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NVINOSHimS S3!BVaail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOI 2 r 2 O X*Is v Xav^\ O X'Sa nX O RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION N-OlinillSNI NVIN0SH1MS S3 l H VH 8 IT LIE CO 2 * CO 2 co 2 S Xl5un7X of 2 S . < > •> ' \XV > ' 2? X^vost^X > z CO • '*• 2 CO 2 CO LfUliSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3 I B Vd 3 11 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOI co zr co x to o >>yr — O Xl^vos^x __ o z 2 _j 2 _J RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOIlfUllSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3iavaan LIE inmsNi NviNosHiiHS S3 1 ava a n libraries Smithsonian institution no 2 CO 2 »♦'. CO 2: V CO < 1 .v&o ? x^rx < Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 3 72 Vo!. 70. No. 1 Editors ZAFAR FUTKHALLY J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE APRIL 1973 Rs. 18 (Inland), £ 1-50 (Foreign) NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions : 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under- lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a place, e.g. Ant hits hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis or Dimer ia blatteri . 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification is based merely on sight, binoininals should be used. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. 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In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. Editors, Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural Shahid Bhagat History Society. Singh Road, Bombay 400001 VOLUME 70 No. 1— APRIL 1973 Date of Publication : 6-12-1973. CONTENTS /PAGE bservations on Himalayan Tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus). By George B. Schaller. {With two plates and a text-figure) .. .. .. 1 Orchids of Nepal — 7. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. {With seven figures in two plates) . . . . . . . . . . 25 Bionomics and Distribution of the land leeches of Kumaon Hills, U.P. By M. L. Bhatia and Sarwajeet Singh Bora. {With 5 text-figures) ..36 Mud and Dung plastering in Baya Nests. By T. Antony Davis. {With two plates and two text-figures) . . . . . . . . 57 Contribution to the Flora of Tirap Frontier Division. By D. B. Deb and R. M. Dutta . . . . . . . . 72 Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue and Bibliography. By B. K. Tikader . . 95 Vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin in Western Rajasthan. By S. K. Saxena and R. K. Gupta. {With a map) .. .. .. 104 Effects of temperature and salinity on the oxygen consumption in clams. By M. R. Ranade. {With eight text-figures) .. .. ..128 A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society — 14. By Humayun Abdulali . . . . . . 147 The Food-plants of Indian Rhopalocera. By D. G. Sevastopulo .. 156 Reviews : 1. Behaviour of Wolves, Dogs and related Canids. (R.R.) .. ..184 2. Insect Pollination. (P.V.B.) . . . . . . . . 185 3. The Natural History of Sharks. (B.F.C.) .. .. .. 186 4. Patterns of change in tropical plants. (P.V.B.) . . . . 188 5. Ecology and biogeography of high altitude insects. (R.R.) .. 188 6. Cedrus. (P.V.B.) .. .. .. .. ..189 Miscellaneous Notes : Mammals : 1 . Ecological and behavioural notes on the Liontailed Macaque {Macaca silenus) in South India. By Janies R. Karr (p. 191) ; 2. Notes on the birth and growth of a Slow Loris {Nycticebus coucang) in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 193) ; 3. On some melanistic specimens of House Rat, Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) [Mammalia: Rodentia : Muridae]. By T. P. Bhattacharyya (p. 195) ; 4. The 4 Day Nest ’ of a Rat. By M. P. Walkey (p. 196) ; 5. Albinism in the Lesser Rat-Tailed Bat, Rhinopoma h. hardwickei Gray (Chiro- ptera : Rhinopomatidae). By H. Khajuria (p. 197). PAGE Birds : 6. On the occurrence of Gyps fulvus and Aegypius monachus in the Gir Forest. By Robert B. Grubh (p. 198) ; 7. Calcium intake in vultures of the genus Gyps. By Robert B. Grubh (p. 199) ; 8. On the occurrence of Golden- backed Threetoed Woodpecker \Dinopium shorii (Vigors)] south of the Himalayan Range. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 200) ; 9. Damage to Maize Crop by Roseringed Parakeet, Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) in the Punjab. ( With a photograph). By M. Ramzan and H. S. Toor (p. 201) ; 10. Significance of communal roosting in the Common Myna [Acridotheres tristis (Linn.)]. By S. Sengupta (p. 204) ; 11. A crest in the plumage of the Spotted Babbler Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson. By D. A. Stairmand (p. 207). Reptiles : 12. Pit Viper [ Trimeresurus macrolepis (Beddome)] bites at a South Indian Tea Estate. ( With two plates). By R. Whitaker (p. 207). Fishes : 13. A note on ‘ Golva \ a bag net, in the Damanganga Estuary at Daman. {With a text-figure). By P. Das (p. 208) ; 14. A generic assessment of Corvina semiluctuosa Cuvier, 1830 (Pisces : Sciaenidae). {With a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar (p. 211); 15. On the occurrence of Juvenile Mackerel Rastrelliger canagurta (Cuvier) off Goa Coast. By Rajinder M. Dhawan (p. 213). Arachnida : 16. The Social Spider, Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch. feeding on the Lemon Butterfly, Papilio demoleus Linn. By A. K. Raodeo, D. T. Tikar and Abdul Muqueem (p. 216). Insecta : 17. A note on Idioscopus clypealis (Leth.) (Hemiptera : Cicadel- lidae). By K. Ramachandra Rao (p. 217) ; 18. Seasonal changes in the population of Epilachna Beetle Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst. (Coleoptera : Coccinellidae). {With nine text-figures). By V. I. Edona and A. B. Soans (p. 218) ; 19. The process of moulting and the number of instars in the Tiger Beetle, Cicindela cancellata Dej. (Coleoptera : Cicindelidae). {With a text- figure). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 221) ; 20. New records of Hymenopterous parasites of Pea Leafminer Phytomyza atricornis Meigen (Diptera : Agromyzidae). By R. S. Gokulpure (p. 223) ; 21. Contribution to the study of Aquatic Beetles — 14. Copelatus neelumae sp. nov. (Dytiscidae) from India. {With a text-figure). By T. G. Vazirani (p. 224) ; 22. Quisqualis indica Linn, and Dodonea viscosa Linn, as new hosts of Castor Semilooper, Achoea janata Linn. By V. S. Kavadia and S. K. Verma (p. 226) ; 23. The occurrence of the Common Palmfly {Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler) near Bombay. By Salman Abdulali (p. 228). Crustacea : 24. Occurrence of the Genus Conchyliurus Bocquet & Stock (Cyclopoida-Clausidiidae) in Ratnagiri. By M. R. Ranade (p. 228). Botany : 25. On the occurrence of Cuscuta santapaui Banerji & Das in Western Himalayas. By K. P. Janardhanan (p. 230) ; 26. Plant records for Maharashtra State from Chandrapur District. By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy (p. 232) ; 27. Utricularia stricticaulis Stapf from Bhubaneswar — A New record for Orissa. By H. O. Saxena (p. 233) ; 28. Some interesting and rare plants from Maharashtra State. {With four plates). By B. G. Kulkarni and B. M. Wadhwa (p. 234) ; 29. On the occurrence of Ruta chalepensis Linn, in India. {With a plate). By K. R. Ramanathan and Kamala Ramachandran (p. 238). Notes and News Gleanings Announcement 241 243 244 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1973 APRIL Vol. 70 No. 1 Observations on Himalayan Tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus ) BY George B. Schaller ( With two plates and a text-figure) A small population of Himalayan tahr was observed on 20 days in eastern Nepal. Tahr used several vegetation types, ranging from broadleaved forest to alpine meadows between altitudes of 2500 and 4400 m, but their favoured habitat was grass-covered cliffs with patches of forest. Adult males out- numbered adult females by a ratio of 2 : 1 ; there were 56 young and 44 year- lings to 100 adult females. Tahr herds seemed to confine themselves to definite ranges . All members of herds were seldom together but congregated into unstable groups of varying sizes. Average group size was 65. Some adult males were with the females at the time of the study, some were solitary, and the rest were in small male groups. Tahr were most active before 0900 and after 1330 hours. Their principal food was grass, supplemented with browse. Courtship displays are described. Several indirect and direct forms of threat are used by tahr and these are described and quantified. Com- parisons with Nilgiri tahr are drawn whenever possible. In their physical appearance, tahr represent a link between rupicaprids and the true goats of the genus Capra. This study shows that tahr also resemble both rupicaprids and true goats in their forms of aggression. Himalayan tahr {Hemitragus jemlahicus H. Smith 1826) were success- fully introduced into New Zealand in 1904. Anderson and Henderson (1961) published notes on the biology of these animals, and Caughley (1966, 1970, 1971) discussed their population dynamics in detail. Infor- mation on Himalayan tahr in their natural habitat consists only of general comments and hunting accounts (Burrard 1925 ; Stockley 1928), and even a description of the species’ behavioural repertoire is unavailable 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (i) Between February 25 and April 5, 1972, I observed tahr on 20 days in and around the Kang Chu valley (also known as the Zom valley) of eastern Nepal. While my contact with the animals was limited to 80 hours of observation, the data contribute to the knowledge of the species and provide a basis for comparing the behaviour of Himalayan tahr with that of Nilgiri tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius). The Kang Chu has its source in the Tibet province of China but soon crosses the border and flows southward through Nepalese territory for about 15 km before joining the Bhota Kosi river a stretch during which it descends from an altitude of 4000 m to 2500 m. A mountain range with peaks exceeding a height of 6000 m borders the valley on each side. At its confluence with the Kang Chu, the Bhota Kosi enters a canyon whose sheer cliffs rise 1000 m or more. After about 2 km the valley broadens, and soon after that, near the village of Lamobager, the rivet tumbles to lower altitudes. Tahr frequent most cliffs along the lower Kang Chu, the upper Bhota Kosi, and the adjoining Rongshar and Chyadu river valleys. I found tahr fairly abundant and observable only on the cliff that flanks the western bank of the Bhota Kosi between the mouths of the Kang Chu and Chyadu valleys (86° 14' E., 27° 51' N.). By climbing the cliff on the opposite side, I was able to observe tahr across the narrow canyon with a 20-power scope (Plate 1). Habitat Himalayan tahr are found from the Jhelum river in the Pir Panjal Range of Kashmir eastward along the southern flanks of the Himalayas to about central Bhutan (Burrard 1925). Animals may occur from altitudes of as low as 1550 m in winter (Stockley 1928) to as high as 5300 m in summer (Caughley 1969). In the Kang Chu area, the species was observed between about 2500 and 4400 m, a range of altitudes which includes several vegetation types. The valleys and lower slopes up to an altitude of around 3000 m (the exact limit depending on degree of slope and exposure) are covered with a montane ‘ evergreen broadleaved forest ’ (Schweinfurth 1957). Although Quercus spp., Buxus wallichiana, and other trees may form almost monotypic stands, the forest usually consists of a variety of trees among which the genera Rhododendron , Magnolia, Acer , Aims and Tsuga are prominent. Except for a few tall stands with a closed canopy beneath which there is little under- growth, the trees are seldom more than 20 m high and the understory of saplings, shrubs, vines, and bamboo (Arundinaria) may be dense. Boulders often litter the floor and occasional cliffs break the continuity of the forest. Above the broadleaved forest is a belt of conifers and rhododendrons, with particularly fine stands growing on gradual terrain with a northern on north-eastern exposure. Fir {Abies) is the dominant J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1) Plate 1 Schaller : Himalayan Tahr The main tahr study area along the upper Bhota Kosi River, Nepal. (Photo : George B. Schaller) Schaller : Himalayan Tahr A young adult male (class II) tahr on a typical ledge covered with grass and some shrubs. (Photo : George B. Schaller) OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN 1 AHR 3 tree, and beneath it is a sparse understory of Rhododendron and Betula. At an altitude of about 3600 m the fir gives way to a stunted transitional zone of rhododendron, birch, willow and juniper, and it soon grades into the alpine vegetation of grasses, forbs, and mat-like shrubs. The line of permanent snow is at around 5600 m. Another habitat, one not recognized as distinct by Schweinfurth (1957), is found on cliffs, especially steep ones with a somewhat southern exposure. The fa^es of most cliffs are broken by many ledges and platforms which support much grass and occasional patches of shrub, bamboo, and broadleaved forest. With some cliffs rising for over 1000 m from the valley floor, this grassy habitat may grade into the alpine vegetation without an intervening forest belt. The literature contains conflicting opinions about habitat preferences of tahr, although all authors agree that the animal 4 revels in the steepest precipices f (Burrard 1925). Kinloch (1892). Burrard (1925) and others felt that tahr remain in forests and dense thickets, never ascending above timberline. Lydekker (1924), too, labeled them as 4 essentially forest animals, ’ but he noted that they may wander into the open. Prater (1965) held a similar view, and added that animals are never found out- side thickets 4 after the sun has well-risen.’ In contrast, Caughley (1969), who observed tahr in central Nepal rather than in India as did the pre- vious authors, stated that 4 the habitat of this species is the subalpine zone between 3900 m and 5300 m.’ I found tahr to be considerably more adaptable than these statements would indicate. Tahr frequented all habitats in my study area, although the conifer-rhododendron belt appeared to be used mainly in transit, perhaps because there was little food near ground level, especially in winter when snow was deep. The animals certainly were not adverse to open terrain. Old sign in the form of droppings and rest sites indicated that tahr spent much time above timberline during summer and autumn, and groups often remained on open cliffs throughout the day. In fact, tahr in New Zealand have adapt- ed to tree-less terrain (Caughley 1970). The favoured habitat of tahr in the Kang Chu area, at least from February to April, was the grassy cliffs broken by small stands of forest and bamboo below an altitude of 3500 m. I suspect that the animals spent the winter there too, for the oaks and other evergreen trees provide forage as well as protection from bad weather. Furthermore, grass on cliffs is often accessible, the snow removed by wind and sun, while forests and alpine meadows remain deeply covered. Description of Animals Tahr differ from goats of the genus Capra in that both sexes lack a beard and have short, laterally compressed horns which curve sharply 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) backward. They resemble typical goats in their strong body odour and in the absence of pre-orbital, inguinal, and pedal glands on the fore- feet (Lydekker 1924). Male and female Himalayan tahr differ consi- derably in size and appearance, as do the sexes among most members of the tribe Caprini. I recognized several age and sex classes. The ages of subadults and of adult males were estimated on the basis of body size, pelage length, and other physical characteristics. It was sometimes possible to count growth rings on the horns of males. As Caughley (1965) has shown, one growth ring is laid down every winter of life after the first. The approximate ages are given as they were at the time of study. Adult male ( Class III), almost 5 or 6 years old and older. Males are handsome creatures with narrow, black faces and stocky bodies, the forequarters being particularly powerful. Their shoulder height ranges from 91 to 102 cm and their weight is around 90 kg (Lydekker 1924). Anderson and Henderson (1961) give similar figures for height of New Zealand tahr, but they estimate that some animals may weigh as much as 150 kg. The dark horns have a sharp keel in front. ‘ A well-developed set of bull tahr (sic) horns will measure 12-15 inches in length and 8|-9 inches in circumference around the base ’ (Ander- son and Henderson 1961). A male’s most conspicuous feature is his ruff and mantle of flowing hair which drape from his neck, shoulders, and chest down to his knees and from his back and rump down to his flanks and thighs. The neck ruff is light brown in colour, as is the hair on each side of the dark mid-dorsal streak. There is also a light eye- ring and chin. The hair surrounding the anus is rusty in colour. The rest of the body is covered with a deep coppery brown to blackish pelage. Young adult male (Class II), almost 4 years to perhaps 5 years old. Males of this age class resemble those in class III in size and in the pre- sence of the shaggy ruff on neck and shoulders, but they are not as robust and the mantle of hair along the back is fairly short (Plate 2). Subadult male (Class I), almost 3 years old. Class I males are only as large as or slightly larger than adult females. Their pelage is not as dark as that of adult males, and their horns are smooth and yellowish rather than corrugated and dark. Although a neck ruff is conspicuous, males of this class lack a mantle along the back. Yearling male, almost 2 years old. Yearling males are smaller than adult females. In colour they resemble females, but they have a notice- able ruff. Female, with a maximum weight of 36 kg (Anderson and Hender- son 1961), adult females are considerably smaller than adult males. Their neck is yellowish brown in colour, except for a dark stripe along each side and along the mid-dorsal line. A light streak runs along each side of the back from the shoulders to the rump ; the sides of the muzzle OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 5 also show a pale line. The abdomen is whitish. The rest of the pelage is dark brown. Some females have a small ruff but most have just a slight crest of hair on the back of the neck. The horns of females resemble those of subadult males in appearance, except that they are somewhat shorter and more slender. Yearling females are of the same size as yearling males, the most conspicuous difference between the two being that females lack a ruff. Young , almost one year old. Young resemble yearlings, but they are considerably smaller, and, in the case of males, lack a ruff. Most young still followed and rested besides their mother even though they were weaned, judging by the fact that females discouraged occasional suckling attempts by stepping aside. Population Dynamics Tahr were difficult to census because they were often out of sight in thickets. Although I often scanned the slopes of the Kang Chu Rongshar, and upper Bhota Kosi valleys, tahr were seldom seen, suggest- ing that they were scarce there. But there was one cliff along the Bhota Kosi, a huge pyramid-shaped one over 1 km long at the base and some 1000 m high, on whose face I readily found tahr. At least 45 tahr fre- quented this cliff, and, assuming a few were overlooked, the total was probably around 50. Table 1 Tahr population structure A Structure based on known number of different tahr on study cliff B Structure based on all animals tallied in study area No. % No. °/ /o Male III 2 4-4 14 5-7 Male II 3 6-7 14 5-7 Male I 4 8-9 17 6-9 Yearl. male 4 8-9 28 11-4 Adult female 18 40-0 93 37-8 Yearl. female 4 8-9 18 7-3 Young 10 22-2 62 25-2 Total 45 100-0 246 100-0 Table 1A shows the population structure of the 45 tahr on the study cliff. Since females limit themselves to distinct home ranges whereas adult males tend to wander widely (Caughley 1966), the percentages 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) are probably biased in favour of the former. Another way to analyze structure is to add up all tahr seen daily in the study area (Table IB). This, however, skews data in favour of those animals which are met repeat- edly. Nevertheless, the percentages derived by the two methods show close agreement. Adult females outnumbered classes I to III males by a ratio of about 2:1, in contrast to New Zealand tahr which seem to have a 1:1 ratio (Anderson and Henderson 1961). Fetuses examined by Caughley (1966) in New Zealand showed no disparate ratio. Male and female yearlings were represented equally in my study population. These facts suggest that males are perhaps not quite fully represented in the sample, solitary individuals being difficult to find, and that they may have a higher death rate than females, but I lack evidence on either point. Nilgiri tahr and Kashmir markhor ( Capra falconeri cashmiriensis) also have a disparate sex ratio favouring females (Schaller 1970 ; Schaller and Mirza 1971). Anderson and Henderson (1961) noted that some New Zealand tahr conceived as yearlings at the age of 18 months. The yearlings in my study population had slim abdomens, in contrast to the extended ones of adults, indicating that they were probably not pregnant. Hima- layan tahr, in their natural habitat appear to have their first young at the age of 3 years. Males do not reach sexual maturtiy until at least 2 years of age, the testes of yearlings failing in most instances to increase in size and to produce sperm during the rut (Caughley 1971). There was one pair of twins among 158 embryos examined by Caughley (1971) in New Zealand, and none in 66 examined by Rammell (1964). The 180 births in the New York Zoological Garden included one set of twins (Crandall 1964). Zuckerman (1953) reported on 115 births in the London Zoo and noted one pair of twins for every 12 births. Thus, single births seem to be the rule. Females in the Kang Chu had one young at heel, except for one female which had two. Three young were with a female on several occasions, but these were temporary associations, the extra young joining other females later. Some 22% of the study population consisted of young, or 56 young to 100 adult females. Tak- ing into account that several adult females had not yet had their first young and that an occasional female was perhaps barren, the figures suggest that around a third of the young had died between birth and the age of 8 to 9 months. Yearlings comprised 18% of the population, or 44 yearlings to 100 adult females, a good increment. With the tahr seemingly healthy and reproduction good, the population should be increasing unless an excessive number of adults die. I have no obser- vations on causes of death. Some animals probably have accidents, and a few are no doubt killed by leopard ( Panthera pardus ), and, in the event that they straggle to the headwaters of the Kang Chu, by snow Jeopard ( Panthera uncici). Meat hunters visit the area every summer, OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 7 according to the local Tibetans, and it is perhaps not coincidental that I found the densest tahr population on a cliff that is almost inaccessible to man. Herd Dynamics The tahr population on the study cliff was divided into two herds sepa- rated by a strip of forest, one using the northern portion, the other the southern. The females and young associated only with members of their respective herd, judging by the fact that several animals which I recognized individually were always on their usual part of the cliff, but some males may have wandered from one herd to the other. The nor- thern herd contained at least 10 females and 5 young, the southern herd 12 females and 5 young. Several males of varying ages were with or near each herd. A third herd, seen only once on a slope opposite the study cliff, contained 9 individuals of which 3 were males. Members of a herd were seldom all together, being instead scattered in small groups which often joined and separated in various combinations in the course of a day. One dawn, for example, I spotted a group of 1 1 tahr, but by mid-morning it had split into groups of 4 and 7 which moved in oppo- site directions. A total of 36 groups (excluding groups composed solely of males) were classified during the study, a group being defined as two or more individuals separated by at least 200 m of terrain from others. Groups ranged in size from 2 to 23 with an average of 6*5, as compared with at least 22 members in each of the two study herds. The basic social unit consisted of a female and her young. Such pairs roamed at times far from other herd members. Another common association included two or three females, a young or two, and often a yearling of either sex. Table 2 shows the composition of 3 large groups. Table 2 The composition of the largest group in each of 3 herds SEEN DURING THE STUDY Name of Herd Male III Male II Male I Yearl. Male Adult Female Yearl. Female Young Total North 2 2 2 2 8 2 5 23 South 0 1 1 2 4 2 2 12 East 1 0 1 1 3 1 2 9 Nine out of 12 groups with 7 or more tahr contained at least one subadult or adult male. But, as is the case in many ungulate societies, contact between adult males and females outside the period of rut tends to be transitory. Males which were in a group in the morning had often left it by evening, going off singly and in twos or threes, perhaps to 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) join casually the following day. Even when such males were with a group, they often congregated at the periphery. For example, in the group of 23 (see Table 2), two class III males and one class II male fed and rested side by side near the others for several hours before leaving together. Eighteen per cent of the subadult and adult males I tallied were solitary or in twos. Stockley (1928) once observed a group of 6 male tahr and another time 24 of them together. Yearling males were usually with the females. However, on three occasions, a yearling was seen in the company of a subadult male far from any other group. Later in the season, contact between males and females may become even more tenuous. Caughley (1966), for instance, wrote that ‘ during the summer tahr range in three main kinds of groups : one consists of females, juveniles and kids, a second consists of young males and the third of mature males.’ The males are said to join the females again in September prior to the rut (Burrard 1925). The herd structure of Himalayan tahr resembled that of Nilgiri tahr (see Schaller 1970). In both species the herds tended to split into temporary groups and males had progressively less contact with the females after the rut. But there were two differences, at least in the popu- lations I studied. The average group size of Himalayan tahr was 6*5 as compared to 23 in Nilgiri tahr. The latter species does most of its feeding on rolling grassland near cliffs. Such a habitat provides a concentrated and abundant food source, and this may well promote cohesiveness among herd members. In contrast, Himalayan tahr spend much of their time along narrow ledges where large groups would be at a disadvantage. Though average group size differs in the two species, average herd size possibly does not, but data on this point are lacking. Another difference between the species may be in the age at which males become solitary or join male herds. Some yearling Himalayan tahr, not quite 2 years old, had temporarily left the females, whereas Nilgiri tahr were not observed to join male herds until at least 3 years of age. General Behaviour Tahr spent most of the day feeding or resting, usually remaining several hours, or eve A a day or two, on a small section of the cliff. Only on a few occasions did a group move steadily for several hundred metres to another site. Sometimes animals travelled from a shady area until they reached one in the sun, and once they hurried away after boulders had crashed past them. At other times no reason for their movement was apparent. To obtain information about the activity pattern of tahr, I recorded the number of active animals every 5 minutes. The 6 points in each half-hour period were combined and expressed in per cent of animals active in the Figure which is based on 7146 activity observe- OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 9 tions between 0635 and 1730 hours. Tahr foraged and moved during all daylight hours, but there were peaks of activity before 0900 and after Figure. Per cent of tahr active at various times of day, 0635 to 1730 hours. 1330 hours. Although tahr were, in general, least active from mid- morning to early afternoon, the same groups sometimes varied consi- derably in their foraging pattern from day to day, often without obvious cause. Weather, however, may affect activity. On several occasions a group rested while the sky was clear, then began to forage as soon as it became cloudy. Groups seldom reclined for more than an hour or two 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) without at least one member feeding, and, in large groups, there was usually some activity from dawn to dusk. Tahr had a limited selection of food plants available at the end of the winter. Oak leaves were eaten whenever a group was in a forest patch. To reach low-hanging leaves, an animal may rear up on its hindlegs and bend and hold down a branch with one or both forelegs while browsing rapidly. Once a subadult male leaped 2 m into the fork of a tree, be- haviour common in foraging Kashmir markhor but not tahr. Bamboo was also an important food, but the abundant leaves of rhododendron were seldom sampled. The tahr’s principal food was dry grass. In late February animals spent hours foraging on Danthonia schneideri, Cymbopogon thwaitesii, ArundineUa nepalensis, and other species. After obtaining a mouthful in one or more bites, an animal characteristically raised its head and chewed. I recorded the type of vegetation selected by two male tahr on two days im February. Of 155 mouthfuls, 75% consisted of grass, mainly wads of dead leaves and stems bitten off at the base, 7 % of twigs and leaves from several shrubs and saplings, 6 % of bamboo, 4 % of dry forbs, and the rest of unidentified material which was at time obtained by first pawing the ground. By early March, green grass shoots became conspicuous, and tahr nibbled these. Yet dead grass continued to be eaten, even late in March when much green forage was available. Newly sprouted leaves of Polygonum molle , Leucoceptrum canum and other forbs and shrubs were at that time also a part of the diet. One tahr ate the blossoms of Daphne gracilis , and several others appeared to lick crustose lichens off rocks. From mid-February to mid-March, when average daily minimum temperatures hovered around the freezing point, tahr tended to forage in the forest during the early morning hours. Not until sun reached the cliff, usually around 0830, did they venture into the open. But during the second half of March, when the average minimum temperature was 6°C, tahr were out at dawn, and, in fact, they may not have retreated into the forest at all during the night. To reach the scattered patches of vegetation, tahr have to be good climbers, and, indeed, they traverse ledges and rock faces with an adept- ness that can have few equals among ungulates. Their hooves are well designed for gripping rocks. ‘ The hoof pads are very soft, slightly convex posteriorly and surrounded by a hard horny rim which must serve a similar purpose to that of nails around the outside edge of moun- taineers boots’ (Anderson and Henderson 1961). Further traction is provided by the large dew claws. Tahr readily balance along ledges only a few centimetres wide and may leap with precision onto a small grass tussock growing on a sheer cliff 2 m below them. When confronted by a smooth, sloping rock face, an animal may rock back and forth and sud- denly propel itself upward with a series of leaps, using the callus on e^ch OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 11 knee rather than the hooves to grip the rock fleetingly. The tahr’s breast is calloused too according to Blanford (1888-91). Callus-like areas are also present on the hocks and these are used to supplement the hooves as brakes when an animal slides in a squatting position down a steep incline. During rest periods, tahr reclined on exposed ledges, on rocky spurs, in thickets, almost any place which offered some level terrain ; animals also retreated beneath rock overhangs when such were available. On warm days, when shade temperatures reached 15 to 20° C, some tahr rested beneath trees yet others remained in the sun. Windy places were not avoided, and a male often rested on a promontory with his mane whipping in the breeze. ‘ It is common for a group of tahr to have one or two sentinels posted,’ according to Anderson and Henderson (1961), but I saw no evidence of this. Tahr were never seen to paw the ground before lying down, behaviour which is, for example, conspicuous in markhor (Schaller and Mirza 1971). Animals either reclined with all legs tucked beneath the body or with one or both forelegs stretched forward. Cud-chewing was intermittent. Two subadult males were timed as they chewed a total of 25 boli. The average number of chews per bolus was 78 (65-87), and the time required to chew each bolus was 49 (40-65) seconds. Table 3 Age and sex of tahr involved in licking interactions Animal being licked Animal licking Male Female Young III II I Yearl. Adult Yearl. Male III Male II Male I Yearl. male 3 11 Adult female Yearl. female Young 1 11 7 3 3 8 12 Tahr sometimes interrupted their rest or search for forage to groom themselves, licking their pelage and scratching it with hindleg or horntip. Social grooming, with one tahr licking the head and neck of another, was observed on 61 occasions. An interaction may be cursory, limited to a few licks, but it may also last for as long as 10 minutes. Licking was often reciprocal, with, for instance, a female first licking her young and then being groomed in return, On a number of occasions an animql 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) invited licking by holding its head close to the muzzle of another. As Table 3 shows, most licking involved either two females or a female and a young ; subadult and adult males seldom licked each other. Most interactions between adult females and yearling males, as recorded in Table 3, took place between the same pair of animals. Social grooming was a conspicuous activity among Himalayan tahr but not Nilgiri tahr, a difference for which I have no explanation. Reproductive Behaviour The duration of the tahr’s rut in the Himalayas is unknown, but since the gestation period is 6\ months (Caughley 1971), and young are born either in May and June (Stockley 1928 ; Prater 1965) or June and July (Blanford 1888-91 ; Lydekker 1924), most mating must take place between mid-October and mid-January. The age difference between some young in my study population was at least two months, and, in New Zealand, Caughley (1971) noted that births were spread over a period of almost three months. I saw a few instances of courtship behaviour and one copulation long after the termination of the main rut, and my notes are summarized here. Males showed several behaviour patterns only in response to the presence of females : Lip-curl : On 5 occasions a male either sniffed the anal area of a female or the spot where she had recently rested and then lifted his muzzle high with the upper lip curled. Yearling, class I, and class II males behaved in this fashion. Low-stretch : A male may approach a female with his neck lowered and almost parallel to the ground and with his muzzle directed ahead or slightly raised. Males typically come up behind females in this way and sniff their anal area. This display, which is common to many ungu- lates, has in tahr become further elaborated. By raising the muzzle until it points almost straight up and retracting the neck, the shoulders of the male are transformed into a hump. Instead of remaining behind the female, the male now faces her rigidly, a position which exposes the front of the neck ruff to best advantage. His tail may be raised vertically and his teeth bared. Standing there, he may lift his muzzle higher and higher until it reaches above the level of his hump. This posture resembles the head-up display, with head raised and neck erect, of some ungulates (Walter 1961 ; Geist 1971). Twist : While approaching a female in the low-stretch, a male may twist his head so that his horns point away from her. This gesture w&s seen twice, OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 13 Tooth-baring : As he faces a female in the low-stretch, a male some- times retracts his lips to expose his incisor teeth and gums whose whitish colour contrasts markedly with the black lips and nose. It is possible that this gesture is an exaggerated form of lip-curling. If so, its function has been extended from one mainly designed to test the estrous state of the female by olfactory means to one of display value. Head-shake : A male may interrupt the low-stretch in front of a female and jerk his head down, as if nodding vigorously, all the while shaking it rapidly from side to side. Then he resumes his former posture, often to shake again a few minutes later. One male displayed behind a female in this fashion. Tongue-flick : As a male shakes his head, the tongue usually flicks rapidly in and out of his mouth. This gesture may also be displayed when a male follows an estrous female and when he faces her in a low- stretch. Kick : During the head-shake, a male sometimes lifted a foreleg some 15 cm off the ground and kicked it limply and slightly bent at the carpal joint. Such kicks did not touch the female. Males possibly add further emphasis to their displays by vocalizing, as noted in several goat species by Walther (1961), but I was too far away to hear sounds. To place the display patterns into their natural context, the only lengthy courtship I witnessed is here described in a condensed form. The same animals were presumably involved, but I am not certain of this. March 24. A group of 16 tahr is scattered over a cliff. At 1050 hours, a class II male approaches a female and gives the low-stretch in front of her. He stands with muzzle raised and head turned to one side for 5 minutes before he shifts his gaze to face her directly. She has her neck lowered and muzzle pointed downward. Soon he assumes a similar posture. (Both the averted glance and lowered head seem to be gestures of submission, showing lack of aggressive intent). After a few minutes the female suddenly jabs him lightly in the neck, but he merely lowers his head still more. Both stand motionless. When the male raises his head, she jabs him again, and he promptly assumes his former posi- tion. One hour after meeting the female, the male gives an intense low- stretch, muzzle straining skyward, then turns aside, licks himself, and ambles off. A class III male has been lying in full view 30 m away. He now displays the low-stretch to the female, grazes by her side a few minutes, then drifts off too. March 25. At 0815, a female is attended by a class III male and two class II males, all somewhat separated from the main group. When a class II male approaches the female, the class III male by her side ad- 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) vances toward him in a hunch display (see below). The smaller male turns aside, joins the other class II male, and both rest at least 10 m from the courting pair. The class III male assumes the low-stretch, but the female ignores it and he reclines. At 0910 hours the approach of a class II male brings him to his feet, and a hunch display causes the interloper to veer off. Once again he faces the female in a low-stietch. For 15 minutes they stand, he with muzzle raised, she with head averted. After that both feed and rest. At 1 105 hours, the female approaches the male who lifts his muzzle so high that the underside of his jaw faces her. She licks herself, advances, licks again. Whenever she moves, he adjusts his position so that his muzzle points at her. Suddenly he steps behind her, his shoulder by her rump. He gives a low-stretch coupled with a twist, then shakes his head and kicks. Twice more he shakes and kicks before moving around to face the motionless female. There he alter- nately low-stretches with teeth bared and shakes a total of 9 times. Occa- sionally he nudges the female with his nose as if to get her attention, for when she looks at him he intensifies his low-stretch. The female begins to feed at 1200 hours. Slowly the male steps behind her and rears on his hindlegs, mounting her. He thrusts 10 times, barely leaning against her, without eliciting a response. The two then feed and rest near each other without further courting for several hours. March 26. I spot the tahr at 0800 hours. A class II male is giving the low-stretch with teeth bared to a female. Above the pair on a ledge is a yearling male and a young. The yearling butts the young so haid that it falls 2 m and collides with the courting male. Although he is nearly knocked off his feet, he calmly resumes his displaying. He alter- nately low-stretches and shakes, also giving occasional kicks and flicks of the tongue. Once he and the female touch horns. Between 0800 and 0835 hours he has 74 bouts of head-shaking. The female just stands, her head turned aside, but twice she jerks her horns at him aggres- sively and once butts his shoulder. At 0835 hours she walks off out of sight, followed at a distance by the male. Of particular note is the gentleness with which courtship was conduct- ed. The males did not press their attention on the female, but limited themselves to displaying and lingering nearby. Although I saw only one prolonged courtship, other observations suggest that it was a repre- sentative one. A class I male once followed a female closely for two hours, obviously interested in her yet never approaching closer than 1*5 m. Low-stretch displays, sometimes accompanied by tongue-flicking, teeth- baring, and, on one occasion, by kicking, were observed a total of 17 times on 10 different occasions, in addition to the instances related above. Fourteen of these displays were given by yearling males and the rest by subadult and adult ones. Females usually ignored such displays, but on two occasions, when importuned by a yearling, they rebuffed OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 15 them. Once, when a yearling gave a low-stretch to a female, she jabbed him in the neck. He persisted and was rewaided with a poke in the rump. He in turn pressed his forehead against the base of her neck, a position which prevented her from horning him effectively. After a few futile jabs, she stepped aside and hooked his neck, and, as he turned to leave, his side too. Undaunted, the male displayed again, only to be butted in the shoulder. But all such attacks lacked vigour, they were limited to fairly gentle jabs. The males in turn did not retaliate, except twice to butt a female. On 9 occasions a pair also locked horns and tussled briefly and lightly. Alpine ibex ( Capra ibex) and mountain sheep ( Ovis canadensis ) also court cautiously (see Geist 1971). Aside from other considerations, there would seem to be selective advantage in courting with restraint on cliffs. Anderson and Henderson (1961) wrote that in New Zealand tahr ‘ the typical family group consists of a bull, a nanny, its kid, and either the offspring of the previous year or a 2-year-old, and together they move to a well-chosen piece of territory to remain for some 6 to 8 weeks.’ Such 4 monogamous grouping,’ as these authors call it, was not evident in the one courtship I witnessed. Rather the largest male in the group claimed the estrous female, a pattern similar to that observed in markhor (Schaller and Mirza 1971) and ibex (Nievergelt 1967). Aggressive Behaviour Anderson and Henderson (1961) were impressed with the placid nature of tahr, noting that 4 a more docile assembly would be hard to visualize.’ While it is true that fighting is relatively uncommon, at least outside the rutting period, tahr do interact aggressively in a number of ways, using both direct and indirect forms of threat. Among the overt types were the following : Jerk : A tahr may jerk down its head and point its horns at an opponent. The gesture signifies an intent to butt, and the threatened animal usually retreats a little. It was seen 15 times, directed mainly by females at courting males (6 times) and at young (4 times). Lunge : On 3 occasions a female jerked down her head and at the same time lunged a metre or two at another animal, twice at a female, and once at a yearling male. Jump : A young reared up on its hindlegs in front of another young on two occasions. A jump probably represents an intention movement to clash with a downward thrust of the horns. Butt : Butting was the most common form of aggression in tahr. It consisted either of a push with the blunt edges of the horns or of a jab 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) with the tips. The attack was directed at the neck of the opponent 8 times, the shoulders and sides 8 times, the thighs 3 times, and rump 5 times. Females delivered most butts, usually to courting males; and young butted each other several times seemingly in play. However, butting also occurs in serious fights as described by Roberts (1971) : ‘ While observing the movements of a group composed of a mature bull, ten females and young, my attention was drawn to a large, lone bull about 500 feet above this herd when he started to smash into the turpentine scrub with hooves and horns and moved downhill towards the bull with the females The two bulls confronted each other, whistled sharply, and began to wrestle like domestic cattle. The tactics appeared to be to try to put the opponent off balance, for after a period of pushing, twisting, and sliding downhill one bull was heaved off balance and the victor immediately shot his horns under him and ripped him in the belly. This upset him, and he tumbled down into the steep gully.5 Clash : On 18 occasions two tahr clashed horns, or, in the case of young, primarily foreheads. Sometimes one animal took the initiative, the opponent merely catching the blow with the horns, but at other times both jerked down their heads in unison. With locked horns they then twisted their heads and pushed each other back and forth. Two to four clashes sometimes followed in quick succession. None were violent and all were brief. Yearling males and females clashed most often, usually after the former had displayed the low-stretch. Once a young approached a yearling male playfully with its head low and waving from side to side until their horns met. A yearling male and a yearling female sparred gently 3 times, and two young clashed twice. Probably Himalayan tahr also rear up on their hindlegs in unison and lunge downward to clash their horns forcefully in the manner of Nilgiri tahr, ibex, markhor and other goats, but I did not see such behaviour. Head-to-tail : Two young once stood parallel and head-to-tail as they hooked at each other’s sides. On two other occasions a female and yearling male assumed similar positions, but circled rapidly with their heads cocked as if to jab. This method of fighting is similar to the one I termed shoulder-push in Nilgiri tahr except that the animals did not shove with their bodies. As Table 4 shows, the various age classes differed in the amount of overt aggression. In 106 animal-hours1 of observation, class I, II and III males asserted themselves only 5 times. Females were also unaggres- sive except when being courted. Young had a fairly high aggressive 1One animal observed for one hour equals one animal-hour. \ Type and frequency of overt aggression used by various age and sex classes of tahr OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 17 g n o > o3 co c3 JD 2 d ZM 0 3 . a o.2 C CO 3 s o eo cS go H<3 O o GO e d iJ O VO to r-H OO O O o 1 o o ^ 0\ r- 1 WW' VO M VO a> > £ % o GO O W) co C3 Sh 1! 52 j§.i tS § 5s <0 VO 1/3 _ d c 03 O O T3 •2 8 fi 03 O^) 5 3 X) c3 515 o 'd <5 <0 .Sh *d o • n-j co P CO II g§ la 9.S 03 !-< Oh 03 ft rS d O «« £> T3 co O §5 •J3 d 0^> c3 o3 rs ft 53 I CO O tJ V 3 *d o c3 o ^G0 5.s a U l! co 22 5 S 0.2 O ts -5 o3 a 3 M e tahr in groups. 1$ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) rating, though some of their behaviour was playful, and yearling males had the highest. The goat-like blue sheep ( Pseudois nayaur), which I observed during the same period as the tahr, showed a similar pattern of aggressive frequencies, except that young rated low (Schaller, in press). With respect to Nilgiri tahr, Schaller (1970) noted : 4 A ranking of the classes based on relative frequency of fighting would place light brown males [class I] at the top, followed in decreasing order by yearlings, females, dark brown males and saddlebacks [classes II and IIIJ and young.’ The phase of a species’ reproductive cycle has, of course, a considerable influence on aggressive frequencies. Schaller and Mirza (1971), for example, found that rutting adult male markhor were more aggressive than any other age and sex class. Direct threats were mainlyused by females toward individuals smaller than themselves, by one young toward another, and by courting pairs. Males, on the other hand, tended to employ various indirect forms of threat to intimidate each other as this example illustrates : After approaching to within 25 m, a subadult and yearling male halted and horned vegetation with vigorous sweeps of their heads, one using a grass tuft, the other bamboo. The subadult male then slowly came closer, once stopping to lick himself. Meanwhile the yearling grazed intensively. When the subadult had approached him to within 1*5 m, he licked and scratched himself, fed again, and groomed once more, a changing pat- tern he repeated 4 times. The subadult also groomed himself. But suddenly he hunched his back and stalked stiffly past the yearling. After that both foraged, drawing slowly parallel. They halted broadside to each other, standing motionless for 15 seconds with heads slightly lowered and averted before parting. Horning vegetation : Nine instances of horning were observed, 5 of them by yearling males and the rest by subadult and adult ones. Some males horned during aggressive encounters, as the above example shows, but others thrashed vegetation in no particular context. Hunch : On 5 occasions a subadult or adult male hunched his back, bunched his legs stiffly beneath him, lowered his neck either in an extend- ed or retracted position, and pointed his muzzle obliquely downward. His tail was raised vertically, as in some low-stretch displays, exposing the small rump patch. The anus appeared puckered outward. With the hair on his nape and shoulders more erect than usual, he may walk or trot at another male in this posture, resembling a huge shaggy grass tussock with a black face peering from it. The threatened animal promptly avoided this apparition. At other times, the displaying animal walked broadside to his opponent, a position which did not cause imme- diate retreat. OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN I A HR 19 Broadside : One tahr may stand close to another with its neck stretched somewhat forward, and with its muzzle held horizontally or tipped slightly up or down. Geist (1971) illustrates this posture in his book. The displaying animal either stands parallel to the other and facing in the same direction, a position which shows off the size of the rulf, or it halts in front or behind the other. A conspicuous feature of the display is that the muzzle is seldom pointed directly at the opponent but is averted to show a partial to complete profile. The threatened individual often responds by assuming the same posture with the result that the two display side by side or face to face, a metre or two apart, each with its muzzle turned away. I observed this display 7 times, once between 2 yearling males, 4 times between a subadult and a yearling male, once between an adult male and a yearling male, and once between an adult and yearling female. Most contacts were brief, lasting less than a minute, but on one occasion a subadult and a yearling male displayed to each other 3 times within a period of 50 minutes, each interaction lasting some 5 to 10 minutes. An animal sometimes terminated such an interac- tion by licking or scratching itself before turning away. Tahr often groom themselves in conflict situations such as during courtship, when one male meets another, and when displaying broadside. For instance, during the brief meeting between the two males described earlier in this section, the subadult male groomed himself 7 times, but he did not lick or scratch during the 30 minutes preceding the interac- tion and only once in the hour succeeding it. A courting female groomed herself 19 times in 6 hours, usually when the male displayed to her. By indulging in an innocuous activity such as licking, tahr seemed to find relief from a tense situation or were able to terminate a confrontation without having to retreat abruptly. Discussion In their physical characters, tahr appear to be evolutionary links between the rupicaprids or goat-antelopes, of which American moun- tain goat ( Oreamnos americanus ) and chamois (. Rupicapra rupicapra ) are well-studied representatives, and the true goats of the genus Capra . It would be of interest to find out if tahr are behavioural as well as mor- phological links, and this can best be done by comparing the courtship and aggressive displays of Hemitragus with those of various goats and rupicaprids. Schaller (1970) made a few such comparisons, and this account provides further information. Treating first courtship among rupicaprids, Geist (1965) found that male mountain goats approach females from behind in a low-stretch, sometimes with tongue flicking. This may be followed by a vigorous kick that propels the female forward. ‘ If the female turns in horn- 20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) threat on him, the male turns his head away from her, and thereby shows the broadside of his face and beard’ (Geist 1965). The low- stretch of mountain goats is less elaborate than that of tahr, but with the kick the reverse is true. Male mountain goats may sit on their haunches and paw 4 rutting pits ’, as Geist (1965) called them, behaviour not seen in tahr. Among chamois, the male approaches a female in a low- stretch, and then 4 the courting billy stands behind the nanny with his head erected, thereby displaying his white throat’ (Kramer 1969). Lip-curling is common among chamois, but kicking, twisting and other patterns found in tahr are not mentioned in Kramer’s detailed account. Rutting male chamois may shake their body vigorously and at the same time urinate with the result that fluid is sprayed over their pelage. The courtship displays of ibex, tur ( Capra caucasica) and markhor are similar to those of Himalayan tahr in many respects (Table 5). However, some varia- tions exist even in those displays which are found in all these species. When kicking, for example, Kashmir markhor tend to raise the leg fairly stiffly for a few centimetres, Alpine ibex may make pawing movements with their flexed foreleg (Walther 1961), and Himalayan tahr merely raise a leg limply, bent at the carpal joint. Head-shaking, so typical of courting Himalayan tahr, has not been reported in Capra , but ibex shake their head in a somewhat different manner as a form of threat (Walther 1961). A rutting Capra male typically urinates on his forelegs and face, and he may insert his penis into his mouth. Although tahr were not seen to do this, it is possible that such behaviour occurs during the rut. As Table 5 shows, some displays, such as the low-stretch, are found in all species listed, and, in fact, tend to be widespread among ungu- lates, whereas others are unique to one species. In general, the two rupicaprids appear to have fewer courtship patterns than members of the genus Capra , and Himalayan tahr share more displays with the latter than with the former. Nothing is known about courtship in other species of tahr. It is necessary to note similarities and differences in the aggressive behaviour of Himalayan and Nilgiri tahr before fruitful comparisons with other genera can be made. Jerking, lunging, jumping, butting, frontal clashing, and horning are similar in the two species, but several differences also exist. At times two Nilgiri tahr 4 stood parallel and facing the same direction and in unison jerked their head sideways rapidly once or twice thereby clashing their horn against one of the opponent’s ’ (Schaller 1970). Such behaviour was not observed in Himalayan tahr. Both species horn while standing head-to-tail, but, in addition, Nilgiri tahr push with their shoulders and may kneel while fighting. The hunch differs somewhat in the two tahr : in the Nilgiri species the neck and head may be arched so far down that the muzzle points back between the legs, whereas in the Himalayan species the neck and head are merely stretched Table 5 mi The occurrence of some male courtship patterns in several species of the subfamily Caprinae OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN TAHR 21 sh 3 3 03 c/5 x> ^ 3— S| crt r \ XA -a c o:g £ O in bflvo a a o3 ^ *■* >, G T3 <3 a C3 I a.a ++ I ~ I ++ I ++ I I + ++ I + I ++^-++ | | + ■{■+ I 4- | +++++ | f 4- ++ I I I I I ++ I I + I ++ I I I++ 1 I 1+ I I I I I J S-, H - a «o U So ,1§ a >J.S •8:5 s G O O id Q . 3S gbaJS^ 8 £ HH g go g-§ g.ap’S-’S ? m 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) obliquely downward. Possibly the accentuated body posture of Nilgiri tahr is an evolutionary alternative to having a prominent display struc- ture, such as the ruff of Himalayan tahr. I saw no display resembling the broadside of Himalayan tahr in Nilgiri tahr, but more work will no doubt clarify whether differences between the two species are qualitative or merely quantitative. Mountain goats and chamois both jerk, lunge, jump, and butt. The former do not clash (Geist 1965) and the latter clash seldom (Kramer 1969), probably because their thin, pointed horns are unsuited to such activity. Animals with massive horns commonly clash, a fact true also for takin (Budorcas taxicolor ), which usually are considered to be rupica- prids. All Capra , as well as blue sheep ( Pseudois ) and tahr clash not only by facing an opponent on all fours and bashing horns, but also by rearing upright in unison and with a downward lunge crashing horns together. Interestingly, Kramer (1969) reported this type of combat in chamois, indicating that such behaviour is not confined to the tribe Caprini as was previously assumed. The head-to-tail method of fighting was observed in young chamois by Kramer (1960). And Geist (1965) noted an analogous pattern in mountain goats : ‘ They fight keeping side by side while moving about one another. Goats strike up and sideways with their head, driving the horns into the opponent’s ventral body region.’ This display, common to both tahr species, has not been described for Capra , although domestic goats may stand side by side and push each other with the shoulders (Geist, pers. comm.). Neck- pushing, a form of combat in which one animal places its neck over the neck or shoulders of another and pushes downward, has been observed in young chamois (Kramer 1969) and in adult Ammotragus lervia (Haas 1959), a species intermediate between sheep and goats. Such behaviour has not been reported for Hemitragus and Capra . Turning to indirect forms of threat, the mountain goat has a hunch posture which resembles the one described earlier for Nilgiri tahr. The hunch of the chamois is similar to that of the Himalayan tahr. Chamois present their broadside with humped back and either lowered or raised head, showing off their dorsal ridge of hair. Males may lip-curl in this posture, having apparently incorporated a sexual pattern into a threat one (Kramer 1969). The takin also exhibits the hunch display. The three Burmese animals in the Bronx zoo commonly arch their neck far down with chin tucked in and ears retracted, and moving stiffly, present their broadside. The head is often slightly averted and snorts may be given. The hunch in all these species is a broadside display, serving to intimidate an opponent by presenting a conspicuous profile. However, Himalayan tahr have an additional broadside display distinct from the hunch. It was my impression that this tahr sometimes used the hunch as a direct threat, rather than only as an indirect one as is the case in OBSERVATIONS ON HIMALAYAN 7 A HR 23 other species, whereas the broadside was solely an intimidation display. I observed hunch posture recently in wild goat Capra hircus. A broad- side display has been described for markhor (Walther 1961). There is almost no information about the Asian rupicaprids and many aspects of caprid behaviour remain unknown. Yet even this super- ficial review of some displays shows that the genus Hemitragus resembles both the caprids and rupicaprids in its behaviour. In the complexity of their courtship displays, Himalayan tahr seem to be closest to true goats, rather than to the mountain goat and chamois, but when indivi- dual patterns are considered the evidence remains somewhat equivocal. For example, tahr and rupicaprids probably do not fold their raised tail over the rump in the manner of true goats ; but, in contrast to the two rupicaprid species, Himalayan tahr and Capra use the twist. The hunch and head- to-tail are prominent aggressive patterns in both tahr species and in rupi- caprids. Tahr resemble true goats in their other forms of aggression. Thus tahr show a behavioural affinity to both rupicaprids and Capra , a conclusion which supports the morphological evidence. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the New York Zoological Society and National Geographic Society for funding the project, to J. Blower, FAO wildlife representative in Nepal, for recommending the Kang Chu area to me, and to His Majesty’s government of Nepal for permission to study there. Dr. T. B. Shresta, Herbarium of Nepal, kindly identified the plants. M. Cheney of Mountain Travels provided efficient logistic support, and sherpas Phu-Tsering, Kanchha, and Mingma assisted ably in the field. References Anderson, J. & Henderson, J. (1961) : Himalayan thar in New Zealand. New Zealand Deerstalkers’ Ass. Special Publ. No. 2. Blanford, W. (1888-91) : The fauna of British India ; Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London. Burrard, G. (1925) : Big game hunt- ing in the Himalayas and Tibet. H. Jenkins, London. Caughley, G. (1965) : Horn rings and tooth eruption as criteria of age in the Himalayan thar, Hemitragus jemlahicus. New Zealand J. Science 8 (3) : 333-351. (1966) : Mortality patterns in mammals. Ecology 47 (6) : 906-918. (1969) : Wildlife and recrea- tion in the Trisuli Watershed and other ^reas in Nepal. FAO, United Nations Development Programme. Project Report No. 6. Caughley, G. (1970) : Liberation, dis- persal and distribution of Himalayan thar ( Hemitragus jemlahicus ) in New Zealand. New Zealand J. Science 13 (2) : 220-239. (1971) : The season of births for northern-hemisphere ungulates in New Zealand. Mammalia 25 (2) : 204- 219. Crandall, L. (1964) : The manage- ment of wild mammals in captivity. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago. Geist, V. (1965) : On the rutting behaviour of the mountain goat. /. Mammal. 45 (4) : 551-568. — (1971) : Mountain sheep : a study in behaviour and evolution. Univ, Chicago Press, Chicago. 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) .. Haas, G. (1958) : Untersuchungen Ober angeborene Verhaltensweisen bei Mahnenspringern {Ammo tragus lervia Pallas). Z. Tierpsych. 16 : 218-242. Kinloch, A. (1892) : Large game shooting in Thibet, the Himalayas, Northern and Central India. Thacker, Spink and Co., Bombay. Kramer, A. (1969) : Soziale Organi- sation und Sozialverhalten einer Gems- population ( Rupicapra rupicapra L.) der Alpen. Z. Tierpsych. 26 : 889-964. Lydekker, R. (1924) : The game animals of India, Burma, Malaya and Tibet. Rowland Ward, London. Nievergelt, B. (1967) : Die Zusam- mensetzung der Gruppen beim Alpen- steinbock. Z. Sciugetierkunde 32 (3) : 129-144. Prater, S. H. (1965) : The book of Indian animals. Bombay Natural His- tory Society, Bombay. Rammell, C. (1964) : Composition of thar’s milk. New Zealand J. Science 7 (4) : 667-670. Roberts, G. (1971) : Chamois and thar in New Zealand. Animals 13 (7) : 772-775. Schaller, G. (1970) : Observations on the Nilgiri tahr {Hemitragus hylo- crius Ogilby, 1838). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67 (3) : 365-389. Schaller, G. (1973) : On the be- haviour of blue sheep {Pseudois nayaur). ibid. 69 (3) : &Mirza, Z. (1971) : On the behaviour of Kashmir markhor {Capra falconer i cashmiriensis) . Mam- malia 35 (4): 548-566. Schweinfurth, U. (1957) i Die hori- zontal und vertikale Yerbreitung der Vegetation im Himalaya. Bonner Geo- graphische Abhandlungen. 20 : 1-373. Steinhauf, D. (1958) : Beobachtun- gen zum Brunftverhalten des Steinwildes {Capra ibex). Saugetierkundliche Mit- teilungen 7 (1) : 5-10. Stockley, C. (1928) : Big game shoot- ing in the Indian Empire. Constable and Co., London. Walther, F. (1961) : Einige Verhal- tensbeobachtungen am Bergwild des Georg von Opel-Freigeheges. Jahrbuch, G. v. Opel-Freigehege 3 : 53-89. Zuckerman, S. (1953) : The breeding season of mammals in captivity. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 122 (1) : 827-95Q. Orchids of Nepal— 7 BY M. L. Banerji* 1 and B. B. Thapa2 {With seven figures in two plates) [Continued from Vol. 69 (2) : 289] This instalment describes the genera under Subtribe Sarcantheae of Kerosphaereae and Pleuranthae of Monopodiales. The genera being Acampe, Aerides, Chiloschista , Doritis , Esmeralda , Gastrochilus , Luisia , Ornithochilus, Rhynchostylis , Sar cant hus, Vanda and Vandopsis. Artificial key to the genera A. Lip not spurred. Column without a foot, short and not winged — B. Sepals & petals not spreading widely; lip not jointed at base, lower part of lip (hypochile) concave, apical part (epichile) broad and decurved Luisia BB. Sepals and petals spreading widely — C. Lip not jointed at the base and shorter than the sepals ; fls. of medium size Vandopsis CC. Lip jointed at the base and differentiated into a hypochile and epichile Esmeralda AA. Lateral sepals adnate to the foot of the column, forming a mentum; spur when present distant from the base of the lip — B\ Lip with a long claw,3-lobed, not spurred; column winged. Lateral sepals adnate with the foot of the column to form a conical mentum Doritis B’B’. Lip saccate at its union with the foot of the column; column wingless; basal part of lip (hypochile) forming a hairy sac; lateral lobes of lip absent Rhynchostylis B’B’B’. Lip adnate to the base of the column, gibbous or shortly spurred; sidelobes of lip large and erect; leafless when flowering, stem absent Chiloschista B’B’B’B’. Lip jointed to the foot of the column, spurred Aerides AAA. Lip saccate or spurred at the base ; column wingless — D. Sepals and petals fleshy and widely spreading — 1 University of Kalyani, W. Bengal. 1 Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu. 26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) E. Flowers large ; labellum large, sidelobes large, base saccate or spurred .... Vanda EE. Flowers small ; labellum adnate to the base of the column, spurred . . Sarcanthus EEE. Flowers small ; base of labellum with a long or short and wide spur, sidelobes absent or very small Gastrochilus DD. Sepals and petals not spreading — F. Flowers small and fleshy, sepals and petals concave Acampe FF. Flowers large, sepals spreading, lateral sepals connate at the base of the lip and together forming the mentum Ornithochilus Acampe Lindl. The name probably refers to the small and brittle flowers. Plants are epiphytic and the leaves are fleshy and slightly recurved. The floral structures are very much like those of Sarcanthus , and in fact the genus is treated as a section of Saccolabium by Hooker. According to Lindley this genus is characterised by the small, brittle and inflexible flowers. Artificial key to the species of Acampe Leaves more than 15 cm long ; flowers pale yellow longifolia Leaves c. 10 cm long, obliquely notched ; flowers dark yellow papillosa Acampe longifolia (Lindl.) Lindl. Fol. Orch. 1 : 1853 ; Holttum, 621, 1953. Vanda longifolia Lindl. in Lindl. & Paxt. Flow. Gard. 2 : 21, 1851-52. Saccolabium longifolium Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 662, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 220, t. 292, 1898. Stem robust and densely leafy ; leaves more than 15 cm long, upper part broader than the lower. Flowers fleshy c. 1*5 cm in diam., delicately fragrant ; sepals and petals pale yellow with deep brown stripes, dorsal sepal 1*3 cm long, obtuse, lateral sepals slightly keeled, petals slightly smaller than the sepals. Lip 1 cm long, fleshy, white with a few purple spots, base saccate, sidelobes erect, midlobe reflexed and hairy at the base. Flowering during September and October. Distributed at 305 to 1075 m. Common. A. papillosa (Lindl.) Lindl. Fol. Orch. 2, 1853. Saccolabium papillosum Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1552, et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 222, 1830 ; F.B.I. 6 : 63, 1890. Leaves about 10 cm long, obliquely notched. Scape 2*5-5 cm long ; flowers 1*5 cm in diam. : sepals and petals dark yellow spotted With dull brown. Midlobe of lip ovate, rosy, spur conical, pubescent ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7 27 within. Flowering during September to November. Distributed at about 610 m. Collected from Kuroanadi at Hittaura, Bindraban forest, Hittaura, Narayani. Aerides Lour. In vegetative appearance these orchids resemble the Vandas. The inflorescence is an elongated pendulous raceme bearing a number of flowers. Artificial key to the species of Aerides Terminal lobe of lip large, hastate-rounded ; spur short and straight . . multiflorum Terminal lobe of lip small, oblong-lanceolate, incurved ; spur long and incurved odoratum Terminal lobe of lip slightly dilated and bifid ; spur long and straight longicornu Aerides longicornu Hk. f. Icon. PI. 22, t. 2127, 1889 et F.B.I. 6 : 44, 1890. Flowers white, sepals and petals with crisp margin, lateral sepals much larger than the petals, petals orbicular or oblong. Lateral lobes of lip curved forwards, shorter than the long spur, mid-lobe narrow, clawed, tip slightly dilated, bifid. Flowering during September and October. Collected from Sundarijal area at c. 1525 m. A. multiflorum Roxb. PI. Corm. 3:63, t. 271, 1820; F.B.I. 6:44 1890; King & Pantl. 212, t. 283, 1898 ; Duthie, 142, 1906; Holttum’ 694, 1955 ; Hara, 425, 1966. (Fig. 1). Inflorescence very densely flowered, longer than the leaves ; flowers white or rose-purple, spotted with darker purple spots, c. 2 cm in diam., fragrant. Sepals and petals subequal, tips rounded. Lip twice as long as the sepals, purple but darker in the middle, lateral lobes small and recurved, midlobe hastate, c. 1*7 cm long, tip rounded, spur short and straight. Flowering during June and July. Distributed at 304 to 915 m. Collected from Dhupu to Wana, Hittaura, locality unknown (Herklotts). A. odoratum (Poir.) Lour. FI. Cochinch. 525, 1790 ; F.B.I. 6 : 47? 1890. Epidendrum odoratum Poir. Encycl. Supp. 1 : 385, 1811. Inflorescence many-flowered equalling or longer than the leaves. Flowers purple or whitish purple, sweet smelling, 2'5 to 3’8 cm in diam., sepals and petals 1*2 cm long, lateral sepals much longer than the dorsal sepal and petals. Lip funnel-shaped, prolonged at the base to form a spur, lateral lobes erect, white midlobe linear, marginate, greenish at its apex and spotted all over, tip 3-lobed. Flowerinf 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) during July and August. Distributed at 304 to 915 m. Collected from Hittaura area. Chiloschista Lindl. Dwarf, epiphytic orchids, leafless when flowering. The name alludes to the cleft lip. Hooker (FI. Brit. Ind.), and King & Pantl. placed it as a section under Sarcochilus. Pfitzer and J. J. Smith recognised the genus as an independent one. Later Schlecter (1927) again united it with Sarcochilus. Artificial key to the species of Chiloschista Flowers white .-. usneoides Flowers yellow, spotted with purple lunifera Chiloschista lunifera (Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. Fi. Buitenz. 6 : 553, 1905. Thrixspermum luniferum Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. 1886, 786, 1886. Sarcochilus luniferus (Reichb. f.) Bth. ex Hk. f. in Bot. Mag. 115, t. 7044, 1889 et FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 37, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 207, t. 276, 1898. Roots tufted and stem much reduced. Inflorescence elongate 7-15 cm long, many-flowered ; flowers c. 1*5 cm in diam., yellow spotted with purple. Sepals spreading, oblong, obtuse. Lip 3-lobed, sidelobes linear-oblong, obtuse, midlobe truncate, emarginate. Flower- ing during February and March. Distributed at 1300 to 1980 m. Collected from Bhadgaon to Dhulikhel, Hittaura. Hooker remarks 4 except in the colour of the flower, no difference from usneoides ’. C. usneoides (Don) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 219, 1830 et Bot. Reg. sub. t. 1522, 1832. Epidendrum usneoides D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 37, 1825. Sarcochilus usneoides Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 497, 1861 ; F.B.I. 6 : 37, 1890. Roots tufted and stem absent. Inflorescence 7 to 15 cm long, densely flowered. Flowers c. 1*3 cm in diam., white, sepals spreading, oblong, obtuse. Sidelobes of lip erect, linear-oblong, obtuse, disk between the lobes pubescent, midlobe truncate and emarginate. Flowering during February and March. Distributed at 1525 to 1830 m. Collec- ted from Sundarijal, Sheopuri area, locality unknown (Herklotts). Doritis Lindl. According to Schultes and Pease the name refers to the hastate lip or perhaps to Doritis , one of the names of the goddess Aphrodite. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7 19 The column is winged, and its foot forms a spur-like mentum with the sidelobes of the lip. The plants have short stem and the few leaves are clustered. Doritis taenialis (Lindl.) Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. PI. 3 : 574, 1883 ; F.B.I. 6:31,1890; King & Pantl. 199, t. 266, 1898; Duthie, 138, 1906 ; Hara, 433, 1966. Aerides taenialis Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 239, 1833. Inflorescence few-flowered (about 6), pendulous ; flowers mauve- purple, c. 2 cm in diam., dorsal sepal oblong, lateral sepals broader, petals shorter than the sepals. Lip adnate to the foot of the column, sidelobes of lip very narrow, spathulate, reflexed on the disk, midlobe dark red. Flowering during May and June. Distributed at 915 to 1830 m. Collected from Chainpur to Mialay, Naudhara, Nagarjung. Esmeralda Reichb. f. Schultes and Pease giving the etymology of the name mention that it may possibly refer to the overwhelming beauty of the flower which makes this orchid a jewel in collections or perhaps to the very deep green hue of the foliage. Hawkes considered Esmeralda a synonym of Arachnanthe. Esmeralda clarkei Reichb. f. Gard. Chron. 2 : 552, 1886. Arachnanthe clarkei Rolfe, Gard. Chron. 2: 567, 1888 ; F.B.I. 6 : 28, 1890. Arachnis clarkei (Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 72: 76, 1912. (Fig. 2.) Inflorescence c. 20 cm long, few-flowered (3-4), flowers c. 7*5 cm in diam., fleshy, very fragrant ; sepals and petals falcate, bright chestnut brown with yellowish stripes, dorsal sepal erect. Lip almost the length of the petals, base narrowed, sidelobes short, broad, erect, midlobe ovate-cordate, obtuse, a small lobule at apex, surface with a number of ridges. Flowering during February and March and again in November. Collected from Sundarijal at 1830 m, locality unknown (Herklotts). Gastrochilus D. Don As the lip is belly-shaped, the name refers to that character. J. J. Smith who had previously treated Gastrochilus as a section of Saccolabium, raised it to generic level. Gastrochilus can be differentiated from Sarcochilus R. Br. and Saccolabium Bl. by the fleshy flowers. Lip, immovable midlobe, flat, hairy, and fringed column very short, footless. The pollinia are shorter than the caudicles. 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Artificial key to the species of Gastrochilus Spur short — Sidelobes of lip present, midlobe fringed, papillose-hairy calceolaris Sidelobes of lip absent, midlobe entire, surface more or less glabrous (not hairy) distichus Spur long with a bilobed apex affine Gastrochilus affine (King & Pantl.) Schltr. Fedd Rep. 12 : 314, 1913 ; Hara, 434, 1966. Saccolabium affine King & Pantl. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calcut. 8 : 228, t. 304, 1898. Flowers smaller than those of G. distichus , lip not sub-orbicular but transversely elongated, tip of midlobe obtuse, lateral margins with irregular dentation, two lamellae in the centre of the midlobe ; spur conical with a slightly bilobed apex. Authority Hara. G. calceolaris D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 32, 1825 ; Holttum, 675, 1953 ; Hara, 453, 1966. Aerides calceolare Ham. ex Smith, Rees. Cyclop. 39 (11), 1818; Saccolabium calceolare Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 223, 1833 ; F.B.I. 6: 60, 1890; King & Pantl. 225, t. 300, 1898. (Fig. 3). Scape spotted purple, stout and fleshy, shorter than the leaves, flowers yellow or greenish, speckled with red-brown, waxy, c. 1*5 cm in diam., mildly fragrant ; sepals and petals 6 mm long. Lip yellow and speckled with brown spots, sidelobes 1 mm, white, midlobe 3 mm long, twice as wide at the base, margin white, fringed, central part yellow, hairy all over, spur short also yellow. Flowering during February and March. Distributed at 1525 to 1830 m. Collected from Rhingmo to Jubing, Sheopuri, Godavari. G. distichus (Lindl.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. PI. 2 : 661, 1891 ; Hara, 435, 1966. Saccolabium distichum Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 36, 1859 ; F.B.I. 6: 64, 1890; King & Pantl. 227, t. 303, 1898; Duthie, 148, 1906. Inflorescence equalling the leaves, flowers greenish and spotted with brown. Sepals and petals obovate-oblong, green spotted with brown. Lip with a saccate spur, sidelobes absent, midlobe small, semicircular, fleshy with two calli at the base. Flowering during January and February. Collected from Borlong forest at c. 2285 m. Luisia Gaud. This orchid is named after a Spanish botanist Don Luis de Torres. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7 31 Artificial key to the species of Luisia Flowers 10 mm long tr ichor rhiza Flowers 6 mm long teretifolia Flowers 4 mm long micrantha Luisia micrantha Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 23, 1890. Flowers small, c. 8 mm in diam., and 4 mm long, greenish lateral sepals ovate, subacute, midrib very stout, dorsal sepal similar to the petals, petals oblong, obtuse, 1-nerved. Lip as long as the sepals, hypochile oblong, concave, two strong teeth, epichile fleshy, small. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Hittaura at c. 510 m. L. teretifolia Gaud. Bot. Freyc. Voy. 427, t. 37, 1826 ; F.B.I. 6 : 22, 1890; King & Pantl. 202, t. 271,1898; Duthie, 140, 1906; Hara, 443, 1966. Inflorescence few-flowered (2-3), flowers small, c. 1*8 cm in diam., and 6 mm long, foul smelling. Lateral sepals subacute, petals linear- oblong, obtuse, hardly longer than the sepals, yellowish-green. Lip equalling the sepals, usually dull purple and with 5 vertical lines. Flowering during March and April. Collected from Dhunibesi, Nagarjung at c. 1650 m. L. trichorrhiza Bl. Rumphia 4 : 50, 1848 ; F.B.I. 6 : 23, 1890 ; Duthie, 140, 1906. Inflorescence 4-5-flowered, flowers c. 2*5 cm in diam., and 1 cm long. Sepals unequal with faint purple lines, petals as long as the lateral sepals. Lip obovate-oblong, rather longer than the sepals, flat, dull purple, constricted at the base of the cordate epichile, marking the hypochile. Flowering during March and April. Distributed at c. 750 m. Collected from Dhulikhel to Kuwapani, Pokhra. Ornithochihis Wall, ex Lindl. The name is descriptive of the bilobed lip with the tips divaricate and verticle resembling a bird in flight. Ornithochilus difformis (Wall, ex Lindl.) Schltr. Orch. Sino-Jap. 227, 1919 : Hara, 446, 1966. Aerides difforme Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 242, 1833 ; Ornithochilus fusca Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 242, 1833 (pro. syn.) ; F.B.I. 6 : 76, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 200, t. 268, 1898 ; Duthie, 139, 1906. Inflorescence somewhat pendulous, twice or thrice longer than the leaves, many-flowered, flowers c. 1*25 cm in diam. Sepals and petals greenish-yellow with reddish stripes. Lip much larger than the sepals, 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) clawed, yellow, sidelobes quadrate, striped with brown, midlobe clawed and two lobulate, reddish or purple lower down, spur long, yellow. Flowering time June. Collected from Nagarjung at 1650 m. Rhynchostylis Bl. Usually stout and short-stemmed epiphytic orchid. Allied to Saccolabium Bl. and Aerides Lour, but can be distinguished by the scarcely lobed lip and the not sharply distinguished from the column- foot; the laterally compressed spur is directed backwards, and the rostellum is beaked. These orchids are popularly known as 4 Fox-tail Orchids \ Rhynchostylis retusa (Linn.) Bl. Bijdr. 286, 1825 ; F.B.I. 6 : 32, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 213, t. 284, 1898 ; Duthie, 143, 1906 ; Holttum, 697, 1953 ; Hara 449, 1966. Epidendrum retusum Linn. Sp. PI. 953, 1753. Saccolabium guttatum Lindl. (in Wall. Cat. 7308) Gen. et Spec. Orch. 220, 1833. (Fig. 4.) Stem robust and completely hidden by the imbricating leaf-bases ; leaves arching gracefully, very close together, leathery, apex obliquely bilobed. Inflorescence c. 25-30 cm long, densely flowered. Flowers white, spotted with pink or purple, c. 1*8 cm in diam., fragrant, waxy; lateral sepals c. 1 cm long, gibbously orbicular-ovate, obtuse or apex drawn out, dorsal sepal c. 1 *2 cm long, oblong; petals 1 -2 cm long, elliptic, obtuse. Epichile of lip usually cuneiform, emarginate, saccate, purple. Flowering during May and June. Distributed from 304 to 1830 m but commonly at about 915 m. Collected from Naikot, Dhupu to Wana, locality unknown (Herklotts). Sarcanthus Lindl. The name refers to the very fleshy flowers of most of the species. According to Holttum (1953) ‘ this is the largest genus of the small- flowered orchids of this group. The flowers are always rather fleshy and last several days. Their most distinctive feature is the large callus at the back of the spur. The back callus also sometimes interlocks with the front callus .... ’ The flowers are complex in structure and difficult to describe. Artificial key to the species of Sarcanthus Leaves filiform ; raceme 15- 20 cm long, curved filiformis Leaves flat; racemes branched (panicle), 30-35 cm long racemifer Sarcanthus filiformis Lindl. Bot. Reg. misc. 61, 1838; F.B.I. 6: 66, 1890. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7 33 Epiphytic with leaves filiform and narrowly cylindrical. Inflores- cence rather dense, many-flowered, curved 15-25 cm long; flowers c. 8 mm in diam. ; sepals oblong, obtuse, petals smaller and narrower, both dark purple with margin and midrib green. Lip broadly conical, fleshy, white with a broad yellow base, sidelobe acute, incurved, midlobe short, white, callus very large. Flowering time during August and September. Collected at 910 m at Hittaura and Narayani. S. racenrfer (Wall.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 891, 1861. Aerides racemiferum Wall, ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 16 : 68, 1890. Sarcanthus pallidus Lindl. Bot. Reg. 78, 1840 ; F.B.I. 6 : 69, 1890. Epiphytic with leaves flat and broad, obtusely bilobed, very thick. Inflorescence erect, branched, loosely-flowered, flowers c. 8 mm in diam. Sepals and small petals oblong, obtuse, dark purple with edges yellow. Lip white, sidelobes triangular, acuminate, midlobe small and incurved, reniform, fleshy beak, spur cylindrical, obtuse, saccate, thick-walled, as long as the sepals but shorter than the ovary, callus bilobed. Flowering during June and July. Distributed at 1220 to 1525 m. Collected from Dhankutta, Pokhra. Vanda Jones The name refers to the Sanskrit word ‘ banda ’ which means an epiphyte but also used for parasitic plants. The Vanda orchids can be distinguished by the fleshy 3-lobed lip. The inflorescence is normally simple and erect ; it usually arises from the leaf-axils or from opposite the leaf-bases and near the upper part of the plant but not at its apex. Artificial key to the species of Vanda A. Lip spurred at the base — B. Sepals & petals spreading— C. Flowers small, disk of lip without ridges parviflora CC. Flowers c. 3'5-5 cm in diam. disk of lip with fleshy ridges, sidelobes small and rounded tessellata CCC. Flowers c. 7‘5- 10 cm in diam., disk of lip with sidelobes broad and incurved teres BB. Sepals and petals incurved — D. Sidelobes erect and triangulars; flowers 5 cm in diam cristata DD. Sidelobes rounded; flowers 2* 5 cm in diam pumila AA. Lip gibbous, not spurred or saccate. Flowers c. 2*5 cm in diam alpina 3 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) Vanda alpina Lindl. Fol. Orch. 10, 1853 ; F.B.I. 6 : 53, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 217, t. 289, 1898; Duthie, 146, 1906; Hara, 452, 1966. Luisia alpina Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1858, misc. 56, 1858. Racemes with usually 2 flowers ; flowers nodding, faintly fragrant, c. 2*5 cm in diam., sepals and petals narrow, yellowish-green. Lip fleshy, sidelobes rounded, purplish inside, midlobe concave, ovate, retuse, pale yellow with purple shallow ridges, spur absent but gibbous. Flowering during May, one specimen collected from Sheopuri area at c. 1370 m. V. ciistata (Wall.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 216, 1833 ; F.B.I. 6 : 53, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 216, t. 287, 1898 ; Duthie, 146, 1906. Aerides cristatum Wall* ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 53, 1890. (Fig 5.) Inflorescence erect, 3-5-flowered, flowers c. 5 cm in diam., waxy, fragrant. Sepals and petals narrow, incurved yellowish-green. Lip green on the underside, upper surface marked with purple stripes and spots, sidelobes of lip erect, triangular, truncate ; midlobe oblong, golden yellow and striped with purple, tip with two divaricate oblong lobes and a fleshy beak pointed downwards, spur short and conical. Flowering time during March and April, even on to June. Collected from West Nepal (Parker), locality unknown (Herklotts). (The description and the flowering time have been based on the study of plants growing in Botanic Garden, Godavari). V. parviflora Lindl. in Bot. Reg. 30, Misc. 45, 1844; F.B.I. 6; 50, 1890: King & Pantl. 215, t. 286, 1898; Duthie, 145, 1906. Aerides testaceum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 238, 1833 ; Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. 2: 166, 1877. Inflorescence arising below the leaves, rather loosely 5-7-flowered, flowers c. L5-2 cm in diam. Sepals and petals usually flesh-coloured, subequal, obovate-spathulate, obtuse, spreading. Lip 3-lobed, side- lobes small, incurved midlobe large, broadly oblong, fleshy, crenate at the apex, white, surface blue and purple-spotted, spur long and curved. Flowering during May and June. Distributed at 305-915 m. Collected from Simalbasa, Hittaura. V. pumila Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 53, 1890, et in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 5 : 45, 1895. Inflorescence about 15 cm long, loosely 2-4-flowered, flowers c. 2' 5 cm in diam., fragrant ; sepals and petals narrow, pale yellow or greenish-white. Lip 3-lobed, sidelobes erect and rounded, midlobe broadly ovate, concave, obtuse, pale and streaked purple, spur conical and as long as the midlobe. Flowering during April and May. Distributed at 1220 to 1525 m. Collected from Dhunibesi, Hokse. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1) Banerji & Thapa : Orchids of Nepal Plate I J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1) Banerjee & Thapa : Orchids of Nepal Plate II del, mH- Fig. 6. Vanda teres (Roxb.) Lindl. Fig. 7. Vandopsis undulata (Lindl.) J.J. Sm. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 7 35 V. tesseliata (Roxb.) Hook, ex G. Don, Loud. Hort. Brit. 372, 1830. Epidendrum tessellatum Roxb. PI. Corom. 1 : 34, t. 42, 1795. Vanda roxburghii R. Br. in Bot. Reg. 6, t. 506, 1820; F.B.I. 6:52, 1890; Duthie, 116, 1906. V. tesselloides Reichb. in Walp. Ann. 6: 864, 1861. Inflorescence 5-10-flowered, longer than the leaves. Flowers c. 5 cm in diam., tesselated with brown, sepals c. 2*5 cm long, petals 2*3 cm long, clawed, obovate, waxy, tessallations yellowish-green or slightly bluish, margins white. Lip nearly as long as the sepals, side- lobes small, purple-spotted, midlobe panduriform, dull violet and paler at the base, tip dilated, truncate, 2-lobed, disk with fleshy ridges, spur conical. Flowering during July and August. Distributed in the sub-Himalayan region. Collected from Bhairwa, Hittaura, Narayanghat. V. teres (Roxb.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 217, 1830; F.B.I. 6: 49, 1890. Dendrobium teres Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 485, 1832. (Fig. 6). Inflorescence 15-30 cm long and with 3-6 flowers. Flowers c. 7-5-10 cm in diam., white or mauve, fragrant. Sepals and petals undulate, lip hairy towards the base, side lobes broad, incurved, deep yellow or lighter and spotted crimson, midlobe much larger, deeply cleft, purple, spur conical. Flowering during May and June. Distri- buted at 305 to 610 m. Collected from Hittaura, locality unknown (Herklotts). Vandopsis Pfitz. These are robust and spectacular orchids. The name implies that these orchids resemble Vanda. According to Hawkes they are allied to Renanthera Lour, and Arachnis Bl. Vandopsis undulata (Lindl.) J. J. Sm. in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 72:77,1912. Vanda undulata Lindl. Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 42, 1859. Stauropsis undulata (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hk. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 27, 1890; King & Pantl. 205, t. 257, 1898. (Fig. 7). Inflorescence long, rachis thickened, 8-12-flowered, flowers c. 3-25 cm in diam., white, flushed with pink, waxy, fragrant; sepals oblanceolate, acuminate, margins undulate, lateral sepals deflexed, petals similar but smaller. Lip greenish-yellow or light yellow, base saccate, adnate to the sides of the column, sides pink, midlobe laterally compressed, 3-ridged, tip truncate, purplish. Flowering during March and April. Distributed at about 2135 m. Collected from Kaituka, Chandragiri, Godavari, locality unknown (Herklotts). {to be continued) Bionomics and Distribution of the land leeches of Kumaon Hills, U.P. BY M. L. Bhatia ‘ Bhatia Laboratory L- 23, Hauzkhas Enclave , New Delhi-16 AND Sarwajeet Singh Bora Department of Zoology , D.S.B. Government College , Naini Tal , U.P. (with 5 text-figures) « Introduction Land leeches are reported from almost all the hill areas in India where they swarm in an incredible profusion, and prove a very harmful pest to animals and mankind by sucking their blood. Very little accurate information concerning their activities is recorded. It is a well-known fact that they are very active during rainy weather but no one appears to know what actually becomes of them during the dry season, and their appearance immediately with the coming of rains, raises the question, ‘ Whence do they appear?’. Some believe that they lay eggs and die with the advent of dry season, and that those which reappear on its conclusion are a new generation. There is little literature on the subject. Extensive field and laboratory observations were made for three continuous years, and it has been possible to gather first-hand infor- mation about several hitherto unknown and doubtful aspects of land leeches, which are recorded here. Although several species of land leeches, commonly found in Kumaon Hills, were collected, the observations recorded here are based primarily on the behaviour of two very common species, Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis, and Haemadipsa montana, which should hold good for other varieties of land leeches elsewhere in India. The Junior author owns an agricultural farm and also an apple orchard, in Kumaon and thus had the advantage of first hand knowledge, extending over several years, of the activities of land leeches throughout a calendar year. His valuable field observations of these creatures form subject matter of this paper. BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 37 Habit At the advent of rains, leeches emerge from hibernation and begin to swarm to the upper limits of the hills. During rains they are found on almost all patches of land in oak forests and are especially abundant along the foot-paths frequented by cattle, wild animals, and man. They are also present in large numbers in grass pastures adjacent to oak forests, which are frequently visited by man and domestic animals. Moore (1927) reports that Haemadipsa sylvestria from Assam, enters water voluntarily during dry season and swims actively. Contrary to this, the common leeches of Kumaon region Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis , and Haemadipsa montana , do not enter streams during short dry spells during the monsoon and even in the prolonged drought period of hibernation. Their avoidance of wet and flooded areas of the forests suggests that they dislike such habitats. In the early part of monsoon, after the first few showers, leeches are very active but when incessant rains set in, they crawl under dead oak leaves on the ground. During bright sun-shine also they hide under leaves and stones and resume their activities when it is cloudy and humid. They remain active during night, but become much more alert when rays of the early morning sun fall on them. Leeches are seen either standing erect on their posterior suckers, swaying all around, or moving on the ground. When erect they appear like small twigs among the layers of dry oak leaves. Leeches living in forests and swamps, may climb on leaves and branches, and wait until a suitable mammalian prey present itself. After a full blood-meal, they crawl beneath the leaves or under some suitable cover and remain in a sluggish condition for a number of days, but those that do not get an opportunity of procuring a meal come out at the slightest disturbance. Wounds caused by their bites generally heal up within a few days, though land leeches have the peculiar habit of biting repeatedly at the same spot which sometime causes pathological complications. Sometimes the bite becomes an open sore, probably due to secondary infection. Landleeches attack all the warm-blooded animals but find difficulty in getting blood from animals with thick fur covering. Some bare portion of the body of animals is selected for this purpose. Habitat Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis and Haemadipsa montana , along with other land leeches are found abundantly between heights 5000 and 6000 ft. and range from ravines as low as 3000 ft. to hill-tops ranging up to 11,000 ft. above sea level. Oak forests which cover the major 38 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) part of the hill-tops of Kumaon, provide the most suitable habitat. But in late rainy season it is not uncommon to find them even in the L. L. pine forest, orchards, grassy meadows, and even in cultivated paddy fields, adjacent to the oak forests. It has been noticed that they are totally absent from some parts of the forests, particularly forests on the southern aspects of the hills and heavily colonise some and are scanty in other parts of the northern aspect of the hill. Leeches are primarily aquatic and have secondarily acquired life on land. Humidity remains their prime requirement for survival. The role of temperature is also significant as they are limited to a temperature between 10° and 25°C. The extensive forests in the second and third climatic belt of Kumaon region, provide suitable conditions to these creatures. At elevations between 5000 and 11,000 ft. the rains during the monsoon are fairly heavy. In the second belt the average rainfall is 70" to 120", while in the third belt it is 40" to 80", of which eighty per cent falls during the rainy season. The forests are dense and evergreen on the northern face of the hill and thin on the southern side. The oak forests have luxuriant under-growth and the trees are draped in a rich epiphytic flora of ferns, mosses, and lichens. Other common trees in the oak forests are 4 Brunch ’ ( Rhododendron ), 4 Ringal ’ ( Arundinaria ), 4 Kaphal ' ( Myrica ), and a few species of Berberis , all with broad evergreen leaves. The oak forests with this kind of luxuriant vegetation and with a rainfall of over 70", has high humidity during the rainy season and even otherwise. The average maximum temperature does not rise above 26°C. These two major factors coupled with a few other attributes of the oak forests, such as the shade under the broad- leaved, evergreen trees help in maintaining moisture. The greater water retaining capacity keeps the valleys humid during the hibernation period. The carpet of dead oak leaves on the ground provides shelter during temporary dry spells and checks surface evaporation and the luxuriant under-growth that keeps the forest BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 39 humid and provides a substratum for their movements. All these provide ideal ecological conditions for leeches. An additional advan- tage is the fire resisting qualities of oak forests that have saved leeches from total eradication. The density of leech population varies much in different parts of the forest, due to several factors that influence the habitat. Dense forests on the north facing slopes provide a much more suitable habitat than- the forests on the southern side, which are very sunny and almost bare, comparatively warm, and less moist and sometimes quite dry. It is interesting to note that human agency has influenced to some extent the colonisation by leeches, and densely infested leech localities are always found near the grazing grounds and human habitation. Leeches found in other places, like orchards, meadows, paddy fields and open patches of land during the rains, are actually migrants from the main oak forests. There is evidence to support the fact that they do not really emerge in these parts ; that they migrate to all these localities after their emergence in the oak forests. They are seen in these parts quite late in the season and they also disappear early. Leeches do not permanently colonise these areas due to unfavourable conditions, particularly during the hibernation period. During the rains, they are also found in the neighbouring xerophy- tic pine forests which have the same altitudinal range, but are really migrants from adjacent oak forests. Certain mixed type of forests, along with ravines which have a large number of oak trees, are very heavily colonised. Leeches have not successfully colonised pine forest because of xerophytic conditions, lack of undergrowth, the disagreeable and repelling smell of resin, and the absence of suitable shelter among the needle-shaped pine leaves. To all these may be added prevalence of fire. Although between 7000 and 9000 ft. altitude there are different types of forests in the same altitudinal range and with almost similar conditions of shade and temperature as those in oak forests, it is surprising to note that leeches do not inhabit these forests. Viewing the general conditions of these forests of Blue pine ( Pinus excelsa , 6000 ft. to 8000 ft.) ; Spruce (Picea norinda, 7000 ft. to 9000 ft.) ; Cypress ( Cupressus torulosa , 6500 ft. to 9500 ft.) ; and Deodar ( Cedrus deodar a, 8000 ft. to 10,000 ft.) ; it seems that the meagre rainfall (10" to 40"), needle-shaped leaves, scarce under-growth and lack of hibernating grounds have completely checked the infestation of these forests. Food Land leeches are blood-sucking ectoparasites and they are remarka- bly adept at taking from the host very considerable quantity of blood 40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V9l. 70 (1) without being noticed. In natural conditions it has been observed that they feed infrequently but take large quantities of blood at one time, over ten times its own weight. Digestion and absorption are very slow processes, and it takes nearly 8 to 10 months to assimilate a full blood- meal. Smythies (1953) raised the question, whether land leeches feed only on blood or could also subsist on other food materials, such as humus and plant-juices etc. Harrison (1953) believes that they feed exclusively on blood, and we fully endorse this view. Hungry leeches kept in cages, containing humus, oak leaves, succulent herbs, and a few common invertebrate forms (earthworms, some arthropods, and slugs etc.) that are commonly found in leech localities, remained untouched by leeches and they starved and did not survive. On the other hand leeches fed on blood grow well and survive up to the hibernation period. It has been possible to keep leeches for more than three years by providing them a single blood-meal every year, with suitable conditions of temperature and moisture. It is a well established fact that leeches feed on blood and biood only, but the information regarding the favourite victim is very meagre and it is also not known whether all the leeches are able to procure at least a single blood-meal. They rely for their nourishment on their ability to make contact with vertebrate hosts capable of rapid move- ment. The common vertebrates inhabiting the forests of Kumaon, like Barking Deer ( Muntiacus muntjak ) ; Goral ( Nemorhaedus goral) ; Sambar ( Cervus unicolor) ; Rhesus Monkey ( Macaca mulatto) ; Langur (Presbytis entellus) ; and Serow ( Capricornis sumatraensis), are all attacked by leeches. Birds are not usually attacked. Some birds (Kaleej and Koklas pheasants) were shot in the leech-infested areas during the rainy season and a few leeches were found on their tarsus, but there were no signs of previous bites by leeches on any of the birds to indicate that they had frequent leech attacks. A number of species of rats, and moles' exist in the oak forests, which become their victim. Buc leeches kept with the common rat {Rattus rattus) in a cage in the laboratory, did not touch the rats. Moore (1927) refers to a freshwater crab {Potamon atkinsonianum) as a specific host of the leech Haemadipsa sylvestris. The only large invertebrate slug ( Limax ), common in leech localities in Kumaon, is not attacked by these leeches. Kinloch (1922) reported a leech attacking Dryophis , an arboreal species of snake, in a coffee plantation at Nelliampathy hills in south India. Moore (1927) reports to have received specimens of land-leeches collected from the local frogs of Ceylon. A large number of toads BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 41 (Bufo melanostictus) very commonly seen in the same locality during the rainy season, were found free from leeches. The present study of leech habitats and the wide range of victims they come across gives the impression that leeches do not get frequent opportunity of securing a meal. Large wild animals capable of rapid movement usually abandon heavily infested areas, while rodents with their dense fur-coat and birds on account of feathers do not offer much chance of a meal to leeches. We feel that domestic animals are the main source of their subsistence. It has been noticed that some wild animals and cattle are their primary victims. The colonisation of grazing lands, cattle tracks and the areas near human habitat, support the above view. On cattle that daily visit or only pass through these areas for grazing, it is a common sight to find at least eight to ten leeches sticking in between their hooves and bare parts of the body, particularly the nasal and genital regions. It has long been queried whether the entire leech population is able to secure a meal. In this connection it is worth noting that the reported abundance of leeches by previous workers appears to be an exaggeration. In fact the fear and annoyance caused by these agile creatures have probably led workers in the past to over-estimate their population. The same view has been expressed by Moore (1932) who made observations on land leeches in this country. Harrison (1953) made an attempt to give an approximate estimate of leech population. His figures seem quite reasonable but we feel that wild- stock alone, at least in the Kumaon, is not sufficient to provide meal to most of the leeches. During the present study an attempt was made to calculate the approximate density and leech population in different localities in Kumaon hills, and worked out as 4 leeches per square metre. According to this, a total land area of 10,000 square metres would have an approximate leech population of about 40,000 individuals. Considering the average number of leeches attacking per cattle (4 leeches to an animal) and number of cattle grazing in leech infested areas (100 animals a day) ; it could be estimated that most of the leech population is able to get at least one meal in an active season of approximately 100 days. Copulation Land leeches, like other members of the group, are hermaphrodites. Reciprocal cross-fertilization takes place by the union of two indivi- duals. The process of copulation in land leeches was observed in nature by Leslie (1951) and Harrison (1953). Leeches usually copulate in the month of April and it has been possible to watch the process in field and also in the laboratory. Fig. 2. Sketches showing different postures, leading to copulation, a. Pre-copulation posture, with the posterior suckers of both the leeches attached to the substratum, and body standing erect, b. Close contact of the pre-clitellar portions of the two worms, c. Copulating posture : anterior portion of one curves round the anterior portion of the other, entwined in a head to tail position. Both slightly raised from the ground in the form of an arc. The male genital pore of the one is opposed to the female aperture of the other and vice-versa. A. auricle; E. eyes ; F. female genital aperture ; M. male genital aperture ; P.S. posterior sucker. BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 43 Leeches move about in different directions, and when two full- grown leeches meet head to head for a short while, they fix their posterior suckers on to the substratum and sway their bodies till they touch each other. The act of swaying and a sort of embracing action of the two, taking place before the actual process of copulation was termed by Leslie as 4 Dance ’ which lasts for a few minutes. Such casual contacts between the two leeches are not of much significance in the beginning as leeches often come close together, touch each other and separate. In cases where such meeting leads to actual copulation the animals after some preliminary muzzling establish close contact. With the posterior suckers firmly fixed to the substratum, the anterior portion, up to the clitellar region of one curves round the anterior portion of the other, in a head to tail position. The part of both that are in close contact get slightly raised from the ground and assume the shape of an arc. The ventral side particularly the clitellar region gets slightly flattened. In this posture the male genital pore of one is opposed to the female aperture of the other and vice-versa. Both remain in this position almost motionless for some time, except for a continuous slight swaying backwards and forwards. This is followed by alternate pressing movements of both leeches, by which the clitellar regions of both get further flattened and develop still closer contact. At this stage the male organs of both project, as was observed and recorded by Leslie, and transference of seminal fluid takes place in a reciprocal manner. During the process of copulation a whitish jelly-like lubricant material, probably secretion of the prostate or more likely of the clitellar glands, is seen in between the surfaces of the two worms that are in close contact, which becomes more evident when they separate after the copulation. Soon after the process the posterior suckers get detached and the leeches start moving the usual way. In several copulating individuals it has been possible to watch the entire process and to record the total period involved in the act. Beginning from their coming in close contact, to actual copulation and separation, the time involved ranges from 40 to 65 minutes. Leslie records 4 Dance * for about 2 minutes and actual process lasting for one and a half minutes. Harrison’s note on sexual behaviour of leeches, leading to copulation, and the figure given by him show the posture prior to actual copulation, which he observed lasting for an hour and a half. Actual copulation takes place only after the male orifices get opposed to the female apertures, a position not achieved in the figure given by Harrison, which depicts only close contact of the two worms. He therefore missed this important point in his observation. 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Cocoon Formation Leeches that have successfully mated lay cocoons, generally in the months of May and June and sometimes even in July. During these months the clitellar region (segments IX, X, and XT) becomes slightly depigmented owing to the presence of large' number of epidermal clitellar glands, and it becomes slightly yellow in colour. The cocoon laying process is almost similar to that in other members of the group described by Khan (1912), Matthai (1921) and Bhatia in hirudinaria (1941). Just before the actual process of cocoon laying, the leech becomes sluggish and settles down at some shady place, free from any kind of disturbance. A copious secretion of several layers of snow- white froth, secreted by the glands of clitellum, appears all round the clitellar region in the form of a girdle. During the formation of the frothy material the front portion of the leech, up to the clitellum. shows a slow rolling, as well as dorsoventral movement, while the post-clitellar portion of the body exhibits no movement. Formation of the frothy girdle takes about an hour. After that, large quantity of albumen, and fertilized ova extruded through the female generative aperture pass into the frothy girdle. By rhythmic movements, the leech withdraws the entire front portion. The plugs at the two poles of the cocoon are secreted by the prostomial glands, as stated by Bhatia (1939). Cocoons are generally laid in well protected shady places. The cocoon formation is a comparatively slow process lasting for about 5 to 6 hours. The froth on exposure to air hardens and forms an outer spongy layer with spacious air cavities in it. Like other leeches, land leech lays successive cocoons after an interval of about 4 days. Cocoon The cocoon is barrel -shaped and measures 8 to 12 mm in length and 6 to 9 mm in breadth. The cocoon-wall consists of two layers : an outer formed by the hardening of frothy secretion, and an inner chitinous layer. The froth, when fresh in the process of cocoon laying, is in several layers of large bubbles and during hardening process the bubbles unite and form hard partitions, and by pressure acquire a characteristic pentagonal shape. This layer protects the contents from minor shocks and from pressure of oak leaves and other objects under which the cocoons are generally laid. During rains and flooding of the area the air cavities provide buoyancy to the cocoon. The inner layer is quite hard, smooth and tough, and enclosed in it are a mass of albumen and fertilized ova. Both the layers are transparent. BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 45 b Fig. 3. Cocoon a. Two days’ old leech cocoon. b. Longitudinal section of 18 days old, almost mature cocoon, showing 8 embryos inside it. C.L. cuticular layer ; E. embryos inside the cocoon ; P.P. polar plugs at the two ends of the cocoon ; S.L. spongy layer. 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. (1) Development There is no larval stage in the life-history of the leech, and entire development is completed inside the cocoon. Fertilized ova develop into embryos, which swallow the entire albumen contained inside the cocoon. After about 5 days of the laying of cocoon, the embryos are seen making slight movements, through the transparent cocoon wall. 8 or 9 days later the embryos become active inside the cocoon and in about 15 days most of the organs are formed, five pairs of pigmented eyes become prominent in each embryo. In about 20 days typical coloration and pigmentation are developed and development is almost complete and 6 to 9 young leeches emerge from each cocoon. Freshly emerged young leeches are reddish brown in colour, each measures 5 to 10 mm. Soon after emergence they move about actively, and they remain active throughout the rainy season. Most of these succeed in getting a full meal, and attain maturity. At the close of rains they hibernate and on the onset of next rainy season they again become active, copulate, and lay cocoons. It has been observed that land leeches survive for more than three years, but further observations are necessary to determine definite period of their life-span. Life- Cycle Observations on the life-cycle of land leeches show two distinct phases in their activities, an active phase and a dormant phase. Active Phase : It generally starts from the month of June and lasts till the end of November. Since the appearance and disappea- rance of leeches depends on rainfall and temperature, the active phase extends mainly over the monsoon months (July to October). During this period they perform all essential functions of life namely feeding, growth, maturity and reproduction. Soon after emergence from cocoons they actively move about, and spread out over a large area and also migrate uphill. From the middle of July to the third week of August, their activities reach a climax, and by the end of September they start retreating to the valleys. By the middle of October they start hibernating and thus completely disappear. Dormant Phase : The remaining six months (December to May) constitute the dormant phase or the hibernation period ; but generally leeches disappear completely by November and reappear only by the end of June, thus extending the hibernation period to about eight months. BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 47 Migration Migration or mass movement of land leeches has been a subject of much inquiry for a proper understanding of their ecology and biology. Fig. 4. Diagrammatic representation of the life-cycle of land leeches. Among annelids the swarming of marine Polychaete worms is a phenomenon correlated with reproduction. In Oligochaeta and Hirudinea such examples are rare. Moore (1932) has hinted on the seasonal migration in Haemadipsa sylvestris and Haemadipsa zeylanica montivindicis. In the latter species he describes an altitudinal migration also. Richardson (1942) has reported migratory behaviour in various species of freshwater leeches. In case of Haemopis marmoratis, a scavenger freshwater leech, he observed uni-directional advance of half a mile or even more and in Glossiphonia complanata he observed a habit akin to swarming. Land leeches hibernate in valleys during the months November to May. On the advent of the rainy season they emerge and lead an active life, as mentioned earlier, in the humid oak forests of the hills. 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) The first emergence of leeches as already stated, is in the first week of June, by the sides of dry water courses or nullahs, soon after heavy shower of rain. The bulk of the population of leeches that emerge at this time consists of leeches of appreciable size, small or even medium size leeches are rarely found at this period. After more rain they become very active and spread throughout the valley, which is still dry. By the middle of June rains become quite a regular feature with frequent heavy showers. Leeches, then, start spreading up towards the northern slopes. Continuous rain all over the oak forest creates humid and moist conditions sufficient to provide moisture after a prolonged dry spell. The presence of widespread humidity initiates leech migration. By this time the number of leeches is as large as four to six per metre, and medium-sized ones are more in number than the large adults. After about ten days of emergence leeches spread nearly 100 metres up the northern slope. The upward movement during June depends on the weather conditions. If there is continuous rain, the advance is quicker, and their activities slacken to a great extent if there is a prolonged dry spell. The month of July generally experiences incessant rains and activities of leeches increase in this period. By the second week they are found all over the summit, the cultivated fields and grasslands near the top of the hill, and this is the time when they prove a great menace. A study of the leech population in the middle of July reveals that at the top of the hill leeches of large size, and in the middle region both large and medium-sized are present in considerable number. Freshly emerged young ones form the primary leech population in the valley, though some are seen in the middle region also. By this time large number of cocoons hatch resulting in tremendous increase in the population stock of young leeches in the valley. By the end of July the number of young ones, in the middle region of the hill, exceeds that in the valley. This is probably due to the emergence of large number of leeches from the cocoons, laid by the migrating leeches in the middle zone and migration of fresh stock of young ones from the valley upwards in search of a meal. Freshly emerged stock of young leeches reaches the top of the hill by the second week of August and they are most active in their attack on animals and also human population. Observations indicate that from the 2nd week of July to 3rd week of August, the activities of leeches remain at their peak, and as such this period could be regarded as the 4 Peak period of activity ’. During this period even the xerophytic pine forests are quite moist and leeches are seen advancing to all these places. In such cases the migration is altitudinal, horizontal and even BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 49 downward. In fact during this period leeches migrate indiscriminately and spread to all possible directions in search of food. In oak forests they start moving upwards from the very beginning and show definite upward trend of migration, much more on the northern slope of the hill. The southern slope which is mostly covered by pine forests, the intervening areas between the xerophytic pines and the evergreen oak forests, are comparatively exposed to sun and are warm and dry. Hence the movement of leeches through such areas is practically impossible till heavy and continuous rains set in. By the third week of August a downward migration commences, as indicated by the decline of their population at the summit ; to such an extent that in the fourth week of August they withdraw altogether from the top of hills and appear to concentrate in the middle region of the hills. It is interesting to note their complete absence from the valley at this time of the season. Till the middle of September leeches are in great abundance in the middle region but towards the end of September the entire stock, consisting of the adults, medium-sized and the young individuals, get confined to an area of about 80 to 100 metres above the valley. By the first week of October further descent occurs and they are found very near the valley. At this time they are very sluggish, hide under oak leaves and come out only when induced by disturbances or some sort of vibrations in the surrounding objects. By the second week they disappear from the entire hill and only a few stray specimens are seen up to about 40 ft. above the nullah in the valley. After a few days they disappear altogether. Thus it is observed that with the advent of rains, leeches emerge in the valley and migrate upwards to half a mile distance. At the close of rainy season they return to similar areas and hibernate till the next rainy season. Causes of Migration The region of the valley provides enough moisture to leeches during dry months of winter and summer and the onset of rainy season not only provides favourable conditions for them to emerge, but also moistens the herbage at heights. Leeches emerge just after hibernation and the newly hatched young stock at the valley needs a meal. The herbage and oak leaves on the ground, shady and moist conditions on the northern slope of the hill, provide favourable conditions to them to move about and spread all over the area in search of food. At the close of rainy season the herbage on the heights dries up, therefore they begin to withdraw and migrate back toward the valley which is more moist and constitutes an ideal hibernating ground. Guiding factors for 4 50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) migration are the moisture, temperature and food. The to-and-fro migratory habit of leeches seems to be induced by the combined effects of the following causes : Upward Migration (i) Overcrowding, and scanty food supply in the valley. (ii) With an upward movement of the livestock there are better chances of procuring food uphill. (iii) Favourable conditions of humidity, temperature, and suitable moving space uphill on the northern slope. Downward Migration (i) Decrease in humidity on the top of the hill. (ii) Availability of favourable hibernating spots at the base of the hill. Hibernation It has been observed that land leeches suddenly appear with the first shower of rain, gradually increase in number in certain areas, where they prove a great menace and suddenly disappear when cold weather sets in. Much attention was drawn by the old age mystery of their sudden emergence and disappearance. Suggestions on their probable hibernation were made as surmises rather than on any kind of actual field study of the problem. Tennant (1861) expressed surprise on the complete disappearance of leeches during the dry season and their appearance immediately with the coming of rains. Whitman (1886) suggested that 4 they merely seek shelter under stones, sticks etc. as they do all times when not actively moving about, and thus protected against complete drying, await favourable conditions of moisture’. But he denied completely the possibility of hibernation except for those which live above the level of the occasional frost and snow. Landon (1905) believed that land leeches died with the advent of dry season and those which reappeared on its conclusion are a new generation. Macrob della decora , an aquatic American leech, has been reported by Moore (1927) to live in dry ponds during summer. Bhatia (1941) observed the same in the leech Hirudinaria. Similarly a little advanced type of 4 draught torpidity ’ has been described in Ozobranchus by Oka (1922). On the contrary laboratory observations during the present course of study show that land leeches, once they become dry, are unable to regain activity, as is common with all living forms. Moore (1927) summing up the previous views comments that leeches probably pass through a condition resembling hibernation. Later BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 51 (Moore 1932) suggested that leeches may concentrate in the vicinity of water sources. Recently Smythies (1953) writes, ‘ in the tropics they are active all the year round, but in a monsoon climate they disappear entirely for about six months, during the dry cold winter. Do they get through this period in the form of eggs or by burrowing into the soil ? Our present observations are in conformity with the view of Moore (1932) and it has been noticed during the course of our field study that : (i) The first emergence of land leeches, on the onset of rains, is always at the base of the hill, by the sides of dry water channels or nullahs. (ii) After their emergence they spread all over, generally more towards the upper limits of the hill, and remain active throughout the rains. At the close of rainy season they gradually migrate to the valley and commence vanishing in the similar regions from where they first emerged . These observations hint at their possible hibernating grounds. A search of the valley in winter months (December and January) reveals that leeches do not hibernate under the layers of decaying oak leaves, sticks etc., as was suggested by Whitman, a possible abode of their hibernation. Instead, it has been found that they hibernate fairly deep down in soft soil. On digging a foot or more deep, below the earth surface and on turning the underground buried stones and pebbles in the vicinity of water channels, a large number of hibernating leeches were everytime obtained, attached to undersurface of the stones. Observations made during the active phase of leeches suggest that like all other living beings, food, congenial temperature, and moisture, are the primary guiding factors in the life of land leeches. It has been noticed in the laboratory that they can withstand fairly low temperature. Moreover, the subsoil temperature in the valley does not fluctuate beyond a critical limit. Thus, only moisture appears to be the chief influencing factor during the hibernation period. Several other hibernating places have been suggested by previous workers, i.e., areas by the sides of water streams which are very damp and flooded, but leeches have not been found from any such localities. They do not resort to aquatic habit of any kind during hibernation. It has been confirmed in laboratory that leeches kept partially submerged in water or very near water, do not feel comfortable and immediately try to escape. They do not survive long in water. The areas in the valley are slightly different from the other parts of the hill slopes. There is always loose layer of coarse sand and pebbles on the surface, under which, there is a mixed layer of humus, clay and sand. Sand and pebbles are brought down from the slopes of hill during heavy rains. Leeches make their way in to the underground sand 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) and humus through crevices in the upper layer of pebbles. The overlying layer of sand and stones protect leeches from dessication. The sub-soil in the valley retains moisture and remains damp all the year round and this kind of constant wet conditions are maintained by various factors. In addition to the occasional rains, there is constant occurrence of what may be called the ‘ sub-soil moisture The soil in the oak forests retains comparatively greater amount of rain water. After heavy showers in the rainy season, at the lower levels of the hill there arise underground streams in the form of springs, which become a constant source of water supply to the nullah or water stream flowing at the base of the valley. When these seasonal springs and nullahs dry up in winter and summer, water retained by the roots of the oak trees in the upper limits, percolates through the underground streamlets. The presence of such streamlets is easily revealed by the marshy conditions even in dry season, when digging to a depth of about \\ ft. in the region of the nullah. Such sub-soil moisture keeps the hibernating places moist throughout the dry season. The surface evaporation of the sub-soil moisture is further cut down by the presence of a large number of evergreen trees and thus chances of drying up of such places are meagre. The selection of such places for hibernating is obvious. Hibernating Leeches Hibernating leeches lie in a dormant, contracted, and emaciated condition, attached by both the suckers to the undersurface of stones and other objects. Haemadipsa montana remains slightly more dormant than Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis , and its brownish or yellow- ish colour harmonises well with the surroundings to such an extent that sometimes it becomes difficult to spot these out in their hibernating habitat. The hibernating leeches observed have been generally of large size, some of median size, but none of small size. Behaviour of Hibernating Leeches : Hibernating leeches are very sluggish, and they shun light. They do not respond to human breath or even touch. On pressing hard they show slight activity and immediately try to wriggle away and again hide under some nearby object. When submitted to slightly higher tem- perature than what they have in their natural habitat, they become slightly active, but not as agile as during the rainy season. Such activity lasts only couple of minutes even when the higher temperature is maintained for some time. When both higher temperature and moisture are provided, they become more active than when only BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 53 temperature is raised. Leeches that become temporarily alert try to escape. They do not respond to light of low intensity, and they respond negatively to strong light. They do not show any tendency to stick to the skin, bite and suck blood. Distribution in Kumaon The abundance and ferocity of land leeches have been reported from different parts of India by several naturalists. Haeckel (1883), Hooker (1854), Semper (1863) and others : Moore (1927) casually reported the occurrence of land leeches in Nainital district. As has been mentioned earlier, land leeches are confined only to oak forests, in Kumaon region. A general survey of the climate and vegetation of different regional belts of Kumaon, assists in explaining the distribu- tion of oak forests, which provide suitable habitat to leeches. The entire Kumaon area may be divided into several climatic belts, running approximately north-west to south-east, parallel to the Himalayas. The division is mainly based on the total rainfall and its relative percentage in winter and monsoon seasons. I. A regional belt, the 4 Sub-Himalayan tract ’, includes the area running along the foot-hills and consists of Bhaber and Tarai. Rains during monsoon are heavy, 50" to 70", and there are extensive forests of Sissu ( Dalbergia sissoo ), Khair {Acacia catechu) and Jaman {Eugenia jambolana). The maximum average temperature does not fall below 26° C which acts as a major influencing factor for the total absence of leeches from this region. II. The 4 outer hill range ’ stretches from the base of foot-hills in the region of Kotdwara, Kalagarh, Kathgodam, and Tanakpur, to the crest of the outermost range of the hills of Nainital. The hills rise, 1000 to 2000 ft. at the base and extend up to 4000 to 8000 ft. The general aspect of the hills is southern. Total rainfall ranges from 70" to 120" out of which 20% is during winter and 80% during the monsoon months. The dominant forests of Pine {Pinus longifolia ) between 3000 to 7000 ft. are on the southern side. In pine forests due to xerophytic conditions and prevalence of frequent fire, the undergrowth is very scarce. On higher elevations and by the sides of ravines, the common oak {Quercus incana ) replaces the pine. These forests are more common on the northern slopes, where the average maximum tempera- ture does not rise beyond 26° C. The oak forests of Nainital district, Kilbery, China forest, Ratighat, Ramgarh, Gagar, Mukteshwar, Paharpani, Okhalkanda, Bhim-tal and Sat-tal etc. continue the upper boundary of this belt, are heavily infested with leeches. III. Another regional belt, 4 the central hill range ’ includes the vast area of mountainous country stretching to the outermost range of the 25347 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) c|v' 0“ a o,| 'cO 0) c CO Vh (0 i 1 O' CO cl C Is C0| iMJ 0 o ^c BIONOMICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND LEECHES 55 main Himalayan peaks. The valleys of the river Sharda, Kosi, Ganga etc. lie at low level between the hills and the temperature is surprisingly high. Main intervening ridges range between 5000 and 10,000 ft. Annual rainfall varies from 40" to 80", 70% of which is during the monsoon season. Heaviest rain occurs in the prominent central ranges covered by oak forests (Dudotoli, Bhadkot, Binser, Gageshwar etc.). Most of the area between 3000 and 6000 ft. is covered by extensive pine forests, which is replaced by oak above 6000 ft. IV. In the main Himalayan range, rainfall is 10" to 40" in monsoon, and snow during winter. Banj oak ( Quercus incana) is commonly found between 6000 and 8000 ft. height but in damp ravines it is represented down to 3000 ft. in the Chir zone. Moru oak {Quercus dilatata ) is found between 6500 and 9000 ft. and the Kharsu oak {Quercus semicar pifoli a), between 7500 and 11,500 ft. All these forests are thinly or heavily infested by land leeches. In the upper limits of the Kharsu zone, leeches are very rare. It is possible that on the highest regions of the Kharsu zone which extends up to 11,500 ft. they are absent because of extreme cold. Some of the heavily infested places in this belt are the oak forests of Shyahi Devi, Sittakhet, Jalna, Mornauli, Debidhura, Panwanaula, Binsar, Jageshwar, Dholchina, Dhakuri, Loharkhet, Kapkot, Attigaon, Munsayari, Kalamuni, Tejam, Karmi, Kanda, Gwaldom, Kaushain, Ranikhet, Dunagiri, etc. in Almora District, and Dharchula, Chandak, Lohaghat, Champawat, Agar, Chhera, Kalsinkatia in Pithoragarh district. In Garhwal district, Tehsil Deoprayag and Patti Barmabanger are heavily infested and Patti-Sora, Hindab, Silgarh and Mandar are thinly infested. References Bhatia, M. L. (1939) : The prosto- mial glands of the Indian leech, Hirudi- naria granulosa . J. Morph. 64 : 37-46. (1941) : Hirudinaria (Indian Cattle Leech). Indian Zool. Mem. 8 : 1-85. (1956) : Extra-ocular photo- receptors in the land-leech Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis from Naini Tal, Almora. Nature 176 : 420. (1970) : The segmentation of the Ganthobdellid leeches with special reference to the Indian leech Hirudi- naria and Medicinal leech Hirudo. J. Morph. 132 : 361-376. Haeckel, E. (1883) : From the Fauna of British India, Hirudinea, 1927. Harding, W. A., & Moore, J. P (1927) : The Fauna of British India — Hirudinea. Harrison, J. L. (1953) : Sexual be- haviour of Land-leeches. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 954. Hooker, J. D. (1854-1855) : Hima- layan Journals. London, 1st. ed. pp. 107, 167. Khan, M. M. (1912) : Notes on rear- ing leeches in Bara Banki District, U.P. Rec. Indian Mus. 7 : 206-207. Kinloch, A. P. (1922) : Leech attack- ing a snake. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 557. Landon, P. (1905) : The opening of Tibet. New York, p. 49. 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Leslie, C. J. (1951) : Mating be- haviour of Leeches, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 422-423. Mann, K. H. (1962) : Leeches (Hirudi- nea). Their _Structure, Physiology, Ecology, and Embryology. Inter. Ser. Monographs on Pure and Appl. Sci. Zool. Div. 11. Matthai, G. (1921) : Preliminary ob- servations on cocoon formation of com- mon Lahore leech, Poecilobdella granu- losa. Proc. Assoc. Soc. Bengalis : 341. Moore, J. P. (1927) : Fauna of British India, Hirudinea. (1932) : Land-leeches in the ‘ Fauna of British India ’. Some correc- tions. Rec. Indian Mus. 34 : 1-6. Oka, A. (1895) : On some New Japa- nese Land-leeches. Journ. Coll. Science Imp. Univ. 8: 275-306, Pis. XXVIII- XXX. Oka, A. (1917) : Zoological Results of a Tour in the Far East. Pt. iii. Hirudi- nea. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 6 : 159-176, pi. vii. Richardson, L. R. (1942) : Obser- vations on the migratory behaviour of leeches. Canad. Fid. Nat. 56 : 67. Semper, C. (1863) : Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool. xiii, p. 559. Smythies, B. E. (1953) : Notes and queries on Land-leeches. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 954. Tennant, J. E. (1861) : From the Fauna of British India, Hirudinea, 1927. Whitman, C. O. (1884) : The external morphology of the leech. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci., 20 : 76. (1886) : Leeches of Japan. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 26 : 317. (1888) : Some new facts about the hirudinea. J. Morph. 3 : 286. Mud and Dung plastering in Baya Nests BY T. Antony Davis Indian Statistical Institute , Calcutta -35 ( With two plates and two text-figures) Introduction This paper is mainly a discussion on the various explanations that have been offered by earlier investigators on the mud-blobs or dung plastering seen in the egg-chamber of several baya weaverbird nests. Some fresh data on the quantity of the plastering material used in individual nests, stage in the development of the nest when the mud/dung is brought to the nest and the time of the day when the plaster is fixed are furnished. Among the various theories on the mud-blobs, the following in particular have been discussed: for fixing fireflies for illuminating the nest, balancing the nest, protecting the inmates from rain, a relic of an ancient habit, and for cement- ing the fibre for greater reinforcement of the egg-chamber. The chief func- tion of the plastering materials seems to be the strengthening of the fibre-nest particularly at regions that are subjected to great stress. One of the best known attributes of the baya weaverbird ( Ploceus philippinus ) that has fascinated villagers for centuries is that based on the mud-blobs found in many of its nests. Nevertheless, observations made on these nests as well as those of the baya’s other Asian and African cousins for nearly a century have not highlighted the full signi- ficance of the pasty material fixed at specific spots in the nest. A half- built nest of the baya, at what is known as the helmet stage, is divided by a vertical ring into two more or less equal halves. One of these, which is always built a bit ahead of the other, is the future egg-chamber. The other half, known as antechamber, extends downwards into an entrance tube. When the inner walls of the future egg-chamber in such an incomplete nest are examined, one may see on two opposite sides small or large quantities of mud-blobs, or a plastering of clay, cattle dung or in rare cases, human faeces. There is considerable variation in the quantity and quality of the plaster between nests, some not having any of these extraneous materials at all. A few explanations have been offered by ornithologists on the significance of the plaster. Apart from them, the most classical and romantic one based on poetic imagination is that it holds fireflies in order to illuminate the nest at night. Every 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) second villager who is familiar with the baya is likely to vouch empha- tically for this explanation although none of them has actually seen a firefly fixed inside the nest. Some naturalists contend that the mud is used to stabilise the nest during gales, while others regard the mud as a relic of some ancient custom at one time beneficial to the species. Other explanations offered are: the mud protects the inmates from getting soaked in rain; prevents the nest robbers from pulling apart the initial ring, and when dry helps to sharpen the beak of the builder. My interest in the common weaverbird was aroused in my early childhood (some 45 years ago) by a large colony that used to nest year after year in our small coconut garden surrounded by paddy fields in the southernmost district of India (Kanyakumari). As pulling down active baya nests having eggs or fledgelings was forbidden, I used to be contented to play with the nests that were periodically cut down by some male birds during the breeding season, and the innumerable ones gathered during non-breeding season. It was at this period that I saw for the first time mud-blobs fixed inside the nest and learned of the universally believed myth of the bird’s alleged faculty of illuminat- ing its nest. During the past eight years, the lost thread was taken up again and I could visit many tracts in almost all Indian States and make detailed observations on the variation in the baya nests between different pockets in various regions. With my observations together with what has already been recorded, I venture to make the following comments on the significance of the mud-blobs. Before doing so, some of my observations are presented. Presentation of Data Loads of mudjdung per nest Detailed observations on the weaving of a few baya nests were made in 1963 on a colony founded on a palmyra palm ( Borassus flabellifer) at the northern border of Calcutta. The observations on the activities of the selected birds were recorded from the commencement of their day’s work starting from about 5-00 a.m. upto their retirement at about 6-30 p.m. The starting and closing up of the activities in a day depended largely on the intensity of daylight. Records on the number and duration of nest-visits of the cock with or without fibre/mud ; number of visits the hen made while selecting a nest, during brooding a clutch of eggs, and nursing the nestlings; kind of fibre brought and the region of the nest into which they were woven ; pilfering of fibre ; fights bet- ween cocks; and the behaviour of the cock and hen during courtship etc. were maintained. Hence I can say with some confidence when exactly the bird brought the plastering material while constructing the MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS 59 nest. In Text-fig. 1, the number of loads of mud and dung fixed during a day (average for four nests watched throughout their construction) are shown. Crook (1964), a prodigious worker on weaverbirds, has given a detailed description of the nest-construction by baya weaverbird. He mentioned seven distinct stages — formation of an initial wad; wad with horns or cone; initial ring; helmet stage; padded helmet stage; completed nest; and construction after completion. Most of the cocks that I observed nesting on palm leaves started attaching the initial wad in the morning and completed the formation of the ring before dusk. On the second day, porches developed on either side of the ring, and the side that eventually became the egg-chamber grew much faster than the other. On this very second day, the male started bringing loads of mud or cattle dung and fixed them inside the nest. Though the colony I was watching was within city lin its, the host palm was stand- ing in a small neglected paddock, a site for a future factory. Within two metres from the base of this tree there was a shallow pond, a peren- nial source of water where buffaloes wallowed and cropped up the water hyacinth that overgrew the pond. Practically the whole day the buf- faloes laid loose dung on the paddock and the birds took beakfuls of this fresh loose paste. The bayas of this particular colony seemed to prefer dung although mud was abundant on the edges of the pond. Moreover, this paddock, overgrown with Cassia tora and similar annual weeds, was used as an open latrine by the children of a few shacks bor- dering the paddock. At least one of the bayas also brought two loads of faeces in a day for plastering the egg-chamber. On an average, a male baya brought one to six loads of the paste per day from the second to the seventh day of founding the nest. At the end of this period, the nest had only reached the padded helmet stage, and the egg-chamber was yet to be completed. A glance at the graph relating to the nest visits of the male with fibre (Text-fig. 1) will confirm this point. Since on the first day the cock struggled to attach the initial wad for making the vital foundation for the nest, on this day he brought fibre only at the rate of four loads per hour (average for a 14-hour day). With the for- mation of the foundation, the rate of bringing fibre increased, and on the fifth day he brought at the maximum rate of 27 loads per hour. Towards the close of this day the nest attained the helmet stage. From the sixth day, the cock’s building activity began declining, for, hence- forth he appeared more interested in courting a hen and enticing her to select his nest and thus have him as her future mate. This period of courtship continued up to the eighth day; then, obviously, with the acceptance of the nest by a hen, he resumed active nest-building to complete the egg-chamber which is indicated by the upward trend of the graph. It is quite obvious from the graph that no load of mud (or 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) dung) was brought once a female had approved and accepted the nest. The hen was never found bringing mud or dung. Text-fig. 1. Nest-visits of baya cock with fibre (per hour) and mud/dung (per day). On an average, each of the four males observed brought 12*5 loads of mud during a six-day period. However, in general, the number of MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAY A NESTS 61 loads per nest varied very greatly between nests of the same locality and between localities. Examination of 3 to 25 nests from different regions (or States) indicated that not all nests have mud plastering, but prac- tically in every locality there are a few to a large number of nests, each containing one to about twenty loads of the plastering material. The quantity of mud (or dung) in a nest varied according to the quality of the weaving material used, and also depended on whether the nest was woven explicitly or shabbily. Time of bringing mud j dung The male baya starts collecting fibre and weaving them just after 5 a. m., and within an hour he goes for the mud or dung. The earliest I noticed a bird bringing mud was at 5.33 a.m., and the visits extended during the day at irregular intervals up to 4.50 in the evening. However, all visits excepting a single one were finished before 2 p.m. As most of the time I was observing the colony in Calcutta, I was comfortably perched on a 6-metre high machan, I was able to make note of the males during each of their almost vertically downward flights in search of mud or dung. When they flew to bring fibre or left for foraging or to the roost, the males always took a horizontal flight that was strikingly different from that when they went in search of mud/dung. Even with- out field glasses, I could clearly observe the male collecting the paste. During most of their trips a majority of the birds preferred to collect wet dung although mud of a similar consistency was available in close vicinity on the sides of the pond. While collecting the mud /dung, the bird inserts its bill slantingly and scoops out beakfuls. I have never seen the bird stirring or mixing the mud/dung either with its feet or beak. However, once or twice I noticed the bird making a second or even a third scoop at a stretch to collect the required quantity. Only fresh dung was used in all cases since after four or five hours a dung heap dries up and consequently it becomes harder for the bird to scoop out a small quantity from it. Another point that struck me was the way groups of males went to collect mud/dung almost simultaneously. Table 1 gives information on the time of bringing mud/dung by two males building nests of almost similar stage close to each other on a palm. The group collection of mud was so striking that my attention was drawn to that even when the birds I was watching did not participate at it. Either at the collection centre or on their way, the males seldom fight or spend time in fruitless conflicts. Usually, within 30 seconds of leaving the nest, the bird brings a load of mud/dung to the nest. So far I have never noticed pilfering of clay/dung from other nests although pilfering of fibre is part of the nesting activity in the case of most males. Some are more proficient than the others in the clandestine act. 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) Table 1 Ploceus philippinus : Data on number of mud/dung loads brought in TWO NESTS Nest I Nest II Hour Minute Mud Dung Dung Mud Remarks April 2 ?, 1963 Activity commenced at 5*03 hrs. 5 48-5 1 5 49*5 1 5 51 1 Dung was collected from the paddock near the pond. 8 30 1 12 53 1 12 54 7 others gathered mud. 12 55 1 12 57 1 7 others gathered dung. 13 26 4 others gathered dung. 13 53 3 others gathered dung. April ; 10, 1963 5 43*5 1 5 45 1 6 34 i 6 34*5 i 8 23 i 8 38-5 i 8 39*5 i 8 58 i 11 36 Many others gathered dung. 12 07 i 12 40 1 13 49 1 16 50 i May 1, 1963 1 i 5 33 1 Mud was always collected from 7 25-5 1 the side of the pond. 7 28 1 11 00 i 11 02 i 11 04 l 13 51 i Activity terminated at 18T5 hours. N.B. — Foundations for nests I and II were made on April 28, and no mud/dung was brought to the nests on that day. Weight of mudl dung loads I could not weigh the fresh mud/dung used by a bird. Weighing the dry material collected from nests, in some cases several months after their fixing, may not reveal the exact situation. Nevertheless; the data suitably adjusted for the moisture content may give some idea of the MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS 63 total weight of the materials used in a nest. Approximate percentages of moisture content in mud and dung have been calculated by weighing known quantities of fresh mud and dung collected from the same loca- lities and getting their weights after drying them. The figures (in gm) are as follows : Material Wet weight Dry weight Moisture percentage Mud 113*3 66’ 2 41*57 on wet weight Dung 144-0 20’2 85*97 on wet weight Thus, fresh mud weighs a little less than twice the dry mud, but wet dung weighs a little over seven times the weight of dry dung. Figures 1-3 (Plate I & II) show views of mud or dung patches in four nests. Where abundant quantities of the mud/dung are used, they are generally dumped into a thick lump or coating. Hence by examining a patch it is often difficult to estimate the number of loads of the material used in such a patch, especially if it is dung plastering (Plate I, Fig. 2, and Plate II, Fig. 3). However, where the nests have smaller quantities of mud, it is possible to estimate the number of loads mote or less accurately (Plate I, Fig. I). It is still more easy if the mud-blobs are sparsely fixed. Another factor that helps in the identi- fication of individual loads is the variation in the shades of colour of the different loads. In some other cases mud blobs alternate with dung (Plate II, Fig. 3). Faeces plastering is distinctly different from Table 2 Ploceus philippinus: Number of loads and weight of mud in nests Kind of fibre used in nest Mud or Wt. in gm. of plaster on side Calculated Approx. No. dung Left Right Total wet wt. of loads 1 . Sugarcane leaf mud 3*09 7*36 10*45 17*87 7 + 17 2. Sugarcane ,, mud 7*05 5*56 12*61 21*56 16 + 12 S.Wiidcane ,, mud 9*66 16*98 26*64 45*55 17+22 4. Sugarcane ,, mud 1*34 7*53 8*87 15*17 4+21 5. Wild cane ,, mud 2*48 7*58 10*06 17*20 6+16 6. Ordinary grass mud 9*84 11*92 21*76 37*21 20+26 7. Rice leaf dung 2*72 nil 2*72 19*39 9+nil 8. Rice leaf dung 6*30 0*44 6* 74 48*06 30+ 6 9. Ordinary grass mud 13*86 7*64 21*50 36*77 22+15 10. Ordinary grass mud & dung 8*68 8*99 17*67 78*10 22+26 11. Rice leaf mud 35*30 35*30* 60*36* 72+ 0* N.B. — *The figures relate to mud blobs present on only one side. That present on the other side was ignored as portion of it was lost while collecting. Nest 10 had about equal quantities by dry weight of mud and dung. 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (i) the rest. It is on the basis of the above facts that the weight of a single load of mud/dung has been calculated. Table 2 gives data on the weight and number of loads of mud/dung used in individual nests. It appears as though the weight of a single load of mud/dung varies from region to region, although the mean weight works out to be about one gramme. Where smaller numbers of loads are used, as in nests from- southern and western India, the loads seem to be heavier than those seen in North-eastern India. The bird usually carries a load that is maximum for its capacity and since he has to make a steep ascent with the load to reach the nest, he often showed visible signs of strain. On windy days, I noticed some males carrying mud to the nest were tossed away to adjoining leaves. During two such occasions, the birds abandoned the mud/dung and flew for safety. The mud/dung is fixed very firmly on the inner wall of the nest so that it is impossible to pull away the dry plaster without breaking the fibre. Since the bird effectively spreads the sticky material with his beak, beak marks are seen on the surface of the paste which are more clear on mud-blobs (Plate I, Fig. 1). Often fresh fibre is woven so as to cover part of the plaster (Plate I, Fig. 2). Plastering in ‘ Bachelor nest * The helmet-stage nest is also spoken of as * bachelor nest * since up to this stage it has been owned and used during the day time only by the male (builder) who is yet to acquire a mate. If no female selects a nest for a long time, such a nest is either cut down by the builder him- self, or more frequently, it is lengthened unusually with a droll look, still maintaining the two openings. It is more appropriate to consider only such nests as 6 bachelor nests \ The body of some such nests measures three or even four times longer than that of a nest built by an efficient male and accepted fairly soon by a hen. The initial ring in such abnormal nest gets shifted downwards since the inner dome is also proportionally filled up as the nest grows (Davis 1971). It is rather difficult to explain the presence of mud in some ‘ bachelor nests ’ since most others do not have mud. An important reason for a nest to get rejected by females in the normal breeding colony seems to be that it is probably not strong enough to withstand the force of wind. Not only such clumsy and weak nests, but also the wrongly aligned ones are discarded by the hens. Most of these droll looking elongated nests do not have any mud/dung plastering at all. However, in a limited number of them, a maximum possible quantity of mud was seen. While dissecting out one of the nests, mud coating was noticed over a length of 25 cm. on two opposite sides of the portion meant for the egg- chamber. Obviously, most of the mud coating was covered with fibre because the ceiling of the dome was gradually lowered as the bridge MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAY A NESTS 65 extended downward. Even in such a nest, not even a single blob of mud was seen on the wall of the antechamber. Discussion Mud I dung present only on one side of ring Even when the nest of baya weaverbird is incomplete, the birds enter the nest through the opening of the antechamber and perch on the bridge (lower part of the initial ring), facing the future egg-chamber. Accord- ing to Collias & Collias (1962), this situation is remarkably applicable to the African village weaverbird ( Textor cucullatus) which almost always enters the nest from one side and faces the same way, keeping one foot on each side of the bottom of the ring. Perching on the ring, the baya fixes some mud/dung on the wall of only the egg-chamber, usually in two patches, one to the left and the other to the right which happens to be the most convenient places as the bird does not reverse the direction of its perch. So far as the initial ring is concerned these two patches fall only on one side (egg-chamber side). But usually it is stated that mud-blobs are fixed on the two sides of the initial ring. The firefly story The purpose of the mud/dung seen inside the nest is certainly not to hold fireflies to illuminate the nest at night. According to Dewar (1909) and Ali (1931), this story is nothing more than a poetic exag- geration. This is a form of exaggerated eulogy by those who have been fascinated by the sagacity of the tiny bird who weaves an exquisite pen- dant nest. My observations throw further light on two additional points which would disprove this myth. From graph (Text-fig. 1), it is clear that the mud/dung is brought between the second and seventh day of build- ing the nest, at a period when the nest has not reached beyond the hel- met stage. It is an established fact that the builders do not spend the nights inside their nests, but they get back to the usual roosts. More- over, at this stage the nest has not yet been chosen and occupied by a female. Therefore, the 4 wet fittings ’ and the 4 bedroom lamps 5 become meaningless in a vacant house. If at all illuminating the brood-cham- ber is justified, it should be after the hen starts to brood, and more so, when the mother is with fledglings. The other point is based on the information given in Table 1. The timings of bringing the cementing material clearly prove that the mud /dung is not meant for burying the heads of fireflies. Most of the plastering material is carried to the nest between 5-30 a.m. and 2-00 p.m. and by dusk, it becomes too dry and brittle to accommodate an insect. In none of the over one hundred nests I have examined, there was any firefly fixed to the mud — not even a head. None of my students and associates who once believed in the 5 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) myth, could convince me by bringing a nest bearing a firefly. Although beak marks are clearly seen on the dried up mud (Plate I, Fig. 1), they did not resemble the impressions caused by the burying of an insect. Balancing the nest Jerdon (1863), who was one of the earliest to describe the baya, mentioned the significance of mud-blobs thus: ‘ From an observation of several nests, the time at which the clay was placed in the nests, and the position occupied, I am inclined to think that it is used to balance the nest correctly, and to prevent it being blown about by the wind. In one nest lately examined, there was about three ounces of clay in six different patches.’ Jerdon also believed that the pieces of clay are more commonly found in the unfinished nests (built by the males for his own special behoof) than in the complete nests. Ali (1931) reacted sharply to Jerdon’s explanation of the mud being used for steadying the nest during violent winds. Ali did not come across in any of the over fifty nests examined by him, mud weighing more than 1*4 oz. and so he con- cluded that this insignificant extra weight could not keep the nest steady during violent winds. Usually in the same colony there are many nests which do not possess any mud at all, but having equal survival value like those with mud-blobs. The oropendolas ( Zarhynchus wagleri) with long woven pendent nests do not provide any ‘ balancing material ’ against violent trade winds. Crook (1963) mentioned that the use of mud- blobs on either side of the initial ring may stabilise the swinging nest in high winds. But an additional or alternative function is also pos- sible. About the quantity of mud or dung used in a nest, Ali’s figures are somewhat less compared to some of those wet weights given in Table 2. Most of his earlier observations relate to nests from Maha- rashtra State where birds fix smaller quantities of mud whenever they use it. The quantity of mud used in one of the nests taken from a mahua tree (. Madhuca longifolia) standing in a flooded rice field near Varanasi (U.P.) should have been more than what Jerdon had mentioned. While admitting that any extra weight in the nest will contribute towards its stability, and reduce the tilt during wind, it is rather unconvincing that small quan- tities of mud, and in many cases cattle dung that becomes so light when dry (one seventh), can prevent the nest from such violent swayings the nest is subjected to during gales. Moreover, mud is usually smeared only on two fixed positions. If balancing disproportionate nests, arising out of faulty construction, is the main purpose of the mud, why is it that it is always placed at specific regions ? Small changes in the align- ment of the nest can be brought about by making minor modifications in the construction of the nest. Another reason why the balancing theory seems untenable is the fact that the ball nests of Ploceus megar- hynchus which are placed on branches and not liable to be tossed about MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAY A NESTS 61 by wind also have mud-plastering on the inner wall (Ali & Crook 1959). Moreover, even in some nests hung on outgrowths on the walls of wells which are adequately protected from wind have mud-blobs. An ancient custom Ali (1931) suggested that the habit of sticking mud in the nests is a form of atavism — the relic of some ancient custom at one time bene- ficial to the species. He also hoped that a study of allied forms, their evolution and development might throw some light on this point. Wood (1926) was also of similar opinion. Most of the 95 species of weavers (Ploceinae) occur in Africa and only five are known in Asia (. Plcceus philippinus , P. manyar , P. benghalensis , P. megarhynchus and P. hypo - xanthus). According to Crook (1963), the ancestors of the Asian weavers invaded Asia from Africa at a time or times, when a suitable tract of country connected the two continents. None of the Asian species has any particular relationship with any existing African Ploceus species. Although at least four of the Asian weavers are reported using mud-plastering inside the nest, none of the African species is known to use clay or dung in its nest. Hence, the probability of this habit being an ancestral trait is not high. Incidentally, the limited number of nests of P. benghalensis that I had dissected (2 from Varanasi, 2 from Karnal and 3 from Calcutta) did not show any mud or dung, one of them shown in Plate II, Fig. 4 is from Varanasi. Protection against rain Crook (1963) gave yet another explanation for the mud-blobs : that they give shelter to the inmates from pouring rain. He mentioned that Ploceus manyar and P. benghalensis , like P. philippinus , plaster part of the egg-chamber wall with mud which, when dry, is probably a most effective barrier to water. But the baya nest is adequately built not only to withstand the severe gale that accompanies the South-West Monsoon, but also to protect the inmates from being drenched. As the fibre nest is sufficiently thick at least at the roof, no water can enter and stagnate in the egg-chamber. Moreover, within minutes of the rain stopping, the nest gets dry as the porous nest allows quick evapo- ration. On the other hand, if the nest is not otherwise proof against rain, during heavy rains, mud plastering can soak down and cause more discomfort and health hazards to the young. Here, cattle dung coat- ing can be effective rather than mud-plastering. Another objection to this proposition is that nests built in regions having high precipitation do not have large quantities of mud plastering. Parts of west coast of India receive over 2500 mm of rainfall every year. In the Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Mysore regions of West Coast, coconut is the most preferred tree siting for baya nests. This palm also provides very strong leaf 68 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) fibre for nest-building. In these nests, either no mud is fixed at all or very negligible quantities are seen. In the north-eastern region of India comprising West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa where the rainfall is only about 1000 mm per annum, bay a nests show the maximum amount of the plaster. Moreover, the use of dung, a relatively better rainproof material is prevalent here. The rain-proofing theory may further run into difficulties atleast with bay a nest, since the portion of the nest that faces the source of rain or wind is the egg-chamber. The central strip of the egg-chamber that faces rain most is devoid of any plaster since the mud patch or patches are seen on either side away from the middle line (Text-fig. 2). i i DIRECTION OP W/A/D j RAIN Text-fig. 2. Male baya perching on the lower portion of ring and fixing a mud blob at a point not far from the ring. MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS 69 The hemispherical shape of the egg-chamber results from the fact that the male baya invariably builds while perching on the bottom of the ring. Hence, weaving is extended up to where his beak can reach. The bird obviously struggles to weave along the middle strip of the egg- chamber, the farthest region from the ring. This is also the region which is least accessible to the female at the time of her critical nest- examination. As explained earlier, the male carrying a heavy load finds it difficult to reach the middle strip of the egg-chamber. Therefore, he fixes the mud on the side wall nearer to the ring (Text-fig. 2). Thus, two regions are equally close to him, and accordingly, he fixes the mud or dung in two patches. The bird shows no preference for any parti- cular direction for smearing the mud since there are some nests where only one patch is seen either on the left or right side. Some nests have an excess quantity of the plaster on one side either on the left or right. The numerous nests not having any mud/dung do not support the rainproofing theory. Plastering reinforces nest The above discussion shows that the various explanations offered by different ornithologists on the presence of mud/dung in the baya nest are not fully convincing. My views agree with those of Burgess (quoted by Jerdon) who mentioned that the plastering serves to streng- then the nest. Crook also conceded to this view indirectly. The follow- ing information may support this point : 1. Dismantling a nest, fibre by fibre, is impossible without removing the mud/dung coating wherever it is present. In order to find out the total number of fibres involved in the weaving of different types of baya nests from different regions of India, a few nests were dissembled. Sepa- rating the fibre from the free end of the entrance tube backwards, obviously, is the easiest possible way to dismantle a nest. The first nest chosen was a medium-sized coconut fibre nest removed from a coconut palm from Kerala. There were only 4 or 5 loads of mud fixed in two small patches. Dismantling the nest beyond three-fourths the tube was almost impossible since most of the long fibres were caught by the mud directly, or firmly entangled with those fixed by the mud. Removing the dry mud meant breaking of some fibre. Hence the nest was soaked in warm water and the mud washed away. This explains the powerful cementing capacity of even limited number of mud-blobs. Incidentally, the process of separating the fibres of this particular nest took a little over 14 hours, spread over 4 days. This nest had a total of 4,002 fibres (allowing a 2-3% increase due to the breakage of fibre) which measured a total length of about 800 metres. Since coconut leaflets yield very long (one fibre measured even 85 cm) and strong 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) fibre, the number used in this nest is much less compared to that of a nest made of grass blades. 2. Crook (1964) who conducted several tests on the baya, made the following remarks on the use of mud-blobs. ‘ In tests on nests under construction in which the ring was removed, mud-blobs were found scattered at random on the exterior of the structure and even near the point of attachment to the support.’ Although this illustrates the importance of building position in determining the organisation of the normal structure, this also clearly demonstrates the importance of mud as a binding material. The ring being the vital framework of the nest, restoration of damage requires the maximum effort. Since the ring is formed directly from the initial wad at the attachment of the nest with an organ of the host tree, the bird’s attempts to fortify even the point of attachment only suggest baya’s response to reorient the ring from the initial point of the foundation. 3. The plaster keeps the nest intact in spite of the female’s rather violent examination. When a female in search of a nest and a mate enters a half-built nest, she invariably perches on the ring and starts examining it by poking her beak into the walls of the egg-cham- ber and also by palling out fibre. The two regions that are easily acces- sible to her are smeared with mud/dung which reduce her critical exami- nation and save some more fibre from getting pulled out. On the other hand, the plaster appears to reassure her of the strength of the nest, and owners of such nests are likely to get mates quickly. During some of her visits, the nest examiner spends even up to ten minutes at a time in a nest. Daring this period, she is occasionally seen picking up small pieces of the plastering material and working them between the beaks. The exact significance of this is not clear. Whether there is any need to sharpen the beak, and how far the mud/dung helps this, remains to be investigated. 4. Nests built of long and strong fibre as those from leaves of coconut, sugarcane and some wild sugarcane have relatively small quan_ tides of mud or none at all, while those built with weak fibre like those of rice, maize and banana leaves have heavy plastering. Nests in high rainfall areas generally have smaller quantities of mud in them. 5. The quantity of the plaster varies with the quality of nest-weave. For example, in many regions, the baya uses rice leaves. Those in north-eastern India use th- whole unsplit blade or as very broad strips, and eventually such nests are not firm and compact and so they require more cementing material. But the birds in parts of Andhra, Maha- rashtra and Karnataka States, strip a rice blade into several narrow strands and weave the nest more carefully. Such nests generally do not possess any mud/dung. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. &OC. /U ( 1) PLATE I A patch ot mud-blobs showing persisting beakmarks. 2. A portion of a heavy dung plastering covered by fibre Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1) Plate II Mud-blobs and dung plaster us^d in the same patch. 4. Inner view of Ploceus benghalensis nest. MUD AND DUNG PLASTERING IN BAYA NESTS 71 6. A majority of the rejected nests as well as those woven by young males do not have any mud/dung coating at all. 7. The female is not known to weave a nest although she seems capable of selecting a durable one. The success of a brood depends on the strength of the nest since if the nest gives way when it holds either eggs or young, it can only end in disaster, since the female is apparently incapable of nest-repair. Such a selection of an efficient nest becomes all the more meaningful since the male generally deserts his mate and nest when the hen starts brooding her eggs. Ambedkar (1964) reported that some males not only look after the nest subsequently, but also feed the young though not as frequently as the females. The binding effect of the mud/dung need not be over-emphasized. The region of the nest likely to be strained most is the egg-chamber on account of the weight of the young and that of the mother, as well as the strain caused by the hen’s frequent flights in and out of the nest. Therefore, additional rein- forcement of the vulnerable part of the nest has been effected by the cementing material that is usually seen in large quantities inside nests which are otherwise weak. Acknowledgement I thank Mr. S. K. De, Artist of the Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta, for making the inked drawings. References Ali, Salim A. (1931): The nesting habits of the baya ( Ploceus philippinus) . A new interpretation of their domestic relationship. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34 : 947-964. & Crook, J. H. (1959): Obser- vations on Finn’s baya ( Ploceus megar- hynchus Hume) rediscovered in the Kumaon terai. ibid. 56 : 457-483. Ambedkar, V. C. (1964): Some Indian weaver birds. University of Bombay. COLLIAS, N. E. & COLLIAS, E. C. (1962): An experimental study of the mechanisms of nest building in a weaver- bird. Auk 79 : 568-595. Crook, J. H. (1963): A comparative analysis of nest structure in the weaver- birds (Ploceinae). Ibis 105 : 238-262. Crook, J. H. (1964): Field experiments on the nest construction and repair behaviour of certain weaverbirds. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 142 : 217-255. Davis, T. A. (1971): Variation in the nest-structure of the common weaver- bird {Ploceus philippinus ) in India. Forma et Functio 4 : 225-229 Dewar, D. (1909): The nesting habits of the baya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19 : 627-629. Jerdon, T. C. (1863): The birds Of India. Vol. II, Part I, Calcutta. Wood, C. A. (1926): The nest of the weaver bird. Auk 43 : 295-300, Contribution to the Flora of Tirap Frontier Division BY D. B. Deb and R. M. Dutta Botanical Survey of India , Calcutta [Continued from Vol. 69 (3) : 573] Anacardiaceae Rhus semialata Murr. Snail tree with dull white flowers ; common. Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19934. Namsang-Shoha, Oct. 1959, Rao 20345. R. succedanea Linn. var. acuminata (Dp.) Hook. f. Medium-sized tree in fruit. One of the most common trees of this forest. Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26746. Pegia nitida Colebr. Tapiria hirsuta Hook. f. A scandent shrub. Chenglang, March 1958, Mur thy 12913. Aceraceae Acer laevigatum Wall. Large tree in fruit ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961 , Deb 26279. Staphyleaceae Turpinia nepalensis Wall, ex Wt. et Arn. Small tree in fruit ; fruits 3-seeded, globose ; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26245, 26246, & 26249 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25804. POTALIACEAE Fagraea obovata Wall, ex Roxb. Medium -sized tree with yellow flowers ; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26237. FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 73 Buddleiaceae Buddleia asiatica Lour. Shrub with small, pinkish showy flowers ; scarce. Chennhang, March 1958, Murthy 12926. B. macrostachya Benth. Shrub in fruit. Fruits dark brown on drying ; common. Lailong- song, June 1961, Deb 26131 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26352. Strychnaceae Gardneria ovata Wall. Shrub in flower, rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26619. Strychnos wallichiana Benth. Climber with large fruits ; rare. Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26757. Oleaceae Jasminum amplexicaule G. Don Climber with white flowers. Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19965. J. attenuatum Roxb. A climber in flower ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26523. J. coar datum Roxb. Shrub with white mild scented flower, rcarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26595 ; Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12940. J. glandulosum Wall, ex DC. A scandent climber with white flowers ; rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26618 ; Wakka-Nagminu, July 1961, Deb 26536. J. samhac Ait. A wild Jasmine with white flowers, fairly common. Namchick, 152 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20176. J. subtriplinerve Bl. Shrub ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26631. Ligustrum robustum Bl. A tall shrub in fruit ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26209 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26127. 74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) L. roxburghii Clarke Small tree with white flowers ; scarce. Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14713 ; Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26687. Myxopyrum smilacifolium Bl. A twiner on shrubs ; in fruit ; scarce. Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20323. Ajpocynaceae Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston A large climber with scented white flowers ; rare. Chenglang- Khela, 600 m, March 1958, Murthy 12941 ; Tipang, June 1961, Deb 25716 ; Banfera, June 1961, Deb 26708. C. griffithii Hook. f. A stout climber with scented white flowers. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26144. Ichnocarpus ovatifolius A. DC. Climber with white flowers; scarce. Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26731. Melodinus khasiana Hook. f. A tall climber with milky juice. Flowers white ; scarce. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26120 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26629. M. monogynus Roxb. Climber with white flowers. This is larger than M. khasiana Hookf.; rare. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26363. Pottsia laxiflora (Bl.) O. Kuntze A scandent shrub with purple flowers ; scarce. Tipang, June 1961. Deb 25706. Strophanthus wallichii A. DC. Shrub with scented white flowers. Jangkeng village, June 1961. Deb 25865. Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) R. Br. ex Roem. et Schult. A small shrub with white flowers ; common. Margharita-Jairam- pur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19919 ; Namchick, 152 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20185 ; Chenglang, Oct. 1959, Rao 20246. FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 75 Trachelospermum axillare Hook. f. A climber with milky juice. Scented red or pink flowers; rare. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26470 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26208 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26607. T. lucidum (D. Don) K. Sell. Shrub with white flowers. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26353. Pereplocaceae Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schult. f. Climber with fruits ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26588. C. sinensis (Lour.) Merr. C. elegans Wall, ex G. Don Climber with pale yellow flowers; scarce. Lunwa, July 1961, Deb 26640; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25801. Pentanura khasiana Kurz Climber with milky juice in pinkish white flowers ; scarce. Jadua- Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26694 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26603. Periploca calophylla Falc. A much-branched climber in fruits. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26219 ; Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26510. Asclepiadaceae Asclepias curassavica Linn. An undershrub. Flowers bright red with yellow projecting corona ; scarce. Chenglang, Oct. 1959, Rao 20247. Ceropegia angustifolia Wight Climber with yellowish brown flowers with brown stripes ; rare. Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14748. Cynanchum wallichii Wt. A climber. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26573. Dischidia bengalensis Colebr. An epiphyte with milky juice on Schima wallichii Choisy ; common, Jadua, July 1961, Deb 26662. 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) D. nummularia R, Br. A small epiphyte with linear fruits ; rare. Khela, March 1958, Mur thy 12970. Dregea volubilis (Linn, f.) Benth. ex Hook. f. A scarce twiner. Soha village, 1067 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20363. Haterostemma ala turn Wt. Twiner with brownish-yellow flowers ; scarce. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26491. Hay a lanceolata Wall, ex D. Don. An epiphyte with creamy-white flowers with pinkish stamens ; com- mon. Wakka, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14935 ; Raho, July 1961, Deb 26457 ; Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25909. H. linearis Wall, ex D. Don. An epiphyte with milky latex ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26183. H. longifolia Wall, ex Wt. An epiphyte with white flowers ; scarce. Ko thong, June 1961, Deb 26044; Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26475; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25990. H. parasitica Wall. A climber on Shorea robusta Linn. f. with white flowers ; common. Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25881. Tylophora belostemma Benth. A climber. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26480. T. hirsuta (Wall.) Wt. Climber with small violet flowers; rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26579. Rubiaceae Acranthera tomentosa Br. A scarce shrub. Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26709. Coffea arabica Linn. A bushy shrub with white flowers. Cultivated. Khela, June 1961, Deb 25933. FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 77 Galium asperifolium Wall, ex Roxb. A diffused herb with very small flowers ; common. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25971 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26218 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26073. Hedyotis verticil! ata (L.) Lamk. Herb with small white flowers ; common. Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19925 ; Niausa, July 1961, Deb 26564. H, lindleyana Hook. f. ex Wt. & Arn. A prostrate herb with white flowers, scarce. Raho, July 1961, Deb 26427. H. scandens Roxb. ex D. Don An undershrub with ripe bluish fruits, common. Margharita- Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19943 ; Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20055 ; Niausa. Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 15011, Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26140, H. vestita R. Br. ex G. Don Herb with greenish violet flowers ; rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26587. H. diffusa Willd. A common herb. Soha village, Oct. 1959, Rao 20372. Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. A rare herb. Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26686. Lasianthus biermanni King ex Hook. f. Shrub with globose, winged fruits ; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26248 ; Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26481. L. sikkimensis Hook. f. Shrub in fruit ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26593. L. tubiferus Hook. f. A common shrub. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26478. Morinda angustifolia Roxb. Shrub with white flowers ; scarce. Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26673 & 26674 ; Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25883 ; Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26701. M. villosa Hook. f. A shrub about 3 m in height with orange red fruits ; rare. Rusa- Bimalpur, Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 16913. 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL tilST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76 (1) Mussaenda glabra Vahl Shrub with hirsute flowers and dark green fruits ; common. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20030 ; Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb 25866 ; Raho, July 1961, Deb 26416 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26212 ; Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12914. M. glabrata (Hook, f.) Hutch. Shrub with green globular fruits ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19973 ; Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20018. M. macrophylla Wall. Shrub with globose, hairy fruits ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26021 & 26077 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25811. M. roxburghii Hook. f. Shrub with modified sepals white, le^F-like ; in fruit ; common. Tipang, 540 m, June 1961, Deb 25702 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25732. M. wallichii G. Don An undershrub with yellow flowers; common. Tipang, 540 m. June 1961, Deb 25700. Mycetia longifolia (Wall.) O. Kuntze Shrub with small, creamy white or yellow flowers ; scarce. Nam- pong- Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20069 ; Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26508 ; Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb 25859 ; Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26707. Myrioneuron nutans Wall, ex Kurz An undershrub with small yellow fruits ; scarce. Niausa, Sept 1958, Ranigrahi 16714 ; Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26704 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26576. Neanotis ingrata (Wall, ex Hook, f.) W. H. Lewis A soft herb with white flowers ; common. Rusa, Sept. 1958, Pani- grahi 16946 ; Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20265. N. wighti&na (Wall, ex Wt. et Arn.) W. H. Lewis Small herb with white or violet flowers, scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26184 & 26203 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26136. Ophiorrhiza calcarata Hook. f. Herb with pink flowers ; rare. Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb 25864. FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 79 O. harrisiana Heyne A common herb with white flowers. Grows gregariously and forms the undergrowth in moist situations. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26612 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26333. O. paucifloia Hook. f. Small herb with white flowers ; fairly common. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26601. O. succirubra King ex Hook. f. Herb with pink flowers; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26262 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26121 & 26122. O. treutleri Hook. f. A succulent herb with pink flowers and green fruits ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26065. Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr. A twiner with hairy, violet flowers with pungent odour; scarce. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20014. Pavetta subcapitata Hook. f. Shrub with globose berries ; scarce. Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26700. Polyura geminata Hook. f. A small herb with very minute red or pink flowers ; common. Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20392 ; Jadua, July 1961, Deb 26670 ; Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25888 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25737. Psychotria fulva Buch.-Ham. Herb with small flowers and fruits ; scarce. Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26699 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25826 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25731. P. montana Bl. A common shrub. Fruiting; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26128. P. thomsonsi Hook. f. A common shrub of the undergrowth. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26469. Randia griffithii Hook. f. A tree in fruit. Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25960. R. wallichii Hook. f. A medium-sized tree in flower, scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26250. 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) Rubia sikkimensis Kurz A rare climber. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26154. Saprosma ternatum Hook. f. A shrub about 3 m in height. Fruiting ; rare. Nginu-Niausa, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14802. Spermacoce ocymoides Burm. f. A common herb with woody base, white flowers and fruits. Lailong- song, 510 m, June 1961, Deh 25824. Spiradiclis bifida Wall, ex Kurz A common succulent herb with very small, pale white flowers ; common. Tipang, June 1961, Deb 25705, Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25822. S. cylindrica Wall, ex Hook. f. Small herb with small yellow or creamy- white flower ; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20279 ; Lailongsong, 510 m., June 1961, Deb 25823 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26185. Tarenna odorata (Roxb.) Robinson Tree with white flowers and fruits ; rare. Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25879. Uncaria macrophylla Wall. A large shrub, scandent, in fruit. Margharita- Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19952. U. homomalla Miq. A scandent shrub with fruits; scarce. Chenglang, March 1958, Mur thy 12915. U. sessilifructus Roxb. A large scandent shrub in fruit ; scarce. Namchick-Chenglang, Oct. 1959, Rao 20211 (A) ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26393. Meyna laxiflora Robyns Vangueria spinosa Roxb. A bushy shrub with flowers and fruits growing in clearings in the forest. Lunwa, July 1961, Deb 26641. Wendlandia wallichii Wt. & Arn. A small tree with small, sessile flowers and greyish green fruits in large bunches ; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26244; Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26505. FLORA OF T1RAP FRONTIER DIVISION 81 BlGNONIACEAE Radeimachera bipinnaca (Coll, et Hemsl.) Van Steenis A climber. Flower showy, yellow outside and violet inside. This is worthy of introduction as an ornamental plant. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26124 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25943. R. gigantea Miq. A rare tree. Fruiting. Pungchow-Niausa, June 1961, Deb 26645. Stereospermum personatum (Hassle.) Chatter. A medium-sized tree with violet and yellowish tinged flower ; common* Longsek hillock, June 1961, Deb 25720 ; Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26537. Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26743. Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum Linn. Cultivated near cottages. Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19946. Verbenaceae Callicarpa arborea Roxb. ex C. B. Clarke A small tree with violet or pinkish flowers ; scarce. Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26697 ; Lailongsong, 510 m., June 1961, Deb 25788. C. longifolia Lamk. var. lanceolaria Clarke A shrub in the exposed region of the forest ; scarce. Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20320 ; Deomali, July 1961, Deb 25892. C. rubella Lindl. A shrub with purple flowers and fruits ; common. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25916 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26074. Clerodendron bracteatum Wall, ex Walp. A shrub with ripe bluish fruits ; Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26740. C. colebrookianum Walp. A shrub with white flower and dark green fruits with calyx ; common. Margharita-Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19956 ; Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20041 ; Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20388. 6 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (1) C. divaricatum Jack A tall shrub with whitish blue flowers and oily green fruits ; common. Lailongsong (Chenglang), 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25816 ; Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20393 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26585. C. hast alum Lindl. A small tree ; scarce. Banfera-Kanubari, July 1961, Deb 26737. C. iasiocephalum C. B. Clarke Shrub with dull to deep red flowers and small green fruits ; scarce. Chenlang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20268 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26085 ; Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12954. Premna racemosa Wall, ex Schaner. Shrub or small tree with white, small flowers ; scarce. Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26442; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26608 & 26630; Pungchow-Niausa, July 1961, Deb 26651 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26328 & 26364. Verbena officinalis Linn. An undershrub ; very common. Rhonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25998 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26072. Vitex canescens Kurz A big tree in zygomorphic, dull white flowers with externally tomen- tose corolla ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26207. V. heterophylla Roxb. A medium-sized tree with small white flowers and fruits ; common. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20258 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25728. V. negundo Linn. A shrub with blue-violet flowers; common. Niausa, July 1961, Deb 26556. Helleboraceae Isopyrum adiantifolitim Hook. f. & Th. A succulent herb. This is recorded to occur in Sikkim and upper Burma only ( vide S. K. Mukerjee in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2 : 106, 1960). This record from NEFA indicates that it is distributed all over the Eastern Himalayas from Sikkim to Burma. Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26435. FLORA of tirAp frontier division 83 Ranunculaceae Anemone howellii W. W. Smith & Jeff. A herb with dull white flowers ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26407. Ranunculus diffusus DC. A herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Raho- Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26314. R. laetus Wall, ex Royle Herb with yellow flowers ; common. Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25975. R. cantonlensis DC. Herb in yellow flowers ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26050 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26596. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. A herb with small flowers ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26514. Menispermaceae Aspidocarya uvifera Hook. f. & Thoms. A climber with red flowers ; rare. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26616 & 26628. Haematocarpus thomsonii Miers A woody climber ; rare. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26147. Pericamphylus glaucus (Lamk.) Merr. A climber with small flowers ; scarce, Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26189 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26148; March 1958, Murthy 12907. Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers var. discolor (Miq.) Forman A climber with red fruits ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19979 ; Lailongsong, 510 m., June 1961, Deb 25786 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26114. Aristolochiaceae Aristoloehia platanifolia Du chart. A climber with 6-ridged fruits ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26501. 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCfETY, Vol 70 (i) A. saccata Wall. Climber with tan coloured flowers ; common. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26239 ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26405 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26319. ) .... Asarum himalaicum Hook. f. & Th. var. bhutanicum W. W. Smith A succulent herb. Grows in moist, shaded area ; rare. Raho- Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26421. PlPERACEAE Peperomia heyneana Miq. A succulent herb, sometimes grows as an epiphyte ; common. Raho-Vokanoska, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16845 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26090, Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25970; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26354. P. pellucida (Linn.) H.B.K. An annual succulent herb ; common. Banfera-Longhoi, Aug 1958, Panigrahi 16755. P. tetraphylla (Forst. f.) Hook, et Arn. An epiphyte ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26196 ; Khonsa- Laju, June 1961, Deb 25970. Piper attenuatum Buch.-Ham. A climber ; scarce. Jadua-Banfera, July 196i, Deb 26667 ; Lailong- song, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25813. P. betle Linn. A cultivated twiner. Soha village, Oct. 1959, Rao 20361. P. boehmeriaefolium Wall, ex C. DC. forma glabrifolium DC. A scarce climber ; fruiting. Kheti-Tinchha, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14542. P. mannii DC. An epiphyte with spikes ; scarce. Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16823 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26336. P. mullesua D. Don Succulent epiphyte ; scarce. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26116 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25748. FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 85 F. nepalense Miq. An epiphyte with about 25 cm long spike ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26597 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25755. P. nigrum Linn. var. macrostachyum C. DC. A succulent shrub with solitary whitish green spike ; rare. Wakka, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14925 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26045 ; Khela, June 1961, Deb 25935. P. peepuloides Roxb. A root climber with spike ; common. Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20316 ; Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25749. P. sylvaticum Roxb. A climber with long, pale green spike having small conical fruits ; scarce. Soha village, Oct. 1959, Rao 20359. P. thomsonii Hook. f. A root climber with erect fruiting spike ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19995 ; Deomali, June 1961, Deb 25889 ; Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26676. Saururaceae Houttuynia cordata Thunb. A herb ; bracts white ; scarce. Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb 25852. Chloranthaceae Chloranthus officinalis Bl. An undershrub with very small sessile white flowers ; common. Chenglang-Khela, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14440 ; Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19997 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25791 ; Jadua-Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26677. Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum Linn. A herb with solitary white flowers and fruits ; flowers and fruits vary much in size. Probably an escape from cultivation. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26037, 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Cruciferae Brassica juncea Czern. & Coss. Herb under cultivation; yellow flower, Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26272. B. rugosa Prain Herb. Probably an escape from cultivation. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26176. Cardamine circaeoides Hook. f. & Th. Herb. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26318. C, hirsuta Linn. var. sylvatica Link An annual herb with small, white flowers ; scarce. Raho, July 1961, Deb 26382 ; Noglo-Laju, June 1961, Deb 26368. C. seoriarum W. W. Smith A herb of moist shady situations at altitudes of 1800-2100 m ; flowers and fruits in May-July. A native of China recorded for India by Deb in Ind . For. 91(3) : 193, 1965. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26411. Molluginaceae Mollugo pentaphylla Linn. A diffused herb with greenish flowers ; scarce. Niausa, July 1961, Deb 26561. Caryophyllaceae Drymaria diandra Bl. A diffused or prostrate herb with light green or whitish flowers ; com- mon. Nampong-Pangsupass, 791-1128 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20087. POLYGONACEAE Fagopyrum cymosum Meissn. Herb with flowers in white heads. Forms pure stands on the forest floor ; very common. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26050 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 26000. Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham. A herb with white, yellow or pink heads ; common. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25917 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26025 & 26068 ; Chennhang, FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 87 June 1961, Deb 26178 ; Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20149; Pungchow, July 1961, Deh 26602, P. barbatum Linn, A perennial herb with greenish white flowers. Common in marshy places. Rusa-Bimalpur, Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 16960. P. caespitosum Bl. Herb with white or small pinkish flowers. Common in marshy places. Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25830 ; Nampong-Pangsu- pass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20054. P. chinense Linn. A tall herb with white flowers in marshy regions. Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25818 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26323 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26257. P. chinense Linn. var. malaicum(Danser) Steward A perennial herb with brownish red flowers ; rare. Laju hills, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14662. P. chinense Linn. var. ovalifolia Meissn. A herb with black fruits. Tipang, 540 m, June 1961, Deb 25719. P. hydropiper Linn. var. hispidum (Hook, f.) Steward A perennial herb with red flowers ; scarce. Khonsa-Kheti, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14520. P. hydropiper Linn. var. flaccidum (Meissn.) Steward A perennial herb in greenish white flowers ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 20003 ; Chenglang-Khela, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14435 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25980. P. runcinatum Buch.-Ham. A herb in white flowers ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26057. P. virginianum Linn. A perennial herb in red flower buds ; scarce. Wakka, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14911. Rumex maritimus Linn. A scarce herb that occurs in small communities. Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25997. 88 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera Linn. A small herb. Longsek hillock, 1500 m, June 1961, Deb 25746. A. bidentata Bl. A herb with green spike with pinkish tips ; scarce. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26613 ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26418. Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hill. An introduced herb with whitish chaffy inflorescence. Wakka, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14908. A. sessilis (Linn.) DC. A soft herb with condensed spike with creamy white flowers ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19985. A. lividus Linn. Prostrate herb. Langsang forest (Kothong), June 1961, Deb 26141. Celosia argentea Linn. A small herb with deep mauve or pinkish spike. Probably an escape from cultivation ; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, 600m, March 1958, Mur thy 12938. Cyathula prostrata (Linn.) Bl. An annual herb with greenish white flowers ; common. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19993 ; Longsek hillock, June 1961, Deb 25746. Lythraceae Cuphea balsamona Ch. & Schl. A prostrate herb with blue flowers ; scarce. Namchick-Chenglang, Oct. 1959, Rao 20211. Onagraceae Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven sub sp. sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven A scarce herb with yellowish flowers. Margharita- Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19931 ; Deomali, Oct. 1959, Rao 20303 & 20304 ; Niausa, July 1961, Deb 26562. Ludwigia prostrata Roxb. A herb of marshy places; scarce. Namchick, 152 m, Oct. 1959, Rao 20183. FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 89 Gentianaceae Canscora andrographioides Griff, ex C. B. Clarice A common herb, in flower and fruits. Namchick-Chenglang, Oct. 1959, Rao 20210, Exacum tetragonum Roxb. Herb with beautiful blue flowers ; scarce. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20161. Tripterospermum speciosum (Wall.) Raizada A twiner, in flower ; scarce. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959 Rao 20033. Primulaceae Lysimachia congestiflora Hemsl. Herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26192. This was originally described from China. Its occurrence is an extension of its distribution. L. evalvis Wall. Herb with solitary, pendent flowers ; scarce. Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26123 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26258. L. japonica Thunb. A diffused much branched herb with yellow flowers ; common. Noglo-Laju, June 1961, Deb 26371 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25962, Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26059. L. lobelioides Wall. Herb with campanulate flowers ; scarce. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26061. L. laxa Bauda Herb with yellow flowers ; common. Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26397 ; Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26317. L. rubiginosa Hemsl. Herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Chegum-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26483. Originally described from China, this record extends the distribution. 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Plantaginaceae Plantago erosa Wall. A very common herb in flower. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26095; Lailongsong, June 1961, Deb 25815. Umbelliferae Eryngium foetidum Linn. A common perennial herb of open places. Flowering and fruiting. Sometimes cultivated for the leaves and fruits used in curries. Jadua- Banfera, July 1961, Deb 26679. Heracleuni wallichii DC. A rare herb with white flowers, petiole winged with brown streaks. Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14787 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26252. H. wallichii DC. var. elator Clarke A herb of moist soil; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20267. Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. A prostrate herb with small flowers. The juice of the leaves mixed with charcoal is used for wounds. The fruit is reputed to be a snake bite cure. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20026; Tipang, June 1961, Deb 25710 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26058 ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26396. H. podentha Molkenb. var. podentha (Molkenboer) C.B. Clarke A diffused runner ; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20271 ; Langsang forest, June 1961, Deb 26142. Oenanthe thomsonii Clarke An annual herb with white flowers. Grows gregariously in the ground cover ; very common. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25918 ; Jangkeng village, June 1961, Deb 25860 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26070. Ptemopetalum semi Deb et Dutta A perennial herb with purple flowers. Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26394. Sanicula elata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Perennial herb with white flowers and small fruits ; rare. Wakka, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16900 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26056. FLORA OF TIRAP FRONTIER DIVISION 91 Lobeliaceae Lobelia afflnis Wall. var. lobbiana Hook. f. & Thoms. A herb of moist soil with small, pale bluish violet flowers ; common. Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Mur thy 12946. L. pyramidalis Wall. Herb with solitary, axillary, bluish flowers ; rare. Chenglang- Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20261. L. rosea Wall. Shrub with violet flowers ; scarce. Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25993. L. succulenta Bl. Small herb with minute violet flowers ; common. Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12912. Pratia montana (Reinw.) Hassk. A soft herb with white flowers ; common. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20025 ; Rusa-Bimalpur, Sept. 1958, Panigrahi 16990 ; Raho-Wakka, July 1961, Deh 26409. P. mimmularia (Lamk.) A.Br. et Ascherson A prostrate herb with pinkish flowers and shining chocolate brown fruits. Common in moist places. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20257 ; Chenglang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12945 ; Lailongsong, 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25827. COMPOSITAE Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Ktze. Herb with whitish head ; scarce. Chenglang-Khela, Oct. 1959, Rao 20256 ; Wakka-Nagminu, July 1961, Deb 26540 ; Raho- Vokanoska, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 16857 ; Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26570. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Herb in violet flowers. Very common in forest clearings. Namchick, Oct. 1959, Rao 20174 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26186. Ainsliaea iatifolia (D. Don) Schulz-Bip A suffrutiscent herb with radical leaves ; scarce. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26259. 92 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (1) Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Clarke) Pamp. A gregarious herb ; very common. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26530. Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff. Herb with pinkish head ; grows gregariously in shade ; scarce. Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12928; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26188. B. pilosa Linn. An annual with white ligulate flowers ; common. Nampong- Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20053. Blumea faenryi Dunn Shrub. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25919. B. pubigera (L.) Merr. Shrub. Heads with yellowish stamens ; scarce. Khela-Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12988. B. laciniata DC. Herb with pinkish head ; scarce. Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12925. Cnicus griflithii Hook f. A tall plant. Leaves deeply cleft and thorny. Heads with greenish brown involucre of bracts ; rare. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20150. Cosmos caudatus Hook. f. Herb with yellow flower ; scarce. Khonsa, June 1961, Deb 25922. Crassocephalum crepidiodes (Benth.) S. Moore A herb with purplish flowers ; common. Chenglang, March 1958, Murthy 12921 ; Chennhang, June 1963, Deb 26187. Eclipta prostiata (Linn.) Linn. Prostrate herb with white flowers ; scarce. Nampong-Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20024. Erigeron linifolium Willd. Herb with whitish disked head ; scarce. Lailongsong 510 m, June 1961, Deb 25829 ; Laju-Raho, Aug. 1958, Panigrahi 14733. Eupatorium capillifolium (Lamk.) Small. A perennial herb. Cultivated as a garden plant. Margharita- Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19904. FLORA OF TI RAP FRONTIER DIVISION 93 Gynura cusimbua (D. Don) Moore Herb with violet, orange yellow or pink red flowers. Grows gre- gariously in shade ; fairly common. Lailongsong, 510 m., June 1961, Deb 25819 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26048 ; Khonsa-Laju, June 1961, Deb 25983 ; Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26046. Gnaphalium luteoalbum Linn. A herb with yellow flowers in moist slopes or cultivated land. Cheng- lang, Murthy 12922 ; Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26191. Lactuca rostrata (Bl.) O. Kuntze A herb with heads ; rare. Kothong, June 1961, Deb 26049, Khonsa- Laju, June 1961, Deb 25995. L. gracilis DC. Herb with yellow flowers ; scarce. Wakka, July 1961, Deb 26524. Laggera pterodonta Benth. A herb of moist soil with mauve coloured flowers ; rare. Cheng- lang-Khela, March 1958, Murthy 12942. Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) Robin. A twining weed of Jhum land ; very common. Namchick, Oct. 1959, Rao 20188. Myriactis nepalensis Less. Herb with dull white flowers ; scarce. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26355. M. wallichii DC. An annual herb with yellowish white head ; scarce. Nampong- Pangsupass, Oct. 1959, Rao 20151. Sonchus arvensis Linn. A herb with axillary and terminal inflorescence ; rare. Raho- Wakka, June 1961, Deb 26480. Spilanthus acmella (Linn.) Murr. A herb with yellowish ligulate florates head ; scarce. Namchick, Oct. 1959, Rao 20175. Vernonia volkameriaefolia DC. A tall shrub with brown head ; common. Pungchow, July 1961, Deb 26586, 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Wedelia wallichii Less. An annual herb with yellow flowers ; common. Noglo, June 1961, Deb 26369. Xanthium strumarium Linn. An undershrub in fruit ; scarce. Jairampur, Oct. 1959, Rao 19986. Yotmgia japonicum (L.) DC. Herb with pink flowers ; rare. Chennhang, June 1961, Deb 26198. (to be continued) Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue and Bibliography BY B. K. Tikader Zoological Survey of India , 8, Lindsay Street , Calcutta- 16 [Continued from Vol. 69 (1) : 101] Family Thomisidae Genus REGILLUS Cambridge 1884 341. Regillus elephantus Tikader 1966. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 64: 54. Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. Genus RUNCINIA Simon 1875 342. Ruiiciiiia escheri Reimoser 1934. Revue Suisse. Zool. 14: 487. Distribution : India : Andhra Pradesh. Type: ? 343. Runcinia roonwali Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 : 278 Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra ; Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. Genus SYNAEMA Simon 1864 344. Synaema fmmettii Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 57 8 fig. 10. Distribution : India : Darjeeling, West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 345. Synaema decorata Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 174, fig. 2a-c. Distribution : India : West Bengal ; Mysore; Maharashtra. Type : ZSL 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Genus STRIGOPLUS Simon 1885 346. Strigoplus netravati Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 : 252 ; fig. 3a, b. Distribution : India : Chikmagalur district, and South Kanara district, Mysore. Type: ZSI. Genus THOMISUS Walckenaer 1805 347. Thomisus beautifularis Basu 1963. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 5 : 23. Distribution : India : Calcutta, West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 348. Thomisus bulani Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 178. Distribution : India : Calcutta, West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 349. Thomisus cherapunjeus Tikader 1966. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 64: 55. Distribution : India : Shillong, Cherapunjee, Assam. Type : ZSI. 350. Thomisus dhakuriensis Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 180. Distribution : India : West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 35k. Thomisus elongatus Stoliczka 1869. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 38 : 227. Distribution : India : West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 352. Thomisus katrajghatus Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 : 259. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. 353. Thomisus lobosus Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 : 285. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type: ZSI. SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 97 354. Thomisus memae Sen and Basu 1963. Sci. and Cult . 29 : 515. Distribution : India : West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 355. Thomisus peelianus Stoliczka 1869. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 38 : 226. Distribution : India : Sibsagar, Assam. Type: ZSI. 356. Thomisus pooneus Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 : 283. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. 357. Thomisus projectus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 182. Distribution : India : West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 358. Thomisus pugilis Stoliczka 1869. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 38 : 225. Distribution : India : West Bengal ; Madras ; Punjab. Type : ZSI. 359. Thomisus shivajiensis Tikader 1965. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 61 : 284. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. 360. Thomisus shillongensis Sen 1963. Sci. and Cult. 29 : 610. Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. 361. Thomisus sikkimensis Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44: 570, fig. 5a-c. Distribution : West Sikkim. Type : ZSI. 362. Thomisus sorajaii Basu 1963. Sci. and Cult. 29 : 606. Distribution : India : West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 7 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Genus THANATUS Koch 1837 363. Thanatus dhakuricus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc . 57: 177, fig. 4. Distribution : India : Calcutta, West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 364. Thanatus lanceoletus Tikader 1966. Rec. Indian Mus. 59 (4) : 443. Distribution : India : Bikaner, Rajasthan. Type : ZSI. 365. Thanatus mandali Tikader 1965. Sci. and Cult. 31 : 39, fig. la, b. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. Genus TIBELLUS Simon 1895 366. Tibellus chaturshingi Tikader 1962. J. Poona Univ. Sci. and Tech. 22: 133, fig. 1. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. 367. Tibellus elongatus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 176, fig. 3a, b. Distribution : India : West Bengal ; Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. 368. Tibellus katrajgbatus Tikader 1962. J. Poona Univ. Sci. and Tech. 22 : 136, fig. 3. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. 369. Tibellus poonaensis Tikader 1962. J. Poona Univ. Sci. and Tech. 22 : 134, fig. 2. Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra. Type : ZSI. Genus TMARUS Simon 1875 370. Tmarus kotigeharus Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 : 250, fig. 2a-c. Distribution : India : Mysore ; Maharashtra ; Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 99 Genus XYSTICUS Koch 1835 371. Xysticus hindustanicus Basu 1963. /. Asia. Soc. Bengal 5 : 23. Distribution : India : Dum Dum, Calcutta, West Bengal. Type : ZSI. 372. Xysticus joyantius Tikader 1966. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 8 (4) : 3. Distribution : India : Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam. Type : ZSI. 373. Xysticus kamakhyai Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 575, fig 7. Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. 374. Xysticus kashidi Tikader 1963. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 58 : 261, fig. 11. Distribution : India : Mysore. Type : ZSI. 375. Xysticus mandali Tikader 1966. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 64 : 58. Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. 376. Xysticus minutus Tikader 1960. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 173. Distribution : India : West Bengal;, Poona, Maharashtra ; Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. 377. Xysticus pynurus Tikader 1966. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal 8 (4) : 1. Distribution : India : Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam. Type : ZSI. 378. Xysticus roonwali Tikader 1964. Rec. Indian Mus. 59 (3) : 264. Distribution : Nepal and Sikkim. Type : ZSI. 379. Xysticus shillongensis Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 578. Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam. Type : ZSI. 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) 380. Xysticus shyamrupus Tikader 1966. Proc . Indian Acad. Sci. 64 : 57. Distribution : India : Shillong, Assam. Type: ZSI. 381. Xysticus sujatai Tikader 1962. J. Linn. Soc. London 44 : 577. Distribution : India : Shillong, NEFA. Type: ZSL Family Urocteidae Genus UROCTEA Dufour 1820 382. Uroctea indica Pocock 1900. fauna brit. India Arachnida , p. 243, fig. 83. Distribution : India : Western India, Poona, Maharashtra. Type : BMNH. References Basu, B. D. (1963) : A new spider of the family Thomisidae (Araneae) from India. Sci. and Culture , Calcutta 29 : 606. (1 963) : On the description of two new spiders of the family Thomi- sidae (Arachnida : Araneae) from India. J. Asia. Soc., Bengal, Calcutta 5 (1-2) : 23-26. (1964) : Diagnosis of two new species of Pistius (Thomisidae: Araneae : Arachnida) from India. J. Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc., Darjeeling 32 (2) : 104-109. (1964) : Morphology of an Indian spider of the family Thomisidae (Araneae : Arachnida). Sci. and Cult., Calcutta 30 (3): 154-155. — (1965) : Four new species of the spider genus Pistius Simon (Arach- nida : Araneae) Thomisidae from India. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 18 : 71-77. Bhatnagar, R. D. S. & Sadana, G. L. (1965) : Sexual behaviour in Lycosa chaprei Simon (Arachnida : Araneae), J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 (3) : 568-572. Bhattacharya, G. C. (1 934) : The lizard-eating spiders of Bengal. Sci. Mon.N.Y. 39: 176. (1934) : Notes on obser- vation of some peculiar habits of an ant- mimicking spider Amyciaea forticeps (Camb.) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37 (1) : 233. Bhattacharya, G. C. (1935) : A new species of gregarious spider mimicking Camponotus compressus. Sci. and Culture , Calcutta 1 (3) : 159. __ (1936): Notes on some peculiar habits of Marpissa melanog- nathus. ibid. 1 (12) : 720. (1939) : Observation of some peculiar habits of spider Marpissa melanognathus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39 (1) : 142. (1941) : Heteropoda vena - toria preying on a Pipistrelle bat. Curr. Sci., Bangalore 10 (3) : 183. — — (1941) : The food and habits of the house spider Heteropoda vena- tor ia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 : 821. Blackwall, J. (1864) : Descriptions of seven new species of East Indian spiders, received from the Rev. O. P. Cambridge. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 14 (3) : 36-45. (1867): Description of several species of East Indian spiders, apparently new or little known to Arachniologists. ibid. 19 (3) : 387-394. Cambridge, O. P. (1869) : Part I of catalogue of a collection of Ceylon Arachnidea lately received from Mr. J. Nietner with description of new species and characters of a new genus. Proc. Linn. Soc. Zool., London 10 : 375-397. SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 101 Daniel, J. C. & Soman, P. W. (1961) : Observations on the spider Latrodectus hasseltii indicus Simon with a note on arachnidism. J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3) : 823-826. (1962): Abdominal mark- ings of a thomisid spider, ibid. 59 (2) 681. Dyal, S. (1935) : Spiders of Lahore. Bull. Zool. Punjab Univ. 1 : 119-252. (1942) : A new water spider from Dal lake, Kashmir. Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. 28 (3) : 178. (1947) : Life history and habits of Cyrtophora citricola (Forskal). Bull. Zool. Punjab Univ. 2:19. Fischer, C. E. C. (1910) : Pairing of the spider Nephila maculata Fab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20 (2) : 526-528. (1910) : Further note on the spider N. maculata Fab. ibid. 20 (2) : 528. — (1910) : Further note on the spider N. maculata Fab. ibid. 20 (3) : 887-888. Gravely, F. H. (1912) : Mimicry of a mutillid by a spider. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta 7 : 87. (1915): Notes on Indian Mygalomorph spiders, ibid. 11 : 257- 352. (1915) : Notes on the habits of Indian Insects, Myriapoda and Ara- chnida. ibid. 11 : 485. (1915) : The Evolution and Distribution of oriental spiders belong- ing to the sub-family Aviculariidae. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta. (1921): The Spiders and Scorpions of Barkuda Island. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta 22 : 399-421. (1921) : Some Indian spiders of the Sub-family Tetragnathinae. ibid. 22 : 423-459. (1922) : Common Indian spiders. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 1045-1050. (1924) : Some Indian spiders of the family Lycosidae. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta 26: 587-613. (1931) : Some Indian spiders of the families Ctenidae, Sparassidae: Selenopidae and Clubionidae. ibid. 33 : 211-282. Hingston, R. W. G. (1922) : The snare of the Giant wood spider (N. maculata ) Parti. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28(3) : 642 649. (1922) : The snare of the Giant wood spider ( N . maculata ) Parts II & III. ibid. 28 (4) : 911-923. (1922) : The Giant wood spider ( N . maculata). Part IV. ibid. 29 (1) : 70-76. Hirst, A. S. (1909) : On some new or little-known Mygalomorph spiders from the Oriental Region and Australia. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta 3 : 383-390. Karsch, F. (1 892) : ‘ Arachniden von Ceylon und von Minikey gesamolt von den Herren Doctoren P. und F. Saresin ’. Ent. Z. Berlin 35 : 263-310. Louis, F. (1924) : Araneids from the Siju cave, Garo Hills, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta 26 : 63-67. Narayan, K. (1915) : Notes on Ant- like spiders of the family Attidae in the collection of the Indian Museum, ibid. 11 : 393-409. Pocock, R. I. (1899): Diagnosis of some new Indian Arachnidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 744-753. (1900): The Fauna of British India. Arachnidae. London, pp. 153- 272. (1900) : The Great Indian Spiders of the genus Poecilotheria : its habits, history and species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 121-133. (1901) : Descriptions of some new species of spiders from British India, ibid. 13: 478-498. Reimoser, E. (1934) : Araneae aus Sud-Indien. Revue Suisse Zool. 41 : 465- 511. (1963) : On a new species from India belonging to the genus Tho - misus Walckenaer 1805 (Thomisidae : Araneae). Science and Culture, Calcutta 29 : 610-611. Sen, J. K. & Basu, B. D. (1963) : Thomisus mimae, a new spider (Thomi- sidae : Araneae) from Calcutta, ibid, 29 (10) : 515-516. Sherriff, W. R. (1919) : A contribution to the study of South Indian Arachno- logy. I. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9 : 220- 253. — (1927) : A contribution to the study of South Indian Arachnology. II. ibid. 9: 533-542. (1928) : South Indian Arachnology. III. ibid. 10 (2) : 177. (1929) : South Indian Arachnology. IV. ibid. 10 : 233-249. (1951) : Some oriental spiders of the genus Oxyopes. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 120 : 651. Simon, E. (1887) : ‘ Etude sur les Arachnides de 1’ Asie meridionale faisant partie des collections de 1’ Indian Museum (Calcutta). 1. Arachnides recucillis a’ Tavoy (Tanesserim) per Moti Ram *. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal, Calcutta 56 : 101- 117. (1889): ‘Etude sur les Arachnides de V Himalaya recueillis par MM. Oldham et Wood-Mason’, ibid. 58 : 334-344. (1904) : Arachnides recuel- lis par M. F. Pavie en Indo-Chine. Mission Pavie on Indo-Chine, 1879- 102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) 1895, III. Recherches sur 1* Histoire Naturelle de 1* Indo-Chine orientale. Arachn., pp. 270-295, pi. xvi. Simon, E. (1905) : Voyage de M. Maurice Msindron dans 1* Inde meri- dional. Arachnides. Ann. Soc. Ent. Paris 74 : 167. (1906) : Voyage de M. Maurice Maindron dans 1’ Inde meri- dional, 8 Memoire, Arachnides (2= partie). ibid. 75 : 279-324. Sinha, T. B. (1951) : On the collection of Lycosid spiders in the Zoological Survey of India (Indian Museum), with critical notes on the species. Rec. Indian Mus. Calcutta 48 (2) : 9-52. (1952) : Some Indian spiders of the family Hersiliidae. ibid. 48 (3-4) : 123-126. (1953) : Some Indian spiders of the family Argiopidae. ibid. 49 : 67-68. Stoliczka, F. (1869) : Contribu- tions towards the knowledge of Indian Arachnoidea. /. Asiat. Soc. Bengal , Calcutta 38: 201-251. Subrahmanyam, T. V. (1949) : Some Indian spiders ; Their season of pros- perity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 (1) : 217. (1944) : Reoccurrence of the house spider Heteropoda venatoria in the field, ibid. 44 (3) : 493. (1953) : On the habits of Indian Eresid spider Stegodyphus sarasi- norum Karsch. ibid. 51 : 521. (1953) : Occurrence of Nephila malabarensis in Bombay, ibid. 51 : 952. (1968) : An introduction to the study of Indian Spiders, ibid. 65 (2): 453-461. (1969) : An introduction to the study of Indian spiders, ibid. 65 (3): 726-743. Tembe, V. B. & Thakur, M. K. (1960) : Nephila maculata, Zoological Memoirs No. 5. University of Bombay, pp. 1-74. Thakur, M. K. & Tembe, V. B. (1953) : A note on spiders of Bombay region. Proc. 40 th Indian Sci. Congr., p. 202. — (1956) : Bionomics of the giant wood spider Nephila maculata Fab.. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (3) : 330-334. Thorell, T. (1890) : Diagnoses Aranearum aliquot navarum in Indi- malesia inventarum. Ann. Mus. Stor. Nat. Genova 10 (2a) : 132-172. (1895) : Descriptive cata- logue of the spiders of Burma. London, pp. 1-404. Tikader, B. K. (1960) : Revision of Indian spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne (Argiopidae : Araneae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3) : 543-556. Tikader, B. K. (I960) : On two new species of spiders of the genus Oxyptila (Family : Thomisidae) from India. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 13 .(2).: 115-118. (1960) : On some new species of spiders (Arachnida) of the family Thomisidae from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1) : 173-183. (1961) : Protective devices of some orb-weaving spiders from India, ibid. 58 (3) : 826-829. (1962) : On two new species of spiders of the genus Sctophaeus and Drassodes (Family Gnaphosidae) from West Bengal. Proc. First All India Congress of Zoology 2 : 570-573. (1962) : Studies on some spiders of the genus Oecobius (Family Oecobiidae) from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (2) : 682-685. (1962) : On two new species of spider of the genus Philo- dromus (Family Thomisidae) from India. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 15 (1) : 39-42. (1962) : Studies on some Indian spiders (Araneae : Arachnida). J. Linn. Soc., London 44 (300) : 561-584. — (1962) : On some new species of spiders of the genus Tibellus (Family Thomisidae) from India. J. Univ. Poona Sci. and Tech. 22 : 133-137. (1963) : Studies on interest- ing South Indian crab-spiders (Family Thomisidae). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 58 (5) : 249-262. (1963) : A new species df spider of the genus Oxyptila (Family Thomisidae) from India. Science and Culture, Calcutta 30 : 152-153. (1963) : Further studies on Indian spiders of the genus Cyrtarachne (Family Argiopidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 (1) : 269-274. (1963) : On a new species of spider of the genus Loxosceles (Family : Scytodidae) from India. Proc. Zool. Soc., Calcutta 16 (1) : 23-25. — (1963) : Studies on some spider fauna of Maharashtra and Mysore States. Parti. J. Univ. Poona Sci. and Tech. 23: 29-5 4. — (1963) : On some new species of spiders of the genus Argyrodes Simon (Family Theridiidae) from India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. , Bangalore 57 (2) : 99-105. (1963) : On two new species of spiders of the genera Pasilobus Simon and Cladomela Simon of the family Argiopidae from India, ibid. 57 (2): 96-98. (1964) : Zoological results of the Indian Cho-Oyu Expedition (1958) in Nepal, Part 8. Arachnida. Rec. Indian Mus., New Delhi 59 (3) : 257-267. SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 103 Tikader, B. K. (1965) : A new spider of the genus Marpissa (Family Salticidae) from India. Science and Culture, Calcutta 31 (5): 261-262. — (1965) : A new species of spider of the genus Thanatus (Family Thomisidae) from India, ibid. 31 (1) : 39-40. (1965) : On some new species of spiders of the family Thomisidae from India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 61 (5) : 277-289. (1965) : Studies on some little known spiders of the family Argio- pidae from India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 62 (2) : 92-96. (1965) : On some new species of spiders of the family Oxyopidae from India, ibid. 62 (3): 140-144. (1965) : The dispersal devices of spiders. J. Assam Sci. Soc., Gauhati 8 : 135-136. (1966) : On some new species of spiders Qf the genus Philodromus (Family Thomisidae) from India. Proc. Linn. Soc., London 177 (1) : 35-44. (1966) : Studies on some spiders of the genus Dictyna (Family Dictynidae) from India, ibid. 177 (1) : 45-54. (1966) : Studies on some crab-spiders (Family Thomisidae) from Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam, India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 64 (1) : 58-61. (1966) : On a collection of spiders (Araneae) from the desert area of Rajasthan (India). Rec. Indian Mus., New Delhi 59 (4) : 435-443. (1966) : A new species of spider of the genus Scytodae (Family Scytodidae) from India. Current Science, Bangalore 35 (24) : 627-628. (1966) : A new species of spider of the genus Triaeris Simon (Family Oonopidae) from India, ibid. 35 (20) : 520. (1966) : Studies on spider fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam, India, Part I. /. Assam Sci. Soc., Gauhati 9 : 137-154. Tikader, B. K. (1966) : Studies on the biology of some Indian spiders. J. Bengal hat. Hist. Soc., Darjeeling 35 (1) : 6-11 (1966) : Description of two new spiders of the genus Xysticus (Family Thomisidae) from India. J. Asia. Soc., Calcutta 8 (4) : 1-4. (1967) : Studies on spider fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam, India, Part II. J. Assam Sci. Soc., Gauhati 10: 102-122. (1968) : A new spider of the genus Ischnothyreus Simon (Family Oonopidae) from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1) : 257-259. (1970) : The spider fauna of Sikkim. Rec. Zool. Survey of India, Calcutta. (1967) : Studies on some Salticidae spider from Sikkim Himalayas, India. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., Bangalore 66(4): 117-122. (1968) : Studies on spider fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam, India. Part III. J. Assam Sci. Soc., Gauhati 10 : 102-122. (1969) : Studies on spider fauna of Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam India. Part IV. ibid. 11 : 100-120. (1969) : Studies on some, rare spiders of the families Seleno- pidae and Platoridae from India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 69 (5) : 252- 255. — (1969) : Two new spiders of the genus Uloborus of the family Ulo- boridae from India, ibid. 69 (6) : 294- 298. — (1969) : Studies on some spiders of the family Oxyopidae from India. Oriental Insects, New Delhi 3 (1) : 33-36. (1971) : Revision of Indian Crab-Spiders (Araneae : Thomisidae). Mem. Zool. Surv. India, Calcutta 15 (3) : 1-90. Vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin in Western Rajasthan BY S. K. Saxena and R. K. Gupta Division of Basic Resource Studies , Central Arid Zone Research Institute , Jodhpur ( Rajasthan ) ( With a map ) Introduction • Saline and sodic soils are widespread and extensive in the arid regions of India and form a conspicuous part of the landscape. Pachpadra Salt Basin is one such area where common salt is produced on a com- mercial scale. Divergent views regarding the origin of Salt have been expressed by Godebole 1951, Auden 1952, Holland & Christie 1909, and Ghose (1964). The area possesses sparse and specialised vegetation due to high salinity and where grasses grow, these are heavily grazed. Development of such areas for the production of palatable grasses is necessary in view of the acute shortage in cattle forage. No detailed information is available about the vegetation and flora of this basin except in the pioneer work of Blatter & Hallberg (1918-1921), Puri et al. (1964), Bhandari (1967), Satyanarayan & Shankarnarayan (1963), for central Luni Basin. The list of plants species along with a short des- cription of vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin is presented in this paper. Location and Topography The study area situated about 16 km to the west of River Luni and about 3 km in the same direction from the town of Pachpadra is an oval basin about 11-13 km long and 2-3 km wide in a sandy valley. It has a south-westerly course parallel to Luni River for several kilometres and then turns eastwards and joins the river. The eastern edge of the valley is capped by occasional hills and sand dunes sloping towards the Luni River, while to the west the sand dunes form an unbroken line. The total area of the basin is 32*3 sq km. The rain water leaches the salt from a catchment area of 560-640 sq km and carries it in to the subsoil of the shallow basin. About 1120 salt extraction pits are scattered all over this area, but the largest number lies in the western portion called VEGETATION OF P AC HP ADR A SALT BASIN 105 ] 06 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) 9 Hiragarh. Pits of the eastern part are generally silted up and abandoned. At present 428 pits are worked. Climate The climate is typical of Western Rajasthan (Parmanik, Hariharan & Ghose 1952). Average annual rainfall is 300 mm but is erratic and un- certain as is evident from the fact that in 1892 it was as high as 1200 mm and as low as 20 mm in 1889. Sand storms are prevalent during the months preceding the monsoon. The area is very dry and weather condi- tions generally speaking are reasonably good for the manufacture of salt, the average rate of evaporation being some 12*5 cm monthly. Soil and Biota The soil is sandy to sandy-clay-loam in texture, highly saline, overlaid by stable sand dunes and sand sheet of varying thickness (10-80 cm), giving the area a hummocky appearance. The sand cover is calcareous but non-saline. Heavy textured soils are present in depressions. Shallow to moderately deep loamy sand overlies the saline sandy clay loam soils. The brine springs occur at a depth of 5 to 6 ’5 m. The soil profile consists of thick layers of sand with intermittent thin layers of silt and clay of varying thickness. The brine stratum lies within coarse sandy layers. Zonation of these layers indicate that it was a salt marsh of undated origin, and has now been filled up to its present level by deposits of blown sand. Major part of the area is occupied by grasses due to the presence of subsoil moisture. They sprout very quickly at the commencement of the monsoon, but are very soon eaten up by the large population of livestock the majority of which belong to the nomadic, Banjaras, who inhabit the area for trading in salt. Because of such constant grazing pressure grasslands are of poor quality. Soils from different communities have been analysed and the results are given in table 1. In the three representative profiles, the hummocky sandy plains are low in calcium carbonate content and the pH value varies from 7*7-7*9. On the abandoned pits sandy clay soils have 0*75-1 *8 per cent calcium carbonate and pH value 8*0-8*9 but have higher water holding capacity. The soil of the working pit has a high pH reaching up to 9*3 and calcium carbonate content is 5*7 per cent. High amount of soluble salts, and high pH value allow only halophytic plants like Suaeda fruticosa to establish there. Vegetation Blatter & Hallberg (1918-1921) mentioned a few halophytic species, Biswas & Rao (1953) listed halophytic species of Rajputana desert, Table 1 VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN TOT 1 •2 O fr> in tN vtO« ~ ^ > _o C3 Onoo n 00 co mmn * 00 00 00 OO C/5 Ec. omho cm 000 000 888 888 OO T+ Tt vo vo in «n t"- O m > 1 6 & <3 1 <3 .a 1 6 Q £ O to to OS s-t ’1 jf .$ | to *c3 -a a c3 aJ CO 0 <3 Oh g 'w' JO S c a. fc-a A a co a s§ ...? ;i. IS •a | « s etf 60.2 2-5 K 0, «u <*> /“N | >».s •3 § Si' *a co O O A 2 -Si | tq •as PL, w C3 •d.2 U 1 s' i ^ c3 si a a js 00 +-* .Vj- ■&1 11 in 0) .5 w • Is XJi Is Iz £ T_ o >o | u | | } VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 111 Menispermaceae Cocculus pendulus (Forsk.) Diels (Vern. Pilwan) A large woody climber, common on Salvadora persica L. and Tamarix dioica Roxb. Flower greenish yellow; Oct.-Feb. Common around abandoned pits. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2542). Brassicaceae Farsetia hamiltoni Royle (Vern. Pilang) 40-45 cm high, slender, annual herb. Flower white ; July-Oct. Fruit papery. Common on deep sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 251 A). Capparidaceae Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. (Vern. Kair) 1-2 m tall spiny, leafless shrub. Flower deep orange red; July- Sept. and March-May. On loose sandy soil and hummocky plain. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2583) . Cleome gynandra (L.) Briquet (Vern. Bagra) 40-45 cm. high, annual herb. Flower white to creamy ; July-Sept. Common on loose sandy soils near habitation. Posala siding-3, (i Saxena 2649). POLYGALACEAE Polygala erioptera DC. (Vern. Chota Bekharia) 15-25 cm high, procumbent annual herb. Flower whitish pink to violet; July-Dee. Circuit House. {Saxena 2529). PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea L. (Vern. Noonkhuri, Lunki, Noonia) A prostrate, succulent herb. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Nov. Common on saline depressions and abandoned pits. Hiragarh pit 296. {Saxena 2587). Tamaricaceae Tamarix dioica Roxb. (Vern. Faras, Jhau) 1-2 m tall shrub. Flower pink ; Aug.-Dee. Common on water logged saline areas and abandoned pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 253 5). 132 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Malvaceae Abutilon indicum D. Don (Vern. Tarakanchi, Dabi, Jhili) 60-80 cm tall undershrub. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Dee. Growing under shade of S. persica L. on abandoned pit. Bara Samra pit 288. {Saxena 2671). Hibiscus punctatus Dalz. 90-100 cm tall suffruticose undershrub. Flower pale rose ; Aug.- Dee. Hiragarh siding-3. ( Saxena 2585). Sida ovata Forsk. (Vern. Bila) 30-40 cm high, woody perennial. Flower yellow ; Aug. -Dec. Circuit House. {Saxena 2528). Tiliaceae Corchorus depressus (L.) Stocks (Vern. Kagla-ki-tamaku, Hadu-ka- Khet) Small, woody, perennial herb. Flower yellow ; July-Dee. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2568). C. tridens L. (Vern. Kagla-ki-tamaku, Hadu-ka-khet) 20-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Nov. Hiragarh and Posala. {Saxena 2649, 2538). Zygophylaceae Tribulus alatus Delile (Vern. Bokhra) Procumbent to spreading herb. Flower light yellow, fruit winged ; Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy soil. Posala siding-3. {Saxena 2644). T. terrestris L. (Vern. Kanti) A prostrate annual herb. Flower bright yellow, fruit spiny ; July- Nov. Common on sandy plains. Posala siding-3. {Saxena 2643). Zygophyllum simplex L. (Vern. Lunwa, Lunio) 20-30 cm high or procumbent, annual herb. Stem yellow to violet red. Flower yellow ; July-NoV. Abundant on pit wall and inter pit areas. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2547). There are two strains in the locality, one with pure yellow and the other with violet-red stem. Both were recorded growing side by side. VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 113 Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Juss. (Vern. Neem) A cultivated tree around Barabbangla and office. Bara Bangla. {Saxena 2678). Celastraceae Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou (Vern. Kangkeran) 3-4 m tall, spiny tree. Flower pinkish white, ripe fruit light purple ; Oct.-Jan. On sandy gravelly soil and sand dunes. Hiragarh boundary dune, (- Saxena 2624). Rhamnaceae Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wt. & Arn. (Vern. Bordi) 1-2 m tall, spiny shrub. Flower pale whitish, ripe drupe red ; Aug.- Dee. Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2536). Papilionaceae Alhagi pseud -alhagi (M. Bieb.) Desv. (Vern. Jawasa) 30-40 cm high, spiny undershrub. Flower red ; Oct.-Feb. On abandoned pits and saline areas. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2597). Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham. ex Benth (Vern. Sannia) 60-80 cm high, spreading perennial undershrub. Flower yellow ; Aug. -March. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2556). Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth (Vern. Bekar, Bekario) 20-30 cm long, prostrate to procumbent, annual herb. Flower pin- kish red. Pod 2-seeded ; July-Nov. Common on sandy soils. Circuit House. {Saxena 2526). I. linifolia (L.) Retz. (Vern. Bekri, Bekar) Small, wiry, annual herb. Flower pink. Pod globose, one-seeded ; Aug. -Nov. Hiragarh boundary dune. ( Saxena 2614). I. hochstetteri Baker (Vern. Bekrio) 30-40 cm long, prostrate to procumbent annual herb. Flower pinkish. Pod flat ; Aug. -Nov. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2537). 8 114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 70 (1) I. linnaei Ali (Vern. Bekar) 20-30 cm high, prostrate to procumbent, woody herb with pink flowers. Pod 2-3 seeded Aug. -Dec. Common on loose sandy soils. Hiragarh. (Saxena 2527). I. oblongifolia Forsk. (Vern. Goila) 80-100 cm tall, pubescent shrub. Flower pink to orange pink. Sept. -Feb. Common on abandoned pits. Hiragarh. (i Saxena 2635). Phaseolus trilobus Ait. (Vern. Panri, Jangli moth) 20-30 cm long, trailing, annual herb. Flower bright light yellow. Pod 6-8 seeded ; Aug.-Oct. Rare on sandy soils. Hiragarh Boundary dune. () Saxena 2618). Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. (Vern. Dhamasia, Sarphunka) 30-60 cm tall biennial or perennial undershrub with violet pink to red flowers. Pod flat ; July-Nov. Abundant on sandy plain. Hiragarh siding-2. (Saxena 2561). Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Fawe & Rend. (Vern. Ekar) 80-120 cm tall, soft-wooded shrub. Flower yellow with reddish spot ; July-Nov. Frequent on old pit walls. Hiragarh siding-2. (Saxena 2575). Heylandia latebrosa DC. (Vern. Gorakh-batti, Sonda) 20-25 cm long, prostrate to procumbent, annual herb. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Nov. On dry pit walls. Bara Samra Pit 288. (Saxena 2667). Psoralea odorata Blatt. & Hallb. (Vern. Goir, Guir) 30-50 cm high, perennial undershrub. Flower pinkish violet ; Aug.- March. On abandoned pits only. Hiragarh siding-2. (Saxena 2661). Caesalpinaceae Cassia obtusa Roxb. ex W. & A. (Vern. Beephini) 60-75 cm tall, woody undershrub. Flower pale yellow. Pod flat & wrinkled ; Aug.-Dee. On abandoned pit. Hiragarh. (Saxena 2633). Cassia siamea Lamk. A cultivated tree with reddish glaucous branches. Flower yellow; July-Dee. Circuit House. (Saxena 2681). VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 115 Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bernan (Vern. Babul) Thorny tree. Flower heads yellow. Pods tomentose ; Aug.-Nov. and March-May. Frequent on fringes of abandoned pit. Chota Samra. {Saxena 2576) Acacia jacquemontii Benth. ex Hook. (Vern. Bawli) 1-2 m tall, armed shrub. Flower heads yellow ; Aug.-Dee. Com- mon on sandy hummocky soils. Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2645). Albizzia lebbek (L.) Benth. (Vern. Siris) A large tree. Flower greenish white to white. Pod long flat. Good top-feed species. Cultivated around office and quarters. Prosopis cineraria (L.) Mac. bride (Vern. Khejri) 6-8 m tall, spiny tree. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Dee. and March-July. Common on sandy soils. A good top-feed plant. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2595). P. juliflora (Swarti) DC. (Vern. Vilayti babul, vilayti bawli) 3-5 m tall, spiny tree. Catkin yellow. Pods eaten by goats ; Aug.- May. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2544). CUCURBITACEAE Blastiniaf imbristipula (Fenzl) Kotschy et Peyr. (Vern. Ankh-phutni-bel) A large climber on Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew. and Salvadora bushes. Flower white, fruit globose ; Aug.-Nov. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2689). Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Vern. Tastumba, Tumba) 1-2 m long trailing perennial herb. Flower light yellow ; Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy soil and sand dunes. Seeds utilized for oil extrac- tion. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2613). C. vulgaris (L.) Schrad. (Vern. Matera) 1-2 m long trailing, annual herb. Flower yellow, fruit juicy with white or pinkish pulp ; Aug. -Dec. Natural as well cultivated. Oil is extracted from seed. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2612). Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt. (Vern. Ankh-phutni bel) Large perennial climber on Capparis, Zizyphus and Salvadora bushes. Flower white, fruit bright scarlet ; Aug. -Dec. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2631, 2537). 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Cucumis callosus (Rottp.) Cogn. (Vern. Kachri) 1-2 m trailing, scabrid herb. Flower yellow ; Aug.-Nov. Posala. {Saxena 2684). Aizoaceae Gisekia pharnaceoides L. (Vern. Sardi, Morang) 10-20 cm long, prostrate to sub-erect annual herb. Stem pinkish- red ; July-Oct. Glinus lotoides L. (Vern. Badka) 10-15 cm high, spreading herb. Flower greenish white ; Aug. -Dec. Common on silted pits. Pachpadra. ( Shankarnarayan 1845). Sensuvium sesuvioides (Fenzl.) Verde (Vern. Lonia) 10-15 cm long, procumbent annual herb. Flower axillary, red to pink ; Aug. -Dec. Common on saline heavy soils. Pachpadra. (» Shankarnarayan 1126, 1221). Trianthema portulacastrum L. (Vern. Safedsanter, Sarta) 20-30 cm long prostrate, succulent, annual herb. Flower axillary solitary ; Aug.-Dee. Pachpadra. ( Shankarnarayan 1222). T. decandra L. (Vern. Sarta, Sato, Santar) 20-30 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Flower red, fruit violet- pink ; Aug.-Dee. On loose sandy soils with some organic content. Rly. Station. {Saxena 2633). T. triquetra Willd. ex Rottl. (Vern. Lunia, Lunaki) 10-20 cm long prostrate, annual herb. Flower greenish white ; Aug.-Dee. Common on low lying areas. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2608). Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata L. (Vern. Jalbhangra) 20-40 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Floral heads white ; Aug.- Feb. Common on old silted pits. Bara Samra. ( Saxena 2661). Glossocardia bosvallia (L.f.) DC. 8-15 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Flower head yellow ; Oct.- Jan. Pachpadra. (< Shankarnarayan 1856). Dichotoma tomentosa Cass. (Vern. Vajradanti) 20-30 cm high, spiny, annual herb. Floral head spiny ; Sept.-Dee. Frequent on sandy hummocky terrain. Hiragarh. ( Saxena 2623 A). VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 117 Gnaphalium pulvinatum Delile (Vern. Kallali) 30-40 cm tall, woody perennial undershrub. Leaves whitish with wax coating. Flower heads yellow ; Sept. -Jan. Common on silted pits. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2636). Launaea chondrilloides Hook. f. (Vern. Dudhia) 10-30 cm tall, perennial herb with yellow juice. Heads terminal and yellow ; Oct.-Feb. Frequent on silted pits. Bara Samra. ( Saxena 2666). L. nudicaulis Hook. f. (Vern. Janglio-gobhi) 15-30 cm tall, perennial herb. Floral heads yellow. Achenes thickly ribbed ; Oct.-Feb. Frequent on silted pit. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2665). Pulicaria angustifolia DC. (Vern. Soneli) 20-30 cm high, annual herb. Floral heads deep yellow ; Aug. -Feb. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2636, 2525). P. wightiana (DC.) Benth. ex Clarke (Vern. Sonela, Soneli) 30-45 cm tall, annual herb. Flower heads bright yellow ; Sept.- Feb. Frequent on sandy soil. Pachpadra. {Shankarnarayan 247). Vemonia cineraria (L.) Less. (Vern. Phulni, Shadair) 20-30 cm tall, annual, hairy herb. Flower heads pinkish violet, white at maturity ; Aug.-Dee. Common on silted pit walls. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2670). V. cinerascens Sch.-Bip. (Vern. Bari phulni, Lalia) 50-70 cm tall, woody, spreading undershrub. Flower heads purple violet ; Aug.-Nov. Common on silted pit surface. Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2637). Voluterella ramosa (Roxb.) Sant. (Vern. Lin-katmanda, Telkant) 20-30 cm high, spiny, much branched herb. Flower heads pink ; Aug.-Dee. Common on sand dunes. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2626). Salvadoraceae Salvadora oleoides Decne, (Vern. Mitha-jal) 3-5 m tall tree. Flower white. Drupe orange yellow ; Jan, -June. Bara Bangla dune. {Saxena 2659), 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) S. persica L. (Vern. Khara-jal) 4-7 m tall tree. Flower white, fruit violet red ; Dec.-June. Plenty around old and silted pits. Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2541). Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. (Vern. Ak, Akda, Akra) 1-2 m tall, perennial undershrub. Flower whitish-violet ; Aug.- Jan. Common around old pit and hummocky areas. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2594). Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decne. (Vern. Khimp, Khinmpra) 1-1.5 m tall, leafless undershrub. Flower yellowish green; Aug. -Dec. Frequent on hummocky areas. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2679). Gentinaceae Enicostomma verticillatum (L.) Engl. (Vern. Jalbhangra) Small, procumbent herb. Flower yellow ; Sept.-Jan. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2620). Boraginaceae Amebia hispidissima (Lehm) DC. (Vern. Rambas) 20-25 cm high, suberect herb. Root violet red. Flower yellow ; Sept.-March. Rare on sandy soils. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2615). Heliotropium bacciferum Forsk. var. subrosa (Vern. Kalibui) 15-20 cm high, annual herb. Flower sessile, numerous in rigid spike ; Aug.-Nov. On silted pits. Pachpadra. {Shankarnarayan 1215). H. paniculatum R. Br. (Vern. Kalibui) 25-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower white in cylindric raceme, fruit four lobed ; Aug. -Dec. On sandy soil. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2554). H. strigosum Willd. (Vern. Choti-santri) A scabrid, prostrate to procumbent herb. Flower white in elongated spike ; Aug.-Dee. Bara Bangla. {Saxena 2655). VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 119 H. subulatum Hochst. ex DC (Vern. Kalibui) 30-40 cm high, perennial, woody herb. Flower pale white ; Aug.® Dec. Common oa moist sandy soil. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2617). Sericostoma pauciflorum Stocks (Vern. Kharsan, Kharsni) 30-40 cm tall, perennial undershrub, clothed with appressed hairs. Flower white ; Aug.-March. On sand dunes only. Bara Bangla dune. {Saxena 2654). Trichodesma indicum R. Br. (Vern. Sal-kanta, Phuldar) 20-30 cm high, hispid herb. Flower light blue ; Aug.-March. Pach» padra salt basin. {Shankarnarayan 1138). CONVOLVULACEAE Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng. (Vern. Phulwati, Santri, Kerjan). 30-35 cm long, prostrate to procumbent, perennial herb. Flower white or light pink ; Aug.-Jan. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2695, 2586). Cressa cretica L. (Vern. Lana, Ovindo, Kharia) 10-15 cm high, procumbent, annual herb. Flower white in small axillary dusters ; Aug.-Jan. Abundant on saline soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2555). Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. (Vern. Panwa, Pherwana) 60-70 cm long, twining, annual herb, clothed with spreading hairs. Flower whitish pink on sessile heads ; Aug.-Dee. On moist sandy places. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2669). I. verticillata Forsk. (Vern. Chirawri) 40-60 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Flower white ; Aug.-Nov. Common on shady places. Chota Samra. {Saxena 2676, 2684). SOLANACEAE Lycium barbarum L. (Vern. Murali, Morali) 1-2 m tall, spinous, shrub. Flower white solitary or in fascicle ; Aug.-Jan. On hummocks and dunes. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2639). 120 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Physalis minima L. (Vern. Janglo-bheri) 40-60 cm long, prostrate, perennial herb. Flower creamy ; Sept.- Dee. On moist shady places below S. ersica tree. Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2634). SCROPHULARIACEAE Anticharis senegalensis (Walp.) Bhand. 30-45 cm high, branched, annual herb. Flower reddish-violet ; Aug.-Dee. On sandy saline soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2558). Striga angustifolia (D. Don) Saldhana (Vern. Misso) 20-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower in the axil of floral bract ; July-Oct. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2665). Acanthaceae Justicia vahlii Roth (Vern. Kagnero, Mokrogas) 20-30 cm high, slender, annual herb. Flower violet-pink ; Aug.-Dee. On moist shady places. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2680). Blepharis sindica T. Anders. (Vern. Bhangri) Small, spiny undershrub. Flower bluish ; Aug.-Nov. On sandy gravelly soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2548). Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees (Vern. Kagner) 80-100 cm tall, perennial herb. Flower deep violet-pink ; July-Oct. Frequent under the shade of trees. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2539). Labiatae Leucas urticaefolia (Vahl) R. Br. [Vern. Goma (Hindi)] 25-30 cm high, hairy, annual herb. Flowers white, in globose ter- minal heads ; Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy soils. Bara Samra. {Saxena 2638). Nyctaginaceae Boerhaavia diffusa L. (Vern. Chelavri, Pawa, Sata) 50-70 cm long, trailing perennial herb. Flower light to dark pink ; July-March. Common on sandy soils. Posala. {Saxena 2641). VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 121 B. repanda Willd. (Vern. Bara-sata) 1-1*5 m long, climbing, perennial herb. Flower pink ; July-Feb. Common on moist shady places. Posala. ( Saxena 2646). B. elegans Choisy (Vern. Chirio-panio) 25-35 cm high, annual herb. Stem dichotomously and panicle trichotomously branched ; July-Sept. On old working pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2672). Amaranthaceae Achyranthus aspera L. (Vern. Unda-kanta, Andhajaro, Narkanta) 40-60 cm tall herb. Flower whitish pink, deflexed against large rachis, fruit prickly ; Aug.-Dee. Among bushes in shady places. Hira- garh siding-2 . {Saxena 2540) . Aerva persica (Burm. f.) Merrill (Vern. Bui, Buida) 40-80 cm tall, woody, perennial undershrub with thick tomentum. Greenish white spike ; Oct.-Feb. Common. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2566). A. pseudotomentosa Blatt. & Hallb. (Vern. Choti-Bui) 60-100 cm tall, woody perennial. Panicle leafy ; Sept.-March. Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2632). Amaranthus spinosus L. (Vern. Kateli-cholai) 40-60 cm high, spiny herb. July-Oct. On waste places near habita- tion. Bara Bangla. ( Saxena2606 ). Digera muricata (L.) Mart. (Vern. Laler, Latoor, Lulero) 20-30 cm high, annual herb. Flower deep pink in lax spike ; Aug.- Oct. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2580). Chenopodiaceae Salsola baryosma (Roem. et Schult.) Dandy (Vern. Jerio-lana, Iani) 0*8-1 *2 m high, much branched undershrub. Flower in short cylindric spike ; Oct.- Jan. Common in the area. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2627, 2543). Suaeda fruticosa Forsk. (Vern. Kala-lana, Lunki) 0*8-1 *5 m high, diffusedly branched undershrub. Leaves thick & fleshy, turn black on drying ; July-Dee. Abundant on saline soils, salt pit and silted up pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2577, Shankar - narayan 1130, 1180, 1217, 1849). J 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Haloxylon salicornicum Bunge ex Boiss. (Vern. Sajjio-lano, Lana) 1-1*5 m tall, much branched, leafless shrub. Flower yellow ; Oct.- March. On loose sandy soils. Chota-Samra. ( Saxena 1673). POLYGONACEAE Calligonum polygonoides L. (Vern. Phoog, Phogra) 1-1*5 m tall, leafless shrub. Stem reddish woody. Flower pinkish white ; Feb.-June. On boundary dunes. Hiragarh boundary dune. (Saxena 2672). Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia granulata Forsk. (Vern. Dudhi) 10-20 cm long, prostrate, annual herb. Leaves coriacious ; Aug.- Oct. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. (Saxena 2569). E. jodhpurensis Blatt. & Hallb. (Vern. Duheli) 10-15 cm high, slender, procumbent, annual herb. Capsule trilo- cular ; Aug.-Oct. Common on sandy soils. Posala. (Saxena 2652). Phyllanthus fraternus Webster 20-30 cm high annual herb. Stipule peltate ; Aug. -Dec. Common on moist sandy soils. Circuit house. (Saxena 2530). P. maderaspatensis L. (Vern. Hazardana) 40-60 cm tall, annual herb. Flower axillary, greenish ; Aug.-Jan. Hiragarh. (Saxena 2596). Liliaceae Aloe barbadensis Mill (Vern. Guar-patta) A cultivated succulent under-shrub with dense, aggregate of narrow leaves. Cyperaceae Cyperus laevigatus L. =C. arenarius Retz. (Vern. Motha) 15-30 cm high, sedge with creeping rhizome ; Aug.-Dee. Common on loose sandy soils. Hiragarh boundary dune. (Saxena 2611). C. bulbosus Vahl (Vern. Motto Mothrio) 15-25 cm high, perennial, rhizomatous sedge, bulbous root. Spike violet-red; Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh pit 204, (Saxena 2604). VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 123 C. rotundus L. (Vern. Motha) 20-45 cm high, perennial , rhizomatous sedge. Flower spike brownish-red ; Aug. -Jan. Abundant on silted pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2562, 2592). C. tuberosus Rottb. 0*9-1 *2 m tall, rhizomatous, perennial, amphibious sedge. Spike red when mature ; Aug.-Dee. Common on water logged area. Posala siding-3. ( Saxena 2642). Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Yahl 40-45 cm tall, perennial, amphibious sedge. Spike umbellate, spike- lets, pale brown ; Sept.-March. Common on semi-silted pits. Chota-Samra. {Saxena 2675). POACEAE Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw. (Yern. Kharia-ghas) 30-80 cm long, trailing grass with convolute leaves. Spike terminal ; Aug.-Dee. Common on clayey saline soils or rann. Hiragarh siding 2. (i Saxena 2628, Shankarnarayan 1851). Aristida adscenscionis L. var. adscensclonis (Vern. Lump, Lompra) 40-60 cm tall, diffused annual grass. Awn dark blackish on maturity; Aug.-Oct. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2673). A. funiculata Trin. et Rupr. (Vern. Lomp, Lompra) 25-40 cm high, slender, annual grass. Awn very troublesome ; July- Oct. Abundant on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2565). A. funiculata Trin. et Rupr. var. mallica (Edgew.) Henr. (Yern. Lompra) 40-50 cm high, annual grass. Awn bigger than in funiculata and troublesome ; July-Nov. Posala. {Saxena 2642). A. mutabilis Trin. & Rupr. (Vern. Lompra) 45 cm tall, annual grass. Spikelets brown; July-Sept. Common on sandy soils. Posala {Saxena 2581). Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf (Vern. Kuri) 20 cm high, procumbent to spreading, annual grass. Spikelets turgid ; Aug.-Oct. Frequent on moist soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2552, Shankarnarayan 1214). 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. (Yern. Bhurut) 30-40 cm high, annual grass. Involucres echinate spiny ; July-Oct. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding. ( Saxena 2563). Cenchrus ciliaris L. (Vern. Safed-Dhaman, Anjan) A tussocky perennial grass. Involucre not spiny ; Aug. -Dec. Com- mon on old pit walls on sandy soil. Three different strains have been recorded : 1. 60-70 cm tall ; spike 8-10 cm long, violet on ripening {Saxena 2598). 2. 25-30 cm tall ; with small clump. Spike 4-5 cm long, light violet on ripening. {Saxena 2599). 3. Same as No. 2. Spike colourless on ripening. {Saxena 2571, 2579). C. prieurii (Kunth) Maire. (Vern. Dhaman) 40-50 cm high, annual grass. Long spike ; Aug. -Nov. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2549). C. pennisetiformis Hochst. et Steud. ex Steud. (Vern. Dhaman) 50-90 cm tall, perennial grass ; Aug. -Dec. Rare on moist sandy soils. Hiragarh. {Saxena 2599) C. setigerus Vahl (Vern. Kala Dhaman) 30-50 cm high, perennial tussocky grass. Spike of various colours, some lax while others compact ; Aug. -Dec. Common on sandy soils of the old pits. Three distinct strains have been recognized : 1. 30 cm tall, small, tussocky grass. Common on alluvial plain. {Saxena 2601). 2. 30-45 cm tall, small tussocky grass. On old pit walls. {Saxena 2589). 3. 70-110 cm tall, large tussocky grass. Rare on moist shady places. {Saxena 2650). Hiragarh pit 296, Hiragarh siding-3 and Posala. {Saxena 2601, 2589, 2650). Chloris virgata Sw. (Vern : Gharnia-ghas) 24-30 cm tall, annual grass. Digits 4-5 rayed. Blackens when ripe ; Aug.-Dee. Common on saline soils. Hiragarh pit 296. {Saxena 2602). Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv. (Vern. Kuri, Makro, Mansa) 15-20 cm tall suberect spreading annual. Digits 3-4 rayed ; Aug.- Oct. Common on sandy, clay, loam, soils. Rly. Station. {Saxena 2534). VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 12 5 Dactyloctenium sindicum Boiss. (Vern. Makra, Ganthia ghas) 25-40 cm tall small tussocky perennial. Stolons rooting at nodes ; Aug.-Dee. On hummocky terrain. Circuit House. ( Saxena 2525). Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf (Vern. Dab) 40-60 cm tall, perennial, tussocky grass. Spike in long raceme ; Aug.-Feb. Common on moist sandy soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2549). Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf (Vern. Karad) 50-90 cm tall, perennial, tussocky grass. Spike reddish to brown purple ; Aug.-Dee. Common on silted pits. A very good fodder grass. Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2630). Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr. (Vern. Tara, Kuri) 25-35 cm high, slender annual grass with terminal spike, highly palatable ; Aug.-Oct. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2550). Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link (Vern. Soma, Homa) A decumbent annual grass. Stem violet-red ; July-Nov. On moist clayey soils or on semi-silted pits. Bara Samra pit 288. {Saxena 2664). Eleusine compressa (Forsk.) Asch. ex Schw. (Vern. Tantia, Gandil) Stoloniferous, trailing perennial grass. Spike 4-5 digitate ; July-Dee. Common on hummocky terrain. A very good sheep grass. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena2551). Eimeapogon brachystachys (Jaub. et Spach.) Stapf 8-10 cm tall, small tufted, perennial grass. Spike 2-3 cm long ; July-Oct. On gravelly soils. Circuit House. {Saxena 2653). Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R. Br. (Vern. Chirio-ghas) 15-20 cm tall, annual grass. Spike solitary ; July-Dee. Common on sandy soil. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2570). E. poaeoides P. Beauv. (Vern. Chirioro-ghas) 20-35 cm tall, annual grass. Culm shining, bluish white ; Aug.° Nov. Common on sandy soils. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2626). E. tremula Hochst. ex Steud. (Vern. Kiria, Phunkia) 30-35 cm tall, annual grass. Spike in lax panicle ; July-Nov. On sandy soils. Hiragarh pit 85. {Saxena 2621). Lasiurus sindicus Henr. (Vern. Sewan) 40-60 cm tall, stoloniferous, woody perennial grass. Spike terminal ; Aug.-Feb. On dune bases. Hiragarh boundary dune. {Saxena 2619). 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Latipes senegalensis Kunth (Vern. Kuri) 20-30 cm tall, annual grass. Stem light pink on maturity ; Aug.-Dee. Hiragarh siding-2. ( Saxena 2560). Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach. (Vern. Phoolia, khargose- chutti) 10-15 cm tall, annual grass. Spike lax and woolly ; Aug.-Nov. Common on sandy soils of old pits. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2578). Panicum antidotale (L.) Retz. (Vern. Gramna, Girona) 100-150 cm tall, tussocky, perennial grass. Spike long in lax panicle ; Aug.-Feb. Recorded in bushes of Capparis decidua . Hiragarh siding-3. (, Saxena 2582). Panicum turgidum Forsk. (Vern. Murut) 70-100 cm tall, tussocky perennial grass. Old culm woody ; Aug.- Dee. On dunes and hummocks. Hiragarh pit 265. {Saxena 2593). Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.) Kunth 20-25 cm tall, densely tufted annual grass ; Aug.-Dee. On gravelly soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2553). S. helvolus (Trin.j Dur. et Schniz. (Vern. Deva, Lunagas, Kharia) 40-70 cm high, tufted perennial grass ; Aug.-Dee. Common on sandy saline and clayey soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2564). S. marginatus Hochst. ex A. Rich. (Vern. Deva, Kharia-ghas) 40-60 cm tall, tussocky perennial grass. Panicle pyramidal ; Aug.- Feb. Common in the area. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2564). Schoenofeldia gracilis Kunth (Vern. Tarwaria) 30-45 cm high, slender, annual grass. Spike terminal ; Aug. -Oct. On low lying saline soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2576). Tetrapogon tenelius (Roxb.) Chiov. 30-40 cm high, annual grass ; Aug.-Nov. Common on gravelly soils under protection. Hiragarh siding-3. {Saxena 2588). Tragus biflorus (Roxb.) Schult. (Vern. Sitagas, Charchada) 6-10 cm high, annual grass ; July-Oct. On gravelly soils. Hiragarh siding-2. {Saxena 2572). VEGETATION OF PACHPADRA SALT BASIN 12 1 Ephederaceae Ephedra foliata Boiss. (Vern. Lanra) A straggling climber recorded on Capparis and Lycium bushes. Bhandari (1954) described in detail its distribution in Western Rajasthan. Synopsis of Salt Basin Flora Out of 58 families, 226 genera and 440 species recorded indigenous in Western Rajasthan. 36 families covering 97 genera and 137 species are collected from Pachpadra Salt Basin. Thirteen families have only single species viz. Menispermaceae, Brassicaceae, Polygalaceae, Portulacaceae, Tamaricaceae, Meliaceae, Celastraceae, Rhamnaceae, Gentinaceae, Labiatae, Polygonaceae, Liliaceae and Ephedraceae, Poaceae (Graminae) has the maximum genera (34) while Papilionaceae (12) and Asteraceae (Compositae) (1 1) stand second and third respectively. Acknowledgements The authors are indebted to Dr. T. R. Mehta, Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, for his guidance and constructive criticism. Thanks are also due to Dr. B. B. Roy, Head of Division of Basic Resource Studies, for encouragement, guidance and facilities for this work. Our thanks to Dr. M. M. Bhandari, Lecturer, University of Jodhpur, for his help in identification of some specimens. Refer en ces Auden, J. B. (1952) : Some geological and chemical aspects of the Rajasthan Salt Problem. Symp. on Rajasthan desert. Nat. Inst. Sci. India pp. 53-67. Bhandari, M. M. (1954) : On the occurrence of Ephedra foliata in the Indian Desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 10-13. (1967) : Flora of Indian Desert. Annual of Arid zone. 6 (2) : 200- 210. — (1968): Flora of North- western Rajasthan Desert. Ph.D. Thesis. Biswas, K. & Rao, R. S. (1953): Rajputana Desert vegetation. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 10 : 411-421. Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. E. (1918- 1921): The flora of the Indian desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 210-246, 525-531, 811-818, 968-987; 27: 40-47, 270-279, 507-517. Ghose, B. (1964) : Geomorphological aspects of the formation of salt basin in Lower Luni Basin. UNESCO General symposium on 4 Problems of Indian Arid Zone’ pp. 169-178. Godbole, N. N. (1951) : Does Samb- har Lake owe its salts to Rann of Kutch ? Indian Sci. Congr. Ass. Holland, T. H. & Christie, W. A. K. (1909) : The origin of salt deposits in Rajputana. Rec. Geol. Surv. India 38 : 154. Parmanik, S. K., Hariharan, P. S. & Ghose, S. K. (1952) : Meteorological conditions in and the extension of the Rajputana Desert. Symp. on Rajputana desert. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 221-222. Puri, G. S., Jain, S. K., Mukerji, S. K., Sarup,S. & Kotwal, N. N. (1964). Reco. Bot. Surv. India 19 (1) ; 1-159. Satyanarayan, Y. & Shankar- narayan, K. A. (1963) : A new species of Lasiurus from Western Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 60 (3) : 763-766. Shantisarup (1958) : The halophytes of the Indian Desert. Univ. Raj. Studies Bot. Sec. 3 : 71-76. Effects of temperature and salinity on the oxygen consumption in clams BY M. R. Ranade ( With eight text-figures ) The importance of oxygen as an oxidizing agent in energy releasing mechanism is well known. Utilization of oxygen is, therefore, a direct measure of degree of activity, food conversion and heat production (Bishop 1950). In lamellibranchs, which are filter-feeders, the current of water drawn through the inhalent siphon is used for feeding and respira- tion. The fluctuations in the estuarine environment where clams are found, are, therefore, bound to influence the oxygen- consumption in clams. Dam (1935, 1954) has studied oxygen utilization in Mya arenaria and scallops. Berkeley (1921, 1923) has studied anaerobic respiration in pelycypod mollusks. Mitchell (1912) and Hazelhoff (1938) have given oxygen requirements of shellfish and other invertebrates. Galtsoff & Whipple (1930) have investigated the oxygen-consumption in normal and green oysters under different conditions. The oxygen-consumption of tissues in Venus mercer aria has been studied by Hopkins (1948). Amongst various other factors that affect oxygen-consumption, the influence of body size and temperature on respiration of some animals has been studied by Kleiber (1947), Zeuthen (1947, 1953), Scholander et al. (1953), RaO & Bullock (1954) and Dawson et al. (1956). But most of these studies are made on the arctic and temperate forms. Wolve- kamp & Waterman (1960) have reviewed respiration in Crustacea. Stu- dies on oxygen-consumption in tropical poikilotherms have recently attracted attention (Job 1955, Saroja 1959, and Parvatheswararao 1959, 1960). The influence of salinity on oxygen-consumption has been studied by Bloch and Schlieper (1953) in Asterias rubens , Eliassen (1952) in Artemia salina , Potts (1954) in brackish and fresh water animals, Schlieper (1955) in Mytilus edulis , Lofts (1956) in Palaemonetes varians and Gross (1957) in some decapod Crustacea. The only work of this type in tropi- cal species is that of Gopalkrishna (1953) on penaeid prawns and Rao OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS 129 (1958) on Metapenaeus monoceros. No work has been done on the oxygen-consumption in clams from tropical waters. The present investi- gation was, therefore, undertaken with a view to studying the effects of temperature and salinity on the oxygen-consumption in the common clams Meretrix meretrix and Katelysia opima. Materials and Methods Clams collected from Kalbadevi estuary were stored in the same manner as described in the earlier paper (Ranade & Kulkarni 1972). For determining oxygen-consumption in clams, the method adopted by Saroja (1959) was followed, except that instead of a cork to close the respiratory chamber, a three centimetre layer of liquid paraffin was put on the surface of the water to stop gaseous exchange between the sea water in the respiratory chamber and the atmosphere as suggested by Galtsoff & Whipple (1930). Temperature being an important factor in controlling the rate of oxygen-consumption, care was taken to keep the required temperature constant, with a variation of only ± 1°C, by providing a thermostat. Observations on the rate of oxygen-consumption were made at three different temperatures namely 20, 30 and 40°C at a constant salinity (34 %0). The temperature of the water available in the laboratory varied between 28° and 30°C. For measuring oxygen-consumption at 40°C, the respiratory-chamber was kept in an aquarium tank filled with water, heated to 40°C by means of a heater and maintained at this level by a ‘Sumac’ thermostat. For obtaining a temperature of 20°C, ice was used in the aquarium tank in which the respiratory-chamber was kept and the tank in turn was kept in a thermocole insulated box. The differential values of oxygen in the samples of water from the respiratory-chamber before and after the experimental period i.e. one hour, gave the amount of oxygen consumed. The clams were taken out immediately after the experiment and shelled. The wet weight of the flesh was taken after removing the extra water by using a blotting paper. In order to study the effect of salinity on the oxygen-consumption, observations were made at three different salinities namely 34%, 25*5% and 17 %, which was equal to 100 %, 75 % and 50 % sea water respectively. In these experiments the temperature was kept constant at 30°C. The lower grades of salinities were prepared as usual, by diluting sea water with distilled water. As the clams remain buried in the sand in the natural habitat, the respiratory-chamber was painted black, to avoid activity of clams on account of light. The oxygen contents of water were determined by Winkler’s method as described by Barnes (1959). 9 j 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISf. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Analysis of data The rate of oxygen-consumption was plotted as a function of body weight (weight-specific) on a double logarithmic grid. Such a plot over an adequate weight range gives a straight line with a negative slope (Dehnel 1960). The regression of oxygen-consumption on body weight assumes a form : 02 = aWb or Log 02 = Log a + b Log W. where 02 is the volume of oxygen consumed in ml, W is the weight of the body in grams and a and b are constants being respectively the inter- cept and the slope of the line or the exponent. The regression of oxygen- consumption on body weight at three different temperatures and salinities were calculated separately. Results Results of the oxygen-consumption at various temperatures in both the species are summarised in Tables I and II and are plotted as size metabolism curves in Figs. 1 and 2. Table I Total oxygen consumption in M. meretrix at different body weights and at DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES S. No. Weight in Oxygen consumed ml/hr gm 20° C 30°C 40°C 1 0-40 016 0-30 0*42 2 0*60 0*17 0*28 043 3 1*00 030 0*42 0*54 4 1*25 0-36 051 0*60 5 1-58 045 0*60 0*68 6 1-99 0*57 066 0*80 7 2*51 0*75 0'78 0*83 8 3*16 0-93 0-96 0-95 9 400 1-14 1*17 1*15 Table II Total oxygen consumption in K. opima AT DIFFERENT BODY WEIGHTS AND AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES S. No. Weight in Oxygen consumed ml /hr gm 20° C 30°C 40° C 10 0-54 0*35 0*40 055 11 0*85 0*38 0-46 0-58 12 1-03 0-49 065 0-69 13 1-52 0*65 0*80 0'85 14 200 0*80 1-05 M5 15 2*25 095 1*08 1*19 16 302 1*05 1-38 1-24 OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS 131 Oxygen-consumption as a function of body size in relation to temperature : From the study of the data given in Tables I and II it could be seen that the oxygen-consumption in clams increases with increase in body weight at all the temperatures studied. However, this increase in oxygen- consumption with increase in body weight is not the same at the three temperatures, which is apparent from the regression coefficients of the size metabolism curves. The regression coefficient of oxygen-consump- tion in relation to body size is maximal in both the species at 20°C and decreases as the temperature increases. The straight lines of the size metabolism curves also suggest that throughout the weight range studied the oxygen-consumption increases with the same power of body weight. From Tables I and II, it could be also seen that at any given temperature, the oxygen-consumption per unit of time is lesser in smaller clams than in larger ones. From the curves given in Figs. 1 and 2 the values of weight specific Q02 or the unit oxygen-consumption, (02 ml/gm/hr), were calculated for the representative weight of clams. These are given in Tables III and IV. Table III Oxygen-consumption per gram of body weight per hour in M . DIFFERENT WEIGHTS AND AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES meretrix of S. No. Weight in gm 20°C Oxygen ml/gm/hr 30°C 40*C 1 0*50 0*32 0*54 0*76 2 0-75 0*30 0-48 0-62 3 100 0-29 0*42 0-53 4 200 0*29 0*35 0-39 5 3*00 0-28 0-30 0*31 6 400 0*28 0-29 0*29 inrwiiBiMwn— wiMrmT ~i im— — PMWMaa t imim— ■wrrfiiw ■!! The values are calculated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 1. Oxygen-consumption per gram DIFFERENT WEIGHTS Table IV OF BODY WEIGHT PER HOUR IN K. AND AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES opima of S. No. Weight in gm 20° C Oxygen ml/gm/hr 30°C 40° C 7 0-50 0-54 0-72 0-94 8 0-75 0-48 060 0-74 9 100 0-45 0-55 0-66 10 2-00 0*39 043 0-45 11 3 00 0-38 0-42 042 12 4-00 0*32 0-32 0-32 The values are calcluated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 2. iM JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) From Tables III and IV, it would be seen that the unit oxygen-consump- tion (02 ml/gm/hr) decreases with increasing body weights of clams at all temperatures studied. However, this decrease in unit oxygen-consump- tion is more conspicuous at 40°C and 30°C than at 20°C. Oxygen- consumption as a function of temperature : The values of regression coefficient ‘ b ’ are given in Table V. Table V Species Temperature 20°C 30°C 40°C M. meretrix 0-94 0-66 0’57 K. opima 0-75 066 \ -1 0*50 The size metabolism curves given in Figs. 1 and 2 show that the ‘ b ’ (Table V) value decreases with increase in temperature and in M. meretrix is 0*94 at 20°C, 0*66 at 30°C and 0*57 at 40°C ; whereas in K. opima it is 0*75 at 20°C, 0*66 at 30°C and O’ 50 at 40°C. This decrease in ‘ b 9 value with increase in temperature indicates that the increase in oxygen-consumption in larger clams with increase in temperature is lesser than in smaller clams, and therefore, smaller clams can be regarded as more sensitive to temperature changes than the larger ones. The unit oxygen-consumption values of clams of different weights are given in Tables III and IV and are plotted as rate-temperature curves in Figs. 3 and 4. The examination of these curves also indicates that the weight or body size of the clam is an important parameter in influencing the pattern of metabolic response at various temperatures. It will also be seen from these curves that the smaller clams are more sensitive to temperature changes than the larger ones in both the species studied. Thus in 1 *00 gm clam of Meretrix meretrix the weight specific Qo2 rises from 0*42 to 0*53 when the temperature rises from 30°C to 40°G and drops from 0*42 to 0*29 when the temperature drops from 30°C to 20°C. The corresponding rise and fall in 3 ’00 gm clam is very much less. In case of K. opima also a similar trend is seen, the weight specific Q02 rises from 0‘55 to 0*66 with the rise in temperature from 30°C to 40°C and falls from 0*55 to 0*45 with the fall in temperature from 30°C to 20°C. The corresponding increase or decrease in case of 3*00 gm clam is much smaller. Ql0 as a function of temperature : To describe the magnitude of temperature effect on respiratory processes, the frequently used expression Q10 is: a convenient OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS 133 O P © o T3 "G G G cs cij U V Q O CD 134 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) measure over the biological temperature range. It is a factor by which a reaction velocity is increased for a rise of temperature of 10 degrees. 10 tj 12 Q10 = (K^KO where Kx and K2 are velocity constants corresponding to temperatures t! and t2. The Q10 values of oxygen-consumption in clams were calculated from the data given in Tables III and IV for various weights and at various temperatures studied. The same are given in Tables VI and VII and are plotted in Figs. 5 and 6. Table VI Q10 of oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix in relation to body SIZE AND TEMPERATURE S. No. Weight in gm 20-30°C 30-40°C 1 0-50 1-70 1*40 2 0-75 1*60 1*29 3 1*00 1*40 1*26 4 2*00 1*26 1*15 5 3 00 1*07 1*03 6 4-00 1*03 100 The Q10 values are calculated from the data given in Table III. Table VII >3 O OF OXYGEN-CONSUMPTION IN K. opima IN RELATION TO BODY SIZE AND TEMPERATURE S. No. Weight in 20-30°C. 30-40°C. gm 7 0*50 1*33 1*30 8 0*75 1*25 1*23 9 1*00 1*22 1*20 10 2*00 1*10 1*05 11 3*00 1*10 1*00 12 4*00 1*00 1*00 The Q10 values are calculated from the data given in Table IV. In case of M. meretrix Q10 values are size dependent at all tempe- ratures studied. It systematically decreases with increase in body weight at all the temperatures studied. However, this trend is more conspicuous at temperature range of 20-30°C than at 30-40°C. It will also be seen that the decrease in Q Y 0 at both the temperature ranges is more marked OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS 135 Jig. 5. Q10 of oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix as a function of body size at different temperature ranges. ig. 6. Q10 of oxygen-consumption in K. opirna as a function of body size at different temperature ranges. ?ig. 7. Total oxygen-consumption in K. opima as a function of body size at different salinities (100%, 75% and 50% sea water). riG. 8. Total oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix as a function of body size at different salinities (100%, 75% and 50% sea water). 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) in smaller clams than in the larger ones. Thus the Q x 0 between 0*50 gm and 2*00 gm clams, drops from T70 to T26 between 20-30°C and from T40 to IT 5 between 30-40°C whereas the corresponding drop between 2*00 and 4-00 gm clams is from 1*26 to T03 and 1T5 to TOO between temperatures 20-30°C and 30-40°C respectively. Similarly between 20-30°C and 30-40°C there is a decrease in Q10 from T70 to T40 in 0*50 gm clam whereas the corresponding decrease in 4,00 gm clam is from T03 to TOO. This indicates that the Q10 of oxygen-consumption decreases with increasing temperature at all weights, such a decrease being once again more conspicuous in smaller clams than in larger ones. The higher values of Qj in smaller clams at all the temperature ranges studied suggests that they are more sensitive to temperature changes than the larger ones. In case of K. opima also, a similar trend is seen. The Q10 decreases with increasing body weights at all temperatures studied. This decrease is more conspicuous at lower temperatures (20r30°C) than at higher temperatures (30-40°C). The decrease is also more marked in smaller clams than in larger ones. There is also a decrease in Q 1 0 with increas- ing temperature, the decrease being more conspicuous in smaller clams than in larger ones. The higher values of Q 1 0 in smaller clams suggests that they are more sensitive to temperature changes than the larger ones. Oxygen-consumption as a function of body size in relation to salinity : The results of oxygen-consumption at various salinities in both the species are summarised in Tables VIII and IX and are plotted as size metabolism curves in Figs. 7 and 8. Table VIII Total oxygen-consumption in K. opima at different body weights and at DIFFERENT SALINITIES S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 Weight in Oxygen consumed ml/hr gm 100% 75% 50% sea water 060 0-29 1-03 0-45 1-52 0*52 1-98 0*63 2-20 0*70 3*02 0*85 0*36 0*45 0-51 058 059 066 0-70 0 79 0-81 0-87 0-95 6 1*26 137 OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS Table IX Total oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix at different body weights and AT DIFFERENT SALINITIES S. No. Weight in gm Oxygen consumed ml/hr 100% 75% 50% sea water 7 100 0.40 0-32 0-52 8 1-25 050 0-38 0-58 9 1-58 062 0-46 0-70 10 2-00 0-73 0-58 080 11 2*51 0-86 0*75 0-96 12 3*16 0*95 0*96 1-10 From the data given in Table VIII it could be seen that the oxygen- consumption in K. opima increases with increasing body weight at all the salinities studied. However, the regression coefficients of the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 7 show that the increase in oxygen-consumption with increase in body weight is not the same at all salinities studied. The regression coefficient of oxygen-consumption in relation to body size is maximal in 100 % sea water (b=0*66) and decreases as the salinity decreases. The straight lines of the size metabolism curves also suggest that throughout the weight range studied, the oxygen- consumption increases with the same power of body weight. It is also evident from Table VIII that at any given salinity the oxygen-consumption per unit time is less in smaller clams than in larger ones. In case of M. meretrix (Table IX), however, the trend is slightly diffe- rent. The oxygen-consumption increases with increase in body weight at all the salinities studied. However, this increase in oxygen-consump- tion with increase in body weight is not the same at all the salinities studied. The regression coefficient of oxygen-consumption on body weight is maximal in 75% sea water (b=0*84) instead of in 100% sea water as in case of K. opima. The regression coefficient decreases as the salinity either increases above or decreases below 75 % sea water. This is rather an interesting behaviour and will be discussed later. The straight lines of the size metabolism curves suggest that throughout the weight range studied, the oxygen-consumption increases with the same power of body weight. From Table IX it is also evident that at any given salinity the oxygen-consumption per unit time is less in smaller clams than in larger ones. From the curves given in Figs. 7 and 8 the values of weight specific Q03 or the unit oxygen-consumption (08 ml/gm/hr) were calculated 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) for the representative weights of clams. These are given in Tables X and XI. Table X Oxygen-consumption per gram body weight per hour in K, opima of different WEIGHTS AND AT DIFFERENT SALINITIES Weight in gm Oxygen ml/gm/hr S. No. 100% 75% 50% sea water 1 0*50 0*56 0-64 0-81 2 0*75 0-46 0-53 065 3 1-00 0-37 0-44 0-50 4 2-00 0-32 0-35 0*39 5 3-00 0*30 0-31 0-32 6 4-00 0-30 0-31 0-32 The values are calculated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 7. Table XI Oxygen-consumption per gram body weight per hour in M . meretrix of different WEIGHTS AND AT DIFFERENT SALINITIES Weight in gm Oxygen ml/gm/hr S. No. 100% 75% 50% sea water 7 0*50 0*52 036 0-62 8 0*75 0-48 0*34 0*56 9 100 0*40 0-32 050 10 2-00 0-34 0*27 0-40 11 300 0*33 0-25 0-37 12 4-00 0-31 0*25 0-33 The values are calculated from the size metabolism curves presented in Fig. 8. From Table X it could be seen that in K. opima the unit oxygen- consumption decreases with increasing body weight at all the salinities studied, such a decrease being more conspicuous in 50% and 75% sea water than in 100% sea water. However, in M. meretrix (Table XI) though the unit oxygen-consumption decreases with increasing body weight at all salinities, the decrease is more conspicuous in 50 % and 100 % than in 75% sea water. OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS 139 Oxygen-consumption as a function of salinity : The values of regression coefficient ‘ b ’ are given in Table XII. Table XII Percentage of sea water Species 100% 75% 50% K. opima 0-66 0-60 0-50 M. meretrix 0*75 0*84 0*71 The size metabolism curves given in Figs. 7 and 8 show that the ‘ b ’ value of the curve varies with the salinity. In K. opima the ‘ b ’ value decreases with decrease in salinity which is 0*66 in 100%, 0*60 in 75% and 0*50 in 50% sea water. This decrease in ‘b’ value with decrease in salinity indicates that the increase in oxygen-consumption in larger clams with decrease in salinity is less than in smaller clams and can, therefore, be regarded as being more sensitive to salinity changes than the larger ones. As stated above in case of M. meretrix the ‘ b ’ value is maximal in 75% sea water (b=0*84) and decreases above (b=0*75) and below (b=0*71) this concentration. This decrease in ‘b’ value on either side of 75 % sea water also appears to be on account of the less increase in oxygen-consumption in larger clams than in smaller ones with the change in the salinity. The smaller clams can, therefore, be regarded as more sensitive to changes in salinity either decrease below or increase above 75% sea water. The unit oxygen-consumption values given in Table X for K. opima indicate that the weight or body size is an important parameter in influencing the pattern of metabolic response at various salinities. The smaller clams are more sensitive to salinity changes than the larger ones. Thus in case of 0*50 gm clam the weight specific Q02 rises from 0*56 to 0*64 and to 0*81 as the salinity decreases from 100% to 75% and to 50% sea water. However, the corresponding rise in 4*00 gm clam is very much less. In case of M . meretrix (Table XI) the weight specific Q02 drops from 0*52 to 0*36 in a 0*50 gm clam as the salinity drops from 100% to 75% sea water and then rises from 0*36 to 0*62 as the salinity further drops to 50% sea water. But the corresponding drop and rise in a 4*00 gm clam is much less. This also indicates that the smaller clams are more sensitive to changes in the salinity than the larger ones. 140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Discussion It has been well established that the metabolism of animals is consi- derably influenced by body size and temperature, of the environment. Similarly the tendency for the rate of metabolism in animals to vary with some power of body weight has been recognised and discussed by Zeuthen (1947, 1953). There is a general concept that the weight specific Q02 is higher for smaller animals than the larger ones when measured at a given temperature for a given species and, therefore, if the logarithm of rate of oxygen-consumption is plotted as a function of logarithm of weight a linear relationship is obtained. On the basis of the magnitude of metabolic rate in relation to body size, Bertalanffy (1951) has classified animals into three major groups of metabolic types by using the slope of the regression line of the logarithm of metabolic rate against the logarithm of body weight. According to him the three types are (1) respiration surface-proportional, the allometric line showing a slope of 2/3 (b=0’67) ; (2) respiration weight proportional (b=100) and (3) intermediate group which is neither surface nor weight pro- portional (b > 0*67 and b < TOO). However, the relationship of body size to metabolism has been a subject of controversy. In a majority of cases amongst fishes, Bishop (1950) and Fry (1957) have shown that the increase in oxygen-consumption with size is surface area dependent rather than weight dependent. On the other hand intermediate condition has been shown by Job (1955) in Salvelinus fontinalis (b=0'8 to 0*9) and Parvatheswararao (1959) in Eutoplus maculatus (b=0’77). Job (1955) has discussed the metabloic response to body size in fishes and states, ‘ it seems rather likely that the Pisces fall into at least two of the Bertalanffy’s metabolic types, some being of the first group i.e. surface proportional and others of an inter- mediate type neither surface nor weight proportional’. However, Parvatheswararao (1960) found that in Puntius sophoro the increase in oxygen-consumption is nearly weight dependent (b=0’96 and 0*91) nearabout the habitat temperature (25°C and 30°C). He has further shown the influence of temperature on this relation, the increase in oxygen-consumption following surface area dependence at 35°C (b=0*59) and intermediate condition at 15°C (b=0‘86). Studies on the different invertebrate groups have also revealed that the value of ‘ b ’ changes within a group of animals and is not constant for the same species under different environmental conditions and at different developmental stages. This has been shown by Rao & Bullock (1954) and Zeuthen (1953). Thus for Crustacea (Wolvekamp & Waterman OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS 141 1960) the ‘ b 9 is generally between 0’67 and 1 ’00 i.e. between surface pro- portional to weight proportional. Kruger (1952) and Saroja (1959) have shown that the oxygen uptake is proportional to surface area in case of Eisenia foetida and Megascolex mauritii respectively. Recently Conover (1960) has shown that in case of Artemia salina the regression coefficient varies from 0*67 at 5°C to 0*93 at 13°C indicating two very different metabolic types. Zeuthen (1953, Fig. 4) has plotted meta- bolism and body size in different animals from eggs or larvae into mature stages. In the figure he has shown that in case of Mytilus sp. the ‘ b 9 value increases from 0*80 to 0*95 and then decreases to 0’65 as the animal grows. In the present investigation it will be seen that in both the species studied the regression values (b=0*66) nearabout the habitat tempe- rature (30°C) indicate that the increase in oxygen-consumption is surface area dependent, however, an intermediate condition is seen in K. opima at 20 and 40°C. and in M. meretrix at 40°C., whereas the latter species shows that the oxygen-consumption may follow weight dependence at 20°C. From the size metabolism curves presented in Figs. 1 and 2 it will be seen that the oxygen-consumption in clams increases with the same power of body weight at any given temperature throughout the weight range studied. Conversely, the unit oxygen-consumption de- creases with increasing body weight this decrease being marked at 40°C. Thus the unit oxygen-consumption in M. meretrix decreases from 0-76 to 0*29 at 40°C, whereas the corresponding decrease at 30°C and 20°C is only from 0*54 to 0*29 and 0*32 to 0*28 respectively, between 0*5 and 4*0 gm clam. Similarly the decrease in K. opima is from 0*94 to 0*32 at 40°C the corresponding decrease at 30° and 20°C being from 0*72 to 0*32 and 0’54 to 0*32, respectively in 0*5 and 4’0 gm clam. If we consider 30°C as the habitat temperature then it will be seen that the size metabolism curves for 40°C and 20°C (Figs. 1 and 2) considerably deviate from the curve for 30°C. There is widest displacement of curves between 30°C and 20°C in M. meretrix , and less so in K. opima than between 30°C and 40°C. The curve for 20°C has the maximum slope. The displacement of curves is also more conspicuous in younger clams than in larger ones indicating that the former ones are more sensitive to changes in temperature than the latter. In both the species of clams, the regression coefficients of size rneta- holism curves are shown to be temperature dependent. The ‘ b 9 values decrease with increasing temperature and appear to be correlated with the greater responsiveness of smaller clams than the larger ones. When the temperature is lowered (20°C) the curve towards lower weight ranges is pulled down, similarly when there is rise in temperature (40°C the curve rises mainly due to the more sensitive nature of smaller clams 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) than the larger ones to changes in temperature. Therefore, the smaller clams have higher Q10 values at these two temperature ranges. In case of both the species studied, the Q10 of oxygen-consumption is size dependent at all the temperatures, decreasing with increasing body weight, the dependence being more marked in lower temperature ranges than the higher ones. The Q10 also decreases with increasing tempe- rature, the decrease being more marked in smaller clams indicating that they are more sensitive to changes in temperature than the larger ones. Rao & Bullock (1954) have shown that in many poikilotherms the Q10 decreases with increasing body weight within the physiologically normal range of temperature. In the present case also the Q10 decreases with increasing body weight at all the temperature ranges studied and it also decreases with increasing temperature. As in respect of metabolism in relation to temperature in clams, salinity also has considerable influence on their metabolic activity. In K. opima in 100% sea water, the increase in oxygen-consumption is surface area dependent (b=0*66). The oxygen-consumption increases with decrease in salinity and in 75% sea water (b=0*60) and in 50% sea water (b =0'50) an intermediate condition is observed. In M. meretrix the oxygen-consumption shows an intermediate condition in all the salinities studied. However, in 100% and 50% sea water there is a slight tendency towards surface area dependence (b=0*72 in 100% and b=0*71 in 50 % sea water). The slight high value of ‘b ’ (0*72) in 100 % sea water as compared with that at 30°C given earlier (b=0*66) may perhaps be on account of the difference in the experimental temperature which in the present case was around 29°C. From the size metabolism curves presented in Figs. 7 and 8 it will be seen that the oxygen-consumption in clams increases with the same power of body weight at any given salinity throughout the weight range studied. Conversely the unit oxygen-consumption decreases with increasing body weight, this decrease being more marked in 50% sea water. Thus the unit oxygen-consumption in K. opima decreases from 0-81 to 0*32 in 50% sea water whereas the corresponding decrease in 75% and 100% sea water is from 0*64 to 0*31 and from 0*56 to 0*30 respectively between 0*5 and 4*0 gm clam. Considering 100% sea water as the habitat salinity, in which the clams show minimum activity, it will be seen that the curve for 75% and 50% sea water considerably deviates from the curve for the 100% sea water, which has the maximum slope. It is also evident from the curves that the displacement is more conspicuous in smaller clams than in larger ones, indicating that the former are more sensitive to salinity changes. In M. meretrix also the unit oxygen-consumption decreases from 0*63 to 0*33 in 50% sea water whereas the corresponding decrease in 75 % and 100 % sea water is from 0*36 to 0*25 and 052 to 0*31 respectively OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS m between 05 and 4*0 gm clam. However, in this species the maximum slope (b=0*84) is obtained in 75% sea water instead of 100% sea water (b=0’72). This is rather a peculiar behaviour. Thus this species shows minimum activity in 75% sea water and not in 100% sea water as in K. opima. Therefore, unlike K. opima in which the oxygen-consumption increases with decrease in salinity in M. meretrix the oxygen-consumption decreases with decrease in the salinity from 100% to 75% sea water, in which the minimum activity is noticed. With further reduction in the salinity from 75% to 50% sea water, however, the oxygen-consumption increases. Considering the importance of ‘ b ’ value it is likely that M. meretrix is more at home in 75% sea water than in 100% sea water and, therefore, could be considered as more adapted to low salinity condi- tions than K. opima. From the experiments conducted on the salinity tolerance in the two species, it has been found that M. meretrix is more tolerant to low salinity conditions than K. opima , and has, therefore, succeeded better in invading estuaries and backwaters and is often found quite far up the river. The metabolic response in this species, in relation to salinity, showing minimum activity in75 % sea water (salinity =25 ’5 %Q), also lends support to this idea. Presuming that 75 % sea water as the natural requirement for M. meretrix (ideal habitat salinity) it will be seen that the oxygen-consumption increases with either increase or decrease in this salinity, perhaps on account of the osmotic stress either ways, to be discussed later. Considering 75 % sea water as ideal habitat salinity, it will be observed that the curves for other two salinities consi- derably deviate from the one for 75% sea water, the displacement being more conspicuous in smaller clams than the larger ones, indicating their more sensitive nature to changes in the salinity, either above or below the ideal salinity. Considerable amount of work has been done on the effects of osmotic conditions of the metabolic activities. It is well-known that the animals show an increase in metabolism when placed in stress media. Carcinus maenas shows an increase in oxygen-consumption with decrease in sali- nity (Schlieper 1929). Flemister & Flemister (1951) found lowest oxygen- consumption in sea water (378 mM Cl/L) isotonic with the crab blood in case of Qcypoda albicans , but more hypotonic than the field conditions (480 mM Cl/L). They found that the oxygen-consumption increased as the sea water varied from isotonicity, highest being in hypotonic media. More or less similar results were obtained by Schwabe (1933) in case of cray fish Potamobius fluviatilis. The observations made by the abovementioned authors suggest that the increase in oxygen-consump- tion has resulted from increased osmotic work. But Gross (1957) has shown that in Uca oxygen-consumption did not always increase with osmotic stress. Marshell et al. (1935) also found that there was 30% reduction in oxygen-consumption when measured in 50% sea water 144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) than in normal sea water (salinity=34%0). Potts (1954) also has shown that in Eriocheir only a very small fraction of increased oxygen-consump- tion represents osmotic work done. The results of Gross (1957), Marshell et al. (1935) and Potts (1954) are not in agreement with those of the earlier quoted authors. The tendency for C02 to accumulate in lower salinities, resulting in increased respiratory rate has been suggested by Schlieper (1929). Ano- her interpretation of increased oxygen-consumption with lowering of salinity was proposed by Schlieper (1935) on the idea that due to absorption of water in low salinity, the volume of tissue and surface is increased facilitating absorption and hence oxygen-consumption. Wik- gren (1953) is of opinion that increase in oxygen-consumption is not due to osmotic regulation but either on account of swelling of tissues as suggested by Schlieper (1935) or by its influence on the endocrine balance. Violent attempts to escape from unfavourably low salinity, leading to extra muscular activity, resulting in increased oxygen-consumption has been suggested by Gross (1957) in the crab Pachygrapsus. Dehnel (1960) who studied metabolic response in Hemigrapsus oregonensis and Hemigrapsus nudus in relation to temperature and salinity, found results in the former species which could be considered as in accordance with Gross (1957) or Schlieper (1935) ; whereas in the other species the results were contradictory. Lofts (1956) compared respiratory rate of Palae- monetes varians from two different populations, one from low saline environment (salinity = 1*3 %c) and the other from high saline environ- ment (salinity =23*5 %D), and found minimal respiratory rate in water of salinity 26*00 %G for high salinity population, a condition which was isotonic with the animal, whereas the minimal rate in low salinity popula- tion was found in salinity 6*00 %c, a condition somewhat hypertonic to the environment in which these animals were found. Rao (1958) who compared oxygen-consumption in marine and brackish water populations of Metapenaeus monoceros , found that prawns from marine environment showed minimum activity in 100% sea water (salinity =35* 5 %Q) whereas the minimum metabolic activity in prawns from brackish water environ- ment was exhibited in 50% sea water (salinity— 16*75 %c), their oxygen- consumption increasing in 100% sea water. In both the groups of prawns the oxygen-consumption increased with decrease in salinity below the habitat salinity, and in the brackish water population the increase was also effected as the salinity increased to 100% sea water. He suggested that these differences may be due to osmotic adaptation and operation of a metabolic homoeostatic mechanism in relation to osmotic regulation. The results obtained in the present investigation on the metabolic response in clams, though it involves two different species from the same environment, could be favourably compared on the strength of meta- OXYGEN CONSUMPTION IN CLAMS 145 bolic response as those belonging to two groups of populations physiolo- gically, one, M. meretrix as more adapted to low saline environment (25*5 %G) and the other K. opima as adapted to marine environment (34-0%o). Therefore, the minimum activity in M. meretrix is found in salinity 25*5 %Q and in K. opima in salinity 34-Q%0. Hiscock (1953) states, ‘ In euryhaline marine species oxygen-consumption is at its lowest when the external medium is isotonic and rises as the later becomes hypo or hypertonic to the blood \ No data is available on the osmo- regulation in these clams and, therefore, it is not possible to say whether isotonic condition is found in M. meretrix when exposed to 75 % sea water and in K. opima in 100% sea water. It would be very interesting to study this aspect which might throw some light on the metabolic response in clams in relation to salinity. It is only suggested here that the differential metabolic response in clams to different saline media might be due to osmotic stress, though possibilities of increase in oxygen- consumption on account of absorption of water and subsequent swelling of the tissues, as suggested by Schlieper (1935) cannot be completely overruled in absence of any data on this aspect. In the experiments described earlier (Ranade & Kulkarni 1972) on the opening of the shell valves in relation to salinity, it has been shown that the opening of the valves in clams is progressively delayed as the salinity of the environment decreases. So in media hypotonic to blood, the closing of the shell valves relieves the animal from osmotic embarrassment. When the clams open after some time, depending on the strength of the solution, chloride ions are lost. These are perhaps replaced by active absorption from the environment as suggested by Krogh (1939). This process must require energy and hence the increase in the rate of oxygen-consumption with decrease in the salinity of the external medium. References Barnes, H. (1959) : Apparatus and me- thods of oceanography. Part one. Che- mical. George Allen Unwin Ltd. London Berkeley, C. (1921) : Anaerobic respi- ration in some molluscs. The relation of anaerobic respiration to glycogen. Jour. Biol Chem. 46 (3) : 579-598. (1923) : On crystalline style as a possible factor in the anaerobic res- piration of certain marine molluscs. Jour. Expt.Zool. 37(5): 477-488. Bertalanffy, L. Von (1951) : Meta- bolic types and growth types. Am. Nat . 85 : 111-117. Bishop, D. W. (1950): Respiration and Metabolism. In ‘ Comparative Animal physiology’. (C. L. Prosse- red.) pp. 209-289. Saunders, Philadel- phia. Bloch, K. J. & Schlieper, C. (1953) : 10 Uber den Eniflussdes salzgehates im Meerwasser out den Grundumsatz des Seesternes. Aster ias rubens. L. kieler Meeresforsch. 9 : 201-212. Conover, Robert J. (1960) : The feeding behaviour and respiration of some marine planktonic Crustacea. Biol. Bull. 119 (3) : 399-415. Dam, L. Van. (1935) : Oxygen utilisa- tion in My a arenaria. J. Exper. Biol. 86-94. (1954) : On respiration in Scallops. Biol. Bull. 107 : 192. Dawson, W. R. & Bartholomew, G. A. (1956): Relation of oxygen-consum- ption to body weight, temperature and temperature acclimation in lizards Uta stansburiana and Scoloporus occidental is. Physical Zool. 29 (1) : 40-51. 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Dehnel, Paul A. (I960) : Effect of temperature and salinity on the oxygen- consumption of two intertidal crabs. Biol. Bull. 118 (2) : 215-249. Eliassen, E. (1952) : The energy meta- bolism in Artemia salina in relation to body size, seasonal rhythm and different salinities. Univ. Bergen. Arbok. Natur- vitens, Relcke. 11 : 1-17. Flemister, L. J. & Flemister, S. C. (1951) : Chloride ion regulation and oxygen-consumption in the crab Ocypoda albicans (Bosq.) Biol. Bull. 101 : 259-273. Fry, F. E. J. (1958) : Temperature compensation Ann. Rev. Physiol. 20 : 207-224. Galtsoff, P. S. & Whipple, D. V. (1930) : Oxygen-consumption in normal and green oysters, ibid. 46 : 489-508. Gopala Krishnan, V. (1953) : Studies on the biology of Madras Penaeids. Doc- toral Dissectation, Univ. of Madras. Gross, W. J. (1957) : An analysis of response to osmotic stress in selected de- capod Crustacea. Biol. Bull. 112 : 43-62. Hazelhott, E. H. (1938) : Oxygen utilization : Invertebrates. Ztschr. Vergl. Physiol. 26 : 306-327. Hiscock, I. D. (1953): Osmoregula- tion in Freshwater mussel (Lamel- libranchiata). II Respiration and its relation to Osmoregulation in Hyridella australis (Lam.). Aust. Mar. Freshw Res. 4 (2) : 330-342. Hopkins, H. S. (1946) : The influence of season, concentration of sea water and environmental temperature upon oxy- gen-consumption of tissues in Venus mercenaria. Job, S. V. (1955) : The oxygen-con- sumption in Salvelinus fontinalis. Uni- versity of Toronto Biological Series No. 61. Publ. Ontario Fisheries Research Lab. 73 : 39. Kleiber, Max (1947) : Body size and metabolic rate. Physical Rev. 27 : 511-541. Krogh, A. (1939) : Osmotic regu- lation in Aquatic animals. Cambridge at the University Press. Lofts, B. (1956) : The effect of salinity changes on the respiratory rate of the Prawn Palaemonetes varians (Leach). /. Expt. Biol. 33 : 730-736. Mitchell, P. H. (1912) : Tfie oxygen requirements of shellfish. Marshell, S. M., Nicholls, A. G. & Orr, A. P. (1935) : On the biology of Calanus finmarchicus. VI : Oxygen-cons- umption in relation to environmental conditions. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 20 : 1-28. Parvatheswararao, V. (1959) : Stu- dies on the oxygen-consumption in tro- pical poikilotherms. III. Oxygen-con- sumption in fresh water fish Etroplus maculatus (Bloch) in relation to size and temperature. J. Anim. Morph. Physiol. 6 (1) : 34-47. (1960) : Studies on the oxy- gen-consumption in the freshwater fish Puntius sop ho re (Ham.) in relation to size and temperature. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. 26, B No. 2 : 64-72. Potts, W. T. W. (1954) : The energetics of osmotic regulation in brackish and fresh water animals. Rao, K. P. (1958) : Oxygen-consump- tion as a function of size and salinity in Metapenaeus monoceros Fab. from ma- rine and brackish water environment. J. Expt. Biol. 35 (2): 307-313. Rao, K. P. & Bullock, T. S. (1954) : Q10 as a function of size and habitat temperature in poikilotherms. Amer. Nat. 78 : 33-44. Ranade, M. R. & Kulkarni, C. V. (1972) : Observations on the behaviour of clams in waters of low salinity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (3) : 616-634. Saroja, K. (1959) : Studies on the oxygen-consumption in tropical poikilo- therms. II. Oxygen-consumption in re- lation to body size and temperature in the earth worm Megascolex mauritii when kept submerged in water. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. Sec. B. 49(3) : 183-193. Schlieper, C. (1929): Ueber die Ein- wirkung nieder Salzkonzentrationen out marine Organismen. Zeitschr. vergl. Physiol. 9 : 478-514. (1955) : Uber die physiolo- gischen wirkungen des Brackwassers. Kieler Meeresforsch. 11 : 22-33. SCHOLANDER, P. C., FLAGG, W., WAL- TERS, V. & Irving L. (1953) Climatic adaptation in arctic and tropical poikilo- therms. Physiol. Zool. 26 : 67-92. Sckwabe, E. (1933): Ueber die Osmore- gulation Verschiedener Krebse (Malacos- tracan). Zeitschr. Vergl. Physiol. 18 : 183-236. Wikgren, B. J. (1953) : Osmotic re- gulation in some aquatic animals with special reference to the influence of temperature. Acta Zool. Fennica 71 : 1-102. Wolvekamp, H. P. & Waterman (1960): The physiology of Crustacea. Chapter II. Respiration. Academic Press, NewYork. Zeuthen, E. (1947) : Body size and metabolic rate in animal kingdom with special reference to marine microfauna. Compt. Rend. Lab. Carlsberg Ser. Chim. 26 (3): 17-161. (1953) : Oxygen uptake as related to body size in organisms. Quart . Rev. Biol. 28 (1) : 1-12. A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society — 14 Meropidas and Coraciidae BY Humayun Abdulali [Continued from Vol. 69 (3) : 546] This part deals with 302 specimens of 20 species and subspecies upto No. 762 in ind. handbook (4 : 123) and No. 23692 of the Society’s register. Mr. S. A. Hussain, Research Assistant, assisted with measure- ments. 744 Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot (Java, errore Ceylon) Chestnutheaded Bee-eater 4 : 240 21 : 10 Elaeis guineensis (Seitz). All Palmaceae, the latter two species introduced from Africa. discophora Bsd. — Palmaceae, Saccharum, Bamboo (Gramineae) (Seitz). D. sondaica Bsd. — Bamboo (Talbot, Seitz). (Gramineae). D. lepida Moore — Bamboo (Talbot), Bamboo, Dendrocalamus and other Gramineae (Seitz). Acraeidae acraea Hbn. A. issoria Hbn. — Debregeasia bicolor (Peile), D. bicolor , Boehmeria salicifolia (Talbot), Boehmeria salicifolia (Seitz). Both Urticaceae. Seitz adds ‘ and all sorts of other weeds ’. A. violae F. — Modecca palmata (Passifloraceae) and cultivated kinds (Peile), Modecca palmata (Bingham, Talbot, Seitz), Cucurbitaceae (Moore). N.B. — The preceding families have been arranged in the order adopted by Talbot in the fauna of British India, 2nd edition. The succeed- ing families are arranged according to Seitz’ indo- Australian RHOPALOCERA. FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA 167 Nymphaudae Biblinidi ergolis Bsd.— On Ricinus communis and Tragia (Euphorbiaceae). E. ariadne L. — Tragia involucrata (Peile), T. involucrata , T. cannabina (Bingham, Seitz). All Euphorbiaceae. E. merione Cr. — Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) (mihi). byblia Hbn. — Tragia cannabina (Euphorbiaceae) (Seitz). B. ilithyia Drury — Tragia cannabina (Euphorbiaceae) (Seitz, by inference). In East Africa on Tragia, Daleschampia (Euphorbiaceae). Pseudergolidi pseudergolis Feld.-— Debregeasia bicolor (Urticaceae) (Seitz), P. wedah Koll.— Debregeasia bicolor (Urticaceae) (Bingham). Issorodidi cupha Hbn. — Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae) (Seitz). C. erymanthis Drury — Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae) (Bingham), Glochidion eriocarpum (Euphorbiaceae) (Seitz). atella Dbl. — Ixora (Rubiaceae) (Seitz). A. phalanta Drury — Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae) (Bingham, Moore), Salix (Salicaceae) (Moore). In East Africa on Gymnosporia , Maytenus ovatus (Celastraceae), Aberia, Dovyalis, Flacourtia (Flacourtiaceae), Populus , Salix (Salicaceae). A. alcippe Cr. — Alsodeia zeylanica (Violaceae) (Seitz). issoria Hbn. I. sinha Koll. — In Australia on Xylosma ovatum, Homalium circumpin - natum (Samydaceae) (Common). cynthia F. — Modecca palmata (Passifloraceae) (Seitz). C. erota F. — Modecca palmata (Passifloraceae) (Bingham). cirrochroa Dbl. — Hydnocarpus wightiana (Flacourtiaceae) (Seitz). C, thais F. — Hydnocarpus wightiana (Flacourtiaceae) (Seitz). 168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Cethosiinae CETHOSiA F. — Passiflorae (Seitz). C. nietneri Feld. — Modecca (Peile, Moore), Modecca palmata (Bingham) (Passifloraceae). C. biblis Drury — Modecca (Passifloraceae) but refused cultivated Passi- flora (mihi), Passiflora foetida (Passifloraceae), Baibas baquero (? family ?) (Seitz). C. cyane Drury — Passiflora (Passifloraceae) (Bingham, Seitz). Argynnidi MELITAEA F. M. didyma O. — In Europe on Plantago (Plantagineae). boloria Moore B. pales Schiff. — In Europe on Viola spp. (Violaceae). ARGYNNIS F. A. lathonia L. 1 A. adippe L. In Europe on Viola spp. (Violaceae). A. aglaia L. J A. hyperbius L. — Viola (Violaceae) (mihi). In Australia on Viola (Common). Vanessidi precis Hbn. P. iphita Cr. — Strobilanthes (Acanthaceae) (Bingham). P. atlites L .—Hygrophila spinosa (Acanthaceae) (Seitz). P. almana L. — Acanthus , (Acanthaceae), Lippia nodiflora (Verbenaceae), Osbeckia (Melastomaceae), Gloxinia (Gesneriaceae) (Seitz). P. orithya L. — Hygrophila (Acanthaceae), Antirrhinum orontium (Scro- phulariaceae) (Seitz), Acanthus (Acanthaceae) (Moore). In Australia on Thunbergia alata (Acanthaceae), Antirrhinum (Common). In East Africa on Hygrophila (Acanthaceae), Englas scandens (Labiatae), Antirrhinum , Striga lulea (Scrophulariaceae). P. hierta F. — In East Africa on Asy stasia, Barleria , Justicia , Paulowil- helmia, Ruellia (Acanthaceae). FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA 169 PYRAMEIS Hbn. P. cardui L. — Artemisia , Blumea (Compositae) (Bingham), Artemisia (Compositae) (Moore), Carduus (Compositae) (mihi). In Australia on Helichrysum , Artemisia (Compositae), Cryptostemma (? family ?) (Common). In East Africa on Anchusa, Cyanoglossum , Echium (Boraginaceae), Arctium , Arctotis , Artemisia , Carduus , Chrysanthemum , Cirsium , Cynara scolymus , Filago, Gnaphalium, Heliochrysum , Laggera alata, Madia , Pentzia , Senecio, Sonchus , Stobaea (Compositae), Althaea , Malva (Malvaceae), Argyrolobium , Dolichos , Glycine , Lablab niger , Lupinus , Phaseolus (Papilionaceae), Boehmeria , Girardinia , Laporta, Urtica (Urticaceae). P. indica Herbst. — Urtica (Urticaceae) (Peile). VANESSA F. V. urticae L. — In Europe on Urtica (Urticaceae). V. cashmirensis Koll. — Urtica (Urticaceae) (Peile, mihi). V. xanthomelas Esp. — Cete australis (Ulmaceae), Pistacia integerrima (Anacardiaceae), occasionally SW/fx (Salicaceae) (Seitz). In Europeon S'#//* (Salicaceae). V. polychloros L. — In Europe on t//ww,s (Ulmaceae), &*//* (Salicaceae), Prunus (Rosaceae). V. antiopa L. — In Europe on .W/x (Salicaceae), Urtica (Urticaceae), Be tula (Amentaceae). V. canace L.— Smilax (Liliaceae) (Bingham, Moore, Seitz, mihi). POLYGONIA Hbn. P. c -album L. — In Europe on Ulmus (Ulmaceae), Humulus , Urtica (Urticaceae), Prunus (Rosaceae), (Ribesiaceae). P. 1-album Esp. — In Europe on £0//*, Populus (Salicaceae). P. egea Cr. — In Europe on Parietaria officinalis (Urticaceae). ARASCHNIA Hbn. A. prorsoides Blch. — Urtica (Urticaceae) (Seitz). SYMBRENTHIA Hbn. S. hippoclus Cr. — Debregeasia bicolor , Girardinia heterophylla (Urticaceae) (Seitz). 170 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol 70 (1) RHINOPALPA Feld. R. polynice Cv.—Conocephalus suaveolens (Urticaeeae) (Seitz). HYPOLIMNAS Hbn. H. misippus L.— Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae) (Bingham), Abutilon (Malvaceae), Abelmoschus (Malvaceae) (Moore), Batatas (Convolvula- ceae), Portulaca (Portulacaceae), Abutilon (Malvaceae) (Seitz). In East Africa on Asy stasia, Justicia (Acanthaceae), Portulaca , Talium (Portulacaceae). In Australia on Pseuderanthemum (Acanthaceae), Portulaca (Common). H. bolina L.-— Portulacaceae, Urticaeeae (Seitz). In Australia on Sida rhomb if olia (Malvaceae), A sy stasia scandens , Pseuderanthemum variable, Ruellia (Acanthaceae), Alternanthera denticulata (Amaranthaceae), Richardia (Aroideae), Synedrella (Compositae) (Common). doleschallia Feld. — Eranthemum malabaricum , Gratophyllum hort - ense (Acanthaceae) (Seitz). D. bisaltide Cr. — Acanthaceae (Moore), Gratophyllum hortense (Acantha- ceae), Urtica (Urticaeeae) (Seitz). In Australia on Pseuderanthemum variable (Acanthaceae) (Common). kallima Dbl. — Strobilanthes callosus, Eranthemum malabaricum (Acanthaceae) (Seitz). K. inachus Bsd. — Strobilanthus capitatus (Acanthaceae), Girardinia hetero- phylla (Urticaeeae), Polygonum orient alis (Polygonaceae) (Seitz). K. philarchus Westw. — Strobilanthus (Acanthaceae) (Bingham), Strobi- lanthus callosus, Eranthemum malabaricum (Acanthaceae) (Seitz). Marpesiidae cyrestis Bsd. — Ficus, Urostigma, Covellia (Moraceae) (Seitz). C. thyodamas Bsd. — Ficus glomerata, F. nemoralis (Peile), Ficus indica (Bingham). chersonesia Dist. — Possibly Uvaria sp. (Anonaceae), Ficus (Moraceae) (Seitz). Neptididi neptis F. N. jumbah Moore — Byttneriaceae, etc. (Moore), on 13 different plants belonging to the Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Rhamnaceae? Leguminosae and Urticaeeae (Seitz), FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA 171 N. hylas L. — Leguminosae (Moore), Lathyrus (Papilionaceae) (Seitz), N. soma Moore — Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Urticaceae (Seitz). N. viraja Moore— Dalbergia latifolia , D . racemosa (Papilionaceae) (Moore, Seitz). rahinda Moore R. hordonia Stoll. — Acacia , Albizzia (Mimosaceae) (Bingham). PANTOPORIA Hbn. P. perius L. — Glochidion velutinum , G. lanceolatum (Bingham), Glochi- dion , Phyllanthus (Seitz). (All Euphorbiaceae). P. ranga Moore— Olea dioica, Linociera malabarica (Oleaceae) (Bingham, Seitz). N.B. — Seitz writes Lonicera for Linociera. P. opalina Koll. — Berberis aristata (Berberidaceae) (Peile). P. selemophora Koll. — Adina cordifolia (Rubiaceae) (Bingham). P. nefte Cr. — Glochidion velutinum G. zelanica (Euphorbiaceae) (Bingham), Glochidion spp. (Euphorbiaceae), Mussaenda frondosa (Rubiaceae) (Seitz). limenitis F. L. procris Cr. — Mussaenda , Cinchona (Rubiaceae) (Bingham, Moore), Mussaenda frondosa , Wendenlandia , Nauclea cadamba (Rubiacea) (Seitz). L. calidasa Moore — Mussaenda , Cinchona (Rubiaceae) (Moore, Seitz). parthenos Hbn. — Zehneria umbellata (Cucurbitaceae) (Seitz). P. cyaneus Moore — Modecca (Passifloraceae) (Bingham, Moore, Seitz). Euthaliidi EUTHALIA Hbn. E. lepidea Btlr. — Melastoma malabaricum (Melastomaceae) (Bingham, Seitz), Careya arbor escens (Myrtaceae) (Seitz). E. garuda Moore — Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) (mihi), Mangifera indica , Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae), Loranthus scurrula (Loranthaceae), Bryonia (Cucurbitaceae), Morus (Moraceae), Rosa (Rosaceae), Trophis aspera (? family ?) (Seitz). E. vasanta Moore — Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) (Moore, Seitz). E. anosia Moore — Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) (Seitz). 172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) E. phemius Dbh — Nephelium lit chi (Sapindaceae) (Seitz). E. lubentina Cr ,—Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Moore, Seitz). E. nais Forst Diospyros (Ebenaceae) (Peile), Diospyros melanoxylon (Ebenaceae) (Seitz). E. evelina Stoll. — Diospyros candolleana (Bingham), Diospyros candol - leana , D. melanoxylon (Ebenaceae) (Seitz). Apaturidi apatura F. A. parisatis Westw. — Celtis lycodoxylon (Ulmaceae) (Moore, Seitz). A. ambica Koll. — Ulmus wallichiana (Ulmaceae) (Seitz). euripus Westw. — Urticaceae (Seitz). E. consimilis Westw. — Trema orientalis (Urticaceae) (Seitz). Charaxidi ERIBOEA Hbn. E. athamas Drury — Delonix regia (Caesalpinaceae), Acacia pennata, A. coesia , Albizzia lebhek (Mimosaceae) (Peile). Caesalpinia (Caesal- pinaceae) (Moore), Grewia (Tiliaceae), Caesalpinia, Poinciana (Caesalpinaceae), Albizzia milletti , Acacia (Mimosaceae), Alsicia (? family ?) (Seitz). E. schreiberi Godt. — Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae), Rourea santa- loides (Connaraceae), Cynometra caulifora , Wagatea spicata (Caesal- pinaceae) (Seitz). charaxes O. C. fabius F. — Tamarindus indicus, Wagatea spicata (Caesalpinaceae), 6 occasionally noticed on Cardenia ’ (? family ?), possibly a misprint for Gardenia (Rubiaceae) (Seitz). C. polyxena Cr. — Saccopetalum (printed Saroptalum) tomentosum (Anonaceae) (Peile), Saccopetalum tomentosum (Anonaceae), Aglaic roxburghiana (Meliaceae) (Seitz). Erycinidae Libytheini LIBYTHEA F. L. celtis Fuessl, — In Europe on Celtis australis (Ulmaceae), FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA m L. lepita Moor e—Celtis (Ulmaceae) (Seitz). L. myrrha Cr. — Celtis tetrandra (Ulmaceae) [Bingham, Seitz (printed tetranta )]. Riodinini zemeros Bsd. Z. flegyas Cr. — Maesa montana (Bingham), Maesa chisia (mihi) (Myrsi- naceae). dodona Hew. — On Maesa (printed Moesa ) (Myrsinaceae), Grami- neae and alpine bamboo (Gramineae) (Seitz). D. eugenes Bates — Grasses, Hill Bamboo (Bingham), Gramineae, Alpine Bamboo (Gramineae) (Seitz). I am doubtful of the correctness of this record. D. adonira Hew. — Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae) (mihi), Moesa (sic) chisia (Seitz). D. ouida Moor e— Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae) (mihi). abisara Feld. — Myrsinaceae (Seitz). A. fylla Hqw.— Maesa chisia (Myrsinaceae) (mihi). A. echerius Stoll.— Ardisia (Myrsinaceae) (Moore), Myrsinaceae (Seitz). Lycaenidae Liphyrinae liphyra Westw. L. brassolis Westw. — Carnivorous on Ant larvae (Bingham). Also in Australia (Common). Seitz writes ‘ Holland’s presumption that the larvae are carnivora, is due to a rather ingenious and for the present uncontrollable combination ’. Gerydinae— Carnivorous on aphides (Seitz). gerydus Bsd. G. biosdufali Moore-Carnivorous on aphides (Seitz). Lycaeninae megisba Moore M. malaya Hors. — Sapindaceae (Moore). \ 174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) LYCAENOPSIS Feld. L. puspa Horsf. — Cylista scariosa (Papilionaceae), Xylia dolabriformis (Mimosaceae), Hiptage madablota (Combretaceae), Schleichera trijuga (Sapindaceae) (Seitz). L. argiolus L. — In Europe on Rhamnus (Rhamnaceae), Hedera (Aralia- ceae), Ilex (Ilicineae). pithecops Horsf. — Leguminosae (Seitz). P. hylax F. — Leguminosae (Seitz). P. zalmora Btlr. — Glycosmis pentaphylla (Rutaceae) (Seitz). Also in Australia (Common). spalgis Moore — Carnivorous feeding on the Aphid Dactylopius adonideum (Seitz). S. epius Moore — Euphorbiaceae (Moore). Almost certainly incorrect, the real food being Aphids feeding on the Euphorbiaceae. CASTALIUS Hbn. C. ananda de N. — Zizyphus xylopyrus (Rhamnaceae), Loranthus (Loran- thaceae) (Bingham). C, rosimon F. — Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae) (Peile, Bingham, Seitz). C. ethion Dbl. — Zizyphus jujuba , Z. xylopyrus (Rhamnaceae) (Seitz). C. caleta Hew. — Zizyphus rugosa (Rhamnaceae) (Bingham). tarucus Moore — Zizyphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae) (Seitz). T. plinius F. — Plumbago (Plumbaginaceae) (Bingham). Also in Australia (Common). In East Africa on Burkea , Crotalaria, Indigofer a, Medi- cago, Melilotis , Mundulea, Phaseolus , Pisum , Sesbania (Papilionaceae), Plumbago (Plumbaginaceae). T. theophrastus F. — Zizyphus (Peile), Zizyphus jujuba (Bingham) (Rhamna- ceae). Also in East Africa. T. nara Koll. — Zizyphus (Peile), Zizyphus jujuba (mihi) (Rhamnaceae). azanus Moore A. uhaldus Cr.— Acacia sp. (Peile), Acacia arabica (Seitz) (Mimosaceae). A. uranus Btlr .—Acacia sp. (Peile), Acacia arabica , A. Senegal (Seitz) (Mimosaceae). FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA 175 A. jesous Guer. — In East Africa on Acacia (Mimosaceae), Medicago (Papilionaceae). COSMOLYCE TOX. C. boeticus L. — Cajanus indicus , Butea frondosa (Peile), Crotalaria striata (Bingham), Lupinus, Pisum (mihi), Vigna sinensis , Melilotus , Crotalaria striata (Seitz). In Australia on Crotalaria , Dolichos , Sesbania, Lupinus. In East Africa on Cajanus cajan, Canavallia, Colutea , Crotalaria , Indigofer a, Lathyrus, Lupinus , Medicago , Phaseolus , Pisum , Podalyria , Sutherland ia, Virgilia. All Papilionaceae. LYCAENESTHES Moore L. emolus Godt. — Nephelium litchi (Sapindaceae), Heynea trijuga (Meli- aceae), Cassia fistula (Caesalpinaceae) (Bingham, Seitz). In Australia on Caesalpinia nuga , Cassia (Caesalpinaceae), Pongamia pinnata (Papi- lionaceae), Clerodendron (Verbenaceae), Cupaniopsis anacardioides (? family ?), Faradaya splendida (? family ?) (Common). jamides Hbn. J. bochus Cr. — Xylia dolabriformis (Mimosaceae), Butea frondosa (Papi- lionaceae) (Bingham, Seitz). lampides Hbn. L. celeno Cx— Heynea trijuga (Meliaceae) (Bingham), Heynea trijuga (Meliaceae), Butea frondosa (Papilionaceae), ‘ but presumably also on other plants, such as Cardamomae 5 (Seitz). L. elpis Godt.—Kaempferia pandurata , Elettaria cardamomum (Zinzibera- ceae) (Bingham, Seitz). nacaduba Moore N. berenice H. Sch. — In Australia on Cupaniopsis (? family ?), Alectryon (? family ?) (Common). N. atrata Horsf . — Embelia robusta (Sapotaceae) (Bingham). N. perusia Feld. — Vateria indica (Dipterocarpaceae) (Moore). CATOCHRYSOPS Bsd. C. cnejus F. — Phaseolus trilobus , Dolichos catjang (Papilionaceae) (Bing- ham, Seitz). In Australia legume flowers (Common). C. pandava Horsf. — Cycas revoluta (Cycadaceae) (Bingham, Seitz), Cycadaceae (Moore). 176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) EVERES Hbn. E. argiades Pall. — Trifolium , etc. (Papilionaceae) (Bingham). tali cad A Moore T. nyseus Geur. — Bryophillum calycinum (Crassulaceae) (Bingham, Seitz), Bryophillum (Moore). zizera Moore Z. lysimon Hbn. (= Zizeeria knysna Trim.) — Zornia diphylla (Papiliona- ceae) (Bingham). In Australia on Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae) (Common). In East Africa on Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae), Euphor- bia (Euphorbiaceae), Oxalis (Oxalidaceae), Medicago , Zornia (Papilio- naceae), Tribulus (Zygophyllaceae). Z. gaika Trim. (= Zizula hylax F.) — In East Africa on Oxalis (Oxalida- ceae). Z. otis F. — In Australia on Legumes including Medicago (Papilionaceae) (Common). Z. maha Koll. — Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae) (mihi). chilades Moore C. trochilus Frr. — Heliotropium strigosum (Boraginaceae) (Bingham), Rhynchosia minima (Papilionaceae) (mihi). In Australia on Indigofera (Papilionaceae) (Common). In East Africa on Indigofera . C. laius Cr. — Citrus spp. (Rutaceae) (Bingham, mihi). lycaena F. {—Polyommatus Latr.) L. astrarche Bgster. — In Europe on Erodium cicutarium (Geraniaceae). L. cyllarus Rott.— In Europe on Leguminosae. L. icarus Rott. — In Europe on Leguminosae, especially on Ononis spinosa (Papilionaceae). CHYSOPHANUS Hbn. (= Lycaena F.) C. phlaeas h.— Rumex nepalensis (Polygonaceae) (Peile). In Europe on Rumex spp. ilerda Dbl. (= Heliophorus Geyer) I. brahma Moor q— Rumex (Polygonaceae) (mihi). I. sena Koll .—Rumex hastatus (Polygonaceae) (Peile). FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA 177 curetis Hbn. C. bulis Dbl. — Pongamia glabra (Papilionaceae) (Bingham). aphnaeus Hbn. A. lohita Horsf. — Convolvulaceae (Moore). apharitis Riley A. acamas Klug — Cassia (Caesalpinaceae) (Seitz). iraota Moore I. timoleon Stoll. — Ficus glomerata (Peile), F. religiosa (Moore) (Mora- ceae). amblypodia Horsf. — On Schleichera (Sapindaceae), Lagerstroemia (Lythraceae), Xylia (Mimosaceae), Hopea (Styraceae), etc. (Seitz). A. apidanus Cr. — Eugenia (Myrtaceae), Lagerstroemia (Lythraceae) (Seitz). A. centaurus F. — Schleichera trijuga (Sapindaceae) (Moore). A. dodonaea Moore ^ A. rama Koll. > Quercus incana (Fagaceae) (Peile). A. ganesa Moore ' zephyrus Dalm. Z. birupa Moor q— Rhododendron arbor eum (Ericaceae) (Peile). chaetoprocta de Nic. C. odata Hew. — Juglans (Juglandaceae) (Peile). camena Hew. ( =Pratapa Moore) C. deva Moore — Loranthus tomentosa (Loranthaceae) (Peile, Seitz). tajuria Moore T. cippus F. — Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Moore, Seitz). T. melastigma de Nic. — Loranthus (Loranthaceae) (Seitz). T. jalindra Horsf .—Loranthus elastica (Loranthaceae) (Seitz). T. cleobis Godt. — Loranthus elastica (Loranthaceae) (Seitz). T. diaeus Hew .—Loranthus bicolor (Loranthaceae), Lantana (Verbenaceae) (Seitz). 12 178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) HORAGA Moore H. onyx Moore — Coriaria nepalensis (Coriariaceae) (Seitz). HYPOLYCAENA Feld. H. erylus Godt. — Vangueria spinosa (Rubiaceae) (Seitz). rathinda Moore R. amor F. — Eugenia ceylonica (Myrtaceae), Hopea (Styraceae) and pre- sumably on some other plants (Seitz), Ixora coccinea (Rubiaceae), Nephelium lit chi (Sapindaceae) (mihi). CHERITRA Moore C. freja F. — Xylia dolabriformis (Mimosaceae) (Seitz). LOXURA Horsf. L. atymnus Cr .—Smilax (Smilacaceae) (Moore), Dioscorea (Dioscora- ceae) (Seitz). ZEZius Hbn. Z. chrysomallus Hbn —Terminalia (Combretaceae) (Moore), Terminalia tomentosa , T. paniculata (Combretaceae), Xylia dolabriformis (Mimosa- ceae) (Seitz). deudoryx Hew. — In fruits (Seitz). D. epijarbas Moore — Punica granatum (Lythraceae), Aesculus (Hippo- castaneae) (Peile), Connarus ritchiei (Connaraceae), Punica (Lythra- ceae), Aesculus indicus (Hippocastaneae) (Seitz). In Australia in fruits of Harpullia pendula (Sapindaceae) (Common). D. perse Hew.— Randia dumetorum (Rubiaceae) (Seitz). D. isocrates F .—Punica (Lythraceae) (Peile), Punica granatum (Lythra- ceae), Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), Eriobotrya japonica (Rosaceae), Randia dumetorum , R . uliginosa (Rubiaceae) (Seitz). rap ala Moore R. melampus Cr.— Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae), Melastoma polyanthus (Melastomaceae), Zizyphus rugosus (Rhamnaceae), Ougei- nea dalbergeoides (Papilionaceae) (Seitz). R. selira Moore— Indigofera purpurea (Papilionaceae) (Peile). R. varuna Horsf .—Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), Zizyphus xylopyrus (Rhamnaceae) (Seitz). FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERA 179 R. sphinx F. — Melastoma polyanthus (Melastomaceae), Elaeagnus ferruginea (Elaeagnaceae) (Seitz). R. schistacea Moore — Quisqualis indica (Combretaceae) (mihi), Quis - quails (Combretaceae), Acacia caesia (Mimosaceae), Spiraea sorhifolia (Rosaceae) (Seitz). Hesperiidae Hesperinae COLADENIA Moore C. dan F. — Achyranthes asp era (Amarantaceae) (Seitz). CELAENORRHINUS Hbn. C. asmara Btlr. — Clerodendron fragrans (Yerbenaceae) (Seitz). C. plagifera de N. — Impatiens (Balsamineae) (mihi). tagiades Hbn.—Roxburghiaceae, Dioscoraceae, Convolvulaceae (Seitz). T. japetus Cr —Dioscorea oppositifolia (Dioscoraceae) (Seitz). odontoptilum de N. O. angulata Feld.-— Hibiscus t iliac eus, Urena lobata, Eriodendron (Malva- ceae), and other plants (Seitz). hesperia Latr. H. galba F. — Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) (mihi). CARCHARODUS Hbn. C. alcae Esp. — In Europe on Malvaceae. Ismeninae hasora Moore H. badra Moore — Denis uliginosa (Bell), Pongamia volubilis (Seitz) (both Papilionaceae). H. alexis V. —Pongamia glabra (Papilionaceae) (Bell). Also in Australia (Common). H. butler! Auri v.—Derris scandens (Papilionaceae) (Bell). H. vitta Btlr. — Millettia racemosa , M. auriculata (Papilionaceae) (Bell). 180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) bibasis Moore B. sena Moore — Combretum extensum (Combretaceae) (Bell), Combretum latifolium (Seitz). BADAMIA Moore B. exclamationis F —Terminalia bellerica (Combretaceae) (Bell). In Australia on Terminalia (Common). ismene Swains. I. harisa Moore — Zinziber zerumbet (Zinziberaceae) (Seitz). I. gomata Moor Q—Heptapluron venulosum (Araliaceae) (Bell), Hepta- pluron lucidum (Araliaceae), Embelia garciniaefolia (Myrsinaceae), Trevesia sondaica (Araliaceae), Horsfieldia (Myristicaceae), etc. (Seitz). I. oedipodea Swains. — Combretum latifolium (Combretaceae) (Seitz). I. jaina Moore — Combretum extensum (Combretaceae) (Bell). rhopalocampta Wallgrn. R. benjamin! Guer. — Sabia campanulata , Meliosma pungens (Sabiaceae) (Bell). Pamphilinae suastus Moore S. gremius F. — Palms (mihi), Caryota urens and other Palms (Palmaceae) (Bell). IAMBRIX Wats. I. salsala Moore — Grasses (Bell), Bamboo (Seitz) (both Gramineae). I. stillifer Btlr. — Bamboo (Gramineae) (Seitz). aeromachus de Nic. A. stigmata Moore — Grasses (Gramineae) (mihi). A. discreta Plotz — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell). HYAROTIS Moore H. adrastus Cr. — Phoenix (Bell), Rotang and Phoenix Palms (Seitz) (Palmaceae). matapa Moore M. aria Moore—Bamboo (mihi, Bell, Seitz) (Gramineae). FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERa m ERIONOTA Mab. E. thrax L. — Musa spp. (Musaceae) (Bell), Musa and other Monocoty- ledons such as Saccharum (Gramineae), Cocos nucifera, Rhaphis (Palma- ceae), Metroxylon (Palmaceae) (Seitz). gangara Moore G. thyrsis F. — Palmaceae (Moore), Calamus , Cocos nucifera , Caryota urens and other Palms (Bell), Palms, particularly on cccoanut (sic) trees and dwarf palms, but it is said to occur also on ratan, Calamus rotang, and other Monocotyledons (Seitz). sancus de Nic. S. pulligo Mab. — Phrynium spicatum (Marantaceae) (Bell), a common Arum (Araceae) (Seitz). baracus Moore B. hampsoni Elw. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell). ampittia Moore A. dioscorides F. — Qryza (Gramineae) (Bell, Seitz). TARACTROCERA Btlr. T. maevius F.— Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell). T. nicevillei Wats. — Grasses, Oryza (Gramineae) (Bell). padraona Moore P. gola Moore — Grasses' (Gramineae) (Bell), Imperata arundinacea , Paspalum conjugatum (Gramineae) (Seitz). P. dara Koll. — Paspalum conjugatum (Gramineae) (Seitz). telicota Moore T. bambusae Moore — Bamboo (Bell, mihi), bamboo, Saccharum (Seitz) (all Gramineae). T. augias L. — Saccharum , Oryza , Bamboo (Gramineae) (Bell). In Australia on Flagellaria indica (Gramineae) (Common). T. palmarum Moore — Cocos nucifera , Phoenix (Bell), Cocos nucifera , Calamus rotang (Seitz) (all Palmaceae). T. maesoides Koll. — Bambusa, Oxytenanthera, Dendro calamus , TeinQ* stachyum (Gramineae) (Bell). 182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) GEGENES Hbn. G. nostrodamus F. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell), Oryza (Gramineae) (Seitz). parnara Moore P. philippina H. Sch. — Bamboo (Bell), presumably on Oryza , Saccharum , Bamboo (Gramineae), perhaps also on Palms (Palmaceae) (Seitz). P. guttatus Brem. — Grasses, Oryza , Saccharum , Bamboo (Bell), Oryza , Zea mays , Saccharum , Bamboo (Seitz). All Gramineae. P. colaca Moore — Grasses, Orjz« (Bell), Oryza (Seitz) (Gramineae), Gramineae (Moore). P. bevani Moore — Saccharum , Paspalum conjugatum, Imperata arundin - aceae (Gramineae) (Seitz). P. kumara Moore — Imperata arundinaceae (Gramineae) (Seitz), Bamboo (Gramineae) (Bell). P. oceia Hew. — Bambusa arundinaceae , Ochlandra talboti (Gramineae) (Bell), Saccharum (Gramineae) (Moore). P. canaraica Moore — Bamboo (Gramineae) (Bell). P. mathias F.— Grasses (Bell), Oryza , Saccharum and other Gramineae (Seitz). P. subochracea Moore — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell). P. zelleri Led. — Grasses (Gramineae) (Bell). halpe Moore H. astigmata Swinh. x. H. honorei de Nic. J PLASTINGIA Btlr. P. submaculata Stg. — Calamus subtenuis (Palmaceae) (Bell). cupitha Moore C. purreea Moore — Combretum ovalifolium , Terminalia bell erica, T. paniculata (Combretaceae), Ehretia laevis (Boraginaceae) (Bell). pirdana Dist. P.hyelaHew. — Dracaena, Cordyline rumphii (Liliaceae) (Seitz). H. moorei Wats. H. hyrtacus de Nic. ) Bamboo (Gramineae) (Bell). FOOD-PLANTS OF RHOPALOCERa 183 NOTOCRYPTA de Nic. N. curvifascia Feld. — Curcuma (Zinziberaceae) (Seitz). N. restricta Moore — Zinziber casumunar, Curcuma decipiens (Zinzibera- ceae) (Bell). N. feisthameli Bsd. — Zinziber casumunar , Curcuma decipiens (Bell). Zinziber (mihi). All Zinziberaceae. N. alysos Moore— Zinziberaceae (Moore). udaspes Moore U. folus Cr. — Curcuma decipiens and other Zinziberaceae (Bell), Cur- cuma (Zinziberaceae), Fagraea racemosa (Loganiaceae) (Seitz). KERANA Dist. K. diodes Moor q— Zinziber, Curcuma (Zinziberaceae) (Seitz). paduca Dist. P. lebadea Hew.— Palmaceae (Moore), Calamus (Palmaceae) (Seitz). unkana Dist. U. attina Hew.— Pandanus fascicularis (Pandaneae), Psychotria sp. (Rubiaceae) (Seitz). HIDARI Dist. H. ivava Moore — Various palms, particularly Cocos nucifera and Caryota mens (Palmaceae) (Seitz). N.B. — In most of the works consulted, the spelling of the botanical names leaves much to be desired, Seitz is particularly bad, the same name often appearing twice on the same page with different spellings. Reviews 1. BEHAVIOUR OF WOLVES, DOGS AND RELATED CANIDS. By M. W. Fox. pp. 214 (16x24 cm) with numerous black- and-white photographs and line drawings. London, 1971. Jonathan Cape. Price £3.60 net. In the sub-family Canidae only the wolf forms permanent packs. Family groups of coyotes and jackals may hunt together for a time, but foxes drive their young away early, and the breeding pair often separate also. The author of this interesting book shows that though these species have the same basic behaviour patterns, these have become more complex in the more social species. New facial expressions have evolved, often combining more than one primitive expression. In- terestingly these complex expressions appear later in the development of cubs than do the primitive ones common to all species. The domestic dog is believed to have evolved from a wolf-like ancestor, but it has been suggested, and not yet conclusively disproved, that in some parts of the world primitive man domesticated the jackal. As a result of selective breeding some behaviour patterns have atrophied, others hyper- trophied, and yet others have acquired a new significance, so no clue as to origin can be obtained from behaviour. Dog owners will be intrigued to know that when two dogs circle one another this is the same behaviour as that of young pups, which circle each other until they fall asleep in a tight warm heap. This is only one of a number of infantile behaviour patterns which persist, and are incorporated in a changed form into adult behaviour. Dr. Fox’s observations have been on hand-raised canids, which he compares with field data whenever possible. The wolves are by far the most attractive subjects, and there are some fascinating chapters on the development of dominance in wolves and on wolves as parents. Obser- vations both on captive and on wild wolves indicate that normally only one pair in a pack breeds and that the dominant wolf is not one of them. All the members of the pack co-operate in looking after the cubs. This is a population-regulating mechanism. In addition, in the wild numbers are controlled by the availability of prey species, and when there is little food there is high mortality among pups. On page 128 the author cites a number of authorities who believe that there is no reduction in the number of pups born in lean year, and yet on pages 113-114 he hypo- thesises, apparently without data, that poor nutrition could lead to infertility and resorption of foetuses. There seems to be no good reason for the subject to be discussed in two different places. Another subject REVIEWS 185 that is discussed at some length is submission, and its function in social organisation. Some dominance-submission rituals would in a human context be interpreted as affection, and the term 6 love ’ is used here. This seems unnecessarily anthropomorphic, and also inappropriate as the word has a wider meaning than that to which it is restricted here. The photographs in this book are excellent throughout, but the writing is often awkward. Lay readers will find the jargon in some of the earlier chapters particularly trying. It is difficult to imagine anyone being helped by descriptions like ‘ dorsal vertical postero-horizontal retraction of lips ’, meaning a simultaneous grin and a snarl. Often there does not seem to be any connection between sub-titles and subject matter. This is due to poor organisation. For example, a discussion of the development in hand-reared wolf cubs of allegiances to pack members and nervousness of strangers occurs at the end of a section on mate preferences, when it belongs at the beginning of the same chapter, which deals with social organisation, or perhaps in another chapter entitled ‘Development of Social Relationships: Wolf Socialisation’. It is to be hoped that these irritations will be corrected in future editions. One would now like to have a comparison between wolf socialisation and that of the dhole, the South American bush dog, and the Cape hunt- ing dog, all pack-hunters which belong to the sub-family Simocyoninae. These lack the range of complex facial expressions which characterise the wolf, and apparently do not all show dominance. Dr. Fox is the obvious person to make these comparisons and I hope that he will do so before too long. R. R. 2. INSECT POLLINATION. By J. B. Free. pp. xi + 544 (15x23 cm) with 170 figures. London & New York, 1970. Academic Press. Price £7.25. This reviewer is indeed struck by the wealth of information this book possesses. It reviews all the important information on the subject into a most comprehensive volume and makes it a very valuable reference work on pollination of the most important crops of temperate regions. 6 Although there are many facets of pollination of different crops that are similar, it is very striking how many crops have their own unique polli- nation problems.’ The author who is connected with the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Hampenden, Herts, England, is without doubt fully conversant with this subject. In the first part of the book, he has discussed the pollinating insects — particularly the honey bee and points out how it 186 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) can be used by man to supplement wild pollinators and the ways in which this can be done most effectively. In the second part, each crop — over a hundred treated in the book — is discussed individually. In every case the flower structure as related to the pollination is effectively illustrated. The insect species which are reported to pollinate the flower together with the crop’s pollination requirement are specifically mentioned. Admittedly the information from tropical crops is rather sparse and it is felt that lack of sufficient pollination may be one of the reasons for only a small proportion of fruit and seed set in the tropics. The book is written very lucidly and the simple and logical way in which the process is explained in each case should inspire anyone who wishes to carry out useful work on this fascinating and highly important aspect of biological productivity in nature. In the context of the present whole-scale use of insecticides, the publication of the book is timely and worthy of serious attention by agriculturists, horticulturists and foresters in India. The book opens an immense scope of similar type of work to be carried out in India and the tropics. The book contains about 1500 reference titles, a separate index of plant names, also of animal names and a general index. All the above features make this book a very valuable and important reference work in the field of reproduction of crop plants. p. v. B. 3. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SHARKS. By Thomas H. Lineaweaver III & Richard H. Backus, pp. 256 (22 X 14 cm). London, 1970. Andre Deutsch Limited. Price £2.75 net U.K. only. Until recent years, man had not succeeded in crossing the boundary that separated him from the world of marine life. He had never ob- served sharks in their natural habitat, except in a few brief and involun- tary encounters, as in a shipwreck, and mostly ending in disaster for him. Brought face to face with these marine monsters, man’s perplexity has been considerable, and his attitude variable. The first emotion was, understandably, terror. And, as always when fear plays a part, legends about sharks multiplied. The increasing tempo of undersea exploration, aided mainly by scuba diving and submersibles, has led to increased exploration, so that much more is known about sharks. And, after all, there is nothing simple about any aspect of the relations between the monarch of the sea and the ruler of the lands of the earth. The result is that numerous books dealing specifically with sharks have appeared during REVIEWS 187 the last several years. These books have covered the subject reasonably well, and one or two could be classified as superb. The present one is rather a late-comer on the scene. Starting, in the first chapter, by summarizing the differences bet- ween sharks and bony fishes, the authors go on to an inventory of things found in sharks’ stomachs, and the few animals inside whose stomachs sharks have sometimes been found. The third chapter describes the habits, factual and fancied, of two constant companions of the shark, pilot fish and remoras. The fourth chapter is a listing and analysis of shark attacks on man. Chapters 5 to 10 relate to the different kinds of sharks found both in the seas and in fresh water. Chapter 1 1 is a review of the reproduction, or rather, whatever little is known about it. Chapter 12 deals with sense organs and anatomy. The final chapter tackles the problem most vital to man when he faces a shark in its own element — survival. A key to the families of sharks, prepared by Dr. John Musick, is given towards the end, followed by a glossary which will be of little use to ichthyologists already familiar with biological nomenclature but will be of considerable use to non-scientists who might be newly involved in the study of sharks. The bibliography, at the very end, is only a brief listing, but is meant to be sufficient for the layman to follow up. A good deal of researching into earlier literature, especially scientific papers, must have gone into the writing of the book, and the book is excellently edited, with no technical mistakes. The fact that the senior author is not a professional biologist, but a journalist, does not reduce the scientific value of the book. But the greatest difficulty with collections of this type is the lack of focus, and the frequent mention of sources and dates in the text tends to slow down the narrative. A few of the chapters are quite interesting, but a large part of the space used in the book presents a rehash of information that has been previously published over and over again. The photographs are uninspiring, and the drawings shoddy (although, here, I might add that my opinion might have been prejudiced because this book happened to be reviewed immediately after seeing the excel- lent quality of the colour photographs in Jacques-Yves and Philippe Cousteau’s book the shark : splendid savage of the sea). A valuable source book. B. F. €. 188 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) 4. PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN TROPICAL PLANTS. By G. P. Chapman, pp. 112 (21*5x14 cm) with 9 plates and 12 figures, London, 1970. University of London Press Ltd. Price £1.00. The quotation on the title page ‘ Botanical teaching based on the temperate flora must necessarily be ill-based and inadequate ’ C.G.G.J. van Steenis — defines the objective of this little but most valuable book. The author aims to indicate the value of cytogenetics in understanding the process of plant speciation and in the case of crop plants he wishes to point out how these processes can be turned to our advantage. With the help of examples of some well-known taxa viz. Casuarina, Catharanthus, Euphorbia, Musa, Lycopersicon, Dichanthium, Maize, etc. the author has discussed the processes of reproduction and plant breeding in the past. The author succeeds in building up an optimistic picture of food pro- duction in the tropics while advocating intensive research on evolutionary patterns of other tropical plant species of agricultural interest. In his concluding remarks, the author brings out clearly the need for more botanists to live and work in the tropics for several years, experienc- ing at first hand the march of environmental change and plant response. He is aware of the fact that every aspect of botany will not develop equally in the tropics but commends the important activity of continuing appraisal and reappraisal of traditional systematics followed by the work of an evolutionist and plant breeder who can recognise the tropics as the area of greatest potential interest. This little book must be read by all botanists in the tropics — especially in India — where a new phase of agricultural development has been ushered in and many of our food plants like pulses, oil seeds, spices, etc. can be developed with better understanding of reproductive processes in tropics. p. v. B. 5. ECOLOGY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF HIGH ALTITUDE INSECTS — series entomologica volume 4. By M. S. Mani. pp. xiv+ 527 (25x16 cm) with 79 figures. The Hague, 1968. W. Junk N.V. Publishers. Professor Mani’s studies on high altitude entomology in the Himalayas are well-known. In this book he discusses in general climatic conditions at high altitudes, and the adaptations which make it possible for insect life to survive. He then goes on to describe in detail the physiography, vegetation, and insect fauna of each of the major moun- REVIEWS 189 tain ranges in the world. The flora and fauna of a mountain have partly evolved from the lowland species of the area at the time when the moun- tain range was uplifted, and have been remoulded at every phase of the slow process of rising. Other species have colonised the mountain from the lowland or from distant mountain ranges. Then there are relict species which have survived glaciations on widely separated high mountains though extinct elsewhere. Specialisation has every- where tended to produce local subspecies and races, some restricted to a single peak. This comprehensive book is likely to be an essential reference book on this subject for a long time to come. There are 1141 papers cited. R. R. 6. CEDRUS. botanical monograph no. 5. By P. Maheshwari and Chhaya Biswas, pp. 115 (16*5x24*5 cm) with 55 figures. New Delhi, 1970. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Price Rs. 24, sh. 48, $8. This botanical monograph has been the last one in which the cele- brated Indian botanist, late Professor P. Maheshwari actively partici- pated. In fact, the other author points out in the footnote of the preface, Prof. Maheswari passed away when the manuscript was almost completed for the press. This monograph gives an excellent account of the phytomorphology of the genus Cedrus. The major part of the text deals with Cedrus deodara , one of the most valuable timbers found in India. Of the 108 pages of the text, 90 are taken up by phytomorphology— 53 dealing with embryology. Eighteen pages are utilised to give a resume of cytological studies, phytopathology, ecology, sylviculture and economic importance of the genus. The illustrations are excellent and take about 50 pages. Figure no. 55 giving time relation of Cedrus deodara is interesting. It appears that one of the figures of years (June 1956 or January 1957) needs correction in view of the explanation in the relevant table and text — 18 months from June 1956 should make 1958 January. The Introduction gives 4 interesting biblical and Chinese legends on Cedar wood. It would have been in the fitness of this monograph to mention a few from ancient Indian literature wherein 4 Devdaru ’ is well-known. This monograph forms a valuable review of the phyto- morphological studies of the genus Cedrus and will certainly prove useful in that field of study with its comprehensive bibliography. In view of 190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) its economic importance to lumber and perfumery industry, further ecological and sylvicultural studies of this most valuable of temperate conifer in India appear desirable. The production values of the publication are kept very high and the printers must be congratulated along with the artists for good reproduc- tion of figures and photographs. p. v. B. Miscellaneous Notes 1. ECOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL NOTES ON THE LIONTAILED MACAQUE ( MACACA SILENUS ) IN SOUTH INDIA The Liontailed Macaque ( Macaca silenus ) has the most restricted range of all primates of the Indian subcontinent, where it is restricted to the evergreen forest of the Western Ghats (Krishnan 1971). Blanford (1888) indicated that the species occurs from 14°N. to the southern limits of the Western Ghats while Sugiyama (1968) found the species between 9°30' and 11° 30'N. Krishnan (1971) indicates that it is no longer present in the forests of Thirunelveli District at Courtallam. I was very fortunate to observe the Liontailed Macaque on two consecutive days (2-3 March 1972) at the Manjolai Tea Estate of Bombay Burma Trading Company above Kalladaikurichi. This area is located in Thirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu State at about 8° 38'N., 77° 25 'E. and about 1000 metres elevation. The region can be characterized as extensive tea and cardamom plantations interspersed with stands of relatively undisturbed forest. I first observed a group of Nilgiri Langur ( Presbytis johni) near the edge of a tea field. After several minutes an individual with the distinct, short, drooping tail of Macaca silenus was observed walking slowly along a branch. Later, when tea pickers moved into the area three Macaca were observed fleeing along with the group of langurs. A noteworthy difference in the behaviour of the two species was observed ; the langur moved through the canopy with long jumps accompanied by swishing of branches while the macaque walked slowly and deliberately in single file along the interior branches of the large forest trees. Only subdued vocalizations were heard from the macaque (see below), while the langur has loud call reminiscent of the whooping of the Black Howler Monkey (Alouatta) of Central America. The following morning one, and perhaps two, females with young infants were observed in the same area. Judging from the size of a known age infant in the Zoo Negara, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, the infant at Manjolai was about two months old in early March. Sugiyama’s observations (1968) indicate January is the season of birth while Prater (1971) suggests that young are seen regularly in September. As many as six adult individuals were counted simultaneously but no doubt more were present on March 3. Throughout the observations individuals appeared and disappeared in the forest canopy over an area of several hectares, indicating that bands spread out rather widely during feeding. 192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 70 (1) Several types of feeding activities were observed. The female with infant ate fruits of unknown identity in addition to probing into the cup formed by a broken off branch. I could not determine if water or perhaps arthropods were taken from the cavity. Another adult climbed to the uppermost branches of a tall emergent tree where several dead branches projected above the surrounding canopy. Pieces up to a foot long were broken off and torn apart, presumably in search of arthropods in the rotting wood. The macaque moved lower in the tree before dismantling the branch and then moved to the upper branches again, peered into the broken stub and tore off another dead branch. A third adult was observed feeding on small red or dark brown fruits. In addition to the perhaps fortuitous association between the langur and macaque on 2 March I did observe one aggressive response by a macaque female with infant to the close approach of an Indian Giant Squirrel ( Ratufa indica). Two vocalizations were heard during these observations. One, written as ughh or uhhh, carried only very short distances. This call reminded me of a warning cry of the white-faced monkey, Cebus capucinus, in Panama. The second call was a cooo or oooo very similar to the single cooo of many pigeons but of shorter duration. This call has been reported earlier but Krishnan (1971) had questioned the nature of this call as being monosyllabic or, alternatively, polysyllabic like the modulated calls of several species of Tver on. The most discouraging aspect of my observations is the apparent lack of subadult individuals in this group of macaques. Several factors could be responsible for this but the most likely seems to be capturing of infants for sale in the market of large cities. I am told that young Liontailed Macaques can frequently be found in the Calcutta market despite the fact that capturing them is illegal. It seems that two major factors threaten this species : (1) Habitat destruction in its restricted range, and (2) Illegal capture of infants for sale in markets. These observations were made during the tenure of grants from the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Canal Zone and the Office of International Activities of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Special thanks go to Mr. J. C. Daniel and Mr. Z. Futehally of the Bombay Natural History Society for their advice, S. Poolappan for his assistance with field work and to the Bombay Burma Trading Co. and Mr. J. J. Bland for allowing me to use their facilities at Manjolai. Department of Biological Sciences, JAMES R. KARR Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind. 47907, U.S.A., January 2, 1973. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 193 Refer Blanford, W. T. (1888) : The Fauna of British India — Mammalia. Taylor & Francis. London. Krishnan, M. (1971) : An ecological Survey of the larger Mammals of Penin- sular India. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 : 503-555. E N C E S Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Animals. 3rd ed. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay. Sugiyama, Y. (1968) : The ecology of the Lion-tailed Macaque [Macaca silenus (Linnaeus)] — A Pilot Study. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 : 283-292. 2. NOTES ON THE BIRTH AND GROWTH OF A SLOW LORIS ( NYCTICEBUS COUCANG) IN CAPTIVITY A pregnant Slow Loris ( Nycticebus coucang) received at the Nandankanan Biological Park (Orissa) on l.ii.1971 from the forests of Assam, gave birth to a female young on 21. ii. 1971. After delivery the mother weighed 1*4 kg. The new born young weighed 50 gm and measured 14 cm in total length. The eyes were open at birth. The young had a coat of dense fur and numerous long glistening grey hairs were scattered throughout the body and projected far beyond the fur. These long hairs gradually disappeared when the young was about 11 weeks old. The body coat was grey throughout except the hands and limbs which were silvery white. The brown stripe on mid back was very prominent. A single young is usually born (Prater 1971 ; Walker et al. 1964 ; Asdell 1964). Crandall (1965) reported that all births were of single young except the two twin births which were found dead within a day or two. The eyes of a Slow Loris young are open at birth (Crandall, loc. cit.). There is no mention of birth weight and size in the available literature. Up to the age of seven weeks the young was seen clinging to the mother’s abdomen and sucking her teat throughout the day. From the eighth week onwards and up to the age of 10 months, the young was clinging to the mother’s abdomen throughout the day, partly keeping her hind quarters on the ground either in between the two limbs of the mother or over the mother’s lap. Whenever attempts were made to handle or see the young during the day time, the mother with her baby curled up like a ball and twittered in annoyance. The mother cleaned the baby by licking. After sunset the young was always seen separated from the mother and was either clinging to the chainlink mesh wall or moving about in the house from the very first day. From the third day it was able to produce a feeble noise when handled and this noise im- mediately attracted the attention of the mother. Up to 8 weeks of age the young one was at times seen clinging to the abdomen of another 13 194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) female kept in the same house. Later the second female did not allow the young to cling to her, probably because of its increased body weight. The young one took bananas for the first time at the age of about one month. The mother was able to crawl along with the baby clinging to her abdomen till the baby was seven months old. Hill (1937 b) reported that the female Slow Loris may deliberately place her baby on the ground, later picking it up but this behaviour was neither observed by Crandall (loc. cit.) nor in this Park. Crandall (loc. cit.) reported that a young born in New York Zoological Park was found clinging either to the mother or to the father and he has never seen a mother touch an infant, beyond the usual cleaning treatment with the tongue. The young remains with the mother until it is as large as the mother (Prater, loc. cit.). The young appeared to be dependent upon the mother for at least 9 months or more and a youngster was seen nursing when it was as large as the parent (Crandall, loc. cit.). The young one reached its maximum weight of 1605 gm at the age of 44 weeks (about 10 months) on 26.xii.1971. Weekly weight growth records were taken at the end of every week and an abstract of the growth records of this animal up to the age of one year is as follows : Date Age in weeks Weight in kg. 21. ii. 1971 Birth 0‘050 21.iii.1971 4 0140 18. iv. 1971 8 0-295 16. v. 1971 12 0-480 13.vi.1971 16 0-718 ll.vii.197J 20 0-920 8.viii.l97J 24 1040 5.ix.l971 28 1-222 3.x. 1971 3,2 1-315 31.x. 1971 36 1-420 28.xi.1971 40 1-530 26.xii.1971 44 1-605 23. i. 1972 48 1-590 20. ii. 1972 52 1-588 Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO Nandankanan Zoo, P.O. Barang, District Cuttack. Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA Orissa, Old Secretariat Building, Cuttack4, March 3, 1972. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 195 References Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction, Cornell Uni- versity Press, Ithaca, New York, p. 130. Crandall, Lee S. (1965) : The Management of Wild Mammals in Captivity, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, pp. 75-77. Hill, W. C. Osman (1937b) : Cited by Crandall, Lee S. (1965). Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Rook of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural His- tory Society, Bombay, pp. 43-44. Walker, Ernest P. et al. (1964) : Mam- mals of the World, Vol. I, The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, p. 418. 3. ON SOME MELANISTIC SPECIMENS OF HOUSE RAT, RATTUS RATTUS (LINNAEUS) [MAMMALIA : RODENTIA : MURIDAE] It is a well-known fact that the coat colour of rodents, specially the rats, is subject to great variations. But extreme colour variations, com- monly known as albinism and melanism, are rare. The latter has been reported in several species of mammals, including rodents, but I find no record of it in Rattus rattus (Linnaeus). It is therefore recorded here. The note is based on a collection of five adult rats, Rattus rattus (Linnaeus), present in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India. Two are males (Z.S.I. Reg. No. 8366, 8374) and three females (Z.S.I. Reg. No. 8365, 8369, 8370), all collected from Calcutta in the year 1906. The colour of the body and the tail is completely black, with no line of demarcation between the dorsal and ventral aspects. In three out of five specimens, the pinna is of lighter colour than in the other two. All measurements are in millimetres and are taken after Ellerman (1963). Measurements : External: 2<$d — Head and body 181, 182; tail 190, 231; hind-foot 33, 34°; ear 23, 24. 3 $$ — Head and body 145, 147, 178 ; tail 193, 195, 224 ; hind-foot 33*5, 34-5, 34-5 ; ear 19, 21, 24. Cranial: 1 £— < Occipitonasal 42*3; nasal 16*0 ; palate 22*3; palatal-foramina 7*6 ; diastema 12*0 ; upper tooth-row 6-3 ; bulla 7 -2. 3 $?. — Occipitonasal 36*8, 39‘0, 44*2; nasal 13*5, 14*0, 16*3; palate 19*3, 20*2, 24*0 ; palatal-foramina 6*5, 6*6, 8*9; diastema 10*0, 10-8, 13*0 ; upper tooth- row 6*0, 6*1, 6*8 ; bulla 6*8, 7 0, 7*7. Different views have been put forward as to the causes of melanism. Keeler & King (1941) are of the opinion that melanism acts as a simple Mendelian recessive character. Rohe (1961) found a melanistic popu- lation of the Norway Rat (. Rattus norvegicus), confined to underground sewers. The fact that the population was completely isolated and that the litters were all melanistic led him to believe that it was a true breed- ing melanistic colony. Svihla’s (1956) finding that heat conservation at 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) low temperatures does not differ in white from dark coloured rats, shows that melanism does not have any beneficial effect over non-melanistic forms. However, no opinion can be given on this aspect as my obser- vations are based on dead specimens. Acknowledgements I am thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, for pro- viding facilities. I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas for going through the manuscript and to Dr. V. C. Agrawal for valuable suggestions. Zoological Survey of India, T. P. BHATTACHARYYA 8, Lindsay Street, Calcutta- 16, November 24, 1971. References Ellerman, J. R. (1963) : The fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon, Mammalia, 3 (Rodentia) (2) (Murinae). Govt, of India, Delhi. Keeler, C. E. & King, H. D. (1941) : Multiple effects of coat colour genes in the Norway Rat with special reference to the ‘marks of domestication’. Anat. Rec. 81 : 48-49. Rohe, D. L. (1961) : Melanistic nor- way rats in Southern California. J. Mammal. 42 : 268. Svihla, A. (1956) : The relation of colouration in mammals to low tempera- ture. J. Mammal. 37 : 378-381. 4. THE ‘ DAY NEST ’ OF A RAT Our house has mosquito netting in the windows. Outside one first- floor bedroom window grows a creeper which we believe is the Rangoon Creeper ( Quisqualis indica ). It has sweet pink and red flowers, fragrant in the evenings. There are some dead branches of the creeper close to the window. On these a few months ago a platform of twigs roughly 5 inches long appeared. For some days we saw no creature near it, but one day we saw a large male rat with a long tail, stretched out upon it. As we were close to the window and looked, he got a bit nervous and slowly got off the platform and hid beneath it. This rat continued to be all day long on this platform for at least a week. Then he disappeared and we wondered if he had been sick and had died. But about a week later, we noticed some activity and saw that the rat had plucked off some leafy twigs from the creeper and arranged them all around the platform and was again lying there, partially hidden from us by the leaves. As the leaves withered, he plucked off more twigs and replaced them. He lay there for over a week in this way and appeared most of the time to be sleeping. Then he again disappeared. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 197 For many weeks we did not see him at all. Then on Wednesday, November 29, 1 entered the room and to my surprise the rat was there ! It was about 1 p.m. He looked fatter than before, his fur in very good condition. The platform on which he lay was in a sorry state after weeks of disuse, but on Wednesday he brought no twigs and did not repair it in any way. When my husband returned about 6 p.m., I showed him the rat and it was still there after 10 p.m. when we went to bed, but the following morning it was not there and has not been seen since. This is its briefest visit so far. C.M.C. Hospital, M. P. WALKEY Vellore 632004, Tamil Nadu, December 1, 1972. 5. ALBINISM IN THE LESSER RAT-TAILED BAT, RHINOPOMA H. HARD WICKEI GRAY (CHIROPTERA : RHINOPOMATIDAE) Allen (bats 1939, p. 154) has mentioned a few cases of albinism in a few species of bats with the remarks that both albinism and melanism are rare in bats. No case of albinism came to my notice in the Indian species during examination of over four thousand specimens belonging to several species particularly from Central India. On 26th April, 1972, however, a beautiful albino adult female of the Lesser Rat-tailed Bat was collected alive along with others from a colony of about 100 indi- viduals in caves under granite boulders near Jabalpur city. The general pelage, the wing membranes, the metacarpals, the phalanges and the ears are white or dirty white. The legs, the feet, the arms, the tail, the face, the chin and the throat are pinkish. The colour of eyes was not noted in the living specimen but in the dead specimen it is blackish. The specimen has been exhibited in the departmental museum. The speci- men was kept in captivity along with other specimens for a few hours but died during night possibly because of an injury on the chest. Some parts of it were found eaten by ants during night. It kept aloof from other specimens in captivity. Recently a friend reported that he collected an albino of Hipposideros sp. from a large colony in a cave in another district of Madhya Pradesh. 183/581, South Civil Lines, Jabalpur, June 26, 1972. H. KHAJURIA 198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) 6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GYPS FULVUS AND AEGYPIUS MONACHUS IN THE GIR FOREST The known range of the Fulvous Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus (Hablizl) within the limits of the Indian subcontinent is Pakistan and northern Gujarat, although stragglers have been recorded east to western Assam, and south to Bombay (once). It has been known to be a regular winter visitor only as far south as Kutch and northern Gujarat (Salim Ali & S. D. Ripley 1968). However, during my field study of vulture in the Gir forest (2-1 °6' N., 70°46' E.) for two years from 1970 to 1972 I found this species a common bird in the whole of the Gir forest during winter. From November to March this vulture constituted approximately five per cent of the total individuals of Gyps vultures observed at carcasses. The other species were the Longbilled Vulture ( Gyps indicus) and the Indian Whitebacked Vulture (Gyps bengalensis). During their stay at Gir the fulvous griffon used the cliffs of Charakio Hill which is the highest in the Gir, for roosting and resting. Conti- nuous usage has left droppings that gave a white-washed appearance to the broad face of these cliffs which could be seen from a long distance. The name Charakio has been derived from the Gujarati word charak which means bird droppings. Fulvous griffon were also found roosting on the cliffs of the Girnar Hills, about 40 km north of the Gir, along with Gyps indicus which also breed there. In addition to roosting on cliffs the fulvous griffon spent nights on trees with other vultures near carcasses, to enable feeding early next morning. One such bird was caught at night with the aid of a search light and was used for captive experiments. A specimen (Reg. No. 23524) has been deposited in the bird collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. Another species of vulture which was recorded for the first time in the Gir forest, although within its known range, is the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus). On 3 March 1972 at 1340 hrs a single bird came to feed off the remnants of a dead buffalo beside Hiran river at Karam-na- Dadea ness in the western Gir. It approached a King Vulture ( Torgos calvus) which was feeding on the hard tissues of a limb, chased it aside and started pulling at the limb. This bird was similar in general appearance to the king vulture but bigger, had pinkish white legs and head, and had no lappets. Dharmakumarsinhji (1955) has observed this bird as a rare winter visitor in other parts of the Kathiawar Peninsula, namely, Bhavnagar, Dhrangadhra, and the Girnar. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199 Acknowledgements The study was made possible through a Smithsonian Research Foundation Grant (SFG-O-1894) made available by the Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay Natural History Society, ROBERT B. GRUBH Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay- 1, January 25, 1973. References Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (1955) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Birds of Saurashtra : 41, 43. Pakistan, Vol. 1 : 298-302. 7. CALCIUM INTAKE IN VULTURES OF THE GENUS GYPS Vultures grouped under the genus Gyps were known to feed only on meat and other soft tissues of carcasses and not on bones, and therefore their mode of calcium intake, required to build up bones, had always been a mystery. During one of my observations on vultures at Gir Forest I came across the following incident. In the western Gir, close to Sasan village, about ninety-five Whitebacked ( Gyps bengalensis), seven Longbilled (Gyps indicus ), four Griffon (Gyps fulvus ), and three King (Torgos calvus) vultures were feeding off the skinned carcass of an ox on 23rd January 1972 at 1245 hrs. Soon a few vultures with bulging crops emerged from the squabbling flock, walked about twenty feet aside, and started picking up and swallowing pieces of old, dry bones including ribs of small animals and chopped up pieces of skull. It is a village carcass dumping site, adjacent to the forest. To further check this up on captive birds I introduced old bone pieces into my vulture aviary. The vultures were not kept hungry. Soon after introducing bones, Longbilled, Whitebacked, and also the only Griffon I had came one by one and swallowed some bones, one of the birds dipping a piece into water before swallowing it. This observation on captive birds was also witnessed by Dr. Salim Ali during his visit to the Gir two weeks later, 200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Acknowledgements My study was sponsored by the Gir Project of Bombay Natural History Society with financial assistance through Yale University from Smith- sonian Foreign Currency Programme Grant No. SFG-O-1894. Bombay Natural History Society, ROBERT B. GRUBH Hornbill House, Bombay, January 1, 1973. 8. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GOLDENBACKED THREETOED WOODPECKER [DIN OPIUM SHORII (VIGORS)] SOUTH OF THE HIMALAYAN RANGE In the course of cataloguing the Society’s collection, we came across a specimen of Dinopium shorii (Vigors) [wing 158 ; bill 34 ; tail 98] No. 10298 (collected by Major F. T. Williams) marked ‘ Kolatur North, S.I.R., 31st October 1897 ’. Kolatur North is on the South Indian Railway not far from Madras. This is so far out of the currently accepted range of the species that we decided that though Major Williams obtained a partridge at the same place on 6th February 1898, there was some error in the labelling and that it may have been obtained in Burma where Williams had collected birds in May and June 1897. That the labelling was not incorrect is suggested by references we have come across later. Blyth (1849) in ‘ The Catalogue of Birds in the Collection of Asiatic Society ’, p. 56, refers to a specimen from Gumsur (Coll. Capt. McPherson) while earlier in 1845 in Jour. Asiat. Soc. 14 : 193, he said that this species inhabits 4 the sub-Himalayan region as well as the hilly ranges of peninsular India Also we have Jerdon’s (1862) statement in birds of india (1 : 299) that he saw it on the slopes of the Nilgiris up to about 5000 ft. It may be noted that Blanford (1895) (fauna 3 : 63) referring to Blyth’s record said : ‘ The reported occurrences in the Indian peninsula need confirmation ; they may have been founded on large specimens of T. javanensis ’. Later, Stuart Baker (fauna 4 : 74) ignored the continental records but included Orissa in the range of Dinopium javanense rubropygialis. Whistler & Kinnear (/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37 : 294) said the last name could not refer to a bird from the southwest and called it D. j. malabaricus. They objected to Baker’s inclusion of Orissa in its range, but though they also referred to Blyth’s record, made no attempt at its identification. The discovery of Major William’s specimen prompts us to draw attention to the probability of the earlier records being correct, and to MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 201 ask observers not only in the field but also those with access to other collections, to see if they can obtain corroborative evidence. 75, Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI Bombay-3. Bombay Natural History Society, S. A. HUSSAIN Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay- 1, September 21, 1972. 9. DAMAGE TO MAIZE CROP BY ROSERINGED PARAKEET, PSITTACULA KRAMERI (SCOPOLI) IN THE PUNJAB (With a photograph ) Introduction Damage by birds to crops and fruits is not a new problem and references to their damage have been listed periodically in the last five centuries. The Roseringed Parakeet has been reported to be very destructive to crops and ripening fruits thus reducing subsequent yields. It eats by gnawing, thus wasting far more than what it actually eats (Whistler 1949 ; Lamba 1952 ; Ali 1964 and Ali & Futehally 1967). Taking into consideration its destructiveness to crops and fruits the present studies were undertaken to evaluate the extent of damage to maize crop. Material and Methods To evaluate the extent of damage to maize crop by parakeets, a plot having a total area of F5 acres was selected at the Punjab Agricultural University Farm, Ludhiana. The data were recorded on ten rows selected at random when the grains were set in the cobs. The damaged cobs were graded on the basis of the amount of damage done as fully damaged, f damaged, \ damaged, i damaged and | damaged. Total number of fully damaged cobs were calculated by summing up the damage done to all cobs put together. The percentage of loss to the grains on cob basis was then worked out. Result and Discussion On an average, there were 60*7 cobs per line, each having 39*2 un- attacked cobs. Maximum damage was observed in the form of No. of cobs with different amount of damage Row No. f i l | Nil Total 1 2 10 10 2 37 61 2 4 11 5 5 38 63 3 . 3 4 6 8 46 67 4 3 5 2 9 36 55 5 2 7 5 7 32 53 6 2 5 6 ■ 5 40 58 7 1 9 5 7 40 62 8 3 5 12 4 37 61 9 2 7 5 5 47 66 10 1 8 7 6 39 61 Average 2-3 7T 6-3 5-8 39*2 60*7 202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) \ damaged followed by i and } (see photograph). The damage in the form of f was the least and no cob was found fully damaged (Table 1). Table 1 Incidence of damage to maize cobs by parakeet MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 203 Per cent loss to maize crop on cob basis was also worked out and is given in Table 2. Table 2 Per cent loss to maize by parakeet Row No. Total No. of cobs Loss as damaged cobs* Per cent loss 1 61 9-2 15-1 2 63 104 16-5 3 67 6*7 10T 4 55 6-4 11-5 5 53 7-1 13-4 6 58 6T 10*5 7 62 7-4 11-8 8 61 8*2 13*2 9 66 6*9 10-4 10 61 7-2 11-9 Average 12-4 * Obtained by adding figures f of column 2, i of column 3, \ of column 4 and | of column 5 of Table 1. The data presented in Table 2 reveal that the percentage of loss to maize crop varied from 10T to 16*5, average being 12-4 per cent. How- ever, Sekhon (1966) recorded on an average 20*6% loss to maize crop due to Roseringed Parakeet. His observations were based on just three rows of plants in a field. Whistler (1949) reported that it feeds bit by bit and causes damage in the gardens and fields. Ali (1964) and Ali & Futehally (1967) mentioned it to be a serious pest to the farmers and fruit growers, causing enormous losses to their standing crops and ripening fruits by gnawing at and wasting far more than it actually eats. On the basis of the present study it may be concluded that the Rose- ringed Parakeet causes considerable loss to maize crop and warrants control. Acknowledgements We are thankful to Dr. O. S. Bindra, Professor & Head, Zoology- Entomology Department, for providing the necessary facilities to carry out these investigations. Dept, of Zoology & Entomology, M. RAMZAN P. A. University, H. S. TOOR Ludhiana, November 11, 1971. 204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) References Ali, S. (1964) : The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. & Futehally, L. (1967) : Common Birds. National Book Trust, India, New Delhi. Lamba, B. S. (1952) : Birds of Hoshiarpur. M.Sc. Thesis Punjab Univ ., Hoshiarpur. Sekhon, S. S. (1966) : Studies on the nidification, behaviour and damage by sparrows and parrots in Punjab. M.Sc. Thesis Punjab Agric. Univ., Ludhiana. Whistler, H. (1949) : Popular Hand- book of Indian Birds. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh and London, 10. SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNAL ROOSTING IN THE COMMON MYNA [ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS (LINN.)] Although some species roost alone, in pairs or small groups, there are numerous cases in which hundreds or thousands of birds gather at a communal roosting place both during and after the breeding season. Yet till recently very little attention has been paid to explaining the func- tion of this phenomenon in bird life. This paper summarises the result of relevant observations on the Common Myna. The Common Myna, a black-headed vinous-brown bird about 18 cm long, is one of the most familiar species in India. It occurs in close association with man and can be found wherever man normally lives, except in high mountains, sandy desert and dense forest. It is basically an insectivorous bird but due to its association with man it is omnivorous. It roosts communally on trees in enormous flocks throughout the year. Berhampore, a district town, is situated on the eastern side of the Bhagirathi river in the midlands of West Bengal. The eastern bank of the river is lined for about half a mile with double rows of densely growing heavily spinous babul {Acacia arabica) trees. A large number of tall trees like sisu {Dalbergia sissoo ), mango {Mangifera indica ), banyan {Ficus benghalensis) and peepal {Ficus religiosa ), etc. are scattered all over the town. During the course of my study on the life of the Com- mon Myna (Sengupta, 1969, Proc. Zool. Soc. Calcutta 22 : 129-137) I found that the babul trees formed the only roosting place of the Com- mon Myna in Berhampore (area : ten square miles) although many other suitable roosting trees were abundant. As the shadow lengthened, party after party arrived from all directions and settled for the night to the accompaniment of a great deal of cacophony. Chuchura is also a district town at a distance of 40 km away from Calcutta and is situated on the western bank of the Hooghly river. The town encompasses 6 square km and contains a large number of tall trees like banyan, mango, peepul. At Chuchura I have found only two roost- ing sites. The largest roosting congregation of the Common Myna is, however, on a tall banyan tree standing very close to the Chuchura MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 205 Railway Station. This railway station is situated on the outskirts of the town where the human population is very scanty. The other roosting site at Chuchura is a banyan tree standing on the bank of the Hooghly river on the eastern boundary of the town. Sinthi is a densely populated suburb of Calcutta (population : 50,000) with large trees (coconut, banyan, mango and peepul, etc.) scattered all over the arda. Here the Common Myna can be seen in abundance from dawn to dusk feeding solitarily most of the feeding time on the house- hold refuse. But at dusk the birds leave the area to roost on trees on the outskirts of Sinthi. Santiniketan is a university town in the district of Birbhum, West Bengal. Here I have found only one roosting site of the Common Myna ; a clump of bamboo ( Bambusa sp.) growing inside a walled graveyard at the southern boundary of the university campus (area : c. 6 square km). It is therefore, clear that the preferred roosting on babul trees above all others at Berhampore, on a banyan tree on the outskirts of Chuchura, and on bamboo in a secluded graveyard at Santiniketan is because these sites are relatively undisturbed. At Berhampore construction of a bridge over the Bhagirathi river near the rows of the babul trees was started in the early part of June 1963. Soon tents and huts were installed to house a large number of people who were connected with the construction of the bridge on the river bank close to the rows of babul trees. Work continued all through the day and night. At first I observed a sudden awakening of the Common Myna accompanied with puffing of body feathers and loud calls at intervals during the night. This behaviour was noticed till the last week of June 1963 when one evening I found three or four mynas had taken to roosting on a banyan tree about 300 metres away from the bank of the river towards the town. Within a week that banyan tree was heavily crowded with roosting mynas. Around the middle of July 1963 there were no mynas roosting either among the babul trees or on the banyan tree. I searched for their new roosting site within the town but without success. I left Berhampore in September 1967 when the bridge was still under construction. Later I learnt that the bridge was completed in the early part of 1969 and the river bank reverted to the previous undisturbed condition around July 1970. On February 10, 1971, I happened to pay a visit to Berhampore and made a trip to the Bhagirathi river. To my surprise I found a large congregation of the mynas on the rows of babul trees as before. I presume that this was due to the return of undisturbed and safe conditions on the river bank, though I was not sure if these were the same birds that had roosted on the babul trees earlier. It appears, therefore, that selection of the roosting site in the Com- mon Myna is dependent on protection against predators and distur- 206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) bance by man. It was found in all the abovementioned places that at dawn the mynas leave their roost and disperse for foraging far and near. Several ringed mynas were found feeding 3 km away from the roost site. Mynas feed individually in populated town areas and in small parties of four to eight in the countryside yet roost communally. This habit is also found in many other birds. However, where plentiful food is available considerable congregations of mynas are found. This also happens after a moderate shower, especially in the countryside when insects come out from their hideouts. Therefore, in the Common Myna the feeding pattern (i.e. gregarious, or individual) is determined by the amount of food available in a particular area. Since the Common Myna is omnivorous its food source is not localised in patches, as for instance in granivorous birds, but is generally distributed. Hence Ward’s (1965, Ibis , 107 : 173-214) contention that communal roosting helps birds to find patchy food source seems untenable in the case of a semi-domesticated omnivorous bird species with an unlocalized food source. Siegfried (1970, Proc. XV Int. Ornith. Cong. : 197) and Zahavi (1971, Ibis, 113: 107-109) while discussing the communal roosting in Ardeola ibis and in Motacilla a. alba respectively have also suggested its origin in relation to food supply. Zahavi’s (loc. cit.) contention that a species feeding individually cannot have communal roosting also seems untenable in a species like the Common Myna which feeds both indi- vidually and gregariously yet roosts communally. Simmon (1965, Brit. Birds 85 : 161-168) has also found some solitary feeders to roost com- munally. Therefore, the relationship between feeding habit and com- munal roosting as postulated by Siegfried and Zahavi (loc. cit.) cannot be applicable to all bird species especially whose food source is not patchy like the mynas. The position and pattern of the roost sites of the Common Myna suggest that communal roosting behaviour may have evolved through natural selection primarily as an antipredator adaptation leading to the survival of the species thus supporting the view expressed by Lack, 1968, the ecological adaptation for breeding in birds. Dept, of Zoology, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, W.B., May 2, 1972. S. SENGUPTA MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 20 1 11. A CREST IN THE PLUMAGE OF THE SPOTTED BABBLER PELLORNEUM RUFICEPS SWAINSON On 2nd May, 1971, I was on a hillside at Khandala when I came across a party of Spotted Babblers {Pellorneum ruficeps) some of which were siitging on horizontal branches of trees. I had a close view of these birds for about ten minutes and noticed that the birds in song had crests. During the course of rather casual conversation with Mr. Humayun Abdulali a few days later I mentioned this fact. He informed me that the standard reference works on Indian ornithology do not mention that the Spotted Babbler has a crest and he, therefore, arranged to show me specimens of Pellorneum ruficeps in the Society’s collection. We found that this bird does have slightly elongated feathers on the crown which can apparently be raised in life into a fairly noticeable tuft. In the prepared skin the elongated feathers have to be looked for. C/o Mercantile Bank Ltd., D. A. STAIRMAND1 * P.O. Box No. 128, Bombay- 1, June 22, 1971. [The occipital feathers, when they are slightly elongated, as in this species, give an impression of having a crest when the bird is excited and fluffs out the feathers on the crown. Some species of the family Pycnono- tidae, e.g. Redvented Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer ) show this character, as also some other babblers, e.g. Browncapped Babbler, Tickell’s Babbler. It is interesting to note that in such cases the birds show a definite 4 cap ’ on the crown — the feathers on this area being different in structure and colour from the feathers on the back — Eds.] 12. PIT VIPER [TRIMERESURUS MACROLEPIS (BEDDOME)] BITES AT A SOUTH INDIAN TEA ESTATE {With two plates ) The Singampatti Group of tea estates lies on the eastern side of the southernmost reach of the Western Ghats. The estate and nearby forests are very interesting for many herpetological reasons. One is the abundance of certain species of snakes which are limited to a certain biotope corresponding to specific elevations and flora. Trimeresurus 1 Present address: Oddicombe House Hotel, Chillington, Near Kingsbridge, South Devon, England. 20 $ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) macrolepis is one of over a dozen Indian pit-vipers and is common in the estate and in certain forest types (wet bamboo, streamsides) over 3000 ft. Dr. Krishnamurthy, the Medical Officer of the Singampatti Group gave me the following interesting notes concerning T. macrolepis (Beddome) and the incidence of bites to the workers. This snake often spends the day quietly in tea and coffee bushes, at the base of cardamom plants, ferns near streams and in passion fruit and other vines. The snake is nocturnal and will sometimes snap when poked or pulled at. There were 18 cases of pit-viper bite in the Group estates from June 1970 to April 1971, from Trimeresurus macrolepis which often rest in places where pickers will put their hands, or step. Workers invariably tie a rope tourniquet above the bite. Bites are about 60% on women (being in the majority in field work). Incidence for hand and foot bites is 50/50 ; all bites occur during the day, an average of 18 to 20 a year. Condition on admission. Generally no tooth marks visible ; slight swelling at the alleged site of bite (which a tourniquet can cause). The limb gradually swells (hard oedema) up to shoulder or knee. The victim experiences intense burning pain at site of bite for some hours and pain in the limb for 3-4 days after the bite, after which swelling subsides. No neurological or cardiac symptoms. Treatment. Elevation of the limb. Magsulph fomentation to the swollen area and antibiotics given. Septic bite is rare, no mortality or serious symptoms caused by these bites. No known incidence of bites from other venomous snakes at the estate. Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER Madras-22, November 13, 1972. 13. A NOTE ON 6 GOLYA ’, A BAG NET, IN THE DAMANGANGA ESTUARY AT DAMAN (With a text-figure) Approximately 80 per cent of the inshore fish catches at Daman are by ‘ Golva ’ nets set in the Damanganga estuary. The Damanganga is a comparatively sluggish river, generally shallow except during peak monsoon months. ‘ Golva’ is a fusiform wide-mouthed bag net made of cotton twine, of different dimensions depending upon available operational space. It is kept in position by attaching it to two poles by its mouth in the tidal zone of the estuary for catching miscellaneous fishes. Being a fixed net, Plate I J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1) Whitaker : Pit Viper Cardamom plantation at 4,500 ft. above MSL, typical habitat of Trime- resurus macrolepis. Whitaker : Pit Viper Trimeresurus macro lepis from Manjolai, Tirunelveli Dist., Tamil Nadu. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209 strong tidal current is necessary for its successful operation. Principally it is a ‘ filter gear which depends on the fact that many of the small fishes and Crustacea carried by the tidal currents are swept into the sta- tionary bag, from which they cannot normally escape while the water filters out. A typical ‘ Golva ’ measures 22 metres in length, with 1300 meshes at the mouth and tapering to 150 meshes at the cod end. Lengthwise, it consists of five parts, locally called ‘ Galu 4 Tija ’, ‘ Bara chauthi ‘ Chota chauthi ’ and ‘ Khola ’ with mesh sizes of 10, 7*5, 5, 2 and 1 centimetres respectively. A bunch of 4 ropes each of 5 mm diameter is tied to the mouth or the head rope all along the circumference to provide additional strength at the mouth. The bunch is tied to the head rope at an interval of 3 meshes both at upper and lower portions of the mouth while the interval is 2 meshes laterally to make them stronger for resisting the pressure of fast currents. It is set during the low tide by fixing two strong long poles on which the mouth of the net is tied at four points facing the incoming high tide making a rectangle, as shown in the figure. The rectangular mouth, at this stage, measures 9’5x6*25 m. The open cod end is knotted and is left adrift in the water. A 10 m long rope is loosely tied around the anterior portion of ‘ Khola ’ (Cod region) through loops by one end and the other end is attached to a floating indicator buoy. The small fishes and prawns which drift with the high tide current pass through the long net and accumulate at the cod end. The catch is periodically hauled by pulling the rope thereby lifting the ‘ Khola ’ into the canoe and untying the knot. The net is easily removed during low tides for drying by simply pulling the few strings that are fastened by special knots. Refixing of the net by the skilled fishermen before the onset of the high tide also takes about 15 to 20 minutes. A 14 210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) small dug-out canoe with two men can operate a number of such nets. One such net costs about Rs. 750 and remains serviceable for about five years if properly maintained by timely repairs and tanning. Generally, these nets are tanned once a month with the bark of a Termi- nalia species. The bark is boiled for about 5 to 6 hours and the nets, thoroughly washed in freshwater, are kept immersed in the decoction for 10 to 12 hours and thereafter these are dried in the sun. Large quantities of immature fishes in the catch shows also the destructive nature of the net. It is operated almost all the year round and is admirably adapted for use in the fast tidal currents of the spring tides of each fortnight. In weak currents, the hinder part of the net bends little downwards, thereby obstructing the fishes from entering ‘ Khola ’ region ; moreover, powerful fishes sometimes burst out of the bag, resulting in a lesser catch. Small and medium-sized Peneus sp., Meta- peneus sp., Harpodon nehereus , Cuilia spp., Pellona spp., Engraulis sp., Setipinna spp., Mugil spp., Lutianus spp., Therapon spp., Otolithus spp., Polynemus sp., etc. constitute the catch. Bombay duck, H. nehereus , forms the bulk (60-70 %) of the catch during its peak season from October to December. Generally, the catch is sold fresh locally except during the peak 6 Bumla ’ (H. nehereus) season, when the heavy catch is sundried for export to Surat, Bulsar and Bombay markets. The space for operation of ‘ Golva ’ are leased out by the Department of Fisheries on auction for a specific period of time, and in Daman, 97 families almost exclusively earn their livelihood from the income of such nets. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director of the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, and Dr. J. C. Almeida, Ex-Director of Fisheries, Goa, for their encouragement in the preparation of this note. The author is also thankful to Shri P. S. Prabhakar, Chairman of the Fisheries Co-operative Society, Daman, for his help. Superintendent of Fisheries, P. DAS1 Daman, Union Territory, January 1, 1971. i Present address : Junior Fishery Scientist, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, via Calcutta, West Bengal. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 211 14. A GENERIC ASSESSMENT OF CORVINA SEMILUCTUOSA CUVIER, 1830 (PISCES : SCIAENIDAE) (With a text-figure) Corvina semiluctuosa was originally described under the genus Corvina by Cuvier (1830) followed by Gunther (1860). Kner (1865) included the species under Jolmius Bloch and this nomenclatural combi- nation was recognised by all subsequent workers (Bleeker 1874 ; Fowler 1933 ; Weber & de Beaufort 1936 ; Misra 1959 ; and Chu, Lo & Wu 1963). Day (1876), however, considered Johnius Bloch as a subgenus of Sciaena Linnaeus and hence treated semiluctuosa under the genus Sciaena in the group Johnius. The assignment of semiluctuosa Cuvier to any of these genera is considered inappropriate since the species has a carrot-shaped Otolithine gas-bladder (text-figure) with 15 pairs of arbo- rescent tubular appendages, the anterior appendages branching in the head under the skull, surrounded by the soft tissue of the head-kidney and various ligaments, blood vessels and muscles. Text-Fig. — 1. Gas-bladder of Nibea semiluctuosa (Cuvier) in ventral view (diagrammatic) ; appendages shown on one side only. a. position of septum transversum. b. position of vent. c. position of second anal spine. Recent workers (Trewavas 1962, 1964 ; Chu, Lo & Wu 1963 ; Sinha & Rao 1969) have emphasised the taxonomic value of the gas-bladder structure in the generic groupings and nomenclature of the Sciaenidae. This discovery of a basis for the generic classification of the Sciaenidae has completely reoriented the classification when the gas-bladder struc- ture was ignored in favour of tropic adaptations which have proved to be only due to convergence. The species is, therefore, much more nearly related to Nibea mitsukurii (Jordan & Snyder), the type species of Nibea 112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Jordan & Thompson, 1911, than to the species associated with it under Johnius. Corvina Cuvier has the same type-species as Sciaena Linnaeus, Sciaena umbra Linnaeus which has a gas-bladder without appendages ; and Johnius carutta Bloch, the type of Johnius , has a hammer-shaped Otolithine gas-bladder. 4 Corvina 9 semiluctuosa Cuvier has no hammer- shaped expansion of the front of the gas -bladder and this, the mandi- bular pores and strong second anal spine place it in Nibea. Nibea semiluctuosa (Cuvier, 1830) comb. nov. Corvina semiluctuosa Cuvier, 1830, Hist. nat. Poiss ., 5 : 106 (Malabar, Goa & Pondicherry). Corvina semiluctuosa Gunther, 1860, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 2 : 304 ; Day, 1865, Fish Malabar : 53. Johnius semiluctuosa Kner, 1865, Reise Novara Fische : 124 ; Bleeker, 1874, Verb. Akad. Wet., 14 : 54. Sciaena semiluctuosa Day, 1876, Fish. India : 191 ; Day, 1889, Fauna Brit. India. Fish. 2: 121. Johnius semiluctuosa Fowler, 1933, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. (100) 12 : 404 ; Weber & de Beaufort, 1936, Fishes Indo- Australian Archipelago 7 : 535 ; Misra, 1959, Rec. Indian Mus. 59 : 271 ; Chu, Lo and Wu, 1963, Fish. China : 22. Material Examined : 3 specimens, 115-295 mm S.L., Bombay, F. Day (ZSI Reg. No. 986, 987 & 1001). 2 specimens, 156-223 mm S.L., Karachi, W. D. Cumming (ZSI Reg. No. F2816/1). 1 specimen, 222 mm S.L., Ratnagiri, G. Ramakrishna, 1.6.1954 (ZSI Reg. No. F6159/2). Distribution : India, the East Indies, the Philippines and China. Acknowledgements I am thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, for encouragement and to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, for guidance in the preparation of this note. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta- 13, October 24, 1970. P. K. TALWAR MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213 References Bleeker, P. (1874) : Memoire sur les sciaenoides et les sillaginoides de l’lnde Archipelagique. Verh. Akad. Wet. 14(4) : 1-76. Cuvier, G. (1830) : In Cuvier and Valenciennes. Histoire naturelle des poissons 5 : 106-107. Paris. Chu, Y. T., Lo, Y. L. & Wu, H. L. (1963) : A study on the classification of the sciaenoid fishes of China, with description of new genera and species. Shanghai Fisheries College, Shanghai. Day, F. (1876) : The Fishes of India. Williams & Norgate, London. Fowler, H. W. (1933) : Contribu- tions to the biology of Philippine Archi- pelago and adjacent regions. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. (100) 12 : 404-405. Gunther, A. (1860) : Catalogue of the acanthopterygian fishes in the collection of the British Museum, 2. London. *Kner, R. (1865) : Reise Novara Fische : 124. Misra, K. S. (1959) : An aid to the identification of the common commercial fishes of India and Pakistan. Rec. Indian Mus. 57 : 1-318. Sinha, N. K. & Rao, M. B. (1969) ; Dendrophysa hoogliensis, a new species of sciaenid fish from India. Copeia (1) : 77-82. Trewavas, E. (1962) : A basis for classifying the sciaenid fishes of tropical West Africa. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (13) 5 : 167-176. (1964) : The sciaenid fishes with a single mental barbel. Copeia (1) : 107-117. Weber, M. & Beaufort, L. F. de (1936) : The fishes of the Indo-Austra- lian Archipelago, Leiden 7 : 1-607. *Not referred in original. 15. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF JUVENILE MACKEREL RASTRELLIGER CANAGURTA (CUVIER) OFF GOA COAST Goa along with the west coast of India has a flourishing mackerel fishery solely, supported by Rastrelliger canagurta. Though the small- sized mackerel have been observed elsewhere yet from the Konkan Coast except for isolated records of small-sized mackerel off Karwar (Pradhan 1956) and off Ratnagiri (George & Annigiri 1960) young mackerel below 10 cm length have not, so far, been reported. I collected juvenile mackerels several times during 1964-69. The details are given in the Table. Peter (1969) has reported the occurrence of larvae from Persian Gulf, Red Sea and Bay of Bengal in Indian Ocean (22° 22'N., 60° 50'E., 16° 37'N., 41° 09 'E, 18° 15'N., 87° 48 'E.) from deeper waters. The occurrence of 48-70 mm juveniles at Goa in May 1965, indicates that the spawning must have commenced much earlier than June- September as reported by Devanesan & John (1940), whereas Balakrishnan (1957) observed that breeding of mackerel commenced during March- April. George & Annigiri (1960) considered the occur- rence of small sized mackerel in September as a result of spawning a few months earlier. Similar inferences can be drawn from five instances in Goa also, as recorded above. Peter (1969) has recorded occurrence of small larvae of mackerel in the Indian Ocean in October-November. This difference in the time of occurrence of larvae and juvenile in earlier 214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) reports may be due to the difference in breeding at far off places from where the larvae were obtained. Nevertheless, some observations at Table Juvenile of Rastrelliger canagurta off Goa coasts Date Place of collection Size Range in mm Mode of collection Total No. of Juvenile observed Depth in fathoms 28/ix/64 Panjim 60-90 Purse seine 63 12 3/X/64 Panjim 80-110 -do- 87 8 6/V/65 Calangute 48-70 Trawling 12 10 20/ix/65 Baina 105-140 Purse seine 47 10 14/X/65 Calangute 90-120 -do- 18 10 23/ix/67 Baina 80-110 -do- 35 9 1 /vi/68 Baina 58-75 Trawling 18 10 1 /vi/69 Calangute 55-75 -do- 9 10 Goa support Balakrishnan (loc. cit.) that spawning probably takes place as early as March. The mackerel fishery in this area generally commences in September with the appearance of younger size groups varying between 160-200 mm. However, from November onwards the fishery is supported by 220-240 mm groups with mode at 230 mm during January-March. These are mostly with gonads in III stage of maturity. The largest speci- men measured during this period was 290 mm in April 1968. During April and May, in all the years of observations, occasionally spent speci- mens were observed indicating probably termination of spawning. However, in August 1971, some stray specimens of mackerel from Rampan Catches which were in advanced stages of maturity, being V or early YI were observed on this coast. This suggests that mackerel perhaps has a prolonged breeding season with periodic spawning (more than once) during this period. There is need for further detailed investigation to confirm this observation. Plankton collections made during this period in the area do not seem to have eggs showing resemblance to mackerel eggs. The main season of spawning of the mackerel along Konkan Coast according to Pradhan (1956), is from May to September. A subsidiary spawning season was reported on Mangalore Coast during January and February by George et al. (1959). Since the spawners and young mackerel have been obtained from this area at several places though in MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215 small numbers during the course of this study, it indicates that these are? stragglers from the main shoals which probably are not very far from the actual spawning ground. This could be a useful clue towards exploration of the spawning grounds of mackerel. The occurrence of small-sized mackerel from May-September adds strength to the con- tention that the Indian mackerel may have a prolonged spawning season. No doubt, the occurrence of juveniles and even adult with spent gonads in an area does not always reveal correct picture about spawning grounds and spawning season yet the probability of these grounds being close to the area of occurrence cannot be completely ruled out. Prolonged breeding season with periodic spawning during the season (more than once) indicates the possibility of different races coming into commercial fishery with gonad in different stages of maturity. Food of juvenile mackerel : The food of the small-sized mackerels up to 95 mm size as revealed in the gut contents consisted of diatoms, dinophysids, and a few cope- pods and protozoa. The gut contents of mackerel, between 95-105 mm was mainly post-larvae of fishes, and crustacean larvae, with negligible phytoplanktonic organisms. The feeding intensity was appreciably high. The food of size groups constituting the commercial fishery between 170-230 mm was mainly diatoms like Consinodiscus , Rhizo- solenia , Biddulphia , Planktoneilla, Pluerosigma and Chaetoceros sp. The zooplankton constituents of mackerel food, along this coast are forms like calanids, copepods, cladocera and advanced stages of crustacean, and molluscan larvae, tintinnids and dinoflagellates. The feeding intensity of mackerel is generally high from September to March but moderate from April to June. During April-June period fish scales were often found in the stomachs of mackerel caught by purse seines. Acknowledgements I wish to express my thanks to Dr. M. S. Prabhu, formerly Director of Fisheries, Panjim, for his guidance during the course of this work. I am also grateful to Dr. P. V. Dehadrai, Scientist, National Institute of Oceanography, Panjim, for going through the manuscript. Research Laboratory, RAJINDER M. DHAWAN1 Department of Fisheries, Panaji, Goa, March 23, 1972. 1 Present address ; National Institute of Oceanography, Miramar, Panaji (Goa) 216 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) References Balakrishnan, V. (1957) : Occur- rence of larvae and young mackerel Rastrelliger canagurta (Cuvier) off Vizhingam, near Trivandrum. Curr. Sci. 26 : 57-58. Devanesan, D. W. & John, A. (1940) : On the Natural history of Rastrelliger canagurta (Russel) with special reference to its spawning season and eggs. Curr. Sci. 9 : 462-464. George, P. C., Dhulkad, M. H. & Rao, V. Rammohan (1959) : Obser- vations on the mackerel fishery of the Netravati Estuary, west coast, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 (1) : 32-38. George, P. C. & Annigiri, G. C. (1960) : On the occurrence of small size mackerel Rastrelliger canagurta (Cuvier) off Ratnagiri. Curr. Sci. 29 : 319-320. Peter, K. J. (1969) : Larvae of Rastrel- liger (Mackerel) from the Indian Ocean. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. Part II, 38 : 771-777. Pradhan, L. B. (1956) : Mackerel fishery of Karwar. Ind. J. Fish. 3 : 141-185. 16. THE SOCIAL SPIDER, STEGODYPHUS SARASINORUM KARSCH. FEEDING ON THE LEMON BUTTERFLY, PAPILIO DEMOLEUS LINN. The senior author during a visit to Hatta village in Parbhani District found the webs of the Social Spider holding the dead bodies of the adult lemon butterflies Papilio demoleus Linn, on orange trees in a citrus garden. Some of the webbed branches were collected and brought to the labora- tory where the webs were kept under a bell jar with a piece of cotton swab dipped in chloroform and spiders that emerged out of the web and died were counted and preserved in 70% alcohol. The webs were then cut and the butterflies separated and counted. It was observed that the bigger webs on an average had 58 spiders and the smaller webs 26 spiders, living almost in the heart of the web. On an average 18 and 8 adult lemon butterflies were collected from the bigger and small webs respectively. The abdomen of the butterflies were completely eaten. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapoor and Dr. B. K. Tikader of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for identifying the spider ; and to Shri L. Sreenivas, Associate Dean, College of Agriculture, Parbhani, for his interest and for providing necessary facilities. Entomology Section, College of Agriculture, Parbhani (Maharashtra), April 7, 1972, A. K. RAODEO D. T. TIKAR ABDUL MUQUEEM MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217 17. A NOTE ON IDIOSCOPUS CLYPEALIS (LETH.) (HEMIPTERA : CICADELLIDAE) During local faunistic surveys of Poona and its surrounding areas I collected some Jassids on mango leaves from Nasrapur, about 40 km east of Poona. They were studied at the laboratory to find the nature and distribution of clypeal spots in both the sexes. Distant (1907) while examining the species observed ‘ face immaculate or with the small black median spots ’. Capriles (1964) also made a similar observation, but while classifying the species, described the presence ol the spots in the female. I, therefore made three collections in June, July and August 1968, in order to study the exact nature of the distribution of the spots in both of the sexes and the results are tabulated below : Idioscopus clypealis (Leth.) Date ?? No. of speci- mens with clypeal spots No. of speci- mens without spots No. of speci- mens with clypeal spots No. of speci- mens without spots 21-vi-68 114 1 4 82 20-vii-68 109 — 6 85 22-viii-68 99 — 8 93 It is clear from the above data that the males also possess these spots although their number and ratio is very small when compared with those of the females. Almost all the females possess the spots. Acknowledgement I thank Shri B. S. Lamba, Officer-in-Charge, Western Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, for laboratory facilities and encouragement. Zoological Survey of India, K. RAMACHANDRA RAO Western Regional Station, Poona, March 21, 1970. 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) References Distant, W. L. (1907) : The Fauna of British India. Rhynchota, Vol. IV : 1-50L Capriles, J. M. (1964) : Studies on Idiocerinae leaf hoppers II. The Indian and Philippine species of Idiocerus and the genus Idioscopus (Homoptera : Cicadellidae). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 66(2 ) : 89-100. 18. SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE POPULATION OF EPILACHNA BEETLE HENOSEPILACHNA SPARS A HERBST. (COLEOPTERA : COCCINELLI DAE) (With nine text-figures) Observations have been made by the authors on the seasonal changes in the population of Epilachna beetles, Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst. in the field and laboratory. The beetles were reared in the laboratory in rearing cages specially designed by Edona and Soans. Outside the beetles thrive on Datura fastuosa in the Malabar Christian College com- pound. Seasonal changes affect the population both inside the labora- tory and outside, but outside the seasonal changes are more pronounced. The presence of Epilachna beetles can be best determined by examin- ing the leaves of Datura fastuosa. The leaves are seen eaten up in irre- gular patches with the thin upper cuticle of the leaf entirely or partly covering those areas. When the underside of these injured leaves is examined, one is likely to find epilachna beetles in one stage of develop- ment or the other. The beetle population reaches its highest numerical strength about the middle of October and continues till the end of November. The favourable climatic conditions which succeed the rainy season seem to be responsible for this increase. Beetles breed rapidly and feed voraciously in the field. Both the larvae and adults feed on the under surface of the leaves skeletonizing them and producing a new crop of adults. Dry yellow leaves with practically all the tissue eaten and with a fine net work alone remaining indicates heavy infestation. In the laboratory also beetles multiply rapidly during these days. Specimens with different elytral maculation appear during this season. The basic elytral maculation consists of 6 black spots always present on each elytron arranged as in fig. 1 ; but these may be augmented by the presence of 1-5 black non-persistent spots variably present (figures 2-6). Both persistent and non-persistent spots are variable in size, the former MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 219 being usually bigger than the latter. Occasionally some spots may coalesce. Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst. : Figs. 1-9 1. Basic elytral maculation of 6 black spots. 2-6. spot patterns of elytra showing presence of 1-5 non-persistent spots on each elytron. 7-8. coalescence of spots. 9. left elytron, persistent spots numbered 1-6. From the middle of December throughout January a slight reduction in the population is noticed. This becomes more pronounced in February and in March. By this time only six-spotted beetles are seen and occasionally7-spotted ones. By April the reduction in the popu- lation reaches its climax. Of the insects present only few lay eggs and there is considerable reduction in the number of eggs in each batch. Due to the heat and dry air most of the eggs, larvae, pupae and adults are killed. Mortality is highest in the first and the second instars. The eggs remain dead and dry on the plants ; the larvae and adults are killed 220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) and fall to the ground ; while the pupae are left dark brown and black to dry up on the plants. These conditions are common both in the field and the laboratory. Occasionally a few beetles emerge one at a time during late March and April. But none of these develop normal feeding habits and therefore have a shorter span of life. By the second week of May when the rains start the temperature is slightly reduced, the beetle population begins to improve in the cages and in the field. Mortality is reduced. More insects begin to appear. The population increases in June and July. When the rainfall increases in the last week of July and at the beginning of August, the normal acti- vities of the beetles are curtailed but rain storms seldom continue without intermission for very long and the temperature is always high enough for activity to be resumed as soon as the rain stops. In August there is a slight reduction in population because the torrential showers wash away the eggs and larvae from exposed places. In September again there is an increase in the population, which continues till the middle of December but reaches its climax in November. By September adult beetles of different elytral maculation begin to appear. Variations in number among these beetles therefore seem to depend largely on weather conditions. The population increases in numbers and the beetle becomes a major pest in the years of normal temperature and rainfall, but decreases in numbers in years of high temperature and droughts, especially when these periods are prolonged. Thus there was greater increase in numbers in November 1968, when the climatic condi- tions were more favourable than in November 1969 which was a period of inclement weather. There were a few places where the mortality was not very high even under generally adverse conditions. Because they contained vigorously growing Datura plants which were irrigated and thus protected from un- favourable climate. However inclement climatic conditions may be, it does not seem likely that total eradication of the beetle will occur. The insect either persists on Datura throughout the year or is only temporarily held in check by unfavourable weather conditions. Department of Zoology, Malabar Christian College, Calicut- 1, Kerala, December 27, 1969, V. I. EDONA A. B. SOANS MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 221 19. THE PROCESS OF MOULTING AND THE NUMBER OF INSTARS IN THE TIGER BEETLE, CICINDELA CANCELLATA DEJ. (COLEOPTERA : CIC1NDELIDAE) {With a text-figure) Cicindela cancellata Dej. is a tiger beetle which is widely distributed in India. Its larvae live inside burrows in the soil and therefore it is very difficult to observe all the details of its life-history under natural environ- mental conditions. The authors have been rearing this species in the laboratory in specially designed glass rearing jars. As a few of the larvae excavate their burrows accidentally, along the wall of the rearing jar, it is possible to observe through the glass wall the process of moulting in the larva inside the burrow. This paper gives an account of the process of moulting and also the result of an indirect investigation into the number of larval instars in this beetle by the application of Dyar’s Law. The process of moulting. The larva, after a period of active feeding and just before the moult, blocks the opening of the burrow with sand, stops feeding, settles down at the bottom of the burrow and becomes inactive. At this stage, the abdomen of the larva, which at other times is light brown or grey in colour, becomes yellowish. The larva occasionally wriggles its body rapidly in an undulating fashion. Frequently, the body is suddenly bent ventralwards in a snapping manner. Moulting takes place during the night. As a result of the charac- teristic movements of the body and other internal factors, the larval cuticle splits along the ecdysial lines which are present on the head and the thorax. On the head, splitting of cuticle takes place along the short coronal suture and the arms of the frontal suture which are relatively long and slightly wavy, diverging widely and terminating anteriorly at the dorsal edges of the antennal sockets. In the thorax, the cuticle splits along the mid-dorsal line of weakness or ecdysial line. The pattern of ecdysial splitting of the cuticle is clearly seen in the exuviae collected from the burrows. The number of instars. — Dyar (1890)1 stated that in lepidopteran larvae, the width of the head capsule increases in a regular geometric progression through successive instars, by a ratio of about 1*4. This principle which is known as Dyar’s law, has been used successfully to determine the number of larval instars in some insects. iDyar, H. G. (1890) : The number of moults of Lepidopterous larvae. Psyche. 5 : 420-422. Ill JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) A large number of larvae of Cicindela cancellata in the various stages of growth, were collected from the field and from the rearing jars in the laboratory. The measurements of the width of their head capsules were recorded and the frequency distribution of the various values was studied. The text-figure gives the results in the form of an histogram. 4or (Trims) Histogram of the width of head capsules of the larvae of Cicindela cancellata. The histogram clearly shows that the width of head capsules fall under three distinct and discontinuous classes, indicating that there are three larval instars in the life cycle of Cicindela cancellata. The mean width of head capsules of the three instars are, 1*31, 2T2, and 3*36 milli- metres respectively. The growth ratio between the first and second instar is 1 *63 and that between the second and the final instar is T59. It miscellaneous notes 11$ is seen that the growth ratio between successive instars is approximately constant. Grateful acknowledgement is made of a grant from the University Grants Commission to one of the authors (A.B.S.). Calicut- 1, Kerala, July 7, 1969. 20. NEW RECORDS OF HYMENOPTEROUS PARASITES OF PEA LEAFM1NER PHYTOMYZA ATRICORNIS MEIGEN (DIPTERA : AGROMYZIDAE) The pea leafminer Phytomyza atricornis Meigen is the most common and widespread leafminer throughout the world. The larva of this pest is polyphagus and attacks a large number of plants belonging to several natural orders. According to Trehan & Sehgal (1963), the larva feeds indiscriminately on pallisade and spongy mesenchymatous tissues but never consumes the entire tissues between the upper and lower epidermis and the endodermal cells containing starch are largely avoided. Ahmad & Gupta (1941), while studying the biology of this pest on pea, reared an Eulophid, Solenotus sp. from its larval stages. Narayanan et al. (1956) reared an ectoparasite Solenotus sp., an endoparasite, Rhopalotus sp. and an unidentified braconid on the larval stages of this host fly. Only recently Odak et al. (1968) have recorded Opius sp. (Braconidae) and Neochrysocharis sp. (Eulophidae) as parasites of P. atricornis from Gwalior (India). The present study was, thererfore, undertaken to investigate parasites of this leafminer in the Ranchi area and leaves of pea ( Pisum sativum Linn.) were collected. The following six hymenopterous insects emerged from the leafmines. 1. Chrysocharis sp. (Eulophidae) Thompson (1943, 1954) has recorded Chrysocharis sp., C. elongatus and C. syma from New Zealand, Yugoslavia and England respectively, as parasites of this leafminer. 2. Tetrastichus sp. (Eulophidae). 3. Cirrospilus sp. (Eulophidae). 4. Opius sp. ? phaseoli Fischer (Braconidae). 5. Opius sp. ? lantanae Bridw. (Braconidae). 6. Sphegigaster sp. (Pteromalidae). Department of Zoology, Malabar Christian College. A. B. SOANS J. S. SOANS 224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Acknowledgements My thanks are due to Sri Y. Sankaranarayanan, Director and Dr. A. Bhattacharya, Entomologist of the Institute, for encouragement. Thanks are also due to Sri B. P. Mehra, Scientific Officer of the Institute for constant help and going through the manuscript and to Mr. R. D. Eady, Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for the identi- fication of the parasites. Indian Lac Research Institute, R. S. GOKULPURE Namkum, Ranchi, Bihar, May 20, 1970. References Ahmad, T. & Gupta, R. L. (1941) : The pea leafminer Phytomyza atricornis (Meigen) in India. Indian J. Ent. 3 : 37-49. Narayanan, E. S., Subba Rao, B. R. & Kaur, R. B. (1956) : Studies on the biology of the parasites of the pea leafminer, Phytomyza atricornis (Meigen). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B) 44 : 137-147. Odak, S. C., Dhamdhere, S. V. & Kaurava, A. S. (1968) : New records of hymenopterous parasites of Phyto- myza atricornis (Meigen), a serious pest of pea. Indian. J. Ent. 30(3) : 250. Thompson, W. R. (1943) : A catalogue of the parasites and predators of insect pests. Parasites of the Dermaptera and Diptera. Sect. 1, Part 2. Common- wealth Institute of Biological Control : 60. Thompson, W. R. (1954) : A catalogue of the parasites and predators of the insect pests. Hosts of hymenoptera (Galliceratid to Evaniid) Sect. 2, Part 3. ibid. 274. Trehan, K. N. & Sehgal, V. K. (1963) : Range of host plants and larval feeding in Phytomyza atricornis Mg. (Diptera : Agromyzidae). Entomo- logist's mon. Mag. 99 : 1-3. 21 . CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF AQUATIC BEETLES —14. COPELATUS NEELUMAE SP. NOV. (DYTISCIDAE) FROM INDIA ( With a text-figure) Copelatus neelumae sp. nov. Holotype — c?, Tamilnadu : Ottokovil, Tiruchirapally District, from a tank near Uppada river, 13.iii.1971, K. V. Lakshminarayana coll. In the National Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Z.S.I. Regd. No. gg. Length 5’4 mm. Breadth 2*8 mm. Head rufo-ferruginous, slightly paler anteriorly ; punctation on the disc quite dense, separated by its own diameter, irregular, more sparse anteriorly and towards the sides ; surface distinctly microreticulate. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 225 Pronotum rufo-ferruginous with sides slightly paler ; anterior row of punctures quite regular ; punctation of surface finer and less dense than on the head, on the disc separated by 2-3 times its own diameter ; surface micro-reticulate as on the head. Text-figure. Copelatus neelumae sp. nov., A — left elytron ; B — lateral view of penis ; C — pro tibiae in male. All from holotype specimen. Elytra (Text-fig. A) pale testaceous with irregular rufo-ferruginous spots between the suture and third striae, but neither touching the base nor the apical one-third of the elytra. Elytral striae disposed as under.— Striae 1, 2 and 5 abridged at base (1 more than the other two), while striae 3, 4 and 6 commence from the base ; striae 1 more abridged at base than striae 2 and striae 2 less abridged at base then striae 5 ; sub- marginal striae extending a little beyond the middle anteriorly and ter- minating almost near the apex of striae 6. Striae 6 shorter than 5 at apex, striae 5 shorter than 4 at apex, striae 4 and 1 terminate beyond apex of 3 and 2, nearly enclosing both of them. Punctation and reti- culation as on pronotum but less impressed. Ventral side pale testaceous; metacoxae and 3 visible abdominal sternites with short, oblique, profound strioles, those on the abdominal A l_ 0*5mm. O'lmrn. 15 226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 76 (1) sternites a little longer than on metacoxae. Male protibiae (Text-fig. C) enlarged towards apex, distinctly curved and notched at base ; basal three segments of protarsi and mes otars i moderately enlarged ; penis (Text-fig. B) slender, curved, asymmetrical from dorsal surface (rather twisted). Female — unknown. Remarks : This species belongs to the irinus group, Guignot (1961) and comes close to C. hangalorensis Vazirani, C. indicus Sharp and C.freudei Guignot ; in coloration and elytral markings. It differs from all the above species in having elytral striae 1, 2 and 5 abridged at base as against elytral striae 1 abridged at base. In the shape of penis, which is without a dorsal lobe, it comes close to C. indicus and C.freudei , while in size it is larger than both of them. The specimen under report is freshly emerged, therefore the coloration described above is to be viewed accord- ingly. In mature specimens the coloration will be darker, but the basic pattern of markings will remain the same. The penis had protruded and had separated and was glued to the card along with the specimen. Vazirani (1970) has given key to the species known from India and has figured the genitalia of the other species mentioned above. Zoological Survey of India, T. G. VAZIRANI Calcutta- 16, November 13, 1972. References Guignot, F. (1961) : Revision des Hydrocanthares d’ Afrique (Coleoptera Dytiscoidea). Ann. Mus. R. Congo Beige Sci. Zool. 90 : 659-995. Vazirani, T. G. (1970) : Contribu- tions to the study of Aquatic Beetles (Coleoptera). VII. A. revision of Indian Colymbetinae (Dytiscidae). Oriental Ins. 4 : 303-362. 22. QUISQUALIS INDICA LINN. AND DO DONE A VISCOSA LINN. AS NEW HOSTS OF CASTOR SEMILOOPER, ACHOEA JANATA LINN. Castor semilooper, Achoea janata L. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) is a serious pest of Castor ( Ricinus communis ), guava fruits (Psidium guajava ) (Srivastava 1960) and citrus fruits (Ayyar 1940 and Rakshpal 1945) in orchards, Pruthi & Mani (1945) reported rose ( Rosaindica ), pomegranate ( Punica granatum) and Euphorbia pilulifera as the alternate hosts while Khan (1946) further included ‘ Kachnar ’ ( Bauhinia variegata ), ‘Ber* MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 227 (Zizyphus jujuba ), 4 Dudhi ’ ( Euphorbia hirta) and banyan ( Ficus bengalensis) as the alternate hosts. The larvae were also observed, in forests, to feed on 4Babool’ ( Acacia arabica) and Albizzia amara by Bhasin & Roonwal (1954). The present report records the feeding of A. janata larvae on two additional hosts, namely the hedge plant Dodonea viscosa (Family Sapindaceae) and the ornamentaj Rangoon creeper, Quisqualis indica (Family Combretaceae). Both these plants are important garden ornamentals. So far, we have observed feeding of this pest in laboratory on more than a dozen hosts in varying degrees of intensity but observations made during the last two years at Jobner, Udaipur and Jaipur revealed that the two plants reported here suffer substantial damage by this insect from July onwards. Further, both Quisqualis and Dodonea were observed to be attacked in the field simultaneous to the occurrence of the insect on castor within a distance of 7 metres and 13 metres respectively. This showed that even in the presence of the primary host the gravid female moths oviposited on these garden plants indicating a potential preference of the insect to these plants. Detailed studies on the host preference of this insect are under- way. Department of Entomology, V. S. KAVADIA Agricultural Experiment Station, S. K. VERMA University of Udaipur, Udaipur, September 12, 1970. Referen ces Ayyar, T. V. R. (1940) : A Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India. Madras Govt. Press, Madras, xvm+528 pp. Bhasin, G. D. & Roonwal, M. L. (1954) : A list of insect pests of forest plants in India and the adjacent coun- tries. Indian Forest Bulletin (New Series) Entomology, No. 171 (1) : 1-93. Khan, M. Q. (1946) : Life history and bionomics of castor semiloopers in Hyderabad (Deccan). Indian J. Ent. 8 : 111-115. Pruthi, H. S. & Mani, M. S. (1945) : Our knowledge of the insect and mite pests of Citrus in India. Scientific Monograph, No. 16, I.C.A.R., Delhi. : 27 : 31-35. Rakshpal, R. (1945) : Cirtus fruit sucking moths and their control. Indian Fmg. 6 : 441-443. Srivastava, B. K. (1960) : Achoea janata as a pest of ripening guavas. Proc. 47th Indian Sci. Congress 3 : 558. 228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) 23. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON PALMFLY {ELYMNIAS HYPERMNESTRA CAUDATA BUTLER) NEAR BOMBAY On 27th September 1972 I captured a female of the Common Palmfly ( Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler) at Kihim, Kolaba District, a few miles south of Bombay. This appears to be an extension of its range as there are no definite records of this butterfly from anywhere near Bombay. According to Wynter-Blyth (butterflies of the Indian region) the species may be found 4 at low elevations in suitable localities in the penin- sula as far north as Madhya Pradesh ’, but till now E. h. caudata has not been apparently recorded north of Karwar (N. Kanara) which is the northernmost point from where a specimen in the Society’s collection has been obtained. The specimen, now in the Society’s collection, was seen settled near the ground on a bush along the seashore. As the wings were rather tattered it may have been carried northwards by the monsoon winds. I am grateful to the Society for the use of their equipment and in particular to Mr. N. T. Nadkerny who kindly confirmed the identification of the specimen and supplied some of the references. Sunbeam, SALMAN ABDULALI Perry Cross Road, Bandra, Bombay- 50, November 24, 1972. 24. OCCURRENCE OF THE GENUS CONCHYLIURUS BOCQUET & STOCK (CYCLOPOIDA-CLAUSIDIIDAE) IN RATNAGIRI While studying the biology of Meretrix meretrix L., I came across a number of semi-parasitic copepods in the mantle cavity of the clam. These copepods belonged to two different species of the genus Conchy - liurus. This genus was created by Bocquet & Stock (1957) with C. solensis as the type species. From Indian waters, the genus Conchy - liurus was first recorded by Reddiah (1960), who described a new species C. maximus Reddiah from Sanguinolaria ( Soletellina ) diphos (Gmelin) from Portonovo. In the following year, Reddiah (1961) described two more new species, C. bombasticus Reddiah and C.fragilis Reddiah from Meretrix meretrix (L.) from Portonovo. A detailed examination of the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 229 local specimens revealed that they belonged to the last two species des- cribed by Reddiah (op. cit.) from M. meretrix (L.). This is thus the first record of the genus Conchyliurus from the West Coast of India. So far about nine species have been described under this genus. Con- sidering the richness of the molluscan fauna of India, more species are likely to be discovered in future. It is therefore, considered, that the distribution (Table) of all known species of this genus, together with their type hosts and localities, would be useful for future workers on this group. Table Species Host Locality Conchyliurus solensis Bocquet & Stock (1957) Solen marginatus Don* Near Roscoff, France** C. cardii Gooding (1957) Cardium echinatum L.* Near Plymouth, England C. cardii cardii *** Gooding (1957) Solen marginatus Don, Cardium echinatum L.,* Meretrix chione (L.) France C. cardii tapetis Bocquet & Stock (1958) Tapes decassatus (L.),* Tapes pullastra (Montagu), Tapes aurens (Gmelin) France** C. torosus Humes & Cressey (1958) Mactra glabrata L.,* Mactra largillerti Phillippi Free Town, Sierra Leone,** West Africa C. lobatus Humes & Cressey (1958) Cardita ajar Bruguiere* Free Town, Sierra Leone,* West Africa C. maximus Reddiah (1960) Sanguinolaria (Soletellina) dip ho s (Gmelin),* Near Portonovo,** east coast of India C. bombasticus Reddiah (1961) Meretrix meretrix (L.)* Meretrix casta Deshayes Near Portonovo,** east coast of India Ratnagiri, west coast of India C.fragilis Reddiah (1961) Meretrix meretrix (L.)*, Near Portonovo,** Meretrix casta Deshayes east coast of India, Ratnagiri, west coast of India. * Type host, ** Type locality, *** Bocquet & Stock (1958) downgraded Gooding’s species C, cardii into a subspecies and referred to it as C. cardii cardii Gooding, 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. K. Reddiah, Officer-in- Charge, Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Kench’s Trace, Shillong (Assam) for his help in identification of the species and loan of some important references. I am also grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State and Dr. H. G. Kewal- ramani, Senior Scientific Officer, for their helpful criticism. Marine Biological Research M. R. RANADE Ratnagiri, Station, March 4, 1970. References Bocquet,, C. & Stock, J. H. (1957) : Copepodes parasites d’ Invertebres des cotes de France. I. Sur deux genres de ia famille des Clausidiidae commensaux de Mollusques : Hersiliodes Canu et Conchy liurus nov. gen. Proc. Kon. Nedrl. Akad. Weteusch. Amsterdam, Ser. C, 60(2) : 512-22. (1958) : Copepodes para- sites d’ Invertebres des cotes de France. VII a. Characters specifiques et sub. specifiques a i’ interieur de genre Conchy - liurus Bocquet & Stock. Proc. Kon. Nedrl. Akad. Weteusch. Amsterdam, Ser. C, 61(3) : 308-24. Gooding, R. U. (1957) : On some Copepoda from Plymouth, mainly asso- ciated with invertebrates including three new species. J. mar. Biol. dw. U.K. 36 : 195-221. Humes, A. G. & Cressey, R. F. (1958) : Copepod parasites of Mollusks in West Africa. Bull, de I I.F.A.N. , T. XX, Ser. A (3) : 921-942. Reddiah, K. (I960) : Copepods asso- ciated with Indian Molluscs, (a) Des- cription of Conchyliurus maximus, Sanguinolaria ( Soletellina ) diphos (Gmelin) (Lamellibranchiata-Psammo- biidae). J. Zool. Soc. India 12(2) : 137-146. (1961) : Copepods associa- ted with Indian Molluscs. (B) Descrip- tion of two new Conchyliurus species from Meretrix meretrix (L.). Crustaceana 2(4): 300-312. 25. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CUSCUTA SANTAPAU1 BANERJI & DAS IN WESTERN HIMALAYAS While working on the flora of Kinnaur district, Himachal Pradesh, the author came across a few plants of this species growing along the banks of Tangling khud nala at Shongtong and at Kilba. The species was first described by Banerji & Das (loc. cit.) based on materials collected from East Nepal and Assam. Vaid & Naithani (loc. cit.) recently reported its occurrence in Chandanwari (Kashmir) and in New Forest (Dehra Dun). The present report from Shongtong and Kilba, besides being additional information about its distribution in the country, helps to some extent also in bridging the vast discontinuity in its distri- bution from Assam and East Nepal in the east to Chandanwari at the northwestern limit of the Himalayas. A careful search in the field and n herbaria may provide more data of its distribution elsewhere in the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 231 Himalayas. The data on the distribution available now indicate that the plant has a wide distribution, probably occurring over the entire range of the Himalayas. This species is often confused with C. reflexa Roxb. which it resembles closely. The characters which enable one to distinguish the two species have been dealt with in detail by Banerji & Das (loc. cit.) and Vaid & Naithani (loc. cit.). The figures of the floral parts of the two species in the plate in Banerji & Das (loc. cit. 88) are also very helpful in distinguish- ing the present species from C. reflexa Roxb. The nomenclature of the plant is as follows : Cuscuta santapaui Banerji & Das in Journ. Arn. Arb. 46(1) : 87, 1965 ; Vaid & Naithani in Ind. For. 97(8) : 467-468, 1971. The plant is usually seen in open situations on the margins of forests. The whole plant is creamy white or hay-coloured when young and turns pale reddish-brown later. The fruits are creamy white when mature ; they also turn pale reddish-brown on ageing. The stem and fruits are dotted with brownish-black spots which are clearly visible even in dried herbarium material. Specimens examined : himachal pradesh : Shongtong, on the banks of Tangling khud nala, alt. ± 1970 m, 6th October 1971, K. P. Janardhanan 46486, in fls. & frts., parasitic on Prunus persica (Linn.) Stokes ; Kilba, hillslope above the Forest Rest House, alt. ± 2100 m, 10th October 1971, K. P. Janardhanan in fls. & frts., parasitic on Desmodium tiliaefolium G. Don ; Sangla, alt. ± 2700 m, 25th September 1964, N. C. Nair 34272, in fls. & frts., parasitic on Desmodium tiliae- folium G. Don (BSD). Acknowledgement I am thankful to Dr. M. L. Banerji, Reader in Botany, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, for confirming the identity of the above specimens. Botanical Survey of India, K. P. JANARDHANAN Dehra Dun, September 18, 1972, 232 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) 26. PLANT RECORDS FOR MAHARASHTRA STATE FROM CHANDRAPUR DISTRICT During botanical explorations of Chandrapur district of Maharashtra State, some interesting plants new to the state were recorded. In this note the correct nomenclature, diagnostic characters, details of collection and critical notes are given. All the specimens cited here are deposited in the herbarium of the Western Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Poona ( BSI ). Rubiaceae Hedyotis coerulea Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 412, 1834 ; FI. Brit. India 3 : 60, 1880. An erect herb. Leaves linear, sessile, bristle pointed. Flowers greenish blue. Capsules nearly globose. FIs. & frts. : August- December. Rare, on sandy soil. Pamburna, Malhotra 123790 ; Wamanpalli, Malhotra 123806. Gamble (1921) records this plant from eastern coast (Rampa in Ganjam, Nellore to Tanjore) and also South Kanara on West coast. The present record of the species from Chandrapur district (Maharashtra) extends its distribution further north. CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea sindica Stapf in Kew Bull. 346, 1894; Rolla Rao & Kanodia in Ann. Arid Zone 2(1) : 38, 1963. A trailing herb. Leaves oblong, hastate, acute. Flowers light pink. Capsule glabrous ; seeds velvety. FIs. & frts. : August-October. Rare. On coarse soil. Taroba National Park, Malhotra 122594 & 122787. This plant has been earlier recorded from drier parts of Kutch (Gujarat State) and also from Jodhpur division of Rajasthan. There- fore, the occurrence of this plant in such dry deciduous forests of Chandrapur district (Maharashtra) indicates the possibility of locating this taxon in the surrounding deciduous forests and hilly tracts of central India. Euphorbiaceae Acalypha lanceolata Willd. Sp. PI. 4 : 524, 1805 ; A.fallax Muell-Arg. in Linnaea 34 : 43, 1865 ; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 5 : 416, 1887. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 233 Annual slender herb. Leaves ovate-lanceolate cuneate at the base. Flowers pale greenish. Capsules longer than the bracts, hispid. FIs. & frts. : August-October. Not common, on coarse soil. Taroba National Park, Malhotra 122596. The present record is interesting, as it links up the earlier known distribution in southern India, namely N. Circars, Deccan and Carnatic to S. Travancore (Gamble 1925) and Central Bengal in the east (Prain 1903). It is quite possible the species might occur in the deciduous forests of Bihar and Orissa. Poaceae Arthraxon echinatus (Nees) Hochst. in Flora 39 : 188, 1856 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India and Pak. 99, 1960 ; A. spathaeeus Hook f. in FI. Brit. India 7: 145, 1896. Annual grass. Spikelets greenish yellow. Lower glume of sessile spikelet narrowly lanceolate, nerves on back echinulate. FIs. & frts. : August-November. Rare, growing along the rocky crevices. Taroba National Park, Malhotra 122823. This species was recorded by Gamble (1934) from Madras State. The present record extends its distribution further north. Acknowledgements We are thankful to Dr. R. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Poona for kindly going through the manuscript and giving constructive suggestions and to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing the facilities. Botanical Survey of India, S. K. MALHOTRA Western Circle, Poona- 1, SIRASALA MOORTHY November 30, 1971. 27. UTRICULARIA STRICTICAULIS STAFF FROM BHUBANESWAR— A NEW RECORD FOR ORISSA Utricularia stricticaulis Stapf ( =U . reticulata Sm. var. uliginosa C.B. Cl.) a species known from south Deccan Peninsula, Bengal and Ceylon, is recorded here for the first time from Orissa. The species is characterised by short scape with basifix scales, linear bracteoles ; suberect pedicels in fruiting, acute, yellow, decurrent calyx, enlarged in fruit, bluish corolla about equalling the calyx ; obovoid, slightly dorsiventrally 15a 234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) compressed capsule ; elongate obovoid striated seeds with elongate epidermal cells. The species is closely related to Utricularia uliginosa Vahl, U. graminifolia Vahl and the African U. spiralis Sm. which, however, differ in the seeds or the corolla. Seeds in U. uliginosa and U. spiralis are globose with isodiametric epidermal cells. U. graminifolia differs in twining scapes, larger corolla and the lower corolla-lip and spur exceed- ing the purplish calyx. Bhubaneswar, in rice fields, fl. & fr. 22-xii-1971. Saxena 277. Regional Research Laboratory, H. O. SAXENA Bhubaneswar, January 7, 1972. 28. SOME INTERESTING AND RARE PLANTS FROM MAHARASHTRA STATE ( With four plates) During botanical explorations in the Phonda-Ambolighat area of Ratnagiri district (Maharashtra State) from the year 1965 onwards, some interesting and noteworthy plants have been collected and are being reported as additions to the Flora of Maharashtra. The species reported here are not only new records for Maharashtra but also interesting from phytogeographic point of view as these were earlier recorded southwards from North Kanara and the present report shows their wider distribution. While examining critically the collections from Ratnagiri district, another interesting plant Polygonum s trie turn All. collected from Maha- bleshwar (Satara district) was also worked out and has been reported in this paper. The collection includes two rare grasses namely, Bhidea burnisiana Bor and Danthonidium gammiei (Bhide) C. E. Hubbard, obtained in recent explorations in Ratnagiri. In this paper, correct nomenclature, diagnostic characters of each species, collector’s name, field no., habitat as well as critical notes are given. All the specimens cited in this paper have been deposited in the her- barium of Western Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Poona (BSI). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 235 Boraginaceae Heliotropium cornutum Johnst. in Contr. Gray Herb. Henr. 92 : 90, 1930 ; Fischer in FI. Mad. Pres. Part 11 : 1883, 1936 ; Arora & Banerjee in Bull. bot. Surv. India 8 : 341-342, 1966. Prostrate to suberect herb. Flowers white in small helicoid cymes. Rare, as a weed, in the rice fields in association with Heliotropium scabrum Retz. and Coldenia procumbens Linn. Arora & Banerjee (loc. cit.) reported this plant as endemic to South Kanara (Mysore State). The present collection is an extension of distri- bution further north along the Western Ghats and is also a new record for Maharashtra. Specimens examined. Ghotge, Kudal taluka, Kulkarni 107868. SCROPHULARIACEAE Racopa floribunda (R. Br.) Wettst. in Engl. & Prantl Pflanzenfam. 4(3b) : 77, 1895. Herpestis floribunda R. Br. Prodr. 442, 1810 ; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4 : 273, 1884. Moniera floribunda Cooke, FI. Bomb. Pres. 2: 286, 1904. A delicate erect herb, 8-10 cm tall. Flowers pedicellate. Capsules long, subglobose. Seeds oblong, truncate at both ends. Rare, on wet sandy soil associated with Cyanotis sp. Cooke (loc. cit.) states ‘ The occurrence of this plant in the Bombay Presidency is somewhat doubtful. Woodrow reports its occurrence from S. Kanara. Law has in his Herbarium Kew, specimens from Kanara and Mysore and of these the Kanara ones are most probably also from S. Kanara \ The present records show extension of distribution through Goa (Rolla Rao 1969, unpublished). Specimens examined. Deobag, Malvan, Kulkarni 121336. POLYGONACEAE Polygonum strictum All., Auct. Syn. 42, 1773 et Misc. Taur. 5 : 94, 1774-76 ; Wt. Icon. t. 1800, 1852 ; Dandy in Taxon 19(4) : 623, 1970. P. minus Huds. FI. Angl. 148, 1762; Meissn. in DC. Prodr. 14: 111, 1857 ; Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5 : 36, 1886 ; Gamble FI. Mad. Pres. Part 7 : 1189, 1925. Annual herb, rooting at nodes. Stipules sparsely strigose, ciliate. Flowers, minute, pink. Bracts stiff, ciliate on the margins. Perianth eglandular. Rare, in water logged soil. 236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (1) This species has been earlier reported from Nilgiris and Palni hills in south India. This report is an extension of distribution and a new record for the State. Specimens examined. Near lake, Mahableshwar, Ansari 67688. POACEAE Coelachne simpliciuscula (Wt. & Arn.) Munro & Benth. in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 19 : 93, 1881 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 576, 1960. Coelachne pulchella R. Br. var. simpliciuscula Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7 : 270, 1896 (non R. Br. 1810). Suberect or trailing annual grass. Spikelets in speciform panicles, with short usually ascending branches. Rare, near the streams or nallahs in association with Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. This species has been reported from South Kanara downwards from an altitude of 600-1825 m. Of late, it has also been collected from Londa in Belgaum district (Mysore State) by the Botanical Survey of India. The present record is a northward extension of its range. Specimens examined. Solia jungle, Chaukul(10 km from Ambolighat), Kulkarni 108631 ; Londa, Ansari 78597. Dimeria hohenackeri Hochst. ex Miq. in Verh. Nederl. Inst. 3 : 35, 1851 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 142, 1960. (Plate I). Annual grass, 20-30 cm high, golden yellow. Spikelets parallel to rachis, delicate. Rare, on rocky plains in association with Dimeria stapfiana C. E. Hubb. and Cyperus sp. This species is distinguished from other closely allied species, namely D. stapfiana on the basis of parallel arrangement of spikelets on the rachis. Bor (loc. cit.) mentions this species as endemic to Mangalore (Mysore State). There is every possibility of its occurrence between Mangalore and Ambolighat but it has escaped the attention of botanists so far. Besides being a distributional record, the present report is also a new record for Maharashtra. Specimens examined. Mangaon, Kulkarni 106428. Dimeria woodrowii Stapf in Hook. Icon. PI. sub tab. 2312, 1894; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 144, 1960. (Plate II). Annual grass. Spikelets awned. Rachis of each raceme coiled into a hoop. Plate I J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1) Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra Dimeria hohenackeri Hochst. ex Miq. 1. Whole plant; 2. Spikelet ; 3. Upper glume ; 4. Upper lemma ; 5. Lower lemma ; 6. Lower glume ; 7. Stamens; 8. Ovary with style and stigma. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1) Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra Plate II « mm Dimeria woodrowii Stapf 1. Whole plant; 2. Spikelet; 3. Upper glume ; 4. Upper lemma; 5. Lower glume; 6. Ovary with style and stigma ; 7. Lower lemma ; 8. Stamens. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1) Plate III Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor 1. Whole plant ; 2. A pair of spikelets. Sessile Spikelet ; 3. Lower glume (dorsal view) ; 4. Upper involucral glume ; 5. Lower lemma (ventral view) ; 6. Upper lemma. Pedicelled spikelet : 7. Lower glume; 8. Upper glume. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (1) Plate IV Kulkarni & Wadhwa : Plants from Maharashtra Schizachyrium paranjpeanum (Bhide) Raiz. et Jain 1. Whole plant; 2. Pedicelled spikelet ; 3. Lower glume (ventral view); 4. Upper glume ; 5. Lower lemma ; 6. Stamens. 2a. Sessile spikelet ; 3 a. Lower glume ; 4a. Upper lemma ; 5a. Upper glume ; 6a. Lower lemma ; la. Stamens ; 8a. Ovary with style and stigma. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 237 Common, on rocky plateau in association with Manisuris goaensis Rolla et Hem. and Ischaemum spp. Talbot No. 2557 (type sheet) cited by Bor (loc. cit.) from Bombay is actually not from Bombay, but from Goa (Marmagao, collected on October 15, 1891) as per locality given on the isotype available in her- barium of Western Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Poona. The new report is the second collection after a lapse of 79 years from an adjoining area of the type locality. Specimens examined. Adari-Nandruk, Malwan, Kulkarni 121287. Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor in Kew Bull. 1951 : 448, 1952 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 178, 1960. (Plate III). A robust grass up to 1 m tall. Lower leaves petiolate, hastate at base of lamina. Joints of the racemes linear-clavate ; lower spikelets often hairy. Rare, on rocky plateau along with Ischaemum pilosum (Klein ex Willd.) Wt., I. timorense Kunth. and Schizachyrium paranjpeanum (Bhide) Raiz. & Jain. This species has so far been collected from North Kanara (type loca- lity). The present report indicates its extension further north into Ratnagiri district. Specimens examined. Ambolighat, Kulkarni 106369A. Schizachyrium paranjpeanum (Bhide) Raiz. & Jain in Proc. Ind. Sci. Congr. Abst. Part 3 : 130, 1953 ; Bor, Grass. Burma, Ceylon, India, Pak. 216, 1960. Andropogon paranjpeanum Bhide in J. Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng. (n.s.) 7 : 514, 1911. (Plate IV). Annual tufted, delicate grass. Spikelets in long exerted racemes from the subtending sheaths. Rare, on open rocky plateau of Ambolighat Reserve Forest in asso- ciation with Ischaemum pilosum (Klein ex Willd.) Wt. and Ischaemum dalzellii Stapf ex Bor. Bor (loc. cit.) states that this species is probably endemic to Castlerock (North Kanara district, Mysore State). The present report indicates its extension of distribution and is a new record for Maharashtra. Besides, this species is extremely rare from the fact that it is collected after a lapse of 56 years. The last collection (type material) was made in 1909, by R. K. Bhide from Castlerock. Specimens examined. Ambolighat, Kulkarni 106365. 238 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) Acknowledgements We are thankful to Dr. R. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Poona, for kindly going through the manuscript and giving constructive suggestions and to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for providing the necessary facilities. Botanical Survey of India, B. G. KULKARNI Western Circle, B. M. WADHWA 7-Koregaon Road, Poona- 1, January 1, 1972. 29. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF RUT A CHA LEPENSIS LINN. IN INDIA ( With a plate) While reviewing the literature on the species of Ruta Linn, for the wealth of India, a Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials, published by the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, some doubts were cast on the identity and nomenclature of the plant reported from India. Hooker in flora of British india, recorded under the name R. graveo- lens Linn. var. angustifolia Hook. f. (syn. R. angustifolia Pers. and R chalepensis Wall., Cat. 7113), a plant said to be introduced and cultivated in India and comprising one or more forms. He seems to have con- sidered the Indian plant as a variety, on the basis of the floral petals hav- ing ciliated margins, a feature by which R. angustifolia Pers. and R . chalepensis Linn, have been distinguished from R. graveolens : in R. graveolens the petals have wavy or slightly dentate margins. All the subsequent Indian works mentioned the plant as R. graveolens var. angustifolia , or as R. graveolens , and attributed many of the economic properties known mostly for R. graveolens to the Indian plant. Some reproduced along with their account, also a figure of R. graveolens re- drawn evidently from European sources. In the figures reproduced, the petals of the flower are clearly shown to have wavy or slightly toothed margins so characteristic of R. graveolens and not ciliated as recorded for the Indian plant in flora of British india (Vol. I, pt. 3, p. 485). According to recent European works, such as flora European, vol. 2, p. 227 ; 1968, the three species mentioned above, namely R. graveolens , R. chalpensis and R. angustifolia are considered distinct from one another, differing in their floral characters. R. graveolens is distinguished from the latter two, in having the petals with more or less wavy or denticulate J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 70 (1) Ramanathan & Ramachandran : Rut a chalepensis 1. Ruta chalepensis Linn, flowering branch (x2). 2. Flower showing the ciliated margins of petals ( x 2). 4. Fruiting branch showing the sharply pointed lobes (x2). 3. Ruta graveolens Linn, flower showing the denticulate margins of petals (Redrawn from Bentley and Trimen). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 239 margins (Fig. 4), while R. chalepensis and R. angustifolia are similar to each other, in having petals with ciliated margins, i.e. with long, con- spicuous, upstanding, tooth-like hairs (Fig. 1 and 2). Further in R. graveolens the capsules are reported to have somewhat rounded lobes, while in the other two, the capsules have sharply pointed lobes (Fig. 3). Between R. angustifolia and R. chalpensis , the former is said to differ from the latter, mainly in the marginal hairs being as long as the width of the petals and the bracts not broader than the subtending branch. However, according to some authorities, (Chittenden 1951, Uphof 1968) R. angusti- folia is considered as a synonym of R. chalepensis or only as a variety, R. chalepensis Linn. var. angustifolia (Pers.) Wilke et Lange (Mansfeld 1959). While dealing with R . graveolens in Malaya, Burkill (1935) stated, that R. graveolens seems to have spread into India overland at no very distant date and 4 the Rue has been adopted so thoroughly in India that, in some parts such as Bombay, it is planted in almost every garden.’ In order to confirm whether the plants are still grown in Bombay, fresh specimens were obtained from Poona and Bombay, through the courtesy of Prof. V. S. Rao, Ramnarain Ruia College, Matunga, Bombay. An examination of the floral parts showed that the plant commonly grown in Bombay and Poona agreed closely with the description of R. chalepensis Linn, rather than with R. graveolens or even var. angustifolia. Fresh plants obtained from other centres also, namely Bangalore, Coimbatore and Banaras, all appeared to be of R. chalepensis and not of R. graveo- lens. All of them had hairs on the margin of their petals, but not as long as reported for R. angustifolia ; none of them had denticulate or wavy margins, characteristic of R. graveolens. As far as present enquiries indicate, all the plants examined from various centres in India appear to be of R. chalepensis Linn. Although it is not improbable that R. graveolens may be grown in some places, its record in India could not be confirmed at present. Besides the differences in the floral characters mentioned already between R. graveolens on one hand and R. chalepensis and R. angustifolia on the other, there is also a difference in their chromosome number (Darlington & Wylie 1965). R. chalepensis is reported to have X=36 chromosomes, while R. graveolens has X=72 or 81. The characteris- tics of the essential oil obtained from the two species are also known to differ in detail (Guenther 1952). Oil distilled from R. graveolens is said to contain chiefly methyl nonyl ketone, while oil from R. chalepensis (syn. R. bracteosa DC.) contains chiefly methyl heptyl ketone. The plants received recently from various places are all reported to be cultivated and used for the same purpose for which R. graveolens is reputed, although as shown above they truly belong to R. chalepensis. While it is not improbable the plants may possess all those attributes, 240 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (1) no actual investigation has been made either of the chemical constituents or the medicinal properties of the Indian material. This note has been written mainly to bring to the notice of Indian scientists the need for a detailed investigation of the Indian material. Acknowledgements Our thanks are due to Prof. V. S. Rao (Bombay), Dr. M. H. Marigouda (Bangalore), Dr. Daniel Sundararaj (Coimbatore) and Dr. R. S. Singh (Banaras), for their ready response in sending fresh specimens from their localities and to late Sri S. Jayaram Sharma for preparing the illustrations. Our thanks are also due to Sri A. Krishnamurthi, for his interest. Publications & Information K. R. RAMANATHAN Directorate, CSIR, KAMALA RAMACHANDRAN New Delhi- 12, December 12, 1970. References Burkill, I. H. (1935) : A Dictionary of Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula 2 : 1921-22. Crown Agent for the Colonies, London. Chittenden , F. J. (1951) : Dictionary of Gardening 4 : 1842. J. Cramer, Lehre. Darlington, C. D. & Wylie, A. P. (1965) : Chromosome Atlas of Flowering Plants : 185. George Allen &^Unwin Ltd., London. Guenther, E. (1952) : Essential Oils 3 : 383. Van Nostrand Col Inc., New York. Mansfeld, von Rudolf (1959) : Vor- laufiges Verzeichnis Landwirtschaftlich Oder Gartnerisch Kultivierter Pflanzenar- ten. Die Kulturpflanze, Beheft 2. Uphof, J. C. Th. (1968) : Dictionary of Economic Plants. 2nd ed. : 461. J. Cramer, Lehre. Notes and News Symposium on Ecological Studies in the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary Under the auspices of the Bombay Natural History Society, World Wildlife Fund — India, and the Indian Board for Wildlife, a symposium on ecological studies in the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary was held at the India International Centre, New Delhi, on 17th November 1972. Paul Joslin of the University of Edinburgh, K. T. B. Hodd of Aberdeen University, and S. H. Berwick of Yale University, all of whom had studied some aspect or other of the Gir Forest ecosystem were invited to parti- cipate in the symposium. Zafar Futehally, introducing the speakers to the audience referred to the special responsibility of conservationists towards fostering good inter- national relationships, ‘ for the simple reason that nature respects no man made boundaries and we cannot do better than follow her wise example \ Paul Joslin summarised some of the important reasons for the present decline in the lion population in Gir forest. The lion’s habitat in the Gir forest has been considerably reduced in the last few decades by human encroachment, and this has reflected on the number of lions since l they are territorial animals. The population of domestic livestock living permanently inside the Sanctuary as well as the migrant cattle which come during the rains has had a strong impact on the feeding habits of the lion. Domestic buffaloes and cattle now far outnumber the natural prey species of the lion. An analysis of 500 lion droppings showed remains of 75 % domes- tic animals and 25% wild animals. While studying the lion kills in the Sanctuary Joslin found that 24 % of the kills were not consumed by lions. This was largely due to human interference, as fifty per cent of the kills were appropriated by local harijans for hide and meat and this operation disturbed the lions. Incidentally I was concerned with the study of the ecology and behaviour of vultures in the Gir and I found that the remains of most of the lion kills visited by harijans were consumed by vultures. The reasons were : (1) by dragging out the kills from dense cover to the open the harijans helped vultures to spot the carcasses much more easily ; (2) by chasing away the lions they enabled vultures to come down and feed fearlessly, and (3) by skinning the kills they made it possible for vultures to clean up the carcasses in minutes. K. T. B. Hodd’s research was aimed at finding out how the lion habitat was changing because of grazing by domestic livestock, and to investigate ways to prevent the habitat from further deterioration. He studied some aspects of the domestic animals’ impact on the lion’s habitat, namely the effects of domestic animals on the grass and forbes, the effects of domestic animals and their graziers on the capacity of the 241 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (1) forest trees to regenerate naturally and the effects of domestic animals on the structure of the soil. His significant findings were : 1. There are about four times as many domestic animals as can be safely allowed to graze in the Gir. This has resulted in overgrazing and trampling of the soil, which in turn has inhibited the growth of grass. 2. Trampling has begun to destroy the porosity of the Gir soil, which is essential for productivity. Also exposure of the soil due to overgrazing has resulted in heavy soil erosion which is detrimental to the flora. By reducing the number of cattle to the optimum it is possible to recover the porosity and fertility of the soil. One of Hodd’s recom- mendations was a rotational grazing system for the domestic livestock, involving splitting of the grazing lands around each ness into three equal parts and allowing the livestock to graze in one part for only four months a year. S. H. Berwick studied the habitat relationships, numbers and distri- bution of wild ruminants of the Gir forest. He estimated about 6,800 wild ungulates in the Gir as against the 30,000 or more of the domestic buffaloes and Zebu cattle which graze within the sanctuary. The wild ungulates are the chital, sambar, nilgai, fourhorned antelope, chinkara and wild boar. Food preferences of domestic and wild rumi- nants for various plant species were studied by observing free-ranging animals. Additional data on this was collected from feeding choice experiments using captive animals, from feeding choices of captive leashed animals in the field, from analysis of rumen contents of animals recovered in the field, and from identification of microscopic plant frag- ments in fecal pellets of free-ranging wild ruminants. Other studies included energy flow and balance of nature in the Gir ecological system. He found that up to 90% of the annual production of grasses is removed primarily by domestic livestock and this constitutes a serious imbalance between vegetative production and grazing. Also much of the energy and nutrients cycled through domestic stock is lost to the Gir ecosystem because of the removal of dung and butter for use outside the Sanctuary. Since the researchers had not yet fully analysed their data they did not submit written papers at the symposium but papers will be published when ready. After the talks by the three researchers, Shri Dharmakumarsinhji led a floor discussion in which many members of the audience participated. ROBERT B. GRUBH Gleanings India a Hundred Years ago ‘ The lion, which was long supposed to be unknown in India, is now ascertained to exist in considerable numbers in the districts of Saharanpur and Ludhiana. Lions have likewise been killed on this side of the Ganges, in the northern parts of Rohilkhand, in the neighbourhood of Moradabad and Rampur, as large, it is said, as the average of those in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope. Both lions, where they are found, and tigers, are very troublesome to the peoples of the villages near the forest, who, having no elephants, have no very effectual means of attacking them with safety. The peasantry here, however, are not a people to allow themselves to be devoured without resistance, like the Bengalees, and it often happens that, when a tiger has established him- self near a village, the whole population turns out, with their matchlocks, swords, and shields, to attack him. Fighting on foot and compelled to drive him from his covert, by entering and beating the jungle, one or two generally lose their lives, but the tiger seldom escapes ; and Mr Boulderson1 has seen some skins of animals of this description, which bore the strongest marks of having been fought with, if the expression may be used, hand to hand ; and were in fact slashed over with the cuts of the “ talwar ” or short scimitar. A reward of four rupees for every tiger’s head brought in, is given by Government ; and if the villagers of any district report that a tiger, or lion, is in the neighbourhood, there are seldom wanting sportsmen among the civil or military officers, who hear the news with pleasure, and make haste to rid them of the nuisance. A good shot, on an elephant, seldom fails, with perfect safety to himself, to destroy as many of these terrible animals as he falls in with.’ (india a hundred years ago, by Bishop Heber, D.D. First published by Longmans in 1927). i Collected in 1824-5 of what are now Shahjehanpur and Pilibhit districts. — Eds. Announcement Salim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund The Fund has been established by the Bombay Natural History Society with the object of promoting scientific ornithology and bird preservation in India. Monetary assistance will be given to biologists, whether graduates or not, preferably between the ages of 20 and 30 years and preferably resident within the Indian sub-Region, desirous of undertaking research projects approved by the Executive Committee of the Society. Assistance may take the form of small grants, either a lump ad hoc sum or tenable over a specified period. Details of the problem inten- ded to be followed should be submitted to the Honorary Secretary, along with particulars of the candidates qualifications to undertake the study and details of the financial assistance required. Research Fellowships may be granted for more serious problems extending over a long period. The rules relating to the Fellowships may be obtained from the Honorary Secretary. Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field-Work Fund This Fund originated in 1972 in a grant Rs. 14,398.55 made by Mr. Humayun Abdulali, being the unspent balance of a sum of Rs. 20,000 paid by him towards the expenses of three natural history expeditions to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, reports of which have appeared in the pages of the Journal. In 1972 at the instance of Mr. Humayun Abdulali the Fund was given its present name in honour of Mr. Charles McCann (at present in New Zealand), Assistant Curator of the Society from 1922 to 1947, who during bis stay in India made several notable contributions to our knowledge of the botany and zoology of the Indian Region. Recently the Society has received a generous contri- bution of Rs. 2,500 towards the Fund from Shri Fatehsingh Rao Gaikwad of Baroda. Further contributions will be welcome. Persons wishing to avail themselves of help from the Fund should apply to the Honorary Secretary, giving particulars of the proposed field-work and the extent of the help required. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY T. DURAI AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS — 6-12-1973. C5139 EDITORS: ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS Mammal# Th« Book of India* Aaiaude, by S. H. Prater. 3rd (revised) edition. 2 plates in colour by Paul Barrucl and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 30 {Price to members Rs . 25) The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett Rs. 10 Bird® Ihe Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. 9th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and many monochrome plates. Rs. 25 {Price to members Rs. 20) Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Htimayun Abdulali. Rs. 2-5b {Price to members Rs. 2) S stakes Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5 Miscellaneous Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2*50 Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets : 1* Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. 0 80 Kannada. Rs. 0*62 2. Our Birds II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. O' 62 3. Our Beautiful Trees (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0*62 4. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0 80 5. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1’25 Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English. Rs* 3 Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. Correspond with : The Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, Horabill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400001 Agents in England : Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd., Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchiu, Herts, England. The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal , particularly numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25/7.) and a life membership fee of Rs. 600 (Inland), ^‘45*50 (Foreign). Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25/7.) and an annual subscription of Rs. 36 (Inland), £3 (Foreign). Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of ,£3*00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London E.C. 3. The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year. CONTENTS PAG! Observations os’ Himalayan Tama ( Hemitragm jimiahkus). By Qmrge B. Schallcr . . . . . . . . . < 1 Orchids of Nepal — 7. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Tb&pa . . 25 Bionomics and Distribution of the land leeches of Rumaom Hulls, U.P By M. L. Bhatia and Sarwajeet Singh Bora . . 36 Mud and Duno plastering in Baya Nests. By T. Antony Davis . . .57 Contribution to the Flora of Tirap Frontier Division. By D. B. Deb and R. M. Dutta . . . . . . . . . . 72 Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue and Bibliography. By B. K. Tikader 95 Vegetation of Pachpadra Salt Basin in Western Rajasthan. By S. K. Saxena and R. K. Gupt? . . . . . . . . . . 104 Effects of temperature and salinity on the oxygen consumption in clams. By M. R. Ranade . . . . . . . . 128 A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of thi Bombay Natural History Society — 14. By Humayun Abdulali . . , . .147 The Food-plants of Indian Rhopalocera. By D. G. Sevastopulo . . 156 Reviews . . . . . . 184 Miscellaneous Notes . . . . . . . . 191 Notes and News . . . . . . . . ... 241 Gleanings . . . . , . . . 243 Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 25 7*2- Vol. 70, No. 2 Editors ZAFAR FUTEHALLY J. C DANIEL & P. V. BOLE AUGUST 1973 Rs. 18 (Inland), £1*50 (Foreign) NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions: 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under- lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis surat ensis or Dimeria blcitteri. 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification is based merely on sight, binomials should be used. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8-20 x 5*60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus: Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958). 9.. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not, exceeding 200 words. 10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. 1 hey will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Editors, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay 400 001-BR. VOLUME 70 NO. 2— AUGUST 1973 Date of Publication : 15-2-1974. CONTENTS Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary, Assam. By P. Lahan and R. N. Sonowal Dry Evergreen Forest of Point Calimere and Marakanam. By F. Blasco and P. Legris. (With three plates) he Langurs of the Gir Sanctuary (Gujarat) — A Preliminary Survey. By Hafeezur Rahaman. (With three plates and two text- figures) ~ The Birds of Inya Lake, Rangoon, Burma. By J. Bruce Amstutz. (With a map) A New Species of Ischaemum Linn, from India. By R. B. Patil and R. D’Cruz. (With a plate) Notes on the Nest and Behaviour of the Yellowbrowed Titmouse, Parus modestus (Burton). By Robert L. Fleming, Jr. . . Orchids of Nepal — 8. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. (With four text-figures) A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society — 15. By Humayun Abdulali A new species of Themeda Forsk. from India. By Shrikant P. Birari. (With a plate) Systematics of Molluscan wood borers recorded from India. By L. N. Santhakumaran Reviews : 1. The Environmental Revolution. (Z. F.) 2. A field guide to the snakes of southern Africa. (H. A.) 3. Proteaceae. (P. V. B.) 4. Researches on living Pteridophytes in India, Burma and Ceylon. (P.V. B.) 5. Ngorongoro — The eighth wonder. (S. A.) 6. Pollution. (A. N. D. N.) 7. The Fascination of Reptiles. (Neela D’Souza) 8. The Oxford Book of Birds. (H. A.) . . 9. The Wealth of India. Vol. IX. (G. V. B.) M ISCELL ANEOUS NOTES : 245 279 295 315 324 326 330 339 346 348 361 362 362 363 364 367 369 370 371 Mammals : 1. Dhole or Indian Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus) mating. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 373); 2. On the domestication of the Otter by fishermen in Bangladesh. By R. N. Biswas (p. 374); 3. A note on the birth of a Malayan Giant Squirrel (Ratufa bicolor) in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 375); 4. A white Indian Gerbil, Tat era indica indica Hardwicke. By Ishwar Prakasb, A. P. Jain and B. D. Rana (p. 375); 5. Mudaliar Ootu — A last stronghold for the rare Nilgiri Tahr. By A. J. T. John Singh (p. 376);\£f A note on age of sexual maturity of two species of Antelopes in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 378). Birds : 7. Occurrence of the Common Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris ) in Bombay City. By S. R. Amladi and J. C. Daniel (p. 378); 8. On the status and distribution of the Great Grey Shrike, Lanins excubitor Linnaeus in Mysore. By Kumar D. Ghorpade (p. 380); 9. The Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler, plucking hair from tail of Cow to line nest. By Kumar D. Ghorpade (p. 381); 10. Baya ( Ploceus philippinus ) feeding on frogs. By N. J. George (p. 381). Reptiles: 11. Snake bite case histories. By R. Whitaker (p. 382); 12. Climbing response of two snake species during rain. ( Echis carinatus and Vipera russellii) . ( With a plate). By R. Whitaker (p. 387); 13. Colour variation in Russell’s Viper ( Vipera r. russellii). ( with a plate). By R. Whitaker (p. 388). Fishes : 14. On the sexual dimorphism of a Siluroid Fish, Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch), with particular reference to pectoral spine. By J. Bhimasena Rao and S. J. Karamchandani (p. 388); 15. On Chrionema chryseres Gilbert, a rare bathypelagic fish in the Indian Ocean. (With a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar (p. 390); 16. Diodon holacanthus Linnaeus (Pisces ; Diodontidae) from India. By B. V. Seshagiri Rao (p. 392). Mollusca : 17. Molluscs of economic value from Great Nicobar Island. (With a map). By A. Daniel and A. S. Rajagopal (p. 394); 18. Occur- rence of Lima (Limaria) fragilis Gmelin (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) in the coastal water of Ratnagiri. By M. R. Ranade and P. B. Joshi (p. 399). Crustacea : 19. Probable transportation of Balanus amphitrite stutsburi (Darwin) by ships. By Arun B. Wagh (p. 399); 20. New records of Brachyuran Decapods from the Gulf of Kutch. (With a map). By Mohan Chandy (p. 401). Insecta : 21. New records of Odonata from north-west India. By Asket Singh and Mahabir Prasad (p. 403). 22. Hexagonal cell of Lac insect. By Gouri Ganguly and R. K. Varshney (p. 405); 23. Occurrence of Melanagromyza obtusa (Molloch) on Bhindi. By R. K. Patel and M. L. Verma (p. 406); 24. First record of the Encyrtid genus Callipteroma Motschulsky 1863 (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) from India. (With five text-figures). By Mohammad Hayat (p. 407). Botany: 25. Notes on Bombay plants. (With five photos in two plates). By P. V. Bole and P. R. Fernandez (p. 409) ; 26. Mitracarpus verticil- latus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke — A new record for eastern India. By H. O. Saxena (p. 412); 27. Solanum triquetrum Cav. — An adventive species in Rajasthan. By Vijendra Singh (p. 413); 28. 3-Valved Endo- carp of Juglans regia Linn. (With a photo). By G. M. Oza (p. 413); 29. Schoenorchis latifolia (Orchidaceae) newly transferred from Rhyn- chostylis. (With a plate). By Cecil J. Saldanha (p. 414). An Appeal 417 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1973 AUGUST Vol. 70 No. 2 Kazi range Wild Life Sanctuary, Assam1 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION AND REPORT ON THE CENSUS OF LARGE ANIMALS (MARCH 1972) BY P. Lahan2 and R. N. Sonowal3 Introduction In Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary the object and methods of management are to a large extent Rhino oriented in so far as the sanctuary holds the largest number of surviving great Indian one- horned rhinoceros. For sound scientific management of wild life basic data are required on the Ecology of the habitat, species living in the habitat, population dynamics of each species, inter and intra specific reaction of the various species of wild life and their influence on the habitat, carrying capacity of the area, and food habits. To collect such basic data considerable amount of field research is necessary. As a part of this programme a census of the rhinoceros in Kaziranga was carried out in 1957, 1963 and 1966. However the first 1 Accepted November 3, 1972. 2 Divisional Forest Officer, Eastern Assam Wild Life Division, Bokakhat, Assam. 3 Range Officer, Kaziranga Range, Kaziranga, Assam. 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) scientific and systematic census of larger mammals of Kaziranga in- cluding the rhinoceros was conducted in 1966 only by the Forest De- partment with the help of Mr. H. K. Nath and Dr. J. J. Spillett. Due to various reasons census of the wild animals in the Kaziranga Sanc- tuary could not be carried out during the subsequent years after 1966. A census of the larger mammals of the Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctu- ary was carried out during the year on the 24th and 25th of March 1972, after a lapse of six years. A brief description of the Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary and the details of the census operation form the text of this report. Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary Situation, Topography and Area : The Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary is situated partly in the civil district of Sibsagar and partly under Nowgong district in the state of Assam, India (90°5' and 93°40'E) (26°30' and 26°45'N) in the flood plain of the Brahmaputra River at the foot of the Mikir Hills south of National Highway No. 37. The area has been formed by the deep alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra River and is flat with a east to west slope. The general climate of the area is tropical characterised by heavy rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year. Comparatively dry months are from November to February and hottest months of the year are June to September. The mighty Brahmaputra River flows along the northern bound- ary of the sanctuary, the River Mora Diflu along the southern bound- ary and the Rivers Diflu and Bhengra flow through the sanctuary from the east to west. Other important small streams originating in the Mikir Hills draining into the sanctuary from south to north are Borjuri, Diring, Kohora, Dehing, Bhalukjuri, Deopani, etc. There are numer- ous seasonal nullahs inside the sanctuary. All rivers and nullahs dis- charge into the Brahmaputra River. In addition to the rivers and streams the whole sanctuary is dotted with numerous beels (lakes). The total area of the Kaziranga Sanctuary is 42,496 hectares or 429.96 sq. km. However there is constant change in the exact area of the sanctuary due to erosion and formation of new land on the northern boundary of the sanctuary by the Brahmaputra River. The present area of the sanctuary is 37,822.43 hectares only. Legal Status : Originally Kazinranga was formed into a reserve forest in the KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 247 year 1908 with the primary objective of preserving the rhinoceros and other wild animals. Hunting and shooting in this reserve forest has been prohibited since then. The area was declared as a game sanctu- ary in the year 1916 for the first time and later rechristened as a wild life sanctuary. With the passing of the Assam National Park Act of 1968 and obtaining of the assent of the President of India on 29th April 1969, it is now proposed to convert the sanctuary into National Park under this act. Preliminary notifications in this regard has already been pub- lished vide notification No. FOR|WL|722|45, dt. 23-9-1969 and other necessary formalities have been completed. It is expected that the final notification declaring the sanctuary as a National Park will be published shortly. No rights and privileges are exercised in the sanctuary for any forest produce or right of way etc. There is no exploitation of any forest produce in the sanctuary. Grazing inside the sanctuary is allowed to a limited extent near Arimora, Bhawani and Kaziranga to some professional graziers. But grazing will be completely eliminated as soon as the sanctuary is de- clared as a National Park. Biotic and Edaphic factors: Fire: Every year the grasses are burnt by the wild life staff of the sanctuary from December to February. Accidental fire is also not uncommon. However burning is never complete all over the area. Burning is done with a view to encourage new growth of grasses as well as to facilitate patrolling. It has been observed that new and ten- der shoots of grasses come up immediately after the burning as soon as the area gets a winter shower. Animals concentrate in such burnt patches for the ash. The rhinoceros and the elephants relish the parti- ally burnt stems of tall grasses like Arundo donax, Phragmites karka, Erianthus spp. etc. The frequency of sighting of animals in the unburnt areas is minimal. In areas not burnt every year the grasses grow into a tall thick mass that animals passing through have to tunnel through it. No other grasses grow under such thick masses of tall grass and hence such areas are not used by animals for grazing. The tall grasses grow to such heights that no other animal except the elephant can reach the shoots. The practice of burning the grasslands have been continued for the last so many years without affecting the nature of the vegetational growth and it appears that fire is one of the essential factors in main- taining the grasslands in its present state. Fire hardy tree species try 248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol 70 (2) to colonise the grasslands every year by profuse natural regeneration along the existing tree patches. But this process is arrested by the annual fires of the grasslands. No burning takes place in the evergreen tree forests and such areas along with the unburnt patches of grasslands provide shelter for the animals. Flood: Like fire, flood is also an annual feature of the sanctuary. During rainy season the numerous rivers and streams passing through the sanctuary flood the entire sanctuary. During high floods the water of the Brahmaputra River also enters the sanctuary and the entire area is submerged leaving only a few high ground above water. The flood water maintains its highest level from 5 to 10 days. During this period the animals concentrate and take shelter on the roads and high grounds in the sanctuary. A large number of animals migrate from the sanctuary to the nearby Mikir Hills after crossing the National highway. The deer population suffers extensively during high floods. The rhinos and buffaloes are not much affected. High floods submerging the whole sanctuary and the highlands inside it and depriving the animals of fodder and shelter is definitely detrimental to the wild animals which are forced to seek shelter in the hills outside the sanctuary exposing themselves to the danger of predation by man. During such high floods herds of deer are found resting at night on the highway. Sighting of elephants, buffaloes, rhinos and pigs crossing over to the hills are also not rare. The receding flood waters wash away the water hyacinth from the beels, streams and nullahs which grows into thick inpenetrable mass depriving ducks etc. of foraging grounds. The flood waters replenish the beels and nullahs. The flood waters recede slowly and it takes considerable time for the low lying areas to dry maintaining the swampy nature which helps to arrest species succession. The flood waters add to the fertility of the soil with fresh alluvial deposits which in turn support a rich growth of fresh green grasses throughout the year. With the flooding of the beels the numerous fishes living in them come out to lay eggs in the current of the flood water. The fishes from these beels go out to the Brahmaputra River along with the receding flood water. Thus Kaziranga serves as a breeding ground for fishes and for replenishing the fish stock of the Brahmaputra River. The flooding of the sanctuary has been a recurring feature for the last so many years that it is difficult to think of Kaziranga without flood. Fire and flood are considered to be two essential agents for maintaining the present vegetational stage. Floods of lower intensity are beneficial to the wild life and the sanctuary in general. But high KAZ1RANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY , ASSAM 249 floods submerging the entire sanctuary is definitely injurious as ani- mals are lost during such floods. However high floods do not occur annually. Erosion: Erosion is one of the major factors playing a vital role in the future of the sanctuary. Every year large chunks of land from the northern boundary of the sanctuary are washed away by the Brahmaputra River. New river islands are also formed near the sanc- tuary. But due to legal complications such islands cannot be added into the sanctuary prior to completion of many formalities. Other new areas formed by silt deposition adjoining the sanctuary takes time to stabilise and support vegetational growth. The seriousness of the damaged done by erosion can be gauged from the fact that the present area of the sanctuary is 37,822.43 hectares against the original area of 42,496 hectares. The areas of severe erosion go on changing according to the change in course of the Brahmaputra River. At present the worst affect- ed area is in the western part of the sanctuary in Baguri block near Kawaimari. Water Hyacinth: Water hyacinth has invaded almost all the rivers and beels of the sanctuary. The rapid growth and excessive spreading capacity of this weed has covered up many beels of the sanctuary de- priving the migratory and resident water-birds of the sanctuary of their feeding grounds. The dry mass of water hyacinth lying on the banks of the beels after the drying up of the water is so thick during winter that it does not allow any grass to grow under it. However dur- ing high flood the bulk of the water hyacinth is washed out to the Brahmaputra River by the receding flood water. Mikemia: Recently this climber has been observed to be spread- ing in many areas of the sanctuary. Though it has not created any problem until now it is a weed to be observed and controlled. Disease: The wild animals of the sanctuary have not been affect- ed by any serious epidemic disease during recent years. In 1944 and 1947 heavy casualties were reported amongst the rhino population due to Anthrax and another unidentified disease. As the sanctuary is within easy reach of the village cattle of the surrounding population the danger of epidemic spreading to the wild animals is always present. As such preventive measures against epidemic diseases are taken by innoculating the cattle population of the surrounding villages. Poaching: Poaching has been almost eliminated from the sanc- tuary. The measures taken against poaching have become so strict and severe that no one thinks of taking the risk for shooting deer and such other animals. Poaching is confined to rhinoceros only. This problem will have to be faced for an indefinite period due to the 250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) high value attached to the rhinoceros’ horn. In Government auction market the horn fetches a price of Rs. 10,000 per kilogram. However the poaching of rhinoceros has also been brought almost under con- trol. The incidence of rhino poaching can be judged from the following figures: — Some animals get killed during high flood when they migrate from the sanctuary and take shelter in the surrounding villages. But such incidents are inevitable. Occasional cases of illegal fishing inside the beels of the sanctuary in the vicinity of the villages are detected. Other human Interference: The sanctuary is free from all other human interference as there is no exploitation. No one is allowed to enter the sanctuary except visitors accompanied by wild life staff. The only human interference is by way of patrolling and cutting of roads and paths by labourers under supervision of the wild life staff during winter. Regular traffic of visitors on elephant back to the Mihimukh centre near the Tourist Lodge has so conditioned animals in the area that one can approach as near as 2 metres of a rhino, drive close to swamp deer and hog deer without disturbing them in any way and approach to within 3 to 4 metres of a herd of buffaloes. The rest of the sanctuary is an undisturbed wilderness. The Habitat : The entire area of the sanctuary is covered by extensive grass- lands interspersed with evergreen tree forests and numerous beels. The number of such beels are more towards the western part of the sanctuary (i.e. Baguri block). The following table gives the areas under grassland, tree forests and beels (water) in different blocks. Year No. of rhinos killed by poachers 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 18 5 12 10 8 2 8 KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 251 Name of block Forest areas in acres Grassy areas in acres in acres Water areas Total area in acres of the block in acres Baguri Haldhibari Kaziranga Panbari Tamulipathar Boralimora Charighoria Bhawani 3.969.98 1,111.80 2.047.02 2,071.00 3,211.14 3.464.02 5.909.98 4,379.62 11,429.24 8.146.66 8,652.42 8,155.38 6,271.86 4.549.66 6,110.54 8,921.18 1,601.02 551.26 346.86 593.16 436.00 444.72 316.34 929.04 17,000.24 9,809.72 11,046.30 10,819.54 9,919.00 8,458.40 12,336.86 14.229.84 Total: 26,164.56 62,236.94 5,218.40 93.619.90 27.95 per cent of the total area of the sanctuary is covered by tree forests 66.47 per cent by grasslands and 5.58 per cent by the beels. The percentage of tree forests is more towards the eastern part of the sanctuary than on the western part. Champion and Seth ( 1968) 1 have described the forest type as eastern wet alluvial grasslands (4D/252) which is an early arrested stage of a primary sere. Tree forests: The tree forests occupy the comparatively higher grounds along the bank of the streams and nullahs. The newly colonised areas along the bank of the Brahmaputra River consist mostly of scattered and sparse growth of semul and koroi. Evergreen trees predominate in the stable high grounds with scattered cane breaks. The undergrowth is very dense ?aid the forests are almost impenetrable. Grasses are completely absent from the ground. On the other hand the under- growth in the open forests of semul and koroi consists mainly of grasses. Profuse regeneration of fire hardy species occurs in the periphery of the tree forests trying to colonise the grasslands. But the annual fire and flood prevents such colonisation by tree species and maintains the status of the habitat. The main species found are Salmalia malabarica, Albizzia procera , A. lebbek, A. sdpulata, A. odoratissima, A. lucida, Careya arborea , Premna latifolia, P. bengalensis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. flosre - ginae, Trewia nudi flora, Tetramalis nudiflora, Stereospermum chelon - oldes, Alstonia scholaris, Spondias mangifera, Vitex peduncularls, V . 1 Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968): A revised survey of the Forest types of India. Manager of Publication. Delhi. 404 p. 252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) trifolia, Dysoxyhtm procerum, Eugenia jambolana, E. operculatum, Ehretia acuminata, Chukrasia tabularis, Ficus cuneata, F. glomerata, F. religiosa, F. bengalensis, Bischofia javanica, Dillenia indica, Pteros - permnm acerifolium, Cedrclla toona, Anthocephalus kadamba, Bridelia retusa, Kydia calycina, Sterculia villosa, Crataeva religiosa, Termin- als belerica, Listea polyantha, Sterculia alata, Artocarpus chaplasha, Mallotus philippensis, Oroxylum indicum, Salix tetrasperma, Talauma hodgsoni, Wrightia tomentosa, Holarrhena anti dy sent erica. Barring - tonia acutangula, Aesculus punduana, Schima wallichii, Emblica officinalis, Zizyphus jujuba, Gmelina arborea, Bauhinia spp.. Cassia fistula, Randia dumetorum, Erythrina indica, Zanthoxylum budrunga, etc. The main species forming the undergrowth are Polyalthia jenkinsii, Laportea crenulata, Phlogacanthus curriflorus, Melastoma spp., Alpinia allughas, Clinogyne dichotoma, Calamus spp., Rauwolfia serpentina, Solanum ferox, Solarium indicum, Xanthium strumarium, Ageratum conyzoides, Eupatorium odoratum, Mimosa pudica, Tamarix dioica, Amaranthus spinosus, Flemingia chappar, Chenopodium album, Clero- dendron infortunatum, Colocasia esculenta, Aeschynomene indica, Cassia tor a, Polygonum spp. etc. The main species of climbers are Vitis latifolia, Paederia foetida, Ichnocarpus frutescens, Cardiospermum halicacabum, Mikenia spp., Trichosanthes dioica, Smilax vaginata, Mucuna pruriens etc. Grasslands: Almost two-thirds of the sanctuary is covered by grasslands consisting of both grasses and reeds. The reeds grow up to a height of fifteen to twenty feet during the rainy season. The main species of grasses and reeds are Saccharum spp.. Imp er at a cylindrica, Erianthus spp., Arundo donax, Phragmites karka. Although these grasses grow side by side the various species have site preferences depending upon the moisture conditions of the soil. The newly formed riverain areas along the Brahmaputra River are mostly covered by Saccharum spontaneum, Imperata cylindrica, Erianthus flijolius etc. Erianthus ravaneae (Ekra) is the most common and widely dis- tributed species in the sanctuary. It prefers the areas which get flood- ed during the rainy season and remain dry during the winter season. Mixed with Ekra, Borota kher ( Saccharum elephantinus ), Ulnkher ( Imperata cylindrica) and Hankher ( Pollinia ciliata) are also found. But the later three species prefer slightly drier soils. Phragmites karka (Khagori) and Meghela ( Saccharum arundi- naceum) are found in low lying damp areas. On the other hand Arundo donax (Nal) is found in the water-logged and marshy places. The low grasses which are the favourite fodder grasses are found along the open areas around the beels which remain under water dur- ; KAZ1RANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 253 ing monsoon but dry up during winter. These grasses are Cynodon dactylon, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Andropogon spp., Cenchrus ciliaris. In the beels some floating and creeping species are found in the water. These are Dalgrass ( Andropogon spp.), Erali ( Andropogon spp.), Kalmou ( Ipomoea reptans ), Helonchi ( Enhydra fluctuans ), Borpuni ( Pistia strafiotes ), Harupuni ( Lemna pancicostata) , Meteka ( Eichhornia spp.), water hyacinth etc. Water areas: About 5.58 per cent of the total area of the sanctu- ary is covered by the beels and streams during the dry months. The area under water is much more during the flood season. This 5.58 per cent represents the area permanently covered by water surfaces. In addition to some grasses these beels teem with fishes of different kinds and sizes providing food for birds and other fish eating animals like otters etc. Census The extent of area to be covered, the nature of the terrain and the thick and tail cover of the grasses presented a problem for determining a suitable method of census. Added to these difficulties was the problem of lack of means to traverse the sanctuary except on elephant back. Moreover from experience it was known that preferred habitat of the animals were not evenly distributed all over the sanctuary. As such most of the known methods of taking a sample count had to be dis- carded. Hence it was decided to take a total count of the animals by dividing the sanctuary into small compartments as was done in 1966. The whole sanctuary was divided into eight blocks namely Baguri, Haldhibari, Kaziranga, Panbari, Tamulipathar, Boralimora, Charig- horia and Bhawani with the help of natural boundaries like rivers, roads and paths etc. The boundary of the blocks and its sizes were kept the same as that of 1966. This was done for the sake of compara- bility of figures blockwise. Each of these blocks was subdivided into a number of compart- ments of 2,000 to 3,000 acres each keeping in view the nature of terrain, density of grass cover, concentration of animals etc. The division of the sanctuary into number of compartments was limited by the number of riding elephants available. With the help of 16 elephants belonging to the sanctuary we could take only 16 compartments for carrying out the census on a single day. Hired elephants were not easily available. However we managed to get four hired elephants. As such the whole sanctuary was divided into 40 compartments with a view to complete the census operation in two days taking 20 com- partments on each day. But due to difficulties of moving elephants 254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) from one place to another Baguri compartment number I and III had to be combined as one compartment for taking the census. Thus the total number of compartments became 39. Considering the large concentration of animals the Baguri block was divided into 10 compartments of smaller sizes. On the other hand the compartments of the Bhawani block which consist of short open grasslands due to the presence of graziers and where there is less con- centration of animals were slightly bigger than the average compart- ment. For the purpose of completing the census in two days the Diflu River was taken as the dividing line. This river flows through the sanctuary from east to west dividing it into two almost equal halves. The river is quite deep with well defined high banks. The chances of animals crossing over from one side of the river to the other during the night was very little. Except for elephants other animals were not expected to cross the river in large numbers so as to affect the results of the census. It was also assumed that the two way crossings of animals would neutralize the overall effect of the situation. With this view in mind the compartments falling on the southern side of the Diflu River were censused on the 1st day and the compartments falling on the northern side of the river were censused on the 2nd day. There were 21 com- partments on the southern side and 18 compartments on the northern side. The grasslands of the whole sanctuary was then burnt repeatedly and in areas where there were no natural boundaries artificial com- partment boundaries of 10 feet width were cut and burnt. But due to intermittent rains, burning was not very successful and thorough all over the sanctuary. After completion of the field preparations an accurate map of the sanctuary was prepared in l\" - 1 mile scale showing the blocks and compartment boundaries, beels, grasslands, tree forests, roads and paths etc. On this map the points from where counting was to be started and the point where counting was to be finished was plotted. The direction of traverse in the various compartments was also plotted keeping in view of the nature of the terrain, grass or tree cover, beels, known points of animal concentration etc. Altogether 39 maps were prepared for use in the 39 compartments. 39 census parties were formed, each party consisting of an enu- merator as the incharge, one helper, one guide and a mahout with the elephant. The duty of the enumerator was to count the animals and record the figures as well as to plot the approximate location of the animals and the direction of the line of traverse on the map. The duty of the guide was to see that the census parties remained within the KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 255 boundary of their respective compartments. The helper assisted the guide and enumerator in locating the animals. The mahout was engag- ed in driving the elephants as well as in locating the animals. The guides and the helpers were selected from the local staff and were posted in their own jurisdiction and therefore had intimate know- ledge of the area including the location of favourite grounds of the animals, isolated water holes, wallows, nullahs etc. In addition to the census parties some patrol parties of three to four persons were formed. They were assigned selected boundaries of blocks and compartments to observe and record the movement of animals from one compartment to other noting the time and approxi- mate place of crossing. However such parties were few and could cover only a negligible portion of some prominent boundaries like roads. Each census party was assigned one compartment to census. The enumerator was supplied with a copy of the map of Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary with the compartment allotted to him prominently demarcated and showing the direction of traverse. Two copies of enumeration forms one for the forenoon and one for the afternoon, a clip board and an appointment letter containing instructions regard- ing the census operation were also given to the enumerator. Fifteen species of mammals were listed in the counting sheets. Columns were provided against each species for classifying the ani- mals into two age classes of old and young and for sex differentiation into male and female. A column for recording mother with calf and another column for entering the number of animals as “non sexed” were provided. A remark column was provided for recording interest- ing behaviour observations or for sightings of animals not listed in the form. The enumerators were instructed to follow the direction of the traverse as far as practicable depending on field situations. While pro- ceeding along the traverse on the elephants they were to record the number of different kinds of animals sighted. They were instructed not to approach too close to an animal so as to provoke it or frighten it into cover. Mothers accompanied by calf of one year old or less were to be recorded under the column of mother with calf. Since it might not be possible for the enumerator to know the approximate age of the calf they were instructed that a calf of approximately 2' to 2'6" should be considered as one year old. The guides, helpers and mahouts were trained and tested prior to the commencement of census operation. The enumerators were also trained and given instructions regarding the method of census, pro- cedure to be followed in filling up the forms, different kinds of animals 256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) and their general behaviour etc. Operation : The census operation was carried out on 24th and 25th March, 1972 in two shifts on each day i.e. from 5.30 a.m. to 10 a.m. in the first shift and 2 p.m. to 5.30 p.m. in the second shift. The elephants along with the mahout, and grass cutters, the guides and the helpers took up positions at their respective starting point of the assigned compartments on the evening of 23rd March. The enumerators were dropped at the starting points by jeep on 24th morning. In places where the jeep could not go the enumerators camped at the starting points on 23rd evening. The census parties started counting of animals punctually at 5.30 a.m. of 24th March, 1972 setting off from their respective starting point simultaneously in 21 compartments on the southern side of the Diflu River. After completion of the first day’s work the enumerators, guides and helpers who were not assigned for duties next day were brought to the camp. The elephants were dispatched to camp at the starting points of next days’ compartments on the northern side of the Diflu River. The enumerators, guides and helpers for the count on 25th took up position at their respective starting points on the evening of 24th. Some enumerators were dropped at their respective starting points by jeep on 25th morning. Counting of the animals in the 18 compartments north of the Diflu River also started simultaneously on the 25th at 5.30 a.m. After completion of the day’s work some of the enumerators, helpers and guides were picked up by jeep but census parties in areas where the jeep could not go returned to the Range Head Quarters with their elephants the next day, 26th March, 1972. Most of the rhinos, buffaloes and swamp deer were sighted near and around the beels. The census parties after completion of the count- ing in the first shift took rest on the banks of the beels. Since the tendency of the animals was to come to the beels for their afternoon forage the enumerators ruled out any possibility of crossing over of animals from the counted portion of the compartment to the uncounted portion during the rest period. Rhinos are not wan- derers and specially during day time prefer to lie down in mud wallows inside the tall grass rather than walk over from one beel to another. The buffaloes and the swamp deer were never seen to go away from the beels which they had selected for the time being. The hog deer population was very numerous and they were encountered everywhere in the sanctuary. The patrolling parties did not report any incident of crossing over of animals from one compartment to another. KAZ1RANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 257 Census parties assigned to compartments consisting mostly of grasslands reported different degrees of burning varying from 30 per cent to 80 per cent. While traversing the census parties avoided the thick patches of unburnt dry grasses. No purpose would have been served by driving the elephant through such tall grasses as the visi- bility is limited to the portion of the grasses trampled by the elephant and no animal generally prefers such areas excepting an occasional rhino passing through tunnels in the grass. Most of the mud wallows were also dry at this time of the year. Almost all traverses were taken along the burnt patches and open beels and most of the animals were sighted in such areas only. Thus although the area covered during the census was approximately 60 per cent to 70 per cent almost all the animals were covered by the count. In the compartments consisting mainly of evergreen tree forests the census parties could traverse only areas in which the undergrowth was not very thick. In certain compartments the undergrowth was so thick that many such areas were impenetrable. The heavy cane growth in such forests presented another difficulty. These forests held sambar, barking deer, bear, langur, elephant, tiger etc. There were a number of rhinos also near the beels. Only approximately 40 per cent to 50 per cent of such animals living in them were counted. Effectiveness of the census Method : The method of census employed for counting the animals gave us figures of only the total minimum population of the species inha- biting the area actually covered during census. Since visual counting of animals in dense forests is difficult the method is ineffective for counting animals in dense cover. Similarly nocturnal animals cannot be effectively counted by this method. A drawback detected while analysing the results of the census was that the counting sheets pro- vided no columns to classify the animals into different age groups of adult and young in case of the non-sexed animals. As such the pro- portion of adult and young animals in the various populations could not be found out correctly. The census parties found it difficult in the field to differentiate between the adults and the young of the species accurately. All the grown up looking animals including the old ones were classified as adults. There was no difficulty in classifying the comparatively younger looking animals. All the rhinos with undeveloped horns and having smaller horns were classified as young. The confusion was so great in case of other animals that the census parties did not try to clas- sify the age groups at all. This is again due to lack of experience of the census parties and our failure to give them adequate instructions 258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) and a criterion to differentiate the age group of the different species. Similarly the census parties found it difficult to identify the sex of the animals accurately. In case of rhinos it was much more difficult as the males and females of the species look alike. But as the main emphasis during the census was given to the rhinos the enumerators tried their best to identify the sex of the rhinos. The experienced staff of the sanctuary and the mahouts claim to be able to identify the sex of the rhinos on the basis of size and the shape of the horn and the neck. Some of them were tested from time to time and their identi- fication of sex were found to be fairly accurate. Sometimes the enume- rators consulted the guide, helper and the mahout in identifying the sex. In case of elephants also the same confusion was present. More- over as the elephants are met in large herds and it was difficult to make a close approach the idea of identifying the sex of the elephants was given up. It was easy to identify the sex of the buffaloes. But the problem was that on closer approach the buffaloes ran for cover. So also was the case with the deer species, the antlers of most of them being in velvet at that time. The number of hog deer were found so numerous running from one cover to the other that the census parties gave up their effort to identify their sex. A great deal of difficulty in this respect could have been overcome if the census parties could have been provided with field glasses. As a result of these difficulties the age and sex composition of the animals except that of the rhinos could not be collected from the cen- sus operation.. The census has thus partially failed to achieve the de- sired objectives. The age and sex composition of a population indicates the status of the species in a given locality. A population well repre- sented by young is a viable and dynamic population where as propor- tionately higher number of adults with very few young represents a static and senile population. Thus the result obtained from this census has given us only the basic information regarding the size of the population of various species without throwing any light on the factors governing population dynamics. However the figures have given us enough data for planning the future management of the sanctuary. Check census : After completion of the census operation on the 24, 25 March, 1972 it was proposed to check the data collected by repeating the operation in Baguri block on 8 April, 1972. The reason for selecting the Baguri block for this purpose was the fact that this block had the highest concentration of animals. But KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 259 due to heavy and continuous rain this could not be done on the appointed day. Due to various difficulties it was later on decided to carry out the check census at least in one compartment of each block selected at random. This was carried out on June, 1972 in three compartments of the Baguri block and one compartment in each of the remaining blocks. The grasses had shot up by this time and probably the animals had also changed their places of grazing. Though there was appreci- able difference in time, weather, temperature, vegetational cover etc. between the original census and the check census the figures obtained for the different compartments do not show any appreciable variation in the number of the various species, suggesting that the earlier figures are reliable. Population Estimates’. With a view to present the figures of the census conveniently in round figures to visitors the estimated total population of each species has been shown. These estimates are based on local experience and knowledge. Results The census figures have revealed an overall increase of population of all species of animals. Only in case of sambar the number of ani- mals sighted during this year is slightly less than the number sighted during 1966. This is due to the fact that the compartments consisting of dense forests could not be thoroughly covered. The number of dif- ferent species of animals counted in the various compartments and blocks are given in Table 1. A comparative statement showing the figures of 1966 census and that of the 1972 census along with the total estimated population is given in Table 2. It would not be correct to attribute the increase or decrease of the animals sighted during this year entirely due to in- crease or decrease of population over the period of six years. The increase is probably due to more intensive coverage of the area during this years’ census in addition to the natural increase of population. Similarly the decreased number of sighting of sambar during this year is due to the fact that its habitat was not as intensively covered as in 1966. The fall does not represent a decrease of population for the reason that the method of census employed does not provide us a comparable base of the total population of the area. Specially be- COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LIFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972. 260 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) pjRZiq i 1 1 1 1 i i 1 1 1 jojiuoui JOJR/VV uoipAj i 1 1 1 1 1 i '1 1 1 pJRZI 7 JOJIUOp\[ 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 snsaq'a urassy i 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 mio I 1 1 1 CO o - VO o jnSuRq; paddR3 I vo [JRa 1 ^ n 1 1 1 1 1 'T r- 1 1 1 00 VO ' i 1 1 1 T— 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ P T— 4 vo OV 00 of O ov o\ t— 1 > > VII VIII X 1—4 X hH X <4-1 o t— 1 Name Block "C 3 W> cS CQ Total: 309 13 318 1 123 23 6 1,187 Table 1 (contd.) COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LlFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972. KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 261 pJPZiq JOJIUOUI JSJPyVV i i i i l i I 1 1 1 ' uoipAj i i i i l i i 1 1 1 ; | pjBziq JOimopj i i i 04 C! i i 1 1 1 snsoq^ uipssy Tt- i 04 1 VO i i 1 1 I 1 -I3HO i i 1 o> i i 1 ov 1 jn§upq[ paddHQ j i i 1 1 1 i i 1 1 1 O'. OV VO o- VO o i § rj o- CO o § ^ I ^ pjpdosq I l l 1 1 i l 1 1 l •in ro 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 I y jpsg l 1 1 1 1 1 i l 1 1 i J33Q 80H m 04 04 CO O' 04 o in co i— i HH l— 1 1— I l-H l-H > HH Name of Block Haldhibari Total : Kaziranga Total : COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LlFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972. 262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (2) pjEZIT[ J I I I I I jopuoui J3>EA\| uoqjAj pjpziq jojiuoj\[ snssq^j uressy mio jnSup^ psddBQ §1 a pjpdos^i ItlRO jpag •133(3 «°H J33Q gm^jpg jpquiBS J33Q dUIRAVS J3§I1 orang ;upqd3[3 ouiqg •ON luauipipdmcQ £ J Z“ I I I I I I I I I I I I ~ I I I 2 I O W-1 [ \0 ~~ \ in r-H m Mi ON rj- -3- (M m a m - I I I I I I I I I I I I I cc o r — in cm rj- — vo >n •^ m I I I I a a > > I I I I I O) o cm m I I 2 I I ~ * I I I I I - 2 | J •ON JUSUIJiRdUICQ £ o 7: pq i i 1 [ 1 1 i i *"H 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 - i 1 1 i 1 i 1 1 1 I i - 1 o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o 1 I i 1 | 1 VO cm 1 1 1 1 1 cm I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 co 1 1 1 CO 1 VO 1 1 VO 1 CO 1 Tj- CO cm i 1 1 1 1 cm l 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 cm 1 cm 1 1 1 1 1 1 VO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 - 1 xt- 1 VO xi- o O 00 VO xf co 1 oo xt- CO xf xt- CM cm CM 1 1 1 CM cm 1 , CO 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 m 1 «o OV 1 CO CO CM 1 r—l 1 I 1 1 Ov CV to VO 1 1 1 1 cm cm CO 1 CM 1 1 l CM 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 1 1 oo 1 1 1 CO 1 cm 1 1 1 CM 1 1 1 1 VO I CM Ov 1 1 CM O | 1 1 1 VO CO *"H VO CM _ V, cm O VO CM O r“H 1“H CM Hh( 1— ( 1— ( > HH hH H— 1 HH > > .2 "Eh o JO .SP *Eh a JO u 1 Total : Table 1 (contd.) COMPARTMENTWISE FIGURES OF WILD ANIVIALS IN THE KAZIRANGA WlLD LlFE SANCTUARY DURING MARCH 1972. 264 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) pjnziT; i 1 l 1 1 joquoui jsjbaV uoq;Aj i 1 l 1 1 pinziq joquopv i 1 i 1 1 snsoq^f uressy i 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 jnSunq; padd^ i 1 l 1 1 Sjd[ - ro CO Os vn pjRdooq i 1 1 1 1 anno i 1 [ 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 J33Q VO 'T Os Os VO 00 t" oo r- J30Q §uiqma 1 1 1 CO CO inquiBS 1 - CO 00 J33Q dlUBAVS 1 'si- 1 — ( <4-4 O *s Name Block % a 43 133 Total : Grand Total: 658 422 555 7 516 105 76 4,551 6 18 1 522 KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 265 Table 2 Comparative figures of 1966 and 1972 Census and the Estimated Population Species Year Baguri Haldhibari Kaziranga Panbari s- c3 JG "cS .CX 1 & Boralimora 1 Charighoiia j Bhawani Total Esti- mated Total Rhino 1966 157 i 49 32 30 9 8 22 59 366 400 1972 309 106 34 64 16 14 60 55 658 670 Elephant 1966 45 - 29 7 6 5 - 257 349 375 1972 13 - 33 25 137 9 193 12 422 i 430 Wild 1966 337 41 33 17 30 __ 17 6 471 550 Buffalo 1972 : . f 318 114 13 36 15 28 13 18 555 600 ! Gaur 1966 - - - _ 1 _ 1 20 1972 - - - - 12 6 - 18 18 Swamp 1966 72 25 16 19 - 11 19 1 213 250 Deer 1972 123 54 72 111 9 29 52 66 516 520 Sambar 1966 43 8 1 1 3 1 2 61 120 300 1972 23 14 - 21 1 19 19 8 105 200 Hog Deer 1966 485 77 95 122 22 5 223 282 1311 ' j 4000- 5000 1972 187 655 116 882 153 86 688 784 4551 6000- 6050 Barking deer 1966 12 10 _ 7 - - _ _ 29 100 1972 6 16 8 7 15 2 14 8 76 100 Wild Pig 1966 45 29 33 18 10 10 10 _ 155 500- 600 1972 196 101 46 52 16 26 26 59 522 550- 650 Bear 1966 1 - 1 _ ~ 1 _ _ _ 2 30 1972 3 - - 2 - - 1 - 6 30 Tiger 1966 - 1 _ _ _ - 1 2 20 1972 1 2 - 2 2 - - 7 30 Leopard 1966 - - 1 _ _ _ _ _ 1 12 1972 - - - 1 - - - - 1 10 Otter 1966 7 9 _ 1 _ — 8 1 26 200- 300 1972 46 7 9 - - 20 13 _ 95 200- 300 Comparative figures of Main and Check Census 266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) Vh ■o snsuoo O Swamp snsuoo tnmgiio 1 JO snsuao m VO 3 CQ snsuoo inuigpo OV 'sf Elephant | snsnoo }p3iO 1 snsuo3 inmgiio 1 I^oX o in C/5 3 CO a poxosuo^ 1 u o JPO # iaq;opv in X U o 1 •b s Rhino FfoX in in CO 3 CO paxssuo^ in a a> u VO .£ [So ‘Eh o O rH Name of Block Baguri I 1 SO 04 ^t 1 1 i in o 1 1 in co ^t 1 1 1 04 vo y r-~ oo | 1 VO m t — T-H »n cn 1 VO | T— H 04 o 04 o~ f'' VO m 1 t" 1 ■'T o ■st 04 m T— 1 1 1 o 04 OS o) 04 04 oo ■st OO 1 1 tJ- 04 co 04 04 1 1 Os 1 1 1 04 OO 1 04 I 1 1 1 ! I os 1 1 «n m vo 04 04 o 1 1 1 04 VO o 04 oo o Os m 04 o- 00 Os 04 04 »n m 04 04 04 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ - 1 oo ^t 04 1 1 CO - 34 o- e'- oo »n 00 t-X 04 59 1 oo en m O Os o m I ° i o 04 eo O 04 Os VO vo 00 3 Tt 3 O os 04 in 04 m 1 04 - Tt 1 1 04 1 48 04 1 m 04 1 m 1 Tt 04 00 it 04 1 1 m Tt 46 1 1 vo oo Os m 00 04 co t— i vo vo l-H HX HH > >< t— 1 1— I xx > Uh 1— 1 (-H 03 .CCS X o3 Vh cc3 tx ‘Eh a OX) o3 O O 1 x> x 2 c a .1-1 ‘EE ct X .Oh 3 o £ 3 X .2? ‘EE G o3 £ 03 o H N c C u 03 o3 ■** cti o3 cd o X «-j X Oh H pq O CQ KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 267 cause of the wide gap of six years between the two census operations. As such probably it would not be wise to draw any conclusion from these comparisons. Perhaps intensive repeated annual counts of the total minimum population or repeated annual sample counts over a considerable period may provide us comparable data to enable us to derive some conclusion regarding the factors governing the population. In Table 3 the comparative figures of this years’ census and that of the check census carried out later in the month of June are given. There was no difference between these two censuses as regards level of efficiency, intensity of area covered etc. except the interval of time, change of weather and vegetation. The number of rhinos counted during the check census was 12.2 per cent more than the original census. In case of elephants it was 60.4 per cent less, in case of buffa- loes it was 3.1 per cent more and in case of swamp deer it was 19.3 per cent less. The large variation in case of elephants can be easily understood from the fact that they are great wanderers and are con- stantly on the move while grazing. The check census show that the figures obtained during the main census operation are authentic as the variation in case of other animals is insignificant. Analysis of census data : 1. Rhinoceros A total of 658 rhinos were counted during the census operation. Out of these 203 were classified as adult males, 121 as adult females, 44 as young males, 37 as young females, 119 as non sexed and 67 mothers with calves. These 67 mothers have not been included in the number of 121 adult females. The figures for rhinos are given in Table 4. Table 4 Name of Block Adult Young Nonsexed Mother with Total d1 $ c? 9 calf Baguri 98 51 17 19 54 35 309 Haldhibari 30 23 3 5 31 7 106 Kaziranga 14 4 9 1 3 34 Tamulipathar 5 3 — 1 3 2 16 Panbari 19 7 5 3 16 7 64 Boralimora 6 3 _ 3 1 14 Charighoria 13 11 5 6 11 7 60 Bhawani 18 19 5 3 - 5 55 Total: 203 121 44 37 119 67 658 268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) The confusion in determining the sex of the rhinos occured mostly in case of the young ones where the horn was not properly developed. As such most of the nonsexed animals may be considered to be young ones. On this assumption the age composition of the population will be 59.4 per cent adult, 30.4 per cent young and 10.2 per cent calves less than one year old. As stated earlier only comparatively younger looking animals were classified as young. Considering the fact that the rhinos live up to an approximate average age of 40 years probably many young animals were included in the adult group. Out of the total count of 658 rhinos 472 were classified into males and females. Of the entire adult population of 391 rhinos, 203 are classi- fied as males and 188 as females (including the 67 mothers). The sex ratio in the adult population thus works out to 100 males for 92 females. In case of 81 young rhinos of whose sex was identified 44 have been recorded as males against 37 females. The sex ratio in the young population thus works out to 100 males for 84 females. In the check census out of a total count of 229 rhinos 100 were classified as males, 93 as females, 34 calves and 2 were nonsexed. Here also the sex ratio comes out to 100 males for 93 females. Thus we can roughly estimate that the males and females in a population are equally distributed with the sex ratio of one is to one, But considering the fact that an adult female rhino gives birth to a calf after every three to four years after a gestation period of 16 to 18 months it is apparent that in any particular time of the year there will be a group of pregnant adult females, females with less than one year old calf and females with 2 year old calf who will not go into heat and will not accept the services of any male. Hence the sex ratio of one is to one appears to be unlikely. Probably the disparity in the sex ratio can be explained to some extent by the fact that for success- ful mating of rhinos the heat period of both the male and the female must coincide. In a population of 658 rhinos there were 67 adult females with calves less than one year old. That is 10.2 per cent of the total popu- lation were calves less than one year old representing the annual rate of calving. Again out of 188 adult females 67 were with calves. That is 35.6 per cent of the total adult female population were accompanied by calves. It is not difficult to differentiate between one year old and two year old calves in the field. Yet possibility of error in some marginal cases cannot be ruled out. The calves generally accompany the mother up to 3 years and in some cases till the next calf is born. But the be- haviour of a very young calf and its mother and that of a grown up calf and its mother are quite different and can be easily distinguished. KAZIRANGA WILD LIFE SANCTUARY, ASSAM 269 The following table gives us the record of death of rhinos in Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary over a period of seven years. Table 5 Year 1 Natural death Killed by poachers Killed by tigers Total Adult Young Adult Young Adult Young 1 $ c? 9 c? 9 3. 3h 3h 3 3 3 O o O u Vh o 3 3 O o 3 3 .1h 3 co O o O 0) £3 3 CD O ft £ 2 -3 O o & *3 O 3 .-3 73 O o ft ft g 3 P O £ .g s | fH Cl! 03 oJ t-h d co 00 ON subadult male killed and eaten by dogs. Rahaman : Langurs Left : The solitary male (station) individual visiting human dwellings. Right : The solitary male grinds his teeth on the approach of a dog LANGURS OF THE GIR 301 The langurs that lived on riverine vegetation spent only 10 per cent of their time on the ground while the ones in more open habitat (Talala road) spent as much as 30-40 per cent time on the ground. The former fed on tree tops while the latter spent much of their time on the ground searching for worms and pupae that formed a major part of their diet. It was difficult to make out specific core areas unlike the langur at Dharwar (Sugiyama et al. 1965) as they had the habit of spreading out over a wide area. The feeding areas however, appeared to serve the function of core areas as well, where the langurs spent a consi- derable amount of time. This observation is further strengthened by the fact that though suitable feeding trees are present all along the length of the home range, only a few selected ones are usually visited by the langurs. Morning activities (0600 to 0700 hrs) on a bright sunny day and in the evening between 1700 to 1800 hrs were quick. They left the roost in the morning for feeding and usually covered the whole extent of the home range. There was no clear pattern of troupe movement. The subadult females in many cases led the procession and, rarely, the dominant male who usually whooped before leaving the sleeping quarters. The home ranges of the two troupes studied did not overlap at any point and there was an actual gap of about 200 yards between them made by Hiran river. It was therefore not possible to study inter- action between these troupes. However langur at Gir did move within clearly demarcated boundaries. This was illustrated by the behaviour of the Sasan station solitary male who sometimes joined the Sasan fence troupe. This male had the habit of threatening and chasing mov- ing jeeps. He had a specific area within which he was found and he chased vehicles only up to a certain point and then returned. He was never seen chasing any vehicle beyond that point as if he was satisfied with seeing the vehicle off his range. The Talala road troupe that was studied for 5 days again appear- ed to keep clear of the boundary of Chitrode and Karanya troupes. It seemed probable that the overlapping of home ranges studied else- where for other primates was mainly due to pressure on available space. However the Karanya troupe sometimes did invade the home range of Chitrode troupe but this did not indicate an overlap in true sense as the former was an all-male troupe and had no fixed range. All-male troupes have been noted not to observe strict territoriality (Sugiyama et al. 1965). As the extent of range was not studied during different seasons of the year, especially summer, it was difficult to record whether the 302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) range remained unaltered throughout. Starin (personal communica- tion) stated that there was no marked difference in the extent of area covered by Jamwadla troupes between summer and monsoon. Bonnet macaques are known to move over long distances, sometimes even beyond the confines of home range, if food is insufficient and more so during summer. If the contrary was true for the Gir langurs it would suggest : (a) that food was uniformly available during different seasons* either in the form of leaves, fruits or flowers as the vegetation along a stream or river was not dependant upon rains. (b) that the langurs continued to roam about over the whole ex- tent of the home range even during the monsoon irrespective of the availability of food. The troupe between Asundrali and Odi Ness in the eastern part, confined its movements to a small area along the Kogham stream. It roamed over an area of about 2]| to 3 km, but stopped about \ km short of Odi Ness, though the vegetation was similar and extended as far as Odi Ness itself. This indicates that the langurs did not exploit a larger area than necessary and that the area between its home range and Odi Ness was too small for another troupe to occupy. It is probable that the langurs, atleast those in eastern Gir, extend their range in summer as the food becomes scanty when the nullahs dry up. The dominant male and sometimes adult females watched from tree tops. If vision was obstructed by branches, they were parted and held apart. While on the ground, two langurs often sat back to back, as if to watch in opposite directions. The topmost branches were nor- mally occupied by vigilant males and mothers with infants, the middle part of the canopy by adult females and subadult males and the lower part by juveniles. The vigilant individuals warned others of any ap- proaching danger by giving out a whoop or alarm bark. Two males of Karanya troupe invariably watched while the third fed in cultivated fields. The whoop sounded very much like the call of the crow pheasant ( Centropus sinensis ) and was given out by the adult male in various contexts. The earliest whoop was heard at 0600 hrs and the last at about 1920 hrs before retiring. The animal may call once or more. The maximum number heard was 9 whoops within 3 minutes. The Chitrode troupe whooped on spotting the Karanya troupe. The whoop may accompany the bark of alarm on detecting danger such as a pan- ther. Whoops were given out from tree tops but never from the ground. In many cases a deep whoop resulted in an involuntary agitation of the branch which could be related to branch shaking noticed among other primates. The whoop accompanying the bark of alarm indicated panic and sounded like ahoon, ahoon, eh, eh; ahoon, ahoon, eh; ahoon,. LANGURS OF THE GIR 303 ahoon, eh, eh, and so on and the animals in this state urinated and de- fecated. Ghrr, Ghrr. ... by the dominant male announced the passing of danger. A whoop with or without the accompaniment of teeth grind- ing announced dislike and threat and was directed at less dominant individuals or the observer. The teeth grinding sounded very much like the croaking and was emitted by opening the jaws with a snap and then closing slowly and was sometimes directed at dogs also. The juveniles gave out a squeal which might mean dislike or fear as direct- ed at the observer, but they were silent on seeing a panther. The squeal was very similar to that given out by a bonnet baby that was left alone. A soft squeal given out by juveniles to the more dominant individuals indicated their desire to groom. Langurs did not have a single roosting place, but a number of selected tall trees served the purpose. Sometimes they slept on the feeding trees. The Sasan-fence troupe slept mainly on a ficus tree to the north of the Railway bridge and sometimes on a Terminalia clump to the south of Chodia road. On two occasions the troupe was seen roosting on tall teak trees to the south of Visavdar road. While the Hiran river troupe was seen roosting on Tamarind and Syzygium trees, the Talala road troupe slept consistently on a ficus tree, the only large tree located in that area of low teak and cultivated fields. The Kapuria troupe was seen roosting on a very tall Holoptelea tree next to the Forest quarters on two consecutive nights. It was not uncommon for the troupe to spread over four to five trees and sleep. The Talala road troupe on one occasion split up into two parties and slept in two different places. One party of two females with infants and two juveniles led by a subadult male slept on the usual ficus tree, while the rest (Table 1, for composition) led by the dominant male slept on a Soymida tree about l\ km from the ficus, but well within the home range. The next morning the parties reunited. The troupes living in thick forest areas with riverine vegetation settled down for the night’s rest around 1800 hrs while the ones in the more open areas continued to spend time on the ground sometimes until as late as 1915 hrs. Before retiring the dominant male would whoop or yawn. There was no definite pattern in the act of climbing a tree by members of different status or sex. After having settled down, some individuals displayed a vocalisation like teeth grinding but lower in pitch, whose significance could not be determined as it was given out in darkness; possibly it served to establish relative positions. Thick horizontal branches were selected to lie down. The animals, either individually or in groups of two or more, huddled together or lay with their limbs and tails dangling. Sometimes a fork with one horizontal and another vertical branch was selected and the animal sat on the horizontal branch and embraced the vertical one; sometimes 304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) the head was also placed on the latter. To prevent the baby from; slipping and falling at night, the mother while sitting in a fork, raised her legs about half as high as her body height and placed them on the vertical branch. The baby was thus held between the horizontal branch below and the mother’s legs on either side. The mother in this position might rest her head on the baby’s head and sleep. Some indi- viduals rested their heads on their drawn up knees. The baby either sat close to its mother or clung to her. On waking, the langurs bared their teeth and jerked their heads forwards and backwards and again settled down to sleep. This act of teeth baring and head nodding was used in the same context as lip smacking among bonnets but might or might not be directed at any other individual (3). At night their eyes reflect red in a beam of light. On a cloudy day they were still dozing on tree tops around 900 hrs, but on a sunny morning they were up and moving about by 600 hrs. While leaving the roosting place the dominant male might whoop. If they slept on a feeding tree, on waking up the next morning they moved on to the end of a branch and started to feed. The mother might nurse her infant a little before starting to feed. Day Ranges For the study of day ranges the activities of langurs were record- ed from the time they left the roosting place till they settled down in another. Four major activities were recorded as in other primates. (a) Movement Langurs left the roosting places for feeding during the early hours of morning and vice versa during evening. On reaching a feeding tree, if the food was a preferred one like Terminalia or Tamarindus, they spent hours without visiting other food trees. Heavy showers some- times impeded their movement. During group movement it was com- mon for any monkey to move in any one direction and sit for a while before moving ahead and another individual very often came to the same spot and sat there before the former moved further on. This was continued till the whole troupe moved away. It appeared that owing to their habit of spreading out over wider areas than bonnets, this mode of progression, like a relay race, ensured that all the members of a troupe moved in one particular direction. A similar mode was often resorted to during tree progression too. Some individuals, juveniles and mothers with young babies, avoid- ed long leaps. Sometimes the baby playfully took the lead and the LANGURS OF THE GIR 305 mother followed it, to be in turn followed by others, but this happen- ed only on the ground. During movement, the one in the lead made way for the next individual by moving away, irrespective of age, sex or status. At times a part of the troupe remained behind in one core area while the other moved on to another. During progression all the individuals including young ones held their tails curled over their backs with the tip facing forwards and downwards. This physical pose was different from that of Dharwar langurs whose tails arched back with the tips facing down and to the rear. About 50 per cent of the area was covered by running during ground progressions. Sometimes they waded through water across streams. (b) Feeding The morning and evening hours were spent in vigorous feeding. The langurs fed on the leaves, fruits and flowers of a variety of trees and climbers (Table 2). The young ones were observed eating bark and tendrils. They ate pupae found on leaves. Usually tender leaves were selected but in the case of large leaves like those of Wrightia, the blades were stripped free of the mid rib and eaten while the latter was discarded. Likewise compound leaves such as of Tamarindus were stripped from the stalk. One or both hands were used in feeding. At times a slender branch was brought closer and held with one of the hind limbs while the leaves were released with fore limbs. If afraid of the observer, they would squat on a top branch, lean down steal- thily to take a quick handful of leaves and went back to the old posi- tion and ate there. Long fruits like those of Wrightia were plucked and held in the hand and eaten candy-like, with short bites. Fruits of Terminalia were most preferred. They wasted a considerable amount of fruits but not leaves. Sometimes pupae were released from the leaves and then put into the mouth, or the mouth was applied directly to them. Once eggs of nesting birds were seen being eaten. On one occa- sion a female was noticed carefully watching a Phalangium on a Ster- culia tree, but did not eat it. As many as 4-5 individuals of different sex and status sat very close to one another and fed indicating the absence of competition for food. Sometimes they spent hours together in uninterrupted feeding. Though feeding might commence with dawn it reached a peak around 1000 hrs and again in the evening around 1700 hrs. During light showers the langurs continued to feed but heavy rain interrupted this activity. Even during the monsoon about 80 per cent of the langurs were seen drinking hence water consumption should be much more frequent in summer. This is contrary to what is reported for langurs elsewhere (Jay 1965). The water was taken by the mouth and the ani- 306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) Table 2 List of trees and creepers on which langurs fed SI. No. Local name Scientific name Part eaten 1. Saajad* Terminalia crenulata Fruits and leaves 2. Timbroo* Diospyros melanoxylon Fruits and leaves 3. Doodhlo* Wrightia tinctoria Fruits and leaves 4. Karapti Garuga pinnata Leaves 5. Ambli* Tamarindus indica Fruits and leaves 6. Ambra* Emblica officinalis Fruits and leaves 7. Shisam Dalbergia latifolia Leaves 8. Bawal Acacia arabica Flowers and leaves 9. Jamboo* Syzygium rubicundum Fruits and leaves 10. Kalukda Holarrhena antidysenterica Leaves 11. Karamdi* Carissa carandas Leaves 12. Behda Terminalia bellerica Leaves 13. Vadlo* Ficus bengalensis Fruits 14. Limbda Azardirachta indica Leaves 15. Sarasda Albizzia odoratissima Leaves 16. Saral Holoptelea integrifolia Leaves 17. Ujad ? Leaves and flowers 18. Ron (Rohan) Soymida febrifuga Leaves 19. Rhangari Morinda tinctoria Leaves and flowers 20. Phangada ? Leaves 21. Kanthar Zizyphus sp. Leaves and flowers 22. Saag Tectona grandis Pupae found on leaves 23. Umbra* Ficus glomerata Fruits 24. Ravano Syzygium cuminii Leaves 25. Bel pathr* Aegle marmelos Fruits 26. Kalum Mitragyna parvifolia Leaves 27. Karung* Derris pinnata Fruits and leaves 28. Kheria* Acacia catechu Leaves 29. Kalukdo Holarrhena sp. Leaves 30. Kadaya Sterculia urens Bark is rarely eaten 31. Malvelo Combretum decandrum Leaves and flowers 32. Dhamanah Grewia tiliaefolia Leaves 33. Phagdovelo Genus? Leguminosae Leaves 34. Gondovelo Vitis sp. Leaves 35. Malkankana Celastrus paniculata Leaves 36. Phankovelo Argyreia sp. Leaves 37. Santovelo* Abrus precatorius Leaves 38. Fagvel Rivea hypocrateriformis Leaves 39. Phalli (Moong)/4ruc/zw hypogea f Leaves and flowers 40. Bajra* Pennisetum typhodeum Fruits 41. Boona Gossypium sp. j- Leaves Note. * in fruit during the study period. I Cultivated. LANGURS OF THE GIR 307 mal drank for about half minute. Sometimes the young baby from its clinging position lowered its head and lapped water. (c) Social Grooming A characteristic tactile stimulation that serves many purposes in primate society is grooming (Marler 1965). As in the case of bonnets there appeared to be considerable variation in the grooming frequency depending upon the time of day, reaching a peak when the sun was at its zenith. The grooming was indulged in when other individuals were inactively relaxing or dozing. For the purpose of grooming two or more individuals gathered and groomed one another. Sometimes there was self grooming as well. The mother groomed her infant and vice versa, a juvenile groomed another or a subadult or an adult. The grooming could thus occur in any one of the combinations irrespective of sex, age or status. The grooming was either of short duration, as in the case of a subadult grooming another or when grooming occur- red on the ground. But it was of a considerably longer duration when a mother groomed her infant or an adult female groomed an adult male. The groomed animal might sit or lie down or doze while being groomed and shifted position exposing the desired parts to be groom- ed or the grooming animal itself fixed the position by pushing or pull- ing by the limb or neck or ear. The groomer very carefully scanned the area for dust particles and the like and on spotting one, picked it up by hand or put the mouth to it. The desire to be groomed was expressed by an individual ap- proaching another and making soft noises ( koon..koon ..) or by ap- proaching and/or reaching out and holding a passerby by its limb or back. The latter invariably groomed the former. Sometimes the ex- pression of this desire became more complex in dealing with an unco- operative partner. An adult female held a subadult female to be groomed. The latter skipped over the former and sat a few feet away. The adult female followed her and sat down close to her with her right leg resting on the latter’s back. Once again the latter moved a short distance away, but the adult female persistently followed her and on reaching her gave her a gentle pat on her back. The subadult female turned and faced the adult female and was immediately embraced by her. The subadult female settled down to groom the adult female. Sometimes the juveniles approached adult individuals and ex- pressed their desire to groom by giving out a squeal but keeping a short distance away from them. They faced the animal that they want- ed to groom and leaned forward squealing. If the latter expressed the desire to be groomed by exposing chest or loin, the juveniles immedia- tely closed the distance and started to groom, but if the latter bared its teeth they backed away still squealing. 308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) While grooming her infant, the mother held it pressed tightly against her, then stretched out a limb and groomed it. The baby might rest its head on the mother’s lap and doze a bit while being groomed. Even if there were no parasites or dust, as indicated by the groomer not picking up and eating them, the mother continued to groom her infant for long periods. Mothers with young infants groomed more frequently than others and this might be due to reduced activity and movement by them. The groomed animal sometimes stood upright on all fours and was groomed in the hind quarters. At times an open palm was passed over the body to part hair and occasionally both hands were used. The groomed animal to expose the chest and armpit and yet save strain on the hands, raised them and gripped an overhead branch. The tail being long and flexible was held in one hand while it was groomed with the other. The groomer probed even eyes and nose. Babies some- times groomed their mothers and the female langur groomed more than the male. There were fewer grooming frequencies among langurs than bonnets and out of 51 instances of grooming observed, 23 occurred on the ground and the rest on trees. Many instances of self grooming and scratching were also observed. To scratch the region above the chest they generally used hind limbs and to scratch the region below the chest they used the forelimbs. (d) Social Play Social play was indulged in mostly by babies and juveniles. For the purpose, two or more individuals asssociated and were sometimes joined by subadults and adults. Play was either very brief or prolonged based upon the activity of other individuals of the troupe and other interferences. The peak period of social play coincided with the peak period of resting and social grooming by adults. Play comprised a complex of whirling, jumping, chasing, somer- saulting and swinging on slender branches etc. Play should be more important for a langur baby than for a bonnet as the former is more arboreal and taken less care of by its mother. Thus accommodating to its mode of life should depend more on itself and its activity than on any other agency or individual. It was obvious that even 3-4 month old babies, as determined by coat colour, could very easily negotiate vertical branches. The juveniles and babies spent more time in active play, feeding and moving than in dozing or grooming. Hierarchy Though a clearcut hierarchy was not observed, some individuals LANGURS OF THE G1R 309 did behave in a more dominant manner than others. This was especi- ally so with adult males and mothers with infants. An adult male at close approach of the observer came down to a lower branch and ground teeth while others sought shelter higher. On detecting danger or while leading the troupe the dominant male whooped and barked. Whenever there was a quarrel or a sudden and loud snapping of branch, it was the dominant male that rushed to the site. When the troupe was running on the ground and away from the observer it was he who ran last and resented the approach of the observer. Likewise a mother with young infant expressed her dominance over others, especially the juveniles that harassed her infant, and suc- cessfully chased them away. Even among juveniles some males appeared to be more dominant than others in that they were consistently watchful and it was these individuals that approached the observer as close as 20 yards and gave out squeals of resentment from a tree top. The squeal was given out by an individual that slouched forward, bared teeth and made trilling sounds accompanied by tail vibrations. On hearing such sque- als some individuals approached closer to investigate the cause. Troupe organisation was loose and lacked cohesiveness as they spread out over very wide areas while feeding or sleeping, with few(er) interactions between members. Hanuman langurs neither ex- hibit a strict functional ranking order nor a differentiation in their social organisation (Sugiyama & Parthasarathy 1969). But the fact that there were not many intertroupe fights and friction indicated the pre- sence of a hierarchial system that minimised such encounters. But more observations are necessary on this aspect. Mating and maternal behaviour Mating behaviour and other social interactions were studied when the langurs were in the open. Langurs display sexual dimorphism in their physical build, males being very much bigger than the females. A total of nine mountings was witnessed during the study period. In eight of the nine copulations observed, the adult male initiated the mount as among bonnets (Simonds 1965) and on no occasion was a subadult male seen either mounting or even attempting. Only once was a female seen offering herself by shaking not only her tail as re- ported by Jay (1965) for common langurs of north India, but also the rump, and she was immediately mounted by the male. Once a male ground his teeth at an unwilling female, who after brief surren- der dislodged the mounted male by lowering her hind quarters and running short distance. She was chased by him, but again she ran a short distance. The male ground his teeth and chased her again at 310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (2) which she surrendered herself and they copulated. Usually a female after being copulated approached some other individual and expressed her desire to be groomed. Occasionally the copulation was interrupted by another female. On seeing the adult male mount an adult female, another adult female approached the pair and squealed bringing her snout close to that of the mounted female at which the latter lowered her hind quarters and forcibly dismounted the male. The females then ran away together. None of the mounts observed were preceded by testing. The female held her tail awkwardly pushed between the legs of the male during copulation, while in the bonnet it was arched over the back and well out of the males’ way. There was no instance of masturba- tion by langurs of either sex as in the case of Japanese monkeys of Taishaku-kyo (Imanishi 1957), in this aspect they differed from the howlers (Altman 1959) and bonnets (Rahaman & Parthasarathy 1968). When the study was continued in July /August, most of the females had 4-6 month old babies that must have been born around January / March. The peak period of births in langurs was from December to March (Sugiyama et al. 1965). Only one female in advanced stage of pregnancy was seen. Thus the langurs at Gir too had a peak period for breeding and the period more or less coincided with those for bonnets (Rahaman & Parthasarathy 1969) and rhesus (Southwick et al. 1965). This indicated two important features: (1) essential uniformity of the environmental factors in these three places (North, South and West) control the onset of mating and consequently births among these pri- mates. (2) that these animals gave birth to infants during the period that enabled weaning to coincide with the monsoon season. Weaning during monsoon appears to have two advantages for the baby:- (a) it provides enough food in the form of tender leaves, flowers and a few fruits, (b) it ensures safety as it is during this period that the young one is left more to itself by its mother and is safer in the thick canopy of leaves than otherwise. Young babies appeared darker in colour than the older ones. The dark babies usually clung to their mothers and suckled or slept hold- ing the teat in their mouth. Mothers with such babies were inactive and spent less time feeding but more in resting and nursing the baby on top branches well concealed behind leaves. They usually avoided the close approach of the observer. At times small babies were left behind on trees when the mother moved away for food. On such occasions the babies screeched and tried to follow, but on failing to keep pace settled down to await their return. When she moved from one place to another, the mother carried the baby clinging to her belly and no instance of riding by the infants was witnessed. While progress- LANGURS OF THE GIR 311 ing on the ground she led or followed it. When the mother was on the ground the baby mostly rested or suckled, or played with others. The baby stood on its hind limbs and reached for the teats when the mother sat on a high level. To prevent the baby from leaving her and yet facilitate the availability of both teats, the mother held the baby press- ed between her body and one of the fore and the hind limbs while she raised the forelimb of the other side and gripped an overhead branch. Though the baby fed on its mother’s breast for a long period, the mother sometimes prevented it. On such occasions she just left the baby and moved away or jerked the nipple free or pushed the baby’s head aside with her hand or hugged the baby in such a way that the mouth lost contact with the nipple. She sometimes bit the baby also. The 4-6 month old baby slept either clinging to its mother or pinned between her legs and branch or it might sleep a few feet away from her. On waking up the mother just extended her hand to the baby’s direction and the latter moved and clung to her. The babies were seen biting at the bark and tendrils. It appeared that the early mother-infant association among lan- gurs was not intense but breast feeding continued for a long period. Young ones about a year old (obviously born the previous season) were seen suckling. Such individuals sat a little distance away from her, put their head forward and got at her nipples. Such individuals were only slightly smaller than their mothers. At times even juveniles were seen attempting to put their mouths to teats of adult females (probably mothers) after grooming them but were prevented by the latter. In general the baby was readily allowed to mingle and play with other individuals. Often the mother abandoned the baby even at times of danger. A baby of Kapuria troupe was attacked by a hawk (Acci- piter sp.). The mother that was on the ground, a few feet away, hastily made for safety. Sugiyama & Parthasarathy (1969) report that in the Hanuman langur the mother does not take special care and sometimes deserts the injured baby. This is unlike the maternal behaviour obser- ved in bonnets (Rahaman & Parthasarathy 1969). On a rainy day a langur baby was left behind by the mother. Such babies were usually accompanied and escorted by other individuals. When the mother was on the ground, the baby separated itself from the mother and played with other individuals or objects available. For most of the time the baby kept making trips to and from the mother. These trips were short and brief when the baby was alone (about 20 trips were made in 3 mts. by the baby once) but they were prolonged in time and area in the company of others (one trip took about a minute). A young baby has a springy gait and holds its tail as do the older ones. 312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (2) The mother on spotting the observer made a neighing sort of sound to call her baby. She sometimes tolerated other individuals handling it but at the same time resented it. In fact the attitude of the mother to- wards other individuals handling her baby depended mainly on their approach. If the approach was straight and bold as with adult indivi- duals, the mother did not object them. But it was fidgety and playful as with the juveniles, she resented their approach. Sometimes a mother ob- jected to one female taking liberties with her baby while she readily to- lerated another. A mother after being groomed by a female was groom- ing her in turn. The latter took the former’s baby and hugged it. Another female approached the one that was hugging the baby and reached for it playfully. The mother with a snort chased the intruder away. Some- times even the infant does not like being handled by others. The mother at times slapped juveniles that tried to play with her baby. Even the baby acted sometimes similarly. The babies readily recognised their mothers and went only to them at times of need. Three mothers were once seen engaged in mutual grooming on ground while their babies were at play a short distance away. The relative positions of the mothers were marked and then a panic was created among them by a person suddenly rushing at them. The mothers ran helter-skelter but the babies ran only to their respective mothers without any confusion. Interspecific interactions and predation On two occasions langurs were witnessed feeding in close proxi- mity with the monitor ( Varanus sp.) and once with a mongoose (Herpestes sp.), but with no interaction from either side. But on certain other occasions they were seen to be distinctly associated with and to interact with other animals. On two occasions when some birds (unidentified) took panic and flew for some unknown reason, the langurs feeding close by scampered up the treeposte haste. During ground progression the Talala road troupe was once seen closely following a pair of peafowl, apparently to be forewarned of any danger. Incidentally it was noticed that the peahen was more wary than the peacock. When the langurs took panic the peafowls took to flight and vice versa. Once on finding the author blocking its way, a squirrel ( Funam - bulus sp.) gave out a continuous chrip from the bole of the tree. Three adult langurs came out to investigate the reason. On one occasion a young langur tried to catch a squirrel that was avoiding and approach- ing the langur carefully. After the fourth attempt, the langur gave up and moved away. Halfway between Shirvan and Amrutvel a herd of chital. Axis LANGURS OF THE GIR 313 axis (1 male and 4 females) was seen feeding under a ficus tree occu- pied by langurs. The langurs were the first to spot the observer and dash off along the tree top. The chital immediately bolted without attempting to find out what had disturbed the langurs. They stopped some hundred yards away and then faced the direction from which they had fled to investigate the cause and on finding the observer they vanished. Such association had twofold benefits for the chital, in that the langurs not only informed them of any lurking danger but also provided them food in the form of dropped fruits etc. Such associations between langurs and chital have been repeatedly observed by Starin (personal communication) especially during summer months when the chital are likely to depend more on langurs for food with the grass drying up. The deer if undisturbed would feed in the company of langurs for hours together as could be made out by the absence of dropped leaves, fruits and the like and the large amount of faecal pellets dropped by them. In south India such associations between deer and bonnet macaques have been recorded by me. Leopards ( Panthera pardus ) were common in the study area and were on several occasions heard from close quarters, which disturbed langurs. Obviously the langurs were preyed upon by them. The lions ( Panthera leo persica) were reported to kill langurs occasionally. Dur- ing the study period two village dogs killed and ate a subadult male langur from the Chitrode troupe. When the monkey was caught on the ground by the dogs, the dominant male gave out a bark of alarm and a subadult female gave a wailing cry. But after two minutes of the incident they settled down and were calm. However every time the dominant male viewed the site of the carcass being torn by the dogs he ground his teeth. On July 30, 1971, an adult female langur was killed by a python {Python molurus) near Bhojde. When the snake was in the act of swallowing it, the villagers saw this and decapitated the snake in an attempt to save the monkey, which was by then dead. Once a hawk {Accipiter sp.) was observed attacking a baby langur of the Kapuria troupe. The baby was on the ground and a few feet away from its mother. On the approach of the bird the mother sought shelter without rescuing the baby. The dominant male sitting on a high branch rushed to the site and his jump on to the lowermost branch jerked it in such a manner that it brushed against the bird and prevented it from taking hold of the baby. After the bird flew off the mother collected her baby. Jungle crows {Corvus macrorhynchus) at times descended in num- ber in the feeding locality of langurs to feed upon insects displaced by the langurs. 314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) Acknowledgements I am indebted to the Gir Project of the Smithsonian Institution and the Bombay Natural History Society, for having made this study possible and for having provided all necessary facilities. Thanks are due to Professor K. Pampapathi Rao, Head of the department of Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore, for his kind encouragement and favourable recommendations; to Bangalore University, Bangalore, for granting permission to associate with the project. I am grateful for the help extended to me by research associates at Gir and my thanks are also due to local guides who were of help in many ways. I am grateful to Dr M. D. Parthasarathy, Department of Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore, for his kind suggestions and wise counsel on his visit to Gir, and Shri Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar for advice from his experience and impressions about the langur popu- lation at Gir. References Altmann, S. A. (1959): Field observations on a howling monkey society. Jour. Mammal. 40: 317- 330. Imanishi, K. (1957) : Social be- haviour in Japanese monkeys, Ma- caca fuscata. In Primate Social Be- haviour: Chap. 6 Southwick, C. H. (ed) New York. Jay, P. (1965) : The common lan- gurs of North India. In primate behaviour: 197-249. DeVore, I (ed) New York. Holt, Rinehart & Wins- ton. Marler, P. (1965) : Communica- tions in Monkeys and Apes. ibid. 544-584. DeVore, I(ed) New York. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Rahaman, H. & Parthasarathy, M. D. (1968). The expressive move- ments of the Bonnet Macaque. Pri- mates, 9: 259-272. (1969): Studies on the social behaviour of Bonnet Monkeys, ibid. 10: 149-162. Simonds, P. E. (1965): The Bon- net Macaque in South India. In primate behaviour: 175-196. DeVore, I(ed) New York. Holt, Reinehart & Winston. Southwick, C. H., Beg, M. A. & Siddiqi, M. R. (1965): Rhesus Ma- caque in North India, ibid.: 111- 159. DeVore, I (ed) New York. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Sugiyama, Y. & Parthasarathy, M. D. (1969) : A brief account of the life of Hanuman langurs. Proc. Nat. Inst. Scie. Ind., Vol. 35, B. No. 4: 306-319. , Yoshiba, K. & Parthasrathy, M. D. (1965): Home range, mating season, male group and inter-troop relations in Hanuman langurs (Pres- bytis entellus). Primates, 6: 73-106. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2) I NY A LAKE Jungle area Park land Lakeside houses 1. 2. 3. A. Writer's house. Xnya Lake Hotel- Statehouse. U.S. Ambassador's Residence. / #5$ » /C The Birds of Inya Lake, Rangoon, Burma1 BY J. Bruce Amstutz 650 W. Harrison St., Claremont, California 91711, U.S.A. (With a map) There has been little in the way of serious bird study in Burma during the last decade, and so far as I could ascertain no published work on the birds of Rangoon since H. H. Harington’s contribution, “Some Rangoon Birds” J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 19 in 1909. Believ- ing that future ornithologists in Burma might be interested in noting any change in the pattern of bird species in a representative area of Burma’s capital, my son Mark and I undertook for three years a sur- vey of the birds on and about Inya Lake. One of Rangoon’s most attractive landmarks, this lake measures about 2 by 1.5 miles, has a shoreline of probably 10 miles, and a water area of perhaps 2 square miles. Built as a reservoir for Rangoon in the 1880’s, the lake shore is bordered by jungle, park land, Burma’s biggest hotel, and some of Burma’s finest residences (including the temporary Statehouse of General Ne Win). I was fortunate to live in one of the houses bordering the lake, and to have access to its waters by canoe and sail boat. All its many bays and coves were visited at one time or another, but considerations of distance restricted the most thorough coverage to shore areas with- in half a mile of my home. Over the three years July 1968 to July 1971, we averaged one bird outing every three weeks. Though we can only claim to have identified 82 species, we be- lieve that given time and patience the lake area and its environs might have revealed a population of between 100 to 125 species. These figures may, however, never be attained because Rangoon’s suburbs creep ever outwards, the parkland and waters of the lake are becoming more crowded with visitors, and the jungle areas are being ravaged by illicit woodcutters and by guard houses covering the approaches to the Statehouse. Fortunately, hunting and motorboats are not allow- ed on the lake. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the area’s bird population has been its migratory character. Probably less than one quarter of 1 Accepted July 21, 1971. 316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) the species are truly resident, the remaining being seasonal visitors. There are roughly three bird seasons: the dreary, wet monsoon period (June to September) when the number of species drops to its yearly low; the fall season (October to January) when the lake is visited by many migratory species from the north; and the hot, dry season (February to May) when birds from the parched countryside visit the lake. Some migratory birds from the north not seen in the fall also visit the lake during this last season. In terms of sheer abundance, the House Crow and Common Myna clearly lead the field. Rangoon is notorious for its crows, and several thousand roost at night in high trees around the lake. Next to these two species, probably the most common are the Tree Sparrow, Indian Pond Heron, Lesser Whistling Teal, Black Drongo, and Little Cormo- rant. The survey unearthed few distributional tidbits for science. The only possible contributions are two additions to the distribution of birds in the plains area of lower Burma, as given in the chart in Smythies’ the birds of Burma (1953). These are: the Chestnut- headed Bee-eater; and the Daurian Starling. The former is a regular annual winter visitor to the lake. Its omission from Smythies’ chart may have been inadvertent since he mentions its being encountered at Hlawga Lake which is just outside the city. A flock of Daurian Starlings was seen once by me on one of the jungle islands in the lake, and it may be an occasional visitor. According to Smythies, the Daurian was a rarity in the plains, having been sighted only once, in Pegu, a city 55 miles from Rangoon. Three somewhat puzzling omissions from my bird list should be mentioned: the Redvented Bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer)\ the Paddyfield Pipit ( Anthus novaeseelandiae ); and the Brownheaded Gull ( Larus brunnicephalus) . The first two are common on the outskirts of Ran- goon, while the Gull is abundant during the winter months on the Rangoon river. We never found them about Inya Lake. Podiceps ruficollis Little Grebe Common seasonal visitor. Usually encountered only in the eastern- most arm of the lake where it is abundant from January to May. As many as 100 were seen at one time. Often seen in association with Lesser Whistling Teals which rest in the same inlet. Disappears during the monsoon. Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant One of the commmonest birds on the lake from September to May. Disappears during the monsoon months. Usually seen singly or in small, loose groups but flocks of 40 or so have been counted swim- ming together in November. Rests at night in flocks of about 20 in BIRDS OF INYA LAKE 317 small lakeside trees, often in company with Darters. Anhinga rufa melanogaster Darter or Snake-bird Common on the lake during the dry season, September to May. Usually seen singly. Roosts at night with Little Cormorants. Disappears during the monsoon. Can be approached to within about twenty yards. Exciting bird to watch at all times. Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Occasional visitor. Encountered only three times, twice in January and once in May. Once it was perched on a lakeside tree; the other two times it was standing in shallow water adjacent to small grass- covered islands. Butorides striatus Little Green Heron Probably occasional visitor. Seen only once in March 1969, when a flock of three were seen perched on low branches overhanging the lake on a jungle-fringed narrows. Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron Probably a resident. One of the most common birds on the lake- shore, from October to May. Uncommon during the monsoon. Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Seasonally common, from January to May. During this period, a flock of as many as 20 can be seen feeding on the spacious lake- side lawn of the American Ambassador’s residence. Egretta alba Greater Egret Common only in the dryest months, March to May. Occasionally seen during the monsoon. Egretta intermedia Intermediate Egret Occasional visitor. Is the least common of the Egrets. Egretta garzetta Little Egret Very common during the dryest months, March to May. Not often seen at other times. The evening flights of these to their roosts is always a lovely sight. Nycticorax nycticorax Night Heron Probably a resident. A small flock of about 20 birds lives on two tiny jungle-covered islands in the lake. Most commonly seen from September to December. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Cinnamon Bittern Probably a resident. Common from March to May in reed and water hyacinth-fringed inlets. Usually seen only in the very early morn- ing. Much less frequently at dusk. 318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) Ixobrychus sinensis Yellow Bittern May be resident. Single birds regularly encountered from March to May in late afternoons in rush and water hyacinth shore areas and islands. Dupetor flavicollis Black Bittern Uncommon. Encountered only in October and November in early morning and at dusk on edge of jungle islands. Botaurus stellaris Bittern Uncommon visitor. Encountered only once, in April, when two were flushed from reedy islands in the lake. Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistling Teal Very common from January to May. Always in flocks which number up to 300 birds. Always very wary and difficult to approach. At dusk and early evening, commonly heard flying and calling over the lake. Nettapus coromandeliamis Cotton Teal Common from March till May where water plants are abundant. Seems to be increasing annually. Often seen in loose flocks of up to 20 birds. Elanus caeruleus Blackwinged Kite Probably an occasional visitor. Seen once in February. Miivus migrans Pariah Kite Very common from October to May but most abundant from November to December. Roosts at night in trees on some of the jungle islands. Disappears during the monsoon. Miivus (migrans) lineaius Blackeared Kite Appears also to be common but not easily distinguishable from above species. Same habits and habitat. Accipiter badius Shikra Goshawk Uncommon. Seen in September and October in garden trees along the lake shores, often being harassed by crows. Gyps bengalensis Whitebacked Vulture Uncommon. Single birds seen on two occasions in winter months resting in tall lakeside trees and being pestered by crows. Pandion haliaetus Osprey Uncommon from October to April. Seen flying over lake or rest- ing on some lakeside tree. BIRDS OF 1NYA LAKE 319 AmaurornSs phoenicurus Whitebreasted Waterhen Common. Often seen from November to June along lakeshore. GalMcrex cinerea Watercock Common. Single birds can be seen at dawn or dusk in marshy inlets from March to May. Gallinula chloropus Moorhen Uncommon visitor. Single birds seen in April in reedy, shallow portions of the lake. Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana Common from January to May. Sometimes seen with next spe- cies. Seems to be increasing in population on the lake. In breeding plumage with its long tail, it is particularly attractive. Always lovely in flight with its pied wings. Metopidius indicus Bronzewinged Jacana Very common from January to June in every marshy inlet. Less shy and more abundant than above species. It also seems to be grow- ing in population. Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover Uncommon visitor. Seen only in March and April at the height of the hot, dry season when mud-flats sometimes appear in the lake. Singles and pairs seen. Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Seasonal visitor in April and May at the height of the dry season, when it is not uncommon on mud-flats on the lake. Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Commonly encountered from September to April. Usually seen singly along the shores of the lake and around tiny islands. Chlidonias hybrida Whiskered Tern Regular visitor from December to April. Usually seen in pairs or threes quartering the lake. Never seen at rest. Gelocheiidon nilotica Gullbilled Tern Regular seasonal visitor from February to April. Seen singly and in threes, always in flight over the lake. Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove Resident. Common garden bird in the villas surrounding the lake. Cuculus can or us Cuckoo Occasional. Seen in October and December. 320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) Cacomantis merulinus Plaintive Cuckoo Possibly a resident. Common from January to July, particularly from March to May when its distinctive call is frequently heard. Eudynamys scolopacea Koel Possibly a resident but commonly heard only from October to April, particularly on small jungle-covered islands. Hard to spot. Usu- ally keeps to thick canopy of tall trees. Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal Probably a resident on the jungle-covered islands where it has been encountered throughout the year. Tyto alba Barn Owl Occasional. Its screech is heard from time to time in lakeside gardens in winter months. Strix selopoto Spotted Wood Owl Occasional. Heard and seen while flying over a lakeside garden in March. Cypsiums parvus Palm Swift Resident. Groups flying are a common sight year round along the lakeshore. Ceryle rudis Lesser Pied Kingfisher Occasional visitor. Encountered only in April and May. Specta- cular diver. Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher Seasonally common, from September to March, along the lake shore. Halcyon smymensis Whitebreasted Kingfisher Often encountered from August to April. Most common king- fisher on the lake. Noisy. Usually seen perched on some branch over- hanging the lake. Halcyon pileata Blackcapped Kingfisher Uncommon visitor. Only seen once, in October, perched on a lakeside tree. Merops leschenaulti Chestnutheaded Bee-eater Uncommon but regular visitor. Small flocks of 3 to 6 birds seen from October to February on two jungle islands. Merops philippinus Bluetailed Bee-eater Uncommon but regular annual visitor. Small flocks occasionally encountered from September to April, hawking from lakeside trees. BIRDS OF 1NYA LAKE 321 Merops orientals Green Bee-eater Common, perhaps a resident. Seen all year round, usually found perched in small flocks on lakeside trees. Coracias benghalensis Burmese Roller Common, from September to May in lakeside gardens. Upupa epops Hoopoe Occasionally encountered in October and November in lakeside gardens. Megalaima haemacephala Crimsonbreasted Barbet Resident. One of the most common garden birds, more often heard than seen. Hirundo rustica European House Swallow Common from September to May, particularly from January to April. Singles and groups often seen flying over the surface of the lake hawking for insects. Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike Common garden bird from October to April. Orioles tenuirostris Slender-billed Oriole Annual visitor but uncommon. Small flocks occasionally encount- ered from October to April in canopy of lakeside trees. Dicrtirus adsimilis Black Drongo Very common, from September to April. One of the most fami- liar garden birds. Disappears during the monsoon months. Dicrurus leucophaeus Ashy Drongo Uncommon. Singles seen occasionally on jungle islands from October to February. Artamus fuscus Ashy Swallow-Shrike Uncommon. Seen only in July and August perched on high, ex- posed limbs of trees in lakeside gardens. Stumus malabaricus Ashy-headed Starling Common in flocks of 20-30 birds from mid-November to mid- February. Stumus stuminus Daurian Starling Occasional visitor. A flock of about ten birds encountered once, in mid- April, in trees in open section of a jungle island. Stumus contra Pied Starling Commonly encountered in April-May and again in September along the lakeshore. Usually found close to water’s edge. 322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) Sturnus tristis Common Myna Resident and abundant. Shares with the House Crow the distinc- tion of being one of the two most common birds in the lake area. Almost always seen in pairs. Sturnus javanicus Jungle Myna Commonly encountered from March through June in meadow parkland fringing the lake. Rarely met in gardens. Corvus spleedens House Crow Abundant and a conspicuous, noisy bird at all seasons. Every garden has them and at night they roost in thousands in high trees in certain areas fringing the lake. Tcphrodornis pondiceriaeus Common Wood Shrike Occasional visitor. Encountered only once on top of lakeside tree in September. Aegithina tiphia Common Iora Uncommon visitor. Encountered only in March and April in lakeside gardens in trees and big shrubs. Pycnonotus melanicterus Black-crested Yellow Bulbul Common in small flocks in November and December on jungle islands. Pyciionotus blanfordi Blanford’s Olive Bulbul Common in small flocks from March to May in garden trees and on jungle islands. Muscicapa parva Red-breasted Flycatcher Very common in garden trees and shrubs from October to Febru- ary. All disappear by April. Except in late March, the bird is always seen in its drab brownish-grey winter plumage. Phylloscopus inornatus Yellow-browed Willow Warbler Uncommon. Pair encountered only once in November on jungle island. Phylloscopus inornatus Yellow-browed Willow Warbler Uncommon. Seen only once, a pair, in October, in canopy of garden tree. Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird Common resident in lakeside gardens and on the more open jungle islands. More often heard than seen. Copsych us saularis Magpie Robin Common resident in lakeside gardens and in open parkland fringing the lake. BIRDS OF 1NYA LAKE 323 Monticola solitarius Blue Rock Thrush Uncommon visitor. Encountered only in March in lakeside gardens. Motacilla alba Pied Wagtail Common from October to January. Never seen at other times. Visits lawns of lakeshore gardens. Motacilla caspica Grey Wagtail Least common of the three Wagtails. Singles seen occasionally from September to November on lawns. Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail Most common of the Wagtails and often encountered from Octo- ber to May, on lakeshore lawns. Is most common from February to March. Prionochilus thoracic us Scarlet-breasted Flowerpecker Uncommon. Pairs encountered only in April on jungle islands. Passer montanos Tree Sparrow Resident and very common around every lakeside home. Ploceus Philippines Baya Weaverbird Common from March to June, especially on rushes along the lakeshore. Nesting area was not found. Lonchura punctulata Spotted Munia Common from March to May in groups of as many as 20 birds in lakeside gardens. Occasionally seen during the monsoon months through to October when it disappears. Lonchura malacca Chestnut Munia Less common than above species, and never seen in large groups. Two to three birds is usual. Encountered from March to August, but most commonly during April to June when it nests in shrubs around lakeshore houses. Emberiza aureola Yellow-breasted Bunting Uncommon visitor. Encountered only in April along lakeshore: once a pair was seen in a small tree overhanging the lake on a jungle island; and a single was met a year later perched on a marsh plant in an inlet. A new Species of Ischaemum Linn, from India1 BY R. B. Patil2 and R. D’Cruz3 Botany Section, College of Agriculture, Poona 5 {With a plate) Ischaemum vembanadense sp. nov. (Poaceae) is described and illustrated. Ischaemum vembanadense sp. nov. /. magno Rendle similis sed differt caule et ramis omnino serpen- tibus, spiculis sessilibus minus quam 7 mm. longis, pedicellis et rha- chidibus permitus glabris, ligula integra et spiculae pedicellatae gluma inferiore ad unam marginem late alata. Ischaemum vembanadense sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7) Allied to /. magnum Rendle but differs in the completely trailing or prostrate stem and branches, the sessile spikelet which is less than 7 mm long, the completely glabrous pedicel and rachis, the entire ligule and the lower glume of the pedicelled spikelet which has a broad wing on one margin. A perennial grass, oulms 150-160 cm, completely glabrous and smooth, densely tufted; trailing or prostrate, branching from each node, branches prostrate, nodes glabrous and tumid, internodes heavily prunose.( Leaf blades up to 15 cm long, 1 to 1.5 cm wide, acuminate, lower leaves tapering to the base; upper sub-cordate with a small hairy petiole, ligule 0.5 to 1 cm long, entire and hairy on the margins, sheath loose slipping from the culms and open at the top with ciliate or hairy margins at top. Inflorescences two, appressed, not more than 7 mm long, lower two joints of rachis confluent, joints of rachis trigonous, smooth all over, pale yellow. Sessile spikelet: Lower glume 6.5 to 7 mm long; 1.5 to 2 mm wide; oblong-acute in shape, coriaceous-crustaceous 1 Accepted July 21, 1971. 2 Present address : Turmeric Breeder, Agril. Research Station, Digraj, Sangli Dist., Maharashtra State. 3 Present address : Behind Municipality, Margao, Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2) Plate Patil & D’Cruz: Ischaemum vembandense Ischaemum vembanaclense Patil et D’Cruz (Figs. 1-8). 1. A portion of culm with leaf and inflorescences; 2. Lower glume of sessile spikelet (dorsal); 3. Upper glume of sessile spikelet (side view); 4. Lower lemma of sessile spikelet (ventral) ; 5. Palea of sessile spikelet (ventral) ; 6. Upper lemma of sessile spikelet (side view); 7. Palea of sessile spikelet (ven- tral) ; 8. Mitotic metaphase of In — 50.950 X. NEW SPECIES OF ISCHAEMUM 325 in the lower half, herbaceous above with numerous fine green nerves, lower half smooth; transversely and irregularly wrinkled; margins narrowly incurved from base to apex, ventral side with greenish red tinge in the lower 3/4 portion. Upper glume : 6.5 to 7 mm long; 1 mm wide; glabrous; boat shaped, strongly keeled with incurved and ciliate margins. Lower floret : , lemma hyaline; 6 mm long; oblong lanceo- late, 3 nerved, margins slightly ciliate and keeled, palea about 5 mm long; hyaline strongly keeled on margin; margins slightly ciliate. Upper * floret: lemma 5mm long, boat shaped; ciliate on the margins, cleft in the middle with or without awn, palea membranous 4.5 mm long; stamens 3, anthers 3 mm long, styles 2, stigmas plumose and whitish yellowish when young. Pedicelled spikelet: Pedicel triangular in section, stout; 2 mm long, not ciliate on outer angle. Lower glume: 6 mm long, with 3-5 nodules on inner margins; upper glume strongly keeled in the lower half, glabrous, ciliate on the margins, chartaceous- herbaceous in texture. Lower floret: & , stamen 3, anthers 2.5 mm long, lemma 6 mm long, oblong-acute, ciliate on the margins, palea 4.5 mm long, hyaline strongly keeled. Upper floret: ^ , stamens 3, anthers 2.5 mm long, styles 2, stigmas plumose, lemma 4.5 mm long, hyaline, 3 nerved, mucronate, palea 3 mm long, hyaline. Holotype collected at Allepy backwaters, Kerala, India by Patil on 10th January 1970 and deposited in the Herbarium, Botany Section, College of Agriculture, Poona 5 under the field number 1-919. Isotypes to be deposited in Herbarium at Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona- 1. Etymology: This taxon is named after the well known lake “Vembanad” in Allepy District, Kerala, India. The root tip study in this species gave somatic count of 2 n = 50 chromosomes (Fig. 8). Meiosis was abnormal but seed setting was normal. Acknowledgements This research has been financed in part by a grant made by U.S.D.A. under P.L. 480 Research Project A7-CR-130. Our grateful thanks are also due to Rev. Fr. Cecil J. Saldanha, Principal Indian Investigator, Hassan Flora Project, St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore for kindly translating the diagnosis into Fatin. Notes on the Nest and Behaviour of the Yellowbrowed Titmouse, Parus modest us (Burton)1 BY - % Robert L. Fleming, jr. P.O. Box 229, Kathmandu, Nepal The Yellowbrowed Titmouse, Parus modestus (Burton), is dis- tributed widely through mountainous country from Kashmir east to Fukien in south China (Ripley 1961:553). Although usually consider- ed uncommon, this species is met frequently in the oak forests of Nepal where it would appear to be overlooked rather than rare (see Fleming & Traylor 1968:185). Little is known about this bird; the nest has not been described (see Ali 1962:342-343). Since this titmouse resembles a leaf warbler ( Phylloscopus ) in both size and colour, some authors have placed it in a distinct genus, Sylvi parus, to indicate its affinity with the war- blers. Other workers, noting this bird’s typical titmouse behaviour, have retained it in the genus Parus. The nest of this bird is of special interest. Nest building is usually a highly stereotyped behaviour pattern and the way the nest is con- structed is often a strong indicator of phylogenetic affinity. Sylvi parus advocates believed the nest would be of a warbler type: a ball of moss not secreted inside a hole (see Disselhorst 1968:349). The Parus people felt that the nest would be typically titmouse: a pad of hair or feathers placed in a natural cavity either in a tree or in the ground. The first Yellowbrowed Titmouse nest was discovered on 4 May, 1968, in a hole of a rhododendron tree at 2378 metres (7800') eleva- tion on Phulchowki, Patan District, Central Nepal. The nest was found by Mr. and Mrs Gene Boster and their daughter Barbara, of the U.S. Embassy, Kathmandu,. My father. Dr Robert L. Fleming, Sr., regularly organizes bird walks for the residents of Kathmandu; on one of these excursions this first nest was discovered. We already had determined that the nesting season of this titmouse was in April and May and that Phulchowki 1 Accepted August 14, 1972. THE YELLOWBROWED TITMOUSE, PARUS MODESTUS 327 fell within its breeding grounds, but following the small birds from tall oak to tall oak and across steep hillsides proved difficult. The 4 May trip was one of many that had been aimed at finding this nest. On 5 May we observed the titmice for a period of 4 hours and 17 mins, beginning at 0845. During this time, the parents fed the young a total of 114 times. The feeding frequency was: 0901 to 1000 — 19 visits; 1001 to 1100—20 visits; 1101 to 1200—25 visits; 1201 to 1300 — 46 visits. Consistant behavioural differences in the two parent birds were noted. One bird, presumably the male, was more timid than the other; it also appeared larger than the second. The first bird sang frequently and, if in the company of the second, often shivered its wings in a courting routine. The male approached the nest in the following fashion: overhanging branch to bush, two or three position shifts in the bush and then to the nest. The female approach pattern was: over- head branch to bush to tree trunk to nest. She did not pause long at each stop. If the female appeared at the nest while the male was out- side, shifting positions and hesitating to go in, she would dart past him and quickly feed the young. After she left, he would enter. Only once were the two birds noted in the nest hole together. On this occasion, the male was already in the nest when the female arrived in her rapid approach pattern and quickly disappeared inside. Several squeaks later, one bird (sex undetermined) exited with consi- derable speed. Ninety-nine visits to the nest were recorded after the probable sex of each parent was established. Of these, 51 were by the male, 43 by the female and 5 undetermined. Light rain began at 1034 and continued until 1052. During this period, the young were visited 8 times with no apparent let up in feed- ing frequency. Food items were identified on 65 trips. Light green, apparently hairless larve, approximately 1 cm long were fed 64 times. Only one caterpillar was brought per trip. A katydid, also light green, was fed once. The birds were not silent around the nest site. The male sang lustily from both the overhanging branch and the bush near the hole. Its “song” consisted of a high, squeaking tee repeated between 5 and 8 times in a 5 second period. The alarm call was a very high pitched, buzzy, tzee tzee. Occasionally the male appeared to wait near the nest for the female. He would sing loudly and when she arrived, he would court her with much wing shivering. The female also shivered once, briefly. When agitated or excited, the titmouse erected its diminutive crest; at this time the yellow eyebrow was clearly visible at close range. 328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (2) Thus the eyebrow is seen during courtship as well as when the bird is scolding intruders. The entrance hole to the nest, a natural, vertical slit about 45 mm long by 17 mm wide at the widest point, was located 42 cm from the ground. The opening was so narrow that the birds had to flatten verti- cally and then push themselves against the side of the tree to get in. The nest was in a Rhododendron arboreum tree that was growing in fairly open oak ( Quercus semecarpifolia) forest with a light under- story of viburnum, barberry, daphne, symplocos, and strobilanthes. The nest was not thoroughly examined as we did not wish to endanger the young. Using flashlights and dental mirrors, we counted four young on a pad about 15 cm below the bottom of the entrance slit. The young appeared to be nearly ready to leave the nest. The second Yellowbrowed Titmouse nest was found on 25 April 1972; it contained eggs. This nest was discovered by Professor Richard S. Morgan of Pennsylvania State University. Professor Morgan was resting quietly beside a moss covered boulder at about 2488 metres (9800') elevation on a trek to Ganesh Himal (Rasuwa District, Central Nepal) when he noticed a small bird disappearing into an astoundingly small hole in a tree. This was the nest opening. This nest was placed about 6 m (20') above the ground in a maple (Acer) tree. This particular maple divided into three major “trunks” about 2 metres above the ground; the nest was located in the trunk that leaned farthest away from the hillside. The degree of lean was estimated at about 20 degrees from vertical. The selected tree stood in a relatively open part of a mixed forest consisting of fir ( Abies spectabilis ), hemlock ( Tsuga dumosa), oak (Quercus semecarpifolia ) and rhododendron (R. arboreum and R. bar bat um). The opening of the nest was again in a natural cavity; it measur- ed 50 mm vertically by 17 mm wide at the widest point. On this occasion the tree was cut open so that the nest could be examined carefully. Unfortunately the location of the nest made it diffi- cult to enlarge the opening sufficiently to extract the contents. Eventually the nest was removed but all the fragile eggs were broken in the process. The nest pad lay about 20 cm below the entrance in a natural cavity that slanted diagonally towards the center of the tree. The nest entirely filled the lower part of the cavity. The top of the pad, which stretched from wall to wall, was about 10 cm across. The eggs were placed on a top layer constructed entirely of fur which measured about 5 mm thick. The next layer, of about 10 mm depth, was fur mixed with a little soft, brown moss. Underneath this “crown”, and filling the entire cavity down to the base (about 15 cm), was soft, green moss mixed with a little fur. THE YELLOWBROWED TITMOUSE, PARUS MODESTUS 329 The reddish fur, some hairs tipped with white, of the Giant Fly- ing Squirrel ( Petaurista petaurista) was used in the nest. The birds apparently found a dead squirrel for some of the fur had come away in small clumps with the skin still attached. A small amount of grey fur, apparently from a Vole ( Alticola ), was used in the second layer of the nest. There appeared to have been six eggs in the clutch. The fragile shells were white without noticeable blotches. Titmice often have faintly to boldly marked eggs so it was surprising that no markings were detected on these fragments. References Ali, Salim (1962) : The Birds of Sikkim, xxx + 414 p. Oxford Uni- versity Press, Madras. Diesselhorst, Gerd (1968): Bei- trage zur Okologie der Vogel Zen- tral- und Ost-Nepals, 1-420 p. In Khumbu Himal, Universitatsverlag Wagner Ges. M.B.H.. Innsbruck- Munchen. Fleming, Robert L. & Melvin A. Traylor (1968) : Distributional Notes on Nepal Birds. Fieldiana : Zoology 55(3) : 147-203. Ripley, S. Dillon II (1961): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, xxxvi + 703 p. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Orchids of Nepal BY M. L. Banerji1 2 and B. B. Thapa3 {With four text -figures in a plate) This instalment on the orchids of Nepal deals with the genera that are placed under the tribe Polychondroideae, the subtribes are indicated accordingly e.g. Listera (Listereae), Cephalanthera & Epipac- tis (Cephalanthereae), Arundina & Thunia (Sobralieae), Nervilia (Pogonieae), Spiranthes (Spirantheae) and Herpysma, Goodyera and Zeuxine (Erythroideae). The genera are arranged alphabetically. Artificial key to the genera A. Stem with a thick underground part or a pseudobulb, or a stout subtuber- ous rootstock — B. Inflorescence terminal; lip sessile not spurred, base concave and em- bracing the column. Terrestrial herbs, stem leafy, leaves distichous Arundina BB. Inflorescence lateral. Lip spurred, sidelobes embracing the column Thunia AA. Stem not bulbous, roots often bulbous — C. Stem simple, erect, roots tuberous — D. Spur long, lip exposed beyond the base of the lateral sepals Herpysma DD. Spur short i.e. saccate, lip flat — E. Lateral sepals not free; spike dense flowered and spiral; leaves several Spiranthes EE. Lateral sepals free — F. Two leaved herbs Listera FF. Many leaved herbs — G. Lip clawed beyond the spur, column with two linear appendages in front; stigmas 2 Zeuxine GG. Lip not clawed beyond the spur, column not appendaged; stigma 1 Goodyera 1 Accepted August 31, 1972. 2 University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal. 3 Horticulture Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— $ 331 CC. Stem sample, erect from an underground tuber; 1 — leaved; sepals erect or spreading; column elongate not winged Nervilia CCC. Stem simple, erect from an underground rootstock, leafy, leaves plicate — D\ Sepals conniving; lip hidden by the sepals, not clearly divided into epichile and hypochile Cephalanthera D‘D\ Sepals free, spreading; lip clearly divided into epichile and hypo- chile. Anthers dorsal, caudicle rudimentary Epipactis Arundina Bl. These are terrestrial orchids some 1.5 to 2.0 m tall and having reed-like stems because of which the genus gets the name. Leaves are numerous, membraneous and narrow. Flowers are large in racemes with petals broader than the sepals, and labellum large and semi shap- ed, which is bright red or pale violet while the sepals and petals are white. Arundina graminifolia (Don) Hochr. in Bull. N.Y. bot. Gard, 6:270, 1910; Holttum, 186, 1953; Hara^-425, 1966. Bletia graminifolia Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 29, 1825. Limodorum graminifolia Buch. Ham. ex D. Don, loc. cit. Arundina bambusifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 125, 1831; F.B.I. 5:857, 1890; King & Pantl. 113, t. 156, 1898. Cym - bidium bambusifolium Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. 2, 3:460, 1832. (Fig. 1). Flowers large, catleya-pink, sepals and petals c. 5.0 cm long, orbi- cular-obovate, apiculate; lip brighter red than the sepals, sidelobes short, midlobe small, bifid, crisped, disk with 3 lamellate nerves. Flow- ering time during late August to October, rarely in June or July. Collected from Nilkanth area, Suparitar, Pokhra, Phidim to Moktara, Pisapur (Kitamura), locality unknown (Herklotts). Cephalanthera L. C. Rich. Stem creeping, subterranean (rhizome), roots tuberous when the plant is leafless or they may be fiberous when the stem is leafy. Lower leaves lanceolate while the upper ones are linear. Flowers on a lax raceme, c. 1.5 cm long, white with yellow spots on the lip which has a short ridged epichile. Cephalanthera ensifolia Rich. Orch. Annot. 29: 1817;Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 412, 1840; F.B.I. 6: 125, 1890; King & Pantl. 271, t. 362, 1898; Hara, 2nd. Rpt. 180, 1971. Flowers white or lip spotted with yellow, sepals lanceolate, acute, petals elliptic, obtuse; ridges in lip, hypochile concave or saccate, embracing the column, epichile (midlobe) short, triangular, obtuse, 5-ridged, often marked with yellow spots. Flowering during April to 332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) June. Collected from Pisang to Tatopani (Kitamura), Dhunche-Goss- ainkund (Hara). Epipactis Sw. Large terrestrial erect orchids with sessile leaves. Flowers in racemes, pendulous, bracts leafy. The lip is short, sessile on the base of the column. This orchid differs from Cephalanthera in structural details of the flowers which are rather large and showy. Artificial key to the species of Epipactis Flowers 2.5 — 3.75 cm in diam.; hypochile narrow consimilis Flowers c. 2.5 cm in diam,; hypochile much broader than the epichile royleana Epipactis consimilis Wall, ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 126, 1890; King & Pantl. 272, t. 364, 1898. Parker, Forr. Bull. bot. ser. 76: 8,1931. Terrestrial with fiberous roots, leaves sessile, broadest lower ones while the upper ones narrow. Flowers orange-green, rarely spotted, drooping; sepals and petals pubescent; lip as long as the sepals, hypo- chile (sidelobes) narrow, oblong and turned upwards, epichile (mid- lobe) longer, lanceolate, inflexed at the base and then recurved. Flo- wering during February and March. Collected from West Nepal (Parker). E. royleana Lindl. in Royle, 111. Himal. 368, 1839, et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 463, 1840; F.B.I.6: 126, 1890. Flowers green with yellow lip which is longer than the sepals, sepals and petals nearly equal, glabrous. Hypochile of lip large, saccate and much broader than the ovate epichile. Collected from Thulo Gompha khola at 3100 m, authority Kitamura. Goodyera R. Br. The genus is named after an English botanist — J. Goodyer. These are known as ‘rattle snake plantains’, the name being given because of the mottlings on the foliage. These are also terrestrial leafy orchids with stem decumbent or creeping. Leaves are usually thick, petiolate and with a sheath. Flowers small on racemes, sepals often pubescent outside, dorsal sepal concave and along with the petals forming a hood over the column. Stigma is undivided. Artificial key to the species of Goodyera A. Stem stout, 45-60 cm tall, many leaved; spike dense flowered, bracts equalling the flowers procera J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (2) Banerji & Thapa: Orchids of Nepal Plate Fig. 1. Arundina graminifolia (Don) Hochr. Fig. 2. Goodyera procera Hk. f. Fig. 3. Herpysma longicaulis Lindl. Fig. 4. Thunia alba Reichb. f. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 8 333 A A. Stem 10-20 cm tall, few leaved — B. Lip smooth, channelled, lamellate within, with no hairs or soft setate repens BB. Lip within setose and tubercled — C. Leaves 3-5 nerved, never reticulate; bracts exceeding the flo- wers; fls. pink foliosa CC. Leaves mottled with white — D. Bracts exceeding the flowers, sepals with pink tips hemsleyana DD. Bracts about equalling the flowers — E. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, fleshy (thick) vittata EE. Leaves cordate cordata DDD. Bracts shorter than the flowers; fls. white secundiflora Goodyera cordata (Lindl.) Bth. ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:114, 1890; Holttum, 122, 1953; Hara, 2nd Rpt. 187, 1971. Georchls cor- data Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 496, 1840. Plants slender, c. 15-30 cm long; leaves ovate-cordate, basal sinus variable in depth, petiole slender, 6-12 mm long. Inflorescence a lax- flowered spike, flowers pubescent, bracts equalling or shorter than the flowers. Lip gibbous. Authority Hara. According to Hara, the scape is shortly hairy, while the bracts are more densely hairy and the lip is also hairy on the lower half of inside. G. foliosa (Lindl.) Bth. ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:113, 1890; King & Pantl. 281, t. 374, 1898; Holttum, 121, 1953; Hara, 435, 1966. Georchis foliosa Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 496, 1840. Bracts exceeding the flowers. Lip saccate, beak dilated, base setose within. According to Hara, the chief distinguishing characters are “blunt tipped papilla-like hairs on the bracts and scape”. Authority Hara. G. Henisfieyaoa King & Pantl. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 64:342, 1895 et Ann. Roy. bot. Gard. Calcut. 8:281, 1898. Plants 15-25 cm long; leaves 3 to 5 unequal, broadly ovate, acute; bracts lanceolate, exceeding the ovary. Flowers 1.5 cm long, white, sepals with long sparse hairs, tips pink, petals falcate. Lip with a sharp tooth on either side of the mouth of the saccate base, apical lobe oblong. Flowering time during July and early August. Extremely rare, only collected from Bagdoar at 2135 m. G. procera Hk. f. Exot. FI. 39, 1823; F.B.I. 6:111, 1890; King & 334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) Pantl 282, t. 278, 1898; Kara, 436, 1966. (Fig. 2). Flowers minute, whitish, fragrant, sepals broadly ovate, obtuse, 1 nerved, petals spathulate; lip not longer than the column, base sac- cate, softly setose within, 2 large calli within the obtuse recurved tip. Occasional in the tropical region. Flowering during June. Collected from Eastern Nepal (Banerji). G. repens (Linn.) R. Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. 2, 5:198, 1813; F.B.I. 6:111, 1890; King & Pantl. 282, t. 279, 1898; Hara, 436, 1966. Satyrium repens Linn. Sp. Pi. ed. 1, 945, 1753. Goody era marginata Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 493, 1840. Flowers whitish, lateral sepals ovate, acuminate, 1 nerved, dorsal sepal narrow, petals linear-falcate; lip ventricose, shortly beaked, channelled within, rostellar arms short. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Bagdoar, Taksindhu forest, Chandragiri. G. secundlflora Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1:182, 1857; F.B.I. 6:113, 1890; King & Pantl. 283, t. 376, 1898; Hara, 2nd. Rpt. 188, 1971. Plants c. 15-30 cm long, covered with loose sheathing leaf-petioles. Leaves few, ovate-lanceolate, lamina base rounded, petiole stout and sheathing, dark green with silvery white veins. Inflorescence many flowered, c. 15 cm long, bracts shorter than the flowers. Lip saccate with setae within. Authority Hara. G. vittata (Lindl.) Bth. ex Hook. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:113, 1890; King & Pantl. 280, t. 382, 1898; Hara, 437, 1966. Georchis vittata Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1:184, 1857. “This is determined only by the unicate sterile specimen with leaves silvery striated on the midrib and white reticulated at the apex of the blade” — authority Hara. Herpysma Lindl. Due to the creeping habit, the orchid is named as such. The leaves are membraneous with large hyline tubular sheaths. Flowers are dense on a short raceme, white but the sepals and petals have a pinkish tint. Lip is deflexed from the middle, apical lobe is blunt and broad, ?pur is as long as the ovary and parallel to it. Herpysma longieaulis Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 506, 1840; F.B.I. 6:98, 1890; King & Pantl. 276, t. 367, 1898. (Fig. 3). Flowers suberect, pale pink, sepals subequal, free, 5 nerved, dor- sal sepal forming a hood with the petals, petals oblong, obtuse. Lip shorter than the sepals, subpand uniform, reflexed from the middle, adnate to the sides of the column, spreading, spur elongate and ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 8 335 straight, tip bifid. Flowering during September to November. Collected from Bajrabarahi at c. 1370 m. Listera R. Br. The genus is named after an English physician — Martin Lister. These orchids are known as ‘Tway blades’ in the United States. These are rather insignificant terrestrial orchids with two leaves and fibrous roots. Flowers are small in racemes, with sepals and petals spreading; lip is pendulous from the base of the column. Listera pinetoruin Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1:175, 1857; F.B.I. 6:104, 1890; King & Pantl. 256, t. 338, 1898; Kitamura, 104, 1955. Terrestrial two leaved orchids. Inflorescence a few flowered raceme, flowers decurved, greenish-brown; sepals and petals subequal, free, spreading or reflexed, yellowish green. Lip cuneately broadly obcordate from a narrow base, deeply 2-lobed, twice or even thrice as long as the sepals, brownish, but deeper than the sepals. Collected from Thu- lo Gompha khola at 3500 m. Authority Kitamura. Nervilia Comm, ex Gaud. Perennial tuberous, coming into leaf after flowering. Tubers glo- bose with small warty knobs. Leaf one, broadly cordate or orbicular. Sepals and petals subequal, spreading; lip adnate to the base of the column and embracing the same at its basal region, column broaden- ed upwards. Schlecter and later Santapau & Kapadia consider Nervilia Comm, ex Gaud, as a distinct genus “primarily differing from Pogonia Juss. by the production of their flowers before the leaves and by hav- ing a separate stem which bears no leaves but may have scales or scaly sheaths”. Artificial key to the species of Nervilia Flowers solitary, c. 2.5 cm long; sepals & petals white, anterior lobe of lip with 2 obscure sidelobes macroglossa Flowers 7-15, c. 1.5 cm long; sepals & petals green, anterior lobe of lip undulate-crenate scottii Nervilia macroglossa (Hk.f.) Schltr. in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 45:402, 1911; Hara, 445, 1966. Pogonia macroglossa Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 120, 1890; King & Pantl. 267, t. 356, 1898. Leaf reniform, petiole c. 7.5 cm long; flowering stalk bearing a single nodding flower, c. 2.5 cm long; sepals and petals subequal. 336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) linear-lanceolate. Lip gibbous, apical half expanded, with two obscure sidelobes near its base. Authority Hara. N. scottii (Reichb. f.) Schltr. in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 45:404, 1911. Pogonia scottii Reichb. f. Flora, 276, 1872; F.B.I. 6:120, 1890; King & Pantl. 269, t. 360, 1898. Leaf ovate-reniform, petiole 10-20 cm long. Inflorescence a race- me of 7-15 flowers, flowers horizontal, sepals and petals connivent, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, dull green with red nerves. Lip 3 lobed to about the middle, subclawed, base saccate, yellowish-white with purple nerves, sidelobes obtuse, midlobe suborbicular, velvety. Flow- ering time April to May. Collected from Ranibari at 1370 m. Spiraotlies L. C. Rich. Terrestrial leafy orchids with tuberous roots. Flowers are small in spirally twisted spikes, due to which the genus gets the name. Sepals more or less connate and with the petals forming a hood, the lateral sepals are gibbous at base, thus the spur is short or saccate. The bracts are longer than the ovary. Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames, Orch. 2:55, 1908. Neottia sinensis Pers. Syn. PI. 2:511, 1807. Flowers small, pink or white crowded on a spiral spike; lateral sepals 3 mm long, obtuse, tips recurved, spreading, dorsal sepals com- bined with the petals to form a 3 -lobed hood enclosing the column. Lip oblong, crisp, base saccate having 2 glands. Distributed widely at 1980 to 2285 m. Flowering during September to early November. Collected from Manichur, Chaubasa to Risingo, Nayapati to Risingo, Godavari, Gumurang to Sard (Kitamura), Lokwa (Kitamura). King & Pantl. mention that the flowers produced in spring are white, while those appearing in autumn are often pink. Our observations do not support this seasonal change to effect the colour of the flowers. White flowered specimens are common in Godavari throughout the year ex- cept the cold months. sub. sp. australis (R. Br.) Kitamura in Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 21:23, 1964, et FI. Nep. Himal. 451, 1966. Spiranthes australis (R.Br.) Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 823, 1824 et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 464, 1840;F.B.L 6:102, 1890. Kitamura has separated this subspecies from the nominate race by the latter being glabrous on its inflorescence and ovary. The Himalayan species collected by Kitamura are all puberulous on the spikes and ovaries. Collected from Nagarkot by Kitamura. TSiunia Reichb. f. The orchid is named in honour of Count von Thun Hohenstein ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— % 337 of Bohemia. These are terrestrial with a tall and fleshy stem, leaves are numerous, membraneous and thin. The inflorescence is terminal, bracts persistent and pollen masses are in 4 pairs. The flowers turn brown or remain white on drying. This genus has been included under Phajus by many authors, but Reichenbach.f. distinguishes between Thunia and Phajus. Further, the genus Phajus is placed under sub- tribe Phajeae of Sympodiales-Pleuranthae (Kerosphaeroideae) accord- ing to the classification proposed by Schlecter. Thunia alba Reichb.f. in Bot. Zeit. 764, 1825; F.B.I. 6:818, 1890. Phajus albus Lindl. in Wall. Cat. 3749 (n.n.) et PI. Asiat. Rar. 2, t. 198, 1831. (Fig. 4). Flowers large, 3-5, sepals and petals erecto-patent, white. Lip white or pale yellow with purple red nerves, shovel-shaped with a broad toothed, crisp midlobe, disk with 5 crested ridges, spur short. Flowering from late May to early July. Collected from Godavari, Dhunibesi, Dhaitarbesi, Baseri (Kitamura), locality unknown (Herklotts). Zeuxine Lindl. The name refers to the partial union of the lip and the column and possibly also to the growing together of the pollinia. These are also terrestrial herbs with membraneous leaves. Flowers are in spikes and the posterior sepal is concave and lies on the petals forming a hood. The genus can readily distinguished in the field by the character of the leaves and the stigmas being two. Artificial key to the species of Zeuxine A. Leaves sessile, linear-lanceolate; scape dense flowered; apical lobe of lip suborbicular strateumatica AA. Leaves shortly petioled; scape lax-flowered — B. Apical lobe of lip very small; bracts equalling the ovaries; leaves with a median stripe goodyeroides BB. Apical lobe of lip 2-lobulate; bracts exceeding the ovaries; leaf sheath inflated, hyaline flava Zeuxine flava (Lindl.) Benth. in Benth. & Hook.f. Gen. PI. 3:600, 1883; F.B.I. 6:108, 1890; King & Pantl. 289, t. 386, 1898; Hara, 452, 1966. Etaeria flava Lindl. in Wall. Cat. 7380 (nomen nud.). Scape lax flowered, bracts exceeding the ovaries, flowers small, white with a pink lip, sepals obtuse; lip shorter than the sepals termi- nal lobe of lip 2 winged, wings broadly obovate or hatchet-shaped. 338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (2) sac with 2 long spurs. Flowering during April and May. Collected from Banepa to Dolaghat at c. 1220 m. Z. goodyeroides Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 486, 1840; F.B.I. 6:107, 1890; King & Pantl. 287, t. 383, 1898. Scape lax flowered, bracts reddish, equalling the ovaries; flowers pinkish, sepals ovate, acute, lateral sepals lanceolate, 1 nerved, petals falcate, very obtuse. Lip slightly exceeding the sepals, cymbiform, ter- minal lobe orbicular, apex subtruncate, rolled inwards along the mar- gins, membraneous. Flowering during April and May. Collected from Dolaghat to Chaubas at c. 1830 m. Probably this species is rare as it has been collected only once. Z. stirateuniatica (Linn.) Schltr. Orch. Deutch. N. Giun. 77, 1911. Holttum, 131, 1955. Orchis stratenmatica Linn. Sp. PI. 943, 1753. Zeuxine sulcata Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 485, 1840; F.B.I. 6:106, 1890; King & Pantl. 286, t. 381, 1898. Scape dense flowered, bracts much longer than the ovaries; flowers small, white or light yellow, sepals 3 mm long, oblong, membranous, petals oblong, obtuse. Lip yellow, equalling the sepals, cymbiform, contracted into short pubescent claw, bearing a terminal lobe or 2 small lobes. Flowering probably during December. Collected from the banks of Trisuli Khola area, (also Burkill). (to be continued) P.S. After going to the press, we have noticed Balakrishna has described a new species — Listera nepalensis (Blumea, 74(1): 287-290, 1966). A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay j Natural History Society — 15 Upupiclae and Bucerotidae BY Humayun Abdulali [Continued jrom Vol. 70(1): 155] This part deals with 175 specimens of 16 species and subspecies up to No. 776 in ind. handbook (4:143) and No. 23744 of the Society’s register. Mr. S. A. Hussain, Research Assistant, assisted with measure- ments. 763 Upupa epops cpops Linnaeus (Sweden), European Hoopoe 4 : 308 1 6 : c? 9oo | o? 1 Siyahad, Arabia; 1 Baghdad, 1 Shaiba, Iraq; 1 Raixe Besk, 2 Shiraz , Iran; 1 Teghat, Kalat, Baluchistan, 1 Chitral; 2 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Kotri, Sind; 1 Pali, Jodhpur, Rajasthan; 1 Amreli, 1 Ajwa, Baroda, Gujerat; 1 Nawacot, Nepal, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam. As is evident from the literature available, the races of the Hoopoe cannot be easily separated and the difficulties are increased by two, or even perhaps three, races being found at the same place during winter and on migration. The present series covers birds with the palest heads, in all of which the white subterminal patches to the rear feathers of the crest are distinct. None have an all-black first primary. The measurements are under No. 766. 764 Upupa epops saturata Lonnberg (Kjachta, Southern Trans- baicalia) Tibetan Hoopoe 4: 310 54 : 25c? H Cx| OOOOOOO^OOOOSO h- 3 33 MO'AOOm'tOirih-hm vs A-J <286 'nJ- 0 <3 oo>nso,OT)-ooosofOOs<^(N •o o X) ’-1 1-H T-H rt CM os^ooso os < tL o *h C ”3 <5 d ^ , f \ Cd 99^^09^99999 r- sbt^osbooc»c^osboo r-r *-> (jh <-> e cn r 3 X) < ft t^'^tso-^'^-ooorsi'st-osvsoo fH *"H t-H T-H r-H Cs| T 9 £> 0 &§xi S6|6g SiSS^S^aSliS 1 Number of not pregnant, pregnant and lactating females of Rattus m. meltada and prevalence of pregnancy during the VARIOUS MONTHS OF THE YEARS 1969-1970 Ecology of rattus m. meltada in kolar 451 p a y & a JW 60 g 2 6 O* ° 60 -h pl 6-i ^ o o o +-> hf) %.S I "S 60 tJ Cj >> o Tj- IT) o°n66vpo°vorot-vooot-60 vo oo ooooooooo 6 f^>no^fnvp(N'^tvf>ooi^'vp CO AAovoAvoLh-Ihio’— 'A'sf •O oo m vo oo vo m i> vo oo i> oo VO Ttvo^ovt^invot-'OV’-'oovo on 000 r— < T-H ^ — 4 w X H o g 2 D Q •8 Q w _) < * § w Hh « Q < Z H < 13 o <4-, o 00 o o O © oo -(-> co dv c- CO "it CM c 8 ^ "t- of «n 5-4 4> CLh _ c3 oo CM CM CM oo >n o i—i m Tt O 1-H O CO "it £ 1-H CM 1-4 CO •it o vo r- co VO COOViH CO o t-1 co CO d mom VO VO CO O ov i> c n CM CM CM CM ob t CM 1-H o NOOhh < CM co 1-4 1— 1 CO d? oo o «n co in in —4 3 i— s 1-4 1—1 co cm cm n 3 CM ▼-H t-H ■it s 5o <3 in o i-H VO O CM O CM s *-< CM CO 1-4 CM CO Sh -CX VO — i O r- O co O CO < CM CM CM Vh cd » CM O ov inhO CM s v-H r-H CM CM i-H •sf E VO -H CO o coovO CM r 05 CO 03 ass -S s s s a 00 00 0 0 O 00 00 00 o in o >n H in © >o H co t"- o cor-o .5? ■ ■ i i i r7 *<3 ©VO — ©VO —1 si 1-4 co t"- 1-H CO t ' j0> <0 13 X fli 13 s 00 s >> .i>t^est^ mOV©o !-i ■*-> VO o 0 N «o 00 ^}- m . a >» 3.-1 s i i Distribution of litters of various sizes by embryo count in the monthly collections of Rattus m. meltada ECOLOGY OF RATTUS M. MELTADA IN KOLAR 455 3 g § s 2 S d o a> bo < o * S n a a !z ^ ^ &o o J8 5 l| a g —I H '0I^OOO(p0\H(>0HO'O «o^o^vb»§f,S I 8 q.,5 § -a a g- o O o 456 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) State observed that the females predominated among live trapped R. rattus forming 55*0 per cent. Table 7 Distribution of pregnancy by weight group of pregnant females Weight range in gm ■ 36-50 51-65 66-80 81-95 96 and above Number of samples 51 40 17 4 0 Per cent : 45-5 35-7 150 3-5 00 The body weights of 452 males and 528 females of Rattus m. meltada were analysed placing them in three groups of 35 gm each. The weight of males ranged from 10 to 102 gm and females from 10 to 85*5 gm. On the basis of laboratory observations, the minimum weight of 10 gm indicated that the animals are about 14-16 days old. The animals grouped under 10-35 gm range are sub-adults in the age group about 6 to 8 weeks. The animals weighing 36-70 gm consist of a mixture of indi- viduals just attained maturity as well as older specimens ; and could therefore, be about 10-12 weeks. The weight range of 36-70 gm has the highest frequency among both the males and females. I yy I - ' ' | i ; ■ ;-:i I ' 1: , : • . , : .. ; - ' • ‘ | Acknowledgements F | j 1 ;r_ We areiindebted to the Indian Council of Medical Research, for the financial support given to the enquiry on the ‘ Epidemiology of dis- appearing and reappearing plague ’. The help given by the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, in the taxonomic studies is also gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Animal Ecologist, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, for his constructive suggestions in analysing and presenting the data. Grateful thanks are also due to the staff of the enquiry, particularly to Shriyuths R. Venkatappa, M. V. Anantha and R. Chandrasekhar for their able assistance in field and laboratory. I "> k ' 1 “ ** j ■ r ; i ' s :• ' 5 r; )"■ V c ... '1 " i" j J /' ; :■ ; ; ^ ECOLOGY OF RATTUS M. MELTADA IN KOLAR 457 References Bhatnagar, J. K. (1966) : The role of rodents in the epidemiology of plague in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Rodent Symposium . Calcutta . pp . 204 . Bindra, O. S. & Premsagar (1968) : Breeding habits of the field rat. Mil- lar dia meltada (Gray). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (2) : 477-481. Chandrahas, R. K. & Krishnaswami, A. K. (1971) : Host preferences of sipho- naptera on wild rodents in the South Indian plague focus. Ind. J. Med. Res. 59 : 1808. Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : The fauna of India, Mammalia, Vol. 3 (Rodentia). Govt, of India, Delhi, 849 pp. Iyer, P. V. Seetharama (1933) : A rat flea survey of the Mysore State. Ind. J. Med. Res. XX (4) : 975. Krishnaswami, A. K., Ray, S. N. & Chandrahas, R. K. (1970) : Serological survey of small mammals in the South Indian plague focus. Ind. J. Med. Res. 58 : 1407-1412. Prakash, I. (1971) : Personal Com- munication. Prater, S. H. (1965) : The book of Indian animals. Bombay Natural History Society and Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay. Sheshadri, K. S. (1971) : Personal Communication. Fisheries survey of Himachal Pradesh and some adjacent areas with special reference to trout, mahseer and allied species1 BY K. L. Sehgal2 Cold Water Fisheries Research Unit of the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute , Kangra ( H.P .) Introduction Our knowledge of the fish and fisheries of Himachal Pradesh is very meagre. Menon (1954) listed some of the species of fish while describing 4 Fish Geography of Himalayas The hill areas of Himachal Pradesh range in elevation from 353 to 6470 metres above sea level. Innumerable streams with clear water traverse the various parts of the State and hold trout, mahseer and other species. The climatic conditions in the State vary from temperate to arctic. Due to varied climatic conditions, the survey was done according to the approachability of a particular part of the State. The survey was undertaken from February to June 1965 and in November 1965. The aims and objective of the survey were (a) to gather data on the position of trout and mahseer fisheries in the hill streams (b) to collect data on hydrobiological conditions of the streams containing trout, mahseer and other species (c) to make inventory of fish species present in the various drainages and to determine their distri- bution and relative abundance and (d) to assess the total fishing potential by gathering data on fishing methods and gears. Material and methods For survey, important sampling stations on the basis of the number of fishing licences issued for each stream in each district were marked and collections made. Since there are no fish landing or assembly centres in the State, catch composition from each stream was determined by 50 castings done with a cast net of 0*6 cm mesh. The diameter of the net 1 Accepted May 5, 1970. 2 Present address : Cold Water Fisheries Research Unit, Harwan, Srinagar, Kashmir. FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 459 when extended by casting was 2*5 m. Small fish and insect life inhabiting the shallow areas of the streams below stones were collected by enclosing one square metre of the substratum with fine square mesh netting cloth and sweeping this area completely. Small fish and insects were collected in the cloth and then picked up. Water samples were analysed according to standard methods of water analysis. Physiographical features of the drainage Himachal Pradesh, in north-west Himalayas, is a hill territory of 28,241 square kilometres and is bounded on the south by Uttar Pradesh and Punjab ; on the north-west by Jammu and Kashmir and on the north-east by Tibet. The State is divided into six districts (Chamba, Mandi, Bilaspur, Mahasu, Kinnaur and Sirmur) for administrative purposes. The five major rivers which drain the water sheds of the Pradesh are Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna. Since the Chenab flows only through a short length of Chamba and the area is not accessible it was not included in the survey programme. The region between the water shed of Dhouladhar bordering Kangra Valley and that of Pirpanjal constitutes the Ravi basin. The Ravi is the principal drainage of Chamba district. In its westerly flow, the Ravi receives Sal and Suil streams on the right and Mehla, Chanet and Naini streams on the left banks. The Beas which drains part of Chamba district and the whole of Mandi district has its origin at Beas Kund in Kulu. While flowing in a south-westerly direction the river receives Tirthan, Bakhili, Juni, Suketi and Seon streams on the left and Uhl, Rana, Googli, Bharal, Dehar and Chakki on the right bank. Each of these tributaries in turn receives several side streams forming independent water systems. The Sutlej after flowing through Tibet enters Himachal Pradesh at Shipkila and drains the entire water sheds of Kinnaur, Bilaspur and part of Mahasu district. The principal tributaries are Baspa, Mangla, Gassi, Nogli,Behra, Ali, Ghambar and Ghambrola on the left and Wangad, Barari, Seer and Suker on the right banks. In addition, the Sutlej receives several seasonal streams in Bilaspur district draining the Siwalik hills. The Yamuna which drains the water sheds of Sirmur and partly of Mahasu districts has comparatively few tributaries within Himachal Pradesh. The major ones are River Paber which joins with River Tons near Tiunni in Uttar Pradesh, Tons, Giri, Bata, and Markanda all debouch from the right bank. A complete list of the streams surveyed along- with places of sampling and approximate elevation is given in Appendix I while the five rivers and their principal tributaries are shown in Fig. 1. 460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Physico-chemical conditions and insect life of the streams (a) Physico-chemical conditions : The study of physico-chemical factors included air and water tem- perature, pH, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity, chlorides, silicates, nitrates and phosphates. On the basis of the ecological conditions and physico-chemical factors, the streams have been divided into three cate- gories as described in the following paragraphs and Table I. (1) ‘ Trout streams ’ are snow fed and situated at an elevation of 1470 metres and above. The other conditions are fast and turbulent currents, forest flora of the surrounding hills mainly of deodar, kail and ral trees and a substratum of boulders and rocks either pitted or smooth. (2) 4 Snow trout streams ’ which receive partly snow water and partly spring water flow at elevations ranging from 875 to 1470 metres above sea level. Other features are moderate current forming rapids and pools alternately, hilly forest flora consist mainly of sal, pine and bushy plants. The substratum consists of sand, boulders and stones covered with slimy algal matter and moss. (3) ‘ Mahseer streams ’ which receive spring or rain water are situated at an elevation below 875 metres above sea level. Other features of such streams are slow current forming deep pools at places which sometimes are choked with filamentous algae and submerged vegetation ; forest flora on the surrounding hills consist of pine, shisham and thorny bushes ; soil erosion is a great problem and streams carry great quantities of silt during rains. The substratum is composed of pitted rocks and small stones covered with slimy algal matter. (b) Insect fauna : Insect fauna in the mountain streams depend primarily on the velocity of the current and nature of the substratum (Hora 1936). In the streams where current is swift and the stones of the substratum are bare or covered with algal matter, insect life is largely nymphs of Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera and larvae of Trichoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera in percentages of 67#42, 7*20, 1T40, 7’20 and 6*78 % by number respectively. Important forms of insects inhabiting such streams are Baetis, Epeorus, Ephemerella, Heptagenia and Iron among Ephemeroptera ; Perlidae among Plecoptera ; Philopotamus and Rhyacophila among Trichoptera ; Blepharoceridae and Simuliidae among Diptera ; and Haliplidae and Psephenidae among Coleoptera. Distribution of Baetis and Epeorus and Blepharoceridae is interesting. In Baspa and Paber streams, which show substrata consisting of bare stones and fast current, Baetis, Epeorus and Blepharoceridae are abundant. On the other hand Uhl river which has pitted rocks and a substratum stones covered with brown, slimy algal matter, the three forms were not abundant. Nymphs of Plecoptera FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 461 g B w 00 S g p4 < o «S P-l Ph ! a I “ W KH o M £ S a cp .a a OQ o ^ CP .2 Q o ffi CP CP £ o° "S £ CP o cj ft ^ s B =3 £ ’T- o3 Ai i/5 /"> w O d-i A rl O ^ IN p3 s C/3 00 -d o o 03 H a c« s 462 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) were abundant in Suil and Andhra streams which have strong current and a substratum of bare stones with algal encrustation. Insect life of the streams which have moderate current forming pools and rapids alternately consist mainly of the nymphs of Ephemeroptera, Odonata and Plecoptera and larvae of Trichoptera, Diptera and Coleo- pterain percentages of 38*83, 6*34, 3*53, 28*20, 9*40 and 13*70% respectively by number. In these streams nymphs of Ephemeroptera are represented mainly by Ephemerella and Epeorus ; Odonata by Gomphidae and Agrionidae ; Plecoptera by Perilidae and Chloroperlidae ; Trichoptera by Leptoceridae and Rhyacophila ; Diptera by Blepharoceridae, Tipulidae and Simuliidae and Coleoptera by adults and larvae of Dytiscidae and Psephenidae. Nymphs of Odonata have been recorded in maximum number in Suketi, Ali and Ashmi streams. These streams were choked with mats of Spirogyra and other aquatic plants like Hydrilla and Pota- mogeton. A complete list of insects and other aquatic animals recorded from the various hill streams is given in appendix II. Fishing Methods The common methods of fishing prevalent in Himachal Pradesh are simple but well-suited to the mountain streams. Fishing methods can broadly be divided into two sub-heads namely (a) nets and (b) other methods. (a) Nets The principal types of nets used for fishing in the hill streams are cast net, drag net, gill net and stake net. Since the shape and operation of these nets differ considerably from the conventional types used in the plains, they are briefly described below. Cast Net It is a universal gear used for catching small and medium-sized fish. It is known by different names depending on the size of the mesh used. The different names given to this net are ‘ sorru ’ (1*2 cm mesh), ‘weru ’ (1*8 cm mesh), ‘ dobajju’ (2*5 cm mesh) and 4 palka 9 (3 cm mesh). The diameter of the net when extended by casting varies from 1 to 2 metres. A major feature of the net is that solid iron sinkers weighing about 5 kg are fixed to the net on the peripheral cord. On account of heavy sinkers the net settles down immediately at the bottom thus preventing the fish from escaping. As the net after casting settles at the bottom, the fisher- man with his feet disturbs the stones which helps in bringing the fish to the pockets of the net. It is generally used for catching Labeo dero 9 FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 463 Oreinus plagiostomus , Garra gotyla, Barilius spp. and yearlings of Tor putitora. Drag net Drag net or 4 Bigha ’ or 4 Kadh’ etc. as it is called locally is generally used to fish in pools of the rivers and their principal tributaries in the lower reaches having moderate current. Its use is limited to dry season when water level in the streams is low. In the rivers it is often employed in shallow pools and places where the river breaks up into several chan- nels. Drag net is always employed in conjunction with stake net. A stake net is fixed across the shallow tail end of the pool. The minimum of 3’0 cm mesh is the common type used in Mandi, and Sirmur. The net is gradually brought downstream from the head end of the pool by a line of men swimming and diving to drive the fish. Heavy sinkers are attached to the lower end of the net so that while being dragged down- stream the net remains close to the bottom preventing fish from escap- ing. As the drag net is brought downstream and approaches the stake net, large number of fishermen with cast net fish the area between the two nets. This method is employed for commercial fishing of Tor putitora, Labeo dero and L. dyocheilus. Gill net It is known as 4 Nilotu ’ or 4Pand *. The minimum permissible mesh is 4'5 cm. It is a kind of gill-cum-wall net fixed across the stream near the head end of the pool having slow current. The net is usually fixed at night with the bottom resting on the bed of the pool. To keep the net in an upright position, small stones and dry grass (Kana) are used as sinkers and floats respectively. The two ends of the net are tied to a tree or boulder on either banks of the stream. During movements the fish gets gilled. Nylon gill nets are operated in Gobindsagar Lake near Bilaspur by the State Fisheries Department. Stake net It is known as 4 Bar Patta 5 locally. Its operation is limited to certain areas of the main rivers. These nets are operated from August to November. The net with minimum mesh of 3 '1 cm is fixed across a stream with stones and perpendicular bamboo stakes. The net near the two banks is kept low in height. Fish which descend down to the river after spawning find their way obstructed and try to escape through the sides near the banks. While doing so, they are caught by number of fishermen with cast nets. This is one of the specific methods used for catching mahseer in descending phase of spawning migration. 464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (3) (b) Other Methods Under this sub-head are included rod and line with artificial lures for trout fishing ; long lines with spoon for mahseer fishing ; spear fishing for mahseer and other species. In addition, indiscriminate destruction of young and big fish is done by adopting illegal methods like dynamiting, diversion of water for killing of young fish and poisoning with certain indigenous plants. Fish fauna During the survey, forty-four species of fish belonging to various orders and families have been collected. Of these four species have been recorded for the first time in Himachal Pradesh. These are Raimas bola (Hamilton), Tor mosal (Hamilton), Puntius chagunio (Hamilton) and Glyptosternum reticulatum (McClelland). Table II gives a list of the species, distribution in the State and their general distribution. Certain species have been recorded to prefer particular ecological conditions and are described below. Barilius bendelisis chedra (Hamilton) This species was taken from streams with moderate current having substrata of stones covered with slimy algal matter. Temperature tole- rance is wide, ranging from 18*5°C to 35*0°C. This species has not been recorded from upper Mahasu and Kinnaur districts where purely snow fed streams occur. Large number of fry have been collected during February-March and June-July. Fertilised eggs have been collected in June from certain streams beneath the pebbles in shallow, slow running areas. The eggs are characterised by the orange colour of the yolk. Its maximum limit of distribution in the State is up to 1180 metres above sea level. Raimas bola (Hamilton) R. bola has been collected from a pool in Markanda river at Kala. Amb in Sirmur district. This river is seasonal and retains water during the whole year only in some of its deep pools. The pools are covered with filamentous algae and aquatic vegetation. The species was asso- ciated with the fry and fingerlings of B. bendelisis chedra and B. barna. Tor putitora (Hamilton) T. putitora or the mahseer inhabits the major rivers of the State and their tributaries situated below 1180 metres m.s.l. excepting River Ravi in Chamba district, though this stretch of the river lies well below the FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 465 optimum elevation mentioned. This species appears to prefer streams maintaining temperature from 19-5°C to 25*5°C. The water tempera- ture of Ravi system in Chamba district during May- June was 12,5°C to 18*5°C. Fry and fingerlings in thousands have been collected from shallow pools and below big boulders near the shore which are con- stantly flushed by the main current of the stream throughout the period of the survey. Large-sized fish prefer deep pools of the main rivers and their principal tributaries. In majority of the streams it is associa- ted with Labeo dew and L. dyocheilus along with several unimportant species. Table II List of fishes recorded from Himachal Pradesh SI. No. Species Distribution in H.P. Remarks Order CYPRINIFORMES Division Cyprini Sub-Order Cyprinoidei Family Cyprinidae Sub-family Rasborinae 1. Barilius barila (Hamilton) Bilaspur Throughout N. India, Bengal, Orissa and Lower Assam. 2. Barilius barna (Hamilton) Sirmur Orissa, Bengal and Assam. 3. Barilius bendelisis chedra Chamba, Mandi, Bilas- Throughout India as far (Hamilton) pur, Lower Mahasu as W. Ghats and and Sirmur Ceylon. 4. Raimas bola (Hamilton) Sirmur Orissa, Bengal and Assam. 5. Barilius shacra (Hamilton) Sirmur North India and Assam. 6. Barilius vagra (Hamilton) Chamba, Mandi and Rivers of Himalayan and Bilaspur sub-Himalayan ranges of N. India and Assam. Sub-family Cyprininae 7. Tor mosal (Hamilton) Lower Mahasu and Mountain streams of N. Sirmur India. 8. Tor putitora (Hamilton) Mandi, Bilaspur, Lower Mountain streams of Mahasu and Sirmur N. India. 9. Puntius chagunio Sirmur Orissa, Bengal, Assam (Hamilton) and N.W. India. 10. Puntius conchonius Chamba, Mandi, Bilas- From Punjab to Bengal, (Hamilton) pur and Sirmur Southern India, Orissa and Assam. 11. Puntius ticto (Hamilton) Sirmur India, Burma, Ceylon and Siam. 12. Labeo boga (Hamilton) Sirmur Rivers of Gangetic delta, Madras and Burma. 4 466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) Table II ( contd .) SI. No. Species Distribution in H.P. Remarks 13. Labeo dero (Hamilton) Chamba, Mandi, Bilas- pur and Sirmur Mountain streams of N. India and Assam. 14. Labeo dyocheilus (McClelland) Bilaspur Hills of Punjab and Assam. 15. Cyprinus carpio var. specular is Chamba and Bilaspur Exotic. Transplanted in Indian waters. 16. Cyprinus carpio var. communis Chamba and Bilaspur Exotic. Transplanted in Indian waters. 17. Garra gotyla (Gray) Chamba, Mandi, Bilas- pur, Mahasu and Sirmur Sub-family Schizothoracinae Mountain streams of W. Himalayas. 18. Oreinus plagiostomus (Heckel) Chamba, Mandi, Bilas- pur, Mahasu, Kinnaur and Sirmur Kashmir, Punjab, Assam and Eastern Hima- layas. 19. Oreinus sinuatus (Heckel) Chamba, Mandi, Bilas- pur and Sirmur Kashmir and Punjab. 20. Crossocheilus latius punjab ensis (Hamilton) Chamba, Mandi, Bilas- pur and Sirmur Family Cobitidae Hill streams of Punjab and Kashmir. 21. Nemachilus botia (Hamilton) Mandi Throughout India (Ex- cept Malabar and Ceylon). 22. Nemachilus botia aureus (Hamilton) Mandi, Bilaspur and Sirmur Throughout India (Ex- cept Malabar and Ceylon). 23. Nemachilus corica (Hamilton) Chamba, Mandi and Mahasu Bengal, Punjab and Assam. 24. Nemachilus kangrae Menon Mandi and Bilaspur Kangra Valley. 25. Nemachilus montanus (McClelland) Chamba All along Himalayas. 26. Nemachilus rupicola (McClelland) Sirmur All along Himalayas. 27. Nemachilus sp. Bilaspur — 28. Nemachilus sp. Mahasu — 29. Nemachilus sp. Mahasu Sub-family Botinae “ 30. Botia birdi Chaudhuri Bilaspur Sub-family Cobitinae Punjab, Himalayas, Gan- getic valley and Assam. 31. Lepidocephalus guntea (Hamilton) Chamba Division Siluri Sub-order Siluroidei Family Siluridae Punjab, Bengal and Assam. 32. Wallago attu (Bloch and Schneider) Sirmur India, Burma and Ceylon. FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 467 Table II ( contd .) SI. No. Species Distribution in H. P. Remarks Family Amblycipitidae 33. Amblyceps mango is Mandi Satpura-Vindhya ranges (Blyth) Family Bagridae along the base of the Himalayas as far as Kangra Valley, Burma and Malaya. 34. Mystus ( Osteobagrus ) Bilaspur Punjab, Delhi, U.P., aor (Hamilton) Bengal and Burma. 35. Mystus ( Osteobagrus ) Bilaspur Punjab, Delhi, U.P., seenghala (Sykes) Family Sisoridae Bengal and Burma. 36. Bagarius bagarius Sirmur Large rivers of India and (Hamilton) Burma. 37. Glyptosternum reticulatum (McClelland) Chamba Head waters of Indus, Kabul rivers, eastern Tibet and Sikkim. 38. Glyptothorax conirostres Chamba, Mandi, Himalayas from Kangra (Steind) Bilaspur and Mahasu to Simla. 39. Glyptothorax pectinopterus Chamba, Bilaspur and Punjab and U.P. (Hamilton) Mahasu 40. Glyptothorax stoliczkae Chamba and Mahasu Simla and Western (Steind) Himalayas. Order OPHICEPHALIFORMES Family Channidae 41. Channa gachua (Hamilton) Mandi India, Burma, Ceylon and the Andaman. 42. Channa marulius Sirmur Throughout India and (Hamilton) Ceylon. Order M ASTOCEMBELIFORMES Family Mastocembelidae 43. Mastocembelus armatus Bilaspur India, Burma and further (Lacepede) east. Order SALMONIFORMES Family Salmonidae 44. Salmo trutta fario Mandi, Mahasu and Exotic. Transplanted in Linnaeus Kinnaur the cold waters of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir. Oreinus plagiostomus (Heckel) This is the only indigenous species which thrives in the ice cold waters of trout streams at high altitudes. They have been collected with some exceptions from areas having elevation ranging from 1180 to 3000 metres m.s.l. The species has been collected in River Ravi during May at 468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Bhasoli and Thein, the places situated at an elevation of 500 metres m.s.l. The temperature tolerance of O. plagiostomus ranged from 8‘0°C to 22‘0°C. The occurrence of this species at Bhasoli and Thein may be on account of low water temperature (12,5°C-18,5°C). Fertilised eggs are of yellow to orange colour and have been collected at different periods in the various river systems. In Sutlej and Beas sys- tems in Mandi and Bilaspur regions fertilised eggs have been collected in March. On the other hand in Sutlej system in Mahasu and Kinnaur districts and Ravi system in Chamba district, fertilised eggs have been collected from May to June. In general, the spawning grounds of O. plagiostomus have been located not in the main rivers but in the tributaries with temperature between 18*5°C and 2F5°C, Fisheries Commercial catches of fish in Himachal Pradesh are entirely lacking on account of three main factors. Firstly, the hill streams are shallow and do not hold enough water excepting in some of the deeper pools during the year so as to facilitate the holding of large-sized fish. In the main rivers, conditions are somewhat better but due to strong current and very deep pools, fishing gears are not effective. Secondly, the permanent inhabitants of the hill streams are species which do not grow to large size and it is they which constitute the bulk of the catches. The average catch does not exceed 2 kg per net provided the fisherman work for at least 4 hours. Thirdly, due to difficult hilly terrain and lack of communication it is impossible for the professional fishermen to assemble their catches at a fixed place for disposal. They sell their catches indi- vidually. In the whole of Himachal Pradesh there are no fish assembly or marketing centres. Four types of fishery have been recognised in the State as described below. (a) Trout Fishery Trout fishery in the streams is constituted only by brown trout, Salmo trutta fario Linnaeus though rainbow trout, Salmo gairdeneri Richardson has recently been introduced at Barot Trout Hatchery. There are two trout farms in the State at Barot and Chirgaon in addition to a few hatch- ing troughs at Sangla. Regular stocking of the streams is done every year with the fry and fingerlings grown in the two farms. Introduction of brown trout in Himachal Pradesh dates back to 1916 when eyed-ova from Kulu were transplanted in Uhl valley. Independently, eyed-ova from Kulu were transplanted to a small hatchery near Chamba at Siran Ghat in 1910. From Uhl valley, trout was further transplanted in Paber and Baspa streams. Since then trout has established itself very well excepting in Chamba. The trout fishery in Chamba perished after the FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 469 devastating floods of 1947 in the Ravi. The old revenue records of the former princely State of Chamba reveal a flourishing trout fishery in Ravi till 1947 and fish up to 3 kg had been recorded. At present fish up to 3 kg in some of the best trout streams of the State is rare. The normal weight does not exceed 1*5 kg as revealed by anglers records. Efforts are being made by the State Fisheries Department to explore new areas of the State for development of trout fishery to attract more tourists. (b) Snow trout Fishery Snow trout fishery covers the species Oreinus plagiostomus and 0. sinuatus. The two species account for the major catches in Chamba, Mahasu, Kinnaur and parts of Mandi and Bilaspur districts. Good quantity of the two species is caught in the Ravi from Chamba to down- stream as far as Bhasoli (Jammu Province) ; in the Sutlej and its main tributaries from Kalpa to the tail end of Gobind-sagar reservoir ; in the Beas and its principal tributaries between Aut and Mandi town and in the Yamuna and its tributaries including Paber, Tons, and Amlawa (U.P.). O. plagiostomus measuring 47 cm in length and weighing T4 kg has been taken by cast net at Seema in Paber river. (c) Mahseer Fishery Tor putitora is the only species giving commercial catches in the State. It forms a good fishery in the main rivers and their tributaries at lower elevations. In Ravi, as mentioned earlier, no trace of existence of mahseer fishery upstream of Madhopur Head Works has been recorded. It may probably be on account of two factors, firstly the water tempera- ture above the barrage is low and secondly on account of barrage which may be an hindrance in the migration of this species. Good mahseer fishery below the barrage has been noted by Sehgal, Shukla and Shah (unpublished) in Gurdaspur district of Punjab. Important streams having mahseer in substantial quantity are the Beas from Aut to Sanghol and its principal tributaries Suketi, Seon, Bharal, Dehar and Chakki ; the Sutlej (Gobind Sagar Lake) and its principal tributaries Gambhar, Gambhrola, Ali, Seer and Suker and the Yamuna between Kalsi (U.P.) and Paonta and its tributaries Giri, Bata and Markanda. Major mahseer fishing centres are Mandi, Sanghol, Ghumarwin, Bilaspur, Dadahu and Paonta. Mahseer being a migratory fish ascends regularly from the main rivers to the tributaries for spawning in monsoon months and descends back before the onset of winter. Fish weighing upto 3 kg are generally caught in the pools of some of the major tributaries. Fish weighing more than 3 kg are caught in the rivers. 470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) (d) Miscellaneous Fishery Several small-sized species like Labeo dero, L. dyocheilus , Garra gotyla , Barilius spp. etc. constitute this category of hill fisheries. L. dero and L. dyocheilus rarely exceed 20 cm in total length and constitute the main catches in the tributaries. Conclusions 1. Physico-chemical conditions of the mountain streams at higher elevations are characterised by low water temperature, pH close to neutral point, high value of dissolved oxygen and low value of silicates. Trout and Oreinus plagiostomus are the species thriving in such streams. Insect life is also specialised and best suited to the swift running waters. Algae and other aquatic vegetation are scanty. The mountain streams at lower elevations on the other hand have higher water temperature, alkaline pH, higher values of total alkalinity and silicates. Such streams contain different types of insects, fish and other aquatic animals. Trout waters in Himachal Pradesh, at present, are confined only to a few areas in the State. Possibilities of exploitation of new areas in Himachal Pradesh are many. For instance in Chamba district alone Sal and Suil along with their main side streams are some of the streams which afford suitable conditions for transplantation of trout. The analysis of physico-chemical factors and insect life has shown that the conditions are more or less similar to the typical trout streams of the State. These streams are very rich in Oreinus plagiostomus of all sizes. 3. Mahseer fishery needs an immediate protection. Destructive methods of fishing like dynamiting, poisoning and diversion of water for catching fish are some of the important factors responsible for decline in mahseer fishery. Even the sanctuaries have not been spared from these destructive methods. In the tributaries, juveniles need full protection, when water level goes low in summer months. To protect them from poaching, certain artificial pools need to be created. Fishing should be prohibited during spawning migration. Some of the deepest pools in the principal tributaries need to be declared as protected and reserved waters. Mass killing of mahseer during migratory phase has adverse impact on the mahseer fishery of the Beas and the Sutlej at Amritsar, Ferozepore, Harike, Ludhiana and Jullunder. The mahseer fishery as per Punjab Fisheries data, in these areas, have declined from 3*57% in the total catch during 1961 to 0*67 % in 1965. As mahseer affords an excellent sport even better than trout, adequate conservation measures are necessary. Cultural possibilities of common carp in the hills of Himachal Pradesh needs further exploration particularly in impounded waters. FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 471 Acknowledgements I wish to express my gratitudes to (Late) Shri H. L. Tandon, Director of Fisheries, Himachal Pradesh, for providing facilities to complete the survey. Thanks are also due to the district officers who rendered valuable help in the field. I am grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, for critically going through the manuscript and making valuable suggestions. Refer Anonymous (1947) : Report on the Administration of Sirmur State, Nahan, for 1946-47. Day, F. (1879) : Fishes of India, Burma and Ceylon. William Dawson and Sons, London : 778. Eaton, A. E. (1883) : A revisional monograph of recent Ephemeridae (May flies). Trans. Linn. Soc. London (2nd series) * 352 Hora, S. L. (1930) : Ecology, biono- mics and evolution of the Torrential fauna with special reference to the organs of attachment. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. B, 218 : 171-282. (1936) : Nature of substra- tum as an important factor in the ecology of torrential fauna. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 2 : 45-47. E N C E S Hora, S,L. & Silas, E. G. (1952) : Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum- XLVII. Revision of the Glyptosternoid fishes of the family Sisoridae, with description of new genera and species. Rec. Indian Mus. XLI (1) : 5-30. Menon, A. G. K. (1954) : Fish Geo- graphy of the Himalayas. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 20 (4) : 467-493. Negi, T. S. (1963) : District Gazetteer (Himachal Pradesh), Chamba. Govern- ment Press, Simla. Sehgal, K. L., Shukla, J. P. & Shah, K. L. : On survey of the Fish and Fisheries of Kangra valley and adjacent areas with special reference to mahseer and other indigenous fish. (Un- published). 472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) APPENDIX I Table giving the list of trout, snow trout and mahseer streams surveyed in Himachal Pradesh along with the actual places of sampling and ELEVATION (A.S.L.) Approximate Name of the stream Places of sampling elevation (A.S.L.) in feet TROUT River Uhl Kamand 4000 River Tirthan Larji 3500 Sainj Nala Larji 3500 Chiuntha Khad Siduan 6000 Kakri Gad Mangloar 5500 River Paber Rohru, Seema and Chirgaon 4735, 5500 and 6500 Andhra Khad Chirgaon 6500 Gumma Khad Gumma 7000 River Baspa Sangla 8000 Hurba Khad Sangla 8000 Rukti Khad upstream of Karcham — Sangla mule tract bridge 8300 Bajgar Khad SNOW TROUT Chauntra 3650 Googli Khad Jogindernagar 4500 Rana Khad Jalaru 3615 Narla Khad Saned 4320 River Beas Mandi 2930 River Beas Pandoh and Aut 2535 and 3500 Juni Khad Pandoh 2750 Bhakhili Khad Bakhili 2750 River Sutlej Deher, Badi and Slapper 1700, 1700 and 1950 Barari Khad Badi 1700 Naini Khad Naini 4200 River Ravi Parol, Chamba and Mehla 2650, 3072 and 3125 Chanet Khad Bhanot 3200 Hul Nala Andraru 4150 Sal Nala Chamba and Saho 3072 and 4900 River Suil Sundla, Salooni and Bhandel 2750, 5000 and 5750 Dhaji Nala Bandel 5800 Dagori Nala Dagori 5800 Sangnedh Nala Sangnedh 6500 Sundla Khad Sundla 2750 Gunnu Nala Gunnu 3000 Kalhel Nala Kalhel 4230 FISHERIES SURVEY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH m APPENDIX I ( contd .) Name of the stream Places of sampling Approximate elevation (A.S.L.) (in feet) Baledh or Chanju Nala Tissa 4000 River Ravi Thein and Bhasoli (Jammu Province) 1875 River Ghambar Sabathu 3500 Shikri Khad Rohru 4735 Pejah Khad Masli 5300 Prahat Khad Prahat 4000 River Tons Jiunni and Jalalia (Uttar Pradesh) 3010 River Paber Sharan (Uttar Pradesh) 3010 Ante Khad Ante (Uttar Pradesh) 3000 Swari Nala Luri 3000 River Sutlej Nogli and Luri 2700 and 3000 Nogli Khad Nogli 2700 Amlawa Khad Sahiya MAHSEER 3500 River Beas Ulh snd Mandi 2535 and 2930 Suketi Khad Chamara 2500 Gangli Khad Sundernagar 3000 Maihsera Khad Galma 1800 Seon Khad Jamsari 2000 Jabothi Khad Jabothi 2000 Seer Khad Lower Bambla and Ghumarwin 1800 and 2000 Suker Khad Bhalu 1750 Sarahali Khad Deslehra 1500 Alsed Khad Bhubana 2480 Ali Khad Ghaggas 2000 Ghambrola Khad Ghambrola 2030 Ghambar Khad Ghambar 2250 Hubardi Khad Chamba-Chuari Road 2000 Chakki Khad Lahru 1875 Kunhi Khad Gannra 3500 River Ashmi Junga 3000 River Giri Mandi, Rampur (Uttar Pradesh), Dadahu, Sainj and Chaila. 1500, 1800, 2500 and 2517 River Yamuna Paonta and Kalsi 1538 and 1708 474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) APPENDIX II List of insect and other aquatic animals genera recorded FROM HILL STREAMS OF HlMACHAL PRADESH 1 . Trout streams EPHEMEROPTERA (Nymphs) Baetis Ephemerella Epeorus Iron odonata (Nymphs) Gomphidae plecoptera (Nymphs) Chloroperlidae Perlidae trichoptera (Larvae) Philopotamus Rhyacophila HEMIPTERA (Adults) Gerris coleoptera (Larvae and Adults) Psephenidae (larvae) Gyrinidae (adults and larvae) DIPTERA Blepharoceridae Chironomidae Leptidae Simuliidae MOLLUSCA Planorbis 2. Snow trout streams turbellaria : tricladida Dendrocoelidae Planariidae NEMATODA Unidentifiable forms of nematodes EPHEMEROPTERA (Nymphs) Baetis Epeorus Ephemerella Heptagenia Iron odonata (Nymphs) Agrionidae Cordulegastridae Gomphidae plecoptera (Nymphs) Chloroperlidae Perlidae trichoptera (Larvae) Philopotamus Rhyacophila Hydropsyche coleoptera (Adults and Larvae) Dytiscidae (Adults) Gyrinidae Haliplidae diptera (Larvae) Blepharoceridae Leptidae Simuliidae Tipulidae DECAPODA Unidentified species of crab 3. Mahseer streams EPHEMEROPTERA (Nymphs) Baetis Ephemerella Epeorus Heptagenia Iron odonata (Nymphs) Agrionidae Calopterygidae Gomphidae Lestidae Libellulidae plecoptera (Nymphs) Chloroperlidae Perlidae trichoptera (Larvae) Philopotamus Rhyacophila Hydropsyche HEMIPTERA (Adults) Corixa Gerris Nepa coleoptera (Adults and Larvae) Berosus (adults) Dytiscidae (adults and larvae) Gyrinus (adults and larvae) Psephenidae (larvae) diptera (Larvae) Blepharoceridae Chironomidae Leptidae Tipulidae DECAPODA Unidentified species of crab MOLLUSCA Corbicula Limnaea A study on the Bionomics of Chauliops fallax Scott (Heteroptera : Lygaeidae) at Sehore (Madhya Pradesh)1 BY R. R. Rawat and H. R. Sahu Department of Entomology , J. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya , Jabalpur Phaseolus aureus (‘ Moong ’) and P. mungo (‘ Urid ’) are widely culti- vated pulse crops in India. Among their various insect pests, Chauliops fallax Scott was noted to be the most important one at Sehore by the senior author during 1963 and 1964 and was subsequently also recorded feeding on these crops from Indore and Seoni districts in Madhya Pradesh. This is the first record of its occurrence and economic damage to these pulses in India. Distant (1904) gave a brief account of its characteristics, distribution and damage. He reported its distribution only in Ceylon and Japan. Young (1960) reported its occurrence in Western Hunan (China) and studied its biology during 1957-58. Schwarz (1927) and Van Der Goot (1928, 1929) reported an allied species C. bisontula Banks as the most important pest of green manure plant in Dutch East Indies. An earlier report (Fletcher 1919) records its occurrence and damage to Soybeans in Kumaon, U.P., in India. Materials and Methods Mass collections of nymphs were made from the fields in July-August for rearing in laboratory. The adults reared in laboratory and the copulating pairs collected from the fields were confined in glass jars on potted plants to record oviposition, longevity etc. Freshly hatched nymphs were reared singly on tender leaves of host plants in petridishes to study the life history. The average monthly minimum and maximum room temperature during the course of studies (July to October) ranged between 28-3 to 30*8°C and 30*5 to 33-3°C, respectively, while the relative humidity ranged from 68 to 86 per cent. The incidence of the pest was recorded at 10 days interval on 50 randomly selected and tagged plants. i Accepted November 11, 1968. 476 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Results and Discussion Host Plants : Previously, the pest has been reported feeding only on Dolichos unguiculata in Ceylon (Distant 1904) and on soybean in Western Hunan (China) (Young 1960) and India (Fletcher 1919). During the course of present study the pest was mostly found feeding on 4 Moong ’ and 4 Urid \ It was also occasionally observed on soybean, cowpea and 4 moth bean ’ (. Phaseolus acontifolius) ; the lesser suitability of these plants was also found in laboratory due to higher mortality of young nymphs when reared on them. All these plants, except soybean, are the new host records of the pest. Nature and extent of damage and seasonal incidence : Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap from the leaves and tender shoots. Badly damaged leaves show several minute whitish spots caused by feeding and small black pustules formed by the dried up excreta of the pest. The attacked leaves gradually wither due to drain of sap and subsequently fall off the plants. The badly infested plants thus lose all leaves and die prematurely. The severity of damage was maximum on 4 Moong ’ and ‘ Urid 9 during August-September when more than 75 % plants were infested and more than 50% leaves fell off the attacked plants. The data on the seasonal incidence of the pest are given in Table L The pest was active from second week of July to third week of October. The incidence was at its peak during August-September, when up to 45 nymphs and 12 adults were recorded per plant and up to 20 nymphs and 7 adults per leaf. Table 1 Seasonal incidence of C. fallax Average population per plant Date of — — * Observation Nymphs Adults 1 1 .vii. 1 964 Nil 1-0 21 .vii. 1964 Nil 10 31. vii. 1964 4-4 2-5 lO.viii. 1964 12*5 '2*5 20.viii.1964 17-5 6-8 30.viii. 1964 18-5 7-5 9.ix.l964 15*5 7*0 19. ix. 1964 10-5 6-5 29.ix.1964 7*5 6-0 9. x.1964 3-5 5*0 19.x. 1964 Nil 1*0 BIONOMICS OF CHAULIOPS FALLAX 477 Life history and description of Stages : Mating : Mating occurred freely in the field but failed to occur in confinement. Copulating pairs were observed in the field any time during day but mostly during morning and evening. The time taken in mating varied from 100 to 135 minutes, with an average of 118 minutes. Oviposition : Eggs are laid singly attached to the plant hairs on leaves and tender shoots, but mostly on the basal part of the lower surface of leaves, during night as well as day. The female first exudes a darkish fluid on a plant hair and then deposits an egg on it. The fluid soon dries up thus keeping the egg attached to the hair. When copulating pairs were collected from the field and confined on potted plants, only 4 to 8 eggs were laid per female in one or two days after which oviposi- tion stopped. Egg : The freshly laid egg is smooth and shining. Light brown in colour later changing to dark brown. It is oval in shape, measuring about O’ 63 X 0*31 mm with a slight convexity on one side and the correspond- ing slight concavity on the other side. Incubation period, during August, ranged from 8 to 10 days (average 9T days) and the egg viability ranged from 50 to 75 % (average 64.8 %). Hatching occurs during night as well as day, but mostly during night. While hatching, the lid at the anterior end of the egg is pushed open by the nymph but it remains partly attached to the egg shell. Through this opening, the nymph first protrudes its head and then gradually wriggles out completely. Nymph : The nymphs undergo five moults to reach the adult stage. After hatching, the tiny young pinkish red nymphs are often found in groups up to 3rd instar on the basal part of the undersurface of leaves. The older nymphs subsequently get dispersed. The average durations of 1st to 5th nymphal instars and total nymphal period, during August- September, were 3T5, 3*75, 3*95, 4T5, 5*30 and 20*30 days, respectively with slight variation in different weeks. First instar : It is oval in shape and measures about 0*66 x 0*28 mm in the beginning, later increasing to about 0*72 X 0*39 mm. The freshly hatched nymph is shiny light pinkish red. Later, the general body colour deepens to dark pinkish red, while the thorax and basal part of abdomen turn dark brown dorsally. Minute clubbed hairs, borne on slightly raised tubercles, are distributed all over the dorsal side of the body and head. The hairs on the legs and 3rd and 4th antennal segments are, however, simple and unclubbed. The 1st and 2nd antennal seg- ments are reddish, while the 3rd and 4th segments are whitish. The coxae and femora are red ; the remaining parts of the legs are 478 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) pale whitish. Tarsi are two-segmented. Paired lateral claws are small, curved and dark brown. Second instar : Measures about 0*86 x 0*41 mm, later increasing to T08 X 0*72 mm. The freshly moulted nymph is light pinkish with a yellowish tinge along the lateral margins of the abdomen. Later, the colour becomes reddish brown. The 1st, 2nd and distal part of the 4th antennal segments and the proximal parts of legs up to the basal part of tibiae are reddish brown ; the remaining parts are light yellowish. Third instar : Measures about T23 X 0*78 mm, later increasing to 1*44 x 0*84 mm. The parts having reddish brown colour in the second instar become dark brown in this instar. Lateral abdominal margins are pale yellowish and there is a transverse narrow pinkish band on either side of the dorsum of each abdominal segment. Fourth instar : Measures about 1*50 X 0*86 mm, later increasing to 1*80 X 0*95 mm. The body colour is similar to that of third instar. Small triangular wing lobes appear in this instar. Ventrally, there are two dark circular raised spots on each abdominal segment. Fifth instar : Measures about 1*84 x 1*00 mm, later increasing to 2*41 X 1*08 mm. The dark brown wing lobes now extend up to the middle of the abdomen. Ecdysis : A few hours before each ecdysis the nymph stops feeding and its colour becomes somewhat dull. The old cuticle ruptures along the mid-dorsal region of the thorax and through the rupture the thoracic region of the next instar protrudes out. The legs, head and abdomen are then gradually extricated out of the old cuticle by the bending move- ments. Within half an hour the process of ecdysis is completed and the exuviae is completely shed. Just after ecdysis the nymph is sluggish and pale but after sometime it becomes active and darker in colour. Adult : The adult is elongate, oval. The female measures about 2*59 X T26 mm and the male 2*50 X 1*08 mm. The females are dark brown whereas the males are pale brownish. The body is slightly con- stricted at the junction of the thorax and abdomen on either side and bears minute whitish mealy patches and minute filamentous hairs, aris- ing from slightly raised tubercles. The head is broad and cone-shaped with dark stylated compound eyes and 4-segmented antennae. The rostrum is pale brownish, 4-segmented and elongate. Total life cycle : The total life cycle from egg to adult, during August-September (average temperature 30°C to 33*3°C), varied from 27 to 31 days. This is in conformity with the findings of Young (1960), who reported the length of one life cycle as 33 days at 24-2 6°C. BIONOMICS OF CHAULIOPS FALLAX 479 Sex-ratio and longevity : Based on the examination of 70 adults that emerged in laboratory rearing, the average ratio of females to males was found to be 1*5 : 1. The longevity of adult males and females varied from 20 to 28 days (average 24*4 days) and 24 to 30 days (average 27*6 days), respectively. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Shri H. P. Dwivedi, the then Principal, R.A.K. Agriculture College, Sehore, for providing necessary facilities and to the Director of Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for identi- fication of the pest. References Distant, W. L. (1904) : Fauna of British India, Rhynchota II (i), pp. 35- 36. Fletcher, T. B. (1919) : Rep. Proc. 3rd Ent Meet. Pusa, p. 261 . Schwarz, M. B. (1927) : Some diseases of Unknown Nature in Green Manure Plants. Korte Meded. Inst. Plziekt. 5 : 19 (R.A.E. 16 :190). Van Der Goot, P. (1928) : Diseases and Pests of Cultivated Plants in Dutch East Indies, ibid. 74: 85 (R.A.E. 17: 291). Van Der Goot, P.(1929) : Some Insects of Cowpea and Calopogonium sp. ibid, 11 : 16 (R.A.E. 17 : 692). Young, V. L. (1960) : Preliminary studies on Chauliops fallax Scott in Western part of Hunan Province. Acta ent. Sin. 10(1) : 67-74 (R.A.E. 50 : 593)] Blenniid fishes from Godavari Estuary1 BY V. VlSWESWARA RAO2 Department of Zoology , Andhra University , Visakhapatnam {With five text-figures) The lower reaches of Godavari estuary, with a vast net-work of creeks, support a rich mangrove vegetation composed of species of Avicennia, Excoecaria , Ceriops , etc. Due to constant tidal action and the conse- quent erosion of the banks of creeks, the roots of these plants towards the water are generally exposed. Part of the stems and exposed roots were generally infested with wood boring organisms mainly Teredo and Bankia (Ganapati & Rao 1959). The extent of damage done in some cases is so great that the entire stem appears like a sieve, some of the holes measuring from about 300 mm to 500 mm in length and 5 mm to 50 mm in diameter. In the course of investigations on the fish fauna of these creeks, blenniids were observed for the first time to inhabit the bores vacated by molluscan borers (Dutt & Rao 1961). It is also possible that these blenniids might occupy the bores after eating away the original inhabitants. Prompted by this possibility, an extensive survey of all creeks in the estuary was carried out during which blenniids were collected from mangrove plants of all the creeks. It is interesting to note that these fishes, in spite of intensive search, could not be collected outside the mangrove plants in any part of the estuary. Blenniids of Godavari estuary fall under two genera represented by five species. All the five have restricted gill openings (Smith 1959) and can be identified by the following key. (The new species is described in detail.) Key for the identification of Godavari Blenniids 1 . Gill openings entirely above pectoral base Omobranchus Swainson (i) Lower canines twice the upper : (a) Membrane from the last ray of dorsal and anal reaches base of caudal, 9-10 incomplete vertical bars on sides in upper half, 7-8 round spots along mid side, first dorsal edge black, no spots O. bhattacharyae (Chaud.) 1 Accepted July 18, 1970. 2 Present address : Assistant Director, Offshore Fishing Station, Port Area, yisakhapatnam-1 (A.P.). BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY 481 ( b ) Membrane from the last r-ay of dorsal and anal does not reach caudal base, no markings on sides of body, two dark blotches on 1st dorsal O. bipunctatus (Day) (ii) Lower canines about 1£ the upper: Upper half of sides with about 11 broken vertical bands, horizontal lines in the lower half, a dark band along the middle of entire dorsal, a black spot of the size of eye above gill openings O. japonicus (Bleeker) 2. Lower edge of gill openings opposite pectoral base Cruantus Smith (i) Ventral much shorter than head ; males with a crest and tentacle on head, sides with 9-10 dark vertical bands, horse-shoe-shaped black ring behind eye, a dark oblique blotch anteriorly on first dorsal C. smithi sp. nov. (ii) Ventrals as long as head : no crest and tentacle on head, a short white and black band behind eye, sides with a double row of spots below base of dorsal and a single row along middle, a round black spot posteriorly on dorsal in males . . C. dealmeida (Smith) Some features are common to all the five species. The presence of pores and their arrangement on snout, around eye and from above gill openings to lower jaw across the preopercular margin is more or less same (Fig. 1, A, B.). All the species exhibit sexual dimorphism in the nature of anal fin rays, the tips of which in males develop fleshy spade- like expansions mounted on fleshy bases (Fig. 4, B). This modification becomes apparent in maturing males being more pronounced in fully mature specimens. The anal papilla is very well developed in females while it is simple in males (Fig. 4, A, C) ; the first and shortest anal ray is attached to the anal papilla and appears as if extending out of it in females while it is free from the anal papilla in males. The shape and arrangement of teeth is same in all the species. All the species have dark vertical bands on head, however, the number and position of these bands vary from species to species. There are downward flaps on both lips at the corners of mouth in all the species, those on the upper jaw covering the junction of both lips. Omobranchus bhattacharyae (Chaud.) Many specimens ranging from. 20 mm to 72 mm total length. This species occurs in good numbers in the mangroves of the lower reaches and is rarely found in the middle reaches. 5 482 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Fig. 1. A. Lateral view, and B. dorsal view of the head of blenniid showing the arrangement of pores on head. BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY 485 Omobranditis bipunctatus (Day) Only two specimens (51 and 65 mm in total length) could be collected during the course of the investigations. Omobraiidius japonicus (Bleeker) Fig. 3. Omobranchus japonicus (Bleeker), male, total length 67 mm. This species (34 to 70 mm in total length) occurs in considerable numbers in the estuary but is restricted to creeks nearer to sea. Cruantus smith! sp. nov. Holotype : Male, 65 mm standard length. Paratypes : Two males, 46*5 mm and 52 mm and two females 49 mm and 40 mm standard lengths. Specimens deposited in the Zoology Museum, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam. Description ; Based on many specimens ranging from 27 mm to 75 mm total length. 484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Fig. 4. Cruantus smithi sp. nov. type, male, total length 75 mm and enlarged views of A. anal papilla of male, B . tip of anal ray of male showing the spade-like expan- sion mounted on a fleshy base and C. anal papilla of female showing the nature of attachment of the first anal ray. D 31-32 ; A 23-24 ; Y 1+2 ; P 13 ; C 13 ; GR 2*6 ; Vert. 10-11 + 26-28. Head bulky, body elongated gradually narrowing to caudal base. Depth 5*2-6’0, head 3 -5-4-5 in standard length. Eye 3*0-4-0 in head, snout slightly rounded, a little less than eye. Males with a semicircular crest on head from before eye to dorsal origin with a tentacle in it above eye which is more than orbit. Downward flaps on both lips at the cor- ners of mouth. Each jaw with 18 teeth, lower canines one and half the upper. Pores on snout, around orbit and from gill opening to lower jaw across preopercular margin. Lateral line as a faint groove, bends below 9th dorsal spine, continues to caudal base along mid side. Anal papilla well developed in females . Dorsal origin above gill openings, margin slightly concave in the middle, otherwise spines and rays of same height which is equal to depth. Anal origin below 11th dorsal spine, more or less equidistant from snout tip and caudal base, first two rays short, rest gradually increase in length posteriorly, height two-thirds in depth. Ventral a little less than two- thirds in head, split at half the length, outer ray one-fourth smaller than the inner. Pectoral less than three-fourths in head. Tips of anal rays spade-like in males. Membrane from the last ray of dorsal and anal joined to caudal base. Head and body pink to violet in males and pin- kish yellow in females and juveniles, head and anterior third of body being darker. Males when agitated or kept against a dark back- ground attain deep violet colour. Light blue spots on head corres- ponding to pores. Snout dark, a horse-shoe-shaped black ring of about BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY 485 the size of orbit behind eye on either side. Three dark violet bands radiate from the lower margin of orbit, the 1st passes down the corner of mouth to lower jaw, 2nd and 3rd extend only to upper third of preopercle. Two bands one from preopercle and the other from opercle to ventral side of head, both meet bands from opposite side below, a short band from below posterior part of the horse-shoe-shaped ring behind which is somewhat curved band extending from above the band on opercle to dorsal origin. Crest on head light violet, tentacle dark violet to black. Sides with 9-10 dark violet bands, slightly narrower than the ground colour, these bands are lighter in females and juveniles. Dorsal and anal violet, the latter much darker, the former with a dark violet blotch obliquely across 2nd and 3rd spines and about 12-13 irregular white streaks on the entire fin, entire free margin of dorsal bright yellow. Pectoral, ventral and caudal pale yellow, a dark band on pectoral base. Tips of anal rays pale. A comparative account of the new species and the other two known species of Cruantus, C. dealmeida and C. petersi (Kossman & Rauber) (Smith 1959) is given below. St. length Depth St. length Head 1th. Head Ith. Eye Gill opening : Teeth in each jaw Pelvic fins : C. smithi 5-2-6-0 3*5-4-5 3-0-4-0 To upper part of pectoral base 18 Shorter than head Dorsal and anal joined to caudal base C. dealmeida 5T-5-5 4*2-4*5 2,8-3*5 To upper part of pectoral base 18 Equal to head Dorsal and anal joined to caudal base C. petersi 5*7 4-5 4-0 Over almost whole pectoral base 30 Shorter than head Dorsal and anal joined to caudal peduncle Apart from the abovemention ed differences C. petersi also differs from the other two species in the colour pattern which is according to Smith (1959) : 4 Blue white, scattered deep blue spots. Black stripe along back from snout, tapers to caudal. On 13- 17th anal rays an oval white spot, other fins colourless.’ The presence of crest with a tentacle on head in males and the characteristic coloration distinguishes the new species. The new species is named after late Prof. J. L. B. Smith who has contributed much to our knowledge on the blenniid fishes. 486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) This species is very widely distributed among the creeks of Godavari estuary and occurs in moderate numbers even in the middle reaches of the estuary. Cruantus dealmeida (Smith) Fig. 5. Cruantus dealmeida (Smith), male, total length 54 mm. Many specimens ranging from 20 mm to 60 mm total length. Outside India it has been recorded only from Ponte Maeone, Delagoa Bay, South Africa (Smith 1959). The Godavari specimens slightly differ from the South African specimens in the nature of coloration. The black spot at the end of dorsal fin is restricted only to males. Smith (1959) has not mentioned any such sexual specificity of this character, probably because his description is based only on two specimens. The species is the most widely distributed, occurring in good numbers in the lower reaches as well as in the middle reaches of the estuary. Habitat : As stated earlier, Godavari estuarine blenniids inhabit mangrove stems and roots exclusively and are not found elsewhere. They occupy the stems and roots at the level of high water mark in relatively higher numbers than those at the low water mark. The stems and roots at the entrance of creeks are occupied in greater numbers than those in the interior. In a few instances they also inhabited dead and decaying stems jutting out 15 to 30 mm above the mud. In each case, juveniles always occupied the upper part of the stem and adults were found deeper down. Each long bore with several interconnected small bores is occupied by many fish, always belonging to the same species, thus, showing species segregation. Few experiments carried out did not indicate any homing instinct among these fish. Whenever they were removed from the bores and placed on mud they used to crawl BLENNIID FISHES FROM GODAVARI ESTUARY 487 back to the nearest stem or root and enter the bore. In no case were they observed to make any attempt to return to the original stem or root they inhabited. The fish are more abundant in creeks nearer to sea, and their frequency gradually decreases up river. However, they were also seen on mangrove stems of creeks where the salinity varies from about 2 %Q to 33*5 %c during different seasons. In one creek which is about 15 km away from the sea (the maximum distance at which these fishes were collected) where the salinity drops down to zero now and then due to fresh water drainage from the adjacent irrigation fields, these blenniids, especially C. smithi , were not only found to be unaffected by this fluctuation in salinity, but also bred in the bores. This clearly shows that these fishes are capable of tolerating wide fluctuations in hydrological conditions and, the de- crease in their numbers from sea up the river is perhaps to be attributed to the sparse distribution of mangrove plants in the middle and upper reaches of the estuary. It is difficult to say what happens to these fishes during the flood season (July to August) when the sea water in the entire estuary is re- placed by flood waters. As stated above, these fishes generally occupy the roots and stems at the level of high water mark which are not likely to be submerged for a prolonged period by the flood waters ; it is likely, therefore, that they remain unaffected by the rise in water level or might crawl further up inside the bores. The fact that the stems and roots examined soon after the flood period, when it was possible to reach the creeks, were occupied by these fishes suggests that they do not leave the bores even during flood period. Acknowledgements I am thankful to Prof. S. Dutt for kindly going through the manuscript and offering valuable suggestions. My thanks are due to Mr. P. J. P. Whitehead for useful criticism. I am grateful to Prof. P. N. Ganapati for facilities. To the Indian Council of Agri- cultural Research I am indebted for the Research Assistantship, during the tenure of which this work has been carried out. References Dutt, S. & Rao, Visweswara, V. borers in the mangroves of the Godavari (1961) : On the breeding habits and early Estuary. Curr . Sci. 28 : 332. developmental stages of Petroscirtes Smith, J. L. R. (1959) : Fishes of the bipunctatus Day. J. Zool. Soc. India families Blenniidae and Salariidae of the 12:158-161. Western Indian Ocean. Rhodes Univ. Ganapati, P. N. & Rao, M. V. Ichth. Bull, 14 : 229-252. Lakshmana (1959) : Incidence of marine Trapping of small mammals in relation to the vegetation types in the Kyasanur forest disease area, Mysore State, India1 BY M. A. Sreenivasan Virus Research Centre , Indian Council of Medical Research , Poona , India During the course of investigation of Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD), several isolations of KFD virus were obtained from the organs of wild caught small mammals and their tick ectoparasites (Boshell et al. 1968 a & b ; Rajagopalan et al. 1969). Since this indicated a possible involvement of small mammals in the natural cycle of KFD, attempts w^re made to study the relationship between small mammals and vegetation types, with a view to understand the interrelationship between vectors, hosts and habitats in the Kyasanur Forest Disease area. Materials and Methods Four different areas each having one or more habitat types were selected for trapping the small mammals. These areas were located near the villages of Kuruvari, Balagodu, Kalkoppa and Kangodu. The different habitat types selected for trapping are shown in Table 1. In areas around Kuruvari and Balagodu, the trapping was done from May 1969 to April 1970 ; in areas around Kalkoppa, from August 1969 to April 1970, and in areas around Kangodu, from Sept. 1969 to April 1970. Eighty to one hundred sherman traps were set in marked places 30 to 40 ft. apart with ‘pakoda’ as a bait. The traps were left overnight and collected on the following morning. The trapped small mammals were released after identification. 1 Accepted July 29, 1972. TRAPPING OF SMALL MAMMALS 489 Description of Areas Kuruvari : This trapping area consists of semi-evergreen forest, scrub forest, edge of the forest and paddy field. The semi-evergreen forest is com- posed of tall trees and thick undergrowth, providing a good un- interrupted ground cover. The top soil consists of dead and decaying leaves and other forest litter. Scrub forest encircles the semi-evergreen forest on three sides. Here the ground cover is sparse and consists mainly of wild date palm ( Phoenix sp.) and a few short trees. This leaves considerable areas of the ground exposed and open. The paddy field is situated in the shallow valley and has a terraced appearance. The edge of the forest which runs along the paddy field is an abrupt end of the semi-evergreen forest. Balagodu : This study area includes the edge of a semi-evergreen forest with large thickets of lantana ( Lantana aculeata), and a paddy field. Kalkoppa : Here the trapping was done in a teak plantation ( Tectona grandis), which has a thick undergrowth composed mainly of lantana bushes. Kangodu : Peridomestic areas was selected in a narrow patch of cleared zone adjacent to Kangodu village. Results In all 493 small mammals belonging to 8 species were trapped in 6810 trap nights. The composition of the species of small mammals, in the order of numerical abundance were : Rattus rattus wroughtoni (39T%), Suncus murinus (35.9%), Rattus blanfordi (14-4%), Mus sp. (6T %), Rattus rufescens (3.0%), Funambulus tristriatus tristriatus (1*0%), Golunda ellioti (0.2%) and Tatera indica (0*2%). Of the 8 species of small mammals trapped the relationship between the habitat types and the distribution could be assessed only for three species, viz., Rattus r. wroughtoni , S. murinus and R. blanfordi. The other species of small mammals were trapped in small numbers, and it was not possible to associate them with any habitat types. Table 1 gives the distribution of small mammals according to the habitat types. The total number of small mammals trapped at the edge of the forest exceeded the number trapped from other habitat types. Rattus r. wroughtoni was trapped most frequently from semi-evergreen Table 1 Number and species of small mammals trapped from four localities ACCORDING TO HABITAT TYPES (NUMBERS IN THE PARENTHESIS GIVE THE PERCENTAGES) 490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) & ^ m > cu ^ QJ ^ > > 73 vsv-d 'a a a a > crb .O O P >. . > © S & p >. ) : Isolation of Kyasanur Forest Disease virus from Ixodid ticks : 1961-1964. ibid. 56 : (Suppl.) 541-568. Rajagopalan, P. K., Paul, S. D., Sreenivasan, M. A. (1969) : Involve- ment of Rattus blanfordi (Rodentia : Muridae) in the natural cycle of Kyasanur Forest Disease virus, ibid. 57 : 999-1002. — , (1970) : Notes on the arboreal nests of some rodents, ibid. 58 : 1192-1194. New Plant records for the Upper Gangetic Plain1 BY Kr. N. Bahadur, R. Dayal and D. P. Raturi Systematic Botany Branch, Forest Research Institute , Dehra Dun ( With two plates) Five species are reported in this paper as new records for the Upper Gangetic Plain. These are : Erigeron karvinskianus DC., Eupatorium riparium Regel, Hibiscus furcatus Roxb., Indigofer a arrecta Hochst. and Justicia prostrata (Clarke) Gamble. Apart from being a new record for the above- mentioned area, H. furcatus is also reported here for the first time from the N.W. Himalayas. Illustration for this taxon as well as for E. riparium are provided. During the course of identification of plants in the F.R.I. (Dehra Dun) Herbarium the following five species were detected by the authors to be new records for the Upper Gangetic Plain. This area of c. 480,000 sq km is defined to cover the States of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, East Rajasthan including the former Ajmer-Merwara and the northern portion of Madhya Pradesh including the former Madhya Bharat, Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh ; places above 700 m of altitude within the area are, however, excluded. These plants were not included by Duthie (1903-29) in his ‘ Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain ’, nor have they been reported by subsequent botanists working on the vegetation of this region. The present paper, therefore, records for the first time the occurrence of these taxa in this region. Apart from being a new record for the Upper Gangetic Plain, Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. is also reported here for the first time from N.W. Himalayas. Eupatorium riparium Regel, an ornamental plant from the Americas, does not find mention in any of the Indian Floras. Recently, Raizada & Saxena (1967) have listed it as occurring occasionally under ‘ apparently wild 9 condition in the vicinity of Mussoorie. The plant is, however, reported here as occurring under fully naturalised condition in our country. Illustrations for both these plants are provided. Relevant synonymy, brief description, phenology, general distri- bution and places of collection (within the area and in some cases in 1 Accepted July 9, 1970. 494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) adjoining areas also) of each species are given. The descriptions are mainly based on the specimens collected from within the region and quoted in the paper, but they have invariably been compared with the original descriptions of the types and also with the accounts appearing in various earlier publications cited under synonymy. The specimens quoted in the paper, unless otherwise stated, are lodged in Dehra Dun Herbarium. The species are arranged alphabetically. Erigeron karvinskianus DC. Prod. 5 : 285 (1836) ; Standley Trees & Shrubs Mexic. 2(5) : 1499 (1961). Syn. E. mucronatus DC. loc. cit. (1836); Fyson Hillt. FI. 1: 223 (1915) ; Gamble FI. Mad. 2 (4) : 682 (1921) ; Raizada in Indian For. 85 (11): 679 (1959). E. trilobus Sonder in Hamb. Gart. Zeit. 12 : 78 (1856) excl. syn. E. karvinskianus var. mucronatus Hieron. in Engler Bot. Jahrb. 28 : 585 (1900). Vittadinia triloba auct. non DC. nom. al. Fyson loc. cit. (1915) ; Standley loc. cit. (1961). V. australis auct. non. A. Rich. nom. al. Fyson loc. cit. (1915) ; Gamble loc . cit. (1921). A slender, decumbent herb, 60 cm long or less. Leaves alternate, xanceolate, entire or lobed, lobes mucronate, base attenuate, glabrous or minutely ciliate. Heads long-peduncled and solitary, terminal or axillary ; ray-florets white or pinkish ; disc-florets yellowish. Ligules biseriate. Pappus double. Flowering and fruiting : Throughout the year. Indigenous to Mexico and Central & South Americas where it was erroneously called Vittadinia triloba DC., earlier. Cultivated and run wild in Nilgiris, Mussoorie and Dehra Dun. Common along water channels. In Nilgiris it has for long been known under the wrong name of Vittadinia australis A. Rich, which is an Australian species and is al- together different (cf. Fyson loc. cit. 1915 & Gamble loc. cit. 1921). Dehra Dun : Ballupur (Dec. 1965) R. Dayal 460 ; New Forest (Apr. 1969) H. B. Naithani 6555 ; Tons Nullah (Apr. 1969) H. B. Naithani 6556 ! ; Bijapur Canal (June 1969) H. B. Naithani 6940. PLANT RECORDS FOR GANGETIC PLAIN 495 Eupatorium riparium Regel Gartenfl. 324 (1866) ; Standley Trees & Shrubs Mexic. 2 (5) : 1464 (1961) ; Raizada & Sa&ena in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64 (1) : 83 (1967). (Plate I). Syn. E. flexicaule Schnittspahn Zeitschr. Gartenb. ver. Darmstadt 6 : Anlage 2 : 5 (1857) nom. nud. E. riparium Schultz in Schnittspahn loc. cit. (1857) nom. nud. E. harrisii Urban Symb. Antill. 1 : 460 (1900). A slender, herbaceous plant with terete, flexous, finely pubescent, at length somewhat lignescent stems. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, atte- nuate to each end, serrate from near the middle outward, 3-nerved from the base, 5-10 X 1-2-5 cm, sparingly pubescent on the nerves. Corymbs numerous, small, panicled; phyllaries pale-green, lanceolate, scarious- edged ; corollas white. Flowering : January-March. Fruiting : April-June. Indigenous to Mexico and West Indies. Flowers copiously. In Mexico it has long been valued for hot-house cultivation. Cultivated in gardens in northern India. Run wild in Mussoorie and Dehra Dun. Dehra Dun : Bamboo Plantation, F.R.I. (March 1965) R. Dayal 4 ! ; near M.F.P. Nursery, F.R.I. (January 1967) H. B. Naithani 1928 ; Teak Gate Road, New Forest (May 1967) R. Dayal 21759 ; Tons Nullah (Feb. 1969) R. Dayal 21800. Mussoorie : Bhatta Falls, 1494 m (March and April 1961) H.O. Saxena 1668 and 1820 (b). This plant is not mentioned in any of the Indian Floras. Raizada and Saxena (1967) have, however, mentioned it as occurring occasionally near Bhatta Falls in Mussoorie. But, most probably, not being sure of its naturalised condition, on account of the collection being only from one small locality, they have preferred to call it ‘ apparently wild \ Now, since this species has also been collected from at least 3 different localities in Dehra Dun, it can safely be said to have escaped from cultivation and thus become completely naturalised in our country. It has already established itself in Dehra Dun, and it would be interesting to watch its further spread, particularly in the plains districts. Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. Hort. Beng. 51 (1814) ; DC. Prod. 1 : 449 (1824) ; Spr. Syst. 3 : 102 (1826) ; Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 204 (1832) ; W. & A. Prod. 1 : 48 (1834) ; 496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 19 (1861) ; Mast, in Hook. /. FI. Brit. Ind. 1 : 335 (1874) ; Prain Beng. PI. 1 : 267 (1903) ; Talbot For. FI. 1 : 119 (1909) ; Gamble FI. Mad. 1 (1) : 97 (1915) ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2 : 67 (1921) ; van Waalkes in Blumea 14 (1) : 59, 84 (1966). (Plate II). Syn . H. rostellatus Guill. et Perr. FI. Seneg. 1 : 55 (1830); Mast, in Oliv. FI. Trop. Afr. 1 : 201 (1868) ; Keay in FI. W. Trop. Afr. 2nd ed. 11 (2): 346 (1958). H. aculeatus Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 206 (1832). H. hispidissimus Griff. Not id. 4 : 52 (1851). H. furcellatoides Hochr. in Ann. Conserv. & Jard. Bot. Geneve 20 : 157(1917). An erect (or rambling ?), suffruticose, slender, shrub up to 4 m high with pungent, recurved prickles. Leaves 5 cm across, entire or slightly lobed, cordate, pubescent, crenate ; stipules up to 0’5 cm long, linear- lanceolate. Flowers large (5 cm in diam.), axillary, sub-racemose, dis- tant with 10-12 setose forked bracteoles ; calyx enlarged in fruit, very hispid and with shining bristles ; corolla yellow with a crimson centre. Capsule 1 cm long, enclosed in the enlarged calyx. Flowering: September, October. Fruiting: November, December. Tropics of the old world. Common in hotter parts of India, ascend- ing to 1220 m in N. W. Himalayas. (This species was so far known to occur in the plains of peninsular India, Bengal and Orissa.) Dehra Dun : Saura Village, Raipur (Sept. 1968) D. P. Raturi 6251 ; Song River, Raipur (Sept. 1968) D. P. Raturi 6252 ; Pump-House, near Ordnance Factory (Sept. 1968) D. P. Raturi 6253. Tehri-Garhwal : Tehri, 1219 m (Sept. 1875) anonymous s.n. Apart from being a new record for the Upper Gangetic Plain, this species is reported here for the first time from the N.W. Himalayas, namely Tehri-Garhwal. It is interesting to note that the specimens of this species collected from North India have a very short peduncle (5-7 mm), a character which compares favourably with Roxburgh’s description of the type. The specimens from South India available in Dehra Dun Herbarium, however, show a very long peduncle (4-5 cm) and agree with the des- cription of Talbot (1909) and others. This variation has to be looked into, and for this, further material from South India needs to be examined. Plate I J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3) Bahadur, Dayal & Raturi: Plant Records Eupatorium riparium Regel 1. a portion of the plant ; 2. inflorescense ; 3. phyllaries ; 4, a single flower ; 5. seed with pappus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3) Bahadur, Dayal, & Raturi : Plant Records Plate II Hibiscus furcatus Roxb. 1. a portion of the plant ; 2. stipules and bractioles; 3. capsule with enlarged calyx ; 4. opened capsule showing seeds. PLANT RECORDS FOR GANGETIC PLAIN 497 There also seems to be a correlation between the size of the peduncle and the lobation of leaves. The leaves in the specimens from North India which have very short peduncles are either entire or only superfi- cially lobed as shown in the illustration (Plate II), while in the South Indian specimens having long peduncles they are invariably deeply lobed and are seldom entire. H. furcatus Roxb. is very close to H. surattensis L., a widely distri- buted Indian species. It can, however, be distinguished from the latter by the oblong lanceolate stipules and linear forked bracteoles (epicalyx). H. surattensis on the other hand, has broad auriculate stipules and spathulate bracteoles which are provided with an appendage. Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. FI. Abyss. 1 : 184 (1847) ; Baker in Oliv. FI. Trop. Afr . 2 : 97 (1871) ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2 : 239 (1921) ; Koorders Exkursiansfl. Java 4 (7) : 947 (1926) ; Nicholls & Holland Text Book Trop. Agric. 38 (1929) ; Nicholes in Bull. Dept. Agric. Gold Coast 16, t. 61 (1929) ; Hepper in Keay FI. W. Trop. Afr. 2nd ed. 1 (2) : 541 (1958). Syn. I. tinctoria var. arrecta Berhaut in Chev. Bot. 50 (1920). An erect, deep-green, leafy undershrub 1-2 m high, with angled and grooved thinly strigose stems. Leaves pinnate, 10-13 cm long with c. 7 pairs and 1 odd leaflet. Flowers inconspicuous, pink-red, in solitary axillary racemes up to 4 cm long, gradually elongating and becoming double the size but bearing pods only near the base. Pods straight and reflexed, c. 2*5 cm long. Flowering and fruiting : September-February. Indigenous to tropical Africa and Java. Cultivated in indigo planta- tions in northern India. Run wild in Dehra Dun. Dehra Dun : ‘ Chir ’ plantation area F.R.I. (Dec. 1954) T. C. Naithani s.n ., (Sept. 1965) R. Dayal 419 ; New Forest (Aug. 1966) R. Dayal 490. Justicia prostrata (Clarke) Gamble FI. Mad. 2 (6) : 1081 (1924) ; Santapau in Bot. Mem. Un. Bombay 2 : 88 (1951) n.v. ; Ramamurthy in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5 (3 & 4) : 264 (1963) ; Subramanian in Indian For. 92 (3) : 46 (1966). 6 498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Syn. J. diffusa Willd. var. prostrata Clarke in Hook. /. FI. Brit. Ind. 4 : 538 (1885) ; Trim. TV. Ceyl. 3 : 338 (1893) ; Cooke FI. Bomb. 2 : 410 (1908). A small, pale, prostrate herb with diffusely spreading branches. Leaves small, opposite, ovate or sub-orbicular, hairy on both surfaces, slightly acuminate or with blunt apex. Spikes 7-8 cm long. Flowers small, mauve or white. Bracteoles & sepals broad and hairy. Corolla 4 mm long, pubescent. Stamens 2, hairy at the base. Ovary glabrous or nearly so ; styles long, cylindric, hairy at the base ; stigma obliquely capitate. Capsules small, puberulous ; seeds minutely tuberculate. Flowering and fruiting : Throughout the year. Peninsular India extending southwards to Ceylon and northwards to the plains of North India. (In India this plant was so far known from southern and western regions only.) Uttar Pradesh : Bijnore (March 1958) Y. K. Sarin 5133 ; Mirzapur Town (Feb. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 12849 ; Mirazpur District (Feb. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 13275; Ghajipur, Manipur (Feb. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 13759 ; Lacchiwala, Dehra Dun (March 1961) M. A . Rau 13995 ! ; Mirzapur (Sept. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 17509 ; Mahoba, Hamirpur (Sept. 1961) U. C. Bhattacharya 17795 ; Sahawar Town, Distt. Etah (Apr. 1966) R. Dayal 5 a-d. (All these specimens excepting the last which is deposited in Herbarium DD, are available in Herb., BSD, Dehra Dun). Acknowledgements We are thankful to Shri K. C. Sahni, Officer-in-Charge, Systematic Botany Branch, F. R.I., for kindly going through the manuscript and offering valuable suggestions, and to Dr. M. A. Rau, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehra Dun, for having allowed the examination of herbarium material of Justicia de- posited in Herb., B.S.I., Dehra Dun (BSD). We also wish to thank Shri P. N. Sharma, Chief Artist, F.R.I., for drawing the plates which accompany this paper. References Duthie, J. F. (1903-29) : Flora of soorie Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the 64 (1): 83. Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Talbot, W. A. (1909) : Forest Flora Tracts. 3 Vols. (Govt. Press, Calcutta), of Bombay Presidency and Sind. 1 : 119. Raizada, M. B. & Saxena, H. O. (Govt. Press, Poona). (1967) : Additions to the Flora of Mus- Preliminary notes on the Ornithology of Sandur, Karnataka1 BY Kumar D. Ghorpade2 Department of Entomology , University of Agricultural Sciences , Bangalore- 560024 {With a map ) This paper introduces the avifauna of Sandur taluk (Karnataka State, India) which includes the former princely state of Sandur, demarcated by two main ranges of high forest-covered hills, joining at both ends to enclose a spindle-shaped valley and presenting a geographical feature quite distinct from the adjacent dry Bellary plain more typical of the Deccan plateau. Notes relating chiefly to the status and distribution of 166 species of birds so far recorded from the area are presented together with 16 further species from other parts of Bellary district. The Sirkeer Cuckoo Taccocua leschenaultii and Spotted Babbler Pellorneum ruficeps are recorded from Karnataka state and the Deccan plateau respectively for the first time. Occurrence of the Indian Lorikeet Loriculus vernalis, Great Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor, Whiteheaded Babbler Turdoides affinis, Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher Muscicapa superciliaris and Greyheaded Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis in the tract are other findings of interest. A brief discussion on the composition of Sandur’s bird life is included. Introduction3 The former princely state of Sandur (14° 58' to 15° 14'N. and 76° 25' to 76°42'E.), now a taluk of Bellary district (Karnataka State, India) consists of two main ranges of high forest-covered hills running NW. to SE. and enclosing an elongate spindle-shaped valley, these together presenting a geographical feature quite different from the surrounding dry Bellary region more typical of the Deccan plateau. The present taluk was formed by the addition, to the former state, of parts of the adjacent plains on both sides of the two hill ranges. Sandur state had an area of approximately 375 sq. km and the present taluk is roughly three times this area. 1 Accepted January 3, 1973. 2 Present address : Dept, of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007. 3 The details of physiography, vegetation and climate are from Krishnan (1948), 500 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) Geologically, the Sandur hills belong to the oldest formations of the earth’s crust and are flat-topped with a mean elevation of 900 m above m.s.l., the highest point (1100 m) being above Kumaraswamibetta on the Southern range. The soil is deep red and consists of rock, disintegrated MAP OF SANDUR TALUK * -*>' * \ trap and sandy gravel with outcrops of lime ‘ kankar ’ here and there Sandur is well known for its manganese ore which together with iron ore occurs in immense quantities in the hills and is being extensively mined. Jasper, ochres, red oxide, white clay and limestone are also found in plenty and old derelict gold mines exist on the Donimalai range. The valley is dotted with smaller hillocks and trenched with numerous nullahs most of which flow into the Narihalla, a large stream, which cuts through both ranges almost bisecting them in two. The gorges so formed serve as the only accessible entries into the Sandur valley. The Sandur area receives considerably greater rainfall than the sur- rounding plains, the average annual precipitation varying from 500 mm to 1140 mm in different years with a mean of about 860 mm. The climate is even and pleasant with high winds in July and August and the hot weather limited to a month or two. The local hill resort of Ramgad (990 m) on the Ramandrug range has an equable temperature and a supply of mineral water from the nearby Thayammankolla. The holy shrine of Shri Karthikswami is located on an undulating hill on the ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 501 Southern range and beyond this lies the extensive, flat plateau of Deogiri — noted for its heavy jungles and unlimited mineral wealth. The taluk headquarters, Sandur town (Pop. c. 9,500) is situated at the centre of the fertile valley on the banks of the Narihalla. Smaller townships and larger villages like Bandri, Choranur, Lakshmipur, Krishnanagar, Nandihalli, Sushilanagar and Yeshwantnagar are scattered all over the taluk (, see map). The railway town of Tornagal is situated near the Daroji tank at the eastern border of the taluk and a broad gauge line link- ing it to Mudukulpenta within the valley is under preparation. Sandur town is linked by road to Bellary, 48 km to the east ; Kudligi, 28 km to the south-west and Hospet, 34 km to the north-west. The nearest railway station at Tornagal is approachable through Hubli, Gadag and Hospet from the west, and Guntakal and Bellary from the east. There is a Traveller’s Bungalow at Sandur town and a newly constructed Forest Rest House is located in a beautiful spot overlooking the Nari- halla and encompassed by forested hills. The forest is restricted to the hill ranges, hillocks and foot- hills, within the valley and is of the open dry deciduous type, bordering on to moist deciduous on the summits of the highest hills. Although there is natural growth of teak, the trees do not attain anything like their greatest size in Sandur. Local timber is not restricted to Teak ( Tectona grandis) — Chloroxylon swietenia, Anogeissus latifolia , Terminalia tomen- tosa, Pterocarpus marsupium, Hardwickia binata , Soymida febrifuga, Diospyros melanoxylon and D. ebenum also grow well here. Besides these the forest abounds with other species of trees, particularly Gmelina arborea, Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica, Adina cordifolia , Albiz- zia amara, Acacia catechu , A. ferruginea, Elaeodendron glaucum , Bauhi- nia racemosa, Cassia fistula , C. auriculata, Pongamia glabra , Ailanthus excelsa, Semecarpus anacardium , Emblica spp., Terminalia chebula , Sapindus trifoliatus , Tamarindus indicus and several species of Ficus. The Sandal tree, Santalum album grows sporadically throughout the area but is found mainly in the Ramgad, Swamimalai and Thimappa blocks. The undergrowth on the hills and hillocks consists mainly of short tussocky grass, identified as Cymbopogon martinii (Rosa grass), C. coloratus , Heteropogon contortus and Sehina nervosum. Bamboo, chiefly Bambusa arundinacea and Dendrocalamus strictus , grows in dense clumps particularly on the southern hills. The exotic lantana, introduced into Sandur for ornamental purposes (Ramachandra Rao 1920) has spread considerably all over the hills and in the valley. The valley is more open and cultivated every bit of fairly level land being converted into fields. Only the hillocks and foothills with forest cover have not been touched but signs of even these being brought under cultivation are evident. The main crops grown here are jowar (the staple food), bajra and groundnut with a fair acreage 502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) being put under other grain, pulse, oilseed, fibre and cash crops. Mango orchards abound and the tamarind flanks the roads, paths and streams. The outer plains on the Bellary side are more open and dry with the hillocks gradually showing a poorer tree growth as one goes away from Sandur until near the edge of the taluk they take up the rocky character typical of the bouldery Bellary hills covered only with a sparse growth of xerophytic vegetation. The only reasonable tree growth here is along the Narihalla which emerges through the Sandur hills and flows eastward towards its ultimate destination — the Daroji tank. On the Kudligi (western) side, the Sandur plains within the taluk limits are more forested, the open jungle on the foothills of the western ranges spreading westward and covering most of the lower hills and hillocks with a shortish, scrub forest. One of these hills, Jarimalaibetta, rises to 730 m above m.s.l. and is the source of the Narihalla. A distinctive feature of this western plain is the number of small lakes and tanks scattered all over the area. The mammalian fauna of Sandur is rich but steadily decreasing, owing to much poaching and ‘ shikar \ Leopard, wild boar, sambar, four- horned antelope, the grey langur, jungle cat, the small Indian civet, common mongoose, jackal, the Indian fox, the Indian porcupine, pan- golin, the blacknaped hare, several small rodents, bats and other small animals occur, mostly in forest on the hills. The Indian gazelle (Chinkara) and the sloth bear are sometimes seen on the adjacent plains while stray and miserably depleted herds of blackbuck roam the black- cotton soils outside the taluk near Bellary and Hospet. The tiger once wandered into the forested hills but has been completely shot out and only rare unconfirmed reports of tiger crossing into the hills are obtained at present. The monitor lizard, Varanus bengalensis and the pond tortoise, Geomyda trijuga are common. Other forms of life including snakes, lizards, frogs, freshwater fish, earthworms and other annelids, molluscs, millipedes and other arthropods including scorpions, crabs, spiders and a great variety of insects and mites are abundantly evident here and could offer interesting material for study. The plant wealth of the Sandur hills is certainly undocumented and here is an absorbing field of investigation for the interested botanist, both pure and economic* the latter finding much of value for there is undoubtedly an abundance of medicinal plants, herbs and roots here. Regarding the bird life of Sandur, Krishnan (1948) writes — ‘ The avifauna of the State is exceptionally rich and provides the student of bird-life with interesting local variations. Several migratory birds seem to linger within the seclusion of these hills longer than at other places.’ The only other references to Sandur’s ornithology are by Krishnan (1955) on the Rosy Pastor, by Whistler (in Ali 1942) on the Yellow^ throated Bulbul and by Campbell (1906) on the Whitebellied Drongoi ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 503 There is no published account of the Ornithology of Sandur and this paper makes an introductory attempt to supply the deficiency. There are other reasons which have prompted me to offer these preli- minary notes on the avifauna of Sandur. The Deccan plateau as a whole and the northern portion of Karnataka east of the Western Ghats have been largely neglected by ornithologists as substantiated by the following statements : ‘ There is a huge area in the centre of the Peninsula between the Central Provinces and the southern boundary of Karnataka which is vir- tually unknown and over which we have found no indication of the distribution of the most common species.’ (Whistler & Kinnear 1932a). * This bulbul .... is apparently much overlooked because of its skulking habits and the fact that the region it inhabits has not received much attention from ornithologists.’ (Whistler in Ali 1942). This being largely true even today, it was thought to be a matter of some urgency to publish my notes, however sketchy, on the birds of this interesting but neglected area if only to put on record the status and distribution of the birds occurring here. In addition, as the Sandur hills constitute a peculiar feature of the Deccan, presenting a habitat very different from neighbouring arid areas, the writing of these notes is further justified. A third point of importance is that the recent accelera- tion in the development and expansion of the mineral industry in the area, the building of a dam across the Narihalla to enable extensive irrigation facilities to be available to farmers in the taluk, the felling of forests to bring more land under cultivation, the opening up of the tract by modern means of transport and the subsequent increase in population with its resultant side effects, all threaten to change the entire character of this rich area, from a calm and secluded valley to a bustling, industrial com- plex. It was felt therefore, that an idea of the composition of the avifauna of Sandur that existed here before the terrain was extensively and intensively exploited was essential to appreciate these changes some years hence. This is an initial attempt to put on record the as yet unaffected bird life of Sandur, as has best been possible through several short trips by the author to the area over the last ten years. Account of Species The list that follows is placed in the order of Ripley (1961) and the nomenclature followed is from the same work and the published volumes of the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1968-1972). Subspecies are not discussed (with a few exceptions), although several specimens were collected, as I considered these unimportant as a rule, complicating matters unnecessarily and tending to diminish unjustifiably the real 504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) significance of the species category. Species personally seen and identi- fied without doubt and those recorded from Sandur limits by other workers are not bracketed. Birds reported to occur in other taluks of Bellary district are placed in square brackets and are expected to be of some value. The terms valley, hills and plains should be self-explanatory from the introductory notes. Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas) : Little Grebe A rather sparse resident, some individuals staying throughout the year on tanks with water. One or two pairs are invariably found on the tank at Shivpur where they often breed. Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus) : Large Cormorant Krishnan4 has seen this cormorant on the tank at Bandri. A solitary bird was seen by the author on the tank near Chilkanhatti (Hospet taluk, Bellary district) in February 1968. Krishnan noted it on a large tank at Bellary. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens : Indian Shag One unconfirmed record from the tank at Bandri by Krishnan who also reports seeing one at a tank near Bellary town. Ardeola grayii (Sykes) : Pond Heron Fairly common resident, locally distributed along the Narihalla and its larger tributaries and around the tanks within and outside the valley. Neginhal (1971) saw these on the water’s edge on an island in the Tunga- bhadra river near Shingtalur (Mundargi taluk, Dharwar district), just across the northern border of Bellary district. Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) : Cattle Egret Seen only twice attending herds of grazing cattle in the valley in small numbers. It is probably more common in the adjacent plains but my limited work on the bird life of these plains prevents any definite con- clusions here. Five normal and two black [melanistic ?] individuals of this species were seen on the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur in February (Neginhal 1971). Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert) : Whitenecked Stork Recorded from Daroji tank by Krishnan. Neginhal (1971) reports seeing this stork on the Tungabhadra reservoir. This large stork is quite common in northern Karnataka east of the Western Ghats and some individuals are invariably found frequenting most of the tanks with water. 4 References to Krishnan not accompanied by citation of year indicate data com- municated by him personally to the author, ORNITHOLOGY OF SAN DU R 505 Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham) : White Ibis Krishnan saw these at the Daroji tank and Neginhal (1971) noted them on the Tungabhadra reservoir. Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus : Spoonbill I have never seen this bird in Sandur but Krishnan reports seeing it at the Daroji tank. [The Blacknecked Stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham), Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck), Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas and Ruddy Sheld-duck Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) were recorded from the Tungabhadra reservoir by Neginhal (1971). One specimen of the Barheaded Goose Anser indicus (Latham) was taken at Tungabhadra (Abdulali 1968) and Neginhal (1971) saw them ‘ resting on sandbanks, in low water, in the middle of the (Tungabhadra) river near an islet.’] Anas acuta Linnaeus : Pintail Recorded from the tanks at Kereyaginahalli (Sandur taluk, western plain) and Shivpur by A.M.G.5, but I have no knowledge of it in Sandur. Seen on the Tungabhadra river near the reservoir (Neginhal 1971). Anas crecca Linnaeus : Teal Krishnan and A.M.G. report having seen this duck on the tanks at Kereyaginahalli and Shivpur. Noted on the Tungabhadra river near Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971). Anas poecilorhyncha J. R. Forster : Spotbill A.M.G. has seen this large duck on the tank at Kereyaginahalli. Noted about ten individuals of this resident duck on the tank near Chilkanhatti in February 1968. Anas penelope Linnaeus : Wigeon A couple of these birds were seen and shot on Shivpur tank on December 3, 1971, and were identified as this species. Also reported from Kereyaginahalli tank by A.M.G. in winter. Anas querquedula Linnaeus : Garganey A.M.G. records this common wintering duck from Kereyaginahalli tank. Observed on the Tungabhadra river near Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971). 6 Ajai M. Ghorpade, a resident birdwatcher of Sandur, has kindly supplemented the author’s observations with his own experiences of Sandur’s birds, 506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Anas clypeata Linnaeus : Shoveller A solitary bird was seen and shot along with the two wigeon on December 3, 1971, at Shivpur tank. A.M.G. has seen it at the tank near Kereyanginahalli in winter. Aythya ferina (Linnaeus) : Redheaded Pochard Recorded by A.M.G. from the tanks at Kereyaginahalli and Shivpur in winter. I have no record of this species from Sandur although it must surely be one of the more abundant wintering ducks in the area. I saw about fifteen pochard in February 1968 on the Chilkanhatti tank. [Baker (1900) quotes Hume who states that the Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus) has been shot near Bellary and that though certainly rare there it visits Mysore. Ali and Ripley (1968) comment in the Indian handbook — 4 Decreasingly in the Deccan and farther south to Mysore (rare).’ In November 1971 a female of this species was secured from a tank in Yelburga taluk (Raichur district) and in November 1972 a male was shot on the same tank. Though rare, this pretty pochard seems to visit reedy tanks in Karnataka regularly in small numbers in winter.] Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin) : Cotton Teal I have only seen this duck twice in Sandur, on both occasions at the tank near Bandri. A party of seven was present in April 1963 and twenty teals were noted in November the same year. It is also reported from the tanks at Kereyaginahalli and Shivpur by A.M.G. Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines) : Blackwinged Kite One record only, of a single bird flying over cultivation near Shivpur tank on June 19, 1970. Krishnan mentions seeing it occasionally near Sushilanagar and Lakshmipur in the valley. Milvus migrans (Boddaert) : Pariah Kite A fairly common resident in Sandur though not in very great numbers . During the last week of December (1965) which is the breeding season of this kite in south India, I observed several pairs at Sandur and along the route from Bangalore to Sandur engaged in what I believe is the courtship behaviour of this raptor. It consisted of the pair, soaring fairly high up in the air, indulging in aerobatics in which one bird (the male ?) would ascend a little higher and then 4 dive-bomb ’ the lower bird in a spiralling stoop causing the latter to take 4 evasive action ’. Such be- haviour was observable all through the day during the breeding season, when it seems to be more frequently practiced than during other months of the year. Ali and Ripley (1968) mention this type of mannerism for this kite but do not associate it particularly with its courtship behaviour. ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 507 Haliastur indus (Boddaert) : Brahminy Kite Krishnan states that though not common, this kite definitely occurs within the valley soon after the rains when he has watched them fishing for tadpoles at inundated flats at such times. Reported as observed near the Kereyaginahalli tank by A.M.G. I have not seen it within the taluk but noted one bird soaring above a nullah in the outskirts of Kudligi in August 1972. Accipiter badius (Gmelin) : Shikra A breeding resident throughout the Sandur area and fairly common. Once seen swooping down on a jungle babbler sitting in a sparsely foliaged bush on the bank of a nullah near Yeshwantnagar. Couples are often observed soaring high over cultivation in large circles. In June 1970, two immature shikras were seen harassing a group of yellow. wattled lapwings in the valley. The lapwings took to wing and retaliated fiercely by diving at the hawks, all the time keeping up their screaming calls. Butastur teesa (Franklin) : White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle This common raptor of the Indian plains seems widely but thinly distributed all over the taluk, including the hills. I have found the white throat patch with the dark central stripe through it a most reliable guide, when visible, to its identification in the field. Hieraaetus pennatus (Gmelin) : Booted Hawk-Eagle One record only, of a single bird seen perched on the stump of a dead tree beside a nullah in the valley in December 1965. When approached it took to wing and soared about in circles, slowly ascending. In flight, a small white patch on each side at the base of the neck near the wing base is a good identification mark in the field, when visible clearly. Aquila rapax (Temminck) : Tawny Eagle According to Krishnan, this eagle, common in the Guntakal downs (Andhra Pradesh), strays into Sandur occasionally. [Several other large and medium-sized hawks and eagles have been observed on many occasions in Sandur by the author, but owing to the difficulty in identifying without doubt this confusing complex of birds in the field more details are not available here.] Torgos calvus (Scopoli) : Black King Vulture A single record, from Yeshwantnagar, of a solitary individual sitting atop a huge neem tree in the company of some whitebacked vultures. There have been several reports of late that this vulture is becoming very scarce, especially in the south. My observations in recent years fully 508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) endorse this point of view. In the last five years, I have only some three to four sightings on record. It may not be out of place here to mention that one king vulture was seen along with whitebacked and white sca- venger vultures sunning themselves on a dusty path in the Bandipur Sanctuary (Mysore district) in June 1970. I feel the cause for the decline of this huge vulture in recent years needs to be studied. Gyps bengalensis (Gmelih) : Indian Whitebacked Vulture The most familiar vulture in Sandur, most often seen soaring high in the air with effortless ease. Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus) : White Scavenger Vulture Another fairly common vulture in Sandur, often teaming up with whitebacked vultures at a carcass or in the air. Circus spp. : Harriers This is another group which presents problems in the correct identi- fication of its members, especially of females and immatures. Harriers, however, are not very common in Sandur and I have only a couple of records of unidentified females flying low over fields in the valley in characteristic fashion. Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin) : Short-toed Eagle Krishnan informs me that this eagle occurs, though rarely, in Sandur and recollects how he once freed one of his racing pigeons from the clutches of this eagle in Sandur. [The Osprey Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus) was seen flying high above the Tungabhadra river near a place called Anaigudi near Hampi (Hospet taluk, Bellary district) on February 6, 1968. It was in bad plumage and looked to be in moult.] Falco biarmicus jugger J. E. Gray : Laggar Falcon I have a single sight record of the Laggar Falco biarmicus jugger J. E. Gray, when a single bird was seen perched on a tree on the banks of a nullah in the valley on December 26, 1965. The thin dark cheek-stripe diagnostic of the above race was clearly noticeable. Krishnan has also seen it in Sandur. Falco peregrinus Tunstall : Peregrine Falcon While watching the Booted Hawk-Eagle in the valley in Decembei 1965, this falcon was also seen soaring in the air in large circles. It then only slightly drew in its wings and just shot out of sight heading towards the crags on the eastern hills. The speed which this renowned falcon can achieve is truly fantastic and has to be seen to be appreciated. Several inaccessible, almost vertical craggy spots on the Sandur hills can offer ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 509 excellent breeding places for this falcon (resident breeding race : Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall) and more careful observation could well reveal nests of the Shaheen within Sandur. Krishnan has also ob- served the Shaheen Falcon in Sandur. Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus : Kestrel A fairly common winter migrant to the Sandur valley, seen soaring or hovering characteristically over cultivation or thin jungle. Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby) : Painted Partridge Rare, only observed in thin scrub adjacent to cultivation near Yesh- wantnagar on the western plain outside the hills. Krishnan mentions seeing it on Kumaraswamibetta and says it perches on tops of trees to call. Neginhal (1971) saw these near the rest house at Shingtalur. Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin) : Grey Partridge Common in the valley and plains, but not noted at any elevation on the hills. The long grass flanking the numerous nullahs provide very good cover for this partridge. Seen near the rest house at Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971). Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus) : Grey Quail One record of a party of four of these migrant quails seen scuttling off into long grass bordering a road on one of the hillocks in the valley, in winter. Neginhal (1971) reports having seen them near the rest house at Shingtalur in February. Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin) : Blackbreasted Rain Quail Not very common in Sandur, seen only near Yeshwantnagar on the western plains. Coveys are often seen searching for food among manure heaps dumped in fields, especially soon after a shower. Perdicula asiatica (Latham) : Jungle Bush Quail This is by far the most abundant and widely distributed quail in Sandur, occurring on the plains, in the valley and on the hills. The sight of these quails trooping down to their roosting place almost punctually every evening in single file is most heart-warming. Altogether an ex- tremely interesting bird to observe and study. Perdicula asiatica vellorei was described as new by Abdulali & Reuben (1964) from specimens col- lected at Vijayanagar (Hampi, Bellary district) and several other loca- lities. However, the subspecies is not mentioned in the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1969). Abdulali (1969) placed two examples taken at Vijayanagar with this species but was uncertain of its subspecific identity. [Two examples of the Rock Bush Quail Perdicula argoondah (Sykes) collected at Vijayanagar by G. C. Shortridge were placed with the race 510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) P. a. salimalii Whistler (Abdulali 1969, 1971) and are in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. This race is separated on the basis of its bright brick-red upper plumage and is supposed to be con- fined to Chitradurga (Chitaldrug) district in east-central Karnataka the specimens from Vijayanagar extending its range a little further north.] Galloperdix lunulata (Valenciennes) : Painted Spurfowl One of the commonest game birds in the forested parts of the valley and the hills. It often sought refuge in trees while I was pursuing it and I have come across birds roosting in short trees well after dusk. This spurfowl is addicted to gleaning spilt grain on the dusty hill roads, usually in the evenings. Gallus sonneratii Temminck : Grey Junglefowl Uncommon and sporadic, only occasionally seen on the hills where it seems to be restricted to the open forest ; no records from the valley or the plains. Pavo cristatus Linnaeus : Indian Peafowl This stately bird was once very common in Sandur some years ago especially as it was protected in the erstwhile princely state. Now one can see it only near the shrine of Shri Karthikswami on the Deogiri range with any amount of frequency. It is subjected to much poaching and persecution, being hunted for its excellent flesh and for the wonder- ful ‘ tail ’ feathers. The peafowl also gleans spilt grain from dusty hill roads in the evenings. Neginhal (1971) reported seeing peafowl commonly in herds on an island in the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur in February. Turnix sylvatica (Desfontaines) : Little Bustard-Quail In February 1968, several birds were flushed, singly, on three separate occasions, from the dense tangle of vegetation on the nullah banks lit- tered with fallen leaves, in the valley. One of these was shot and identi- fied as this species. [Four examples of the Indian Bustard-Quail Turnix suscitator (Gmelin) were taken at Vijayanagar in July and are in the Bombay Natural History Society’s bird collection (Abdulali 1969).] Amaurornis akool (Sykes) : Brown Crake A single record, of a solitary bird hunting for food on the edges of a nullah flanked by thick bushes, in the valley a little before sunset. I watched this crake for quite some time retreating into the interior of the bushes at the slightest alarm, only to reappear stealthily a little further up the water-filled streamlet, all the time jerking its stubby tail. ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 5ll Amaurornis phoemcunis (Pennant) : Whitebreasted Waterhen Fairly common around the tanks and the many nullahs which fill up after the rains in the valley and plains. Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus) : Indian Moorhen Krishnan saw this moorhen frequenting discontinuous pools of water along the Narihalla near Taranagari. It was recorded on the Tunga- bhadra river near the reservoir (Neginhal 1971). Fulica atra Linnaeus : Coot Reported from the tank at Kereyaginahalli by A.M.G. but not seen in Sandur by me. Vanellus indicus (Boddaert) : Redwattled Lapwing This plover is not uncommon in Sandur, keeping near tanks and nullahs with some amount of water. Also a crepuscular and nocturnal bird, its unmistakable ‘did, did-he-do-it ? ’ is a familiar sound in the night. Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert) : Yellow- wattled Lapwing Frequently seen in the valley and plains in open dry country, only coming to water to quench its thirst. A much quieter bird than the Redwattled Lapwing but equally as attractive. See also under Shikra. Charadrius dubius Scopoli : Little Ringed Plover These little plovers were seen in small numbers on the Shivpur tank during December 1966. Probably visits other tanks in Sandur regularly each winter. Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) : Greenshank One record only of a single bird at Shivpur tank on December 3, 1971. May winter on other tanks in Sandur in limited numbers. I saw two greenshanks at the tank near Chilkanhatti in February 1968. Tringa ochropus Linnaeus : Green Sandpiper Least numerous of the three sandpipers seen by the author in Sandur. Found singly or in small groups around small pools and water-filled depressions away from the main tank. Winter visitor in very small numbers . Tringa glareola Linnaeus : Spotted Sandpiper The most abundant sandpiper in Sandur in winter distributing itself on nearly all the tanks in the plains and valley. Its eye catching spotted upperparts, long dainty legs and exquisite slender form make it a delight to watch as it trips over the muddy edges of tanks in search of food. In 512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) character it is exactly opposite to the Green Sandpiper, preferring company and being easily approachable. Four of these waders were noted in February 1968 at the Chilkanhatti tank by me. Neginhal (1971) saw them on the banks of the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur in February. Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus : Common Sandpiper A rather common wintering sandpiper to the tanks in Sandur, and one of the earliest migrants to arrive here. Extremely tame and con- fiding and also prone to a solitary habit. Seen on the Tungabhadra river bank near Shingtalur in February (Neginhal 1971). Capella spp. : Snipe Another group which presents problems in correct identification in the field. I have flushed several solitary birds from, the wet grassy margins of Shivpur tank in winter but have not been able to identify them down to species with certainty. Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus) : Blackwinged Stilt A regular and fairly common winter visitor to the tanks in Sandur. A party of 10-15 birds is invariably present during the winter months at Shivpur tank. Four stilts were seen by the author at Chilkanhatti tank in February 1968 and Neginhal (1971) saw them on the banks of the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur. Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus) : Stone Curlew Shy and secretive ; apparently rare in Sandur, having been recorded only once in the valley by the author. Krishnan states it is not uncom- mon in the valley and he has often heard it calling at night over Sandur town. Two examples, assigned to the subspecies B. o. indicus (Salvadori), present in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society (Abdulali 1970), were collected from Bellary. [Neginhal (1971) saw the Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas) flying to and fro over a stretch of the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur in February. I saw a Blackbellied Tern Sterna acuticauda J. E. Gray also on the Tungabhadra near Anaigudi in February 1968.] Pterocles exustus Temminck : Indian Sandgrouse According to A.M.G. this sandgrouse occurs in Sandur, but I have never seen it here. However it should be fairly common in the dry open areas of the taluk. Pterocles indicus (Gmelin) : Painted Sandgrouse I have only one record of a pair seen in the dry mid-eastern pait of the Sandur valley. Four examples of the typical race P. i. indicus (Gmelin) 513 ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR obtained from Yijayanagar and deposited in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society include two females with strongly rufous upper- parts and wing coverts and are held to be strikingly different (Abdulali 1971). Treron phoenicoptera (Latham) : Yellowlegged Green Pigeon Affects trees in fruit (especially of the genus Ficus ) throughout the year in the valley and on the hills in groups of 10-20 or more. This attractive pigeon is easily identified on account of its yellow legs, unlike those of any other green pigeon in India. Columba livia Gmelin : Blue Rock Pigeon A common resident in Sandur affecting rocky areas on the hills, on buildings, in wells, and the like. A large breeding colony exists on the gorge formed by the Narihalla cutting through the western range of hills. Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky) : Indian Ring Dove An abundant resident, more common in the drier country in the plains and valley. Neginhal (1971) saw this dove on one of the islands in the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur. Streptopelia tranquebarica (Hermann) : Red Turtle-Dove This small dove is fairly common in the valley especially in winter when its numbers are probably augmented by influx of outside popu- lations. Affects the tree-lined nullahs in the valley and flies out to adjacent fields to feed. The females are apt to be mistaken for those of the Ring Dove. This is the least common of the four doves within the valley. Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli) : Spotted Dove Extremely abundant wherever cultivation and groves of trees are present together with a water source nearby. The shady tree-lined nul- lahs in the valley and outside it attract teeming numbers of this dove, partial to moister facies, hence dominating the valley as far as the doves are concerned. Also occurs in good numbers on the hills. Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus; : Little Brown Dove I think this is the commonest dove in the taluk as a whole, but is more abundant in the drier open country in the plains where it somewhat appreciably replaces the preceding species. Also occurs in fair numbers in the valley and on the hills. Comparatively easier to approach and less shy than other doves, it is common on trees around habitation. I have also seen it in large numbers around Hospet and Bellary. Neginhal (1971) observed them on an island in the Tungabhadra near Shingtalur* 7 514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus) : Alexandrine Parakeet Krishnan says a large parakeet, possibly this species, occurs in Sandur. I have not seen it here. Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) : Roseringed Parakeet Common and well distributed all over the extensively cultivated valley and a menace to agriculture. An extremely destructive bird, it feeds on several grain and fruit crops. I have seen parakeets cut off whole ears of jowar and bajra, fly on to adjacent trees to pick off a part of the grains, discard the rest of the earhead and go back to the standing crop to cut off yet another! Two parakeets were observed eating flowers and buds of a silk-cotton tree ( Bombax ceiba ) in the valley in February 1968. An especial item of food here is the green fruit of the neem tree ( Azadirachta indica). Neginhal (1971) saw these birds near the rest house at Shingtalur. Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus) : Blossomheaded Parakeet Almost as common as the preceding species in the valley and equally as destructive to grain and fruit. The proximity of forest to cultivated areas in Sandur being very amenable to this beautiful parakeet, it is found in much larger numbers here than elsewhere in the Deccan. Loriculus vernalis (Sparrman) : Indian Lorikeet Though I have no knowledge of this little psittacine in Sandur, Krishnan tells me that he has definitely observed lorikeets in Sandur. From the account of this species in the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1969), it appears that this lorikeet is not found outside the coastal strip and ghats in the west and the ghats in the east, in the southern peninsula. In this light, the record by Krishnan from Sandur is very interesting and it only remains to confirm its occurrence and to establish whether it is resident here or just a local migrant. Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert) : Pied Crested Cuckoo I have but a single record, of two birds seen in bushes flanking a nullah at the base of the hills near Yeshwantnagar on 30 May 1964. Whistler (1928) discusses the status of this species in the region. Cuculus varius Vahl : Lesser Hawk-Cuckoo Fairly common in the valley, the birds keeping well inside densely foliaged trees, hence difficult to observe. Their unmistakable calls are a familiar sound during the rains. Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus) : Koel A familiar and well distributed resident throughout the better wooded areas of the taluk, particularly in the valley and on the hills. Its mono* Ornithology of sandur 515 tonous ‘ ku-oo, ku-oo . . . ’ on an ascending scale during the hottest months, though pleasant to the ear in the early mornings, becomes almost unbearable in the afternoons. Krishnan comments that he found it not very common in Sandur. Taccocua leschenaultii Lesson : Sirkeer Cuckoo Not uncommon on the grassy scrub-and-bush covered foothills in the valley as well as on the hills. A ground frequenting sombre-coloured cuckoo with a striking red bill. Ali and Ripley (1969) do not specify Karnataka as being within the range of this bird in the Indian hand- book although it is recorded by them from all other states in the south. This observation therefore is probably the first authentic report of the Sirkeer Cuckoo from Karnataka6. Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon) : Bluefaced Malkoha Though I have not observed this cuckoo in Sandur, Krishnan states he has positively seen it in bushes along the Narihalla. This species is usually called the Small Greenbilled Malkoha, but I adopt Bluefaced Malkoha in concordance with Henry (1955) to prevent confusion with the (Larger) Greenbilled Malkoha Rhopodytes tristis (Lesson). Centropus sinensis (Stephens) : Large Crow-Pheasant Another common resident of the well wooded areas in Sandur. Favours the vicinity of dark mango groves and the like. Neginhal (1971) saw it near the rest house at Shingtalur. Otus scops (Linnaeus) : Little Scops Owl According to Krishnan this tiny owl occurs in Sandur. I have not seen it here. Otus bakkamoena (Pennant) : Collared Scops Owl Observed in Sandur by Krishnan but not recorded by me in the taluk. Bubo bubo (Linnaeus) : Great Horned Owl Two individuals of this large owl were heard and seen at midnight by Krishnan near the Narasimhaswami gorge (where the Narihalla cuts through the western ranges of hills). Bubo zeylonensis (Gmelin) : Brown Fish Owl One was seen by Krishnan near the Narasimhaswami gorge and I have also recorded one near a tank in the western plains, in the night. 6 SalIm Ali (1943 : The Birds of Mysore. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 10), has a sight record of a pair in heavy thorn scrub ih a ravine at Satnur. — eds. 516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell) : Jungle Owlet I have no knowledge of this owlet in Sandur but am told by Krishnan that it occurs here. Athene brama (Temminck) : Spotted Owlet This delightful little owlet is common and widely distributed through- out the taluk. During the day pairs may be seen resting in shady trees along the nullahs or in mango orchards. Frequently seen in and around habitation. [I seem to have rather overlooked members of the owl family in Sandur though several owls were occasionally ‘caught’ in the headlights while driving in the night through jungle. Such fleeting glimpses un- fortunately could not result in their identity being legitimately established.] Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham : Little Nightjar The only nightjar seen or heard by the author in Sandur. Common and widely distributed all over the taluk, its distinctive call a familiar sound in the night. Prone to sit amongst littered leaves on the stony nullah beds during the day where they are remarkably obliterative. Several are bound to be put up in the course of an extended ‘ nullah-bed excursion Apus affinis (J. E. Gray) : House Swift Large numbers of these small swifts are commonly seen hawking insects in the air above the towns and villages. Nests in colonies under eaves of large buildings. Krishnan found this swift especially common around Krishnanagar. Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein) : Palm Swift A few of these slender brown swifts were seen hawking insects in the ail above the Palace and the adjacent Shivpur tank. Some six palm swifts were observed flying about near the Tungabhadra at Anaigudi in February 1968. They were also noticed to shoot up into the folds of a dried-up hanging palmyra leaf and come out almost immediately (building ?). Hemiprocne longipennis (Rafinesque) : Crested Tree Swift Seen along with the palm swifts flying gracefully in the air above the Palace and the Shivpur tank. [One Lesser Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus) was seen by the author on the Tungabhadra near Anaigudi in February 1968.] ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 517 Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus) : Small Blue Kingfisher Said to occur about some nullahs by A.M.G. ; never seen in Sandur by me. Seen on the banks of the Tungabhadra by Neginhal (1971), Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus) : Whitebreasted Kingfisher Common and resident in Sandur in all locations preferably near water. In flight its brilliant blue wings outshine even those of the Indian Roller. Merops philippinus Linnaeus : Bluetailed Bee-eater A regular winter visitor in small numbers to the Sandur valley where it is seen unfailingly near Shivpur tank. Here it perches on the topmost branches of the large tamarind trees overlooking the tank and launches aerial sallies after winged insects, notably large Anisopteran dragonflies. Merops orientalis Latham : Small Green Bee-eater An extremely common resident within and outside the valley and on the hills. Uses varying types of perches in open country, from treetops and electric wires to clods of earth from where it darts after flying insects. Neginhal (1971) saw a group of these bee-eaters on the banks of the Tungabhadra. Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus) : Indian Roller Another very common bird of cultivation and open country, invariably seen perched on electric wires. Together with the Green Bee-eater and black drongos dominates the avian scene in such situations. Neginhal (1971) saw it near the rest house at Shingtalur in February. Upupa epops Linnaeus : Hoopoe A remarkable bird, resident and fairly common all over the taluk. Frequents open cultivation where it may be seen looking for food on the ground in its characteristic fashion. Nests in holes in walls of build- ings. Recorded near the rest house at Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971). Tockus birostris (Scopoli) : Grey Hornbill Inhabits the better forested parts of the taluk, venturing into mango orchards in fruit to feed. Also affects fig trees laden with fruit along with a multitude of other frugivorous birds. Its slow, almost reptilian movements in fully foliaged trees often go unnoticed but the shrill kite- like squeal never fails to locate it. Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin) : Large Green Barbet Curiously uncommon, seen only in the hills with any regularity. One bird was noted along with yellowlegged green pigeons feeding on ripe figs on the Ramandrug range. 518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) Megalaima haemacephala (P. L. S. Muller) : Crimsonbreasted Barbet The ‘ Coppersmith ’ is resident and very common in Sandur in lightly wooded areas and on large trees near habitation. Fig trees in fruit never fail to attract it. Jynx torquilla Linnaeus : Wryneck One record only, of a single bird seen on December 29, 1965 near a nullah in the valley. Dinopium benghalense (Linnaeus) : Lesser Goldenbacked Woodpecker The only woodpecker seen in Sandur by me. It is fairly common in the valley and on the hills in well wooded situations. Picoides mahrattensis (Latham) : Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker Reported as occurring in Sandur by Krishnan but not seen here by me. Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus) : Indian Pitta This splendidly plumaged ground bird is often seen in the thick vege- tation lining nullahs. Probably only a winter migrant to Sandur but I have records of the Pitta from Sandur as late as May and even the first week of June. [Koelz (1947) took four specimens of the Singing Bush Lark Mirafra javanica Horsfield from Hospet in March which he described as a new race — M. j. bangsi , now synonymised with M. j. cantillans Blyth.] Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli) : Ashycrowned Finch-Lark This little lark is mainly found in the drier, more open parts of the taluk in paris or small parties. In January I saw a small flock of reddish larks come down for a drink at one of the nullahs in the valley. On close observation, however, I found that the brick-red coloration was not original but only a coating of red soil probably acquired in the process of a dust bath. One male was obtained in March at Hospet by Koelz (1947). Ammomanes phoenicurus (Franklin) : Rufoustailed Finch-Lark Occasionally seen in the same type of biotope as the preceding species. Pairs are seen feeding on the ground in scrub or fallow fields. Koelz (1947) secured a female from Hospet on March 25, 1937, which he placed with the nominate subspecies A. p. phoenicurus (Franklin). According to the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1972) this race does not occur in Karna- taka at all but is replaced south of c . 15°N. latitude by A. p. testaceuk Koelz, the type of which came from Salem in Tamil Nadu, ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 519 Alauda gulgula Franklin : Small Skylark Krishnan observed a small skylark in Sandur, which he thinks was this species, singing on quivering wings, high in the air in characteristic fashion. [A female Dusky Crag Martin Hirundo concolor Sykes was taken at Hospet in March (Koelz 1947).] Hirundo smithii Leach : Wiretailed Swallow Fairly common in Sandur, always seen near water hawking insects in the air. A trim and neat swallow with long ‘ wires ’ in the tail not readily visible in flight but the pure white underparts are suggestive pointers to its identity. A male was taken at Hospet in March (Koelz 1947). Hirundo daurica Linnaeus : Striated Swallow Resident and common, in fact the most abundant swallow in Sandur. Its numbers are increased in winter through the ai rival of migrant popu- lations. Lanius excubitor Linnaeus : Great Grey Shrike Stray individuals only noticed in the eastern plains. This shrike has not been recorded in the valley or on the western plains but it must surely occur in the latter. According to the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1972) this shrike is not recorded in Karnataka south of Belgaum. It is in fact a fairly common bird throughout the Karnataka ‘ maidan ’ in suitable biotope (Ghorpade, 1973). Lanius vittatus Valenciennes : Baybacked Shrike The commonest shrike in Sandur, frequenting all types of terrain in the valley and plains to the top of the hills. Lanius schach Linnaeus : Rufousbacked Shrike Fairly abundant in open country and scrub in the plains and valley, often seen side by side with the preceding species. In most individuals here, the rufous of the rump and lower flanks does not extent further up the back. Koelz (1947) took a male and two females of the race L. s. caniceps Blyth at Hospet in March. Lanius cristatus Linnaeus : Brown Shrike This shrike is a regular cold weather visitor to Sandur and is found singly in scrub, cultivation and the edges of forest. Duller in plumage than other shrikes, but is itself a very handsome bird. Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus) : Golden Oriole This splendid bird is a familiar sight in Sandur at all elevations in the hills, valley and plains. It affects forest and field alike with a preference 520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (3) for the shady mango groves. A shy and retiring bird, it keeps to taller and fuller foliaged trees as a rule. It appears to be only a winter visitor here. Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus) : Blackheaded Oriole One record only of a single bird in the company of several golden orioles perched on top of a huge mango tree in the valley. Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein) : Black Drongo This pugnacious bird is commonly met with almost everywhere in Sandur including on the hills. It often accompanies grazing herds of cattle, using their backs as a vantage point from where it darts after insects disturbed by the animals. Neginhal (1971) noted it near the rest house at Shingtalur. Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus) : Whitebellied Drongo Recorded only once from the Sandur valley when a solitary bird with a distinct white belly was seen sitting on a tree in the middle of a field near a tree-and-shrub choked nullah. Apparently a scarce resident in Sandur, but Krishnan found it fairly common at Ramgad on the Ramandrug range of hills. Campbell (1906) found nests of this drongo on the Ramandrug range. [Krishnan observed the Greyheaded Myna Sturnus malabaricus (Gmelin) to be common at Tungabhadra, feeding on ripe banyan figs.] Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin) : Brahminy Myna This attractive myna is a common breeding resident and is frequently seen in all types of habitat, mainly near cultivation and habitation. One bird was seen feeding on flower nectar of a silk-cotton tree, Bombax ceiba , in the valley in February. Koelz (1947) took a male at Hospet in March ; several were seen on trees surrounding Chilkanhatti tank in February by the author. Sturnus roseus (Linnaeus) : Rosy Pastor I have never seen this migrant anywhere in the taluk but Krishnan (1955) writes — ‘ Rosy Pastors arrive in thousands in the Bellary country outside the Sandur hills about September-October. No crop in that area is then ripe, but the birds are probably still to be found there in November when a few early heads of jowar may be available to them. By December they appear to have quit. The remarkable thing is that they never cross the Sandur hills into the Sandur area where grain is available to them in plenty. On this point I am certain, but having been only an occasional visitor to the Bellary area outside the Sandur hills, I have formed only ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 521 rough impressions of the movements of the Rosy Pastors there.’ Abdulali (1947) discusses the movements of this bird in India. Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus) : Indian Myna One of the commonest birds in Sandur especially about habitation and open country. Being omnivorous it competes with the crows and house sparrows for scraps thrown out of houses. Nests in holes in buildings, old wells and such like. Noted near the rest house at Shingtalur (Neginhal 1971). Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham) : Indian Tree Pie This bird is a common resident all over Sandur from the forest- covered hills to village groves and scattered trees in the plains. An attractive avian, one is not quite prepared for its harsh calls completely different from the liquid 4 bob-o-link ’ uttered with body arched and tail tucked under, which helps to locate it in some leafy tree. It has three other types of calls — a raucous ‘ crrrh ’, a crow-like 4 kak, kak, kak .... and another peculiar note emitted with feverish bobs of the head. Corvus splendens Vieillot : House Crow In Sandur, this crow is found synonymous with the town and villages but is much less common than the following species especially in open country. Its nests are parasitised by the Koel who for ages has been fooling the seemingly 4 intelligent ’ crow into hatching its eggs and rear- ing its young. Devours the ripe fruits of fig trees with obvious relish, though clumsy in the act. Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler : Jungle Crow Certainly more numerous than the House Crow, inhabiting almost all types of terrain including the hills. When in good plumage it is a coarsely handsome bird with shining black feathers and a strong bill. A useful scavenger of refuse in and around habitation but sometimes destructive to grain and fruit crops. Also feeds on fruit of trees of the genus Ficus. Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin) : Lesser Wood Shrike Frequently seen singly or in pairs in and outside the valley. Affects the trees and shrubbery along nullah banks and also scattered tree-and- bush country on the foothills. Has a pleasant musical call and hunts insects in the manner of a flycatcher. Koelz (1947) secured a male at Hospet in March 1937. Coracina novaehollandiae (Gmelin) : Large Cuckoo-Shrike This fine bird has a liking for tall stately trees and is not uncommon in the valley. 522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Coracina melanoptera (Ruppell) : Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike Seen only once near the tree-choked nullah at Yeshwantnagar in May 1964. Its light grey plumage seemed almost blue in the dark interior of the nullah but the black head was distinct. One male was obtained at Hospet in March (Koelz 1947). Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (Linnaeus) : Small Minivet Small groups of four to twelve birds are frequently observed on larger trees hunting insects and constantly uttering feeble musical calls. Fairly common in dry open forest and groves of trees in the valley. Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus) : Common Iora A very common and delightful little resident of the Sandur area. It has a bewitching mellow whistle, surprisingly loud for so small a bird. Affects well wooded open country with groves of large trees and also the forested hills. In breeding plumage the male is a striking golden yellow and black bird, its antics on trees an immense joy to watch. Koelz (1947) took a male in March at Hospet. Chloropsis cochinchinensis (Gmelin) : Jerdon’s Chloropsis A.M.G. reports this bird as resident and breeding in Sandur but I have not seen it here. Krishnan mentions seeing it along a nullah in the valley. Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus) : Redwhiskered Bulbul A somewhat scarce and local resident, keeping to moister and more forested areas, thus being more familiar on the hills. Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus) : Redvented Bulbul Extremely abundant everywhere and resident. Wild fig trees in fruit invariably attract this species which gorges itself on the delicacy. It is no doubt an important dispersal agent for the Sandal tree Santalum album , found all over Sandur. Several of these bulbuls were seen by the author near the tank at Chilkanhatti in February 1968. Koelz (1947) secured a male in March at Hospet. Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon) : Yellowthroated Bulbul C. L. Wilson shot and identified one of this species at Bellary on June 13, 1901 and also noticed some 20 pairs frequenting the rocky hills there. He also took a nest on June 23 the same year and felt that June-July was the breeding season of these bulbuls there (Allen 1908). This is again quoted by Whistler and Kinnear (1932b) in their report on the Eastern Ghats bird survey. Whistler (in Ali 1942) refers to the Eastern Ghats survey report and comments further — ‘ this bulbul .... is apparently much overlooked because of its skulking habits and the fact that the region it inhabits has not received much attention from ornithologists, ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 523 .... a specimen was collected at Ramandrug on 6 May 1919 (?) by Mr. E. H. Pooler Ali and Ripley (1971) include only Chitaldrug (Chitradurga) and Bangalore districts as within the range of this un- common bulbul, possibly overlooking the above reports from Bellary district. I have not seen this rare bulbul in Sandur and Pooler’s speci- men from Ramandrug in the hills is the only record of the bird from the taluk. Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson) : Whitebrowed Bulbul Another familiar bulbul in Sandur but not as abundant as the Redvented. It prefers open country and cultivation but also affects the tree-lined nullahs in the valley. Possesses a loud call which is a good indication of its presence on walks. Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson : Spotted Babbler One record only, of a pair hopping about on the bed of a nullah littered with fallen dry leaves near Yeshwantnagar in the western plain near the foothills of the southern range, on May 1, 1963. Ali and Ripley (1971) state that this babbler is not known from the Deccan plateau so this record is of considerable interest. The Sandur hills with their densely forested slopes provide an ideal habitat for this babbler. Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin) : Whitethroated Babbler Observed in small flocks in scrub near Yeshwantnagar. They keep to small bushes, hopping about in them and uttering sharp chirpy calls. Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin) : Yelloweyed Babbler A compact babbler with a loosely held long tail and striking yellow eyes. Keeps to the interior of bushes and thickets along nullahs and is very shy and evasive, thus being difficult to observe. Koelz (1947) shot a male of this species at Hospet in March. Turdoides caudatus (Dumont) : Longtailed Streaked Babbler The 4 Common Babbler ’ of many authors, it is decidedly uncommon in Sandur, keeping to the drier, scrub-covered areas of the western plains. Here it lives in small flocks which are seen following each other across the scrub. I prefer to call this the ‘ Longtailed Streaked Babbler ’ as the bird is hardly common throughout its range7. A male was obtained on March 25 at Hospet (Koelz 1947). : i ; i : \ • Sfe 7 The word ‘ common ’ is best restricted to an indication of the abundance of a particular bird in a given area rather than as an English name designating a species. The latter procedure usually results in ambiguity especially among amateurs when the common name is not accompanied by the scientific name of the species. Thus the term ‘ Common Babbler ’ in Sandur may apply either to T. striatus or to T. malcolmi depending on whether the reference is in respect of the hills or the plains respectively. If there is to be a standardisation of English names of Indian species (not for sub- species too, please, as in the Indian handbook), I strongly suggest elimination of the term ‘ common * in favour of a more descriptive word, 524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes) : Large Grey Babbler Very common in parties of 3-7 birds about cultivation, scrub, vegeta- tion lining nullahs and roads, and edges of forest. Less common than the following species in the forested areas where it is rare. Frequently seen in company with the preceding species in scrub jungle. Moves about very stiffly on the ground and is very noisy and demonstrative if disturbed, the rabble taking refuge in nearby trees and keeping up a constant nasal ‘ goinya, goinya, goinya . . . . ’ which gives them their local name. Two juveniles were taken at Hospet in March by Koelz (1947). Turdoides striatus (Dumont) : Jungle Babbler Possibly the commonest babbler in Sandur as a whole, particularly on the forested hills where it alone rules the roost so to speak as far as babblers are concerned. Moves about in ‘ sisterhoods ’ of 6-8 individuals, feed- ing mostly on the ground. On the slightest alarm, the whole flock flies into the nearest tree and sets up a terrible squeaking din, gesticulating with loosely held tail and flicking wings drooping at the sides. Turdoides affinis (Jerdon) : Whiteheaded Babbler Somewhat similar to the preceding species in size, shape, coloration and habits but easily separated on account of its creamy-white head, dark brown breast and more musical calls. Somewhat uncommon and noted only around Yeshwantnagar in the western plains. Ali and Ripley (1971) state that this babbler is ‘ absent or scarce in Mysore east of the Western Ghats.’ I may mention here that this babbler also occurs fairly commonly around Bangalore. Muscicapa latirostris Raffles : Brown Flycatcher An uncommon resident in Sandur, usually seen hunting insects in the seclusion of the numerous shady mango orchards in and outside the valley. Muscicapa parva Bechstein : Redbreasted Flycatcher A regular and plentiful winter visitor to the Sandur area. Each bird occupies a distinct ‘ territory ’ on arrival and is found day after day in the same stretch of garden, nullah-bank vegetation or tree-grove. I have never seen the redbreasted male either here or at Bangalore (where it is also a common migrant). It has a characteristic habit of jerking the white marked black tail upwards and at the same time uttering a curious creaky chatter. Muscicapa superciliaris Jerdon : Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher One record of a single bird seen twice on the same day (April 30, 1963) in the vicinity of an overgrown nullah near Yeshwantnagar* ORNITHOLOGY OF SANDUR 525 According to my notebook I do not seem to have noticed the white super- cilium (if there was one) but the broken blue pectoral band on each side of the breast was definitely observed. A single male collected at Namadachilume (Tumkur district) in southeastern Karnataka on January 2, 1940, by Salim Ali (1942) is the southernmost and only record of this flycatcher from Karnataka. My record is the second report of this bird from Karnataka and suggests that this flycatcher is possibly an erratic winter visitor here in favourable biotope. Muscicapa tickelliae (Blyth) : Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher A common resident all over Sandur particularly in nullah-bank vegetation and well-wooded country. One of the prettiest of the penin- sular flycatchers, it delights in perching on roots jutting out of nullah banks and launches aerial sallies after insect prey. Muscicapa thalassina Swainson : Verditer Flycatcher This brilliant blue flycatcher was seen only once at Shivpur in February 1968 when it flew out of a ‘ bakul ’ ( Mimusops elengi ) tree on to an electric wire where it sat for some time, quivering its tail, before dashing back into the tree’s interior. Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson) : Greyheaded Flycatcher One record only, of a single bird frequenting a shrub-lined nullah near Yeshwantnagar on October 3, 1963. Ali and Ripley (1972) state it is not found south of the Krishna river except on the Western Ghats and the Ceylon hills. I have also seen this flycatcher in winter near Yelburga (Raichur district) and it seems to occur further south (in winter only ?) than so far recorded. Rhipidura albogularis (Lesson) : Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher This delightful flycatcher is met with fairly frequently in groves of trees in the valley, along nullah-bank vegetation and edges of forest, where it flits about gracefully, displaying its tail and picking up insects. A breeding resident in Sandur, also occurs on the western plain especially near Yeshwantnagar. Koelz (1947) took a female on March 25 at Hospet. Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus) : Paradise Flycatcher A graceful flycatcher, it is resident and fairly common in Sandur. Mango orchards and shrub-laden nullahs aro its favourite haunts. Very elegant in flight, its long tail feathers (in the male) floating behind as it wends its way through the dark canopy of trees. Prinia spp. : Longtail Warblers Parties of longtail warblers numbering from three to fifteen are fre- quently seen flying from bush to tree-top, in long grass, shrubs bordering 526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) cultivation and such like but are very difficult to place. They constantly utter feeble calls to each other while flitting about in search of food. These birds are difficult to identify in the field with certainty but I think Prinia hodgsoni Blyth and P. subflava (Gmelin) occur most commonly in Sandur. Prinia socialis Sykes : Ashy Longtail Warbler Fairly common in bushes, nullah-bank vegetation, open forest, scrub and long grass. An attractive little warbler especially when in breeding plumage. Koelz (1947) took a male at Hospet in March ; Neginhal (1971) saw them in bushes on an island in the Tungabhadra in February. Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant) : Tailor Bird An exceedingly common resident, principally found scrummaging in bushes and on trees in open country as well as along nullahs. Tame and confiding, it has a remarkably loud call. Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth : Blyth’s Reed Warbler A common winter visitor to Sandur, found hopping about in shrub- bery along nullahs or tanks, generally near water. An unobtrusive warbler with a distinct pale supercilium. Phylloscopus inornatus (Blyth) : Yellowbrowed Leaf Warbler Noted only once in the Palace garden hunting insects on a fig tree. A distinct yellow supercilium and two wing bars suggested its identity. Probably winters here in small numbers. Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus) : Magpie-Robin A fine songster common around habitation, gardens and orchards. Also in cultivation interspersed with trees and along nullahs. Partial to groves of large trees but also in scrub. Phoenicurus ochruros (S. G. Gmelin) : Black Redstart A fairly common winter visitor, frequenting the Palace garden, orchards, cultivation and tree-lined nullahs. A beautifully coloured bird with the habit of shivering its tail constantly. Saxicola torquata (Linnaeus) : Stone Chat Evidently a rare winter straggler to Sandur, single birds seen occasionally in the valley in cultivation and scrub. Saxicola caprata (Linnaeus) : Pied Bush Chat Common and abundant in Sandur in all situations, often perched on top of a thorny bush or on telegraph wires, flicking its tail regularly. The resident race is probably S. c. burmanica Stuart Baker but I have one ORNITHOLOGY OF SAN DU R 527 sight record of a single individual with white extending up to the breast which seemed to belong to the migrant subspecies S. c. bicolor Sykes. I saw this species on the banks of the Tungabhadra near Anaigudi in February. Koelz (1947) took a male at Hospet in March. Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus) : Indian Robin One of the commonest birds in Sandur, extremely abundant every- where but prefers the neighbourhood of cultivation and scrub inter- spersed with rocky areas. After a cloudburst it is one of the first feathered creatures to hop down from shelter and burst into song. Keeps its tail cocked up at an acute angle showing the chestnut under-tail coverts. Neginhal (1971) saw it near the rest house at Shingtalur ; Koelz (1947) collected a male at Hospet in March. Zoothera citrina (Latham) : Orangeheaded Ground Thrush This interesting thrush is rarely seen, being extremely elusive and seldom venturing out from concealment under some overgrown bushes flanking a nullah. Rummages about among dry littered leaves on stony nullah beds for insects and fallen fruit. Parus major Linnaeus : Grey Tit One record only, of a single bird in company with some redwhiskered bulbuls in moist forest at the edge of Thayammankolla on the Raman- drug range in August 1972. Anthus hodgsoni Richmond : Hodgson’s Tree Pipit A small party of these migrants were observed for several days affect- ing the Palace garden and the tamarind trees on the grassy banks of Shivpur tank. Anthus novaeseelandiae Gmelin : Paddyfield Pipit A common resident in Sandur in the open areas, grassland and culti- vation. Gregarious, always found in loosely scattered flocks searching for food on the ground. Koelz (1947) took a female on March 24 at Hospet. Motacilla caspica (Gmelin) : Grey Wagtail A few individuals of this species winter at the tanks in the taluk. One or two birds sometimes enter the Palace garden. Motacilla alba Linnaeus : White Wagtail This wagtail is found about the tanks at Shivpur and Bandri in the winter in small numbers, walking about on the edges and wagging the tail ceaselessly. 528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin : Large Pied Wagtail Not uncommon along the Narihalla, various tanks and around culti- vation in the valley and plains. I saw one at Anaigudi on the banks of the Tungabhadra in February 1968. Dicaeum agile (Tickell) : Thickbilled Flowerpecker Not uncommon in well-wooded country especially along vegetation lining banks of the numerous nullahs. I located a nest of this species with two young on a tree with sparse reddish brown leaves beside a nullah near Yeshwantnagar in April 1963. This flowerpecker is an important dispersal agent for the plant parasites Loranthus and Viscum. [TickelPs Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Latham) was obtained at Hospet in March by Koelz (1947). Not recorded so far from within Sandur limits, but it must surely occur here.] Nectarinia zeylonica (Linnaeus) : Purplerumped Sunbird A very common resident, found plentifully wherever flowering trees or shrubs are present. This is where the lantana bush comes as a reve- lation, sunbirds being very fond of its nectar. Also in gardens about habitation not unduly disturbed by the presence of humans. Koelz (1947) secured a male in March at Flospet. Nectarinia asiatica (Latham) : Purple Sunbird A shimmering sunbird, superbly plumaged, with a long curved bill which it inserts into flowers to sip nectar. Associates in small groups of 4-6 birds at times and may be found along with the preceding species in the country. The immature male is like the female but with a dark line running vertically down the centre in front from chin to vent. I have seen the glorious male bird chasing away large carpenter bees {Xylocopa sp.) visiting the same flowering tree with audible snaps of the bill. Resi- dent and common in Sandur. Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck) : Oriental White-eye Another well distributed bird in Sandur. Completely arboreal, it keeps in parties of 5-20 birds which restlessly hunt insects in densely foliaged trees or bushes in light forest, orchards, gardens and the like. Constantly utter a feeble chirpy call while feeding. Passer domesticus (Linnaeus) : House Sparrow Extremely abundant in the town and villages, a constant hanger-on of man. Only found in and about habitation or cultivation near villages. When the adjacent fields are in grain, large hordes of sparrows will visit them, causing considerable damage. I saw these on the banks of the Tungabhadra near Anaigudi. ORNITHOLOGY OF SAN DU R 529 Petronia xanthocoilis (Burton) : Yellowthroated Sparrow A locally distributed but common resident. I found this sparrow in great numbers affecting the central valley. From the tree and shrub bordered nullahs they would fly onto adjacent fields to feed on ripening earheads of jowar and bajra. Also ventures into the Palace garden. One bird was seen feeding on the nectar of silk-cotton ( Bombax ceiba) flowers in the valley in February. Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus) : Baya Weaver Fairly common resident, breeding during June-August, building its wonderful nests on trees overhanging nullahs, wells, ponds or tanks. Does some damage to grain crops, especially rice and jowar. Lonchura malabarica (Linnaeus) : Whitethroated Munia Fairly common about cultivation, dry open scrub and forest edges usually in small to large flocks. Feeds on standing grain crops doing appreciable damage. Lonchura pimctulata (Linnaeus) : Spotted Munia This little munia is seen from time to time in small flocks and family parties about cultivation associated with light forest. Sometimes teams up with whitethroated munias to feed on ripening grain in cultivated areas. Also feeds on a large variety of grass seeds. A common breeding resident in Sandur. Discussion The above account includes a total of 166 species recorded from Sandur taluk with an additional 16 species from other parts of Bellary district. In order to get a reasonable idea of the composition and variety of Sandur’s bird life, a comparison with areas of similar dimensions and terrain would be ideal. Table 1 provides such areas together with the number of species recorded from each. Species recorded from areas of comparable size and terrain to Sandur Table 1 Area Species recorded Reference Madhya Pradesh : Saugor (Sagar) and Damoh districts Sehore (Bhopal) Balaghat Pachmarhi Betul 155* J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21 : 87 (1911) 294 ibid. ,21 : 153 (1911) 162 ibid., 21 : 1158 (1911) 135 ibid., 28 : 453 (1922) i oiu. , | 168 ibid., 41 : 286 (1941), 44 : 471 (1944) Maharashtra : Berar (Akola and 193 ibid., 43 : 428 (1942) Buldana districts) * Resident birds only recorded. 530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Comparing the number of birds so far observed in Sandur (166) with those recorded from the localities mentioned in the table of some- what similar terrain and size, it seems that in numbers at least, Sandur is in no way inferior. When one considers that Sandur has almost no habitats for water birds and that it is mainly an area of hill forest, open cultivation and dry scrub, a possible total of about 200-250 species would be a conservative estimate for the taluk. Only Bhopal with 294 recorded species is comparatively richer in its avifauna. My own estimate is that the 166 species recorded in this paper make up only about 60-70% of the possible total of species for this distinctive area. The noticeable omissions from the list are birds attached to inland waters like egrets, herons, storks, waders, snipe, ducks, wagtails and crakes, the paucity of such habitats in the taluk accounting for the absence of these species in Sandur. Other groups such as the diurnal birds of prey, owls, nightjars, cuckoos, warblers, flycatchers and larks must certainly make up a large proportion of the avian population especially in the hills and will need a more careful and exhaustive search. My observations on the ornithology of Sandur have been necessarily limited, having been carried out in bits and pieces on short trips to the area over a period of ten years. Many areas in the taluk such as the eastern plains were virtually neglected and others were poorly worked for in- stance the highly interesting hill forests and the western plains. Only the valley was more or less fairly well studied for its avifauna but even here much more field work needs to be carried out in a more systematic manner. An extended residence in the area for a couple of years would be ideal which indicates that ‘ residents ’ in the taluk could achieve far more than an ‘ occasional visitor ’ like the author. Meanwhile, it is hoped that this preliminary list will serve as a broad indication of the type of bird life existing in the Sandur area and as an aid to future work on the avifauna of the taluk. Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge, with pleasure, the help rendered by Mr. M. Krishnan, of Madras, in reading the manuscript and offering valuable comments and much additional and supplementary information based on his personal observations on the birds of Sandur. I am grate- ful to Dr. G. P. Channa Basavanna, Prof. of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, for reviewing the manuscript. I am also thankful to my nephew, Mr. Ajai M. Ghorpade of Sandur, for many useful discussions and am greatly indebted to my uncle, Mr. Y. R. Ghorpade for his many courtesies during my stays at Sandur and for his sustained interest in this work. ORNITHOLOGY OF SAND UR 531 References Abdulali, H. (1947) : The move- ments of the Rosy Pastor in India [Pastor roseus (L.)]. /. Bombay nat. Hist . Soc. 46 : 704-708. (1968) : A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. Part 2. ibid. 65 : 418-430. (1969): op. cit., Part 4. ibid. 66:251-285. (1970) : op. cit., Part 7. ibid. 67: 279-298. (1971) : op. cit. Part 8. ibid. 68 : 127-152. & Reuben, R. (1964) : The Jungle Bush Quail [Perdicula asiatica (Latham)] : a new race from south India, ibid. 61 : 688-691. Ali, Salim (1942) : The Birds of Mysore. Part II. ibid. 43 : 318-341 . & Ripley, S. D. (1968- 1972) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volumes 1-7. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Allen, P. R. (1908) : Notes on the Yellowthroated Bulbul ( Pycnonotus xantholaemus). J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 18 : 905-907. Baker, E. C. Stuart (1900) : Indian Ducks and their allies. Part IX. ibid. 13 : 1-24. Campbell, W. H. (1906) : Nesting of the White-bellied Drongo (Dicrurus caerulescens) . ibid. 17 : 248. Ghorpade, K. D. ( 1973) : On the Status and Distribution of the Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor Linnaeus in Mysore, ibid. 70 (2) : 380. Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University Press, London, xl + 432 pp. Koelz, W. (1947) : Notes on a Collec- tion of Birds from Madras Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 : 128-142. Krishnan, M. (1948) : Sandur State 1948. Hosali Press, Bangalore, vi + 83 pp. (1955) : The Rosy Pastor in the Bellary area. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 128-129. Neginhal, S. G. (1971) : Tunga- bhadra reservoir birds. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 11(5) : 6-8. Ramachandra Rao, Y. (1920) : Lantana Insects in India. Mem. dept, agric. India ent. Ser. 5 : 239-314. Ripley, S. D. (1961) : A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, xxxvi + 703 pp. Whistler, H. (1928) : The migration of the Pied Crested Cuckoo ( Clamator jacobinus ). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33 : 136-145. & Kinnear, N. B. (1932a) : The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats (Ornithological Section). Parti, ibid. 35 : 505-524. & (1932b) : op. cit. Part 2. ibid. 35 : 737-760. Obituary NORMAN LOFTUS BOR (1893-1972) Dr. N. L. Bor. c.i.e., o.b.e., m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., f.r.s.e., the distin- guished authority on Asiatic Grasses, died on 22nd December, 1972, at the West London Hospital, after a brief illnessBorn on 2 May 1893 at Tramore, Co. Waterford, Ireland, his death at the ripe age of eighty, will be considered by many as the end of an era in Indian botany. He took his M.A. and later D.Sc. at Trinity College, Dublin. A thesis on the vegetation of the Naga Hills, Assam, subsequently earned him a D.Sc. from the University of Edinburgh. During the First World War, he served with the Connaught Rangers in France, Salenica and Palestine. He entered the Indian Forest Service in 1921 and during the next 27 years occupied a number of important posts, both professional and administrative ; as a Forest Officer, Botanist, Political Officer and Chief Refugee Administrator (1943-1946), and at his retirement, held the rank of Conservator of Forests*. Dr. Bor had an uncanny knack of learning the languages of the tribals of Eastern India and we have the testimony of his wife, Eleanor Constance Rundall, that he could converse effectively in as many as seven tribal languages of Assam by the time of their marriage in 1931. Her book adventures of A botanist’s wife published hardly five years before her death in 1957, makes entertaining reading. Her definition of a botanist is 4 a species that seeks untrodden ways, often perilous, in search of . . . specimens ’. This could be considered as a pointer to the character and drive of her botanist husband during their botanising in Eastern India. She narrates many anecdotes and reminiscences which depict eloquently Dr. Bor’s quiet courage, foresight and presence of mind in the face of numerous hazards faced during his (and also their) travels in the rugged mountainous terrain clothed with impenetrable forests, infested with bears, elephants, leeches and dreadful insects, rather than with snakes and tigers. She narrates, how, during their travel through forest on an elephant’s back, within the first six days of their marriage, she suspected her husband might be going mad, because he suddenly started scratching himself ferociously and then flung himself from the elephant and dis- appeared into the forest. She learnt later that he had rushed to a nearby stream to wash off the intensely irritating bristles of Mucuna prurita. OBITUARY 533 Some of which must have fallen on his neck, face and shoulders, when their elephant brushed against the creeper. The opportunity to study the grasses in a more comprehensive manner came to Dr. Bor when he was deputed by the Government of Assam to the Kew Herbarium for three months during 1936 for training, to bring out a manual of the Grasses of Assam ; and flora of Assam, Yol. V, the Gramineae (1940), was the result thereof. Sir Joseph Hooker’s remark about the grasses of his time being 4 dreadfully difficult and systematically a chaos of imperfect descriptions, erroneous identi- fications, confused synonymy and imbecile attempts ’ to study the grasses (Taylor in Bor 1960) might have stimulated the young botanist in Bor of 1936-40 to accept the challenge and to continue undiminished his interest and dedication for the study of the Asiatic grasses at Kew Herbarium, first as Assistant Director from 1948 to 1959, and then as a self-employed honorary member of the grass section from 1959 almost till his death in December 1972. Apart from his numerous publications, particularly on the vegetation of flora of Eastern India, and his books such as MANUAL OF FOREST BOTANY (1953), and BEAUTIFUL INDIAN climbers and shrubs (with M. B. Raizada) (1954), his monumental work on the GRASSES OF BURMA, CEYLON, INDIA AND PAKISTAN (1960), of the flora of iraq (1968), of the flora iRANiCA (1970) and of the forth- coming flora of Cyprus will stand as his memorial and bear testimony to the fruits of many years of thorough and persistent labour and the splendid realization of a dream come true ! While his admirers abroad, particularly those interested in the study of Asiatic Grasses, will benefit immensely from his masterly elucidation of the complexities involved in the systematics and nomenclature of one of the most difficult families of flowering plants, his younger colleagues and admirers closely asso- ciated with him at Kew during the last 24 years, in the words of Dr. W. D. Clayton, ‘ will remember with delight the burly figure amid a litter of specimens, dispensing fudge, German translations, and an in- exhaustible supply of outrageous reminiscences. They will recall, with a sense of gratitude, tl^at his encouragement, advice and wise counsel were also available to all who sought them .... We shall all miss him as a colleague and many of us will mourn him as a friend.’ I consider myself extremely unfortunate that I did not arrive at the Kew Herbarium until a week after he had left it. >Dr. Bor was awarded the Paul Johannes Briihl Medal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal 1945 and the Gold Medal of the Linnaean Society of London in 1962. For his distinguished services in India, he was awarded the C.I.E. in 1945 and the O.B.E. in 1957 for his services to the Kew establishment. G. Panigrahi 534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) V. K. CHARI (1912-1972) Vanaharam Krishnama Chari was born on 12 January 1912 at Ballampet, Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh. He graduated from the Christian College at Madras and after working as a school master in Andhra Pradesh joined the Society as its Assistant Curator in 1946. Under the then existing arrangement Mr. Chari was also Assistant Curator of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. In 1960 Mr. Chari took over as Curator of the Natural History Section of the Museum and continued in that capacity till his death on 31 January, 1972. A kind-hearted gentleman and a genial companion ever ready to assist anyone who needed help, his untimely death is a grievous loss to his many friends. Mr. Chari’s special interest was Herpetology and he contributed several useful papers to the Society’s Journal which are listed below : J. C. Daniel The record Black Earth Boa [ Eryx j ohm (Russell)] 49 : 127. Breeding habits of Thais bufo (Lamarck). ( With two text-figures ) 49 : 317. A Dhaman or Rat-Snake [ Ptyas mucosus (Linn.) ] jumping 49 : 561. Occurrence of the fish Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland) in Nela Bilam-an Under- ground cavern in Kurnool District, South India 49 : 565. The Great Indian Rorqual or Fin-whale Balaenoptera indica Blyth, off Umargam (Bombay State) 50 : 167. Bull Frog ( Rana tigrina Daud.) preying upon the Common Toad {Bufo melanos- tictus Schneid.) 50 : 679. Localization of the striped variety of the Roughtailed Earthsnake — Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) — to Mahableshwar 50 : 950. Some more notes on Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) with special reference to speci- mens from Mahableshwar (Western Ghats, Bombay) 51 : 512. New locality record of Rana hexadactyla Lesson 51 : 751. An addition to the list of Snakes of Bombay and Salsette — Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) — Uropeltidae 52 : 213. A new form of the burrowing snake, Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) from Maha- bleshwar 52 : 901. A blind snake from Nepal 53 : 7 1 1 . The Horned Helmet, Cassis cornuta Linn. — an addition to the list of Marine Gastro- pods of Bombay 53 : 736. Distribution of the skink, Riopa lineata (Gray) 57 : 226. A description of the hitherto undescribed tadpole of, and some field notes on the fungoid frog, Rana malabarica Bibron 59: 71. Reviews 1. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE, By Macfarlane Burnet and David O. White. Fourth Edition, pp. 278 (13-5X21-5 cm). London, 1972. Cambridge University Press. Price £1.20. The fourth edition of Sir Macfarlane’s already well known book has been extensively revised and brought up-to-date in collaboration with Dr. David White. It is a tribute to their talents and literary skill that this revision, has not made the book more bulky, and the lucid, conversational style of the original has been retained. This is all the more impressive when it is seen that the book is full of useful information, some of which is sought in vain, even in more comprehensive treatises. The authors have discussed, from an evolutionary and ecological standpoint, the progress of many of the common infectious diseases. The interplay between an infecting organism and the host animal or man, in the rise and decline of epidemics, as well as the influence of socio-economic factors, and of scientific advances, like the discovery of antibiotics, on health and disease, have been ably presented. A brief survey is made of advances in immunology and its importance in human disease processes. The prevalence of newer diseases, and the importance of viral infections, many hitherto of minor importance, have been examined in the light of the ecological situation. Finally, the importance, applications, and possible misapplications, of newer knowledge of microbiology, and the possible effect on human beings, e.g. in biological warfare, are considered, in a brief, but very balanced appreciation of current trends. The charm of a book like this cannot be analysed. In addition to the obvious discussion of interplay between host and parasite, the authors cover, directly or by implication, the interplay of social and economic changes, the problems of population pressures, the impor- tance of psychosocial factors and behaviour patterns e.g. our failure to make any impact, in spite of our knowledge, on the spread of venereal disease or on smoking habits; and many other facets of the human situation, which make for stimulating reading. It is usual when reviewing a book of this nature to start by asking for whom it is intended. It is obviously not intended as a text-book for the medical or microbiology student, but it is a book with a very wide appeal. Because it opens up wider horizons, it can be an illuminating supplement to the standard text-books, for the 536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) student of medicine or of microbiology, as well as for the practising physician and public health worker; it can also be read with inte- rest by the general reader who seeks entertainment and instruction ‘without tears’. It is not generally appreciated how much the get-up and pre- sentation can affect the acceptance and the readability of a book like this for the general reader. The publishers are to be congratulated on the practical format and excellent get-up. In particular, the combination of the paper and the pleasing type face used, makes the book aesthetically satisfying and a pleasure to handle and to read. A. N. D. N. 2. GENETIC DIVERSITY AND NATURAL SELECTION. By James Murray. University Reviews in Biology, pp. vii-i-128 (14x21-5 cm). With 23 text-figures. Edinburgh, 1972. Oliver and Boyd. Price £1-25 (cased £2 50). This book is intended to be an introduction to the field of eco- logical genetics, and is addressed to senior undergraduate and post- graduate students, but anyone who knows the principles of genetics and is familiar with its terminology will find much of interest here. Darwin wrote his origin of species at a time when the laws of heredity were not known. He believed that there was a great deal of inherent variability within species, with breeding tending to eliminate differences, while selection preserved them. Now, a hundred years later, evidence has accumulated to show that Darwin was essentially correct in his views on the role of natural selection. Modem electrophoretic techniques have made it possible to investigate the extent of polymorphism in groups of enzymes known to be pro- duced at single loci. In every species and every population investi- gated a large proportion of loci were polymorphic; forty-one per cent in the house mouse, sixty-three per cent in the snail Cepea nemorails , and fifty-four per cent in Drosophila melanogaster. Human blood groups have been studied; thirty-three per cent of the loci determining these are polymorphic, and the average individual is heterozygous for sixteen per cent of them. How are these polymorphisms maintained in nature? It was believed by the post-Darwinian geneticists that there was a ‘wild type’ of individual, and that mutations were frequent. Selection Was con- stantly eliminating the less advantageous mutations, while favourable REVIEWS 537 ones spread in the population. This theory does not explain the many very stable polymorphisms which exist in natural populations, in which different forms have characteristic frequencies. For example, Cepea snails may have yellow or brown shells, the proportions of which may vary in different places. Shells from Neolithic and Bronze Age sites show the same frequencies of these morphs as do living populations of these snails in the same area. The first explanation that cames to mind is that such characters have no selec- tive value. There is however, evidence to show that this is not true in many cases. It has been shown that heterozygosity in itself an ad- vantage (‘hybrid vigour'), but this is also not the whole answer. In one of the most interesting sections of the book Dr. Murray describes experimental evidence that frequency-dependent selection operates in nature to maintain polymorphisms. One of the ways this may happen is through predatirn. Predators, for example, birds, may tend to take the kind of prey they are used to, and therefore take proportionately more of the commonest form, to the selective advan- tage of rare variants, as long as they remain rare. When each of two morphs is advantageous while the heterozygote between them is disadvantageous, one of two things happen. Either dominance develops, so that the harmful effects of the heterozygote are masked by the dominant character, or reproductive isolation develops which could lead to speciation. An example of the first alternative is found in the African butterfly Papilio dardanus , which has females which mimic a number of different models, as well as non-mimetic males and females. In mainland Africa where mimics and non-mimics occur together, there is clear dominance of one form over another in heterozygotes. In Madagascar there are no naturally occurring mimics. In crosses between mainland mimics and non-mimetic island butterflies the resulting heterozygotes are intermediate between the parent forms, showing that dominance rela- tionships have had no chance to develop in the island population. The evidence for incipient speciation when forms are subjected to different ecological conditions is conflicting. Certainly they rapidly differentiate into distinct well-adapted forms, which are maintained in spite of breeding between them. Further research is needed in this area to show whether species can arise in this way. Dr. Murray has dealt with a complex subject with admirable clarity and the many examples he quotes in support of his argument should be read in full. R. R. 538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) 3. TERMITE PROBLEMS IN INDIA. Edited by Dr. M. L. Roonwal. pp. viii + 82 (24x 16 cm). New Delhi, 1972. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. "■-■US j This is a compilation of papers read at symposium of Termitologists of India, convened by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research at New Delhi in March 1970. In this conference the experts have expressed their experiences in their work on termites, very briefly and in some cases have recommended measures of control and have suggested future lines of work. Taking into consideration all the papers together, they may be divided into five groups: (1) Termites affecting buildings, factories etc., (2) Resistance of some timber to termite attack, (3) Ecology and destruction of agricultural and horti- cultural crops and forest plantations, (4) Cytology and physiology of the insect, and (5) Taxonomy. It is pointed out that very little work has been done of the pest from the academic point of view. There is a vast scope for phy- siological and Cytogenetical study of this pest. Problems on the physiology of digestion are discussed. It is also noted that very little cytogenetical work has been done in this country. Its impor- tance is stressed and suggestions have been made as to how the Universities can help. The taxonomy of termites was a neglected field and what has been accompalished now is only a decade’s work. In this period fairly impressive results were obtained and new genera and species were added to the fauna of India. Faunistic studies have been carried out only in a small part of India and the rest of the country is yet to be surveyed. One of the most important part of study of an insect is its life history and habits. Though the termite is found everywhere and does so much damage, practically no work has been carried out in this direction. For such a study and to carry out co-ordinated research on this important insect a unified centre has been suggested. N. T. N. 4. PIPPA’S CHALLENGE. By Joy Adamson, pp. 175 (23x18 cm). With 14 coloured and 64 black-and-white plates. London, 1972. Collins and Harville Press. Price £2*75. Very little is known about the cheetah. All the more reason. REVIEWS 539 therefore, to be grateful to Joy Adamson for a second book about these attractive cats. Readers of the spotted sphinx will know how Mrs. Adamson successfully rehabilitated Pippa, her pet cheetah, to life in the wild. Pippa had four litters, of which two survived to maturity. This book is mainly concerned with the fourth litter, which Mrs. Adamson continued to observe after Pippa’s death. Meanwhile the three females of the previous litter were in excellent condition, and at least two of them brought up litters on their own. According to Schaller cheetahs are solitary animals which do not defend territories but which normally simply avoid encountering one another. Thus what Mrs. Adamson refers to as ‘territory’ is really home range. Her female cheetahs maintained three distinct home ranges most of the time. Their occasional meetings are of interest. When mother and daughter met after months of separation both threatened each other, but the daughter gave way and rolled on her back in submission. When the same young female met her sisters, who had remained together, one greeted her, but the other snarled and rebuffed her friendly overtures. There is an interesting account of how the cubs of the fourth litter came to sexual maturity. The female came into oestrus when the cubs were still together. She was courted by and mated with both her brothers but developed a preference for the larger of them. The photographs of courtship and mating are probably unique. Mrs. Adamson recognises her cheetahs by the individual patterns of markings at the base of the tail. It would have been interesting if she had included the photographs she says she took showing these individual differences. Scientists at the Serengeti Research Institute use patterns of spots on the cheek to recognise individual cheetahs. The photographs, as usual, are excellent. R. R. 5. FORESTS OF NEPAL. By J. D. A. Stainton. pp. xvi+181 (14 cmX ? cm), with 5 maps and 8 charts and 156 coloured illustrations London. 1972. John Murray. Price £6-50. For a long time the kingdom of Nepal was closed to travellers, even the Nepalese passed through India to reach the eastern or western districts of their country when official duties compelled them to leave Kathmandu valley. However, conditions have changed 540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) * . v ' ' since 1950-1951. Earlier, in 1947 and 1948 the Indian Government was permitted to survey the Kosi catchment and some mountaineering expeditions were also allowed in 1949 and 1950. J. D. A. Stainton was a member of the 1954 expedition to west Nepal which was sponsored jointly by the British Museum (Natural History) and the Royal Horticultural Society. Over the next fifteen years, Adam Stainton made eighteen journeys all over the country, visiting remote regions which are very difficult to access, collecting plants and recording his observations, more widely than any botanist had done so far. The reviewer knows of another — Toni Hagen, a geologist who can claim to have travelled through the country and in all directions over a period of seven years. Adam Stainton, however, continued on his own and makes it clear (p. 2) that he was not connected with the British Museum in any official capacity, although he had been collecting for the herbarium of the Museum on many occasions. It is but natural for one to deposit his specimens in a herbarium, and Adam Stainton has been collecting extensively, an idea of which one can get from the Appendix of his book under review, and also from the fact that a large number of species have been named after him. The book forests of Nepal besides the Introductory remarks and notes on climate, is divided into three parts : I — Geographical divisions of Nepal, II — Forest Types and III— Notes on Distribution. The reviewer finds that in the text, part I is titled as ‘Climate and Vege- tational Divisions of Nepal’ although climate is already dealt with in the earlier pages, and in this part I there is very little about climate. On page 3, the author is very modest when he says ‘being entirely self-taught in matters of botany and ecology, I am well aware that the notes must have many imperfections’. But his treatment on the Forest Types and Notes on Distribution are very analytical, well documented and masterly Adam Stainton mentions of the great variety of climate and vegetation within a small country and in the valley of Kali Gandaki, he has seen abrupt change of climate and vegetation telescoped into a short distance (p. 47). The author has had difficulties to follow Champion’s forest types for the classification of forests of East Nepal. In an earlier publication [Rfc. Bot. Surv. hid . xix (2), 1965] sudden changes in the vegetation of East Nepal and difficulties to fit in Champion’s type in the east have been recorded, and recourse to Gamble’s system was taken. Adam Stainton has also divided his Tropical Evergreen Forest by altitude (p. 63), and again REVIEWS 541 depends on altitudinal division for the Temperate Mixed Broadleaved Forests, when he divided them into a Lower which lies between 5-7000 ft. and an upper between 8-10,500 ft. altitude. While the author refers to all the recent publications, he seems to have missed this 1965 publication. In 1966 and 1967 when the reviewer was on collecting tours with Adam Stainton, difficulties to follow Champion’s forest types for the classification of forests of East Nepal and the handicaps of Schweinfurth’s System were also discussed at length. In part III — Notes on Distribution, the author rightly says that the species which were previously regarded as East Himalayan or West Himalayan are now known to occur in Nepal. This has been possible only because of the extensive recent collections made by various botanists working on Nepal flora and evidenced by the presence of the specimens in the herbaria or by some publications. The author has indicated the geographical positions of sixteen tree species on maps 2, 3, 4 and 5. On p. 151 the author refers to the presence of Juglans regia in Eastern Himalayas * as often due to cultivation. The reviewer is tempted to mention that in parts of East Nepal this species occurs at many places and bears no indi- cation whatsoever of having been cultivated, particularly on the slopes of Solu khola and the reserve forest lying to the south of Okhaldunga. There are a few printing errors, such as on pp. 18 and 175: J. H. Burkhill for I. H. Burkill; p. 82 Reinwartia for Reinwardtia; pp. 91, 94 and 99: Sarocococca for Sarcococca , and Sarauja for Saumui a or Saurauja appear at many places. It is ‘bhitri madesh’ and not ‘bhitri mardesh’ as it appears on p. 18. The book is full of information and is a valuable contribution towards the knowledge of the forests of a country which was till recently botanical ly unknown. The book should prove extremely use- ful to all interested in the vegetation of Nepal and will stimulate further interest in the study of the vegetation of Nepal. The author and the publishers are to be congratulated for the 156 colour photographs most of which assist in the identification of the common shrubs and trees of Nepal. M. L. BANERJI 6. INDIAN SARDINES (their biology and fishery). By R. V. Nair. CSIR Zoological Monograph No. 2. pp. 107 (24-5 X 16 cm), with 24 text-figures. New Delhi, 1973. Publications and Information Directorate. Price Rs. 22-00, $7-00, £2-20. 542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Sardines, one of the most economically important clupeoid fishes, contribute almost a third of the marine fish production in India. It is not, therefore, surprising that many biological investigations have been carried out on these fishes. So far, however, such work was scattered among more than a hundred scientific papers. Moreover, the contradictory views expressed by investigators, especially on raciation and reproductive biology, have created some confusion. The need was, therefore, long felt for bringing together this mass of information into one consolidated compilation. The present monograph does just that. The format of dealing with the different fishes is fairly uniform. Starting with a brief morphological description and local names of each species, the author goes on to its distribution and seasonal variation (where known). In the section on bionomics, the author has included age and size at maturity, fecundity (where known), spawning season, early life-history, food and feeding habits, size and age composition, and predators and parasites. Since the oil sardine, Sardinella longiceps, is the most economically important as well as the best known, over a third of the book is devoted to it. In addition to the topics mentioned above, the aspects of variability (races), annual variations in catch, legislation, length- weight relationship, shoaling behaviour, and large scale mortality are also included. The latter part of the book deals with fishery. Since some of the lesser sardines, namely Sardinella sirm . S . melanura, S. sindensis, and S. clupeoides are not very well known, it is to be expected that their fishery is dealt with cursorily, only one small paragraph being devoted to each of these. However, as the author has thought fit to separate the sections on biology and fishery, it would have been better if the fishery of Dussumieria hasselti and of Kowala coval had been included in the part on fishery, instead of mixing these up in the biology section. Incidentally, the Marathi name of Kowala coval is ‘Bhilji’, and not 4Bhitgi\ as stated on page 74. While the photographs of fishing are excellent, the same cannot be said about those of fishes, which appear to have lost their quality during printing. It would have been preferable to have line drawings of these fishes instead of photographs, as drawings give a clearer picture of taxonomic characters such as scales, fin-rays, etc. More- over, photographs of Sardinella melanura, S . sindensis, S. dayi , S. clupeoides, and Dussumieria acuta have not been given in the book. REVIEWS 543 Also, although the author has broken up the contents into three main parts; biology of the oil sardine, biology of the lesser sardines, and fishery of the lesser sardines, the reading matter runs continuously from beginning to end of the book, without being separated into different chapters, each to start on a separate page. This makes it confusing to the reader who desires to refer to a subject in the middle of the book, even though bold sub-titles help to some extent. Apart from these few very minor faults, the book is flawless, having been excellently written and edited. Accurate author, syste- matic, and subject indices enable the reader to have easy cross reference, while the, by no means small, list of references is valuable for the researcher wishing to refer original papers. The monograph will be a valuable source book for fishery students as well as research workers. Miscellaneous Notes 1. A TRIP TO SILENT VALLEY— MARCH 1972 Mukailly is a small village in the Attapadi or Rhavani Rivei Valley, eighteen miles from Mann ai ghat, which is a small town on the plains of Kerala below the Western Nilgiris. From Mannarghat, you must ascend the ghat by bus, lorry or jeep, and once over the top of the ghat you are three kilometres from where a forest road meets the main Mannarghat-Coimbatore road at Mukailly at 1200 feet. It was from Mukailly that David Hayles, an English held naturalist and myself left at 6 a.m. on a fine clear morning in mid-March, our destination a valley, the saddle of which lay twenty miles away and three thousand feet higher. Our purpose was to study insects and snakes and other animals in an area of relatively untouched ever- green rain-forest. By ten o’clock we had climbed up the side of the Panthan Todu river valley and were traversing a thick piece of savannah in which avenues of crushed grass had been made by the passage ot elephants. There we saw barking deer which dashed off through the high elephant grass. After coming out of the grass we sat by a clear, cool bubbling stream on the edge of the forest and ate the brown dough balls we had brought with us from Mukailly. These having filled our stomachs and our feet being cooled off we continued our journey and walked for three miles on the eastern side of the valley. The way was through thick and steep forest and we saw several rat snakes or dhaman, jungle fowl and a barking deer that w'as moving parallel to us in the forest for about fifty yards affording us a good look, before moving off down to the river. We also saw some leopard spoor showing us that the dinner previously consumed was one of the black monkeys, lion-tailed macaque or the Nilgiri Langur. We arrived at a parting of paths. We could either go on to Silent Valley, the saddle of which lay some five miles in front, to the north or we could go down to the left (west) and meet the Panthan Todu, a small stream at this elevation — and camp there. We had brought along sleeping bags, ‘rawa’, sugar and tea for material comforts, and a butterfly net, collecting bottles, snake bags, note books and pencils for the rest. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 545 Being rather weary of foot we opted to go down to the stream and camp there. We walked a mile or so down the path, which leads to a cardamom plantation, crossed the stream and then descended the river bed for a mile and picked a ‘safe’ place to camp near the edge of the stream under a huge tree. There was ample sign of elephants all around, and having been there before I knew that a herd of eighty or ninety elephants lived in that area plus a couple of solitary tuskers, one relatively docile and the other not so docile. Last year I had met a tribal who collected jak-fruit in the forest who claimed the huge scar across his chest came from this second tusker! In the afternoon we wandered around, looking at the multitude of birds and insects, also I saw three Nilgiri Langurs taking themselves away, crashing through the tops of trees and later I watched two Malabar Squirrels, one on my left the other on my right, each on different sides of the stream. One called the other which came from my right and crossed the river about fifty feet up by way of branches and joined his companion. Toward evening the bird chorus intensified, southern treepies, racket-tailed drongos and the hill Mynas, the raucous, entertaining relative of the plains myna. We watched the sun sink and the colours change to night, Venus the evening star and the multitudes following shortly after. We made a huge fire, kept it burning all night and slept well into the bargain. After a breakfast of tea and ‘rawa’ we went for a look around the locality and found fresh spoor of a solitary elephant fairly near our camp on the stream, also we had the pleasure of watching five Nilgiri Langur feeding in the trees next to the river. We came and went without disturbing them. We paid a visit to the cardamom plantation, after ascending the stream for two miles or so, and in the settlement we heard that the elephants had been around for the last few days and were under that hill in the thick bamboo if we wished to see them. We spent the day collecting insects and making observations. That night we had a feast of rice and dry fish obtained from the plantation. Another night passed in the same place with an equally large fire. No elephants disturbed our dreams and after breakfast we stashed our sleeping bags in a bush and at six thirty retraced our path up the river, back up the road to the cross roads. We saw in some sand by the stream fairly near our camp fresh sambar, barking deer and leopard tracks. 9 546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) From the junction of the forest roads it was five miles and a steep climb that took us to the saddle of Silent Valley and the end of the Panthan Todu Valley. On the way to the saddle we saw a lot of Nilgiri Langur and Malabar Squirrels and heard many more hooting, chuckling and crashing in the treetops. Large numbers of grey jungle fowl were scratching and feeding on the leaf covered road and ran away through the forest as we approached. Whilst walking through this evergreen forest consisting of huge trees with the canopy a hundred feet or more above our heads, we heard that incredible noise, the wing beat of the Great Hornbill. After a few moments a pair flew overhead, crashed into a treetop nearby and in a typical raucous manner fed noisly, crashing about in the branches and dropping fruit on the ground. We left them to their pleasures and continued on our way. We descended into Silent Valley from the south-eastern side and looking out, could see what a vast area of forest lay before us. We continued for about five miles and stopped and ate some coconut and jaggery for lunch on a stream. This was a tributary of the Kundi Puzha the main river of Silent Valley. We sat by the clear cold tasty water watching butterflies flying up and down the river on their different flight paths. The Red Helen a startling black and white swallowtail and the Blue Mormon, a beautiful iridescent blue and black swallowtail, both some four inches across the wings, using the same flight paths while the white pieridae butterflies always flew straight down the middle of the stream playing follow-the-leader, in lines of twenty or thirty individuals. After spending an hour or two in this place we decided to go and see what lay around the comer and walked on. After half a mile I thought 1 heard human voices, so we stopped to listen, and after five minutes heard the noise again, from the thick forest above us, like yet unlike humans. We continued on our way, ‘pussyfooting’ and after a hundred yards we saw three black monkeys feeding some fifty yards from the path. We were able to see them because of a small nullah running up in that direction. Without a sound we concealed ourselves in the nullah, and after five minutes or so we saw three more monkeys, casually walking a branch from one tree to another some thirty yards away. From their lesser size and the short tail with a knot on the end I knew them to be Lion-tailed Macaques and not Nilgiri Langurs, as we had supposed, and were overjoyed at seeing this rare monkey. (I had only seen it once before in the Singampatti Hills, Tirunelveli Dist., a few weeks MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 547 previously with Dr. Karr, an American ornithologist.) It soon appeared that there were eleven or twelve adults in this group and unaware of our presence they were feeding all around us. Two of them moved down the nullah, slowly feeding, walking carefully from branch to branch and jumping very little. During half an hour of watching them pluck fruit, eat it, clean themselves, clean the young (two females were with young clinging to their stomachs) we heard them make only three or four quiet vocal sounds. By this time one of the members of the troop was in a tree not ten feet from us and then walked out on the branch across the stream by way of another branch and then into another tree. The first was followed by a second, (both monkeys passing not more than five feet from our upturned noses. I clearly recall the face peering down surrounded with white outlined against the afternoon sky and treetops, an unforgettable sight. The two adults stayed in the tree next to us for five minutes before one left and the other one must have seen a movement from us and he gave a low sharp call and moved off quickly, the others who were near us also moved away but after going about fifty yards they stopped and watched us as we left. It is interesting to note how quietly these monkeys move in contrast to the Nilgiri Langur who calls loudly and crashes through the branches, and I wonder if there might be more Lion-tailed Macaques in more places than previously believed, and they have escaped notice, luckily for them, as they sometimes do associate with Nilgiri Langurs and most people would naturally pass them off as being black langurs. Also at the end of March a sighting of Lion-tailed Macaques was made in Shimoga Dist. at two thousand feet in evergreen forest by Romulus Whitaker. For two years, I believe, there have been no official sightings and now we have three sightings in three places hundreds of miles apart all in the same type of forest within a month. After seeing the Lion-tailed Macaques, David and I returned to our camp in a very elevated mood. We brewed a cup of tea, sat down and had a smoke before gathering wood and settling down for the night. The next morning we were to try to descend the Panthan Todu river to the Bhavani River — impossible as far as local people were concerned. We left our camp at six in the morning after tea and a smile. The river bed ran fairly flatly for the first eight miles through thick evergreen jungle. We followed the river and where that was impossible we went by elephant trails. We found the skeleton, complete with horns of a large Sambar lying by the edge of the water. The horns 548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 70 (3) were very fine and David tried cutting them off with his machete. He eventually threw the blunted implement away. It took a long time to traverse the next five miles due to deep pools and steep sides around which v/e had to climb. Mostly we were able to follow a recent elephant path, the newest amongst the many old ones trampled through the undergrowth. We left the river following this trail cutting off, a bend as we thought, and found ourselves descending into one of those three sided nullahs, full of bamboo, still, quiet and hot under the midday sun. As we reached the flat bottom of the nullah we saw fresh elephant spoor of that morning. From the vibration of the place and the silence it seemed evident to me that one of the solitary tuskers was there, well aware of us no doubt, and not making a sound. We retreated quietly back to the river and then continued downstream. We eventually reached a place where the river descended over the edge of the upper part of the valley for five hundred feet or so in a series of spectacular waterfalls. In the lower part of the valleys we could see the usual signs of civilization, dirt tracks, fires burning, forest burning, ground cleared and left to waste, and tribal huts. It seemed very dry and hot down there after the lush greenery we had been travelling through. We managed to descend these waterfalls by going round to the left of the river and descending down the steep granite slopes and by following an old elephant trail, it’s really amazing the gradients that an elephant can negotiate. I could just picture a number of them, crossing this area, by the light of the moon, on their way to the Attapadi valley. After a swim in the pool at the bottom of the last falls and a rest and smoke, the time being about four o’clock and us being hungry, we walked on quickly the last four miles to Mukailly, picked up our luggage, filled our stomachs, and set out for Shimoga Dist. where we were to meet our associate and friend Romulus Whitaker in search of king cobras. Longthorns, Blandford, Dorset, England, July 18, 1972. CHRISTOPHER PRUETT MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 549 2. THE KANIIRANKULAM BREEDING BIRD SANCTUARY IN THE RAMNAD DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU Ramnad District has a rich and varied avifauna, particularly the eastern part of the district with its numerous lakes, ponds and tanks. To mention a few ; near Manamadurai is the 6 Pasalai Kanmai ’ (Kanmai = big lake) now divided into two by the Manamadurai-Aruppu- kottai railway line. Ramnad town has two lakes nearby, the Chakkarakottai Kanmai, where Flamingos can be seen in March, and Periakanmai which looks like an inland sea. These two lakes alone can offer considerable material for a study of the avifauna. This part of District does not have any hills, or forest ; but a good portion of it is covered with scrub jungle with its peculiar fauna. In this paper a brief account is given of a Bird Sanctuary situated in a small hamlet called Kanjirankulam which is about 4 km from Mudu- kulathur in Ramnad District of Tamil Nadu. It can be reached either by rail and road from Madurai through Paramakudy and Mudukulathur or by road through Aruppukottai, Kamuthi and Mudukulathur. The distance by either route may be about 70 miles. There is no place to stay in the hamlet. There is however an Elementary School, whose teachers offer assistance to visitors. The history of this little known sanctuary is interesting. About 25 years ago Pelicans and Painted Storks began to be seen in some coastal villages like Cheluvanoor, Komboothi, Pillayarkulam and also at Chitrankudi and Kanjirankulam. The latter two villages are away from the sea but have tanks. Now the birds have disappeared from all the other villages except Kanjirankulam where they were left unmolested by villagers, otherwise the colony would have been decimated long ago. This nesting area was not established by any statute of the State, nor by any Government Department but by the common consent of the villagers of Kanjirankulam. They guard the colony zealously and trespassers are summarily dealt with. The nesting colony is of about sixty trees. The important species being Ficus religiosa , Thespesia populnea and Acacia arabica . The trees stand on the tank bund and also in the tank bed ; the latter are surrounded by water in the rainy season. The ubiquitous Prosopis juliflora is found in abundance making it impossible for the observer to move about. In the biggest banyan trees many nests of pelicans with the young ones can be seen. Many trees have been denuded of slender branches probably by the birds of the colony for use in their nests. There is constant traffic of birds in the Kanjirankulam area. Some birds arrive at the colony with material for building nests, others may arrive after foraging, with food for their young ones. What may look 550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) like a speck on the horizon may land on the trees as a pelican. The birds go out and return singly or in parties. The nesting species of the colony are Spotbilled or Brown Pelican, Pelecanus philippensis and Painted Stork Ibis leucocephalus. Besides these one can see the White Ibis, Threskiornis melanocephalus and the Black Ibis, Pseudibis papillosa. These birds nest in trees a mile away from Kanjirankulam. Even from a distance of about two furlongs one can hear the din made by the inhabitants of the colony. Every tree in the sanctuary sags under the weight of a number of/nests, holding eggs and growing young chicks. One of the banyan trees has numerous of nests, of pelicans and painted storks. Every branch at different heights pre- sents some tens of nests. In the same tree on adjacent boughs one can see nests of both species. During my visits I did not see any fight between the birds over territorial rights but pilferage of nesting material occurred with only mild protests by the loser. Every member of the colony was found busy bringing nesting materials or feeding the young ones. This consociation of painted stork and pelicans was also recorded in a valley east of Cuddapah District at the close of the last century by Rev. Howard Campbell. This pelican-painted stork association exists in the small colony of birds at Moontudaippoo near Palayamkottai ; and also in Kundakulam in Nangunery Taluk in Tirunelveli District. The pelicans’ sociability is shown in their nesting and foraging habits. Clumsy as the pelican looks, it can Soar high ; and this can be ob- served near the colony. It shares this habit with the vultures and the storks. In this dry zone area the pelican is distributed wherever suitable sheets of water such as large lakes, tanks and coastal lagoons exist. It is common nearer the sea than inland. I have seen pelicans in a lake in Chingleput district fishing in company in a horseshoe formation into which the fish may be driven into a mass So that the participants can take their fill. Pelicans take considerable quantities of fish especially when feeding young and the lessees to whom the fishing rights are sold by Government scare away these birds by shooting them or by explo- sives, lest these birds come and fish heavily thus depriving the lessees of a good portion of their profit. But at Kanjirankulam such acts are not allowed by the inhabitants of the hamlet. The Painted Storks are also as numerous as the pelicans in the Sanctuary. The villagers assure me that the parent birds stand on eastern side of the nest in the forenoon and on western side of the nest in the afternoon to protect their young ones from the sun. This has to be verified during my next visit to the Sanctuary. However, even the casual visitor cannot but notice the way the Painted Stork protects the young ones from the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 551 sun by spreading its broad and long wings over the young ones as a sort of improvised roof. It is believed that the Painted Stork lays 3-5 eggs. But according to Blandford usually 4 eggs but sometimes as many as 8 eggs are laid. However, as I went about counting the young ones in the various nests there were never more than 4 young chicks . I have watched the young ones clambering among the thorny materials around the nest and among the thorny branches of the acacia trees without being hurt by the thorns. When X visited the Sanctuary last in the fag end of April the water in the neighbouring tanks had dried up and no evidence of existence of water in the neighbourhood could be seen. I was told by the villagers that as there was no source of Water within a radius of 10 miles the birds must go to sea coast for their food. This has to be verified. I have been informed that even in hottest period of summer some birds stay in the Sanctuary. Unlike the villagers of Kundukulam in Nangunery of Tirunelveli District, who propose to destroy the pelican colony because of the noise and bad odour produced by the pelicans and Painted Storks, the villagers in the Kanjirankulam very zealously guard the colony, even to the extent of caring for the young which fall from their nest due to wind or some other cause- The villagers feed these forlorn young with a meal of fish, frogs and snakes which are chopped up for the purpose. I have been told that even the village dogs do not molest these hapless young chicks which slowly grow and finally join their tribe and fly away. The vil- lagers make use of the guano to manure their land. Each villager col- lects it by turn. The yield of crops is said to double in quantity on the application of the guano. If the State Government can declare an area within a radius of 10 miles around Kanjirankulam as a ‘ protected region ’ where shooting is prohibited, it will be rendering a great service to the birds. Secondly, to make up the deficiency of nesting material for the birds, the Forest Department may consider planting more Acacia trees or Thespesia trees in and around the sanctuary. I heard that in some of the tanks in other parts of Ramnad District such a scheme is implemented. Lastly if it is possible, the Government can let some water into the nearest tank during summer so that the birds need not fly about 14 miles each way for water (as the villagers allege). Acknowledgements I thank Prof. S. Krishnaswamy, ph.D., d.sc., Head of the Department of Biological Sciences, Madurai University, for providing me all the facilities for this work. This work was carried out during the tenure of 552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) a U.G.C. Fellowship. I am thankful to the villagers of Kanjirankulam for giving me information in response to my queries. Dept, of Biological Sciences, Madurai University, S. ABRAHAM Madurai-21, September 22, 1972. 3. INTERESTING DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR PAKISTAN It has long been recognised that the outer foothills of north-eastern Pakistan abutting on the Punjab plain represent the westernmost range extension of many interesting endemic Indo-Malaysian plant species characteristic of tropical dry-deciduous forest with a richness of variety quite lacking in any other part of Pakistan (McVean 1962). The Murree foothills, Kahuta and Margalla hills have vegetation typical of this narrow zone (Stewart 1958). Not unnaturally there are a few mammals and many bird species characteristic of the oriental faunal zone, which enter Pakistan in this region only. Apart from the resident species, many of which are in themselves unique and interesting, there are always occasional or regular avian wanderers which invade westwards from the Siwaliks. I have passed many hundreds of hours of pleasurable bird watching in these hills with always the excitement of seeing a potential rarity and after one such recent visit to the region in early January 1973, feel that it would be useful to record the more interesting records, which are at variance with known distribution as published in S. Dillon Ripley’s synopsis (1961). 557 . Blossomheaded Parakeet Psittacula cyanocephala. In his account of the birds of Rawalpindi district, Whistler (1938) describes it as an irregularly occurring visitor to the northern Punjab and Salt Range mostly in winter. Having encountered it in April and May in the Murree foothills I had long suspec- ted that a few might stay to breed. On June 6th 1972 I found two occupied nestholes of these parrots in a dead pine tree in the Lehtrar valley at about 4000 feet. The young birds were visible coming to the mouth of the nestholes when the parents arrived with food. 788. Bluethroated Barbet Megalaima asiatica. Not specifically included within Pakistan territory in the synopsis. This Barbet was nevertheless recorded by Hugh Whistler (1938) — as MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 553 an occasional sighting and appears to have increased since it is now a resident species in the Murree foothills whose ringing call in summer is a familiar sound. 1335. Redbilled Leiothrix Leiothrix lutea. December 23rd 1968 an adult male seen at Lehtrar at about 2500 ft. It was extremely tame and allowed approach to within a few feet and was watched for about one hour by myself and two companions. The late H. W. Waite (1926) also secured a specimen from the Margalla Hills in December which is now in the B.M. (N.H.) Collection. 1892. Thickbilled Flowerpecker Dicaeum agile. 5 Specimens col- lected September 1967 at Marala on the Chenab River at 800 feet. A group of four seen feeding June 6th 1972 in the Margalla Hills at 2500 feet. 1919. Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird Aethopyga gouldiae. Two adult males observed from December 30th 1972 to January 1st 1973 at Nurpur Shahan, Margalla Hills at about 1600 feet. These birds were regularly seen around the vicinity of a grove of trees and Shrine for three successive days, feeding on the nectar of the plant parasite Loranthus longiflorus which was at that time in flower. 1973. Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata. It is surprising that this species was not recorded by Hugh Whistler from Rawalpindi district in the Murree Hills as it is a fairly common resident in the outer foothills extending westwards to Swat. In 1965 I found a nest presumed to be of this species at Gora Gali at 4500 feet in the Murree Hills. I have sight records in the Margalla Hills in late December, mid September and late July. 2017. Pinkbrowed Rosefinch Carpodacus rhodochrous. In late winter and early spring this beautiful little finch can invariably be found in some of the more secluded ravines in Margalla Hills and it is therefore more than a straggler as described in Ripley’s SYNOPSIS. There are two negative observations which might also be made with reference to this region of Pakistan and the synopsis. 1657. Golden Bush Robin Erithacus chrysaeus. The synopsis states that it occurs in Hazara and the border of Murree. To the best of my knowledge this is based on a single record of a nest taken by Colonel Rattray near Changla Gali in 1904. Many of Colonel Rattray’s records have subsequently proved to be 554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) unreliable especially covering the genus Phylloscopus. He collected eggs mostly using native collectors. There are no subsequent published records and it was not observed by Whistler or Waite in the region. 1733. Orangeheaded Ground Thrush Zoothera citrina. In the synopsis it is stated that this species breeds in West Pakistan from Murree eastwards. I have in former years often seen it in the Chittagong Hills of Bangladesh and I am positive it does not occur anywhere in the Murree foothills having never encountered it in periodic residence and visits dating from about 1952. Neither Waite nor Whistler observed this species and both knew the region well. Roberts Cotton Associates Ltd., Khanewal, TOM ROBERTS Pakistan, January 29, 1973 References Champion, Harry, Seth, S. K., & Khattak, G. M. (1966) : Forest Types of Pakistan. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar. McVean, D. N. & Robertson, V. C. (1962) : An Ecological Survey of Land use and Soil Erosion in the West Pakistan and Azad Kashmir catchment of the river Jhelum. Unpublished report to Govt, of Pakis: n. Parker, R. N. (1956) : A Forest Flora for the Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. 3rd edition. Reprinted by Govt. Print- ing Press, Lahore. . Y , Rattray, R. H. (1905) : Birds Nesting in the Murree Hills and Galls. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 421-428 & 657-663. Ripley, S. D. (1961) : Synopsis of the birds of India, Pakistan & Ceylon. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Stewart, Ralph (1958) : The Flora of Rawalpindi District, West Pakistan . Pakistan Journal of Forestry VII (4) & VIII (1) Peshawar. Waite, H. W. (1926-1947): Un- published Manuscript notes on a Collec- tion of over 5000 Bird Skins now in the British Museum (Natural History), London. Whistler, Hugh, (1938) : The Birds of the Rawalpindi District. Ibis. January. 4. THE INDIAN LORIKEET ( LORICULUS VERNALIS) : ITS COURTSHIP AND MATING On 23-xi-1972 I observed a pair of Indian Lorikeets courting and mating. As what I saw differed from G. M. Henry’s (1955) account of the courtship of the Ceylon Lorikeet {Loriculus beryllinus) to which the handbook of the birds of india & Pakistan (1969) makes a reference, and as F. G. Buckley (1968) states that ‘ Information on copulation in Loriculus spp. (how, when or if it is done while hanging or upright) is MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555 not at present available in the literature ’, even this isolated, chance observation of mine may have some value. On 23-xi-1972, while watching a party of four Fairy Bluebirds ( Irene puella ) in the Kallar Reserved Forest (altitude 640 m, Ponmudi Hills, c. 56 km north-east of Trivandrum) something green and red moving on a branch of the thinly foliaged tree caught my eye. It was a Lorikeet which had just extended its neck and gently pecked at another Lorikeet sitting a few inches away on the same branch. The first bird (which later mounted the other and is, therefore, referred to as the male hereafter) was evidently highly excited whereas the other appeared to be rather indifferent and inert . The male shot out his head and as soon as he had touched the bill of the female, smartly retracted his head. To this the female responded by slowly extending her neck and touching the male’s bill. As soon as she had withdrawn her head, the male again smartly thrust his head forward, touched her bill, and swiftly pulled his head back. The female again responded, but her movements were consis- tently much slower. After repeating this half a dozen times, the male sidled up to the female and they sat shoulder to shoulder, almost pressed against each other for a short while, perched across the branch. Then the male suddenly leaped over the female’s back, sat for a few moments on the other side, and then leaped back to his former position. This too was repeated a number of times . The male then attempted to mount on the other’s back. Three times he failed to gain a hold but at the fourth attempt he managed to effect coitus. Unfortunately, I was unable to see whether he took hold of the female’s neck or back feathers to maintain himself on her back. As soon as the mating was over, they settled down again shoulder to shoulder on the branch. The female had never moved from her original perch throughout this period. I jotted down notes as quickly as I could and again directed the bino- culars at the branch. But the birds had disappeared. They must have flown off without uttering their usual squeaky calls. All the time I was observing them, the birds uttered no note that was audible to me at a distance of some 40 feet. Throughout, the male kept his scarlet rump (and upper tail-covert ?) feathers erect. They stood out like a long scarlet mound between the wings which, however, seemed to be kept close to the body. The female erected her rump feathers only just before the male started vaulting over her back; and the feathers did not stand, out as prominently as did those of the male. The three-inch-thick horizontal branch on which the Lorikeets were was about 25 feet above the base of the tree and had many leafy branches above and below it. As the tree stood on the lower slope of the hill, I was almost at the same level as the birds. 556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) The whole incident took only five minutes (16.15 to 16.20 hrs.). Visibility was quite good. Throughout the birds were in an upright position, perching across the branch like ordinary passerines. It is not quite improbable that some other components of courtship display (such as the 4 strutting ’ described by Henry in L. beryllinus and by Buckley in L. galgulus) had preceded the display observed by me, though one would expect such manifestations of mounting excitement (no pun intended !) to occur just before copulation. Still, in the incident reported above, the two birds sat quietly shoulder to shoulder for a few moments just before the male began leaping over the female. [ do not think that during the period when the birds were under observation the male fed the female ; nor did he hold his body erect or fluff out his throat feathers. For most of the time the male held his body in a horizontal position. I am very grateful to Sri S. Parameswara Iyer, District Forest Officer, Trivandrum, and Sri R. Parameswaran, Professor of Zoology, College for Women, Trivandrum, but for whose kindness I would not have been at Kallar on that day. University College, Trivandrum, K. K. NEELAKANTAN April 14, 1973. References] Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillion Hanging Parrots. Ibis 110 : 145-164. (1969) : Handbook of the Birds of Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide to the India & Pakistan, Vol. 3, pp. 188-191. Birds of Ceylon, p. 189. Buckley, F. G. (1968) : Behaviour of 5. OCCURRENCE OF THE STARLING, STURNUS VULGARIS LINNAEUS NEAR BANGALORE According to the Indian handbook (Ali & Ripley 1972), the Starling, Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus is not known to winter in southern India, only a few stragglers having been taken from Madras, Bombay and near Minicoy Island. Whistler & Kinnear (1934) opined that the starling was evidently only a winter straggler to the erstwhile Madras Presidency and Phillips (1963) reported a sight record of a single starling at sea, about 40 miles west of Minicoy Island on December 10, 1954. Abdulali (1965) collected three specimens out of a flock of about a dozen starlings at Re was in Alibag taluk (Kolaba district, Maharashtra) and put them down as S.v. poltaratskyi Finsch. Ali & Ripley (1972) state that this subspecies is an abundant winter visitor to southern Pakistan and conti- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 557 nental India south to Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Besides the abovementioned records of stragglers, the starling is not known to winter in southern India. On October 24, 1965, while out birding some 7-8 miles north-east of Bangalore, I saw a huge flock of about 300-350 myna-like birds in a harvested field adjoining an extensive patch of short open scrub. One specimen was shot out of this flock and later identified as S. vulgaris, most probably of the race poitaratskyi. The remarkable thing about this record is the large number seen as opposed to single or at the most 12 birds recorded previously as stragglers. Department of Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, KUMAR D. GHORPADE Bangalore- 560024, December 21, 1972. References Abdulali, H. (1965) : On the Occur- rence of Finsch’s Starling Sturnus vul- garis poitaratskyi Finsch near Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 161. Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1972) : Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 5. Oxford Univer- sity Press, Bombay, xvi + 276 pp. Phillips, W. W. A. (1963) : The Birds of the Maidive Islands, Indian Ocean. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 546-584. Whistler, H. & Kinnear, N. B. (1934) : The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats (Ornithological Section). Part V. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 561-590- 6. TREE SPARROW PASSER MONTANUS (L.) IN THE EASTERN GHATS During the banding session of the B.N.H.S. bird migration study project at Lammasinghi in the Visakhapatnam section of the Eastern Ghats in April-May year 1972, we obtained a few specimens of the Tree Sparrow Passer montanus (Linn.). This is an interesting record as the distribution of the species accord- ing to the synopsis and fauna is northern parts of India along the Himalayan ranges east to Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan and south to Assam and Manipur etc. The present record is the first from the E. ghats and adds northern Andhra to its known range. The population of tree sparrows at Lammasinghi is more or less localised and the male specimen we preserved for record was in breed- ing condition as evinced by the enlarged gonads. Two species of 558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) sparrows (Passer domesticus and P. montanus) co-exist at Lammasinghi and it is desirable to study their ecology. Alamanda (R.S.), Visakhapatnam Dist., K. S. R. KRISHNA RAJU Andhra Pradesh. Fernhill Cottage, Camberley, TREVOR D. PRICE England, April 27, 1973. 7. FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF THE TOAD* BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEIDER (AMPHIBIA : BUFONIDAE) In India practically no attempt has been made to study the feeding habits of the common toads, excepting for a stray record of Rai et al. (1969) of the adults of the white grub, Holotrichia consanguinea Blanch, being fed upon by the common Indian toad, Bufo melanostictus . Prasad (1961), while reviewing the natural enemies of the sugarcane white grubs, indicated the beneficial effect of introduction of the Surinam toad, Bufo marinus , into Puerto Rico and Hawaii in the control of scara- baeids. The present study involed examination of the stomach contents of 362 individuals of the common Indian toad, Bufo melanostictus Schneider carried over a period of 14 months during 1968-1970. The toads were collected during the evenings almost every fortnight during the period in various agricultural fields and near lamp posts around Dharwar, Mysore State. The toads thus collected the previous evening were sexed and dissected, the stomachs were cut out and preserved separately in 10 per cent formaldehyde for future examination of the contents. The stomachs thus preserved were slit open, the contents were taken out and identified taking care to see that the number of indi- vidual insects and other animals was correctly recorded. The data are summarised groupwise in Table 1 . Results and Discussion Toads in general are well known to feed on different groups of animals of which insects constitute the major bulk. In the present study also insects were recovered from stomachs and constituted 99 per cent of the total number of various animals consumed. Two other Table 1 Analysis of the stomach contents of Bufe melanostictus MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 559 I I «4— . 3 O 3 . d 3 ooflE 3'qJ 3 o B !z o 3 ^ v o ^ <*> O .3 CO’Hfflh-OWOS^^ in T-M ^ a> 3 Cl 3 Cl d 3 3 50 i r*-) ^ m I O'. 1-H n (D 3 2 v2 3 d 3J2 d «§SS§3l S3 §3= S3 g- 3 & S §'g £ 8 3 ois oUUUUOW o ^ to .3 £ d 3 3 >3 3S8 Sot 3 O ,« X 75 H O c H •81 r- N < 03 75 £ - o ® >. 11 : : * o i2 1326 Table 1 — ( Continued ) 560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) M-t r-f o’> Z''S oon . 03 o S2 £2g Sh OS a o aS _ w 4> <» o -£ a, 3 o in bfi a ‘a < C/5 *43 £ | o o .&&ss Q » 5 C 2 «J o a T3 a s-i r5* o CP\ (N —i VO Oh Oh aS d) o Sh ■+-» u oj rt O o 73 -S-c |ffio !h ■'t m m ‘o ’xf «S .. In > i! Sh r? o Order Orthoptera Family Acrididae „ Gryllidae ,, Gryllotalpidae MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 561 m Tt oo so co m ci T3 0) SJ'S J2 £ §3 O (D -O fi. +-> .in O-n <*) ft si o cs ^ 3 u M 00 pH 'd rd O sJ ft P4 O Hh >, u a s o 4> d ctf T3 c3 3? ’3 a 'si c.2§ o X >i I'l 5 6 os &0 o Si y ft ftro: if O d . . £ O oo a « o o C/3 Ph M Sh -S-S Si Si OO £55 — w- ctf Si 3 l 4) O a -o C £ ' Q 3 ‘ w 2 §3 fe° 02 10 Less than 1 Table 1— {Continued) Animal group No. of stomachs containing Per cent No. of individuals Percent Remarks 3. Order Diptera Family Syrphidae „ Muscidae Others (including maggots, and eggs) p 3 93 4 207 maggots were re- covered from 12 stomachs. 40 11 313 n 4. Order Lepidoptera Hairy caterpillars 7 19 Other caterpillars 1? 62 24 7 81 3 5. Order Dictyoptera Family Blattidae 52 74 43 of these were ,, Mantidae 1 1 Penplaneta armricana. 53 15 75 3 6. Order Orthoptera Family Acrididae 3 3 „ Gryllotalpidae 10 45 35 10 61 2 7. Order Dermaptera 46 13 105 4 8. Order Heteroptera Family Lygaeidae „ Pentatomidae „ Reduviidae Others 8 26 3 5 55 46 3 Mostly Nezara viridula 42 12 111 4 9. Order Homoptera Family Cicadellidae 1 1 „ Membracidae . . 1 1 2 2 Less than 1 II. ARACHNIDA 10. Order Araneae (Spiders) 1 1 . Order (Scorpionida (Scorpions) 5 | 6 10 Less than 1 III. MYRIAPODA 12. Order Scolopendromorpha (Centipedes) 13. Order Polydesmida (Millipedes) 2 4 3 Mostly Streptogonopus jerdoni (Pocock). 6 14 Less than 1 IV. GASTROPODA 14. Order Euthyneura (Snails) -do- (Slugs) 2 3 *5 5 15 Less than 1 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 562 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) groups of arthropods, namely Arachnida and Myriapoda, were also represented in the stomach contents but formed only less than one per cent. Snails and slugs were also noticed to be consumed by the toad to a negligible extent. Of 362 toads examined, the largest number, namely 284 stomachs contained insects belonging to Coleoptera, and the next was Hymenoptera which were recovered in 149 stomachs. But, in the percentage of indi- viduals of different groups consumed, the Hymenoptera tops the list contributing 46 per cent of the total number of insects consumed, whereas the Coleoptera accounts for only 26 per cent. The table indicates clearly that excepting for a few coccinellids and cicindellids which may be considered as beneficial, most of the other beetles recovered from the stomachs are either Phytophagous or sapro- phytic. The curculionids, chrysomelids and cerambycids which are all phytophagous constitute less than 5 per cent of the beetle diet of the toad . The other beetle groups, like Elateridae, Tenebrionidae found in the stomachs also have plant feeding species. The toad appears to be fond of tenebrionids which constitute nearly 50 per cent of beetles consumed. The scarabaeids, several of which are phytophagous account for 23 per cent and the Carabids for 16 per cent. The total beetle diet in relation to other insects recorded during the present study agrees very well with the finding of Kirkland (1897) who reported that beetles consti- tuted 27 per cent of the insect diet of Bufo lentiginosus americanus (LeC.) As stated by Garman (1901) and Kirkland (1897) the present study also revealed that this toad fed to a large extent on ants which constitute nearly 46 per cent of the insect diet. Of the Diptera (which forms 1 1 per cent of the insect diet) it is interesting to note that 66 per cent of these were in the form of maggots, which are generally not active movers. The order Lepidoptera was represented to the extent of 3 per cent in the stomachs dissected in the form of larval stage only of which nearly 30 per cent was in the form of hairy caterpillars alone. This is not in con- formity with the findings of Kirkland (1897) who reported that Lepidoptera constituted 28 per cent of the diet of the toad, Bufo lenti- ginosus americanus. It is significant to note that 3 per cent of the insect diet of the toad consisted of the cockroaches and most of these were Periplaneta americana. This finding supports the suggestion of Sweetman (1936) that the toads could be usefully employed for the control of cockroaches in dwelling houses. It is also interesting that the plant feeding bugs constituted about 4 per cent of the food of the toad and only a very few predaceous bugs were noted in the stomach contents. On the whole, it may be stated that the present study on the food_of the common Indian toad, Bufo melanostictus , has revealed that the toad feeds mostly on insects and most of these insects do not belong to the beneficial groups. Thus the species may be considered as a useful amphi- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563 bian which may be encouraged in gardens and orchards that afford cool and moist environment congenial for the life of this toad. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Mr. C. A. Viraktamath, Assitant Professor of Entomology, College of Agricuture, Dharwar, for his help in supplying the photostat copies of the previous literature. Thanks are also due to the staff members of the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Dharwar, for their constant help during the course of investigation . Asst. Prof, of Zoology, H. R. RANGASWAMY College of Agriculture, Dharwar- 5 80 005 . Asst. Prof. ofZoology & G. P. CHANNAbASAVANNA Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore-560 024, December 22, 1972. References Garman, H. (1901) : The food of the Rai, B. K., Joshi, H. C., Rathore, toad. Kentucky Agri. Expt. Sta. Bull. Y. K., Dutta, S. M. & Shinde, V. K. R. 91 : 60-68. (1969) : Studies on the bionomics and Kirkland, A. H. (1897) : The control of white grub, Holotrichia con- habits, food and economic value of the sanguined Blanch, in Lalsot, District American toad, Bufo lentiginosus ameri- Jaipur, Rajasthan. Indian J. Ent. 31(2): cams (LeC.). Hatch Expt . Sta. Mass. 132-142. Agric. Coll. Bull. 46 : 29. Sweetman, H. L. (1936) : The Biolo- Prasad, S. K. (1961) : Sugarcane and gical control of insects. Comstock, its problems, white grubs injuring sugar- Publishing Company, Inc. New York cane and their control. Indian Sugar, pp. 1-461. pp. 379-382. 8. BIOMETRIC STUDIES ON THERAPON JARBUA (BLOCH)1 (With a text-figure) Introduction T.jarbua occurs in brackish waters and in the sea off Madras through- out the year. At Porto Novo (11° 29'N 79° 49'E) and also in the Vellar estuary, this species occurs at all times of the year, but larger specimens of the size 12*0-14*6 cm were obtained from the sea. This note deals 1 This study formed a part of the dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of M.Sc., from the Annamalai University, 1969. 564 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) with certain biometric characters of the perch Therapon jarbua of the Porto Novo area. Material and methods Random samples were collected from the catches landed by gill nets, drift nets and cast nets . The collections were made between first week of July and end of December, during which period, T. jarbua is landed abundantly. The data on the morphometric characters were subjected to statistical analysis to estimate the population parameters. A total of 92 specimens belonging to different size classes, were used for this study. All the fishes were measured, in fresh condition, for standard length, total length, fork length, head length, pre-orbital length, post-orbital length, pectoral fin length, pelvic fin length, depth occiput, depth at dorsal origin, depth at anal origin, snout to the pelvic origin, snout to the anal origin, first dorsal lobe and second dorsal lobe. Standard length of the fish was used as a basic character, against which regression curves, for other variables were drawn. The data is arranged according to numerical values and Separated into 10 classes of 0*9 cm interval. With a view to finding out the relationship between the various para- meters and standard length, the general equation y = a + bx was em- ployed. The 4 a 5 and 4 b ’ values for each parameter are given in the Table 1. Table 1 Regression coefficient, ‘ a ’ and ‘ b * values and the ANGLE OF THE TANGENT FOR DIFFERENT BODY REGIONS SI. No. Parameters ‘A’ value ‘B’ value Angle of the Tangent value Allometry 1. Eye diameter 0-184 0 067 3° 50' 2. Snout length 0-147 0-083 4° 45' — 3. Post orbital 0*227 0-155 8° 49' — 4. Pectoral fin 0-181 0-160 9° 6' — 5. Depth occiput 0-355 0-174 9° 52' — 6. II Dorsal lobe 0-021 0-188 10° 39' — 7. Pelvic fin —0052 0-215 12° 8' — 8. Depth anal 0091 0-273 15° 16' — 9. Head length 0-472 0-289 16° 8' — 10. Depth dorsal 0*199 0-321 17° 48' — 11. I dorsal lobe —0085 0-330 18° 16' — 12. Snout to pelvic 0*495 0*340 18° 47' — 13. Snout to I dorsal 0-262 0-379 20° 45' — 14. Snout to anal 0*146 0-662 33° 31' — 15. Snout to II dorsal 0*250 0-668 33° 45' — 16. Snout to fork 0*268 1-129 48° 29' + 17. Total length 0-160 1-227 50° 49' + Angle of tangent MI SC ELLA AEO U S NOTES 565 Allometry GROWTH RATE OF VARIOUS PARAMETERS 566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Results and Discussion The data analysed are presented in table 1. The regression lines based on the angle of the tangent are presented in Fig. 1, where the growth rate of various parameters are shown. The regression lines reveal that the total length has the fastest growth followed by the fork length. Snout to second dorsal grows faster than the snout to anal. A comparison of the relative growth of the fins shows that the first dorsal lobe grows faster than the pelvic fin, second dorsal lobe and pectoral fin. The rate of growth of head length falls between depth dorsal and depth anal. Eye diameter recorded the slowest rate of growth, the second least being the snout length. Acknowledgements I am greatly indebted to Professor R. V. Seshaiya (Retired Director, C.A.S, in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Porto Novo) for faci- lities and advice and to Dr. M. S. Prabhu, Scientist, National Institute of Oceanography, Panjim, Goa, for going through the manuscript and offering helpful suggestions. Dept, of Zoology, A. RAHIM The New College, Madras- 600 014, April 21, 1973. 9. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A RECORD SHOAL OF RED SNAPPER LUTIANUS ARGENTIMACULATUS FORSKAL OFF COCHIN Landings of perches are common along the east coast of India even- though they appear sporadically along the west coast. However, it is of interest to record a shoal of 170 Red Snapper Lutianus argentimaculatus Forskal weighing 1141 Kg which were caught off Cochin by the vessel 4 Blue Fin 93’, training-cum-fishing vessel of the Central Institute of Fisheries Operatives, Cochin. The fishes were caught by the vessel on 31st January 1972 when she was on her 142nd voyage at a depth of 25 m between 0830 and 1015 hrs in a single haul. The weight of the specimens ranged between 7 to 10 Kg and were 51 to 63*5 cm in length. The most interesting feature which needs special mention is that eventhough the vessel operated the same gear (450 meshes Trawl-Garfil) in the same ground and at the same depth and made five hauls, not a single specimen was caught in the other four MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567 hauls. The skipper of the vessel confirmed that this is the first time that such a shoal of Red Snapper was caught by the vessel. There seems to be no record of occurrence of such large shoals of this particular species around Cochin Waters. The sea bottom at the fishing grounds was predominantly muddy with plenty of shells. Other varieties of fishes which were found with the catch were Sharks, Skates and Rays (20 Kg), white fish (2 Kg), small carangids (3 Kg), small jew fishes (3 Kg), flat fishes (5 Kg), Barracuda (3 Kg), Cat fishes (100 Kg) and Sand lobsters (3 Kg). The catch/hr for Red Snapper, at this ground worked out for this particular haul to 652 Kg/hr. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to Shri M. C. Perumal, Director, Central Institute of Fisheries Operatives, Cochin, for his encouragement and permission to publish this note. Thanks are also due to Shri K. Balan, Skipper and crew of the vessel for the keen interest shown for recording the details of operation. Central Institute of Fisheries V. NARAYANA PILLAI Operatives, V. S. RAMACHANDRAN Cochin- 16, June 2, 1972. 10. A PARTIAL AMBICOLORATION IN THE INDIAN HALIBUT PSETTODES ERUMEI (BLOCH) (PSETTODIDAE : PLEURONECTIFORMES) FROM PORTO NOVO, S. INDIA ( With a text-figure) Ambicoloration or pigmentation on the blind side of the flatfishes is* said to be associated with the tendency to regain bilateral symmetry (Norman 1934) 1. On 19th February, 1971, an ambicolorate specimen (Fig. 1) of the Indian halibut Psettodes erumei (Bloch) (Psettodidae) was caught in a commercial catch of 17 normal specimens of the same species was made at Porto Novo. This is the first time that an ambicolorate specimen has been collected from this area. The specimen measuring 312 mm in total length, is normal on its ocular side. On the blind side, however, xNorman, J. R. (1934) : A systematic monograph of the flat fishes. (Heteros- tomata) I. pp . 22-27. London . 568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) one-third of the body towards the anterior side shows a white patch towards the dorsal fin. The pigmentation extends posteriorly from the Fig. 1. Psettodes erumei (Bloch). View of ambicolorate specimen from blind side. pelvic fin ending along the 30th ray of the dorsal fin in a diagonal manner. Excepting for the coloration the fish was normal in all other respects. Acknowledgements I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. R. Natarajan, Director, Centre of Advanced Study in Marine* Biology, Porto Novo for facilities. Thanks are also due to Mr. Antony Fernando and Mr. Joel for help with literature. The award of a Junior Research Fellowship by the U.G.C. is gratefully acknowledged. Centre of Advanced Study in V. RAMAIYAN Marine Biology, Porto Novo, Tamilnadu, March 20, 1971. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569 11. AN ARTIFICIAL DIET FOR THE REARING OF ACARID MITE Some acarid mites are well known as important pests of stored agri- cultural products. While studying the biology of some acarid mites, difficulty was experienced in finding a suitable medium for rearing them on a large scale for experimental purposes. The assessment of the nutritional requirements of the mites would also be simplified if a suita- ble diet was available. Preliminary studies were made by Kanungo & Behura (1958) on the effect of synthetic food on Ca'loglyphus sp. Recently two species of acarid mites were reared on an artificial diet by Bot & Meyer (1967). Another artificial medium, originally developed by Mykola H. Hay dak (1936) for rearing of some laboratory insects, was also found highly suitable for rearing of Tyrophagus sp. by us. The composition of the diet is as follows : I. Corn flour . . 4 parts by weight Whole wheat flour Skim milk powder Dried powder yeast Wheat bran 2 parts by weight 2 parts by weight 1. part by weight 2 parts by weight These ingredients are mixed thoroughly. II. Equal parts of honey and glycerine are mixed by volume. Then equal parts of I and II are mixed by weight and the mixture is allowed to stand for about 24 hours for penetration of the liquid into the dry components of the food. The diet infested with insects and kept for more than one month, was found to be better than the freshly prepared one for the mite growth probably due to the fungal growth in the diet. The mites reared on this diet were found to complete their life-cycle within 8-1 1 days at 25 1°C and 80% R.H. and their multiplication was very rapid under these conditions . Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr. N . Dutta, Head of the Department of Ento- mology, Kalyani University for providing facilities. Department of Entomology, A. K. SOM CHOUDHURY1 Faculty of Agriculture, A. B. MUKHERJEE University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, February 17, 1971. 1 Present address : Division of Entomology, I. A. R. I., New Delhi-12. 570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) References Rot, J. & Meyer, M. K. P. (1967) : Kanungo, K. & Rehura, R. K. An artificial rearing medium for acarid (1958) : Preliminary studies on the mites. J. ent. Soc. Sth. Afr. 29 : 199. effect of synthetic food on Caloglyphus Haydak, M. H. (1936) : A food for sp. (Tyroglyphoidea : Acari). Proc. 45th rearing laboratory insects. J. econ. Indian Sci. Congr. Ill : 367. Entomol. 29 : 1026. 12. OCCURRENCE OF MICROPROSTHEMA SEMILAEVE (DECAPOD A, MACRURA) IN RATNAGIRI ( With three text-figures) During one of the shore collection trips to Mirkarwada foreshore in the month of December, 1968, a specimen of Microprosthema sp. measur- ing 14 mm in length was obtained. The animal was found in a small de- pression on the rocky bed. There is paucity of literature on this peculiar group from Indian waters. Gravely (1927) recorded Microprosthema validum Stimpson (= Stenopus robustus Borradaile) from Krusadai and Shingle Islands. Pillai (1961) recorded this species from Adams Bridge, Pamban, and gave a short description with a good figure. Recently, Mahadevan et al. (1962) collected two specimens from Palk bay which they have referred to as Microprosthema semilaevel. Holthuis (1947) who has given a detailed account of the family Steno- podidae has recognised four species of Microprosthema (M. validum , M. semilaeve, M. plumicorne and M. scabricaudatum ). Of these M> validum and M. semilaeve are very close, differing from one another in the presence or absence of a short longitudinal median carina at the posterior half of the dorsal surface of the third abdominal segment and in the number of teeth along the outer margin of the scaphocerite. However, Mahadevan et al. (op. cit.) have shown that in their specimens the number of teeth on the outer margin of the scaphocerite show a range of variation which can embrace both the species, commenting that much reliance cannot be placed on this character in distinguishing the two species. Based on other characters such as the absence of the median longitudinal carina on the posterior half of the dorsal surface of the third abdominal segment, the uninterrupted nature of the transverse carina on the same segment and presence of a longitudinal shallow groove at the upper half of the inner margin of the carpus of the third periopod, they have tentatively referred their specimens to M. semilaeve , comment- ing that if much reliance cannot be placed on the character of presence or absence of the short longitudinal median carina at the posterior half of the dorsal surface of the third abdominal segment, then M. semilaeve should be treated as synonym of M. validum . MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 571 The local specimen shows more closeness to M. semilaeve in the following characters : (1) Absence of a double row of spinules on the carapace behind the rostrum. (2) The transverse carina on the third abdominal segment entire. (3) The upper inner side of the carpus of the third periopod has a fairly deep longitudinal groove. (4) Absence of medium longitudinal carina on the posterior half of the dorsal surface of the third abdominal segment. (5) Ischium of the third maxillipede with four spines externally. (6) Propodus and carpus of the fourth and fifth periopods undi- vided. However, the local specimen differs from M. semilaeve in the following characters : (1) Rostrum with three spines on the dorsal side and none on the ventral (fig. 1). (2) Scaphocerite with four small teeth on the outer margin (fig. 2). (3) Propodus of the fourth and fifth periopods with 13 movable spines (fig. 3). (4) Uropodal exopods with 10 teeth and endopods with 4 teeth on the outer margin. (5) Telson without teeth in between the two longitudinal carinae. Microprosthema semilaeve : Fig. 1. Rostrum in lateral view ; Fig. 2. Scapho- cerite of the left side ; Fig. 3. Propodus and dactylus of fourth periopod. \ MM 572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) On the other hand the local specimen shows only one similarity with M. validum in having 4 teeth on the outer margin of the scaphocerite, a character which Holthuis considers as specific. However, considering the similarity of the local specimen with M. semilaeve given above and in the light of comments made by Mahadevan et al. (op. cit.) the present specimen is tentatively referred as M. semilaeve . This is thus the first record of this species from the west coast of India and second from Indo- Pacific region. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, for encouragements and to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific Officer, for going through the manuscript and helpful criticism. Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri, March 4, 1970. Refer Gravely, F. H. (1927) : The littoral fauna of Krusadai Island in the Gulf of Mannar. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 1(1) : 135-155. Holthuis, L. B. (1947) : Biological results of the Snellius Expedition. XIV. The Decapoda Macrura of the Snellius Expedition. 1. The Stenopodidae, Nephropsidae Scyllaridae and Palinuri- dae. Temminckia 1 : 1-178. M. R. RANADE ENCES Mahadevan, S., Rangarajan, K. & Shankaran Kutty, C. (1962) : On two specimens of Microprosthema sp. (Deca- poda, Macrura) from Palk Bay. J. Mar. Biol. Assn. India , 4 (1 & 2) : 235- 238. Pillai, N. K. (1961) : On the occur- rence of Microprosthema validum Stimp- son in Indian Waters, ibid. 3 (1 & 2) : 267-269. 13. TWO NEW RECORDS OF SOIL COLLEMBOLA FROM SOUTH INDIA (With thirteen figures in a plate) About sixty species of soil and litter inhabiting Collembola have been reported by Prabhoo (1971 a, b) particularly from the western ghats in Kerala. These reports contain the majority of the widely distri- buted collembolan species of Kerala. The two species reported here seem to have a comparatively restricted range of distribution and further they show certain morphological features distinguishing them from conspecific populations described from other parts of the world. Acherontiella bougisi Cassagnau and Delamare Deboutteville 1955 (Figs. 1-6) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3) Prabhoo & Haq : Soil Collembola Plate Figs. 1-6. Acherontiella bougisi Cassagnau and Delamare Deboutteville. 1. Habitus. 2. Dorsal chaetotaxy of the right half. 3. Ant. III-IV. 4. Hind tibiotarsus and foot. 5. Female genital field. 6. Male genital field. Figs. 7-13. Folsomina onychiurina Denis. 7. Habitus. 8. Ant. IV. 9. Ant. Ill sense organ. 10. Hind foot. 11. Ventral tube in profile. 12. Ventral side of furcula. 13. Mucro. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 573 Material : 1 ?and 1 from soil, 9-1-1971, Nilakkamukku, Trivan- drum Dt., Kerala, India. Coll. Haq. Description : Body up to 600/^ long and white in colour. Cuticle coarsely granulated. Clothing of smooth setae. Antennae slightly shorter than head. Ratio of antennal segments as 7:8:8: 10. Ant. Ill organ composed of two stalked globular sense rods and two slender guard sense rods. Ant. IV dorsally with one globular sense club and externally with one globular and two elongated sense clubs and one short sense rod. Mandible with well developed molar area and four apical teeth. Maxilla head with fringed lamellae. Labrum with 6/5, 5, 4 setae, the distal four setae provided with basal sockets. Eyes and post- antennal organ absent. Claws without teeth. Unguiculus and tenent hair absent. Tibiotarsus with 15 setae. Furcula and tenaculum absent. Chaetotaxy of the body as in Fig. 2. On meso- and metanota m6 and p4 are sense setae (ss). On abd. I-III p5 is ss. On abd. IV p4 is ss. on abd. V p3 is ss . On abd. VI p4 is anal spine. The anal spines are short, as long as 1/5 the hind claw and mounted on short papillae. Remarks : The Indian examples differ from the European form, whose chaetotaxy has been recently studied by Thibaud (1967), mainly in the following details of chaetotaxy ; head without a0 ; ocularis with oc1? the setae oc2 and oc3 being absent ; meso- and metanota without m3 ; abd. I-III without a2, a4, p4 ; abd. IV without ml5 m4 and p4. The chaetal nomenclature of Yosii (1961) is followed here. Distribution : Europe (France), India (new record). Folsomina onychiurlna Denis (1931) (Figs. 7-13) Material : 12 expl., from soil. 9-1-1971, Nilakkamukku, Trivandrum Dt., Kerala, India. Coll. Haq. Description : Body up to 700 p long and white in colour. Clothed with short smooth setae arranged in transverse rows. Abd. II, III and V with a sense rod each laterally. Antenna : head as 7/6 ; antennal ratio as 7 : 12 : 12 : 19. Ant. I with a ventral sense rod. Ant. Ill sense organ normal. Ant. IV apically with two stout sense clubs and eight sense rods. Eyes and post-antennal organ absent. Claws without teeth. Unguiculus less than 1/3 the hind claw. Tibiotarsal tenent hair absent. Ventral tube with 1 + 1 anterior, 4 + 4 lateral and 2 + 2 posterior setae. Rami tenaculi with 4 + 4 dents and corpus with one seta. Ratio of furcula as 9:15:1. Manubrium dorsally with 8 + 2 + 8 setae and ventrally with 1 + 1 setae. Dens with 4 setae on the proximal 1/3 and 19 setae ventrally arranged as v, v, oi, v, oi, oi, oi, ovi, oi, oi, v. Mucro hook-like and provided with a tooth-like short lateral lamella. 574 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) Remarks : The Indian form is characterised by the presence of a tooth-like lateral lamella on the mucro giving the latter a bidentate appearance. Distribution : Cosmopolitan (?), new record for India. Acknowledgement We are thankful to Professor K. K. Nayar for his keen interest in this study and for facilities provided in the department. Dept, of Zoology, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, May 22, 1971. Refer Cassagnau, P. & Delamare Debout- teville, C. (1955) : Collemboles. Mis- sion H. Coiffait au Liban III. Arch. Zool. Exp. et Gen. 91 : (4) 370-372. Denis, J. R. (1931) : Collemboles de Costa Rica avec une contribution au espece d’lordre. Boll. Lab. Zool. Portici 25 : 69-170. Prabhoo, N. R. (1971a) : Soil and Litter Collembola of South India. I — Arthropleona. Oriental Insects 5 : (1) 1-46. N. R. PRABHOO M. ABDUL HAQ N C E S Prabhoo, N. R. (1971b): Soil and Litter Collembola of South India. II — Xymphypleona. ibid. 5 : (2) 231-250. Thibaud, J. M. (1967) : Description d’une espece nouvelle de Collembole Acherontiella cassagnaui n. sp. Ann. Spel. , XXII : (2) 393-400. Yosn, R. (1961) : Phylogenetische Bedeutung der Chaetotaxie bei den Collembolen. Contr. Biol. Lab. Kyoto. Univ. 12: 1-37. 14. OCCURRENCE OF RHINYPTIA MERIDIONALIS V. PUNCTICOLLIS ARR. (SCARABAEIDAE : COLEOPTERA) AS PEST ON BAJRA IN WESTERN RAJASTHAN Bajra ( Pennisetum typhoides Stapf and Hubb.) is one of the most important crops in Western Rajasthan occupying more than 50% of the total crop area. We observed Rhinyptia meridionalis v. puncticollis Arr. voraciously feeding on the milky grain of different varieties of bajra namely RSK, RSJ, Chandy, Improved Ghana, local Shekhavati of bajra in Churu areas, Hybrid bajra , HB-I, and local varieties in Mathania areas of Western Rajasthan. These Scarabaeid beetles are probably a new record as agricultural pests. Besides these, Mylabris phalerata Pall, and Cantharis tenuicollis Pall. (Coleoptera : Meloidae) caused considerable loss by sucking the juice of milky grain. In case of severe attack, the earhead of bajra was observed to be almost without any grain. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 575 These pests are a great menace to the bajra crop in arid regions and require detailed investigation regarding their biology and bionomics in order to plan effective control measures. In a preliminary study during the year 1968-69 at Churu, monthly collections of Rhinyptia meridionalis v. puncticollis Arr. were made during full moon and new moon nights. Observations were taken, two hours after sunset with the help of a petromax lamp in a fixed spot as the beetle is nocturnal in habit. Out of the total collection (564) of the beetle 95*2% occurred during the crop season (July to November), 3*6 % during the summer (March to June) and 1*2% during the winter (December to February). This indi- cates their predominant occurrence during the crop season. Marked differences were also observed in the frequency of the beetle during the nights of new and full moon. For instance, out of the total collection (537) of the beetles in crop season only 2*4% were observed during bright nights. Similarly out of total collection (20) of the beetles in summer, only 5% were collected on bright nights. These observations indicate that the beetles prefer dark night for their activity. Therefore suitable and timely control measures should be devised for minimising the loss in crop yield. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. T. R. Mehta, Director and Dr. G. C. Taneja, Head of Division, for providing necessary facilities. Sincere thanks are also due to Shri A. C. Mathur, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for kindly identifying the insect species. Animal Studies Division, S. K. PAL Central Arid Zone Research Institute, V. P. SHARMA Jodhpur, Rajasthan, April 6, 1971. 15. OCCURRENCE OF LEPIDIUM VIRGINICUM LINN. IN NETARHAT PLATEAU (BIHAR) (With a plate) While studying the flora of Netarhat Plateau, Bihar, in 1971, we collected some specimens of Lepidium virginicum Linn. (Brassicaceae) growing as a weed in gardens and lawns . In Indian Herbaria, this taxon has often been labelled as L. rude rale Linn. ; the latter characterized by 576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) upper cauline leaves entire, petals much shorter than sepals or absent, silicula deeply notched, and incumbent cotyledons. The species is, however, very similar to L. densiflorum Schrad. but can be distinguished by its glabrate stems and flowers with white petals as long as or longer than sepals. L. virginicum Linn, is a native of North America and is widespread from the Atlantic Coast to the Rocky Mountains, W. Indies, Mexico, Central and South America. It is a new introduction into India and has not been reported earlier from Bihar State. The species has also been widely introduced and naturalized in Europe and some parts of the Old World (see Rydberg, FI. Rocky Mts., ed. 2, 326. 1954 ; Vasconcellos in FI. Europaea, Vol. 1, 332. 1964). The distinguishing features of the taxon are : cauline leaves not auriculate ; upper cauline leaves dentate or incised ; flowers white, with 4 petals as long as or slightly longer than the sepals ; silicula 2-5-4 X 2'5-3’5 mm, orbicular- ovate or suborbicular, with shallow apical notch ; and accumbent coty- ledons . The specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow (S. R. Paul 81073, Herb. LWG). The botanical nomenclature of this species, naturalized in different parts of India, is presented below : Lepidium virginicum Linn. Sp. PI. 645. 1753 ; Jepson, Man. FI. PI. California 439. 1951 ; Strausbaugh & Core, FI. W. Virginia 424. 1953 ; Wills & Irwin, Roadside FI. Texas 118. 1961 ; Steyermark, FI. Missouri 738. 1963 (Plate, Figs. 1 & 2). Common names : Virginia Peppergrass ; Birds Pepper; Virginia Pepperweed. Notes : Virginia Peppergrass, named for its pungent seeds and narrow grass-like leaves, is usually a weedy plant and is frequently abundant in disturbed places, such as vacant lots, fallow fields and neglected lawns. The peppery seed pods are relished by birds and in this way, plants are often disseminated. The seeds furnish tasty seasoning for soups and salads, and can be mixed with vinegar and salt for a meat dressing. The young spring shoots can be eaten raw sprinkled in salads as a substitute for water cress. Floristic Botany Division, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, January 22, 1973. J. K. MAHESHWARI S. R. PAUL 4CM Plate J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70 (3) Maheshwari & Paul : Lepidium Virginicum Lepidium virginicum Linn. JEitl J T7 rilling tnn'o Fna 9 ^I’lirnlq 3-5 J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 70 (3) Dhillon & Bhandari : Plant records Plate 1. Hypecoum procumbens Linn. 1. a plant ; 2. a node bearing a fruit — enlarged view ; 3. a petal ; 4. stamens ; 5. a carpel ; 6. one of the joints of the subcompressed fruit ; 7. seed. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 577 16. LIMNO C HARIS FLAVA (L.) BUCH. AN AQUATIC PLANT ON THE MOVE IN KERALA STATE During the recent ecological study tour to coastal Kerala we observed and collected Limnocharis flava , a robust water plant from a number of sites along the fringes of canal banks and paddy fields in Tirchur and its vicinity. From the field survey, it is obvious that this adventive plant is making a fast headway northwards at several places in the Trichur District bounded on the north by Palghat, on the east by Coimbatore, on the south by Ernakulam and Kottayam districts and on the west by Arabian sea. In the year 1961, this plant was collected at Alleppey. Subsequently in the year 1967 it was collected and reported from Ambalapuzha (Kammathy et al. 1967).1 Undoubtedly this aquatic herb is gradually establishing itself everywhere and if early steps are not taken to eradicate this Weed it may become a pest in the same way as Salvinia natans (Linn.) All. or Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. Specimens examined. Kerala. Trichur Dt : Trichur, 7.11.1972, T. A. Rao 9796 (CAL). Kerala. Alleppey Dt. : Alleppey ; 30.10.1961, Ramachandran s.n. (CAL) ; Ambalapuzha, 5.2.1967, Kammathy 64 (CAL). Ecology Section, Botanical Survey of India, 76, Acharya' Jagadish Bose Road, Calcutta- 14, February 7, 1973. 17. SOME PLANT RECORDS FOR RAJASTHAN (With a plate) Much work has recently been done on the Flora of the various parts of Rajasthan. However, no Flora of Rajasthan as such has been pub- lished. As far as Ganganagar is concerned, no systematic work has ever been published concerning its vegetation. Ganganagar district, which is now a land of greenery, was all barren, scattered over with heaps of sand-dunes prior to 1927-28, when the Gang canal was con- structed. The face of this desert has been completely changed with the coming of this canal. Green fields have replaced thedesolate wastes. This change has affected the natural vegetation of the entire region. New 1 Kammathy, R. V. & Subramanyam, K. (1967) Limnocharis H.B.K. A genus new to India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64 : 389-390. 11 T. ANANDA RAO G. C. DAS 578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) plants from the hilly areas of the Punjab have spread downwards and have established themselves all along the banks of the canals or are found as seasonal weeds in the irrigated areas . Since these plants are not found in other parts of Rajasthan, it is worth reporting them as new records for Rajasthan. Out of the sixteen species mentioned in this note, almost all of them have not been reported from any part of Rajasthan previously. The specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Jodhpur and the duplicates at the Botany Department, Khalsa College, Ganganagar and one set of the specimens at Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun and National Herbarium, Calcutta. Hypecoum procumbens Linn. Sp. PI. 124. 1753 ; FBI. 1 : 120. 1872. A small procumbent annual. Leaves 2-3-pinnatisect. Flowers few, yellow, pedicillate ; outer petals 3-lobed, inner toothed or fimbricate, obtuse with mid-lobe entire, retuse or 2-fid. Fruit subcompressed, at length breaking into 1-seeded joints (Fig. 1). FI. & Fr. : — Jan-March. Specimens examined: Dhillon 244, Chak 3Z, 29.3.67. Distr. /—India (Part of Punjab), W. Pakistan, W. Asia, Mediterranean region. Brassicaceae Malcolmia africana R. Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew ed. II 4 : 121. 1872 ; FBI. 1 : 146. 1872. A stout, stellate hairy plant with oblong slightly dentate, broad leaves and long pods . FI. & Fr. : — Feb. -March. Specimen examined : Dhillon 88, Khalsa College Farm, 13.3.67. Distr . : — India (Punjab, Kashmir), Tibet, W. Asia, Mediterranean region. Fabaceae Medicago denticulata Willd. Sp. PI. 3: 1414. 1802 : FBI. 2 : 9. 1876; M. polymorpha Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 390. 1832. A prostrate herb with lacinate stipules. Flowers 1-5 on peduncle, yellow. Pods netted, disc-shaped, spiral, with usually variable number of spines. FI. & Fr. Jan.-March. Specimens examined : Dhillon 133, Khalsa College, Farm, 23.3.67. Distr. : — India (Punjab, Himalayas, Bengal), W. Pakistan, China. Japan, Siberia, Europe etc. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 579 Apiaceae Oenanthae javanica (Bl.) Dc. Prodr. 4 : 138 1830 ; Sium javanicum Bl. Bijdr. 15 : 881. 1826 ; Oenanthae Stolonifera DC. Prodr. 4 : 138. 1830; FBI. 2:696. 1876. A stoloniferous, glabrous, fistular herb, 45-80 cms high. Leaves unipinnate : petiole sheathed. Flower white, fragrant, in compound umbels. Cremocarps dorSally compressed. FI. Sc Fr. : — April-Oct. Specimens Examined : Dhillon 44, Sadhuwali, 19.8.66. Distr. : — India (Kashmir, Punjab, Assam ; plains of Bengal) Java, China, Japan. Psammogeton biternatum Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 57. 1846 ; FBI. 2 : 719. 1879. Segments or lower leaves ovate, pinnatifid into narrow lobes, of the upper narrowly cuneate, lacinate, hairs on the ridges, white, capitellate, longer than the carpel. FI. Sc Fr. : — Feb.-March. Specimens examined : Dhillon 149, Khara chak on Hanumangarh Road, 25.3.67. Distr. : — India, Punjab, ascending up to 300 ft. in Himalayas ; W. Pakistan. Asteraceae Cirsium wallichii DC. Prodr. 6 : 643. 1837 ; Cnicus wallichi (DC.) Hook. f. in FBI. 3 : 363. 1880. A variable plant 1-3 m high. Stem pubescent leafy. Leaves sessile, sinuate — pinnatifid. Heads 2-4 cm, solitary or on peduncles fascicled, involucrate. FI. Sc Fr. /-—Feb.-March. Specimens examined : Dhillon 155, Lyallpur. Fruit Farm, 25.3.67. Distr. : — India (Temperate Himalayas, Kashmir, Nilgiris), Bhutan. Ifloga fontanesii CaSs. in Die. Sc. Mat. 23 : 14. 1822 ; FBI. 3 : 277. 1881. A much branched, ascending, leafy annual. Leaves spreading, narrowly linear. Heads 2-3 nate, nestling among the leaves through- out the length of branches : Involucre reddish. Bracts scarius, aristate. FI. Sc Fr. /—Feb. -April. Specimens examined : Dhillon 161, Govt. College Campus, 26.3.67. Distr. : — India (Upper Gangetic plains) Westwards to Canaries. 580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) SCROPHULARIACEAE Antirrhinum orontium Linn. Sp. PL 860. 1753 ; FBI. 4 : 253. 1883 ; A. gibbosum Wall. PL As. Rar. 2 : 44. 1930. A glandular, slender herb, 15-45 cm high. Leaves 2*5 x 2-0*3 cm linear, entire. Flowers solitary axillary, white or pinkish, Capsule pubescent. FI. &Fr. : — Feb. -April. Specimens examined : Dhillon 78, College lawns and College Farm, 13.3.67. Distr. /—(Punjab plains & W. Himalayas up to 4000 ft. and common in Nilgiris), Westwards to N. Africa & Britain, Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Greece. a ’• H ‘V1 hi * Plantaginaceae Plantago amplexicaulis Cav. Icon. 2 : 22. 125. 1799 ; FBI. 4 : 706. 1885. A scapigerous herb, subcaulescent, 5-10 cm high. Leaves 7-15 cm margins entire or very sparingly toothed. Spikes 1 *5-2*5 cm boat- shaped, bracts cupular. FI. & Fr. Jan.-Feb. Specimens examined : Dhillon 304, Khalsa College Farm, 13.3.68. Distr. : — India, (Punjab), W. Pakistan, Egypt. POLYGONACEAE Polygonum barbatum Linn. Sp. Pl. 362. 1753 ; Royle 1. 11. 313 ; FBI 5 : 37. An erect, glabrous annual. Leaves linear, lanceolate, acuminate tapering to the acute base, glabrous. Stipules strigose. Peduncles glabrous. Raceme 5-10 cm perianth white, eglandular. Stamens 5-8. Styles 3-cleft. Nutlets trigonous. FI. & Fr. : — Almost throughout the year. Specimens examined : Dhillon 17, Z canal, 13.8.66. Distr . ; — India (Assam, Bengal, M.P., S. India), W. Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, Malay peninsula, China, Japan. Tropical Africa. Polygonum lanigerum R. Br. Prod. 419. 1810 ; FBI. 5 : 1886. A robust annual 1-2 m high. Stem prostrate rooting at the nodes below, clothed with snow-white tomentum, branches deep red within node's Leaves shortly stalked, narrowly lanceolate accuminate, densely MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 581 white cottony beneath. Stipules membranous. Raceme 2 to 5 cm long. Bracts densely white woolly, crowded, Stamens 6 style 2-cleft. FL ScFr. : — Aug.-Sept. Specimens examined : Dhillon 55, Sadhuwali, 19.8,67. Distr . : — - Poaceae Alloteropsis cimlcina (Linn.) Stapf. in Prain, Fl. Trop. Africa 9 : 487. 1919 : Bor, Grasses Ind. etc. 276. 1960 ; Milium cimicinum Linn. Mant. Alt. 184. 1771 ; Axonopus cimicinum P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 12. 1812; FBI 7: 64. 1896. An erect or procumbent grass. Culms & leaf margins clothed with long, horizontal cilia. With somewhat swollen nodes. Leaf margins clothed with long bulbous-based cilia. Racemes spike-like, occurs sporidically in moist, stony ridges and fissures. FL & Fr. : — Almost throughout the year. Specimens examined : Dhillon 32b, Sohan Lai orchard, Ganganagar 20.3.68. Distr. .-—Throughout India (in the plains of lower foot-hills) Burma, Ceylon, Trop. Africa and Australia. Hemarthria compressa (Linn, f.) R. Br. Prodr. 207. 1810 ; Bor. Grasses Ind. etc. 161. 1960 ; Rotboellia compressa Linn. f. Suppl. 114, 1781; FBI 7:153: 1896. A perennial, hygrophilous, erect or decumbent grass, usually branched and leafy throughout. Spikes solitary or fascicled. Fl. & Fr. : — June-September. Specimens examined : Dhillon 60, Z canal, 20.8.66. Distr. : — Throughout the hotter parts of India, Ceylon, Burma and Malaysia. Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Beavu. Agrost. 165, t. 5, f. 1. Planch 5. 1812 ; Bor, Grasses Ind. etc., 169, 1960 ; Langrus cylindrica Linn. Syst. 878, 1759 ; I. arundinacea Cyr. PL Rar. Neap. 2 : 26. t. 11. 1792 ; FBI 7 : 106. 1895. An erect or creeping annual grass. Panicle cylindrical and silvery white. Anthers orange. Fl. & Fr. June-Oct. & Jan. -April. Specimens examined : Dhillon 337, Lyallpur Farm, 13.3J68. Distr. : — Mediterranean region extending to Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan (arid region) & U.S.S.R. 582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Lolium temulantum Linn. Sp. PI. 83. 1753 ; Bor, Grasses Ind. etc. 546. 1960. An annual, tufted grass, with erect spikes. Spikelet 5 to 10 flowered. FI. & Fr. : — Dec. -April. Specimens examined : Dhillon 339, Khalsa College Farm, 13.3.68. Distr. : — Native of mediterranean region, now extended into many parts of the world in the wheat fields. Lophochloa pumila (Desf.) Bor, Grass. Ind. etc. 445. 1960 ; Avena pumila Desf. FI. Atlant. 1 : 103, 1798. Tip of the lemma not produced into 2 awns, glumes subequal, densely and shortly hairy, rachilla always produced, clothed with long hairs. FI. & Fr. : — July-Sept. Specimens examined: Dhillon 340, Khalsa College Farm, 19.8.68. Distr. : — Northwest India to Mediterranean region. Khalsa College, K. B. S. DHILLON Ganganagar, (Rajasthan). Botany Department, M. M. BHANDARI University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, (Rajasthan), March 3, 1972. 18. ALGAE OF NAINITAL In this paper, 58 taxa belonging to Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Xanthophyceae are recorded for the first time. These algae have been collected during a botanical excursion in October 1970. Nainital is situated at 29°24/N lat. 69°28/E long, in the valley of Gager range on Kumaon Himalayas at an altitude of 1920 metres above m.s.l. The rainy season is from the middle of June to September and the average yearly rainfall is about 254 cms. Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kuetz. appears to be the common alga. A number of species of Spirogyra and Oedogonium were present in vegetative condition only and hence could not be identified. Diatoms are present in good numbers in the collections and are being studied. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 583 Cyanophyceae Syne choco ecus aeruginosus Naeg. In a pond on way to Hanuman- gad,. Cells 14-16 p broad. Synechocystis crassa Woronichin In a puddle. Aphanothece bullosa (Menegh.) Rabenh . Irregular, mucilaginous masses on dripping rocks, Bhowali Road. Aphanothece conferta Richter Ellipsoidic, microscopic masses floating in a puddle on way to Hanumangad. Gloeothece palea (Kuetz.) Rabenh . In a puddle, on way to Bhowali. Merismopedia punctata Meyen Rare. In Naini lake. Chroococcus minutus (Kuetz.) Naeg. In a puddle on way to Hanuman- gad. Chroococcus turicensis (Naeg.) Hansg. In a puddle. Microcystis flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirchner Floating in a pond, Bhowali. Myxosar l na burmensis Skuja In a pool. Endospores not observed, Xenococcus kerneri Hansg. Epiphytic on Cladophora in a pond, Bhowali. Chamaesiphon siderphilus Star- mach v. glabra Rao Epiphytic on Cladophora sp. in a pond. Spirulina n&rdstedtii Gom. Common. In ponds, puddles. Spirals slightly less in breadth being 4-4*5 p broad. Distance between two consecutive spirals is 3-3*5 p. Oscillatoria pseudogeminata G. Schmid In Naini lake. Oscillatoria rubescens D.C. ex Gomont On shore of Naini lake. In gutters. On moist soils. Oscillatoria splendida Grev. ex Gomont v. attenuata W. et G. S. West In a puddle . Phormidium africanum Lemm. On moist soil. Phormidium corium Gom. v. capitatum Gardner On moist soil near a puddle on way to Naini peak. Cells 6*45-13 p long. Phormidium frigidum Fritsch In a puddle, 584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Phormidium lucidum Kuetz. ex Gom. In Naini lake. Trichomes smaller, 6 /x broad. Phormidium mode Gom. On moist soil, Bhowali road. Phormidium subincrustatum Fritsch et Rich In Naini lake. Lyngbya digue ti Gomont In a puddle. Lyngbya lagerheimii (Moeb.) Gom. In Naini lake. The filaments are not plankto- nic. They are 2‘6 /x broad ; trichomes 2. 2-2. 4 [l broad ; cells T6-3.2 /x long. Lyngbya nordgardhii Wille Epiphytic on Rhizoclonium sp. floating in a pond on way to Bhowali. Schizothrix braunii (A. Br.) Gom Forming a leathery mass on the dripping rocks on way to Bhowali . Nos toe commune Yauch. ex Born, et Flah. Irregular, firm masses on drip- ping rocks . Nostoc microscopicum Carm. ex Born, et Flah. On dripping rocks on way to Bhowali. Spores not observed. Nostoc paludosum Kuetz. ex Born, et Flah. In Naini lake. Colonies up to 70 /x diam. and cells up to 5 /x broad . Calothrix stellaris Born.et Flah. In a puddle on way to Hanuman- gad. Cells mostly not con- stricted. Chlorophyceae Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs v. acicularis (A.Br.) G. S. West. In Naini lake. Cells usually curved. Oocystis naegelii A. Braun Common in a puddle on way to Hanumangad. Pediastrum integrum Naeg. In a puddle on way to Bhowali. Colonies ujsually irregular in shape. r Ulothrix tenerrima Kuetz. In puddles . Two pyrenoids were present in almost all the cells and in this respect it agrees well with U. bipyrenoidosa Fritsch et Rich. However in general structure the present alga agrees more to U. tenerrima. Microspora pachyderma (Wille) Lagerh. In a puddle. Cylindrocapsa gemenella Wolle In a small pond. Coleochaete orbicularis Pring- sheim MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585 Epiphytic on Hydrilla plants in Naini lake. Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kuetz. Common. In puddles, ponds and a lake. Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kuetz. v. horsfordii (Wolle) Collins In puddles, ponds. Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetz. Common. In puddles, ponds . Closterium acutum Breb. In Naini lake. Closterium lanceolatum Kuetz. In a puddle on way to Bhowali. Closterium moniliferum (Bory) Ehrenb. v. concavum Klebs In a puddle. Closterium tumidulum Gay In Naini lake. Cells are longer up to 170 p long. Closterium venus Kuetz. In a puddle. Cosmarium fontigenum Nordst. In a pool. Cosmarium fontigenum Nordst. v. pseudofontigenum (Gutw.) West et West Common. In puddles. Cosmarium garrolense Roy et Bisset In a puddle. Cosmarium garrolense Roy et Bisset v. pyramidatum Kriger In Naini lake. Cosmarium laeve Rabenh. v. acervatum Forster In a puddle. Cosmarium venustum (Breb) Arch. v. induratum Nordstedt Rare. In Naini lake. Staurastrum gracile Ralfs In a puddle. Spirogyra gracilis (Has sail) Kuetz. In a puddle. Euglenophyceae Lepocinclis ovum (Ehrenb.) Lemm. In a small pool. Phacus pleuronectes (O.F.M.) Dujardin In a puddle. Phacus unguis Pochmann In a pond on way to Bhowali. Trachelomonas volvocina Ehrenb. Common. In pools, puddles, Naini lake. Xanthophyceae Tribonema bombycinum (Ag.) Derbes et Sober In ponds . 586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) Acknowledgements I take this opportunity to thank my colleagues Prof. R. S.Nadkarni, Dr. A. B. Sapre and Shri G. G. Wadkar for kindly collecting the algae. Botany Department, N. D. KAMAT Institute of Science, Nagpur-1, February 5, 1972. References Croasdale, H. (1955): Freshwater algae of Alaska. I. Some desmids from the interior. Farloma 4 (4) : 513-565. Desikachary, T. V. (1959) : Cyano- phyta. New Delhi. Geitler, L. (1932) : Cyanophyceae. In Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamenflora Deutschlands, Osterreichs und der Schweiz. 12. Jena. Gomont, M. (1892) : Monographic des Oscillariees (Nostocacees homo- cystees) I & II. Ann. Sci. nat. Bot. Ser. 15 (7) : 263-368 ; 16 (7) : 91-264. Huber-Pestalozzi, G. (1955) : Das Phytoplankton des Susswassers. Tei 4. Stuttgart. Irene-Mairie, (Fr.) (1939; : Flore desmidiale de la region de Montreal. Laprairie (Canada). Prescott, G. W. (1951) : Algae of the Western great lakes area. Michigan. Printz, H. (1964) : Die Chaetophora- len der Binnerngewasser. Hydrobiologia 24 : 1-376. Ramnathan, K. R. (1964) : Ulotri- chales. New Delhi. Transeau, E. N. (1951) : The Zygne- mataceae. Ohio. 19. FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF BAILADILLA (MADHYA PRADESH) Bailadilla, a remote hill range in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, is about 402 kilometres south of Raipur on the South-Eastern Railways. Owing to its vast resources of high quality iron ore, the hill gained enough importance in recent years with the starting of iron ore project. It lies between 1 8*30 and 19* 5° north and 81 TO and 81 T 5° east, ranging in altitude from 900 to 1276 metres. The botany of Bailadilla is interesting as it includes a number of species otherwise occurring in Himalayas and south Indian hills. A number of west and east Indian elements and also a few coastal form also make their appearance in this east central Indian hill. The flora of the area has been studied by several workers. However in the past. The following list of 65 species of vascular plants are being reported for the first time from the area. Two species out of these are new records for Madhya Pradesh (marked by single asterisk) and four for Central India (marked by double asterisk). This paper is the outcome of several collection tours made in the area in different seasons for four years. The specimens cited, are preserved in the herbarium of the State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 587 PlTTOSPORACEAE **Pittosporum nepaulense (DC.) Rehder ex Wilson var. rawal- pindiense Gowda Bailadilla. Khotele 8050. Malvaceae Abelmoschus moschatus Medic Loc . name : Gumamata. Kirandul. Singh 4216. Abutilon polyandrum (Roxb.) W. & A. Bailadilla. Hewiston s.n. Hibiscus tetraphyllus Roxb. Kirandul. Saxena 1365. Sida veronicaefolia Lam. Kirandul. Saxena 1386. Tilliaceae Corchorus olitorius Linn. Kirandul. Saxena 1358. Triumfetta pilosa Roth Kirandul. Saxena 1400 ; Singh 4258 . Linaceae Reinwardtia indica Dumort Bailadilla. Singh 4274. OXALIDACEAE Oxalis corniculata Linn. Kirandul. Singh 6766. Papilionaceae Alysicarpus vaginalis (Linn.) DC. Loc . name : Bhui Kurwa , Phad - kuli. Bailadilla. Singh 4366. Atylosia scarabaeoides (Linn.) Benth. * Bailadilla. Saxena 1352. Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. var. velutinum Loc. name : Badi Chat Kani. Kirandul. Singh 2568. Teramnus labialis (Linn, f.) Spreng. Bailadilla. Singh 2567. Zornia gibbosa Spanoghe Bailadilla. Khotele 10295. Mimosaceae Acacia pennata (Linn. )& Willd. Kirandul. Singh 2507, 4222. Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus Linn. Kirandul. Singh 2590. Diplocyclos palmatus (Linn.) Jaffrey Kirandul. Singh 2593. Melothria maderaspatana (Linn.) Cogn. Kirandul. Singh 2540. Rubiaceae Hedyotis hispida^Retz. Kirandul. Singh 4212. 588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Konotheca ovatifolia (Cav.) Sant. & Wagh Kirandul. Saxena 1366. Rubia cordifolia Linn. Bailadilla. Saxena 1294, Singh 4273. COMPOSITAE Bidens pilosa Linn . Kirandul. Singh 214. Blumea virens DC. Bailadilla. Saxena 1285 ; Khotele 8358. Centanthrum anthelminticum (Willd.) O. Ktze. Kirandul. Singh 2530. Conyza canadensis (Linn.) Con- quist ; Cuatr. in Webbia 24 : 222, 1969 Syn. Erigeron cana- densis Linn . Bailadilla. Singh 6796. Cosmos sulphureus Cav. Kirandul : escape. Singh 2546. Crassocephalum crepidioides. (Benth.) S. Moore Syn. Gynura crepidioides Benth. Bailadilla. Khotele 9023. Guizotia abyssynica Cass. Bailadilla : escape. Singh 4321. Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. Loc. name : Katkan Bailadilla. Singh 4318. Sonchus asper Vi 11 . Kirandul. Singh 2259. Primulaceae Lysimachia obovata Hk. f. Bailadilla : in shady places. Singh 221 A. Oleaceae Jasminum officinale Linn. Bailadilla : escape. Singh 6638. Boraginaceae Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forsk. Bailadilla. Singh 2266. Convolvulaceae Argyreia sericea Dalz. Kirandul. Singh 2573. Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. Kirandul. Singh 2595. Acanthaceae Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir .) Nees Bailadilla. Singh 2284. Verbena ceae Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl Bailadilla. Khotele 6077. Labiatae Micromeria biflora Benth . Bailadilla. Singh 4336. Ocimum americanum Linn. Loc. name : Vantulsi Bailadilla . Singh 2257. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES POLYGONACEAE Polygonum stagninum Buch.- Ham. Kirandul. Singh 4211. Euphorbiaceae *Cleistanthus patulus Muell.-Arg. Bailadilla, along stream. Khotele 9013. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. Bailadilla. Khotele 6082. Orchidaceae Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatter & McCann. Syn. Saccolobium wightianum Hk. f Kirandul. Saxena 1459 ; Khotele 8096. ZlNGIBERACEAE Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Kirandul. Khotele 8080. Globba racemosa Sm. Bailadilla. Khotele 8077, **Zingiber capitatum Roxb. Loc . name : Zerkan . Bailadilla. Singh 6798. Liliaceae Asparagus gracilis Royle. Loc. name : Mali Muthore Do kin Jade . Bailadilla. Singh 2296, COMMELINACEAE Cyanotis axillaris R. & S. Bailadilla. Singh 2211. 589 Araceae Arisaema tortuosum Schott. Kirandul . Singh 259 1 . Remusatia vivipara (Lodd . ) . Schult. Kirandul. Saxena 1397 ; Khotele 8058. Cyperaceae Cyperus melanosperma (Nees) Suringer. Loc. name : Roda- ghas . Near Kirandul, along stream. Singh 2521 . **Elaeocharis chaetaria R. & S. Bailadilla hill top in moist places. Singh 4343. Fimbristylis littoralis Gaud . (. F . miliacea sensu. C.B. Cl. in FI. Brit. Ind.) Kirandul. Singh 2526, 4339. Eleusine coracana (Linn.) Gaertn. Bailadilla. Singh 4327. Eragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf) Bor Bailadilla. Singh 6603. Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin. Kirandul. Singh 4290. Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr. Kirandul. Singh 2559. Panicum notatum Retz. Kirandul. Singh 2520. m Panicum psilopodium Trin. Bailadilla. Singh 4291. 590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Panicum sumattrense Roth. Kirandul. Singh 4324 ; Khotele 8092. Syn. Dryopteris parasitica (Linn.) O. Ktze. Kirandul. Singh 2544. Pseudopogonatherum contor turn (Brongn.) A. Camus Kirandul. Singh256\. Aspleniaceae Aspidiaceae **Asplenium dalhousiae Hook. Syn. Ceterach dalhousiae (Hook.) *Cyclosorus parasiticus (Linn.) Tardien ex. Tardien & C. Chr. C. Chr. Bailadilla. Singh 4294. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the Director, National Botanic G.arden, Lucknow, to Dr. J. K. Maheshwari, Asst. Director, National Botanic Garden, Lucknow ; to the Director, State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur ; to the Conservator of Forests, Bastar Circle, Bastar ; to the Divisional Forest Officer and Staff of the South Bastar Division ; to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta ; to the President, F.R.I., Dehra Dun; to the Officer-in-Charge, Botany Branch, F.R.I. Dehra Dun and to the Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Central Circle, Allahabad for their kind co-operation in various ways. Scientist, H. O. SAXENA Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, November 6, 1971. During the course of botanical explorations of Panch Mahal district, Central Gujarat, Chrysanthellum indicum DC., was collected. So, as far as could be ascertained from the available literature, this species seems to be a new record for this region and most probably for the W. India. 20. THE OCCURRENCE OF CHRYSANTHELLUM INDICUM DC. IN GUJARAT STATE {With a plate) J. Bombay nat, Hist, Soc, 70 (3) Bedi & Thaker : Chrysanthellum indicum Plate TK£- MAHARAJA SAYAm&O UNSVgP StTV Of so?*** department- HERBARIUM fiow m centra1 ■U JAR AT No B 6990 A $ T & & AC E A; ‘ (At 'J, /A ■ iA&h BAP.iA, CS--> &-o - o-fj 1-0 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 591 Chrysanthellum indicum DC., Prod, v, 631 ; FBI. 3 : 310 A small, erect, annual, glabrous herb, 10 to 40 cm tall, leaves alter- nate, bipinnatifid, 2 to 8 cm long. Segments lobed or cut, final segments broadly linear or cuneate. Heads peduncled, yellow, 3 to 5 mm in diameter in flower and 5 to 7 mm in fruit, with the invol. bracts spreading, golden-yellow. Achenes 3 mm long, linear-oblong, sub-compressed, outer thick, tubercled externally, 3-grooved on each face, inner ridged on each face ; pappus a minute corona. The plants, though not common, were found growing on open grassy places on hilly forest slopes of Devgadh hill and along the roadsides near Baria Palace, Devagadhbaria, Panch Mahal District, Gujarat State. Flowering and Fruiting time : July to August. Herbarium specimen No. BEDI 6990 (3-8-1970). This species has been earlier reported from upper gangetic plains, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and erstwhile central provinces. Recently, M. Oommachan & K. V. Billore, (1971) have reported it from Bhopal, M.P. The species has also been reported from Tropical Africa and Madagascar, from where probably it was introduced into the Indian sub- continent. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the authorities of the Baria Forest Division for facilities during the tours, and the research staff, Systematic Botany Branch, F.R.I. & Colleges, Dehra Dun, for their kind co-operation. We are also thankful to Prof. P. V. Bole and Dr. S. D. Sabnis for criti- cally going through the manuscript. This research has been financed in part by a grant made by the United States Department of Agriculture under PL-480. Taxonomy Laboratory, S. J. BEDI Department of Botany, D. N. THAKER The M. S. University of Baroda, Baroda-2, September 16, 1972. 21. NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF VENTILAGO BOMBA IENSIS DAlZ. In the course of revising the Indian species of the Rhamnaceae, I had an opportunity to go through 4 Studies in the Rhamnaceae, III — A Taxonomic Revision of Indian Ventilagineae’ by Banerjee & Mukerjee (1970), and do find myself under the necessity to dissent from their opinion with regard to the identity and nomenclature of 592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. Santapau’s (1944, 1953) views and findings and that of (1968, 1970) are now endorsed as in all probability correct. Banerjee & Mukerjee (1970) have stated that, 4 V. bombaiensis Dalz. appears to be a species of Smythea and not of Ventilago and hence it has been transferred to the genus as a comb. nov. : Smythea bombaiensis (Dalz.) S. P. Ban. et P. K. Mukh The confusion in the identity of S. bombaiensis arose due to the non-availability of mature fruits .... 5 Santapau (1953) listed this species in his flora of khandala on the western ghats of India. Santapau spent twelve years in the explora- tion of Khandala where this pretty climbing shrub is very common on the slopes below Echo point at an altitude of about 500 m and common also below Elphinstone point about half way down to the ravine. In the fruiting season — February to March, fruits may be seen scattered over large tracts of forests. All Khandala specimens of Santapau were checked against the actual types, when these were available in London, or with the best specimens in Kew Gardens, British Museum of Natural History, London, and the Linnean Society. According to the note on 4 Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. ’ by Santapau (1944), there seemed to be a good deal of confusion regarding the identity of this plant, due principally to the fact that the fruit was not seen or was not fully described till Santapau prepared his note. Both Cooke I : 239 and Talbot For. FI. I : 293 confessed that they had not seen the fruit. Gamble gave a very meagre description of the fruit. Santapau observed the plant and collected the material on several occasions from Khandala over and above basing his findings on the abundant Herbarium sheets of the Blatter Herbarium. Even ripe fruits and seeds were observed in the field ! I, therefore, feel strongly that there should not be any confusion whatsoever in the identity of V. bombaiensis Dalz. The generic transfer case of 1970 in Indian For. 96 : 214 with regard to Smythea bombaiensis (Dalz.) S. P. Ban. et P. K. Mukh. should be relegated to the synonymy of a distinct taxon V. bombaiensis Dalz. General Education Centre, Maharaja Sayaji Rao University of Baroda, Baroda-2, April 26, 1973. G. M. OZA MISCELLANEOUS notes 593 References Banerjee, S. P & Mukerjee, P. K. (1970) : Studies in the Rhamnaceae, III — A Taxonomic Revision of Indian Ventilagineae. Indian For. 96 : 203-217, f.I. Cooke, T. (1901-8) : The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. London. Gamble, J. S. (1915-36) : Flora of the Presidency of Madras. London. Oza, G. M. (1968) : Smythea calpi- carpa Kurz renamed. Indian For. 94 : 267. Oza, G. M. (1970) : Key to the Venti- lago of India, ibid. 96 : 406-407. Santapau, H. (1944) : Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 496. — (1953) : The Flora of Khan- dala on the Western Ghats of India. Rec. bot. Surv. India 16(1) : xxvii -f 1- 396, map, tt. 3. Talbot, W. A. (1909-11) : Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind, Poona. 1 : 1909 ; 2 : 1911. 22. VALERIANELLA LOCUSTA (LINN.) LATERRADE— A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA The unspectacular genus Valerianella can easily be missed in the field, Valerianella locus ta is, therefore, presented as a new record for India, in the Kashmir valley. The authors owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. I. A. Linczevski of the Komarov Botanical Institute, Leningrad, U.S.S.R., for confirming the identity of the species and for sending the literature on the subject. The authors are also grateful to Mr. B. L. Burtt, F.L.S., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, for his help in making the literature available for the present study. Valerianella locusta (Linn.) Later rade, FI. Bordelaise (ed. 2) 93, 1821 ; Betcke, Animadv. bot. Valer. 10, 1826 ; Linczevski in FI. U.S.S.R. 23 ; 663, t. 34, f. 1, 1958 ; Coode in Notes Royal bot. Gdn. Edin. 27(3) : 235, f. 4(1-4), 1967. V. olitoria Pollich, Hist. PL Palat. 1 : 30, 1776 ; DC. Prodr. 4 : 625, 1830 ; Krok in Vet.-Akad. Handl. Stockh. 5(1) : 88, 1864 ; Boiss. FI. Or. 3 : 104, 1875. Valeriana locusta Linn. Sp. PI. 33, 1753, cum var. olitoria. Valerianella locusta Linn. FI. Suecica (ed. 2) 12, 1755. V. olitoria Willd.^). pi. 1 : 184, 1798. Fedia olitoria Vahl, Enum. 2 : 19, 1806. F. striata Stev. in Mem. Soc. Nat. Mosc. 2 : 177, 1809. Description : Erect annual herb up to 40 cm tall ; stem dichoto- mously branched, almost glabrous to slightly puberulous, more pro- minently at the nodes, slightly ridged. Basal leaves spathulate to nearly oblanceolate, prominently narrowed towards base, almost entire, 3-6 cm long, up to 15 mm broad ; stem leaves opposite, lanceolate-oblong, entire with few distant teeth near base, sessile, upto 4 cm long, apex acute or 12 594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) subobtuse. Flowers on long peduncles forming 6-12 mm broad flat topped cymes, 1*5-2 mm across, pale lilac. Bracts oblong, 3-5 mm long, ciliate especially on margins . Calyx indistinct, single toothed. Corolla tube nearly 2 mm long, lobes 5, oyate-oblong. Stamens 3, shortly exserted. Style equalling the stamens in length, stigma capitate an4 trifid. Fruit somewhat orbicular to ovoid with short apical tooth, 2* 1-2’ 5 mm long, 4*8-2 mm broad, three celled, two cells barren and as large as the third fertile one ; fertile cell single seeded with a corky mass on the back, sterile cells separated by a membraneous, partition, exter- nally by a shallow groove ; fruit pubescent more prominently over the fertile side. Distribution in Jammu and Kashmir State , India : Orchards near Kashmir University Campus, Srinagar ( Gurcharan Singh 665b, dated 15-V-1970, alt. 1590 m) ; Emporium Garden, Srinagar (Gurucharan Singh 4212, dated 5-vi-1972, alt. 1590 m). Sheets deposited in the herbarium of Botany Department, Kashmir University, Srinagar. Geographical distribution : index kewensis gives Europe, Oriens as the home of this plant. Europe, U.S.S.R., Turkey, Iran. General Education Centre, G. M. OZA M. S. University of Baroda, Baroda-390002. Department of Botany, GURUCHARAN SINGH Kashmir University, Srinagar, April 10, 1973. 23. NOTES ON SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM SOUTH INDIA— II Alloteropsis semialata (R. Br.) Hitchc. var. viatica (Griff.) Ellis et Karthik, stat. et comb. nov. Aira viatica Griff, pi. Asiat. 3 : 54. 1851. Axono- pus semialatus (R. Br.) Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7 : 64. 1896 ,pp. The collection of this interesting grass from Kozhikode (Calicut) Dt., Kerala, records its occurrence for the first time from peninsular India ; hitherto it has been recorded only from Assam and Ceylon. Since Fischer (1934), and Bor (1960), working on Indian grasses, have not indicated its occurrence from this part of India, nor are there earlier collections in MH, it probably is a new entrant. MISCELLANEOUS notes 595 Bor (l.c.) has indicated that an interesting variant of Alloteropsis semialata with a broad membranous wing on the margins of the upper glume is occasionally found, and tentatively advocates for its recognition even ‘ ... as the colour variant var. eckloniana ’ ; this has been previously named Aira viatica by Griffith. Studies of the plants from Ceylon, Assam, Khasia and Jaintia Hills, Manipur and Kerala reveal an interesting array of characters with speci- mens having the upper glumes winged, and some without. It is remarkable that no intermediate forms have been observed regarding this character. Thus, it is possible to separate the two varieties, viz., semialata and viatica depending on this character. It has not been the same with the purple bands on the lower lemma ; their presence is seen as indistinct purple dots even in those not having the bands, indicating the stability of the character. From the characters given in the following table, it seems to appear that emphasis on the colour character cannot be relied on and that eventually var. eckloniana Hubbard may have to be merged with the species proper. Herbarium specimen 1 . Collector and date not given (Acc. No. : mh 88903) 2. M. A. Lawson 20 3. N.L.Bor,s.n. (Acc. No : assam 34014) 4 . S. R . Sharma 20 1 66 5 . Shri Rangdar 12751 (confirmed by N.L. Bor) 6. P. C. Kanjilal 10389 (confirmed by N.L. Bor) 7. George Watt 6786 8. J.L. Ellis SC 24089 Date Locality Upper glume Lower lemma Ceylon entire purple bands present 1882 C.P. Ceylon winged purple bands present though not distinct. Dec. 1936 Assam entire purple bands present 28-6-1938 Lawlyngodh, Khasia& Jaintia Hills, Assam winged purple bands present 20-6-1935 Swift falls, Khasia & Jaintia Hills, Assam winged purple bands present 28-4-1930 Swift falls, Khasia & Jaintia Hills, Assam winged Purple bands present Apr. 1882 Khongin, Manipur entire purple bands present 12-5-1965 Pavagada, Kozhikode Dt., Kerala winged obscure purple bands present. 596 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) B. L. Robinson in Contrib. Gray Herb. CIY. 65. 1934 ; Koster in Blumea 1 : 504. 1935 ; Bhaskaran Nair in Sci. & Cult. 34 : 254-255. 1968. Eupatorium cordatum Burm, f. FI. Ind. 176. 1768. Mikania scandens C.B. Cl. Comp. Ind. 35. 1876 ; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 244. 1882. M. cordata forma undulata, Koster, l.c. 506 ; forma dentata Koster, l.c. 508. Josephine Koster (1935) has given a critical and detailed description of this plant, describing 3 forms under the species. The differentiating characters given by her are as follows : f forma cordata forma undulata Koster forma dentata Koster 1 . Leaves entire, cordate- ovate or cordate ; auri- cles rounded. Leaves crenate or undu- late, shortly mucronu- late. Leaves angularly cordate or hastately cordate, shortly dentate, acute, mucronate,apically taper- ing. Hooker f. (1881) gives the characters of leaves of M. cordata as ‘ ovate- acute or acuminate, base rounded, cordate or truncate, crenate or angled, sometimes villous beneath, . . . ’. Recently, Bhaskaran Nair (1968) has reported the occurrence of M. cordata near Kottayam, Kerala, having leaves ‘ submembranous, broadly triangular, palmately reticulate, wavy . . . ’ From the accompanying figures given of the leaves, they seem to be undulate and irregular on the margin and not dentate or angular. The leaves of the plants collected by us in 1967 from Chenda- nathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, are dentate and deeply dentate-cordate. In fact, the leaves of plants collected agree more or less with both the forma undulata and forma dentata. As this plant comes under the category of a weed, it is natural for it to have aggressive type of propagation and spreading, adopting itself to various kinds of environment, showing variability in the shape of leaves, etc. To segregate a number of forms to accommodate all the variations seen in these types of plants cannot, therefore, be taken too seriously. The recent collections of Kottayam and Chendanathode — places separated by about 280 km are the indications of the variations. It is, therefore, concluded that the forms of Koster under M. cordata may not stand ; they have to be taken as variations of the typical. It has been treated so in this note. It is, however, interesting to note that the plant is gaining ground in south India and may become yet another weed to invade the western ghats. All possible steps should be taken before it becomes a serious pest. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 597 Exsicc. : Chendanathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, Dec. 1967, Ellis SC 29547. Eryngium foetidum Linn. Sp. PI. 1 : 232. 1753 ; Wolff in Engler’s Das Pflanzenr. iv : 228. 203. 1913 ; Buwalda in Blumea 2 : 164. 1936 and in Flora Males, serr. I, 4 (2) : 126. 1949. This strongly scented plant is hitherto known in India only from Assam (Kanjilal et al. 1938) and Bengal (Mukerjee 1965). The present collection from Chendanathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, is a new record for peninsular India. Herman Wolff (1913) and recently Buwalda (1949) have dealt with this plant in detail. As the plant is poorly known in India, it is thought that a description of the same will be of use. Herbs about 30 cm high, strongly scented ; roots long and fusiform ; stems monochasially repeatedly branched, prominently grooved, gla- brous. Leaves radical, rosette, alternate at base, elliptic-obovate, spathu- late, prominently spinous dentate, petiole winged, sheathing ; nerves dichotomous, prominent near the margin, in the dentature and on the edge, midrib rather broad and diffused. Inflorescence in cylindric heads at ends of branches, subtended at base by strongly dentate bracts, about 1 cm long. Bracts rosette, elliptic-obovate, often long-spinously lobate, glabrous, strongly 3-5 parallel-veined, marginal edge thick, ± 2*5 X TO cm lowermost bract foliar. Bracteoles small, Scarious-margined, amplexicaul. Calyx 5-lobed ; lobes lanceolate, scarious-margined, persistent. Petals 5, greenish white, elliptic, indexed with a central prominent thin membrane within, deeply grooved without, caducous. Stamens 5, recurved in buds ; anthers 3-celled, dorsifixed, vertically dehiscing. Ovary subglobose, rugose ; styles 2, linear. Cremocarp warted, glabrous . Exsicc.: Chendanathode, Cannanore Dt., Kerala, 3-11-1965, Ellis SC 26414. 4. Ichnanthus vicinus (F. M. Bail.) Merr. in Enum. Philipp. FI. PI. 1 : 70. 1923 ; Bor, Grasses 314. 1960. Panicum vicinum F. M. Bail. Syn. Queens. FI. Suppll. 3 : 82. 1890. Ichnanthus pallens Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7 : 60. 1896 (non Munro, 1861). This grass has been collected so far only from the hills of north- east India and from Ceylon, and now for the first time it is recorded from peninsular India. It grows densely under shade as a forest undergrowth, and at first sight it can be mistaken for a Panicum. But the peculiar twisting of the upper lemma through 90°, presence of lateral appendages at the base, and the sub-aristate lower glume immediately separate it from that genus. 598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) This plant is rather poorly known in India and, therefore, a descrip- tion is appended to facilitate identification. Herb many branched, perennial, rooting at nodes ; culms striate, sparsely hairy; nodes puberulous. Leafblade 1*5-10 X 0*8-2*75 cm, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, cordate, sub-amplexicaul, setose from tuber- cles present at base, pilose below when young, glabrous at length, scaberu- lous on the margin, Scabrid on the nerves and sparsely pilose above ; leaf sheath 0*9-4*8 cm long, striate, sparsely pilose, densely hairy along the margins ; ligule a fringe of hairs about 2 mm long. Inflorescence lax 2T9 X 0*5-5 cm ; peduncle 1-20 cm long, main rachis subterate, striate, sparsely pilose ; secondary branches 0*9-8 cm long. Spikelets 4-5 X 2-4 mm, elliptic-ovate, pedicelled; pedicels 1-5 mm long, capillary, angled scabrid ; florets 2, dissimilar ; lower male or barren, upper herma- phrodite ; lower glume 3*5x1 mm, green with hyaline margin, keeled, ovate-lanceolate, very shortly aristate, 3-nerved, nerves scabrid ; upper glume 4-5 x 1*5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, 5-nerved, nerves scabrid; lower lemma 3* 5-4 X T5-2 mm, ovate, acute, 5-nerved, nerves scaberulous, 2-keeled, margins hyaline ; upper lemma 2-2* 5 x 1-1*25 mm, oblong, acute, coriaceous, smooth, shining, margins involute ; appen- dages 2, lateral, hyaline ; lower palea 2*5-3 x 0*5-*75 mm, hyaline, elliptic- lanceolate, acute, 2-keeled, shortly ciliate ; upper palea 1*75-2 X 1*5-1*75 mm, margins involute, thinly coriaceous, smooth, shining; lodicules 2, linear Stamens 3. Ovary small, styles 2 ; stigmas feathery. Exsicc. : INDIA : Meghalaya (Assam) J. D. Hooker Sc T. Thomson s.n. (Acc. No. : MH 87651). Tamil Nadu (Madras)— Nilgiri Dt., Santhi Estate, Ouchterlony valley, Gudalur, 29-1-1971, J. L. Ellis SC 37749. Andhra Pradesh — Visakhapatnam Dt., Way to Gudem, Chintapalli, 900 m, 13-11-1970, J. L. Ellis SC 37135. CEYLON : C.P., no definite locality, 1882, M.A. Lawson 61. Acknowledgements We are thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for his interest and facilities extended and to Dr. N . L. Bor, England, for examining the grass sent and giving his valuable opinion on the varieties of Alloteropsis semialata . Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-2, March 2, 1972, J. L. ELLIS S, KARTHIKEYAN MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 599 Refer Bor, N. L. (1960) : The grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan (ex- cluding Bambuseae). Oxford. Buwalda, P. (1949) : Umbelliferae in Flora Malesiana, ser. I 4 : 113-140 (126- 127). Fischer, C. E. C. (1934) : In Gamble’s Flora of the Presidency of Madras, part x: 1766. Kanjilal et al. (1938) : Flora of Assam 2 : 340. Koster, Josephine Th. (1935) : The Compositae of the Malay Archipelago. NCES I. Vernonieae and Eupatorieae. Blumea 1 : 351-536. Mukerjee, S. K. (1965) : A sketch of the vegetation of Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 7 : 134-137. Nair, U. K.Bhaskaran (1968): A note on the occurrence of Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) B. L. Robinson in south India. Sci. & Cult. 34 : 254-255. Wolff, Herman (1913) : in Engler’s Das Pflanzenreich iv. 228. Umbellifera. 24. A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS IN CHANDRAPUR DISTRICT (MAHARASHTRA STATE) The district of Chandrapur in Maharashtra State lies between 78°51 7- 81° north latitude and 20°50/-18°40/ east longitude, bordered by the States of Madhya Pradesh on the eastern side and Andhra Pradesh on the western side. In the course of a few botanical explorations during the years 1969- 71, a few plants have been reported for the first time from this district which have not been earlier recorded by Cooke (1901-1908) or Haines (1916) which serve as a new record or an extension of their known distri- bution. All the specimens are deposited in the Regional Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona ( BSI ). Melastomataceae Osbeckia zeylanica Willd. sp. pi. ii : 300, 1799 ; Clarke in FI. Brit. India 2 : 516, 1879. An erect herb. Leaves oblong, lanceolate. Flowers purple mauve. Calyx tube with stellate bristles. Anthers beaked. Fruits-ovoid, oblong. Flowers & fruits : October-November. Locality : Repanpalli, Malhotra 123331 ; Taroba, Malhotra 122732. Herb growing on moist sandy soils. Common in peninsular India and the present record from Chandrapur district is an extension of its distribution further north. This is the first report of the plant from Maharashtra State, 600 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) Rubiaceae Dentella serpyllifolia Wall, ex Airy Shaw in Kew Bull. 1932 : 289, 1932. D. repens sensu Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 3 : 42, 1880. Herb. Leaves subsessile, oblong elliptic, glabrous. Flowers sub- sessile. Calyx membranous, corolla white. Capsules glabrous. Flowers & fruits : April-May. Locality : Kolsa, Malhotra 135268. Herb growing on sandy soils. Distributed in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa etc. The present record from Chandrapur district indicates its specific occurrence in Maharashtra State. Gentianaceae Canscora sessiliflora Roem. & Sch. Syst. iii. Monat. 230, 1818 ; Clarke in FI. Brit. India 4 : 104 1883 ; Gamble in FI. Pres. Madras 618, 1923. An erect herb. Leaves subacute sessible. Flowers pink. Calyx not winged. Capsules oblong. Flowers & fruits : October-November. Locality : Aksapur, Malhotra 123698. Herb. Rare, growing on moist clayey soils. Earlier recorded only from southern India and now reported for the first time from Maharashtra State. POACEAE Dimeria connivens Hack in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6 : 689, 1889 ; Hook, in FI. Brit. India 7 : 104, 1897 ; Bor, Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan, 140, 1960. Annual. Spikelets subsessile, sparsely ciliate. Upper glume narrowly winged all along the keel. Flowers & fruits : October-November. Locality : Ghot, Malhotra 123156. Rare on moist gritty soil. Earlier reported from Bihar and Orissa only. However, it is interesting to note its occurrence in Chandrapur district. There is every possibility that the species may extend its distribution to adjoining states of Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh also. Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth, Rev. Gram. 1 : 154, 1829 ; Bor loc. cit. 197, 1960. Rottboellia perforata Roxb ; Hook. loc. cit. 158, 1897. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 601 Annual. Spikes slightly exerted, pedicelled, spikelets suppressed. Lower glume of the sessile spikelet oblong with a slightly oblique apex. Flowers & fruits : September-October. Locality : Taroba, Mal- hotra 122835. Rare on moist gritty soil. Though reportedly common in many States of India it has not been reported from Maharashtra proper and the present record is an extension of its known distribution. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Dr. K. Subramanyam, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for providing the necessary facilities in carrying out this work. Botanical Survey of India, S. K. MALHOTRA Western Circle, Poona-1, S. MOORTHY November 18, 1972. References Bor, N. L. (1960) : The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan. London. Cooke, T. (1901-1908) : The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Gamble, J. S. (1915-1936) : Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Haines, H. H. (1916) : Descriptive list of trees, shrubs and economic herbs of the Southern Circle, Central Provinces, Allahabad. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1972-73 Executive Committee President Mr. Sumant Moolgaokar Vice-Presidents Dr. Salim Ali, d.sc., f.n.a. Mr. R. E. Hawkins Mr. G. V. Bedekar, i.c.s. (Retd.), j.p. Hon. Secretary Mr. Zafar Futehally Hon . Treasurer Mr. J. D. Kapadia, i.c.s. (Retd.) Member Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt, of India Elected Members Dr. S. R. Amladi, m.d. Prof. P. V. Bole Dr. E. B. Fanibunda, f.d.s.r.c.s. (Eng.), f.r.p.s. Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, m.sc., pIi.d. ( Jt . Hon. Secretary) Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, m.d. Mr. D. J. Panday Mr. B. B. Paymaster, i.c.s. (Retd.) Mr. G. S. Ranganathan Mr. D. E. Reuben, i.c.s. (Retd.) Mr. Sandip Thakore Advisory Committee Mr. H. G. Acharya Mrs. Jamal Ara Mr. F. C. Badhwar, o.b.e. Mr. S. Chaudhuri Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, i.c.s. (Retd.) Dr. A. P. Kapur Mr. M. Krishnan Mr. Duleep Matthai Mr. Ranjit Sinh, i.a.s. \ ) ex-o fficio Ahmedabad Ranchi New Delhi Calcutta Hyderabad Calcutta Madras New Delhi New Delhi A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 603 HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1972 Membership During the year 158 new members were enrolled as against 71 resignations and death. The slight increase in membership is welcome but we have a long way to go. 157 are in arrears since 1971 . Comparative figures for three years are given below : 1970 1971 1972 Life Members . . 174 181 187 Ordinary Members .. 703 780 801 Forest Department Nominees 78 80 89 Student Members 5 5 9 Honorary Members 3 3 3 963 1049 1089 The Society’s Publications Journal : Three issues of the Journal were published during the year: Vol. 68, No. 3 and Nos. 1 & 2 of Volume 69. The articles covered a wide range of subjects with special emphasis on ecology, behaviour and taxonomy of Indian fauna and taxonomy and regional lists of the flora. Special mention needs to be made of the report by Mr. Krishnan on the Mammals of Peninsular India which started as a serial in Vol. 68(3) and will be completed in Vol. 69(3). As we reported last year the financial assistance received from the Seth Purushottamdas Diwaliba Trust enabled us to print all the excellent photographs submitted by Mr. Krishnan. The editors regret that in spite of their best efforts it has not been possible to publish the Journal issue within the stipulated publication dates. This is largely due to delay in printing. The Journal has been printed by the Diocesan Press at Madras since 1926, and at rates much lower than those obtained at Bombay. We will continue our efforts to publish in time. Books : During the year the following sales were made : book of Indian birds (8th & 9th Editions) book of Indian animals (3rd Edition) PICTURE POST CARDS SNAKE CHARTS . . 943 copies . . 407 „ . . 127 „ 122 „ 604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) The 9th edition of the Bird Book appeared during the year. The text and plates have been re-arranged to bring the book in step with recent classification. We are indebted to Lady Peng McNeice for guaranteeing overdraft facilities for the publication of the book. Conservation The Society continued to take a leading part in the Conservation movement in the country through its representatives on the State and Central Wild Life Boards, and through its members on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the World Wildlife Fund and the International Council for Bird Preservation. The Maharashtra State Forest Department has been persuaded to establish a floral sanctuary at Khandala to perpetuate the memory of the late Fr. H. Santapau, a former Vice-President of the Society, and one of India’s foremost botanists. Efforts are being made to have a bird sanctuary in Mahim Creek within Bombay City, a haunt of waders during the migratory season. This proposal has received considerable support from many quarters and we hope that the various departments concerned will take the neces- sary steps to save the area from further degradation. The Central Government has been approached by the IUCN to request the Tamil Nadu Government to declare the Kalakkadu forest in South Tirunelveli Dist. a wilderness area. The area had been earlier surveyed by the Society’s staff and the action taken by the IUCN is the result of the Society’s recommendations. The Society has been in touch with other organisations at Bombay who are concerned with the deteriorating environment and some meetings were held to stimulate officials and others to make an attempt to improve the situation. Field Surveys Two field collection trips were arranged during the year, one to Narcondam Island under the overall supervision of Mr. H. Abdulali. The field party spent a month on the Island and brought back an in- teresting collection of various forms including two live specimens of the rare Narcondam Hornbill. The Goa area was surveyed by a field party led by Dr. S61im Ali. A representative collection of birds was made but more were caught in mist nets, examined and released after recording data. Research Studies Gir Project : Field work under the project ended in August when the Researchers returned to Bombay with the project equipment. Further A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 605 field activity was curtailed by the lack of funds. A symposium on the achievements of the Gir Project was held in November at New Delhi. The Society continued to receive offers of collaborative studies on Indian Fauna. Some on which the Society plans to collaborate or has offered assistance are listed below : (1) Studies on the Langurs and Macaques on the Peninsula by a research team from Kyoto University, Japan. (2) A study of the Lion-tailed Macaque by the Rockefeller Uni- versity, New York. (3) The Population of Crocodiles in India — New York Zoological Society. (4) The ecology of the Wild Dog. (5) The biology of Whistling Teals of the genus Dendrocygna. Advice and assistance was given to the Government of India in the preparation of a plan for an ecological station at Bharatpur Sanctuary. Assistance was made available to Dr. Sibley of Yale University for the collection of egg yolk of birds. University Department: The Society is affiliated to the Bombay University for research leading to the degree of Ph.D. in Field Ornithology and M.Sc. in Field Ornithology, Field Mammalogy and Field Herpetology. During the year, Mr. D. N. Mathew was awarded the degree of Ph.D. in Field Ornithology. The subject of the thesis was 4 Ecology of the Baya and comparative feeding habits of certain species of Indian Birds associated with agriculture \ He was the first to receive the degree through Bombay Natural History Society. Bird Migration The Bombay Natural History Society’s bird ringing project under the direction of Dr. Salim Ali has so far ringed 2,70,294 birds belonging to both migratory and non-migratory species. The total number of re- coveries to date amount to 3175 and these have been mainly from Russia. One result of these bird migratory studies has been that bird populations from almost all biotopes in the Sub-continent have been sampled. The success of the scheme has been due largely to the co-operation between the Scientists of three countries : India, United States and Russia. The Bird Banding Scheme has also played a significant part in arousing an interest in our Avifauna in both official and non-official circles. Local Activities During the year members resident in Bombay had the opportunity of taking part in field activities, lectures and exhibitions organised by the Society. 606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 10 (3) Leopard Study efforts were made by a small group of members to obtain information and to draw to baits, leopards living in the Borivli National Park near Bombay. Baits were taken twice and leopards seen on several occasions. The study group is supported by funds received from World Wildlife-India and Fauna Preservation Society, U.K., and is continuing its activities. Nature Walks were organised at Borivli National Park for bird watching and study of the vegetation at different times of the year. Other Activities : An attempt Was made to census the population of crows in Bombay City and some interesting data was obtained. Meetings/Exhibitions Dr. James Karr spoke on ‘ Studies of Tropical Forest Bird Communities Mr. M. Krishnan spoke on 4 Wild Life Photography \ Dr. C. V. Kulkarni spoke on ‘Fishes and Fisheries’. Mr. Christian Zuber spoke and showed his film on 4 Galapagos Wildlife Paradise ’. An exhibition of Sea Shells from the collection of Mr. A. R. Bhagat. Prof. Carl Gans spoke on ‘ Locomotion in Snakes \ An exhibition of Snakes from the collection of Mr. Romulus Whitaker. Mr. S. A. Hussain spoke on ‘ Natural History of Narco ndam ’. Mr. P. D. Stracey spoke on ‘ Wildlife Conservation in Africa ’. Mr. S. P. Shahi spoke on ‘ Wildlife Photography ’. Dr. S. Dillon Ripley spoke on ‘ Ecological studies in India ’. Discussion on ‘ Some Aspects of the Bombay Environ- ment ’. Mr. Zafar Futehally spoke on ‘ National Parks ’. Dr. D. R. Smith spoke on ‘ Rangeland and Wildlife Resources ’. The Orchid Club held a show of exotic orchids. Discussion on ‘ Some Aspects of the Bombay Environ- ment ’. January February March April May July August September October November A.G.M. 1972-73 — PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 60 1 It will be recalled that at the last Annual General Meeting it was decided that whenever non-members of the Society were also present an appeal should be made to them to join the Society. The procedure occasionally leads to embarrassment particularly when small discussion meetings are held. The Committee therefore decided to have a board placed outside the auditorium with the message ‘ We need more members, please pick up an application form \ Apart from this, whenevef appro- priate, a personal appeal continues to be made. Grants & Donation The Society acknowledges with gratitude the following grants received for specific purposes : Rs. 40,000 from the Government of India for manufacture of Cabinets to house the collection. Rs. 10,000 from Dr. S. D. Ripley for field work. Rs. 3,000 from Dr. Salim Ali towards expenses of the Goa Field Survey. Rs. 3,500 from Dr. Salim Ali as donation to the Salim Ali/ Loke Ornithological Research Fund. Rs. 500 from Dr. (Miss) Hamida Saiduzzafar. Research & Field Works Funds Salim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund : The Corpus of the fund amounts to Rs. 1,65,636.52. Expenses during the year were Rs. 6666.33 and Rs. 7822.26 is avai- lable for distribution. Two awards were made during the year. Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoology Field Work Fund : The assets of the fund totalled Rs. 11,936.10 at the end of the year. Payments were made from the fund towards the cost of the Narcondam Survey trip and other expenditure (Rs. 2462.45). Col . Burton Field Work Fund : From the interest received and accrued (Rs. 1454.55) Rs. 503.39 was used towards expenses connected with Nature Walks at Borivli National Park. Fauna Preservation Society Membership Funds : At the end of the year the assets of the fund amounted to Rs. 3771 .05 aiter payment of grants made by the Fauna Preservation Society for field work in India. The following grants were made : Rs. 1,000 to the Leopard Study Group of the Society. 608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) SAlim Ali 75th Birthday Fund To honour Dr. Salim Ali on his 75th Birthday a Committee of members was formed on the initiative of Yuvraj Shri Shivrajkumar and Mr. R. E. Hawkins and an appeal sent out for contributions so that a purse could be presented to Dr. Salim Ali. The contributions received from members in India amounted to Rs. 12,585.76 and from well-wishers abroad 662.00 dollars was received. The money collected will be uti- lised for printing a Festschrift issue of the Journal and this volume will contain contributions from some of the leading Ornithologists of the World. Nature Education Scheme The activities under the Scheme such as field- trips for children and teachers, talks and guided tours at the Museum, Zoo and the Aquarium, talks at schools for children and teachers were organised throughout the year. Seasonal field-trips to study aquatic life and monsoon plants during monsoon and migratory birds and flowering trees during winter and summer were organised in Bombay and Poona. A newsletter sum- marising the observations was published in Marathi for restricted circulation. Library During the year 140 books were added to the Library, of which 32 were purchased, 80 were donated and 28 received as review copies for the journal. Additions to the Collections During the year 339 specimens were received at the Scciety. Mammals .. 43 Birds .. 184 Reptiles .. 96 Amphibians .. 16 Revenue and Accounts The financial situation of the Society continued to be difficult, but the year’s operation showed a small surplus Rs. 5518.25 as against a deficit of Rs. 11,541 last year. A.G.M. 1972-73— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 609 Staff The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing co- operation of the staff in the entire activities of the Society. Acknowledgements Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. M. J. Dickins who looked after the Society’s affairs in the U.K., and to the members and others who gave help in its field projects and other activities. 13 6lO JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 70 (3) £ W HH o o oo £ 8 oo H-l c & D i CQ S o « ttj d T3 4) OJ _!/> 'So BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31 DECEMBER, 1972— (continued) A.GM. 1972-73 — PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 611 o 00 * ** at © w vo 8 i © I 2 e 9 w 2 8 " < ,d GO 2 PQ t« . 0) . o3 o 5go So Un 8 ^ dtf 4J O O Q D s d £ •2S •• ci-d ta • 3 » Q b i § *§« |S T3 O O 60 a * 8 22 2 w c p s o oi J*J3 o SiH -! 8- • •do § og s-jo 2 s 00 VO 8 m 00 rn fN 3 «n oo 4-i uq a v. «« ^ « r a .© d ^..3 r|§ .2 § g KJ 65,2 .§ 5-S O ‘2 £ <5 PQ £ | o o oo (N HH do rn © o 6 oo so C4 o o m c/5 co oo © •s & Os o' fN m so 1-1 o o 00 < £ & a Q cn a 5 a, o P ox ° si °v O Tf m CM (M SO U' Tf Tt CM so" II* « <=>» £ ** >. <5> sS *j» Ilf | s si* & 8" vs O 3- ro rf- CM CM so so r- CM 3; Tt CM so" Os O OO CM CM CM CM vs 3‘ vs vs vs so vs Co CO Ci- vs s OO OS so O- OS CO vs so 3-" 3^ £ ^ in |f£ h*. 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O e « O tm •& ■ i a 2P • e 2 t5 3 b . 3 ? -O xJ 3 2 *•3 a ^S.o 3 b +2 Sts 2 o os' £?3 M .3 .25 *=§£ "S »2 *" K^'S U •§' *3"m g SB- £ «i_ t_ ^ tjOOW O : i£ o 13 >b a> ■3 60 3 ao o 5 e o 3 §«i O » H f£| «3o £££ O Si— i (/3 *§2 CJ 3 sas o CN I§« 2flo > .2 "5 >33 3 > ?sl 1^3 :i§ « j. *-> 2 oii -'g § s §pq i-jPh 3 O I a« : Sffl 3 ^ 8 ?0 s o-h a, >30 !> 3 28 XJ „ CO _, iJ 2 o o a,'§8' §3^ I „st s-§“ HH £5j I-* m 3 O ■ea Je ^ -g a -*-• o b VD ' o ON 1— 1 o © C4 m o o « H O oo 5 8 oo 3 2 £ £ g 2 o PQ I o o o a ^ O 05 E^ 1 I § § 0 1 0 js 1 s Co x S *-» o o JC < C3 XI o> » Q»— < C 3 « s 3g . CD £ O cd 3 a .22 o ’o 'X c/5 3 • CD • 11 •2 a ^ j_ s3S|1 og^-Sg s£ gm -ata.o 1 ., 3 y? . 3 C xl S o 00 ^ „ O^ ?° 11 ll 0 s 8.3 e 73 11 II 3 1 hf) rj w B B S oU ••3.2 "* 3 3 M d, « . g^.Sgga •S'S.sl S G s-i CO O Qj « 8 ca^5 x 55 t&s I 0»U[L H c« X v a> 5? a .43 3 oo c “ -d *4'3 C -i B » 32 •' b % 8» 5 § A g'a X t- . S? nl o 2 -- -m’ M C/5 d TO ‘o to • ph r-i GJ ^ ^ O JO § O < °ooa « o a „ <3 , a o .a *S 2c2 fli P-H 5 8 o *-g =-g ^ o I ^ 00 ^.s x o -d UlC c 3 -5 >> a-o 8 » x « 5 i-3 3 ^ 'o -d ^ o c O & § rl|« CD E ^3 .. *3 to > s; O ^ O co Rl <3 4) « X £ CD 2S TJ 3 C R> HH As per our report of even date (Sd.) Habib & Co., Bombay, \lth August, 1973. Chartered Accountants. MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT HORNBILL HOUSE, SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD, BOMBAY 1, ON FRIDAY, 7TH SEPTEMBER, 1973, AT 6.30 P.M., WITH MR. R. E. HAWKINS, A VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY, IN THE CHAIR. FORTY-TWO MEMBERS WERE PRESENT 1. In the absence of the President Mr. S. Moolgaokar, Dr. Salim Ali proposed and Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati seconded that Mr. R. E. Hawkins, a Vice-President of the Society, be elected Chairman of the Meeting. The proposal was accepted. 2. The Chairman asked the Honorary Secretary to present the Annual Report of the Committee. The Honorary Secretary stated that before he commented on the report, he would like to announce that the Prime Minister of India had agreed to become a Patron of the Society. The announcement was received with acclaim. The Honorary Secretary said that traditionally the Viceroys used to be the Patrons of the Society and Shri C. Raja- gopalachari was the last patron as Governor-General of India. Coming to the Report, the Honorary Secretary said that the trend of membership, if not very satisfactory, was at least positive and there had been a small increase in the membership as the figures indicated. On the date of the meeting he had been informed by the Office that the total membership was in the region of 1250. But this included a number of members who had yet to pay for the current year. As a result of financial constraints it had been necessary to limit the number of pages of the Journal to around 225 for each issue. As was now the practice with some scientific institutions abroad, a circular letter Was sent out to contributors whose articles had been pending for a long period, stating that in the event of their agreeing to pay for the publication cost, their articles would be published within a guaranteed period. The response to this announcement had not been very favourable. Because of the long delays in bringing out the Journal from the Diocesan Press in Madras, it had been decided to print the forthcoming issue of August 1973 at St. Francis Technical School Press, Borivli, Bombay. It was hoped that by utilising the services of two presses, one in Madras and the other in Bombay, it would be possible to print the Journal without too much delay. The Honorary Secretary referred to the information in the report MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S. 623 relating to our publications and gave the following figures of sale during the past three years. 1970 1971 1972 BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS (8th & 9th Editions) . . 1305 1130 943 copies BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS (3rd Edition) . .No stock 1015 407 »> PICTURE POSTCARDS . . 101 165 127 »> SNAKE CHARTS 28 36 122 Regarding Conservation, there was no doubt that there was an in- creasing awareness about the need to preserve our forests and wild areas, but it was unfortunate that the Maharashtra State Wildlife Advisory Board had not met since 10th of November 1971, in spite of the fact that the statute demanded that the meeting be held twice a year. Regarding our research activities, the Honorary Secretary said that as a result of the unfortunate differences of opinion between India and the U.S. relating to the use of PL 480 funds, the Society had been put into difficulties, as no funds had been released even for the bird migration scheme. The Government of India, however, had made some ad hoc grants during the past year. With regard to the financial situation, the Society had made a compre- hensive Five Year Plan which had been submitted to the Ministry of Science & Technology. The Plan covered the main activities of the Society namely : Publications, Reference Collections, Bird Banding Scheme and Research in the Field. Recent inquiries in Delhi reveal that there is a reasonable chance of getting substantial funds for these activities . The Honorary Secretary referred to the information in the section of grants and donations and expressed his gratitude to both Doctors Dillon Ripley and Salim Ali for the generous grants which had been made. After these comments from the Honorary Secretary, the Chairman enquired if any members would like to ask questions on the Honorary Secretary’s cyclostyled or verbal report. (1) Mr. Humayun Abdulali and Mr. A. A. Dikshit referred to the resolution passed at the last Annual General Meeting to the effect that a verbal invitation to join the BNHS should be made at all meetings at which non-members were present and said that the Executive Committee had exceeded its powers when it decided instead to display a printed invitation. The Honorary Secretary admitted he was human and had sometimes forgotten to issue such a verbal invitation. He agreed that the board which was now prominently displayed, with the message ‘ We need more 624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 70 (3) members, please pick up an application form should be regarded as a supplement to a verbal invitation, not a substitute for it. (2) Mr. Amarnath Dikshit said that there seemed to be some confusion about the membership figures. He said that in the Annual Report for the year 1971 published in the Journal of December 1972, the total membership was mentioned at 1143, while in the Report now pre- sented the membership for 1972 was 1089. How could such a drop in membership be explained? The Honorary Secretary said he would look into the matter and write to Mr. Dikshit. (3) Mr. Dikshit enquired about the studies carried out by Mr. J. C. Daniel at Kalakkadu and enquired whether the report would be available. The Honorary Secretary said that he would send the report on to the member. (4) Dr. Deoras asked why the Society had sponsored a bird sanctuary in the Mahim Creek when the area was so polluted, and whether a prior survey had been carried out. The Honorary Secretary replied saying that there were still a very large number of birds that congregated in the area and by making a sanctuary out of the creek, there would be a good possibility of getting the authorities to check the pollution from the neighbouring establishments. (5) Dr. Deoras complained that the Society in association with World Wildlife Fund- India had held a seminar on ‘ Conservation — An Answer to Drought ’ to which only a few members of the Society were invited. Why was this discrimination made ? Mr. Humayun Abdulali also objected to his having been specifically asked not to attend the meeting when he saw the notice of it in the papers and enquired of the Honorary Secretary. Replying to this the Honorary Secretary said that this Conference was held particularly to educate the Legislators of Maharashtra State on good land-use practices, and on the need to main- tain forests . No members apart from the Executive Commitee were invited. (6) Dr. R. N. Vasa asked why the Society’s jeep was used for giving lifts to members of the Bird Watchers’ Field Club of India and World Wildlife Fund. He also enquired whether it was proper that the Society should spend its funds for assisting members of other clubs. Replying to this the Honorary Secretary said that all notices sent out to members of associated clubs were paid for by the respective insti- tutions . With regard to petrol expenses of the jeep, on several occasions the World Wildlife Fund had agreed to bear the cost of petrol. He maintained that it was in the interest of the Society to associate all people who Were interested in these outings (whether they were mem- MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S. 625 bers of the Society or not) because one of the objectives of the Society was to arouse interest in natural history. Mr. Bansi Mehta supported this view and said that we should not allow any factionalism of this kind to grow in the Society. (7) A member stated that a fee had been charged for admission to the exhibition of snakes organized by Mr. Romulus Whitaker in July and asked whether the Society had received any part of the money collected. The Honorary Treasurer said that, if indeed a fee for admission had been charged, no part of the proceeds had come to the Society. The Chairman undertook to verify whether charges for admission could, consistently with the Society’s agreement with the Prince of Wales Museum, be levied by outside bodies which had been given permission to use the Society’s premises. (8) Mr. Humayun Abdulali asked questions relating to the report and the activities of the Society : (a) He asked what research was being done on the pair of Horn- bills collected in Narcondam. Dr. Salim Ali replied that their growth and plumage changes were being studied by Mr. S. A. Hussain. (b) Mr. Abdulali enquired what advice was given to the Govern- ment of India in the preparation of a station for ecological studies at Bharatpur and the Honorary Secretary undertook to send him the letter containing the Society’s suggestions. (c) Mr. Abdulali enquired whether the Society had made any recommendations to the Government of India in connection with the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 which according to him was very defective. The Honorary Secretary said that the Society had pointed out that the Schedules were defective. The Honorary Secretary also stated that the Act had to be rushed through Parliament on practical grounds and the sponsors were aware that some of the changes suggested (as for example removing Parakeets from the Vermin list for sentimental reasons) was unfortunate, but had been accepted with a view to avoiding further delays. (< d ) Mr. Abdulali asked whether the grant of Rs. 10,000 received from Dr. S. D. Ripley for field work was earmarked for any particular purpose, and on being informed that it was a contribution towards the expenses of field work in Bhutan, asked why the specimens already collected in Bhutan had not been added to the Society’s Reference Collec- tions and whether all specimens collected in future would come to the Society’s Reference Collections. He considered that, before any such 626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) expedition set out, the way in which specimens collected were to be disposed of should be clearly defined. Dr. Salim Ali (at the Chairman’s invitation) replied that the specimens collected in Bhutan were still being worked on and only some of the duplicates may be given to the Smith- sonian Institution. ( e ) Mr. Abdulali and Mr. Amarnath Dikshit enquired whether the Sanctuary designated to perpetuate the memory of Fr. Santapau at Khandala was adequately protected and what its status was, and where it was located. The Honorary Secretary said that he was informed by the Forest Department that the area was already part of a Reserve Forest and full protection was being provided. For the moment therefore all that remained to be done was that a board naming it as the Fr. Santapau Sanctuary would have to be put up. The Area selected was one where Fr. Santapau and his students had done a lot of work. There being no further comments Dr. C. V. Kulkarni proposed the acceptance of the Report, Mr. G. V. Bedekar seconded, and the Chair- man declared the Report adopted. He then called upon the Honorary Treasurer to present the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the past year. A member deplored the small amount spent on books for the library. After several other questions had been asked and answered by the Honorary Treasurer the Statement of Accounts was adopted, having been proposed by Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati and seconded by Professor P. V. Bole. 3. The Chairman said that the following nominations were deemed to be approved : President : Dr. Salim Ali Vice-Presidents : Mr. R. E. Hawkins Mr. G. V. Bedekar, i.c.s. (Retd.), j.p. Honorary Secretary : Mr. Zafar Futehally Honorary Treasurer : Mr. J. D. Kapadia, i.c.s. (Retd.) MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S. 627 Advisory Committee : Mr. H. G. Acharya Mrs. Jamal Ara Mr. F. C. Badhwar, o.b.e. Mr. S. Chaudhuri Dr. Chiataman Deshmukh, i.c.s. (Retd.) Dr. A. P. Kapur Mr. Shivrajkumar Khachar Mr. M. Krishnan Mr. Duleep Matthai Mr. Ranjit Sinh, i.a.s. Ahmedabad Ranchi New Delhi Calcutta Hyderabad New Delhi New Delhi Calcutta Jasdan Madras Mr. Humayun Abdulali rose to a point of order maintaining it was improper to re-appoint as Honorary Secretary a person whose conduct was the subject of an enquiry committee and who did not attend to the correspondence of the Society as required by the Rules . He was over- ruled by the Chairman, who pointed out that the Society could not func- tion efficiently for the six weeks necessary to hold an election without the services of a duly appointed Honorary Secretary and Honorary Treasurer. With regard to the Executive Committee, the Chairman stated that apart from the nominations of the Executive Committee, four other nominations had been received, namely : Mr. Humayun Abdulali proposed by Dr. P. J. Deoras seconded by Mr. A. A. Dikshit. Dr. P. J. Deoras proposed by Dr. R. N. Vasa seconded by Mr. A. A. Dikshit. Mr. Amarnath A. Dikshit proposed by Dr. R. N. Vasa seconded by Mr. Humayun Abdulali. Dr. R. N. Vasa proposed by Mr. A. A. Dikshit seconded by Mr. Humayun Abdulali . It would therefore be necessary to hold a postal ballot as provided for in Rules 32 and 33. 4. Mr. Humayun Abdulali had given notice that he would be moving the following resolution : That the report of the Sub-Committee appointed by the Executive Committee to consider the proposals made by Dr. P. J. Deoras at the last Annual General Meeting be published and circulated to members of the Bombay Natural History Society. On the Chairman’s assurance that, at a meeting of the Executive Committee held a few hours earlier, it had been decided that, when the sub-committee’s full report had been received and considered by the 628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 70 (3) Executive Committee, it would be made available to members at the Society’s premises, Mr. Abdulali withdrew his resolution. The meeting terminated at 8 p.m. with a vote of thanks to the Chair. In the postal ballot held in October 1973 the following were elected to the Executive Committee : Executive Committee Mr. Humayun Abdulali Dr. S. R. Amladi, m.d. Prof. P. Y. Bole Dr. E. B. Fanibunda, f.d.s.r.c.s. (Eng.), f.r.p.s. Dr. C. Y. Kulkarni, M.sc. ph.D. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, m.d. Mr. D. J. Panday Mr. B. B. Paymaster, i.c.s. (Retd.) Mr. G. S. Ranganathan Mr. D. E. Reuben, i.c.s. (Retd.) ERRATA 629 errata Volume 69(3) : December 1972 Miscellaneous Note No. 23 — The habitat and distribution of Psilotum nudum in South India. On Page 682, para 1, line 5 for 6 The labels of’ read 4 The labels on * para 1, line 6 for 4 herbarium sheets of specimens from Kartikeyan (M.H. No. 26863, Sebastine, K.M. & M.H. No. 3945, 12965)’, read 4 herbarium sheets of Kartikeyan (M.H. No. 26863), and Sebastine, K. M. (M.H. No. 3945, 12965)’. para 1, line 9 for 4 Hydnacarpus ’ read 4 Hydnocarpus para 1, line 10 for 4 (on rocks) ’ read 4 on rocks On Page 682, insert Dept, of Botany, Jawahar Bharati, Kavali, (A.P.) 524202, November 23, 1971. References Prain, D. (1894) : The genus Psilotum Sw. in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 8 : 428. Raizada, M. B. (1935) : The genus Psilotum Sw. in India. Indian Forester 61 : 654-658. V enkatesw arlu , V. (1943) ; On the occurrence of Psilotum triquetrum Sw. in the East Godavari District. Sci. Cult. 9(4) : 165. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY T. DURAI AT THE 10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS — 1 8~1( EDITORS! ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL DIOCESAN PRESS, 1-1974. C6024 & P. V. BOLE THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS Mammals The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 3rd (revised) edition 2 plates in colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 4® {Price to members Rs. 33) The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Mat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett Rs. 1® Birds The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlint Alt. 9th (revised) edition. 65 coloured and many monochrome plates. Rs. 35 {Price to members Rs. 30) Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali. Rs. 2*5® {Price to members Rs. 2) Snakes Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi. Miscellaneous Rs. 5. Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2*5® Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets : 1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. O S® Kannada. Rs. 0*62 2. Our Birds II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0*62 3. Our Beautiful Trees (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0*62 4. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0*80 5. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1*25 Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English. Rs. 7.5® (Price to members Rs. 5) Back Bombers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. Correspond with : The Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, Homhill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023 Agents in England : Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.., Lyfton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin, Herts, England. The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal , from members who may not wish to preserve them. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (2 5p.) and a life membership fee ©f Rs. 600 (Inland), ^45*50 (Foreign). Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25 p.) and an annual subscription of Rs. 36 (Inland), O (Foreign). Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount ©f the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of A 3*00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London E.C. 3. The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year. CONTENTS The Changeable Hawk-Eagle, Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin). By S. M. Osman Some Snakes from Nepal. By Robert L. Fleming, Jr. and Robert L. Fleming, Sr. The aquatic and marshland plants of Bundi District, Rajasthan. By J. K. Maheshwari and V. Singh Ecology of Soft-furred Field Rat, Rattus meltada meltada (Gray) in Kolar, Mysore State. By R. K. Chandrahas and A. K. Krishnaswami Fisheries survey of Himachal Pradesh and some adjacent areas with special REFERENCE TO TROUT, MAHSEER , AND ALLIED SPECIES. By K. L. Sehgal A study on the Bionomics of Chauliops fallax Scott (Heteroptera : Lygaejdae) at Sehore (Madhya Pradesh). By R. R. Rawat and H. R. Sahu Blenniid fishes from Godavari Estuary. By V. Visweswara Rao Trapping of small mammals in relation to the vegetation types in the Kyasanur forest disease area, Mysore State, India. By M. A. Sree- nivasan New Plant records for the Upper Gangetic Plain. By Kr. N. Bahadur, R. Dayal and D. P. Raturi . . Preliminary notes on the Ornithology of Sandur, Karnataka. By Kumar D, Ghorpade .. .. .. .. .. 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