani, Gangtok (1,800 m) that evening, where it escaped. For over an hour it wandered in the garden before fluttering down to the road and going into the forest scrub further down. I R E F E Ali, S. (1962): The Birds of Sikkim. Oxford University Press. Delhi. An, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of watched for it till dark and could not find it the next morning. The common coot, which has a wide distribution range over the Indian subcontinent, has not been recorded from Sikkim so far, though the area is a well known traditional flyway for water birds on return migration northwards in spring (Ali and Ripley 1 983; Ali 1 962) probably due to paucity of field surveys. This could therefore be considered a new record for Sikkim. March 22, 2001 USHA GANGULI-LACHUNGPA Department of Forests, Environment & Wildlife, Government of Sikkim, Deorali, Gangtok 737 102, Sikkim, India. Email: slg_ganden@sancharnet.in BISHNU LAL SHARMA Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary E N C E S India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal. Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press, Delhi. JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 121 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 17. SIGHTING OF THE LESSER FLORICAN SYPHEOTIDES INDICA IN GIR INTERPRETATION ZONE, DEVALIYA, GIR SANCTUARY On June 27, 2000, I had gone to the Gir Interpretation Zone (GIZ), Devaliya, specially developed for tourism in the Gir Sanctuary. I had gone to check the health of the lions. The GIZ has a fenced area of 412 ha, with c. 100 ha of Savannah grassland. During the visit, Sardulbhai, one of my staff, informed me that an unknown bird similar to a small peahen had been spotted near the lions’ feeding cage. On reaching the spot, I saw a domestic hen-sized bird with a crest on its head, at some distance. When we approached, the bird ran into a patch of tall grass and hid there in silence. To my great jubilation, I confirmed it as a male lesser florican (. Sypheotides indica) through my binoculars and immediately took some photographs. It is for the first time that a lesser florican has been photographed in the Gir Protected Area. The same species was reported from the Gir Protected Area (and the sighting confirmed) during May and June, 1982. According to Sankaran et al. (1992) the lesser florican sometimes visits Babara Vidi grassland, Maliya taluka, Junagadh district, an ideal habitat for lesser florican. Our field staff and researchers have observed florican in this area several times. From June 27 to July 10, I visited GIZ, Devaliya regularly, twice a day, morning and evening. The florican was mostly seen in the grasslands. I saw it display twice. To ascertain the presence of other lesser florican (especially female) in GIZ, I used a group of trackers, but sighted only the same male. After July 10, 2000, the bird left the GIZ, Devaliya. November 22, 2002 B.P. PATI Wildlife Division, Sasan Gir 362 135 Junagadh district, Gujarat, India. Reference Sankaran, R., A.R. Rahmani & U. Ganguli-Lachungpa (1992): The distribution and status of the lesser florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller) in the Indian subcontinent. / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 156-179. 18. GREY-HEADED LAPWINGS VANELLUS CINEREUS SEEN AROUND MACHILIPATNAM, KRISHNA DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA On February 17, 2001, at around 0645 hrs, I was watching waders of several species, along with other birds, on a largely flooded field, 1-2 km northwards of Chilakalapudi, Machilipatnam. Amongst the waders, which included several wood sandpipers, little ringed plovers, Pacific golden-plovers and a few little stints, were twelve larger birds. An initial look was enough to place them with lapwings ( Vanellus ) and the birds looked superficially similar to pictures of white-tailed lapwing, which I had seen. Their posture was upright, with a small to medium sized, smooth round head with no crest. Size was similar to red-wattled lapwing ( Vanellus indicus) of which there were three in a nearby field. The head and neck were a uniform pale grey colour with no supercilium or eye-stripe. The bill was bright yellow and no wattles could be seen on the face. A wide ( 1 -2 cm) black breast band separated the grey of the neck from the belly, which was white. Legs were bright yellow, the same colour as the bill. The wings, which were seen when one of the birds flew a short distance, showed a very distinctive ‘tri-coloured’ pattern, with black primaries, white secondaries and brownish coverts, in three, straight edged blocks of colour. The birds were watched for 30-45 minutes through a Bushnell Spacemaster Telescope with 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES a 22x wide-angle lens and 8x32 Leica binoculars at a distance of perhaps 50-100 m (some of the birds were further away). Light conditions were good, with the early morning sun coming from just behind my right shoulder. After consulting birds of the Indian subcontinent by Grimmett et al. (1998), I was confident enough to identify the birds as grey- headed lapwings ( Vanellus cinereus ), which according to that book had not been recorded in Andhra Pradesh before. On Friday February 23, at a different site, just east of Machilipatnam, 5 more grey-headed lapwings were seen, in groups of 2 and 3 in paddy fields on either side of a small road going down to the sea. With the exception of the wing pattern (the birds did not fly) all the same features were observed, and in addition the black tip to the yellow bill was noted. Six grey-headed lapwings were seen again just north of Chilakalapudi, Machilipatnam on March 13, 2001 and one on April 3, 2001. March 24, 2001 COLIN CONROY 13 Avenue Road, Southall, Middlesex, UB1 3BL, U.IC. Email: colin.conroy@arocha.org 19. THE GREY-HEADED LAPWING IN TAMIL NADU - A REJOINDER In his note on the grey-headed lapwing Vanellus cinereus (Blyth), [JBNHS 97(2): 277], Gopi Sundar writes that in peninsular India, this species has only been recorded in Bangalore in 1987 prior to his sighting in Kaliveli Tank near Pondicherry in 1997. He further writes, “Perennou and Santharam have conducted detailed ornithological surveys in this region and have not come across this species.” I would like to point out that this is not true. Gopi Sundar has only referred to two of our publications and hence overlooked my note published in Blackbuck 3: 25-27 (1987). In this note, I had recorded the sighting of the grey- headed lapwing in Madras city (now Chennai) on January 1 1, 1987. The bird was spotted on a mud flat of the Adyar Estuary from the Theosophical Society estates. T.R. Shankar Raman had spotted it and all the nine bird watchers present on that occasion had a good look at the bird, which was a juvenile. The lapwing was not seen on subsequent visits. This record also finds a mention in the birds of the Indian subcontinent (Grimmett et. al ., 1998 Oxford). May 4, 200 1 V. SANTHARAM Institute of Bird Studies and Natural History, Rishi Valley School, Rishi Valley P.O. Pin 517 352, Andhra Pradesh, India. 20. A SIGHT RECORD OF BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER TRYNGITES SUBRUFICOLLIS IN GOA At about 1 225 hrs on November 1 8, 2000, while birdwatching with a Sunbird tour group in recently irrigated paddy fields at Santa Cruz, Tiswadi taluka, Goa, Rick Heil found a buff- breasted sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis. The bird performed superbly and was watched, by RH and five other observers including Paul 1. Holt, David Hemmingway and Mark Newsome, uninterrupted for about 50 min and at ranges down to c. 75 m. We used a variety of binoculars and telescopes, some of the latter with eyepieces of up to 60x magnification. RH and PIH both had extensive experience of the species and all observers were completely confident of RH’s initial identification. RH, PIH and MN took field notes and PIH did a hurried sketch (copies of JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 123 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES these are held by PIH). Unfortunately, the bird, a juvenile showing no signs of moult to first- winter plumage, could not be located when other observers searched for it later the same afternoon. Throughout the observation we were aware that, although the buff-breasted sandpiper is a very distinctive shorebird, it has, on occasion, been confused with the ruff Philomachas pugnax (several of which were present nearby) and with the extralimital Baird’s sandpiper Calidris bairdii. Description: The following description is a synthesis of notes taken by PIH, RH and MTN. Structure: A medium sized wader, fractionally smaller than the accompanying wood sandpipers Tringa glareola and proportionately slightly larger-headed and with a shorter and thicker neck than that species. The bird’s head nevertheless appeared relatively small and its size, in combination with its plumage pattern and shape (in particular its steep forehead, flat crown and angular nape), created a soft, open- faced and almost dove-like impression. The bird’s body also appeared slimmer, sleeker and more attenuated at the rear than those of the wood sandpipers. The folded wings extended beyond the tip of the tail by a distance approximately equal to half the length of the bill, while two, and just possibly three, primary tips were visible beyond the longest, lanceolate and remarkably wispy tertial. The bill, proportionately shorter than that of the wood sandpiper, was approximately equai to the length of the head. It was very straight, the lower mandible having an almost imperceptible arch along its lower edge, and tapered to a rather fine tip. The legs were similarly proportioned to those of the wood sandpiper. Plumage: The whole face, front and sides of the neck and virtually the entire underparts were a remarkably uniform fawn-, or cinnamon- buff colour while the feathers of the upperparts were dark centred and neatly scalloped. Head: A rather large, dark eye was very conspicuous on an otherwise plain, ‘open’ face. The ear-coverts were slightly duskier, setting off paler buff supercilia and there was a pale buff, broken eye-ring, more noticeable above the eye. The forehead was unmarked, though the crown, nape and hind-neck to mantle were marked with fine blackish streaks. The upperparts were attractively patterned. Dark, almost blackish centres to the mantle, scapulars, wing coverts and tertials contrasted crisply with their broad buff or whitish-buff fringes. Compared to the rest of the upperparts, the centres to the wing coverts were paler, the fringes broader and more diffusely demarcated. The resulting pale wing panel contrasted quite well with the lower scapulars. The wing coverts also exhibited the anchor-shaped internal markings that are typical of juvenile buff-breasted sandpipers (A narrow blackish shaft being connected to a broader blackish sub-terminal crescent that traced the feather’s shape). A similar pattern was also discernible in some of the lower scapulars. There were no signs of any moult, all of the upper-part feather tracts appeared rather fresh and were arranged in neat, linear rows. Individual feathers, particularly the larger wing coverts and rear lower scapulars, were easily identified and counted. Wings: Although the bird was seen only very briefly in flight, it opened its wings, to stretch or to preen on a couple of occasions, and we were then able to discern some details of the wing pattern. The flight feathers were dark and contrasted well with the paler inner wing-coverts. A narrow, very indistinct, or even obscure (RH), pale-buff wing-bar was just apparent across the tips of the greater coverts. The under-wing coverts appeared clean white, contrasting with the underside of the flight feathers and especially with a relatively conspicuous blackish comma, or crescent, formed by the primary under-wing coverts. 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Underparts: The chin was fractionally, but perceptibly, paler than both the face and the fore neck, and while the fawn-buff neck, breast and belly were concolorous the remainder of the underparts gradually faded paler and whiter from the rear belly through the vent to the undertail coverts. Isolated patches of bold, blackish flecking or spotting extended to either side of the breast. Bare parts: The bill appeared dark and there was possibly a very small, slightly paler area at the extreme base of the lower mandible. The legs were a uniform olive-yellow, the colour of English mustard, and had a slightly more orange hue than those of all the accompanying wood sandpipers. Behaviour: During our observation the bird fed busily. It was almost constantly on the move, walking around the paddies with a distinctive head-bobbing, almost dove-like motion and high stepping, tripping gait. No interaction was noted between it and any of its equally busily feeding companions. As is typical of the species, the bird remained silent. Status: Buff-breasted sandpiper is almost exclusively Nearctic in its distribution. It breeds across the Arctic belt of North America from Alaska to western Canada, as well as on Wrangel Island and perhaps the Chukotskiy peninsula, Siberia (Cramp and Simmons 1983). It winters in northeast South America. Brazil (1991) listed 12 records from Japan and, although the species has not been recorded anywhere in southeast Asia (Robson 2000), there is at least one report from the east coast of Taiwan (MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000), and at least eight sightings in Australia (Pringle 1 987). There are four previous records from the Indian subcontinent. Three of Refer Brazil, M. (1991 ): The Birds of Japan. Christopher Helm, London. Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (1983): Birds of the Western Palaearctic. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. London. Hoffmann, T. (1991): Notes on accepted sight records of birds in Sri Lanka. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(2): these reports are from the east coast of Sri Lanka - a specimen collected by T.S.U. De Zylva at Kalametiya near Hambantota on the March 5, 1 960, and two subsequent sight records, one near Trincomalee in November 1974 and the other at the Bundala Sanctuary on the January 19-23, 1985 ( CBCN 1960: 14, CBCN 1974: 41, CBCN 1985: 2, Hoffman 1991 and Lam fuss 1998). The only previous record from India was of a bird seen by Per Undeland at Harike Bird Sanctuary, Punjab on the May 18,1 995 (Robson 1 996). Perhaps even more surprisingly, there are three recently accepted records ( 1 2. ii i. 198 1 , 31.x. - 14. xi. 1997 and 1 3- 1 9.xi. 1 999) from the Seychelles (David Fisher pers. comm, and Adrian Skerrett in lift, to P1LI). Acknowledgements Krys Kazmierczak kindly provided information on the previous subcontinent records, supplied several references, contact addresses and reviewed a draft of this note. Guenter Lamfuss responded speedily to our requests for further information on the Sri Lankan records and both David Fisher and Adrian Skerrett provided information concerning the species’ status in the Seychelles. March 24, 2001 PAUL I. HOLT New Laund Farm, Greenhead Lane, Fence, Burnley, Lancashire, BB12 9DU, UK. Email: piholt@hotmail.com RICK HEIL 20 MacArthur CIR, Peabody, MA 01960, USA. E N C E S 381-383 Lamfuss, G. (1998): Die Vogel Sri Lankas: ein Vogel- und NaturfLihrer. [The Birds of Sri Lanka: a Bird and Nature Guide (In German).] Heidelberg: Kasparek Verlag. MacKinnon, J. & K. Phillipps (2000): A field guide to the JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 125 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES birds of China. Oxford University Press, London. Pringle, J.D. (1987): The Shorebirds of Australia: the National Photographic Index of Australian Wildlife. Angus & Robertson, North Hyde. Robson, C. (1996): From the field: India. Oriental Bird Club Bull. 23: 50. Robson, C. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of South- east Asia. New Holland, London. 21. GROUP FISHING OF HOUSE CROWS (CORVUS SPLENDENS) WITH RIVER TERNS ( STERNA AURANTIA) ( With one plate) On July 6, 2000, during a visit to Bigwan, Indapur taluka, Pune district, Maharashtra State for bird watching, I noticed a flock of about 40 river terns ( Sterna aurantia) and 10 house crows ( Corvus splendens ), flying together at one spot, in the backwaters of Ujani Dam. As I approached closer, I saw fishermen emptying their catch from the nets. The house crows and river terns were diving for the dead fish, which had fallen from the fishing nets, and were floating on the water. The crows had mastered the technique of hovering and accurately picking up the fish, just like the river tern. The house crow is not a water bird; whether this was a natural instinct or it had mastered the technique while observing the river terns is a big question. Crows are known to be territorial and aggressive, but in this case they neither harmed nor quarreled with the terns. Another observation worth noting was that while the river tern picked up and swallowed the fish in flight the crow would pick up a fish, fly to the shore to eat it, and then fly back to catch another one. April 12, 2001 SATTYASHEEL N. NAIK 781/782, Shukrawar Peth, ‘Laxmi Chhaya’, Opp. Jain Mandir, Pune 411 002, Maharashtra, India. 22. TERNS OF THE VENGURLA ROCKS, A REVIEW AND UPDATE The breeding colony of maritime terns on the Vengurla Rocks is arguably the Indian subcontinent’s most important one, if not for the sheer quantity of nesting birds then for the number of constituent species. Though it has been known for at least 125 years that a ternery exists on Burnt Island, one of the islets forming the Vengurla Rocks, all knowledge about it rested on local lore, second-hand accounts and circumstantial proof. No ornithologist had ever seen terns there before 1981. The Vengurla Rocks are a tiny archipelago of rock outcrops situated 16.5 km off the South Konkan coast from a point about halfway between Vengurla and Malwan (Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra State, India), situated at 15° 43' 24" N and 73° 27 42" E. The four largest ones form a group of precipitous rocky islets at a distance of several hundred metres from each other. Among them, the smallest and westernmost is crowned by the ruins of the old lighthouse. This was replaced around 1935 by a more modern one on the largest of the rocks, manned by a crew of eight that resides on it throughout the year. Burnt Island, the second largest of the islets, lies closest to the mainland. It is about 300 m long, 100 m wide and 30-50 m high, and sparsely covered by coarse grass and a few stunted bushes. The islet remains free from human interference and A.O. Hume’s (1876) detailed description is as accurate and valid today as it was 125 years ago. The group of islets as a whole presents a forbidding aspect, access is limited to the fair season, October to May, and landing is risky even at the best of times. In January 1998, permission given to me to stay at the Inspection Quarters of 126 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Naik, Sattyasheel N.: Corvus splendens & Sterna aurantia Plate 1 Fig. la-b: House crows fishing with river terns JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 127 f MISCELLANEOUS NOTES the lighthouse island was revoked by the Directorate of Lighthouses and Lightships, after a crewman was killed when trying to alight from the departmental boat on to the rock. During the southwest monsoon, the time when the terns breed, the Vengurla Rocks are totally inaccessible, and the lighthouse crew is cut off from the world between May 31, when a country-craft under contract brings the last supplies, and early September, when communications are resumed. Antecedents it was the breeding colony of edible-nest swiftlets on Burnt Island that caught the interest of ornithologists in the second half of the 19th century. The taxonomic status of these enigmatic swiftlets was heatedly discussed then, and the ornithologists’ demand for bird specimens must have been as great and urgent as the Chinese gourmet’s for their soup-providing nests. All we came to know about the equally enigmatic temery was an incidental spin-off of these studies. A.O. Hume (1 876), in February 1 875, visited three of the islets and spent several hours on Burnt Island on his way to the Laccadives (now Lakshadweep). He did not see any terns, but collected desiccated remains of terns and eggs. G.W. Vidal (1880), solely interested in swiftlet specimens, sent his ‘shikaree’ on collecting trips to the Vengurla Rocks in April 1878, December 1879 and February and April 1880. Some years later, J. Davidson apparently got a number of tern eggs collected by the crew of the old lighthouse {vide Whistler in Abdulali 1939). The issue of the specific status of the Indian edible-nest swiftlet Collocalia unicolor (Jerdon) having been settled by then, nobody seems to have taken interest in the Vengurla Rocks until Humayun Abdulali took up the challenge over 40 years later. He turned out to be the most enterprising of all the visitors, managing to land, and even stay overnight, on Burnt Island in February 1938 and 1941 (Abdulali 1939, 1941). Forty years later, in May 1981, he undertook another collecting trip to Burnt Island, this time of only a couple of hours duration. It yielded, besides various desiccated remains of adult birds, chicks and eggs, the first sight-record of live terns: a group of some 50 birds, identified as Sterna anaethetus and a few S. fuscata, circling half a mile from the Rocks (Abdulali 1983). A critical appraisal of the old breeding records By 1982, the following six tern species were established and listed in the handbook and synopsis - as breeding on the Vengurla Rocks. One of these, the sooty tern Sterna fuscata , should be omitted. Roseate tern Sterna c/ougallii Montagu (Syn. No. 466): A number of eggs collected on Burnt Island by the lighthouse staff sometime during the last decade of the 19th century were ascribed by J. Davidson to this species ‘without keeping notes on how he arrived at this identification’ (Whistler in Abdulali 1939). This probably had prompted E.H. Aitken to state in his common birds of Bombay (c. 1900): ‘The Roseate Terns breed in the Vingurla Rocks (sic) during the monsoon.’ Addled eggs and desiccated bird-remains, collected by Abdulali in 1938 and 1941, were examined by Hugh Whistler at the British Museum, London, and Salim Ali at the Bombay Natural History Society and identified as belonging to this species (Abdulali 1939, 1941). White-cheeked tern S. repressa Hartert (Syn. No. 467): Out of Abdulali’s 1938 and 1941 material, Ticehurst examined the mummy of a juvenile tern, and Whistler and Salim Ali several addled eggs that they ascribed to this species (Abdulali 1939, 1941). Apparently, there were no signs of this tern having bred at the time of Abdulali’s 1981 visit to Burnt Island. Bridled tern S. anaethetus Scopoli (Syn. No. 471): Hume (1876) found, in February 1875, on Burnt Island “innumerable addled, broken and more or less decayed tern’s eggs, while all about in similar situations, mummies, desiccated JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 129 M ISC ELLA NEO US NO TES corpses of young birds of all ages and a few old S. anaethetus lay scattered leaving no possibility of doubt as to the species which chiefly breeds there.” The bird and egg remains he collected were identified at the British Museum, London. Sooty tern S. fuscata Linn. (Syn. No. 474) : Salim Ali, when examining the material collected by Abdulali in February 1938, had noted: “... Two brown wings, however, measure 270 and 294 mm, and apparently belong to the sooty tern (S. fuscata). This is a new record for Vengurla; the nearest hitherto known breeding place is in the Laccadives. A beak measuring 40 mm may support this identification.” (vide Salim Ali in Abdulali 1939). This record of a mere ‘occurrence’ of this tern has found its way as a ‘breeding record’ into works like Ali and Ripley (1983), Harrison ( 1 985), Grimmett et al. ( 1 998) and Kazmierczak (2000). 1 feel that Salim Ali had jumped here to an inadmissible conclusion: The presence of a pair of wings and a beak on Burnt Island hardly constitutes proof of the bird having bred there. Ripley (1982) did not follow Salim Ali’s reasoning and omitted this ‘breeding record’ from his synopsis. Little tern S. albifrons Pallas (Syn. No. 475) : Desiccated remains of mostly downy chicks with emerging feathers, collected by Abdulali in May 1981, were identified by Dr. Jon Fjeldsa at the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, as being of this species (Abdulali 1983). Though a modicum of doubt must adhere to a specific identification of small chicks without any supporting evidence, especially if the specimens are of the smallest species out of a mixed breeding colony that abounds in chicks of species only slightly larger than the bird in question, Dr. Jon Fjeldsa remains confident of his identification (in litt. 314.2001). Large crested tern S. bergii Lichtenstein (Syn. No. 478): Addled eggs and mummified remains of a juvenile bird, collected by Abdulali in February 1938 and 1941, were examined by Whistier at the BMNH, London, and Ticehurst and Salim Ali at the BNHS, Bombay, and ascribed to this species. Recent visits In May 1988, Stig T. Madsen, a Danish bird watcher interested mainly in seabirds, undertook an exploratory cruise through the group of islets on a fishing trawler chartered at Vengurla (Madsen 1988). His report of having seen c. 20 each of S’, anaethetus , S. repressa and S. bergii and 300-500 unidentified terns prompted me to accompany him on a three day stay at the inspection quarters of the Lighthouse Is., at the end of March 1989. To reach the Rocks we hired a motorized and outrigger-fitted dugout- canoe at Kochra, a fishing village at the mouth of a narrow creek between Vengurla and Malwan, at the closest distance to the Vengurla Rocks. By the same mode of transport, 1 visited the Lighthouse Is., again for three days each time, in mid-May and mid-October 1989. A Zeiss 30x60 refractor was used to observe tern activity on close-by Burnt Is. and in the entire ‘archipelago’. A further trip, rounding Burnt Island for a couple of hours and spending the night on the canoe in its vicinity, was made in mid-September. In mid-December 1989, 1 landed on Burnt Island, but suffering from a bout of vertigo, was not able to collect more than a couple of tern mummies. These visits spread more or less randomly throughout the fair season, served to determine or, at least, to narrow down the time when the terns appeared on and left from their breeding ground. After a hiatus of nearly 8 years, a new series of visits was undertaken in an attempt to get a glimpse of the breeding terns themselves. Using a hired, diesel-powered, open fibreglass boat out of Kochra, 1 circled Burnt Is. on June 5 and 9, and September 30, 1997, accompanied by Gordon Frost and Nick Manville on two of these outings. After an uneventful visit 130 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1). APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES on April 30, 1998, an unexpected lull in the southwest monsoon allowed me to see the breeding colony at its apparent peak on August 16, 1998. During this crucial visit, an immense ‘cloud’ of well over 15,000 terns could be observed on the precipitous leeward (towards the mainland) side of Burnt Island. In addition to that, a conservatively estimated 1 0,000 terns were spread over the less steep seaward side, but the almost impenetrable spray created by thunderous breakers and the heaving and tossing of the small boat made closer observations and a species-wise break-up impossible. These 12 visits, spread over the years 1988- 89 and 1 997-98, covered all seasons and all months except January, February, July and November. Breeding terns Roseate tern Sterna dougallii Montagu (Syn. No. 466): March 25, 1989 : Flocks of up to c. 700 smallish white terns, too distant for identification, visited the vicinity of the Vengurla Rocks. June 5, 1997 : The first positive sighting of roseate terns on Burnt Island, just two days before the regular and 1 0 days before the actual onset of the southwest monsoon. Well over 800 birds in full breeding plumage were sitting openly on rock-ledges, not more than 10 m above the waterline or flying close to the islet. Though almost all these terns seemed to be paired off, there was no visible breeding activity as such. August 16, 1998 : A conservatively estimated number of 10,000 adult birds milled around the islet in a veritable feeding frenzy. They kept coming in, mainly from the seaward side, with small fish in their bills, diving into rock fissures and crannies and wider tussocks of the lush coarse grass, all located on the lower half of the islet obviously feeding the downy chicks and youngsters hidden there, and taking off immediately to haul in more. Very few fully- fledged juveniles were perched openly on rock- ledges, while many adults were apparently still incubating clutches of eggs or brooding freshly hatched chicks. September 9, 1997 : Hectic feeding of concealed youngsters by over 4,000 adult birds continued. Only a dozen or so fully-fledged juveniles were visible. The rosy tinge of the breeding plumage had already faded in about half of the adults. September 30, 1997 : Only just over 80 birds, including 5 juveniles were present. Feeding activity had ceased. The adults breeding plumage had almost completely faded. October 14, 1989 : All roseate terns had left Burnt Island. Bridled tern S. anaethetus Scopoli (Syn. No. 471): May 10, 1981: Up to 50 birds were present in the group of islets. May 13, 1989: The activity of the over 400 birds present was loosely centered on Burnt Island. Roughly one half of the birds were already paired off, standing for long stretches of time on rock-ledges and under overhanging rocks of the seaward side. The other half were wheeling in circles over the islet and chasing each other in a sort of aerial nuptial display. At dusk, the terns dispersed; no roosting on any of the islets was observed. During the night, no calls were heard from the vicinity. June 5, 1997: More than 400 bridled terns had occupied crags and fissures on the lower half of the seaward side, apparently incubating. August 16, 1998: Well over 3,000 adult birds were present, frenziedly feeding chicks and youngsters that were hidden from view. Very few fully-fledged juveniles were visible. September 9, 1997: Over 300 adult birds were perched on the leeward side of Burnt Island; no ju veniles were visible; all feeding activity had stopped. September 17, 1989: Over 200 terns were either wheeling around the islet or surface feeding in the vicinity. Going by their calls, they JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 131 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES appeared to keep up their activity throughout the night. Between the Vengurla Rocks and the mainland, c. 60 birds per hour were continually passing on their autumnal southward mass migration, presumably from their breeding grounds on the southern shores of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. September 30, 1997: All bridled terns had left. Large crested tern S. bergii Lichtenstein (Syn. No. 478): This tern occurs along the South Konkan coast throughout the year in small groups and loose flocks of up to 800 (Lainer 1999a). Around the Vengurla Rocks, small numbers (up to 25 birds) were commonly seen during the dry season. June 5, 1997: Over 1,000 birds were perched on rock-ledges, crags and pinnacles on the highest parts of Burnt Island. No breeding activity was apparent. August 16, 1998: More than 2,000 adult birds were feeding chicks and youngsters that were hidden from view. Very few ready-to-fly immatures were visible. September 9, 1997: Only c. 200 adult terns occupied the top of the islet. Feeding activity had ceased; no juvenile birds were to be seen. September 30, 1997: Over 300 birds were spread all over the group of islets and tide-washed rock-pinnacles in the vicinity. October 14, 1989: Not a single tern present on Burnt Island. Non-breeding terns Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia (Pallas) (Syn. No. 462): Status: On passage in the vicinity of the Vengurla Rocks. On March 25, 1989 over 10 birds were seen moving in the ‘archipelago’ and two between the Vengurla Rocks and the mainland on September 30, 1997. Common tern Sterna hirundo Linn. (Syn. No. 465): Status: Uncertain. A desiccated head of a tern, collected by me on Burnt Island on December 15, 1989, was identified by S.A. Hussain at the BNHS, Mumbai, as belonging to this species. Unfortunately, the specimen has not been preserved in the collection. White-cheeked Tern S. repressa Hartert (Syn. No. 467): Status: Formerly a breeding summer visitor, now probably only on passage during the annual southward mass-migration from July to September and the less spectacular return flight from March to May. Madsen (1988) reported the sighting of c. 20 birds on the seaward side of the group of islets, on March 21,1 989. This species may have been present in the roving flocks of unidentifiable small white terns observed in May 1989. Sooty tern S. fuscata Linn. (Syn. No. 474): Status: Rare or occasional visitor. Abdulali (1983) reported the sighting of a few of these terns among a flock of c. 50 bridled terns circling half a mile from the Rocks. On April 30, 1998 I saw 8 birds in the vicinity and identified them tentatively as of this species. Sooty terns are uncommon, but far from rare, visitors olf the South Konkan coast especially in August-September during the annual mass- migration of white-cheeked and brown-winged (now bridled tern) terns (Lainer 1999a). Lesser crested tern S. bengalensis Lesson (Syn. No. 479): Status: A roving visitor, regularly on passage. Over 50 birds, in small groups, were observed on northward migration on March 26, 1989. Southward passage in twos and threes was recorded in September and October 1989 and 1997. Their flight path invariably lies between the Vengurla Rocks and the mainland. 132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sandwich Tern & sandvicensis Latham (Syn. No. 480): Status'. Unusual, on passage. At least 3 birds were observed in the vicinity on March 25, 1989. Groups of 20-25 birds kept passing in straight and purposeful northward flight, about a kilometre from the Rocks on May 13, 1989. Sandwich terns are common visitors all along the South Konkan coast throughout the year (Lainer 1 990). Brown noddy Anous stolidus (Linn ,) (Syn. No. 481): Status'. Stray or rare visitor. On September 9, 1997, 18 birds were observed perched on rock-ledges and stunted bushes on the leeward side of Burnt Island. Three weeks later, only a single brown noddy was found there (Lainer 1999b). Comments Of the six tern species that were thought to breed on Burnt island (S. dougallii, S. repressa, S. anaethetus, S. fuscataS. albifrons and S. bergii) the sooty tern should be omitted. A minimum of 10,000 S. dougallii , 3.000 S. anaethetus and 2,000 S. bergii bred during the southwest monsoon of 1998 on the leeward side of Burnt Island. These numbers would increase by 30% if one assumes that the over 10,000 terns on the seaward side were of an identical or at least similar species break-up. Egg-laying and incubation started after the traditional, regular onset of the southwest monsoon in the area (June 5-7), probably after the actual onset, if that should be at a later date. The simultaneous presence of fully-fledged juveniles and adult birds still incubating in mid- August suggests that second broods are taken up, possibly after the loss of the first. The surprisingly small number of fully- fledged juveniles present towards the end of the breeding season suggests that youngsters leave the colony as soon as they are able to fly or soon after. This ties in well with the annual southward mass migration of S. anaethetus and S. repressa off the coast of Goa, where 1 noticed that the earlier part of the migratory stream (starting usually at the end of August) is a trickle of mainly juvenile birds, while the adults follow in a solid rush from mid-September onwards. The mixed ternery shows a strictly stratified structure: S. dougallii , the smallest of the constituent species, occupies the lowest rock- strata, up to 10-15 m above the high-water line. The medium-sized S. anaethetus , though mingling with S. dougallii in the upper reaches of their zone, breed at an intermediate height while the large S. bergii adhere to the uppermost parts of the islet. Records of other bird species Apart from terns, the following 26 bird species were recorded on the Vengurla Rocks or in the close vicinity: 1. Indian pond-heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes) (Syn. No. 42): A single bird on Burnt Island in December 1989. 2. Western reef-egret Egretta gu laris (Bose) (Syn. No. 50): Single birds were seen in March and November on Burnt Island. 3. Bra inn my kite Haliastur indus (Boddaert) (Syn. No. 135): Singles among the islets in March and May. 4. White-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin) (Syn. No. 173): Pairs and singles were observed in February, March, May, October and December. 5. Western marsh-harrier Circus aeruginosus (Linn.) (Syn. No. 193): Two immature birds over Burnt Island on September 30, 1997. 6. Osprey Pandion haliaetus (Linn.) (Syn. No. 203): One to three birds were seen in the archipelago in February, March, May (!), September, October and December. 7. Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 133 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Tunstall (Syn. No. 209): Singles were hunting among the islets in March, October and December. 8. Common kestrel Falco tinnunculus Linn. (Syn. No. 222): A pair was recorded in February 1875 by Hume (1876). 9. Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos Linn. (Syn. No. 401): Several birds recorded in October and December. 10. Ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres (Linn.) (Syn. No. 402): Up to 4 birds on rocks surrounding Burnt Island in May and August (!). 1 1 . Jaeger sp. Stercorarius sp.: Two adult birds in non-breeding plumage among the islets on March 25, 1989. 12. Heuglin’s gull Larus heuglini Bree (Syn. No. 450): Nine birds passing through the archipelago on northward migration on March 26, 1989. 13. Brown-headed gull Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon (Syn. No. 454): Hundreds among the islets in March and December 1989. 14. Black-headed gull Larus ridibundus Linn. (Syn. No. 455): Less numerous than the preceding species in December 1989. 15. Blue rock pigeon Columba livia Gmelin (Syn. No. 517): Breeding resident on Burnt Island. Present throughout the year except in July. Hume (1876) saw a few of these birds on Burnt Island in 1875, Abdulali (1983) estimated about 200 of what he deemed feral pigeons in 1981; I noted well over 500 of them on June 5, 1997. 16. Oriental turtle-dove Streptopelia orientalis (Latham) (Syn. No. 531): One coming in from the sea and alighting on the base of the lighthouse in October 1989; two birds on Lighthouse Is. in December 1989. 17. Indian edible-nest swiftlet Coliocaiia unicolor (Jerdon) (Syn. No. 685): Breeding resident on Burnt Island, absent during the southwest monsoon. The largest number 1 noted were “tens of thousands, a virtual cloud over Burnt Is.” on March 25, 1989. 18. House swift Apus affinis (J.E. Gray) (Syn. No. 703): Up to 200 birds over the archipelago in March and December. 19. Common hoopoe Upupa epops Linn. (Syn. No. 765): A single on Lighthouse Is. on October 14, 1989. 20. Greater short-toed Sark Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisler) (Syn. No. 886): A couple of flocks of c. 25 birds each passing over Lighthouse Is. on October 15, 1989. 2 1 . Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot (Syn. No. 963): Two birds commuting between Lighthouse Is. and Burnt Is. on October 14 and 15, 1989. 22. House Crow Corvus splendens Vieillot (Syn. No. 1049): Singles on the Lighthouse Is. in March and December. 23. Black-headed cuckoo-shrike Coracina melanopiera (Ruppell) (Syn. No. 1079): A juvenile bird perched all morning in the gantry of a crane on Lighthouse Is. on October 16, 1989. 24. Asian brown flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica Pallas (Syn. No. 1407): A single bird foraging on the rocky ground of the totally barren Lighthouse Is. on October 15, 1989. 25. Blue rock-thrush Monticola solitarius (Linn.) (Syn. No. 1726): Noted on all the islets of the group in February, March and October. 26. Grey wagtail Motacilia cinerea Tunstall (Syn. No. 1884): Two birds on Lighthouse Is. on October 15, 1989. Acknowledgement I am grateful to the Director, Directorate of Lighthouses and Lightships, Mumbai, for permission to use the Inspection Quarters on the Lighthouse Island on four occasions in 1989. July 12, 2001 HEINZ LA1NER Praias de St. Antonio, Anjuna 403 509, Goa. Email: birdlainer@hotmail.com 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES References Abdulali, H. ( 1 939): Swifts and Terns at Vengurla Rocks. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41(3): 661-664. Abdulali, H. (1941): The Terns and Edible-nest Swifts at Vengurla, West Coast, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43(3): 446-45 L Abdulali, H. (1983): Pigeons ( Columba livia) nesting on the ground - some more bird notes from the Vengurla Rocks. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 215-217. Ali S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 737 + 104 plates. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, A & C Black, London. Harrison, P. (1985): Seabirds. Revised edition. Christopher Helm, A & C Black, London. Hume, A.O. (1876): The Laccadives and the West Coast. Stray Feathers 4: 413-483. Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India. Om Book Service, New Delhi. Lainer, H. (1990): On the Status of the Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis on India’s West Coast. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 298-299. Lainer, H. (1999a): The Birds of Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 203-220, (3): 405-423. Lainer, H. (1999b): The Noddy Tern (Brown Noddy) Anous stolidus off the South Konkan Coast. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(3): 469. Madsen, S.T. (1988): Terns of the Vengurla Rocks. Hornbill 1988(1): 3-4. Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Vidal, G.W. (1880): First list of the birds of the south Konkan. Stray Feathers 9: 1-96. 23. RANGE EXTENSION OF ALEXANDRINE PARAKEET PSITTACULA EUPATRIA IN GUJARAT In Gujarat State, the Alexandrine parakeet Psittacula eupatria is known to occur in Mahal (Dang), Waghai (Surat), Rajpipia (Narmada), and Gangasagar (Banaskantha) districts (Ali 1954). In recent publications, the species is reported only from the Rajpipia forest, but is uncommon (Monga and Naoroji 1983, Desai et al. 1993, Narve et al. 1 997). Khacher ( 1 996) and Grimmett et al. (1998) do not add new information about its distribution in Gujarat. In Oct. 1992 and 1993, we had seen the species feeding on maize Zea mays cobs at Vatrak, Modasa and Himmatnagar of Sabarkantha district. After that, almost every year, a few pairs can be seen on a river bridge at Vatrak. We saw the bird first at Anand (Anand district), on Apr. 17, 1999 in the Institute of Rural Management campus. After that there were several records every month. At Nadiad (Kheda district), Shri Prathmesh Patel (pers. comm, in 1999) saw 3 wild birds hovering around his captive P. eupatria during Nov. 1999. At the Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Ltd. Township, Vadodara (Vadodara district), it was heard frequently over the last 3 years. We saw one bird on a banyan tree ( Ficus religiosa) on Jul. 14, 1999 at Jambughoda Wildlife Sanctuary and several birds on Feb. 20 & 2 1 , 2000 at Ratanmahal Wildlife Sanctuary (both in Panchmahal district). There is a recent record of its occurrence from Ahmedabad city (Ketan Tatu pers. comm, in 2000) and BMP saw one bird in flight on Nov. 6, 2000 at Kalupur Railway station, Ahmedabad. At Bhavnagar, four adult birds are regularly seen since 1998 (Indra Gadhavi pers. comm, in 2000). The above records prove that the species has extended its distributional range in Gujarat State and also breeds in some parts of Kheda and Sabarkantha districts. Like elsewhere in India (Mehrotra and Bhatnagar 1979), it raids maize crops in Gujarat too. Our observation of a few pairs around holes on the river bridge indicate a search for unusual nesting structures by these birds, March 23, 2001 AESHITA MUKHERJEE C.K. BORAD *B.M. PARASHARYA AINP on Agricultural Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India. * Email: parasharya@gau.guj.nic. in JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 135 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Refer Ali, S. (1954): The Birds of Gujarat, Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(2 & 3): 374-458. Desai, I.V., B. Suresh & B. Pilo (1993): Birds of Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary. Pavo31(l cfc 2): 5-72. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Khacher, L. (1996): The Birds of Gujarat — A Salim Ali Centenary year review. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 331-373. 24. MIMICRY OF A CROW CHICK BY AN AS A DEFENCE AGAINST ATTACK BY The Asian koel Eudynamys scolopacea is a common brood parasite of corvids, mynas and other species throughout India and much of southeast Asia. In India, this cuckoo’s predominant host is the house crow Corvus splendens and to a lesser extent the jungle crow C. macrorhynchos (Lamba 1976). This author has observed that the high populations of house crows in towns and villages accounts for the large concentrations of Asian koels that may sometimes occur there. Despite the commonness of this brood parasitic relationship, the exact way in which Asian koel gains access to the hosts’ nest for egg laying remains a point of controversy. An interaction observed between an Asian koel and a group of house crows in the village of Anjuna, Goa on December 17, 1999, at a time when house crows were breeding in the area, may throw light on this question. Observation At dusk, about 1800 hrs, a group of five house crows were seen noisily chasing a female, or perhaps a juvenile, Asian koel. The latter alighted in the top of a coconut palm and was immediately surrounded by the house crows that were cawing loudly and aggressively. One crow moved within c. 30 cm of the Asian koel, and ENCES Mehrotra, K.N. & R.K. Bhatnagar (1979): Status of Economic Ornithology in India - Bird Depredents (sic). Depredations and their Management. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Monga, S.G. & R. Naoroji (1983): Birds of the Rajpipla forests — south Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(3): 5 75-612. Narve, D.S., C.D. Patel & N.P. Pandya (1 997): Avifaunal diversity in Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary. Tigerpaper 24(1): 17-22. ASIAN KOEL EUDYNAMYS SCOLOPACEA HOUSE CROWS CORVUS SPLENDENS seemed about to launch a pecking attack. At that moment, the Asian koel responded to this threat by opening its mouth wide to reveal the bright red gape, which was held upwards, and emitting a call closely resembling that of a begging house crow chick. This display by the Asian koel resulted in an instantaneous halt to the attack by the approaching crow, while the other four crows also became silent and passive. After about two minutes, during which time no further aggressive behaviour was displayed by the crows, the Asian koel slipped away into the semi-darkness of the coconut grove. The light was now failing rapidly and after a few minutes more of perching around abstractedly, the crows also flew off singly. Discussion House crows are well known to behave aggressively towards both sexes of the dimorphic Asian koel, particularly during the breeding season, chasing them on sight even far from nest, sometimes physically attacking them (Hume 1889; Lamba 1963) and even in rare cases killing them (Lamba 1976). The peak breeding season for house crows in southern India is April to May but some breeding, as in the present case, takes place in November and December (Lamba 1963). Given this aggressive behaviour on the part 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES of the hosts, there has been discussion and speculation over the years as to how the female Asian koel finds the opportunity to deposit her eggs in the vigilant house crow’s nest. Dewar ( 1 907) and Dharmakumarsinhj i ( 1 954) described several instances in which Asian koels appeared to take advantage of this aggressive response to facilitate access to the house crow’s nest for the egg loaded female Asian koel. Dewar proposed a scenario in which the black male Asian koel lures the sitting house crow away from the nest, so that the cryptically marked brown-barred female Asian koel can slip in to deposit its egg. Although Lamba ( 1 963) at one time accepted this hypothesis, by 1976, his own extensive studies had led him to believe that such observations were coincidental rather than a well-orchestrated strategy and that, in fact, it was simply a case of the female Asian koel taking any opportunity to get to the unoccupied nest. Furthermore, Eates (undated) described three instances where female Asian koels were seen in nests alongside incubating house crows, flapping and jockeying for position, and that calls resembling those of young house crows were heard. In each case, the Asian koel laid an egg and was not attacked by the resident crow. This suggests that the female Asian koel produced a call like a young house crow to appease the rightful occupant of the nest. The instance described here, not only involved mimicry of a crow chick, but also of the chick’s gape and begging behaviour. The Asian koel had a bright red gape, resembling that of a house crow chick. Goodwin (1986) also described the inside of the house crow chick’s mouth as fleshy red and Lamba (1976) as blood red. Interpretation of the observation described Refe Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1954): Birds of Saurashtra. Published by the Author, Bhavnagar. 562 pp. Cited : Lamba, B.S.(1976). Dewar, D. (1907): An enquiry into the parasitic habits of the Indian koel. J. Bombay ncit. Hist. Soc. 1 7: 765- here depends on whether the Asian koel in question was an adult or a juvenile. Stuart Butchart (pers. comm.) pointed out that fledgling Asian koels have a bright red gape, but that this probably becomes duller in adults, as is the case with other cuckoos. As no gape flange was visible, the bird would not have been a recent fledgling. However, older fledglings do indeed resemble females. If the Asian koel were a juvenile, it may have provoked a mixed response from the crows: mobbing whilst in flight, followed by tolerance once begging was initiated. In any case, it seems likely from the various published descriptions mentioned above, that female Asian koels retain this fledgling-like behaviour and may resort to mimicry of house crow chicks to avoid physical attack when they have been cornered and are unable to escape. In the case of Eates’ observations, perhaps the female koels were in the process of egg laying in an unoccupied nest when the house crow returned and, through mimicking a chick, the Asian koel was able to finish depositing an egg and depart without attack. The key to understanding this interaction is whether the gape colour of the adult female Asian koel is able to elicit the appropriate parental response in house crows. Clearly, such an ability would have enormous survival value, not only for the individual Asian koel, but also for the species as a whole. April 24, 2001 COLIN RYALL Centre for Environmental Management, Farnborough College, Boundary Road, Farnborough, Hampshire, GUM 6NU, UK. Email: c.ryall@farn-ct.ac.uk E N C E S 782. Eates, K.R. (unpublished): Memories grave and gay of a field naturalist. Section 4, Crows, British Museum (Nat. Hist.) tiles. Cited: Goodwin, D. (1986). Goodwin, D. (1986): Crows of the World. Cornell JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 137 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES University Press. Pp. 100. Hume, A.O. (1889): Nests and eggs of the Indian Birds: Vol. 1, 2ndedn. R.H. Porter, London. Lamba, B.S. (1963): The nidification of some common Indian birds Part \ .J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(1): 121-133. Lamba, B.S. (1976): The Indian crows: a contribution to their breeding biology, with notes on brood parasitism on them by the Indian Koel. Rec. zoo/. Surv. India 71: 183-300. 25. BUFFY FISH-OWL {KETUPA KETUPU) IN SUNDARBANS, BANGLADESH {With one plate ) Three species of fish-owl are known from the Indian subcontinent: the brown fish-owl {Ketupa zeylonensis), the tawny fish-owl ( Ketnpa flavipes) and the buffy fish-owl ( Ketnpa ketnpn). The last sightings of the buffy fish-owl from Assam were recorded by Stevens (1915) and Baker (1927). Stevens writes “Common in the forest streams which emerge into the Dibru” and mentions localities “Rungagora, 1902” and “Dejoo, North Lakhimpur, 1911”. Baker says “I found it not very rare in the hills of South Assam and Coltart obtained one specimen in Dibrugarh”. Further, “Coltart and I obtained eggs in the Khasia Hills and North Cachar”. The buffy fish-owl, also called the Malay fish-owl, is common in southeast Asia. According to Koenig et al. ( 1 999) and del Hoyo et al. ( 1 999), its present range of distribution covers Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, the Malaysian Peninsula and Indonesia (including Sumatra, Java, Borneo). Fish-owls are not rare in the Sundarbans, and the huge mangrove forest in the lower delta of the Ganga, but are usually hard to identify when only seen in flight in poor light conditions. Some more recently published bird lists (Khan 1986; Hussain and Acharya 1994) mention brown fish-owl and tawny fish-owl, or only brown fish-owl, to occurring here. It was only in November 2000, that we were able to photograph fish-owls in the southeastern Sundarbans of Bangladesh (Kotka Sanctuary - Plate 1) in early mornings and late afternoons. Analysing the photographs of three different individuals, all of them could be identified as buffy fish-owls. Main characteristics of the buffy fish-owl: — at 38-48 cm it is smaller than the brown fish- owl (56 cm) and tawny fish-owl (58-61 cm); — lacking fine horizontal cross-barrings on underparts (typical for the brown fish-owl); — colour above rich brown (against rich orange- rufous to tawny of the tawny fish-owl, and duller brown of the brown fish-owl); — bare tarsi (against partly feathered tarsi of the tawny fish-owl); — relatively short tail with few whitish bands (against longer, more narrowly barred tail of the tawny fish-owl); — wings more broadly and buff sh-white barred (against less broad orange-buff barrings of the tawny f sh-owl). This is, as far as known, the first record of the buffy fish-owl from Sundarbans and a re- discovery of the species in the Indian subcontinent (last record by Baker) after almost 80 years! It is perhaps not impossible that the buffy fish-owl was overlooked or mistaken for a tawny fish-owl, as Ali and Ripley (1969) along with their pictorial guide (1983), widely used. in the past decades for identification of owls on the Indian subcontinent, does not mention the species. We became aware of the buffy fish-owl when consulting Grimmett et al. (1998). The fauna of Sundarbans has, besides the buffy fish-owl, several other affinities with the Malaysian Region. Paynter (1970) mentioned laced woodpecker, blue-winged pitta, mangrove whistler and orange-bellied flowerpecker in this context (specimens collected in 1958 in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh). Other species from 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Neumann-Denzau, Gertrud and Helmut Denzau: Ketupa ketupu Plate 1 Fig. 1: Buffy fish-owl Ketupa ketupu in Sundarbans, Bangladesh a. Individual 1 (front view), b. Individual 1 (side view), c. Individual 2, d. Individual 3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 139 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sundarbans with the same affinity are the masked finfoot, and not to forget the Javanese rhino among the exterminated Sundarbans mammals. More careful observations in future will surely bring forth other interesting discoveries from the Indian and Bangladesh Sundarbans. Mar. 23, 2001 GERTRUD NEUMANN-DENZAU HELMUT DENZAU fm Brook 8, 2 4321 Ranker, Germany. Email: denzau@t-online.de References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1969): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press, Bombay, Vol. 3. Baker, E.C.S. (1927): The Fauna of British India. Taylor and Francis, London, Vol. 4: 410-411. del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott & J. Sargatal (Eds) (1999): Handbook of the Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Vol. 5 (Buffy fish-owl : 1 94). Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Hussain, Z. & G. Acharya (1994): Mangroves of the Sundarbans. Vol. 2. Bangladesh, IUCN, Bangkok. Pp. 248. Khan, M.A.R. (1986): Wildlife in Bangladesh Mangrove Ecosystem. ./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 32-48. Koenig, C., F. Weick & J.H. Becking (1999): Owls, A Guide to the Owls of the World. Pica Press, Sussex, pp. 309-310 + pi. 33. Paynter, R.A. (1970): Species with Malaysian affinities in the Sundarbans, East Pakistan. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 90(5): 118-119. Stevens, H. (1915): Notes on the Birds of Upper Assam, Part 2. J. Bombay nat.. Hist. Soc. 23: 547-570 (Malay Fish Owl: 560). 26. A NOTE ON THE CIRCUMORBITAL SKIN COLOUR OF INDIAN GREY HORNBILL OCYCEROS BIROSTR1S On August 8, 2000, I was attracted by the calls of Indian grey hornbills Ocyceros birostris (Scopoli) from a large fruiting p i pal Ficus religiosa Linnaeus, in my garden in Hyderabad. This was the third consecutive day that I was watching this trio of 2 males and 1 female. It was obvious they were courting, for the males displayed and postured with upright body and bill pointed skyward. While doing so, the feathers above their tarsi were puffed up, like small balls of white cotton. Their white-tipped tails were constantly and rhythmically pumped in an arc (swung like a pendulum if the birds were viewed in profile) from their normal positions, inwards. Their loud calls resounded through the garden. Males uttered a shrill and quavering squeal, while the female’s call was a clearer and louder, nasal “wheeeee”. The birds also uttered a ratchety uk-k-k-k-k-k-krrr” (maybe only male) as they moved upward, towards the top of the tree. All three birds hopped and clambered about in the tree, using their bills to pull themselves up at times, plucking and eating figs as they proceeded. Twice a male hopped along a branch towards the female and acted as if he was going to feed her, though no item of food was passed. I got a very good view of all three as they moved about. I noticed almost immediately that the circumorbitai skin on the female was a rich dark orange and her irides were dark brown. Both the males had black circumorbitai skin and orange irides. While the colours of these soft and bare parts of a male are recorded in published literature (Ali and Ripley 1987, Baker 1927, Kemp 1995, Roberts 1991), there is no mention of the circumorbitai skin colour of a female Indian grey hornbill (Kemp 1995). On August 29, 2000, I was in Mumbai and took the opportunity to check the specimens in JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 100(1), APR. 2003 141 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. I examined 11 females, of which 9 had clear orange skin around the eyes. The circumorbital skin colour was not clear on specimen # 1 1447, collected by P.T.L. Dodsworth on 1 3 .i. 1 9 1 3 from Karka, N.W. Himalayas. A remark on the tag read, “Irides reddish-brown.” Specimen # 1 1450, collected by V.S. Lapersonne on 29. v. 1929 from Chitteri Range, Salem at 2,000, was marked as a female and had a quarter moon-shaped orange area below the eye. This specimen also had a relatively more prominent casque than that of the others. It is, however, possible that the colours of bare skin and irides may vary according to the emotional state of the bird and the resulting endocrinal secretions. Outside of the breeding season, probably the bare skin of both sexes may well be dark grey to black, and that of the female Refer Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 292. Baker, E.C. Stuart (1927): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Birds. Vol. IV, 2nd changes only during courtship and times of excitement. The shape of the casque, the extent of yellow on the bill, and the colour of the irides are used to separate sexes of the Indian grey hornbill in the field. These field-marks can now be supplemented by the differences in their circumorbital skin also. Acknowledgements I thank S.A. Hussain, T.J. Roberts and R. Kannan for their comments on these observations. March 23, 2001 AASHEESH PITTIE 8-2-545 Road No. 7, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034, Andhra Pradesh, India. Email: aasheesh@vsnl.in E N C E S edition. Taylor and Francis, London. Pp. 301-302. Kemp, Allan (1995): The Hornbills. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp. 157-159. Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 1. Regional Studies and non-Passeriformes. Oxford University Press, Karachi. Pp. 532-534. 27. SIGHTING OF MALABAR PIED HORNBILL ANTHRACOCEROS CORONATES IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI On July 30, 2000, during a walk in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Mumbai, at 0845 hrs we stumbled upon a noisy flock of Indian grey hornbill Ocyceros birostris. There were four individuals to our left, coursing restlessly through the thick canopy about 40 m away. We were at an elevation and the birds, though about 1 0 m from the ground were exactly level with us. While we were contemplating the reason for such aggressive behaviour, another much larger and darker bird emerged from the thick cover. It was still partly hidden and difficult to identify, but as soon as it alighted from a tall Adina cordifolia tree, the white trailing edge on its predominantly black wings and white outer tail feathers disclosed its true identity. The bird being mobbed by the four Indian grey hornbills was the Malabar pied hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus. Soon, A. coronatus was chased away by the four birds and the flock disappeared into the canopy. However, within five minutes these noisy hornbills returned to the same area, but perched slightly closer to us. This time there were two A. coronatus. One bird was identified to be a female from the absence of the black patch at the posterior end of its casque, while the sex of the other bird could not be determined. The four O. birostris always kept a close vigil, but never advanced too close to the larger species. 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES O. birostris has been observed to nest in this area, due to the presence of huge trees, and its aggression towards its conspecifics could be justified. However, both birds breed between March and June in their respective ranges (Ali and Ripley 1987), and a fight over a nesting site is quite unlikely in July. A detailed study is required to comment conclusively on it. A. coronatus was never reported from Sanjay Gandhi National Park until February 6, 2000, when one bird was sighted by a group of bird watchers in the same valley, called the Pongam Valley due to a profusion of Pongamia pinnata. Subsequently, there have been a few confirmed and unconfirmed records of the bird from various parts of the Park. According to Ali (1996), the bird is found in south and central India: north to southeast Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. Grimrnett et al. (1999) mention its distribution in the Western Ghats and east India. Anthracoceros coronatus is mainly frugivorous, but can also subsist on small reptiles, mice and juvenile birds as has been reported by Ali and Ripley (1987). The present sighting of A. coronatus is almost six months after its first record from SGNP. It is evident, therefore, that the birds, which presumably strayed or were released into SGNP (a Tropical Moist Semi- deciduous Forest) outlived the harsh summer and acclimatized to their newly found home. Our next step should be to examine whether the species attempts to breed here, provided that both sexes are present. Additional Note from first author I was at Sanjay Gandhi National Park on March 9, 2003 and was fortunate to spot a female A. coronatus with a flock of O. birostris in precisely the same spot as the first sighting. Over three years have passed since A. coronatus was first sighted, and since then, a female bird has been regularly seen by many bird watchers including the first author near the Pongam Valley, moving boldly with a flock of O. birostris. It is, therefore, clear that the bird has adapted to the Moist Semi-deciduous Forest of SGNP. The most striking feature of the sighting is that the larger A. coronatus seems to be enjoying a congenial relationship with the smaller, but more numerous hornbill O. birostris. I have seen the two species in other forests of India as well, sometimes even sharing the same tree, but have never observed any significant interaction between the two. Thus, this three-year association between the two related yet distinct species is unique and worth mentioning — A. A. October 16, 2000 ANISH ANDHERIA 2, Sagar Building, VP. Road, Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058, Maharashtra, India. Email: anish@kidsfortigers.org SUPRIYA JHUNJHUNWALA Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India. Email: supriya.jhunjhunwala@ceeindia.org PARITOSH KHANVILKAR 5-Parimal, 1 7th Road, Khar (W), Mumbai 400 052, Maharashtra, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 737 + 104 plates. All S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds (12th Edn). Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1 999): Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1 00(1), APR. 2003 143 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 28. NOCTURNAL FEEDING BY WHITE-BELLIED DRONGO DICRURUS CAERULESCENS Van Ashram situated on the outskirts of Sawai Madhopur city, has a Forest Rest House and a Range Office. A forest nursery is also present on the campus. On May 14, 1999, while I was observing nocturnal animals in and around Van Ashram, at c. 2030 hrs, I came across three white-bellied drongos Dicrurus caerulescens hovering near an electric light bulb, in front of the Forest Rest House, devouring insects. All the three birds were perched on a wire. One more bird, feeding near another bulb, was perched on a bough of Adansonia digitata. I observed all the four birds up to 2200 hrs. When I left, they were still feeding. The following night, 1 saw perhaps the same birds feeding on flying insects. Nocturnal feeding by black drongo Dicrurus adsimilis , inside human habitation, has been reported by Khan (1990), Nameer (1990) and Sharma (1991). The white-bellied drongo is more arboreal in nature than the black drongo, and it is a forest bird. It generally avoids human habitation. The gradual destruction of forests around the periphery of the expanding city and reduction in the food sources is perhaps forcing this bird to change its behaviour. Night light sources of the city attract huge insect populations from surrounding forest areas, with perhaps a resultant fall of insect density in surrounding forests. This in turn may lead to forest birds like the white-bellied drongos following their food resource for nocturnal feeding to the city. February 6, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. References Khan, A.R. (1990): Feeding habits of the Black Drongo. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 30(7 & 8): 9. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 30(10 & 11): 11. Sharma, S.K. (1991): Nocturnal feeding by Black Drongo. Nameer, RO. ( 1 990): Midnight feeding by Black Drongo. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 31(3 & 4): 8. 29. TOTAL ALBINISM IN A LARGE GREY BABBLER TURDOIDES MALCOLM / On July 29, 2000, while I was surveying the biodiversity of Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, a milk-white large grey babbler Turdoides malcolmi caught my attention near Nandeshma village, on the outskirts of the Sanctuary. It was an adult bird with completely white plumage. The legs and bill were lighter than normal individuals. It was the only albino in a flock of eight birds. When I approached the flock to get a photograph, the albino took off and hid in the foliage of a nearby mango tree, while the rest of the flock remained on the ground in a semi-alert posture. I waited motionless behind a Butea monosperma tree for the bird. When it came down after a few minutes, I tried going near, but this time too it took refuge in the foliage of another tree. After a few minutes, it alighted on a rock near its flock and this time I could photograph it [photographic evidence given by the author — Eds]. I observed this bird for nearly 15 min and found it to be quite shy compared to normal individuals. Albinism has been reported in crows (Mahabal 1991; Abdulla 1997), doves (Javed 1992; Pandya 1994), redwattled lapwing (Soni 1992), Asian koel (Shyamal 1990), little grebe (Bharos 1 996), coot (Paf ashary a et a/. 1 996), red- vented bulbul (Soni 1992; Joshua 1996), lesser whistling-duck (Chatterjee 1995) and common 144 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES myna (Jha 1994). The large grey babbler is an addition to the list of albino birds, hence worth placing on record. Acknowledgement I thank R.G. Soni, PCCF and CCF (WL), Rajasthan for giving me an opportunity to study Refer Abdulla, E.V. (1997): White jungle crow. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 37(5): 91 . Bharos, A.M.K. (1996): Albino little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(2): 293. Chatterjee, S. (1995): Occurrence of albino lesser whistling teal Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 417-418. Javed, S. (1992): Albinism in little brown dove. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 32(3 & 4): 12. Jha, Samiran ( 1 994): An albino myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(3): 455. Joshua, .1.(1 996): An albino redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 586. the biodiversity of Protected Areas of southern Rajasthan. October 16, 2000 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. ; N C E s Mahabal, A. (1991): Cases ofalbinism in house and jungle crows. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 31(9 & 10): 14. Pandya, V. (1994): Sighting of albino dove. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34(4): 97. Parasharya, B.M., R.B. Chaijhan & A.G. Sukhadia (1996): A white coot at Kanewal, Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 586. Shyamal, L. ( 1 990): Partial albinism in a koel ( Eudynamys scolopacea). Newsletter for Birdwatchers 30(10 & 11): 11. Soni, R.G. (1992): Albinism in Birds. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 32(3 & 4): 13. 30. YELLOW-RUMPED FLY CATC PIER FICEDULA ZANTHOPYG1A IN KERALA On January 30, 1996 along the Mangala Devi trail at Periyar National Park, Kerala, I encountered a female yellow-rumped flycatcher Ficedula zcmthopygia . The bird spent most of its time between 5-10 m up in the mid-canopy of trees on the edge of the forest . I watched the bird for about 20 min ranging at c. 8 m, I was familiar with the species from China and Thailand, identified it quickly and confidently and, knowing that it was a vagrant to India, made a quick sketch and a few hurried field notes. Some of the notes are reproduced here. It was a distinctive bird that could perhaps only be confused with the female of the Chinese- breeding form of Narcissus flycatcher F. narcissina elisae. However, elisae can be distinguished, among other features, by the lack of the conspicuous yellow rump of the aptly named yellow-rumped flycatcher. Description Estimated to be about 10% larger and noticeably bulkier, more plump, proportionately larger headed and heavier billed than a red- throated flycatcher F parva. The upperparts were a fairly uniform dull olive-green; the nape was subtly greyer and the rump, undoubtedly the bird’s most striking feature, was bright lemon yellow. This was visible at rest, when the wings were frequently held drooped, but was most conspicuous during the bird’s short flights. The upper border of the rump fell level with the tip of the bird’s shortest tertial while the uppertail coverts (and tail) were blackish and contrasted sharply. The head was quite well marked. The ear- coverts were slightly greyer than the crown and nape and there was a narrow off-white band JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 145 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES connecting the pale lores across the lower forehead. This, combined with the rather broad off-white eye-rings, created a bespectacled facial pattern reminiscent of the plumbeous vireo Vireo plumb eus. The underparts were pale yellowish-white, somewhat scruffy in that the yellow tone was not evenly distributed but patchy. The vent and undertail coverts were ciean white and there was some slight olive mottling, almost scaling, on the sides of the breast. The three innermost greater coverts had conspicuous blackish centres, broad white tips and narrower white fringes on the outer webs. Two, or possibly three, median coverts were similarly patterned with dark centres and whitish edges. The longest tertial also had a prominent white fringe. The bill was entirely black, stout and heavy-looking, the legs a paler plumbeous grey, and the eye dark and appearing large. The bird called several times during the observation — a dry, hollow sounding ‘ trrrrt\ that was mellower and softer than the similar contact calls of the red-throated flycatcher. This was the second documented record of the yellow-rumped flycatcher from the Subcontinent. The first, a male in the Melghat Sanctuary in Maharashtra on the April 30, 1989, was documented by Haribal (1991). Interestingly, a bird answering the description of a female yellow-rumped flycatcher was apparently also present at Melghat in the winter of 1994-95. It was described to K. Kazmierczak by the local Forest Department staff who had been unable to identify it and were unaware of the previous record. There is another more recent report — a male observed by Steve Rooke and Deepal Warakagoda et al. in Sri Lanka on the March 7, 1999. (Steve Rooke pers. comm.) ACKNO WLEDG EM ENT I thank Krys Kazmierczak for useful information regarding the earlier sightings and the encouragement to publish this one. November 25, 2000 PAUL I. HOLT New Laund Farm, Greenhead Lane, Fence, Burnley, Lancashire, BB12 9DU, UK. Email: piholt@hotmail.com Reference Haribal, M. (1991): Yellowrumped flycatcher Ficedula (Muscicapa) zanthopygia (narcissina): a new addition to the avifauna of the Indian subcontinent. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 456-458. 31. BREEDING RECORDS OF THE ASIAN BROWN FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA DAUURICA IN SOUTHERN INDIA Commenting on the status and distribution of the Asian brown flycatcher ( Muscicapa dauurica), Ali and Ripley (1983) mention: “A partial migrant having a disjunct breeding range. Movements imperfectly understood.” More specifically of its status in southern India, they say that the bird is a scarce breeder in the southern parts of the Western Ghats at about 900 m in North Kanara, Coorg, the Palni Hills and Cardamom Hills. It is also suspected that the flycatcher may breed in the Chitteri Range (Eastern Ghats) where it has been obtained in June, and in the Biligirirangan Hills (obtained in July). Post-dispersal of southern birds takes place as early as August. Ghorpade (1973) has mentioned it as a resident species in Sandur (E. Karnataka). Recently, Pittie (2000) recorded a young bird in June in Hyderabad. My own records for the last two decades indicate that the Asian brown flycatcher could 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES be resident in small numbers in the neighbourhood of Chennai city, Tamil Nadu and in the Rishi Valley area (Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh), I have also seen a nest and a juvenile in the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary in Trichur district, Kerala. I present the details below. In Chennai, I have 1 2 records of the bird in the Guindy National Park and Theosophical Society estate during June-August (1984-1990). Usually single birds were noticed. Juvenile birds with spotted plumage were seen on at least two occasions — on July 29, 1984 and July 3, 1990 at the Guindy Park. On the latter occasion, an adult bird was also seen. In Rishi Valley ( c . 700 m), I have more than 20 records of the bird in June-August, when more than one bird was present on at least six occasions during these months. Juvenile birds were seen in July-August 1999 and in June-July 2000. At the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary (c. 100 m), a nest was seen on March 2, 1993, atop a dead tree at c. 17 m inside a hollow. On August 26, 1991, 1 had seen a juvenile with spots at Mannuthy close to the Sanctuary. These records show that the Asian brown flycatcher may nest in suitable localities in small numbers in peninsular India, and more information can be collected by birdwatchers by careful observations. March 23, 2001 V. SANTHARAM Institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, Rishi Valley Education Centre, Rishi Valley 517 352, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Ghorpade, K.D. (1973): Preliminary notes on the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Ornithology of Sandur, Karnataka. ./. Bombay nat. Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Oxford Hist. Soc. 70(3): 499-53 1 . University Press, Delhi. Pittie, A. (2000): Birding Notes. Pitta No. 112: Pp. 7. 32. CRIMSON SUN BIRD AETHOPYGA SIPARAJA SEHERIAE IN MADHYA PRADESH The crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja appears to have a patchy distribution in the Indian subcontinent. The subspecies seheriae , according to the handbook (Ali and Ripley 1987) and the synopsis (Ripley 1982), is a common resident from Kangra east to Sikkim (Himalayan foothills, subject to vertical movements) and thence south to the plains of eastern Bihar, north Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, hills of northeastern Peninsula and Orissa. The southernmost record for this subspecies is Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh. The record of Aethopyga siparaja seheriae for Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat) is based on a single male specimen shot by D’Abreu at Laugher Ghat (c. 589 m) in the Balaghat district on April 1, 1913 (D’Abreu 1913). Since then, nobody has reported this bird from Madhya Pradesh. I have been staying in the buffer zone (village Mocha) of Kanha National Park (22° 17' N, 80° 30' E) since November 1986 and my first sighting of this bird was in February 1992. It was a male (easily identifiable), hopping busily about the fire bush Woodfordia fruticosa, which was in full bloom. I was quite surprised to see this bird here, as there were no previous records of the species from around Kanha. Within a few days of my first sighting the male, I saw a female of this species which was not very difficult to distinguish from the female purple sunbird Nectaririia asiatica , that happens to be the only other resident sunbird species. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 147 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Though Laugher Ghat in Balaghat district is not very far from where I saw the crimson sunbird pair, I thought this was another case of strayed birds as there were no subsequent records from Madhya Pradesh after 1913.1 observed this pair for a month or so in the early morning hours, mainly around Woodfordia fruticosa shrubs, the flowers of which were heavily laden with nectar. The Woodfordia shrubs stopped flowering by March end, and the sunbirds too disappeared. To my surprise, a male crimson sunbird returned to my garden in February 1993, which coincided with the flowering of Woodfordia fruticosa. The bird disappeared in March. Since then, a male crimson sunbird has been visiting my garden almost every year, arriving in February and leaving around the last week of March or April. In 1995, a male arrived in the last week of January and stayed on till the end of March. I have never seen a female of this bird since February 1992. I am not sure whether the male, which has been arriving here is the same individual or not. In February 1999, once again a single male arrived and was going about its business as usual. What surprised me was that the bird did not return after the Woodfordia fruticosa stopped flowering. The bird was seen all through the hot summer months the last sighting being on June 4. The bird was not seen throughout the day, but was seen every evening returning to roost on a small mango tree near my house. The regular sighting of this bird around Kanha (in winter months) definitely proves .that the bird winters here and probably stays till mid-summer before returning to the foothills of the Himalaya where it breeds. Another point is that perhaps it visits more areas in eastern Madhya Pradesh and the range of the bird definitely includes parts of the state other than the one single spot as recorded by D’Abreu in 1913. October 16, 2000 E.P. ERIC D’ CUN H A Kanha National Park, Village Mocha, P.O. Kisli 481 768, Dist. Mandla, Madhya Pradesh, India. References Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp.737 + 1 04 plates. D’Abreu, E.A. (1913): The occurrence of the Himalayan Yellowbacked Sunbird, Aethopyga seheriae in the Central Provinces and extension of its habitat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22(2)\ 392-393. Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those in Bangladesh, Nepal. Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. 33. INCUBATION PERIOD OF CRIMSON SUNBIRD AETHOPYGA SIPARAJA The crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja is a resident and fairly common bird in Konkan, Maharashtra. We see this brilliantly coloured sunbird in its restless flight in gardens, groves and dense forest regularly. According to Ali and Ripley (1999), the nesting period of this bird is April to July, but we have seen a female of this species building a nest on August 12, 2000 in Chiplun, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. The nest was built just outside a house wall in an urban area. The pendant nest was entangled to a coir string, which was tied to a rafter of the house, 96 cm above the ground. This pear-shaped nest was 13 cm long, 7.5 cm wide and with an 8 cm awning over the entrance. The entrance was 3.5 cm in diameter. We observed the nest a couple of times every day. On August 21 at 0700 hrs, there was only one egg in the nest. Two more eggs were added to the nest in the next two days. The female started incubation only after the third egg was 148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES laid. The male was never seen incubating the eggs. The first egg hatched on September 6, 2000 at 0700 hrs, while the second hatched at 1400 hrs on the same day. The third egg hatched two days later in the morning. The incubation period for each egg was 16, 15 and 16 days respectively. Both the parents fed the chicks, but most of the work was done by the female, while the male took very little part in it. All three chicks fledged on September 21 , 2000 at 0800 hrs. March 23, 2001 VISHWAS KATDARE ROHAN LOVALEKAR AMEYA MQDAK Sahyadri Nisarg Mitra Near Laxminarayan Temple, Chiplun 415 605, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra, India. Reference Ali, S. & S. Dillon Ripley (1999): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Revised 2nd edn. Vol 10. Oxford University Press, Delhi. 34. THE SPANISH SPARROW PASSER HISPANIOLENSIS FOUND NESTING IN HANUMANGARH DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN On March 26, 1999, we were at Badopal Lake, Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan watching migratory birds on passage. Large mixed flocks of Spanish sparrow Passer hispaniolensis and house sparrow Passer domesticus were conspicuous in the area, mainly around the ripe wheat fields and Acacia tortilis plantations along the road. The flocks of Spanish sparrow were exceptionally vocal, calling incessantly and seeming very restless. The whole area was alive with their noisy and restless behaviour. After watching the birds on the lake in the morning, we retired to the shade of the plantation for lunch, where the Spanish sparrows were calling feverishly. While watching the birds, we noticed a few nests on Acacia tortilis trees. A few males in breeding plumage were loudly calling “ che die che ....” while displaying with their tails cocked up and moving actively around the nests. Two males were noticed mounting females. We counted 22 nests on six Acacia tortilis trees. These nests were about 6-9 m above the ground, made up of fresh straw collected from the nearby wheat fields. The nests were c. 25-30 cm in diameter, matching the dimensions given by Gavrilov (1963), and almost spherical in shape. Fresh straw was used on the outer surface of the nests. Most of the nests were on the biggest Acacia tortilis tree, located on its terminal branches. On a second visit to the site on April 18, 1999, ten more nests were found. Two males were displaying with their tails cocked up, and six males were observed carrying some downy material (probably cotton from the nearby fields) and entering the nests. The Spanish sparrow is a winter visitor to the northwestern part of the Subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1987; Roberts 1992). It breeds extralimitally in Central Asia westwards to the Caucasus and eastwards throughout Kazakhstan. The birds start the return flight from their winter quarters to the native areas about the beginning of March. The establishment of colonies in breeding areas usually takes place a few days after the beginning of mass arrivals, during the middle or end of May. The birds usually nest in very large colonies (Gavrilov 1963). In contrast, the nesting colony at Badopal was very small and established as early as March. The sparrow nests almost exclusively in cultivated areas, living in the proximity of man. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 149 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES The availability of grain crops is one of the necessary conditions for these birds, and they seldom nest at any distance away from cultivation (Gavrilov 1963). Development of extensive plantations and agriculture during the last forty years or so in northern Rajasthan seems to have provided the Spanish sparrow with excellent living conditions conducive to establishing the first nesting colony in the Indian subcontinent. May 30, 2001 MANOJ KULSHRESHTHA B-33, Sethi Colony, Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan, India. HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. Note from the Referee: The spread of grain cultivation and tree plantation in Rajasthan has nothing to do with this unusual nesting. Such favourable conditions have existed for nearly half a century over most of the Spanish sparrow’s migration route. What is significant is the fact that a species known to be highly gregarious and colonial in nesting, has not done this before. Similar examples of greater flamingos and rosy starlings have been recorded from time to time, usually of abortive attempts by small colonies to nest in unusual locations. I was fortunate during a holiday trip to Kazakhstan two summers ago, to sit under a thorn tree roadside plantation in an otherwise treeless Refer Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of the India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 737 pp. + 104 plates. Gavrilov, E.I. (1963): The Biology of the Eastern Spanish steppe grassland region, where above my head about 500 pairs of Spanish sparrows were nesting, so I can easily visualise what the authors saw in Hanumangarh district. Dissection of rosy starlings on passage in April/May has shown that their gonads are fully developed for breeding, and early writers like Ticehurst often speculated why they did not breed within the confines of India. Like the Spanish sparrow, small rosy starling colonies are often opportunistic, e.g. they have nested in the crevices between a stack of logs, and don’t show great site fidelity for choosing their nesting site. The main motivation seems to be synchronous breeding, as is the case with the Spanish sparrow also. When the colony decides to leave, late fledglings are often left to starve in their nests! Huge colonies of over 1 ,000 birds do exhibit site fidelity, for obvious logistical reasons, but the central Asian breeding population of Spanish sparrows does have small offshoot breeding colonies, despite what Gavrilov wrote in describing huge breeding colonies in the Journal. The one 1 saw in Kazhakhstan was alongside a huge field bearing a crop of Safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius ), which is like a thorny thistle and then still in flower, so not suitable food for a sparrow. Otherwise, that colony had to depend entirely on small grasshoppers and wild grass seeds for feeding their nestlings. There were no cereal grain crops within miles and miles. This is why I feel it does not add to our knowledge when the authors speculate that favourable habitat was the reason for breeding in Rajasthan. The observation teaches us more about the needs of colonial and synchronous nesting species — T.J. Roberts. :nces Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus, in Kazakhstan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(2): 301- 317. Roberts, T.J. (1992); The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, Karachi. 150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 35. TERMITE REMOVAL FROM NEST MATERIAL AND REPAIR OF DAMAGED NEST BY WHITE-RUMPED MUNIA LONCHURA STRIATA This refers to the note “Termite attack on Piper nigrum and its supporting tree Erythrina nest material leading to desertion of eggs by birds” by K.V. Srinivas and S. Subramanya (JBNHS 97(1): 145). I have seen in Mangalore (during 1996- 1999), usually old nests of spotted dove ( Streptopelia chinensis), jungle babbler {Turdoides striatus ) and white-rumped munia ( Lonchura striata ) being attacked partially or fully by termites after the birds have left the nest. The nests were built on small trees at a height of c. 1-3 m. During the late- and post-monsoon period, when the tree bark and nest materials dry up, termites from the ground reach the nest via the tree bark, which they cover with mud while tunnelling. 1 also saw, on several occasions, live nests of white-rumped munia (built in thick bushes of 36. BIRDS OF GOA — SOME Further to "Birds of Goa’ by Heinz Lainer (JBNHS 96(2): 203-220; 96(3): 405-423), I had conducted a brief survey of the birds at three wildlife sanctuaries (Cotigao, Bondla and Bhagwan Mahaveer) between November 29 and December 9, 1 995, as part of a survey of the great black woodpecker. These comments are based on the observations made then. Besra sparrowhawk Accipiter virgatus 2 seen in Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS); 1 seen in eucalyptus plantation, attacking smaller birds. All the earlier reports of this species are from Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary (BMWS). Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis 1 seen at BMWS (Tambdi Surla area) on December 7. Reported as winter visitor in small numbers in the coastal belt. Nilgiri wood-pigeon Columba elphinstonii 2 birds at CWS on November 30. Considered a scarce, erratic visitor. sp.), partially attacked by termites. Interestingly, the white-rumped munia feasted on the termites, a protein rich diet, in the nest material and nearby regions. Moreover, they repaired the damaged nest (as termites continue to attack the nest during night time and may damage part of the nest by early morning). The birds brought fresh nest material and successfully raised their offspring. Oct. 16, 2000 R. SHYAMA PRASAD RAO Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email:shyam@ces.iisc.ernet.in sprasad 1 0 1 @hotmai 1 .com SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Brainfever bird Hierococcyx varius 1 seen at CWS and 1 at Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary (BWS). Said to be usually present from mid-March to early November. Drongo cuckoo Surniculus lugubris 1 seen in a mixed hunting party in CWS. Earlier recorded as an uncommon monsoon visitor — from late May to early October. Small green-billed malkoha Pit aenicophaeus viridirostris A pair and a single bird seen at CWS. Said to avoid the Western Ghats strip. Eurasian scops-owl Otus scops 4-5 birds heard calling at BWS. This bird has not been listed by Lainer (op.cit.). Long-tailed nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus 1 heard at BWS. No recent records after the late 1970s. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 151 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Speckled piculet Picumnus innominatus 1 seen in a mixed flock in BWS and a pair noticed (also in a mixed flock) at BMWS. According to Lainer, this bird has been noticed just once earlier. Indian pitta Pitta brachyura 2-3 heard at CWS. Said to be found from end April to early September and a few passage migrants seen between early January and mid- March. Spangled drongo Dicrurus hottentottus 10-15 birds in flight at CWS; a pair at BMWS. Said to be a scarce winter visitor in small numbers. Ashy woodswallow Artamus fuscus 5-6 in CWS; 1-2 heard at BWS and 4-5 in flight at BMWS. Said to be absent from large tracts during the dry season, being a monsoon visitor. Scarlet minivet Pericrocotus flammeus A juvenile female seen begging for food at BWS. Indian scimitar-babbler Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Calls heard at CWS. Recorded on the crest of the Sahyadri and, occasionally, down to an altitude of c. 70 m. Grey-headed flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis 1 seen at BWS. Has been recorded only twice earlier. Acknowledgements I thank WCS, New York, who funded my study on the great black woodpecker and the Forest Department, Goa, for granting permission and providing facilities. November 25, 2000 V. SANTHARAM, Institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, Rishi Valley Education Centre, Rishi Valley 517 352, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India. 37. BIRDS OF TABO: A LESSER KNOWN COLD DESERT IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYA The cold desert area of Tabo Valley (30° 05' N, 78° 28' E) lies c. 3,500 m above msl in the Spiti district, Himachal Pradesh State in northern India. This broad, flat valley is intersected by high, craggy, vertical cliffs of gray and brown sand. The higher slopes of the valley are covered with undulating alpine grasslands, which rise to the mountains, often up to the snowline or peaks (5,500-7,000 m). The boulder- strewn valley is also traversed by the River Spiti that enters through narrow gorges from the west, and flows down eastwards. The soil is alkaline (ph 7.2), poor in nutrients (K, Na, P) and organic matter (0.08%), and is silty, clayey as well as loamy (Singh and Gupta 1990). The climate is cold and dry with heavy snowfall (c. 80 cm) in winter (December-March). Rainfall occurs only during September and October, and is scanty (10-15 mm). The temperature fluctuates from a maximum of 32.5 °C in August to a minimum of -32 °C in January (Kapoor and Bhagat 1990). High velocity winds blow throughout the year. The vegetation of the area is xerophytic — dry alpine scrub, associated with soil moisture especially in the ravines and near water springs. The dominating species are Hippophae rhamnoides , Rosa webbiana , Ephedra gerardiana , Caragana versicolor , Poa prate ns is, Myricaria prostrata , Chenopodium hybridum. 152 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Cotoneaster falconeri, Lonicera spinosa, Capparis himalayana , Agropyron repens , Eragrostris sp., and Trigonella sp., (Singh and Gupta 1990; Aswal and Mehrotra 1994). A few trees of Juniperus macropoda and J. semicarpifolia grow naturally along the Spiti river and other watercourses. Plantations of Popidus alba , Salix fragilis , S. alba and Robinia pseudoacacia are also present along the roadside in Tabo, raised under the ‘Desert Development Programme’ in 1985 (Negi 1985). The principal crops, cultivated only in flat areas having irrigation, are barley, millet, buckwheat (. Fagopyruin sp.), potatoes and wheat. As there was no record of birds from Tabo Valley, a survey was carried out from December 5-12, 1992. A total of 10 sites were selected from the entire Tabo valley (5-6 sq. km). Observations were recorded daily from 0900 to 1 600 hrs. Data on the overall species richness, abundance, food, feeding habits and behaviour of birds in the area were collected. Winter was delayed that year, and as a consequence there was no snowfall in Tabo, making it favourable for birds (maximum day temperature 14 °C; minimum night temperature -18 °C). Only 13 species of birds belonging to 9 families were observed in the study area. Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Accipitridae): Two adults and an immature bird observed flying and calling near high cliffs on the mountainous slopes north of Tabo village. In the afternoon, an adult was noted successfully preying on a woolly hare Lepus oiostolus. Bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus (Accipitridae): Two adults flying low over River Spiti, between rocky gorges. 3 km west of Tabo village, along the road to Kaza. Chukor Alectoris chukar (Phasianidae): A small flock of five feeding on the ground under Salix alba plantation at Tabo. All birds hiding in a pile of boulders after sensing a red fox Vulpes vulpes montana. They came out of hiding after 12 min when the threat was over. Second sighting of 7 birds feeding in fallow terraced fields in the company of more than 17 blue sheep Pseudois nayaur. Hill pigeon Columba rupestris (Columbidae): A small flock of nine feeding on wheat grains dropped on the road between Lari and Tabo, 3 km west of Tabo village. Yellow-billed chough Pyrrhocorax graculus (Corvidae): Five individuals once observed flying and circling over Tabo village. Red-billed chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (Corvidae): Observed daily, three birds seen perching on rocky slopes near Tabo village. Dark-throated thrush Turdus ruficollis (Turdinae): Eight birds observed feeding on insects on the ground under a Robinia pseudoacacia plantation along the road. Guldenstadt’s redstart Phoenicurus erythrogaster (Muscicapidae): A unique sighting of a large, congregation (>25 individuals), all males. These birds inhabited a flat rocky area with stones and boulders beside a stream, with many fruiting bushes of Hippophae rhamnoides , 4 km west of Tabo village along the road to Kaza. Each individual feeding on the fruit and guarding its bush against intruders by flying over it and displaying its territory. One bird also observed on a Salix tree at Tabo village. Grey-backed shrike Lanius tephronotus (Laniidae): A single shrike observed perching on Salix alba tree in an open, boulder-strewn, plantation. Seen searching for overwinter- ing lepidopterous immatures in crevices of boulders. Common great rosefinch Carpodacus rubicilla (Fringillidae): Small parties observed daily, feeding on seeds (pods) of Robinia pseudoacacia in a roadside plantation. A total of 28 birds seen. Hodgson’s mountain-finch Leucosticte nemoricola (Fringillidae): Common (>30 birds) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 153 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES around Tabo village and on rocky slopes. Rufous-breasted accentor Prunella strophiata (Pruneilidae): Small flocks, common in fields around Tabo village. Altogether 5 birds seen. Tibetan snowfinch Montifringilla adamsi (Passerinae): Two birds once seen feeding on the ground in the vicinity of Tabo village. The birds were identified using Alt and Ripley <1983, 1989) and Porter et al. (1981). Refer Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian subcontinent. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1989): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 737 + 104 plates. Aswal, B.S. & P N. Mehrotra (1994): Flora of Lahaul- Spiti. Bishan Singh and Mahendra Pal Singh Publ. Dehra Dun. Kapoor, K.S. & S. Bhagat (1990): Resource potentials of March 23, 2001 ARUN P. SINGH Entomology Department, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, Uttaranchal, India. Email: singhap@icfre.up.nic.in Permanent Address: c/o Col. R.S. Verma 25-D, New Cantt. Rd, Hathi Barkala, Dehra Dun, Uttaranchal 248 001, India. EN CE S Spiti: Cold mountain desert of Himachal Pradesh. Annals of Arid Zone 29: 243 -250. Negi, J.P. (1985): Developmental perspectives in the Himalayan mountain desert of Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). Greening of Mountain Deserts. 72nd Session of INS A, Lucknow. Porter, R.F., S. Christensen, I. Willis & B.P. Neilsen (1981): Flight identification of European raptors. 3rd edn. Poyser, Carlton. Singh, R.P. & M.K. Gupta ( 1 990): Soil and vegetation study of Lahaul -Spiti cold desert of western Himalayas. Indian Forester 116: 785-790. 38. OCCURRENCE OF TRIOPS GRANARIUS (LUCAS), CRUSTACEA: NOTOSTRACA, FROM MADURAI, TAMIL NADU (With one text-figure) Tadpole shrimps, considered as ‘living fossils’, are widely distributed in all continents except Antarctica (Whitehead 1990). The genus Triops has been reported from isolated localities in the Indian subcontinent (Packard 1871; Sars 1901; Kemp 1911; Walton 1911; Gurney 1925; Chacko 1950; Tiwari 1951, 1952; Longhurst 1955; Shanbhag and Inamdar 1968; Sanjeeva Raj 1971; Ghate and Shetty 1997). It is known for its intraspecific morphological variations that is, within the same species in different localities, hence it has been described under different specific names, adding to the taxonomic confusion within the genus. This study reports the occurrence of Triops from Madurai, Tamil Nadu. About 20 mature live tadpole shrimps were collected near Thirumangalam (near Latibos India), Madurai (9° 58' N, 78° 10' E) during our survey on fairy shrimps in October 1996. Sizes of both male and female range from 1.8 to 3.9 cm. Species of this group have an elongate body, oval carapace covering the head, thorax and a variable portion of the abdomen (Fig. la). Shape varies from round to triangular, with rounded anterior margin between eyes, whereas the posterior margin is straight and slightly emarginated. Lateral edges of carapace bear small spines and edge of rear notch has short prominent spines. Sulcus is triangular with rounded emargination and wide base. Head bears an eye on the dorsal surface and reduced second antennae. The dorsal 154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES a 5 mm b- 4 mm Fig. la-b: a. Diagrammatic representation of the notostracan Triops granarius (Lucas): b. Higher magnification of the dorsal eye D - dorsal shield, abs - abdominal segment, t - telson, 2A - second antennae, CE - compound eye, e - dorsal eye, f - furca, ne - naupliar eye, N - neck organ, phy - phyllopods, s - sulcus eye possesses a reduced naupliar eye and a neck organ between the kidney-shaped compound eyes (Fig. lb). Abdomen has 35 movable somites, about 15 of which are exposed beyond the carapace. Nine apodal segments possess prominent chitinised brown dorsal and ventral spines. Telson is broader and consists of 4 dorso-medial spines, 3 strong setal spines and small denticles, 6 posterior marginal spines, 4-5 lateral spines and 5 furcal spines. Furca is slender and longer than carapace, with serrated spines. Eleven pairs of thoracic appendages, namely phyllopods, one on each of the eleven body segments are used for locomotion. First pair consists of two segments separated by a joint chitinous cuticle, which allows bending of one segment upon the other; they have a sensory function and are used for capture of prey. There are 50 pairs of legs, gradually decreasing in size from the genital apertures; they are known as “abdominal appendages” and are used both for feeding and locomotion. Reproductive mode varies on a geographical basis, northern forms being hermaphroditic while southern populations are bisexual. In general, males are rare in die genus Triops. Gurney (1925) reported males outnumbering females in his collection (=Apus asiaticus ) and Tiwari (1951) also agrees with Gurney’s findings. Notostracans are detritus feeders and predators. In the present study, it was collected along with anostracans and conchostracans. T. orientalis appears to be omnivorous and it has been observed to feed on bacteria, protozoa, Daphnia , copepods, small oiigochaetes and also on Strepiocephalus and Leptestheriied forms (Shanbhag and Inamdar 1968). Triops exhibits cannibalism, and even a small individual can easily eat a larger one. Triops is recorded as a JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 155 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES pest of rice cultivation in different parts of the world such as Kashmir (Kemp 1911, Walton 1911), Spain (Font de Mora 1923), California (Rosenberg 1946) and Japan (Takahashi 1977). Fryer (1987) reported natives of the Federal District, Mexico using tadpole shrimps as food. The genus is well known for its discontinuous distribution. Linder (1952) and Longhurst (1955) recognized only about 11 species, of which seven have wide geographic distribution. This classification has long been accepted 'even attaining the status of dogma’ (Sassaman et al. 1997). According to our study and other published records, only two species of Triops , Refer Chacko, P.I. ( 1 950): Occurrence of the fairy shrimp Apus in a temple tank in Tirunelveli District, Madras. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 571. Font de Mora. R. (1923): Un destructor de planteles de arroz. Bol. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat. Madrid. 23: 313. Fryer, G. (1987): A new classification of the branchiopod Crustacea. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 91: 357-383. Ghate, H. V. & Nagaraj Shetty ( 1 997): Record of Triops (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Notostraca) from Pune, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 588- 589. Gurney. R. (1925): Some Asiatic species of Apus. Rec. Indian Mus. 27: 439-442. Kemp. S. ( 1 9 1 1 ): Notes on the occurrence of Apus in Eastern Asia. 11. Notes on Major Walton's specimens and on others from Kashmir with a list of previous records fi om Eastern Asia. Rcc. Indian Mus. 6: 353- 357. Linder. F. (1952): Contributions to the morphology and taxonomy of the Branchiopoda Notostraca. with special reference to the North American Species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 102: 1-69. Longhurst, A.R. ( 1 955): A review of the Notostraca. Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Zool.) 3: 3-57. Packard, A.S. (1871): Preliminary notice of new North American phyllopoda. Am. J. Sci. Arts. Set: 3(2): 108-113. Rosenberg, L.E. (1946): Fairy shrimps in California. Science 104: 111. Sanjeeva Raj. P.J. (1971): Triops granarius (Lucas) T. cancrifonnis (Bose) and T. granarius (Lucas) are known to occur in the Indian subcontinent. The former was reported in northern localities and the latter in the rest of India, particularly in the southern parts. The authors are deeply indebted to the late Mr. Anthony Basil, Technical Officer, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai for accompanying them during the collections. July 18, 2001 C.S. VELU *N. MUNUSWAMY Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai 600 025, Tamil Nadu, India. *Email: nmunuswamy@yahoo.com E N C E S (Crustacea: Branchipoda) from Tamil Nadu and a review of the species from India. J. Bombay nat. H ist. Soc. 68: 161-168. Sars, G.O. (1901): Or. the crustacean fauna of Central Asia. Ann. Mus. St. Petersburg 6: 130-164. Sassaman, C.. M.A. Simovich & M. Fugate (1997): Reproductive isolation and genetic differentiation in North American species of Triops (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Notostraca). Hydrobiologia 359: 125-147. Shanbhag, S.V. & N.B. Inamdar (1968): On the occurrence of Triops mavliensis (Tivvari), Notostraca (Crustacea) in the Okhamandal region of Saurashtra (India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 408-417. Takahashi, F. (1977): Triops spp. (Notostraca: Triopsidae) for the biological control agents of weeds in rice paddies in Japan. Entomophaga 22: 35 1 -357. Tivvari, K.K. (1951): Indian species of the genus Apus (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) with description of two new species. Rec. Indian Mus. XLIX: 1 97-205. Tivvari, K.K. ( 1 952): On sex ratio and variability of Apodal segments in Apus (Phyllopoda, Crustacea). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 641-644. Walton, S.J. (1911): Notes on the occurrence of Apus in Eastern Asia. 1. On the occurrence of Apus Latreilie, in the United Provinces of India. Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 351-352. Whitehead. P. ( 1 990): Systematics: an endangered species. Svst. Zool. 39: 179-184. 156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 39. OCCURRENCE OF RARE JUMPING SPIDER HARMOCHIR US BRACHIATUS (THORELL) (FAMILY: SALTICIDAE) IN THE BANANA AGRO-ECOSYSTEM OF VADODARA, GUJARAT While studying the spider diversity of the banana agro-ecosystem of Vadodara, we came across a rare jumping spider Harmochirns brachiatus (Thorell). It was first reported by Tikader (1976) from Pune, Maharashtra, India. There is no report of its occurrence thereafter. It is an addition to the spider fauna of Gujarat. Adult male is c. 2.00 mm in total length, Carapace 1.1 mm long and 0.8 mm wide. Abdo- men 0.8 mm long and 0.7 mm wide. The tibia and femur of the first pair of legs swollen and first leg always kept up in a defensive position. Because of the unique structure of the first pair of legs and their peculiar way of movement, this spider can be easily distinguished from other salticids. A closer view of the 1st pair of legs, shows a row of fringed hairs on the ventral and dorsal sides of the tibia, 3 and 2 pairs of ventral spines present on tibia and metatarsi respectively. They move in the banana fields, on the pseudostem of the banana plant, and among the dry and decaying leaves of banana. Uncommonly seen in the pre-monsoon season (January-May). April 30, 2001 SILIWAL MANJU * DOLLY KUMAR Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390 002, Gujarat, India. *Email: dollymsu@yahoo.com Reference Tikader, B.K. (1976): Redescription of a jumping spider Harmochirns brachiatus (Thorell) with a new record from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(2): 410-4 1 1 . 40. DESCRIPTION OF FEMALE AMYCIAEA FORTICEPS (CAMBRIDGE), ARANEAE: THOMISIDAE, WITH A REDESCRIPTION OF ITS MALE FROM KERALA, INDIA (With one text-figure) Amyciaea forticeps (Cambridge) is an ant- mimicking species of crab spider reported from India, Holland, Africa, Burma (=Myanmar) and Malaysia. Its resemblance to Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.) was studied by Mathew (1954). Tikader (1963) gave a description of this species in fauna of india based on a single male specimen collected from Pune. However, taxonomic literature regarding A. forticeps remains largely incomplete due to the absence of the description of a female. During our study of spiders of Ernakulam district, Kerala we came across several specimens of A. forticeps. On the basis of these specimens, a description and illustration of A. forticeps is given below. Collection and preservation of the spider samples were done following Tikader. The material was studied using a Stereozoom binocular microscope; model Leica MS 5. All measurements are in millimetres, made with an eyepiece graticule. Amyciaea forticeps (Cambridge) (Fig. la-h) 1873 Amycle forticeps Cambridge, Proc. loot. Soc., Lond. 1873: 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1). APR. 2003 157 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1: Amyciaea forticeps (Cambridge); a. Dorsal view of the female, b. Lateral view of the female; e. Front view of the face, d. Sternum with Labium and Maxillae, e. Epigyne, f. Internal genitalia, g. Palp - Ventral view. h. Palp - lateral view. 158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1885 Amyciaea forticeps: Simon, Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. 10: 447. 1 963 Amyciaea forticeps : Tikader, J. Univ. Poona Sci. & Tech. 24: 52. 1980 Amyciaea forticeps : Tikader, Fauna of India: Spiders (Araneae: Thomisidae) 1(1): 169. Female: Measurements (in mm): Total length 5.5 L, Carapace 2.2 L & 1.3 W; Abdomen 3.2 L & 1.5 W. Legs I: 8.24, II: 7.92, III: 4.33, IV: 6.87. Cephalothorax longer than wide, cephalic region strongly elevated and sloping in front, anterior margin of cephalothorax straight. Thoracic area sloping gradually, wider behind PLE, lateral sides steeply sloped. Cephalothorax reddish brown or pale orange, with a few body hairs. Fovea shallow and inconspicuous. Eyes recurved, in three rows, PLE and ALE encircled by inner white ring and outer black patch. Median eyes smaller than laterals, PME smallest, PME at the middle of two eye rows, ocular quadrangle wider behind. Eyes black, eye diameter ALE = PLE - 0.5 mm, AME = 0.25 mm, PLE = 0.1 mm. Clypeus high, twice the height of AME. Sternum heart shaped, 1.3 times longer than wide, anterior margin straight, clothed with minute hairs, pointed posteriorly, reddish brown or light orange in colour. Labium reddish brown, longer than wide, maxillae similar in colour to labium, scopulae present on the inner margin. Chelicera moderately strong, similar to clypeus in colour and height, with a few hairs on the outer margins, seven small teeth on outer margin and two large teeth on inner margin. Palp as in Fig. lg-h. Legs long and slender, tarsus with two claws provided with minute hairs. Leg formula 1243. Legs resemble ant legs. Abdomen longer than wide, anterior portion narrower, middle portion widest, two black eye-like spots on the dorsum on the posterolateral sides. A conspicuous inverted kY’ shaped dark brown marking on the anterior half. Ventral side pale reddish-brown. A black spot at the anterior lateral end of the abdomen. Pedicel long. Abdomen clothed with fine hairs. Male: Measurements (in mm): Total length 5L, carapace 2L & 1 . 1 W, Abdomen 3L & 1 .5 W. Cephalothorax longer than wide, reddish brown, narrowed anteriorly, broadest behind PLE Cephalic region strongly raised and anterior margin slightly sloped. Thoracic area sloping gradually, posterior margin smoothly curved. Fovea long, shallow and inconspicuous. Clypeus moderately high, a little less than the separation of ALE. Ocular area as in female. Sternum reddish brown, longer than wide with truncate anterior end and pointed posterior end. Labium longer than wide, reddish brown. Maxillae similar to labium in colour. Chelicera moderately strong. Legs long, slender and ant-like, reddish brown in colour, tarsus and distal end of the metatarsus lighter. All segments uniformly clothed with minute hairs, few large bristles on femur, tarsus with two claws. Leg formula 1243. Pedipalp as long as tibia of leg I, MBA one, cymbium long straight and conical. Abdomen longer than wide, reddish brown but lighter than carapace. Anterior end narrower, broadest behind the middle. Dorsum marked with an inverted ‘Y’ shaped dark brown marking and three to four transverse dark brown stripes Table 1 : Measurements of leg segments (in mm) of $ Amyciaea forticeps (Cambridge) Leg Coxa Trochanter Femur Patella Tibia Metatarsus Tarsus Totai I 0.43 0.18 1.98 0.43 2.16 1.98 1.08 8.24 II 0.36 0.29 1.62 0.54 2.09 1.87 1.15 7.92 Hi 0.29 0.11 1.08 0.29 1 08 1.01 0.47 4.33 IV 0.36 0.18 1.98 0.32 1.69 1.62 0.72 6.87 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 100(1), APR. 2003 159 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES posteriorly. A black eye-like irregular spot on the anterolateral end near the pedicel. Spinnerets subequa! in length. Dorsum has two hump-like prominences on the anterior and posterior end, with the middle being depressed, resembling an ant’s abdomen. Ventral side pale reddish brown. Materials examined: 2$?, location: Ernakulam 3.xii.2000, Coll: Samson Davis; 2 9 9, location: Cochin 2.xi.2000, Coll: Sunil Jose, K.; 2dd, location: Paravur, Ernakulam 15.xii.2000, Coll: Sudhikumar, A.V. Natural History: Collected from leaves of Mangifera indica in the same habitats as that of Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.) Distribution: India: Ernakulam (Kerala State), Pune (Maharashtra); Burma (=Myanmar); Malaysia; Holland; Africa. Remarks: According to Tikader, an eye- like spot is present on the posterolateral end of the abdomen in male, whereas this is absent in our specimens. Similarly, in the palp the embolus is coiled two and half times, whereas it was only one and half times according to Tikader. The black irregular spot present on the anterolateral end of the abdomen in both sexes in our specimen is also absent in Tikader’s description. Since the specimens are similar to Tikader’s specimen in all other characters, we believe this difference may be a geographical variation or due to an omission in description. Acknowledgement We thank the Principal, Sacred Heart College Thevara, Rev. Fr. George Koyikara C.M.I. for providing facilities. February 7, 2001 K. SUNIL JOSE SAMSON DAVIS A.V. SUDHIKUMAR P.A. SEBASTIAN Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi, Kerala 682 013, India. Reference M athew, A.R (1954): Observations of habits of two spider mimics of the Red Ant Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabr.). J. Bombay nat. Llist. Soc. 52: 249-263. 41. RARE SIGHTING OF OGRE-FACED SPIDER D1NOP1S GOALPARAENSIS, ARANEAE: DINOPIDAE, IN THE BANANA AGRO-ECOSYSTEM OF VADODARA, GUJARAT ( With two text-figures) Dinopis is commonly known as the ogre- faced spider. Review of literature shows that this spider is poorly known from India. There is a single report of the occurrence of Dinopis goalparaensis by Tikader and Malhotra (1978) from Jamduar, District Goalpara, Assam. This note records the occurrence of Dinopis goalparaensis from Gujarat for the first time. To study spider diversity in a banana agro- ecosystem an extensive survey was carried out in different banana fields situated in a 20 km radius of Vadodara city. Spiders were hand picked and preserved in 70% alcohol. The ogre-faced spider, attached to dry leaves of a banana plant, was collected from its web. These spiders have a flattened carapace, elongated abdomen and long slender legs. Because of these characters this spider superficially resembles the juvenile of Eucta sp (Family: Tetragnathidae), however, it is easily differentiated from Eucta sp. by the following characters: 1 . Posterior median eyes larger than the rest, black in colour, anterior median eyes smallest and anterior laterals present on 160 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, i 00(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Posterior Lateral Eye Posterior Median Eye Anterior Median Eye Anterior Lateral Eye Fig. I: Front view of face, showing arrangement of eyes tubercles which are pointing downwards (Fig. 1). In Eucta sp. eyes are smaller and equal in size. 2. Subadult female measured about 4.4 mm in total length, carapace 1.2 mm long and 1.0 mm wide, abdomen 3.2 mm long and 0.8 mm wide. However, adult female measures about 13.3 mm in total length (Tikaderand Malhotra 1978), nearly equal to that of Eucta sp. 3. Abdomen long but not pointed at the posterior end (unlike Eucta sp.). 4. Legs long but very delicate as compared to Eucta sp. Dinopis goalparaensis rests in its web, stretching its legs like Eucta sp., anterior legs extended forward and posterior legs extended backward. It is a nocturnal weaver and constructs two types of webs: Orb web and Actual Prey capture web (Fig. 2) Fig. 2: Prey capture web held between the first two pairs of legs The Orb web of Dinopis is similar to that of other orb weavers and it is not basically used for catching prey but for resting. The prey capture web is rectangular (like a tennis court net) and is held between the front legs by the spider, it consists of sticky silk threads. Acknowledgement We thank Dr. B.K. Biswas, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, for confirming the identity of the species and providing relevant literature. July 3, 2001 SILIWAL MANJU * DOLLY KUMAR Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390 002, Gujarat, India. *Email: dollymsu@yahoo.com Reference Tikader, B.K. & M.S. Malhotra ( 1 978): A new record of rare spider of the Family Dinopidae from India with description of a new species. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 87B(6): 1 57- 1 59. 42. OBSERVATIONS ON BAUHINIA MALABARICA ROXB, LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALP1NIOIDEAE, SHAPE OF CALYX IS NOT CORRELATED WITH SEXUAL NATURE OF FLOWERS Roxburgh while commenting on Bauhinia 1832) said, “This very distinct species is malabarica Roxb. (in Carey ed., FI. Ind. 2: 321. remarkable for the regularity of its five-parted JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 161 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES calyx. . .”; de Wit (in Reinwardtia 3(4): 533-534. 1956) stated “...the calyx splits in Malaysian specimens in the upper part into two lobes, one consisting of two sepal-tops and the other of three. In some cases, the five tops become free.” He felt that the dimorphism might be connected with the sexual nature of the flowers, but he had not been able to demonstrate that the shape of the calyx was correlated with the sex of the flower. He further stated, “It is just possible that in India the tops of the sepals become always free and that this is connected with the flowers being male, which is confirmed by a few specimens from India which 1 was able to examine”. In the course of my study. 1 have observed that in the Indian specimens, the calyx is five-lobed in the upper part in the female flowers too. Thus, the shape of the calyx is not correlated with the sexual nature of the flowers. In this connection, 1 would like to mention that fully developed male flowers are rarely found in herbarium specimens (see also de Wit in Reinwardtia 3(4): 533. 1956) because they remain attached to the pedicels just for a night and start falling from the next morning. Thus, during the flowering period, numerous fresh male flowers are found scattered under the tree, particularly in the morning hours. March 29, 200 1 S. BANDYOPADHYAY Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India. 43. REDISCOVERY OF CEROPEGJA EVANSII McCANN, ASCLEPIADACEAE, FROM MAHARASHTRA ( With one plate and one text-figure) Ceropegia evansii McCann (Asclepiadaceae) is an endemic and threatened plant species. The species is known to occur only from the hill ranges of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra i.e. Khandala and the neighbouring Sakarpathar-Ambavane range of Pune district (Ansari 1984, Jagtap and Singh 1999). The species was first described by McCann from Khandala (1945). Santapau and Irani (1958, 1962) reported the species from the same hill ranges. The species was collected on July 27, 1964 by B.V. Reddi (93331) from Ambavane and deposited at the Botanical Survey of India (BSI). About the occurrence, Santapau (1953) noted that the species is “one of the commonest of the Ceropegias in Khandala and is found abundant on the lower slopes beiow Duke’s Nose.” The species has disappeared very fast from its type locality because of anthropogenic problems and habitat destruction. It has not been collected again from its type locality and other areas after 1964. This might be due to anthropogenic pressures and habitat destruction. Ahmedullah and Nayar (1968) kept this plant under the rare and endangered category because of its localized distribution. In the red data book, Nayar and Sastry (1987) gave “vulnerable” status to the species. Almeida and Almeida ( 1 990) have listed it as a threatened and endemic species. Singh and Karthikeyan (2000), Mishra and Singh (2000) have treated the species as critically endangered. According to the latter, the number of mature individuals in the wild is below 50. They have also reported that in 1 997, a few plants were noted at Amba Ghat (Yadav, pers. comm.). Tetali et al. (2000) have treated it as vulnerable. During routine botanical explorations, we have collected C. evansii from Rajgad, a hill fort, located in the Velhe taluka of Pune district in Maharashtra State (Fig. 1) at an altitude of 850 m. The present report is a rediscovery of C. evansii from a new locality other than 162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Tetali, P. et al. : Ceropegia evansii McCann Plate 1 Fig. 1 : Ceropegia evansii McCann a. Habit; b. Inflorescence; c. Single flower; d. Vertical section of flower showing corona JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 163 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Fig. 1 : Distribution map of Ceropegia evansii McC. the Ambavane hill ranges (14.viL200G Tetali, s.m). We found only one individual in the entire locality, indicating extreme rarity of the species. The present collection site is 100 km away from, and southwest of the type locality. The area where the specimen was collected is a degraded hill slope. The plant was found growing at the edge of a subtropical hill forest among Lantana camara and Carissa congesta bushes. The surrounding vegetation of the area is dominated by a gregarious shrub Carvia callosa. The area also seems to be the grazing ground for village cattle. Dozens of stray cattle were found grazing in the habitat. The cattle eat the entire plant. Cowherds and stray cattle appear to be a serious threat to the natural populations. Information with regard to ranges in descriptions of certain morphological characters observed in comparison to the earlier description are as given below. Twiners up to 3 m long (up to 2.7 m); petioles up to 2.5 cm long (up to 1 cm long); cymes consisting of few to many flowers, up to 13 (few flowered); peduncles up to 7.5 cm long (long (sic))\ pedicels up to 1.3 cm long (up to 1 cm long); corolla 4.5 cm long (4 cm long). Various parts of the plant are shown in Plate 1 to facilitate identification. The voucher specimens are deposited at the Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune (BSI), and Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Research, Lawkim Ltd. Campus, Shindewadi. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Mr. V.M. Crishna, Director and Mr. D.G. Oak, Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Research and also to the Director, Botanical Survey of India and Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune for facilities and support. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(1), APR. 2003 165 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES March 29, 2001 P. TETALI SUJATA TETALI Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Research, Gate No. 431, “Lawkim Ltd.” Campus. Shindewadi, Shirwal Post 412 801, Satara district, Maharashtra, India. Refer Ahmedullah, M. & M.R Nayar(1986): Endemic Plants of the Indian Region., BS1, Calcutta. Pp. 120. Almeida, S.M. & M.R. Almeida (1990): Threatened endemic plants of Maharashtra. In: Conservation in Developing Countries: Problems and Prospects. Proceedings of Centenary Seminar of the Bombay Natural History Society (Ed.: Daniel, J.C. and J.S. Serrao). Pp. 544-551. Ansarl M.Y. ( 1 984): Asclepiadaceae: Genus - Ceropegia. Ease. FI. Ind. 16: 1-34 spl. 4, figs. 18. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Jagtap, A.P. & N.P. Singh (1999): Asclepiadaceae & Periplocaceae. Fasc. FI. India 24: 1-332, photo pi. 24, figs. 53. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. McCann, C. (1945): New species of Ceropegia and the synonymy of the Indian species. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 209-211 . Mishra, D.K. & N.P. Singh (2000): Status survey of Endemic species of Ceropegia L. in Maharashtra. In: Fligher plants of Indian subcontinent (Ed.: Gupta, B.K). Indian J. For. series 1 1: 17-32. Bishen Singh • > .. P LAKSHMINARASIMHAN P.V. PRASANNA B.G. KULKARNI Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, 7 Koregaon Road, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra, India. ENCES Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (Eds.) (1987): Red Data Book of Indian plants. Vol. 1, pp. 54-55. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Santapau, H. (1953): The FloraofKhandalaonthe Western Ghats of India. Rec. Bot. Snrv. India pp. xxvii+396 map. figs. 3. (3rcl Rev. Edn. 1967). Santapau, FI. & N.A. Irani (1958): The genus Ceropegia in Bombay. Bull. Bot. Soc. Beng. (Agharkar Mem. Vol.) 12: 6-17, figs. 4. Santapau. H. & N.A. Irani (1962): The Asclepiadaceae ; and Periplocaceae of Bombay. Univ. Bombay Bot. Mem. 4: iv+1 1 8, tab. 12. Singh, N.P. & S. Karthikeyan (Eds.) (2000): Flora of Maharashtra State: Dicotyledons, Vol. 1 (Ranunculaceae to Rhizophoraceae). Pp. 87. 103. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Tetali, P., Sujata Tetali, B.G. Kulkarni r.r al. (2000): Endemic Plants of India (A Status report of Maharashtra State). Pp. 31. Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Research, Shindewadi. Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on July 17, 2003, by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. THE SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS (Price for members) The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. 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Institutional Annual Member (a) Educational Institutions, Libraries, Schools, Colleges, Universities, Defence Institutes and Forest Dept, in India Rs. 50 Rs. 1,075 (including registered post charges) Free Free (b) Outside India and SAARC countries $2 $100 Free Free VI. Green Card Member: A special membership package wherein you can become a member and contribute to the conservation fund of the Society (Rs. 1,000/- and above, terms variable.) Donations to BNHS are exempt under Sections 80G and 35(l)(ii) of I.T. Act, 1961. Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982 EDITORIAL CONTENTS SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 1 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS IN ASSAM, INDIA (With one text-figure and two plates ) By Hillaljyoti Singha, Asad R. Rahmani, Malcolm C. Coulter and Salim Javed 9 CURRENT STATUS OF THE GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN, PLATANISTA GANGETICA IN THE RIVERS KOSI AND SON, BIHAR, INDIA ( With one text-figure) By R.K. Sinha and Gopal Sharma 27 CROP DEPREDATION BY WILDLIFE ALONG THE EASTERN BOUNDARY OF THE KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA (With two text-figures) By Punidan D. Jeyasingh and Priya Davidar 38 SMALL MAMMALS IN MONTANE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NILGIRIS, SOUTHERN INDIA: THEIR ECOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY By Kartik Shanker 46 THE EFFECTS OF CATTLE GRAZING AND HABITAT ON HELMINTH LOADS OF CHITAL (AXIS AXIS) IN THE MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, SOUTHERN INDIA By Guha Dharmarajan, M. Raman and Mathew C. John 58 DEMOGRAPHY OF LIONTAILED MACAQUE (MACACA SILENUS) IN AN UNDISTURBED RAINFOREST OF SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK, KERALA, INDIA ( With two text-figures) By Gigi K. Joseph and K.K. Ramachandran 65 NEW DESCRIPTIONS 72 OBITUARY 94 REVIEWS 96 * MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 100 Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbilt House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. website: www.bnhs.org; email: bnhs@bom4.vsnl.net.in •jj AUG. -DEC. 2003 C.ESWAKI BOARD OF EDITORS Editor J.C. DANIEL M.R. ALMEIDA M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN B.F. CHHARGAR R. GADAGKAR SNDRANEIL DAS A.J.T. JOHNSINGH AJITH KUMAR T.C. NARENDRAN A.R. RAHMANI J.S. SINGH R. WHITAKER Assistant Editor GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA Editorial Assistance : Divya Fernandez Layout and cover design : V. Gopi Naidu About the Cover Front: The painting of the now extinct Caspian Tigress by C.E. Swan, a rare record from the JBNHS Vol. 33 (1929), is a fine example of the valuable material contained in the BNHS’s database. The holotype specimen of the Travancore Tortoise Indotestudo travancorica was recorded by Boulenger in Vol. 1 7 (1 907). The other illustrations are the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps by H. Gronwold for Game Birds of India, authored by E.C. Stuart-Baker, Vol. 21 (1912); Danaus genutia male, a butterfly, by C.B. Williams, Vol. 40 (1938); Heavenly Morning Glory Ipomoea rubro-caerulea by Ganga Singh for the serial Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. Bor and M.B. Raizada, Vol. 41 (1939). The Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum painted by Carl D’Silva appears in The Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali and the picture of the Buffstriped Keelback Amphiesma stolata by Isaac Kehimkar appears in the Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians by J.C. Daniel. Back: The cover of the Inaugural Vol. 1(1) (1886), surrounded by those of Vol. 96(1) (1999) Tiger in Sundarban by Sudheer Agashe; Vol. 97(1) (2002) Asian Elephant by an anonymous contributor; Vol. 98(1) (2001) King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah by Shekar Dattatri and Vol. 99(1) (2002) mass flowering of Karvi Carvia callosa by Ashok R. Kothari. These illustrations represent some of the most spectacular aspects of the biodiversity of the Indian subcontinent. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Bombay Natural History Society at the address below. For Instructions to Contributors, please refer to our website Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023. Editors, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society VOLUME 100 (2&3): AUGUST- CONTENTS EDITORIAL : 167 TIGER ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT ( With one text-figure and one plate) By K. Ullas Karanth 169 BEAR CONSERVATION IN INDIA ( With four text-figures) By A.J.T. Johnsingh 190 KUDREMUKH NATIONAL PARK, KARNATAKA: A PROFILE AND A STRATEGY FOR THE FUTURE ( With two plates) By S.A. Hussain 202 DEVELOPING RESPONSIVE INDICATORS FOR THE INDIAN BIOSPHERE RESERVE PROGRAMME By Anirban Ganguly, Yogesh Gokhale and Madhav Gadgil 214 PERSPECTIVES ON THE USES OF BIOCIDES: CONSERVATION STRATEGIES FOR THE NEXT CENTURY By Robert W. Risebrough 226 PERCEPTIONS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA, HIGHLIGHTING THE PAST QUARTER CENTURY, AND THE INPUT OF THE U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE THROUGH THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AND THE WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA By David A. Ferguson 240 CHRONOBIOLOGY, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF SOME INSECTIVOROUS BATS OF SOUTHERN INDIA (With twenty-three text-figures and one plate) By M.K. Chandrashekaran 250 TAIL LENGTH IN ENIGMATIC NORTHEAST INDIAN MACAQUES AND PROBABLE RELATIVES ( With four text-figures) By Jack Fooden 285 STATUS, ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION OF THE INDIAN WOLF CAN IS LUPUS PALLIPES SYKES ( With two text-figures and one plate) By Yadvendradev Jhala 293 POPULATION STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION AND ABUNDANCE OF ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS IN MINNERIYA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA ( With six text-figures and one plate) By Charles Santiapillai, S. Wijeyamohan, Chaminda Wijesundara and Rajnish Vandercone 308 THE SOUTHERN KIANG EQUUS KIANG POLYODON ( With six text-figures and two plates) By G. Neumann-Denzau and H. Denzau 322 TAXONOMY OF UNGULATES OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT By Colin Groves 341 DISAPPEARANCE OF THE WHITE- WINGED DUCK C A IRINA SCUTULATA FROM THE PABLAKHALI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY: A SAGA OF LARGE-SCALE DESTRUCTION OF MIXED EVERGREEN FOREST IN BANGLADESH ( With one text-figure and two plates) By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan 363 THE INCUBATION MOUND AND HATCHING SUCCESS OF THE NICOBAR MEGAPODE MEGA PODIUS NICOBARIENSIS BLYTH ( With four text-figures and one plate) By K. Sivakumar and R. Sankaran 375 THE SONG OF N INOX SCUTULATA OBSCURA ( With one text-figure) By Ben King 388 LEARNING ABOUT VOCAL COMMUNICATION IN BIRDS By TJ. Roberts 390 BIRD SPECIES DIVERSITY ALONG THE HIMALAYA: A COMPARISON OF HIMACHAL PRADESH WITH KASHMIR (With two text-figures and two plates) By Trevor Price, Jennifer Zee, Kartika Jamdar and Nitin Jamdar 394 FRUGIVORY, SEED DISPERSAL AND REGENERATION BY BIRDS IN SOUTH INDIAN FORESTS (With seven text-figures and one plate) By P. Balasubramanian and B. Maheswaran 411 CROCODILE CONSERVATION, WESTERN ASIA REGION: AN UPDATE (With three text-figures and two plates) By Romulus Whitaker and Harry Andrews 432 GROWTH OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE REPTILES OF INDIA, WITH AN INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMATICS, TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE By Indraneil Das 446 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA By E.G. Silas 502 HISTORY OF MARINE SCIENCES (EXCEPT ICHTHYOLOGY) IN INDIA By B.F. Chhapgar 521 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE QUEENLESS PONERINE ANT DIACAMMA CEYLONENSE EMERY (FORMICIDAE) ( With five text-figures) By Vedham Karpakakunjaram, Padmini Nair, ThresiammaVarghese, George Royappa, Milind Kolatkar and Raghavendra Gadagkar 533 MALARIA IN INDIA — IS AN ECOFRIENDLY SOLUTION POSSIBLE? By Rachel Reuben 544 ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA AND ITS IMPACT ON THE STUDY OF FIELD ZOOLOGY IN INDIA By J.R.B. Alfred 553 GLIMPSES OF THE PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF MAHARASHTRA By M.R. Almeida, Suchandra Dutta and S.M. Almeida 559 ON THE DATES OF PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, VOLUMES I- 100 (1886-2003), AND OTHER MATTERS By Aasheesh Pittie 589 ii OBITUARY HUMAYUN ABDULALi (1914-2001) 614 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES MAMMALS 1. Dogs Canis familiaris hunting the Indian porcupine Hystrix indica in the wild at Jodhpur, Rajasthan By Anil Kumar Chhangani 617 2. Sighting of the Indian wild ass Equus onager in Rajasthan: a northward range extension By Harkirat Singh Sangha 6 1 7 BIRDS 3. Ring recovery from great cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo in India By R. Suresh Kumar 621 4. Recovery of a ringed demoiselle crane Grus virgo in Kutch By S.N. Varu and M.H. Trivedi 624 5. First record of lesser florican Svpheotides indica (Miller) from Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan By Ashok Verma and Brijendra Singh 625 6. On the longevity of the great pied hornbill Buceros bicornis in captivity By L.N. Acharjyo, Vinod Kumar and S.K. Patnaik 626 7. Foraging associations and interactions in woodpeckers By V. Santharam 627 REPTILES 8. Exploitation of sea turtles along the southeast coast of Tamil Nadu, India By S. Bhupathy and S. Saravanan 628 AMPHIBIANS 9. Record of the painted kaloula Kaloula taprobanica in Andhra Pradesh By S. Sivakumar, Ranjit Manakadan and Varad Giri 631 INSECTS 10. Predation of dragonfly Ictinogomphus rapax (Rambur) (Odonata: Anisoptera) by robberfly Stenopogon pradhani Joseph & Parui (Diptera: Asilidae) By R.M. Sharma and S.S. Talmale 632 1 1 . Congregations of Common Crow butterflies Euploea core Cramer at Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala By Vinayan P. Nair 632 OTHER INVERTEBRATES 12. Observations on the ecology of raft spiders (Araneae: Pisauridae) in Madhya Pradesh By Pawan Gajbe 634 BOTANY 13. Rediscovery of Aerva wightii Hook. f. (Amaranthaceae), an endemic, presumed extinct species, from Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu, India By M.B. Viswanathan and N. Ramesh 635 1 4. Ethnobotanical study and ex situ conservation of Alpinia galanga Willd. — a promising medicinal plant By N.K. Verma, A. Sharma, P.K. Singh, P. Kumar and D.K. Hore 638 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt of India, FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL. We acknowledge with gratitude a generous donation from the Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas and Divaliba Charitable Trust IN AID OF THE CENTENARY JOURNAL SEMINAR, 2003. Editorial The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society was first published in 1886 as one of the major activities of the Society founded in 1883 to “stimulate lovers of nature to record and communicate their observations.” The editorial to the first issue states, “In accordance with the character this Society has assumed from the beginning, the aim of its Journal will be as far as possible, to interest all students of nature, ever remembering that there are many naturalists, in the highest sense of the term, who have not such a technical knowledge of any particular branch of the science as to be able to enter with interest into questions of nomenclature and the discrimination of closely allied species.” In the 117 years of its existence, the Journal has surpassed its modest objective and become one of the main sources of information on the biodiversity of the Indian subcontinent. In a publication history straddling three centuries and two millennia, it has achieved a remarkable standard of excellence comparable to other journals of international repute. For a natural history journal published by a private Society largely out of revenues derived from its membership subscriptions and with minimal support from the Government and other sources, it is indeed a praiseworthy achievement. The Journal, in its first fifty volumes, records the achievements of its amateur membership, remarkable in the study of the general ecology of the fauna of the Subcontinent and the taxonomy of both the fauna and flora of the Subcontinent. This establishes the Journal as required reading for the study of the Subcontinent’s biodiversity. The Society’s members through their contributions to the Journal established the credibility of the Society as a source for information on the conservation needs of the Subcontinent and the laws that were framed for the conservation of the Subcontinent were based on the contributions of the Society’s members to the Journal on the status of wildlife and the need for their conservation. In the second fifty years of its existence, the Journal has been dominated more by professional biologists rather than amateur naturalists and this is perhaps a reflection of the status of the study of natural history in the Subcontinent. To quote Salim Ali from in his editorial to the 50th Volume of the Journal:. “The membership of the Society does not consist of scientific men alone, nor does it consist of naturalists pure and simple, nor altogether of persons who look upon natural history merely as an amusing pastime. It is a conglomerate of all these types. And this is not all, for while readers of the Journal include some who are mainly interested in large game animals, the interest of others centres chiefly on plants or snakes or butterflies or birds. Every branch of the study of animal or plant life, moreover, has its devotees among them. Some are interested in problems of evolution or systematics and taxonomy, others in field study and ecology, others in morphology and laboratory experiments, others in economics and applied biology or some other line of study, and yet others in nature photography. The effort to cater for all these polyglot tastes makes the task of editing the Journal one of absorbing interest, but by no means easy. The problem always is to maintain the golden mean, and the difficulties involved in the effort are such as the casual reader can have but a vague conception of. Since the Journal does not pay for contributions, it is seldom in a position to pick and choose material to any large extent; nor is it always possible to publish articles strictly in rotation as they are received. Such delay sometimes causes dissatisfaction among contributors, and in some cases, where, for instance a new species is described, deferred publication may even constitute a genuine grievance. It may happen that one particular issue contains a preponderance of articles on birds, or plants or fish or what have you, or it may contain more articles on systematics or morphology — ‘dry-as-dusf as they are commonly dubbed — than perhaps the average reader or field student cares to be inflicted with. A howl goes up immediately. One member complains that the Journal is getting much too ‘high brow’ for a simple nature lover like him and therefore writes in to please accept his resignation from the Society! Another member complains of a following issue that the Journal has descended to the level of a story-telling magazine and is no longer a truly scientific publication, therefore he feels constrained to dissociate his good name from it! And so it goes on. One finds in the Journal too much of fish and too little of birds; another too much morphology and too little natural history; and the charges of similar excesses and deficiencies levelled at the editors are without end. Our sins of omission and commission are indeed bewildering!” But they are not new, and that the Journal has survived them during the last 117 years, and even grown from strength to strength to enjoy the high esteem of scientific workers throughout the world would seem abounding proof that it has, on the whole, been conducted along the right lines. J.C. DANIEL 168 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 100(2&3), AUG.-DEC. 2003 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY August-December 2003 Vol. 100 No. 2&3 TIGER ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT ( With one text-figure and one plate ) K. Ullas Karanth1 Key words: Tiger, Panthera tigris , India, ecology, conservation, predation, social organisation, evolution The tiger has served as an effective umbrella species in conserving many forms of biodiversity in the Indian subcontinent. During the last three decades, scientific research employing modern methods has generated reliable information on tiger ecology in a range of habitats in the Indian subcontinent. These studies show that tigers evolved as solitary predators of large ungulates, and their social organisation pivots around breeding females that try to maintain and defend home ranges. Across the Subcontinent, tiger population densities vary from a low of