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05

APRIL 1975

Rs. 35 (inland), £ 2 00 (Foreign)

Vol. 72, No. 1
Editors

1. C DANIEL, P. V. BOLE & A. N. D. NANAY ATI

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the *
by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for perfora-
tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
lined.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where
identification has been authentically established by comparison
specimens actually collected.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20 x 5 60 cm
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written s^popsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given
gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for
additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received
within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the
manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing.

11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to pub-
lish a member’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Editors,

Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society .

Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

VOLUME 72 NO. 1 — APRIL 1975

Date of Publication : 30-4-1975

CONTENTS

The Sundarban of India and its biota. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee.
(With a plate)

Status of the Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johni in the Anamalai,
Cardamom and Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats, India.
By G. U. Kurup. ( With three maps)

Orchids of Nepal — 9. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. (With five
text-figures)

A new species of spider of the genus Cheiracanthium Koch (Family
Clubionidae) from India. By B. K. Tikader. (With four text-
figures)

Some observations on birds at high altitude lake sides in Gosain-
kund, central Nepal. By Hiroyuki Masatomi. (With a map)

A new species of Rotala from Palgliat, Kerala. By R. Vasudevan Nair.
(With eighteen text-figures)

Observations on metamorphosing behaviour of Cybister larvae for
development of control measures during pupal stage.

By G. A. Shirgur. (With a text- figure)

Pseudobrassaiopsis — A new genus of Araliaceae with a note on the
status of Euaraliopsis Hutch. By R. N. Banerjee
Belly-soaking in the Charadriiformes. By G. L. Maclean
Observations on the occurrence and habits of juvenile fishes in
the nearshore region of the Mandapam area. By K. V. Sekharan
A new species and notes on the genus Anthoxanthum L. (Poaceae).

By S. K. Jain and D. C. Pal. (With three text-figures)

Bionomics and immature stages of the Barleria Lacebug Habrochila
laeta Drake (Heteroptera : Tingidae). By K. Peethambaran Asari.
(With two text-figures and three graphs)

Some observations on the colour changes of the Indian Chamae-
leon. By V. S. Durve and H. S. Sharma. (With a plate)

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natu-
ral History Society — 17. By Humayun Abdulali
Temperature, salinity and Plankton of Daman Ganga Estuary.
By P. Sitaramaiah

Food of Rana tigerina (Daud.). By S. Isaac and M. S. Rege
The exotic Flora of Ranchi. By J. K. Maheshwari and S. R. Paul.
(With a map)

Reviews :

1. Forced movements, tropisms & Animal conduct, (r. r.)

2. Under the Indian ocean, (r. n. gulati)

3. Turtles of the north-eastern United States, (shailaja s. somane)

4. Summer of a million wings, (s. A.)

5. Deer of the World, (j. c. D.)

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. A note on the Hoolock. By S. Theodore Baskaran (p. 194); 2.
Urine of Bats as means of offence. By H. Khajuria (p. 194); 3. Occurrence of
Fishing Cat ( Felis viverrina) in Orissa. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra
(p. 195); 4. Age of sexual maturity of two species of wild carnivores in capti-
vity. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 196); Some observations on the Wild

Dog in the Kanha National Park. By N. K. Sinha (p. 198).

Birds: 6. Whitetailed Eagles [Haliaeetus albicilla (Linn.)] at Bharatpur, Rajas-
than. By P. A. Dukes, S. C. Madge, M. C. Robinson and C. W. Westwood

(p. 199); 7. A note on the feeding of the Sarus Crane Grus antigone antigone

(Linnaeus). By Ajai M. Ghorpade (p. 199); 8. On the nesting habits of the
Small Minivet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) . By Humayun Abdulali (p. 200);
9. Ornithological records for Pakistan. By. T. J. Roberts (p. 201); 10. A note
on the bird predators of the Death’s Head Hawkmoth, Acherontia styx W. By

S. Thirumurthi and E. V. Abraham (p. 204) .

Reptiles: 11. A note on Testudo horsfieldi Gray, the Afghan Tortoise or Hors-
field’s Four-toed Tortoise. By Tom J. Roberts (p. 206); 12. The Olive Keelback
( Atretium schistosum Russell) feeding on Mosquito larvae. By R. Whitaker
(p. 209); 13. Geographical variation in toxicity of venom of the Cobra and
extraction by vacuum method. By P. J. Deoras and N. E. Vad (p. 210).

Fishes: 14. On Psilocephalus barbatus (Gray), an interesting Balistoid Fish
trawled off Ganjam Coast, Orissa. (With a text-figure) . By A. G. K. Menon and

T. K. Chatterjee (p. 213); 15. On the occurrence and breeding of Labeo rohita
(Hamilton) in a section of Narbada River in Gujarat State. By S. J. Karam-
chandani and P. K. Pandit (p. 215); 16. New records of offshore fishes from
the west coast of India. By K. V. Rama Rao (p. 218); 17. A new species of
Puntius (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) from Khasi & Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya),
India. (With a text-figure) . By G. M. Yazdani and S. K. Talukdar (p. 218).

Acarina: 18. On two species of Ticks (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae) on a Tiger from
Arunachal Pradesh. By A. K. Ghosh (p. 221).

Crustacea: 19. Preferential feeding in captivity by a Fresh water Crab, Pota-
mon atkinsonianum Wood-Mason (Crustacea: Potamonidae) on Notonecta
undulata (Insecta: Hemiptera). By B. D. Sharma (p. 222).

Xnsecta: 20. Record of new host-plants of four Agromyzids. By R. S. Gokulpure
(p. 223); 21. New alternate host record of Leaf Roller, Marasmia trapezalis
Gn. (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). By R. K. Patel, B. S. Choudhary and A. K. Khatri
(p. 225); 22. Further collection of the Syrphidae (Diptera) from central India.
By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 226); 23. On a new subspecies of Aethus laticollis
Wagner (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Cydnidae) as a serious pest of Pennisetum
typhoides (Burm.) in India. (With two text-figures). By M. S. K. Ghauri (p. 226).

Botany: 24. Datura suaveolens H. B. ex Willd. (Solanaceae) — from District
Chamoli in western Himalayas. By K. N. Nautiyal (p. 229); 25. A note on the
distribution of Spergularia rubra (Linn.) J. & C. Presl. (Caryophyllaceae) . By
J. L. Bhat and S. Kumar (p. 230); 26. Notes on some interesting plants from
south India — III. (With a photograph). By J. L. Ellis and M. S. Swaminathan
(p. 230); 27. A new record of Meineckia parvifolia (Wight) Webster from
India. By V. V. Sivarajan and K. S. Manilal (p. 237); 28. On fresh water
1 Phytal fauna of Visakhapatnam. By A. L. N. Sarma and C. Gopala Swamy
(p. 237); 29. Diatoms of Nainital. By N. D. Kamat and Rita Aggarwal (p. 240).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1975 APRIL Vol. 72 No. 1

The Sundarban of India and
its biota1

Ajit Kumar Mukherjee
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
( With a plate)

Physiography

The Sundarban is a tropical humid forest belt that stretches from
the Hooghly river (India) on the west to the Meghna river (Bangla-
desh) in the east. It spreads over the southern part of three districts,
namely, 24 Parganas (India), Khulna and Backarganj (Bangladesh).
The boundary of the Sundarban within West Bengal is demarcated by
the Raimangal and Hooghly rivers in the east and west respectively,
and the Bay of Bengal in the south. The northern limit cannot be
clearly defined due to progressive reclamation of the land over the last
150 years. The area lies approximately between 21° 0'-21° 21' N and
88°0'-89°0'E.

The forest spreads over the Gangetic delta which is low, flat and
alluvial, and is intersected from north to south by several wide rivers,
numerous sluggish winding creeks and is interspersed with lagoons.

The water in these creeks, pools and rivers is saline. The humid forests

y

1 Accepted August 27, 1971.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

which grow on such delta is known as ‘mangrove swamps’ and such
forests stretch for about 240 kilometres (150 miles) from west to east
and are approximately 48 kilometres (30 miles) wide. Out of 11520
sq. kilometres (4500 sq. miles) the total forest area of 4096 sq. kilo-
metres (1630 sq. miles) is now under Indian administration. Of this
area, 2320 sq. kilometres (997 sq. miles) are covered with forests and
the rest is water (Mitra 1954). The principal rivers of the area have
a general north-south course towards the sea. Some of these rivers
join and lead to the estuaries, namely, Hariabhanga, Gusaba, Matla,
Thakuran, Saptamukhi and Muriganga. The principal rivers which
open into the estuaries by traversing the Sundarban from east to west
are Kalindi, Raimangal, Jhilla, Gusaba, Bidya, Matla, Thakuran,
Saptamukhi and Baratala. They are tidal rivers and receive three tides
a day. The difference in the water levels between high and ebb tides
varies from six metres (20 feet) to 20 centimetres (8 inches) depend-
ing on the phase of the moon.

The estuarine islands of the Sundarban from east to west are Ban-
gaduni, Dalhousie, Halliday, Bullcherry, Lothian, Farserganj (Mack-
leenberg). Numerous islands in the estuaries are still under formation.

The formation of alluvial surface and the alteration of river courses
in Lower Bengal has been discussed in detail by Oldham (1893). The
meandering action of rivers in the low lying Sundarban area helps in
the creation of innumerable islands. The silt and loam brought down
by the rivers from the north and poured on to the continental shelf
undergo partial transformation due to exchange reactions with sea
water (Raychoudhuri et al. 1963, p. 51). These constituents remain in
suspension and are forced into the creeks, channels and rivers by high
tides. The constituents in suspension settle down due to gravitational
force and are deposited on the bed and the salinised soil is gradually
covered with mould. After the soil is stabilised, further deposition of
alluvium helps in elevating the edges which give rise to a natural em-
bankment and a saucer-shaped depression is formed inside where in
the course of time signs of life become visible when the monsoon rains
wash the salinity off the place. Some shrubs and trees take root and
gradually a dense forest flourishes in a place which once was under
water.

The soil of the Sundarban is generally clayey loam and grey to
greyish-black in colour. Sandy and alkaline soils are found on islands
facing the Bay and at many degraded places on the surface. Raychoud-
huri et al. (op. cit., p. 40) gave the composition of the low lands of
the 24-Parganas district as follows: ‘The soils in general are deficient
in nitrogen which ranges from 0.02 to 0.09 per cent. The soils respond
to application of nitrogenous fertilizers and give a yield increase of
about 240 lbs. per acre. The phosphate in the soils varies from 0.1 to

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

3

0.15 per cent in the riverine and flat lands, and 0.06 to 0.1 in low
lands. The pH of this soil ranges from 7.0 to 8.0 and potash varies from
0.3 to 1.0 per cent in the riverine and flat lands. Calcium oxide in the
riverine and flat lands is high, ranging from 1.0 to 5.0 per cent.’

The soils of the Sundarban may be classified into four main cate-
gories :

1. Matial : Clayey soil, whitish, loose and light in composition.
When reclaimed it is rich in plant nutrition and supports a good culti-
vation. It is also rich in calcium and magnesium and partially decom-
posed matter.

2. Baliara or Dorosa : Loamy soil reddish in colour, retains mois-
ture longer than the other three types of soil. Coarse paddy may be
grown.

3. Dhap : Whitish soil, lies at higher levels than other classes. Salt
is not washed off. This is degraded alkali soil and, therefore, only such
coarse vegetation as thatch grass ( Ulu ), grows on it.

4. Dhal: Found on newly formed islands which get flooded either
due to high tide or due to rain water. The soil is reddish in colour and
cracks when dry. Nothing substantial grows on such land.

The rivers of the Sundarban are subject to tidal influence and are,
therefore, saline. The rivers between Raimangal and Matla in the east
and Muriganga and Hooghly on the west receive fresh water from
the Ichhamati and Hooghly respectively, so that their salinity is greatly
reduced. The increase in the salinity of the rivers of the western Sun-
darban appears to be a recent phenomenon, which is evident from
Major Rennel’s atlas of 1781 and Morrieson’s of 1811; in both some
villages are shown along the Sundarban rivers where today only dense
forests exist. Those villages had evidently been abandoned by later
increase in the salinity of the adjacent rivers leading to failure of agri-
culture.

Extreme climatic conditions do not prevail in the Sundarban. The
network of creeks and rivers and the nearness of the Bay help in con-
trolling the extreme climate. A typical tropical monsoon climate with
excess of humidity is prevalent for about six months of the year, the
day being moderately warm, equitable and humid, and there is a slow
increase in the night temperature. The cold weather prevails from
November to January and the rainfall during the period is negligible
(mean of these three months is 2.5 cm). The mean maximum temper-
ature for the years 1955-1960 is 30°C and the minimum 15°C. The
temperature begins to rise from February and February, March and
April are comparatively dry. Occasional thunder-storms accompanied
by rains start from April. In May and October-November cyclonic
storms occur. The cyclone causes high waves and combined with high
tides frequently brings devastation to the area. The mean temperature

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

for six years (1955-1960 for February, March and April) is 31.8°C
(maximum) and 26.6°C (minimum). The monsoon generally starts
from the middle of June and continues till October, and the mean
temperature slowly diminishes during the rainy season, but the humi-
dity goes on increasing to 95 per cent. The total annual rainfall (aver-
age of the above-mentioned six years) is 265 cm and the average of
the monsoon months for those six years is 230 cm.

Biota

Flora

The vegetation of the Sundarban may be broadly classified as (a)
the sea-face (beach forests), (b) the formative island flora, (c) the
flora of the reclaimed low-lying cultivated tracts, and (d) the swamp
forests.

The present forest area covers about 2320 sq. kilometres (997.9 sq
miles) of the delta. Special type of the marsh vegetation composed of
elements mainly of the Malay Peninsula and Polynesian regions, together
with some Indo-Chinese, Ethiopian and a few of the New World, is
represented in these estuarine islands, not found elsewhere execpt in a
small part of Mahanadi and Godavari deltas and the Bay islands. Prain
(1903) listed 334 species of plants in the Sundarban, and stated that
the different possible means of dispersal and distribution of plants
such as by sea and rivers, and by wind, bird and human agencies, have
been responsible for introducing an interesting and complex flora in
the area.

Champion (1936) classified the Sundarban forests as moist tropical
serai forest type (primary serai type), which he described as (a)
IS/ 1 beach forest and ( b ) 1S/2 tidal forests. The tidal forests are sub-
divided into four sub-types, namely, 1S/2 (a) low mangrove forests,
1S/2 (b) tree mangrove forests, 1S/2 (c) salt-water Heritiera forests
and 1S/2 (d) freshwater Heritiera forests. Except the low mangrove
and the salt-water Heritiera forests the other types of tidal forests do
not occur in the Sundarban that lies within the Indian territory.

Sea- face {beach) flora.

The beach forest occurs on the sea-face islands. Sea-sand blown by
strong winds form low sand-dunes. The sands, together with lime form-
ed from disintegrating shells and salt, give rise to a pronounced xero-
phytic habitat, inspite of the facts that the rainfall in this area is over
125 cm (50 inches) and the subsoil water is just below half a metre or
so. These conditions are very different from those prevailing in swamp
islands, and thus provide a foothold for the littoral south-east Asian
species. The islands are subject to strong north-western storms from

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

5

March till May and to cyclones which develop from Bay of Bengal
in May and October-November. These cyclones cause considerable
damage to the biota of the islands. The trees get uprooted and those
that stand the rigours are stunted and deformed, devoid of branches
and are more or less leafless. Savannah flourishes under such condi-
tions. The sand-dunes are partially covered with tall brown spear-grass
and a fence of shrubs and creepers immediately follows the sand-dunes.

A list of the more important species of plants occurring under such
conditions are given below.

Species

Local name

Type of plant

Remark

Family Tamaricaceae

Tamarix troupii
Family Leguminosae

Jhao

Shrub or tree

Grows up to
7 metres

Erythrina variegata
Canavalia maritima

Canavalia gladiata

Palita Mandar

Prickly tree
Sand-binder,
climber

Extensive sand-
binder, climber

Derris scandens

Nonalata

Large climber

Derris sinuata

Sundrilata

Climber

Caesalpinia bonducella

Nata

Large thorny
climber

Family Ficoidae

Sesuvium portulacastrum

Noona

Extensive

climber

Excellent

sand-binder

Family Compositae

Wedelia scandens

Keshraj

Climber over
bushes

Launaea sarmentosa

Herb

Sand-binder

Family Myrsineae

Aegiceras corniculatus

Kulsi

Tree

Grows up to
7 metres

Family Salvadoraceae

Azima tetracantha

Trikanta gati

Thorny shrub

Family Convolvulaceae

lpomoea pes-caprae

Chhagalburi

Herb

Very common,

excellent

sand-binder

Family Flagellariceae

Flagellaria indica

Kuh-bent

Cane-like climber

Family Cyperaceae

Pycreus polystachyos

Junglimodhi

Sedge

Sand-binder

Fimbristylis spp.

Halaiya

Sedge

Sand-binder

Family Gramineae

Oryza coarctata

Bani-Dhan

Perennial

grass

excellent

sand-binder

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY

NATURAL

HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

72(1)

Phragmites karka

Nal

Tall reed-like

grass

Sand-binder

Imperata cylindrica

Ulu

Wiry grass

-Do-

Zoysia martella

Wiry grass

-Do-

Saccharum spontaneum
Family Malvaceae

Khagra

Tall grass

Hibiscus tiliaceus

Bhola

Heavy climber

Thespesia populnea

Paraspipal

Tree

Grows up to
10 metres

Family Polypodiaceae

Acrostichum aureum

Udobon

Fern

Bushy plant

Formative {new) Island or Bank Flora

The formation of a new bank is the outcome of natural process of
erosion of the banks on one hand by sets of river current and on the
other hand by the compensating acceleration of shelving alluvium on
the opposite side. The formation of a new island has already been dis-
cussed under topography. On these banks and islands “chars”, Oryza
coarctata “Bani-Dhan” appears along with Sesuvium portulacastrum
“Noona”. These are sometimes associated with Myriostachya
wightiana at the river edge when such an edge drops suddenly into
deep water. In the second line of succession a belt of undershrub bushes
of Acanthus ilicifolius “Hargoza” and young Avicennia officinalis
“Baen” appears. After these get established, Excoecaria agallocha
“Gengwa”, and Rhizophora sp. “Goran”, Sonneratia sp. “Keora”, etc.,
are the last to establish themselves under protection of “Hargoza” and
“Baen”. When all these shrubs and trees have properly established
themselves, the grass disappears.

Forest flora

Sal t-w a t e r Heritiera Forest

Salt-water Heritiera forest is a low salinity forest that exists along
the south-eastern border of West Bengal along Khulna District (Bangla-
desh). Since freshwater of the Ichhamati River flows into the Raim-
angal river, the rivers between the Raimangal and Matla have reduced
salinity. This has helped in the growth of a fairly dense forest consist-
ing of numerous species tolerant of such water. The average height of
the forest trees is from 6 to 11 metres, but some trees like Sonnerita
sp. “Keora” may attain a height of 20 metres or so. The girth of the
trunk is moderate. In the sheltered bays and creeks mangrove occurs.
The mangrove are largely Rhizophora “Garjan”, Bruguiera “Kankra”,
Ceriops “Goran” and Avicennia “Baen”. Typical pneumatophores,
that is, respiratory roots of Avicennia that project above soil, locally
known as “shulas”, occur everywhere. The stilt roots of Rhizophora
and Bruguiera are meant for support and are special adaptive features.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (1) Plate

Mukherjee: Sundarban

3 4

1. Fairly dense tail-tree forest; 2. A tidal creek flowing through dense low forest;
3. Morning exercise of water-birds at Sajnakhali forest; 4. Clusters of wild date-
palm, a very common plant.

.......

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

7

Heritiera “Sundri” which is found scattered over areas of a slightly
higher level does not seem to have natural satisfactory regeneration.
Along with Heritiera, Sonneratia, Excoecaria, Carapa spp., from the
upper storey. The palms, Phoenix paludosa “Hental” which commonly
grows gregariously everywhere on higher elevations, and Nipa fruti -
cans “Golpata” though present infrequently are met with on wet mud-
banks along the creeks. Mangrove like Rhizophora and Bruguiera ex-
hibit ‘vivipary’ (young plants germinate in the fruit while attached
to the mother plant). It remains viable until the seed is able to find
soil after it drops in water, which may take considerable time.

Low Mangrove Forest

The low mangrove forest which lies between Matla and Muriganga
is absolutely devoid of fresh-water, since the rivers in this area are cut
off from the ramifications of the Hooghly in the north.

The whole forest area is on soft tidal mud which gets submerged
by salt-water at every tide. A dense forest of very low average height
(3 to 6 metres) covers the area. Here the vegetation is identical to that of
the preceding type, except that Sundri and Golpata are practically
absent. The trees are evergreen and cluster gregariously, the leaves
are leathery and the seeds are viviparous. The most common trees are
Ceriops sp. “Goran” and Avicennia “Baen” which occupy extensive
areas but grow only up to two metres. The clusters of Phoenix sp.
“Hental” are extremely common.

A list of some important trees, shrubs and grass which compose
the flora of this type of forest is given below:

Species

Local name

Type of plant

Family Meliaceae

Amoora cucullata

Amur

Tree

Xylocarpus moluccensis

Passur

Tree

Carapa obovata

Dhundul

Tree

Family Leguminosae

Afzelia bigugata

Bhaila

Tree

Cynometra ramiflora

Singra

Tree

Family Rhizophoraceae

Rhizophora Candelaria

Goran

Tree

Rhizophora conjugata

Goran

Tree

Rhizophora apiculata

Goran

Tree

Ceriops tagal

Goran

Tree

Ceriops roxburghiana

Goran

Tree

Bruguiera gymnorhiza

Kankra

Tree

Family Lythraceae

Sonneratia apetala

Keora

Tree

Family Vebenaceae

Avicennia officinalis

Baen

Tree

Avicennia alba

Baen

Tree

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Family Euphorbiaceae
Excoecaria agallocha
Family Palmae
Phoenix paludosa

Flora of the Reclaimed Area

The reclaimed cultivated tracts are low lying islands which some
two hundred years ago were covered with dense forest. Gradual de-
forestation, cordoning of the islands with high embankments, and re-
peated monsoon washing of the salinity of the soil made the area culti-
vable. Many tanks were dug out filling up with rain-water to meet
man’s requirement of freshwater from the beginning of the human
settlement in these reclaimed islands. Various trees and other plants
were also introduced. Thus, a complex flora of the original Sundarban
species together with some plants from other parts of India and even
from abroad are found there today. A list of the more familiar in-
troduced plants are given below:

Species

Local name

Type of plant

Family Rhamnaceae

Zizyphus mauritiana

Kul

Small tree

Family Leguminosae

Cyamopsis tetragonolobus

Guar

Annual crop (60-
100 cm)

Sesbania grandiflora

Bokphul

Soft-wood tree

Tamarindus indica

Tentul

Large tree

Parkinsonia aculeata

Belati kikar

Hedge

Acacia nilotica

Babul

Shrub or tree

Family Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica

Neem

Large tree

Family Myrtaceae

Psidium guajava

Payara

Small tree

Family Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus polygamus

Champanote

Pot herb

Family Palmae

Areca catechu

Supari

Palm

Cocos nucifera
Family Graminae

Narikel

Large palm

Oryza sativa

Dhan

Cultivated crop

Some important common herbs.

shrubs, and

grasses that are met

with in the rice fields and around the villages are listed below:

Species

Family Leguminosae

Local name

Type of plant

Phaseolus adenanthus

Ban barbati

Climber

Derris sineata

Natua

Prickly shrub

Gengwa Tree

Hental Palm

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

9

Family Cucurbitaceae
Coccinia cordifolia
Trichosanthes cucumerina
Family Rubiaceae
lxora coccinea
Family Compositae
Spaeranthus africanus
Family Asclepiadaceae
Sarcolobus globosus
Family Amaranthaceae

Psilotrichum ferrugineum
Family Liliaceae

Asphodelus tenuifolius
Family Typhaceae

Typha angustata
Family Graminae
Paspalum scrobiculatum
Panicum sp.

Andropogon aciculatus
Phragmites karka
Arundo donax

Ban chinhinga
Ban chinhinga

Rangan

Kantapalang

Baolilata

Rakto-siranchi

Hogla

Kodo Dhan

Bharanda

Chorkanta

Nal

Sukna

Besides the flora of the northern plains a number
occur in the reclaimed area along embankments and
Such species are:

Species Local name

Family Leguminosae

Canavalia gladiata

—

Vigna luteola

—

Derris trifoliata

Panlata

Pongamia pinnata

Koronja

Caesalpinia crista

Singrilata

Family Compositae

Wedelia sp.

Bhimarj

Family Myrsineae

Aegiceras corniculatum

Khalsi

Family Verbenaceae

Avicennia officinalis

Baen

Family Lythraceae

Sonneratia ape tala

Keora

Family Rubiaceae

Morinda bracteata

Barachand

Family Plubagineae

Aegialitis rotundifolia

Satari

Family Euphorbiaceae

Excoecaria agallocha

Gengwa

Climber

Climber

Shrub

Climber

Large climber

Tall reed

Tall tufted grass
Coarse grass
Tufted coarse grass
Reed

Reed like grass

of littoral species
edges of creeks.

Type of plant

Extensive climber

Climber

Shrub

Tree

Shrub

Creeper

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

Tree

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Family Acanthaceae
Acanthus ilicifolius
Family Cyperaceae

Nonajhar

Shrub

Cyperus articulatum

—

Grass

Family Palmae
Phoenix paludosa

Hental

Palm

Fauna

Forest Fauna

The extensive saline swamp-forests of the Sundarban spread over
the greater part of the sea-face of West Bengal, are inhospitable for
animals due to lack of sweet water. In these marshy tropical jungles
which flourish on the islands that are washed by the tidal waters of
sea, the animals that have adapted themselves by adjusting their habits
are very few. Of them, special mention may be made of the Tiger,
Panthera tigris (Linnaeus), which is dreaded, since all without excep-
tion, are said to be maneaters: the Estuarine Crocodile, Crocodylus
porosus (Schneider), lies in wait for its prey on shores and creeks on
soft mud of the tidal flats between bayonet-like stilt and knee roots,
where walking is difficult and man sometimes becomes its victims; and
the large poisonous snake, the King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah
(Cantor).

A hundred years ago the Sundarban forests were the home of many
wild animals, some of which like the Javan Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros
sondiacus Desmarest, and the Wild Buffalo, Bubalus bubalis (Linn-
aeus) are no longer there. The last record of the Rhinoceros from this
area is based on the specimen collected in 1870 and preserved in the
collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta
and the Wild Buffalo was known to have existed up to 1885. It is said
that the Swamp Deer, Cervus duvauceli Cuvier, Muntjac, Muntiacus
muntjak Zimmermann, and the Fishing Cat, Felis viverrina Bennet,
existed on these swamp-islands, but these have not been recorded in
recent years from the Sundarban forests that lie in West Bengal.

An exhaustive faunistic report is not within the scope of the pre-
sent paper. However, commoner animals encountered by me in the
course of visits during 1955-1960 to the area and those found by others
are mentioned below.

VERTEBRATES

Mammals :

The order primates is represented by a single species, the Rhesus
Monkey, Macaca muiatta (Zimmermann). Mukherjee & Gupta (1965)
have studied the peculiar habits of this monkey and its specialised

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

11

adaptation to the estuarine island life, where freshwater is not available
at all except rain-water, rendering such areas normally unsuitable for
primate life. The other mammals are the Tiger, Panther a tigris (Linnae-
us) which leads an almost amphibious life in swamps, moving from
one island to another by swimming through the large rivers and creeks,
and during tidal bores it clings to low mangrove branches or is driven
to elevated parts of some islands restricting its movement till normal
conditions are restored. Its man-hunting is perhaps due to its inability
to obtain sufficient food under such adverse conditions, as it is unable
to kill the deer or pig that are found on these islands.

In the tidal rivers, the commonest aquatic mammal is the Little
Porpoise or the Black Finless Porpoise, Neomeris phocaenoides
(Cuvier). The other Cetacea that frequent the tidal waters are Orcella
hrevirostris (Owen) and Stolia plumba Cuvier.

Birds

Sundarban forest has a wealth of waterbirds. Birds such as herons,
egrets, storks, ibises, cormorants, shags, darters, etc. which nest in
colonies find these forest areas safe and convenient for their living
and breeding. The, discovery of the existence of a natural bird sanctu-
ary, namely, ‘Pakhirala’ at Sajnakhali in this area has already been
reported by Mukherjee (1955).

Resident species :

1. White Ibis Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham)

2. Openbill Stork Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert)

3. Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin)

4. Blacknecked Stork Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham)

5. Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus (Linnaeus)

6. Swamp Partridge or Kyah Francolinus gularis (Temminck)

7. Blackcapped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata (Boddaert)

8. Whitecollared Kingfisher Halcyon chloris (Boddaert)

9. Brownwinged Kingfisher Pelargopsis amauroptera (Pearson) (Prefers
broad tidal rivers)

Seasonal visitors :

1 . Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus)

2. Curlew Numenius arquata (Linnaeus) (Occasional)

3. Blacktailed Godwit Limosa limosa (Linnaeus)

4. Little Stint Calidris minutus (Leisler)

5. Dunlin Calidris alpinus (Linnaeus)

6. Eastern Knot Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield)

7. Curlew-sandpiper Calidris testaceus (Pallas)

8. Greenshank Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus)

9. Terek Sandpiper Tringa terek (Latham)

10. Snipebilled Godwit Limnodromus semipalmatus (Blyth)

Rare visitors :

1 . Giant Heron Ardea goliath Cretzschmar

2. Spottedbilled Pelican Pelecanus philippensis Gmelin

3. Herring Gull Lams argentatus Pontoppidan

4. Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis Lesson

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

5. Large Crested Tern Sterna bergii Lichtenstein

6. Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata Linnaeus

There are several species of smaller perching birds that frequent
the forests such as flycatchers, warblers, pipits, wagtails. Blyth’s Man-
grove Whistler, Pachycephala grisola Blyth is sometimes observed
among the wild date palm clusters.

R e p t i 1 i a

The reptilian fauna is represented by snakes, lizards, and crocodile.
No chelonians are known from the area.

1 . Keelback Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus)

Common species :

2. Hurriah Enhydris enhydris (Schneider)

3. Hydrophis obscurus (Daudin)

4. Gerardia prevostiana (Eydoux & Gervais)

5. Wart Snake Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider)

Uncommon estuarine species'.

1 . Hydrophis nigrocinctus (Daudin)

2. Hydrophis caerulescens (Shaw)

3. Microcephalophis cantoris (Gunther)

Terrestrial snakes:

1. Cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus)

2. King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor)

3. Whip Snake Ahaetulla nasutus (Lacepede)

4. Indian Python Python molurus (Linnaeus)

Lizards :

1. Water monitor Varanus salvator (Laurenti)

2. Monitor Lizard Varanus flavescens (Gray)

There is a single species of crocodile, the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus
porosus (Schneider), which inhabits the lower reaches of the tidal rivers.

Amphibia

Amphibians on these islands are very few. The toad, Bufo mel-
anostictus Schneider, is sometimes seen in certain elevated parts. The
tree frog, Rhacophorus maculatus (Gray), is quite common.

Fishes

The fishes are brackish water and marine forms, freshwater ones
being totally absent.

The tidal rivers and creeks which flow through forest blocks and
the estuaries that surround the forested islands on the sea-face contain
varied species of sharks and brackish water fishes. The species of sharks
that are commonly met with belong to the genera, Chiloscy Ilium, Stego-
stoma, Scoliodon, Carcharhinus, Rhinobatus and Dasyatis.

There are several species of Teleostomi of which a few important
and common species that are commercially exploited are:

Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) Anguilla bicolor McClelland

1 1 is ha filigera (Valenciennes) Muraena tile (Hamilton)

Raconda russelliana Gray Muraenesox cinereus (Forskal)

Nematalosa nasus (Bloch) Pisoodonophis boro (Hamilton)

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

13

Anodontostoma chacunda (Hamil-
ton)

Setipinna taty (Valenciennes)
Harpodon nehereus (Hamilton)
‘Nehere’

Tachysurus jella (Day)

Tachysurus caelatus (Valenciennes)
Tachysurus gagora (Hamilton)
Tachysurus maculatus (Thunberg)
Tachysurus sagor (Hamilton)
Tachysurus sona (Hamilton)

Mystus gulio (Hamilton) ‘Gule’
Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)

Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton)
Strongylura strongylura (van Has-
selt)

Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)

Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland)
Mugil parsia Hamilton
Mugil fade Forskal
Polynemus heptadactylus Cuvier
Polynemus paradiseus Linnaeus
Eleutheronema tetradactylus (Bloch)
‘Gurjaoli’

Lates calcarifer (Bloch) ‘Bhetki’

The sea-fishes that enter the backwaters are:

Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus) ‘But-
terfish’

Stromateus cinereus (Bloch) White
Pomfret

Parastromateus niger (Bloch) Black
Pomfret

Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen)

Datnioides quadrifasciatus (Sevasti-
anov)

Leiognathus blochii (Valenciennes)

Otolithes maculatus Cuvier
Sparus datnia (Hamilton)

T oxotes chatareus (Hamilton)
Brachirus pan (Hamilton)
Cynoglossus bilineatus (Lacepede)
Cynoglossus lingua Hamilton ‘Tongue
Sole’

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)
Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton)
Macrognathus aculeatum (Bloch)

Pama pama (Hamilton)

The goggle-eyed Gobiids attract the attention of every person due to
their active, frog-like hopping on exposed mud-flats, specially during
ebb-tide. Generally two species occur, Periopthalmus keelreuteri (Pallas)
and Boleopthalmus boddaerti (Pallas) and several other species. They
are not of commercial importance.

Invertebrates :

The invertebrates that are found in the forest area are more or less
are represented in the reclaimed area also, except some crop-pests and
freshwater animals, and have been listed under that chapter (pp. 17-
19). Oligochaeta have been, scanty, whereas several species of Polycha-
etes are found burrowing in the mud, such as, Ficomatus macrodon
Southern, Mercierella enigmatica Fauvel, Dendronerius estuarina Fauvel,
Pomatoceros caeruleus Schmard). The Gastropods that are found on
the mud banks and in the wet places in the interior of the forests are
Nerita sp., Telescopium sp., Melongena sp., Ceratoda sp., Onchidium
sp. The Bivalva is represented by Area, sp., and several species of
Teredo which are borers of mangrove tree-trunks that get submerged
in tidal water. Arthropods are well represented on land and water.
An interesting example is the ‘Living Fossil’, the King Crab, Carcinos-
corpius rotundicauda (Latreille), which is not uncommon in the shal-
low waters of the sea-facing islands, sometimes it crawls ashore. The
low-forest trees are often found to bear combs of the Rock-Bee ( Apis

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

dorsata). The combs sometimes grow so large that they are hardly a
few feet above the ground. Insects affecting forest timbers are many.
Mention may be made of the Cerambycids, borer-beetles, that cause
alarming damage to Goran, Keora, Garjan, Dhudul etc. With nightfall
the dark forests of Sundarban glitter with fireflies ( Pteroptyx sp.) and
the water of the rivers and channels also pulsates with luminiscent life,
in the plankton.

Fauna of the reclaimed area

The reclamation of the land which rose from mud and clay by
deforestation and human settlement has upset the ecology, resulting
in the disappearance of major part of the wildlife. What exists today
in these cultivated tracts are some common forms of birds and aquatic
fauna of the tidal creeks, common to both the reclaimed and the forest-
ed areas. From the northern part of the district some animals have
immigrated and have established themselves in the reclaimed area,
for example, the jackal, fox, civet cats, mongoose and rats. Freshwater
fishes have been introduced in the freshwater (sweet-water) tanks, and
various insect pests have appeared on cultivated crops which were not
known when these areas were covered with virgin forests.

The fauna is represented by practically every group of animal
though the higher vertebrates, specially the mammals, are poorly re-
presented.

Vertebrates

Mammalia

The mammals in the reclaimed area are few.

Suncus murinus (Linnaeus) House
Shrew

Felis chaus (Guldenstaedt) Jungle
Cat

Felis bengalensis (Kerr) Leopard Cat
Canis aureus (Linnaeus) Jackal
Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw) Indian
Fox

Viverricula indica (Desmarest) Indian
Civet

Herpestes edwardsi ( Geoff roy) Com-
mon Gray Mongoose
Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton)
Five-striped Squirrel
Mus booduga (Gray) Field Mouse
Mus musculus (Linnaeus) House
Mouse

Bandicota indica (Bechstein) Bandi-
coot Rat

Rattus rattus (Linnaeus) Common
Rat

Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) Short-
nosed Fruit Bat

Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke)

Megaderma lyra (Geoffroy) Indian
False Vampire

Rhinopoma hardwickii (Gray) Les-
ser Rat-tailed Bat

Hipposideros bicolor (Temminck)
Bicoloured Leafnosed Bat

Pipistrellus mimus (Wroughton)
Pigmy Pipistrelle

Scotophilus temmincki (Horsfield)
Lesser Yellow Bat

SVNDARBAN OF INDIA

15

Birds

Marsh birds

Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus) Cattle
Egret

Egretta intermedia (Wagler) Smal-
ler Egret

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus) Little
Egret

Egretta alba (Linnaeus) Large Egret

Ardea purpurea (Linnaeus) Purple
Heron

Ardea cinerea (Linnaeus) Grey
Heron

Butorides striatus (Linnaeus) Little
Green Bittern

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus)
Night Heron

Ardeola grayii (Sykes) Pond Heron

Metopidius indicus (Latham) Bron-
zewinged Jacana
Freshwater Marshes

Gallinula chloropus , (Linnaeus)
Moorhen

Hydro phasianus chirurgus (Scopoli)
Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Rostratula benghalensis (Linnaeus)
Painted Snipe

Charadrius dubius (Scopoli) Little
Ringed Plover

Open Water

Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas) Dabchick

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin)
Cotton Teal

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield)
Lesser Whistling Teal

Anas crecca (Linnaeus) Common
Teal

Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) Brah-
miny Duck

Anas acuta (Linnaeus) Pintail

Aythya nyroca (Guldenstadt) White-
eyed Pochard

Netta rufina (Pallas) Redcrested
Pochard

Sandbanks

Tringa hypoleucos (Linnaeus) Com-
mon Sandpiper

Tringa gl areola (Linnaeus) Wood
Sandpiper

Calidris minutus (Leisler) Little Stint

Capella gallinago (Linnaeus) Fan-
tail Snipe

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus)
Whimbrel

In the vast cultivated tracts, the Openbilled Storks, Anastomus osci-
tans (Boddaert) feed on snails from paddy-fields, and are seen with
the Redwattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus (Boddaert).

The birds of prey found in the area are:

Spilornis cheela (Latham) Crested
Serpent Eagle

Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas)
Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin)
Whitebellied Sea Eagle

Haliastur indus (Boddaert) Brahminy
Kite

Milvus migrans (Boddaert) Pariah
Kite

Accipiter badius (Gmelin) Shikra

Accipiter trivirgatus (Temminck)
Crested Goshawk

lcthyophaga ichthyaetus (Horsfield)
Greyheaded Fishing Eagle

Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus) Osprey

Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus) Marsh
Harrier

Falco peregrinus (Tunstall) Pereg-
rine Falcon

Falco severus (Horsfield) Oriental
Hobby

Falco tinnunculus (Linnaeus) Kes-
trel

Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin) White-
backed Vulture

Tyto alba (Scopoli) Barn Owl

Otus scops (Linnaeus) Scops Owl

Athene brama (Temminck) Spotted
Owlet

Bubo zeylonensis (Gmelin) Brown
Fish Owl

Bubo bubo (Linnaeus) Great Horn-
ed Owl

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

A few species of terns, and kingfishers are seen on the larger rivers
and in flooded areas. These are:

Gelochlidon nilotica (Gmelin) Gull-
billed Tern

Sterna bergii (Lichtenstein) Large
Crested Tern

Sterna bengalensis (Lesson) Indian
Lesser Crested Tern
Rynchops albicollis (Swainson) In-
dian Skimmer

Larus brunnicephalus (Jerdon)

Brown headed Gull
Larus ridibundus (Linnaeus) Black-
headed Gull

Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas) Whis-
kered Tern

Hydroprogne caspia (Pallas) Cas-
pian Tern

Besides, there are many species of doves, cuckoos, parakeets, rollers,
barbets, woodpeckers, larks, swallows, drongos, crows, tree pie, shrikes,
bulbuls, babblers, flycatchers, warblers, thrushes, pipits, sunbirds,
flowerpeckers, and finches and other birds, which are not specifically
mentioned, for Law (1954, 1956) has already published observational
reports about the ornithology of the Sundarban.

Sterna aurantia (J. E. Gray) Indian
River Tern

Sterna hirundo (Linnaeus) Common
Tern

Sterna albifrons (Pallas) Little Tern
Sterna fuscata (Linnaeus) Sooty
Tern

Ceryl rudis Lesser Pied Kingfisher
Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus)
White-breasted Kingfisher
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus)

Halcyon chloris (Boddaert) White-
collared Kingfisher
Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) Black-
capped Kingfisher

R e p t i 1 i a :

The reptiles in the reclaimed area are represented by snakes and
lizards.

The snakes comprise both terrestrial and aquatic forms. The terres-
trial snakes are met with in fields and cultivation.

Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus) Rat
Snake

Vipera russelli (Shaw) Russell’s
Viper

Naja naja kaouthia (Lesson) Indian
Cobra

Oligodon arnensis (Shaw) Kukri
Snake

Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus) Wolf
Snake

Eryx conicus (Schneider) Russell’s
Sand Boa

Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider)
Common Checkered Keelback

Amphiesma stolata (Linnaeus) Stri-
ped Keelback

Enhydris enhydris (Schneider) Hur-
riah

Hydrophis obscurus (Daudin)

Gerardia prevostiana (Eydoux &
Gervais)

Acrochordus granulatus (Schneider)
Wart Snake

In the saline waters of rivers and creeks turtles and terrapins are
sometimes come across:

Lizards :

Varanus flavescens (Gray) Calotes versicolor (Daudin)

Varanus salvator (Laurenti) Chamaeleon zeylanicus (Laurenti)

SVNDARBAN OF INDIA

17

Turtles:

Pelochelys bibroni (Owen) Coast
Soft Shell

Morenia ocellata (Dumeril & Bibron)
Bengal Eyed Terrapin
Batagur baska (Gray) Batagur

Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschschottz)
Ridley Turtle

Geomyda tricarinata (Blyth) Three-
keeled Terrapin

In the tidal rivers and creeks no frogs have been seen. In the water-
puddles which are formed as a result of rainfall and in perennial sweet-
water reservoirs, the amphibians that are met with are:

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. ‘Chine- Rana tiger ina Daudin. ‘Sona-beng’
beng’ Bufo melanostictus Schneider. ‘Kuno-

Rana hexadactyla Lesson. ‘Pati Beng’ beng’. Very common. Dry land.

Rana limnocharis Wiegmann. ‘Dhani- Microhyla ornata ‘Dumeril & Bib-
beng’ ron’. Smallest frog in the area.

The fishes that are found in the sweet-water pools of the reclaimed
areas are:

Introduced species
Labeo rohita (Hamilton). Rui
Labeo calbasu (Hamilton). Kalbose
Labeo gonius (Hamilton)

Catla catla (Hamilton). Katla
Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton) . Mrigal
Puntius sp. ‘Punti’

Danio sp.

Chela, sp. ‘Chela’

Ambassis sp. ‘Rangachanda’
Notopterus sp. ‘Pholui’

Rita sp. ‘Rita’

Mud fishes

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede)
and M. pancalus (Hamilton).
Channa gachua (Hamilton). Pank-
achaks

Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland).
Techoko.

Cat fishes

Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) Heter-
opneustes fossilis (Bloch)

The other brackish water fishes which get into creeks of the reclaim-
ed area have been dealt separately under the fauna of the forest area.

INVERTEBRATA

The common invertebrates of the area are represented by the Phyla
Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Annelida.

M o 1 1 u s c a :

Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes)
Pila sp. (Widely dispersed by the
monsoon waters)

Arthropoda
Crustacea :

Freshwater

Viviparus bengalensis (Lamarck)
Melanoides tuberculatus (Muller)
Melanoides scabra (Muller)
Lymnaea acuminata (Lamarck)

Several species of crustaceans abound in freshwater ponds and jheels.
The smaller prawns commonly found in freshwater are:

Macrobrachium lamarrei (Milne- Caridina gracilipes de Man. ‘Ghunso
Edward). ‘Kuncho chingri’ chingri’

Leander styliferus (Milne-Edward) Macrobrachium rude (Heller). ‘Goda

chingri’

2

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

During the monsoon very large number of prawns find their way
from the brackish water into the paddy fields. In such flooded fields
two species are met with:

Metapenaeus brevicornis Milne-Edward, ‘Dhanboni chingri’
Metapenaeus monoceros Fabricius, ‘Koraney chingri’

The most common crab in the paddy fields during the monsoon
is the small grapsid crab Varuna litterata (Fabricius), ‘Chiti kankra’.
In brackish water the common forms met with are: Scylla serrata
(Forskal), Portunus pelagicus (Finnaeus), Portunus sanguinolentus
(Herbst). Matuta victor Fabricius, which is also found in the tidal rivers
but appears to be less common there. The common crab that attracts
attention is the orange-coloured Fiddler Crab ( Uca sp.) which actively
moves about on mud-flats during ebb-tide in large numbers. The fresh-
water crabs are: Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) jacquemontii (Rathbun),
and Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) spinigera Wood-Mason are found in
smaller numbers in freshwater tanks and flooded paddy fields. They
appear to have been introduced by human agency. Certain deep bur-
rows in soft mud banks of tidal creeks are the homes of the Ghost Crab,
Thalacina anomala Herbst, which looks more or less like Fobsters
hence it is locally known as ‘Patal Chingri’.

Insecta :

The reclaimed areas which now are used for extensive cultivation of
paddy have large number of insect pests that were probably not known
in these areas a century ago when the islands were covered with
forests. They appear to have followed paddy cultivation. Besides, there
are several insects of minor significance, terrestrial as well as aquatic.
It is not worthwhile to furnish a list of all insects that occur there but
some more important pests of agricultural crops which were observed
during 1955-1965 and some of the commoner aquatic bugs, beetles
and dragonflies are mentioned below:

The agricultural pests, mainly of paddy, were found in the sprouting
ears of A us, and the nurseries of Aman crop.

Rice Thrips Hispa ( Dicladispa ) armigera Oliver
Paddy Curculionid Tanymecus indicus Faust
Some lepidopterus larvae are:

Swarming Caterpillar Spodoptera mauritia (Boisduval)

Rice Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis Guenee
Paddy Jassid Nephotettix bipunctatus Fabricius

During September and October when young plants of Aman paddy
crop attained a height of 15 to 30 cm, the infection by caterpillars and
thrips were appreciably reduced. The additional pests that were noticed
then were: Ricehopper Hieroglyphus banian Fabricius which cause
appreciable damage and Paddy Mealybug Riper sia oryzae Green which
was found infecting certain plots only, specially those near swamp

SUNDARBAN OF INDIA

19

areas having reeds and tall grass. By December when the paddy was
almost mature some paddy pests other than these mentioned above
were found: Surface Grasshopper ( Acrotylus sp.). Blue Beetle Haltica
cyanea Weber, flower feeding Blister Beetle Epicauta sp. which affect-
ed the paddy-ears to a great extent. A large number of bugs invaded
standing crop to suck the sap of shoots and ears of paddy. Such bugs

were:

Gandhi Bug Leptocorisa acuta Thun-
berg

Caterpillars that were found affecting
paddy-shots were :

Paddy Skippers Pelopidas mathias
(Fabricius)

In freshwater or slightly brackish water pools and tanks aquatic
insects and their larval stages were found in plenty.

Paddy Leafroller Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis Guenee
Striped Bug Tetroda sp.

Climbing Cutworm Cirphis unipuncta
Haworth

Bugs:

Nepid Bug Laccotrephes robustus
Stal

Ranatra elongata Fabricius
Belostomid Bug Belostoma indicum
Lep. & Serv.

Enithares indica Fabricius
Plea sp.

Micronecta proba Distant
Micronecta striata Freb.

Water-beetles :

Eretes stictus Linnaeus
Laccophilus flexuosus Aube
Laccophilus parvulus Aube
Canthydrus laetabilis (Walker)
Gyrinids

Dineutes indicus Aube
Hydrophilus olivaceus Fabricius
Dragonflies :

Ischnura sp.

Ceriagrion sp.

Neurothemis sp.

Agriocnemis sp.

Pseudagrion sp.

Damselflies :

Brachythemis sp.

Acisoma sp.

Neurothemis sp.

Pant ala sp.

Crocothemis sp.

Arachnida :

The Arachnida are represented by several species of spiders (Ara-
nae). The commoner species that frequent paddy-fields are Argiopids,
namely, Leucage decorata Blackwell and Araneus mitifica (Thorell).
These are found on paddy-shoots as well as in bushes near about paddy-
fields. Among tall grasses and standing crop a very common species,
Ecuta jav anica Thorell, was met with and also two species of Lycocids,
the new web-fcrming, Iiippasa sp. whose webs become prominent with
dew early in the morning. The common grass spider Oxopes sp. is often
noticed on ones clothing when one moves through paddy cultivation.

Annelida

Oligochaeta: The commonest species of Oligochaeta that are found
in the reclaimed area belong to the genus Pheretima, although Perionyx
and Eutyphoeus, Dichogaster, Megascolex, Helodrilus, Chaetogaster
also occur. In some of the stagnant pools Limnodrilus socialis Stephens
was found in great abundance in tangled masses.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

Polychaeta: A small polychaete worm, Mercierella enigmatica
Fauvel which burrows in the mud, was found in great numbers.

Echiurida: In the entertidal mud flats of rivers are found the echiu-
rids which live in ‘U’-shaped burrows. The esturine echiurids of Sundar-
ban are represented by three species or perhaps more, the commoner
species being Annalassorhynchus branchirhynchus (Annandale &
Kemp).

References

Acharji, M. N. & Mukherjee,
A. K. (1964): Report on a collection
of Snakes from Lower Bengal (Rep-
tilia: Ophidia). J. zool. Soc. India 16
(1 & 2) :76-81.

Champion, H. G. (1936): A pre-
liminary survey of the forest types
of India and Burma. Indian For. Rec.
(N. S.) 7(1) :286.

Law, S. C. (1954): A contribution
to the ornithology of the Sundarbans.
/. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 27: 59-65.

(1956): A contribution

to the ornithology of the Sundarbans.
ibid. 28: 149-152.

Mitra, A. (1954): Census 1951.

West Bengal District Handbook, 24-
Parganas, Calcutta.

Mukherjee, A. K. (1959): Pak-
hirala, Sajnakhali — an introduction to
a bird sanctuary in the Sundarbans.

/ J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 30: 161-165.

& Gupta, S.

(1965) : Habits of the Rhesus Maca-
que, Macaca mulatto (Zimmermann)
in the Sundarbans, 24-Parganas, West
Bengal. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62:
145-146.

Oldham, R. D. (1893): A Manual
of the Geology of India : Stratigra-
phical and structural Geology (2nd
ed.): 432-444.

Prain, D. (1903) : Flora of the

Sundarbans. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 2:
231-390.

Roychoudhury, S. P., Agarwal,

R. R., Dutta Biswas, N. R., Gupta,

S. P. & Thomas, P. K. (1963): Soils
of India. New Delhi.

Smyth, R. (1858): Statistical and
geographical report on the 24 Par-
gunnahs District. Calcutta Rev. 31 :
385-411.

Status of the Nilgiri Langur,

Anamalai, Cardamom and
Nilgiri Hills of the Western
Ghats, India1

G. U. Kurup

Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, MadrasA
{With three maps)

The Southern Regional Station of the Zoological Survey of India
has been conducting a faunistic survey of the Western Ghats with
special reference to Wildlife. One species of special concern was the
Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johni, which on account of a mistaken popular
belief in the medicinal or aphrodisiac properties of its flesh, has been
persecuted to the verge of extinction. The survey could be carried out
only for a month in each year and beginning from the year 1968,
representative areas in the Anamalais, Cardamom, and Nilgiri Hills
have been visited so far. Anamalais were surveyed during Jan.-
Feb. 1968, Cardamom Hills during Feb-March 1969, and Nilgiris
during Jan. -Feb. 1971. Results at present are largely impressions and
estimates of a subjective nature, which however, are presented here
in view of total lack of such surveys and information on this threaten-
ed species. A brief account of its present status in each area is given
below :

The Anamalai segment of the Western Ghats lies approximately
between 10°1'-10°30' N, and 76°30' - 77°15' E, covering parts
of Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu and parts of Idikki district
of Kerala. The hills are divisible into higher and lower ranges. Average

in the

Anamalai ranges

1 Accepted May 5, 1973.

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

elevation of lower ranges is not more than 700 m with peaks and ridges
rising to 1300 to 1600 m and mostly covered with luxurient forest. The
higher ranges lying to the west consist of extensive open grassy hills

Map 1. Map of Western Ghats showing the three major ranges in which surveys

were conducted.

STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

23

and valleys with shola (slope) forests similar to those of Nilgiris and
Palnis and varying from c 2000 to 2900 m in elevation. The chief forest
types include: (1) Tropical Wet Evergreen forest between 700 to
1600 m in elevation where the trees reach a height of 50 m or more with
dense canopy differentiated into layers (2) Tropical Moist Deciduous
holding the most remunerative teak forests situated at about 700 to
1300 m in altitude and with a rainfall of 100-250 cm. Trees reach an
average height of c 35 m (3) Tropical Dry Deciduous forest occurring
at the foot of the Hills with open canopy of deciduous trees with con-
siderable undergrowth of grass and (4) Wet Temperate Forest com-
mencing from c. 1600 m and mostly confined to summits and consist-
ing of vast stretches of grassland interspersed by compact groves of
short and branchy evergreen trees.

Altogether 26 stations were visited for the survey which form a
representative sampling of the range of the species. It became fairly
certain after the survey that the Nilgiri Langur is at present totally
confined to the first two types of forests namely the Tropical Wet Ever-
green and Tropical Moist Deciduous which together range in elevation
from 700 to 1600 m. Within these two forest types, habitat selection
was found to be considerably influenced by presence or absence of
human habitation, the langurs having generally withdrawn from their
proximity. One exception to this was found at Topslip, a forest official’s
colony in the Thunacadavu range, where a troop had selected its sleep-
ing quarters in the forest fringe right behind the forest rest house. This
is understandable as the animals were assured of protection. Settle-
ments of a largely rural nature like forest villages and tribal hamlets
occur within the habitat range. By and large the distribution in the
general range was found to be rather patchy, with preferred pockets
even in seemingly contiguous, suitable areas. One of the most import-
ant influences in the selection of such habitat-pockets was the presence
or absence of streams or water courses, the langur establishing itself in
the vicinity of such streams. Another factor influencing preference was
open or cleared patches within the forests, the troops generally adopt-
ing such areas as their sleeping quarters. This is no doubt due to the
increased visibility making possible early detection of potential danger.

In the Thunacadavu range of south Coimbatore Division and adja-
cent forests, troops were seen, heard or reliably reported from areas
like Kuchmalai, Thekkadi reserve forest, Anapadi, Sungam, Thunaca-
davu, Topslip, Thillikal etc, (see map 2). In the Punachi range of the
same Division they occur in the forests around lower slopes of Grass
Hills, Chinna Kallar, and Kalikundra estate and in the forests to the
south-east as far as Munnar in Kerala State. They were also reported
to be fairly common in the Eravikulam plateau below Rajamalai area.
The Thunacadavu range and adjacent forests of Sungam, Thillikal etc..

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

being contiguous and with few villages made a better habitat for the
langurs than areas like say Punachi range which was considerably
opened up by plantations, settlements and minor towns. A preliminary
trial census conducted on transects along water courses and open
clearings, the preferred haunts of the langurs gave a tentative estimate

Map 2. Map of South Coimbatore forest division (Tamil Nadu State) includ-
ing portions of Munnar forest division (Kerala State) in the Anamalai hills,

Western Ghats.

STATUS OF THE NILG1RI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

25

of about 80 troops in the Thunacadavu and Punachi ranges (Kurup
1973)1. The preferred types of forest habitat may cover approximately
220 sq km in the two ranges.

The species is legally protected in the two ranges of the South
Coimbatore Division and also in the Parambikulam area of the Kerala
forests. But while this protection has helped a great deal in the re-
covery of this species in recent years, the ban was not found effective
in certain areas. This was so around Valparai in Punachi range and
generally in' the Parambikulam area of Kerala State. It is considerably
more difficult to enforce the ban due to the presence of various estates
that dot the hills in the Punachi range. Adequate publicity among the
estate staff and other local people, on the need to preserve this beauti-
ful langur and on the fallacy of attributing medicinal value to its flesh
may help.

On the whole in the Anamalais the species is picking up in most
of the reserve forests. Continuation of the existing ban on its killing
and strict vigilance by the forest departments of the two states con-
cerned should see the species firmly re-established in the Anamalais.
In this connection the creation by the Tamil Nadu Government of
a wild life sanctuary in the Thunacadavu-Punachi ranges of the South
Coimbatore Division is a welcome step.

Cardamom Hills

The Cardamom Hills lie immediately to the south of Anamalai
Hills, (9°27'-10°4' N and 76°52'-77°17' E) with elevations ranging
from 650-1300 m and with a total area of 2439.89 sq km. From the
Anamalais to the north it is separated by the Devikulam plateau. On
the south, the ranges extend as far as the Aryankavu Pass separating
it from the southern spurs of the Western Ghats, which taper off near
Kanyakumari. Except for the Peermade and Periyar areas for which
road connections existed from late last century, the remaining portions,
especially the southern half falling in the Quilon district of Kerala
State were almost inaccessible and truly wild till recently. With the
advent of development in the last decade more and more areas of
what was once primeval forests were increasingly encroached upon
and thrown open for settlement. The two giant hydroelectric projects,
the Sabarigiri Project already completed and the Idikki Project now
underway were mainly instrumental in opening up this area.

An area of 777 sq km is constituted as the Periyar Wild life Sanc-
tuary, with the Periyar lake, formed in the wake of the construction of

1 Kurup, G. U. (1973): Present status of the Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis
johni in the Anamalais, Western Ghats. Indian Forester 99(8) :518-521.

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Periyar Dam in Periyar river, as the focal point. The sanctuary ranges
in elevation from 914 to 1828 m. The meandering lake with its innumer-
able creeks follows the undulating hills that bear mixed miscellaneous
forest interspersed with evergreen forest and grassy summits. Sholas or
slope forests here as well as in other parts of Cardamom hills are most-
ly evergreen whereas the plateau bears deciduous and mixed miscellane-
ous forests.

Map 3. Map of Periyar Sanctuary, in the Cardamom Hills (Kerala State) of

Western Ghats.

Altogether 12 localities (map 3) both within and outside the
sanctuary were specially surveyed by transecting likely areas. A number
of boat trips were also made to different areas surrounding the lake.
In a week’s survey of the lake part of the sanctuary only twelve troops
were seen, besides three more heard calling. This is in addition to the
two troops that are living on either side of the approach road to the
boat landing at Thekkadi (the headquarters of the Sanctuary) whose
presence had created an initial impression of abundance of these
langurs in the sanctuary. This impression was soon proved to be errone-
ous. Though the Forest Department personnel as well as other local
knowledgeable people stated that the langurs are more numerous than
the sighting records would suggest, yet they also agreed that they are
by no means abundant or quite common in the interior. It was also
told that they are present in far better numbers towards the more
inaccessible eastern parts of the sanctuary i.e.; in the Malapara Pakuti.

STATUS OF THE NILGIRl LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI

27

It was believed locally that the majority of the population in the
sanctuary lived in areas near the border with Tamil Nadu.

Areas towards the west and south of Thekkadi and those around
Peermade and Sabarimala plateau proved to be very disappointing.
These are more opened up with plantations and recently laid out roads
in the wake of the Sabarigiri Pamba Hydroelectric Project and also
due to the tremendous annual Pilgrimage to the forest temple of
Sabarimala. Moreover, considerable acreage (c 4922 acres of Eucalyptus
alone by Forest Department), has been developed into plantations of
rubber and eucalyptus here. Biotope is also rather different here from
that of Thekkadi forests due to lesser rainfall. Most of the langurs have
consequently fled from these areas with the exception of very interior
areas. Not even a single troop was sighted in the forests immediately
around Vandiperiyar, Anathod, Pamba and Sabarimala although local-
ly it was told that they are sporadically seen in the interior forests,
but in small numbers. Thus the position of the species in these parts
of the sanctuary appears to be unsatisfactory.

After a survey lasting a little less than a month, a tentative estimate
is that there might be only less than a hundred troops in the sanctuary.

In the areas lying north to the sanctuary towards Panniyar, Kallar,
Bodimettu etc., on way to Devikulam they are said to be more numer-
ous but due to lack of time these areas could not be visited. They are
also said to hold their own in the forests to the south-west of the sanctu-
ary in portions of Pathanamthitta taluk of Quilon district. In all these
areas their favourite haunts are the shola forests.

Nilgiri Hills

The status in the Nilgiri ranges which conferred the common name
on these langurs is alarming. These ranges along with the high ranges
of Anamalai Hills constitute the most magnificent mountains of the
Western Ghats. Many peaks rise to more than 2250 m in elevation,
the highest being the Dodabetta peak near Ootacamund with a height
of 2634 m, second only to Anaimudi peak in Anamalais, the highest
in Peninsular India. On the whole these ranges can be divided into three
zones: (1) the lower slopes of the hill ranges up to c 1500 m (2) the
highland rolling hills and the high table lands above this and (3) the
vast plateau country at c 1000 m on the north-west side extending to
Mysore State. The lower slopes bear mainly tropical wet evergreen and
tropical deciduous forest depending on the rainfall, the latter type being
more extensive on the eatern face of the ranges. There is also a narrow
belt of tropical semi evergreen mostly as an associated strip along with
tropical evergreen. The highlands which are now mostly cleared land

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

are almost extensively developed into plantations. There are only
sharply circumscribed patches of forests here which are of the wet
temperate type. In the extensive lower plateau country where the fam-
ed Mudumalai and Bandipur sanctuaries are situated, the forests are
of a typical deciduous type presenting the appearance of a “Savanna”
with a sprinkling of well distributed trees.

The Nilgiri langurs are now practically confined to the second zone
the patchy forests of the highlands. This naturally bodes ill for their
survival and is a cause of concern.

Most of the Nilgiri district was covered by Jeep travelling approxi-
mately, 2500 km in the highlands, plateau and low lands of the dis-
trict. The entire Mudumalai Sanctuary was intensively surveyed. In all
this area only six troops were actually sighted four near Paikara, and
the other two at Naduvattom. In fact, from all accounts, it ap-
pears that the Paikara area including, Mukirti, Glenmorgan and Nilgiri
Peak and areas around is the remaining stronghold of these langurs
But even here they are no means common. Two or three
wayside troops near about Paikara, being often and repeatedly sighted
have helped to create a wrong impression of plentiful presence of these
langurs in this area. Forest department personnel who are also appar-
ently taken in by this belief readily admitted that they are rather un-
common in the interior forests. But on the whole, the consensus of
knowledgeable local opinion was that there is an appreciable population
of these langurs in this area still and this is the major habitat contain-
ing the lion’s share of the population in the whole district.

More intensive surveys conducted during a fortnight in the Mudu-
malai Sanctuary proved beyond doubt that they are totally absent there
and in the adjacent Sigur range, and in fact from the entire plateau
country around 1000 m. In the Nilgiri district they are thus confined
to areas above 2000 m in elevation like Paikara-Naduvattom area
mentioned above forming a narrow strip on the western escarpment of
the Nilgiri ranges. It is curious that these langurs which are found
around 700 m in Anamalais and 1000 m at Cardamom Hills are totally
absent from these elevations at Nilgiris and are confined to the still
higher areas above 2000 m.

Of all the three segments of the Western Ghats dealt here, it is at
once obvious that the Nilgiri area is the one most depleted in popul-
ation of the Nilgiri Langur. This is no doubt due to the more “deve-
loped” state of this district compared to other hill tracts considered
here, with the steady encroachment on the forests by plantations, settle-
ments, development projects and the general urbanisation process.
The forest department should take special care to safeguard the remain-
ing population of these langurs in the Paikara-Naduvattom area and
its interior forests. There should not be any further expansion of the

STATUS OF THE N1LGIRI LANGUR, PRESBYTIS JOHNI 29

Wattle and Eucalyptus plantations in these areas. A concerted publicity
drive by the forest department in collaboration with the Nilgiri Game
Association appears necessary.

In conclusion it appears that human persecution coupled with
habitat destruction by encroachment on the forests are the main reason
for the decline of the species in recent times and that wherever they
are afforded protection from these two destructive factors, they are
recouping themselves without any other help. So it can be safely said
that given adequate protection in these respects and supported by
effective publicity on the need for its conservation and exposing the
myth of its medicinal value, the Nilgiri langur population in all these
areas have still the vitality and resilience to recoup itself in a short
time.

Note added in proof

During a recent status-cum-habitat survey of the Liontailed Macaque,
Macaca silenus in the Western Ghats conducted in Oct-Nov. 1974, it was found
that the Nilgiri Langur is establishing itself well in most portions of its original
habitat where human persecution is not acute. Additional areas in which the
species was met with or reported are: Malabar : Silent Valley and Mukkali
forests in Attapadi, Nilambur forests. Anamalais : Varagaliyar and Ulandi
sholas near Topslip; Marayoor and Topstation forests near Munnar. Carda-
mom Hills: Kallar Valley in Achankovit range. Southern Spurs : Tenmalai
forests; Papanasam Upper slopes and Singampatty ranges. Neyyar forests. In
some of the sholas in the above areas troops were met with every two km. It
now appears that habitat preservation and protection from poaching are all that
are necessary for the preservation of the species and that it is unaffected by
non-destructive human habitation.

Orchids of Nepal -9

M. L. Banerji1 2 and B. B. Thapa3
{With five text figures )

The genera that are placed under Ophryoideae are treated in this
instalment. The tribes had been divided into two by Schlecter, while
Schultes and Pease divide them into seven sub-tribes. The arrangement
of the genera is alphabetical.

Artificial key to the genera

A Lip not spurred, concave at base Herminium (Habenarieae)

AA Lip spurred _

B Stem bearing a single leaf Hemipilia (Platanthereae)

BB Stem leafy, atleast at the base -

C Spurs two Satyrium (Satyrieae)

CC Spur one -

D Stigmatic surface flat, almost confluent Platanthera

(Platanthereae)

DD Stigmatic surface not flat, but separated as swellings or stand

out as appendages Habenaria (Habenarieae)

Habenaria Willd.

One of the largest genera of Orchids. Terrestrial plants, usually
growing from tubers, rarely from a short rhizome; stem simple and
erect; bearing few to many basal and cauline leaves which are thin,
usually broad, and sheathing at the base. Inflorescence is terminal,
usually fairly long of many small or large flowers, dorsal sepal and
petals usually form a hood over the column; lateral sepals usually
spreading or reflexed; lip spurred and the blade variously shaped,
simple, 3 lobed or 3 partite; column short consisting mainly of anther,
usually with a small auricle on either side; pollinia 2, separate, clavate
or pyriform, the caudicle enclosed in long or short often prominent
tubes and separated more or less widely by the rostellum. Stigmas 2,
usually separated, convex or on elongated processes on either side of
the base of the column, often joined to the base of the lip and auricles,
while in some others flat and joined below the rostellum.

There is considerable variation in the details of the structure of the
column, especially as regards the stigmas, and some authors have ad-
opted a division of the genus on the basis of the structure of the stigma.
Thus, J. J. Smith (1905) divides Habenaria into three genera — Platan-

1 Accepted August 31, 1972.

2 University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal.

3 Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 3i

thera, Peristylus and Habenaria proper; Schlecter (1926) recognises
only two divisions — Peristylus and Habenaria. According to Holttum
(1953) though such divisions may appear distinct in a limited number
of species, they are said not to be sharply separable when all the known
species are considered. Summerhayes (1951) split the group into dis-
tinct genera. Santapau & Kapadia (1960) regard Platanthera and Peri-
stylus as genera which are independent from Habenaria. In the words
of Schultes & Pease (1963) “some prefer as in the case of Habenaria,
to recognise large and inclusive generic concepts, while others more
readily separate sections as good genera. There is here no question
of right or wrong, but one of personal evaluation.” According to Haw-
kes (1965), Gymnadenia is often included in Habenaria Willd., and
Peristylus is in actuality closer in relationship to Herminium R. Br.
Quoting Schweinfurth (1959) “for instance Leucorchis E. Mey., Gymn-
adenia L. C. Rich., Coeloglossum Hart., Platanthera L. C. Rich., Blep-
hari glottis Raf. and Perularia Lindl. should be regarded, we believe, as
referable to the exceedingly polymorphic genus Habenaria Willd. as
also Pectelis Raf., Gymnadeniopsis Rydb., and doubtless others”. We
have treated Platanthera as distinct from Habenaria on grounds of the
character of the stigmatic surface.

Plantanthera is a name given to those species which have a flat
stigmatic surface, usually continuous but sometimes slightly divided
beneath the rostellum, very much like the stigma of most orchids. The
other divisions of Habenaria all have two separate stigmas, which are
convex or more or less elongated often club-shaped. If the stigmas are
convex and entirely united to the base of the lip and to the auricles
of the column, we have the Peristylus condition; if the stigmas are long
and cylindric or club-shaped, we have Habenaria proper. In Haben-
aria proper, the stigmas are often quite long and prominent, they are
usually below and shorter than the tubes containing the caudicles of
the pollinia.

Artificial key to the species of Habenaria1
A Lateral sepals spreading, deflexed or reflexed -

B Lip 3-partite almost to the base into 3 narrow lobes -

C Sepals with filiform tips, spur equalling the ovary stenopetala

CC Sepals obtuse, spur shorter than the ovary aitchisoni

BB Lip 3-lobed and spurred -

C’ Side lobes lacerate to the middle, midlobe linear-—

D Spur rather longer than the ovary -

E Petals pubescent, broader than the dorsal sepal

arietina

EE Petals glabrous, linear, narrower than the dorsal sepal
pectinata

1 Habenaria arcuata Lindl. has been recorded from Phulchowki (Nepal) by
Hara (1971).

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 72(1)

DD Spur twice as long as the ovary intermedia

C’C’ Sidelobes fimbriate, hardly longer than the lateral sepals -

D’ Spur twice as long as the ovary conopsea

D’D’ Spur longer than the ovary dentata

C’C’C’ Sidelobes much longer than the lateral sepals -

D” Spike lax flowered; lip flabelliform, sidelobes entire or toothed

plantaginea

D”D” Spike dense flowered; lip very large, sidelobes hatchet-shaped,

crenulate triflora

C’C’C’C’ Sidelobes very narrow, fiiliform, horizontal, spur much shorter

than the ovary aristata

BBB Lip 3 lobed, spur almost absent or saccate; spike densely flowered,

flowers small fallax

BBBB Lip entire -

E Spur shorter than the ovary densa

EE Spur longer than the ovary, upturned latilabris

AA Lateral sepals erect or ascending, parallel to the dorsal petal, rarely at
length spreading or deflexed-

B’ Lip usually 3-fid or 3-partite; flowers usually small —

F Spur longer than the sepals, incurved bicornuta

FF Spur shorter than the sepals -

G Stem more than 60 cm long, leaves petioled constricta

GG Stem less than 60 cm long; leaves hardly petioled

c goody eroides

B’B’ Lip entire -

H Flowers large c 1.2 cm across; lip shortly clawed, spur short,

conical galeandra

HH Flowers small c 0.8 cm across; lip recurved, terminal half solid

and terete, spur inflated urceolata

HHH Flowers large c 1.25 cm across; lip lanceolate, 3-nerved entire;

spur slender, curving and longer than the straight ovary

stenantha

Habenaria aitchisoni Reichb. f. in Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. 3:113, 1886;
F. B. I. 6:152, 1890; King & Pantl. 311, t. 408, 1898; Kitamura, 102,
1955.

Flowers greenish, fragrant, c 1.2 cm in diam., bracts linear-lanceolate,
shorter than the ovary; sepals subequal, oblong-ovate, obtuse, 3-nerved,
lateral sepals spreading, dorsal erect, petals as long as the sepals, ovate-
lanceolate, 1 nerved. Lip straight, as the sepals, 3-partite above the
base, side segments longest, spreading and recurved, mid segment

straight, spur shorter than the curved ovary, c 6 mm long and curved
forwards. Flowering time from July to August. Collected from Banku-
khola at 3500 m. Authority Kitamura.

H. arietina Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 138, 1890; King & Pantl. 311, t.
407, 1898. H. pectinata Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 341, 1830. [non H.
pectinata (Sm.) Don]

Flowers white or light greenish, fragrant, c 5 cm in diam., sepals gib-
bously dilated on the outer margin; petals broader than the sepals,
pubescent. Lip lobed only for about f of its length, sidelobes pectinate

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 33

but with fewer teeth, midlobe shorter than the sidelobes, linear, spur
much longer than the ovary, 2.5-3 cm long, tip swollen. Flowering
during July and August. Collected from Sheopuri, Bagdoar, Sundari-
jal-Manichur area. Distributed between 1800-2100 m. This species is
very similar to H. pectinata (Sm.) Don, in habit and appearance but
the pectinate lip is different.

H. aristata Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 158, 1890; King & Pantl. 312, t.
409, 1898.

Flowers green, c 1.5 cm in diam., sepals subequal, linear, lateral sepals
turned upwards and spreading, petals conniving with the dorsal sepal
to form a hood, ovate-lanceolate, base oblique. Lip slightly longer
than the sepals, hastately tripartite, sidelobes filiform and horizontally
spreading, midlobe linear and shorter than the sidelobes, spur much
shorter than the ovary, curved. Flowering time during July and August.
Collected from Bagdoar at c 2290 m.

H. bicornuta Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 156, 1890; Hara, 437, 1966.
Peristylus richardianus Wight, Icon. t. 1097, 1851.

Spike dense flowered, flowers c 10-12 mm across, dorsal sepal oblong,
faintly 5 nerved, lateral sepals linear, obtuse spreading, petals as long
as the lateral sepals, elliptic, 1 nerved. Lip tripartite, segments fili-
form, side lobes longer than the sepals, recurved, midlobe shorter and
straight, spur clavate, incurved. Collected from Phulchowki.

H. conopsea Benth. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 18: 345, 1880; Butcher, A new
111. Brit. FI. pt. 2, 740, 1961. Gymnadenia conopsea R. Br. in Ait. Hort.
Kew, ed. 2, 5: 191, 1813; Kitamura, 102, 1955.

Spike rather long and dense flowered, flowers 10 mm across, fragrant,
sepals reddish-lilac, lateral sepals spreading, petals linear-lanceolate,
slightly united with the dorsal sepal. Lip red with 3 equal rounded
lobes, spur filiform, twice as long as the ovary. Authority Kitamura.

H. constricta Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 161, 1890; King & Pantl. 325,
t. 429, 1898.

Flowers greenish, white, bracts lanceolate, equal to or longer than the
ovary; lateral sepals linear-lanceolate, dorsal sepal lanceolate, petals
longer, ovate-oblong, gibbous on the lower side. Lip rather longer than
the sepals, 3 -fid to the middle, sidelobes slender, longer than the mid-
lobe, sometimes variable in size, spur broadly globular and very short,
claw hardly any. Flowering during July and August. Collected from
Nagarjung. Distributed at 1500 to 1600 m.

H. desisa Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 326, 1835; F. B. I. 6:
153, 1890; King & Pantl. 319, t. 420, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955; Hara
437, 1966.

3

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Fig. 1. Flower and lips of Habenaria dentata (Sw.) Schltr. Fig. 2. Habenaria

stenopetala Lindl.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9 35

Flowers small, 4 mm across, erect, bracts ciliolate and longer than the
ovary; sepals obtuse, thick, 3 nerved, puberulous, petals nearly as
long, obliquely ovate or narrower, obtuse, fleshy, yellowish-green. Lip
linear, obtuse, as long as the sepals, spur half as long as the ovary.
Flowering time July and August. Collected from Chandragiri, Lamjura.

H. dentafa (Sw.) Schltr. Orch. Sino-JaP. 125, 1919; Kitamura, 103,
1955; Hara 437, 1966. Orchis dentata Swartz, in Ved. Acad. Handl.
Stockh. 207, 1800. Platanthera dentata (Sw.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec.
Orch. 296, 1835. Habenaria geniculata D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25,
1825; F. B. I. 6; 136, 1890; King & Pantl. 309, t. 405, 1898, (Fig. 1).
Spike dense, flowers dull greenish, c. 2.5 cm across, lateral sepals
acute, petals linear-oblong. Lip suborbicular, sidelobes cuneate or
rounded, fimbriate or crenate, midlobe small, much shorter, oblong,
spur subclavate, longer than the ovary. Flowering during July and
August. Collected from Nagarjung. Distributed at 1525 to 1675 m. In
F. B. I. the colour of the flowers is given as white, but we have not
seen any specimen with white flowers.

H. fallax (Lindl.) King & Pantl. in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Cal. 8:325,
t. 428, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955. Herminium fallax Lindl. in Wall.
Cat. (Nomen nudum); F.B.I. 6:129, 1890. Peristylus fallax Lindl. Gen.
et Spec. Orch. 298, 1835.

Leaf solitary; spike lax flowered, flowers green, bracts equalling the
ovary, sepals spreading, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, 1 nerved, broader
than the petals, petals erect, falcate. Lip shorter than the sepals,
hastately 3 lobed, side lobes slightly diverging, midlobe longer than
the sidelobes, spur saccate, tip inflated. Flowering during July and
August. Collected from Sheopuri, Tarebhir, Lamjura. Distributed from
1650 to 2850 m.

H. galeandra (Reichb. f.) Benth. FI. Hongk. 363, 1861; F.B.I. 6:163,
1890. Platanthera galendra Reichb. f. in Linnaea, 25:226, 1852.

Spike 5-8 cm long, flowers pale purple, c 1 cm across, dorsal sepal
ovate or narrowly lanceolate, lateral sepals falcately lanceolate, spread-
ing, petals rather shorter and narrower than the sepals, obtuse. Lip
broadly obovate or obcordate, sidelobes recurved, spur short, conical
saccate. Flowering during June to August. Collected from Sheopuri
at c 1825 m.

H. goodyeroides D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25, 1825; F.B.I. 6:161, 1890;
King & Pantl. 326, t. 430, 1898; Holttum 86, 1953. Peristylus goody-
eroides (Don) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 299, 1835; Sant. & Kapad.
in Journ. Bom. nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 133, 1960.

Spike 15 to 20 cm long, flowers small, c 8-10 mm across, yellowish-
green, crowded, bracts narrowly lanceolate, sepals green turning reddish

% JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

with age, dorsal sepal 6 mm long, ovate oblong, lateral sepals a bit
longer, obliquely obovate-oblong, obtuse, petals gibbously ovate, spread-
ing, creamy or greenish-white. Lip as long as the sepals, trilobed at
the anterior part, recurved, sidelobes linear-oblong, longer than the
midlobe and diverging, midlobe broad, and tapering to blunt apex,
spur minute, fusiform. Flowering during July. Collected from Chainpur
to Mialay at c 1825 m, locality unrecorded (Banerji).

H. intermedia D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 24, 1825; F.B.I. 6:38, 1890.
Flowers few and distant, very large c 5 cm across, white or greenish-
white, dorsal sepal recurved, white inside, lateral sepals falcately lance-
olate, tips reflexed, narrower than the petals, acuminate, 5 nerved, petals
falcate, obovate, strongly 5 nerved, glabrous. Lip longer than the sepals,
3 lobed to about 2/ 3rd of its length, green or yellowish-green, base
narrow and white, sidelobes deeply fringed, midlobe entire, as long as
the sidelobes, spur twice as long as the ovary, c 3 cm, very stout and
swollen towards the tip. Flowering during August. Collected from
Gumuraung to Sard at 2300 m. Authority Kitamura.

H. latilabris (Lindl.) Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:153, 1890; King & Pantl.
321, t. 423, 1898; Hara, 438, 1966. Platanthera latilabris Lindl. Gen.
et Spec. Orch. 289, 1835. P. acuminata Lindl. loc. cit. 289, 1835.

Spike lax, flowers green, 8-14 mm across, bracts lanceolate longer than
the ovary, sepals ciliolate, 3-5 nerved, dorsal sepal broadest, orbicular,
lateral sepals ovate, deflexed, petals as long as the lateral sepals, broad-
ly ovate, fleshy, base slightly gibbous. Lip linear, spur stout and up-
turned, longer than the ovary. Flowering during August. Collected from
Bagdoar.

H. pectinata (Sm.) D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 24, 1825; F.B.I. 6:137,
1890; King & Pantl. 310, t. 406, 1898. Orchis pectinata Smith, Exot.
Bot. 2:77, 1805. Habenaria ensifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 321,
1835.

Spike may be as long as 20 cm, flowers large c. 4.0 cm across, white
or greenish-white, crowded, dorsal sepal lanceolate, erect, lateral sepals
ovate-lanceolate, petals linear-falcate, narrower than the sepals, obtuse,
3-5 nerved, glabrous. Lip as long as the sepals, 3 lobed nearly to the
base, sidelobes deeply fringed, comb-like, midlobe linear, longer than
the sidelobes, spur as long as the ovary, 2.5-3 cm long, geniculate,
swollen at the tip. Flowering during August. Collected from Bagdoar,
Lokwa (Kitamura). Distributed at about 2300 m.

H. plantaginea Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 323, 1835; F.B.I. 6:141,
1890.

Spike 5-7.5 cm long, flowers white, sepals small, subequal, acute, 3
nerved, dorsal sepal ovate-oblong, lateral sepals falcate, oblong, petals

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

37

linear-lanceolate. Lip broad, twice as long as the lateral sepals, flabel-
liform, sidelobes semi-ovate entire or faintly toothed, midlobe as long,
linear, spur as long as the ovary, green. Flowering during September.
Collected from Banepa to Dolaghat at 916 m.

H. stenantha File. f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 6:153, 1890; King & Pantl. 314,
t. 412, 1898.

Flowers green with lip yellowish, c. 1.75-2.25 cm in diam., bracts linear-
lanceolate, equalling the ovary in the lower flowers but shorter in the
upper ones, sepals unequal, 3 -nerved, dorsal sepal concave, broadly
ovate, erect, lateral sepals small, ovate-elliptic, reflexed, petals longer
than the dorsal sepal, erect, 1 nerved. Lip longer than the sepals,
lanceolate, spur longer than the ovary, curved, slightly widening to-
wards the tip. Flowering time during July and August. Collected from
Junbesi to Taksindhu. This species closely resembles H. latilabris but
differs in the shape of the petals which are erect and in the character
of the bracts.

H. stenopetaJa Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 219, 1835; F.B.I. 6: 134,
1890; King & Pantl. 308, t. 404, 1898. (Fig. 2).

Flowers greenish-yellow, sepals oblong-lanceolate, membraneous 3
nerved, tips filiform, segments of petals slender, equal or the lower
shorter or even absent. Lip tripartite, lobes filiform, lateral lobes
longer than the midlobe or as long as it, spur equalling the ovary.
Flowering during August and September. Collected from Bagdoar,
Sheopuri, Godavari, locality unknown (Herklotts). Distributed at c.
2430 m.

H. triflora D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 25, 1825; F.B.I. 6:142, 1890 (Fig. 3).
Sepals suberect, dorsal sepal oblong-ovate, lateral sepals oblong-lanceo-
late, petals small, linear-subulate, 1 nerved. Lip very large, sidelobes
semi-oblong, hatchet-shaped, crenulate, midlobe shorter, linear; spur
very slender, as long as the ovary, slightly thickened at the tip. Flower-
ing from July to early September. Collected from Bagdoar, Lamjura,
locality unknown (Herklotts). Distributed at 1525 to 2135 m.

He urceolata C.B.C1. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 25:73, t. 30, 1889; F.B.I. 6:
165, 1890; King & Pantl. 316, t. 415, 1898.

Racemes 5-7.5 cm long, flowers white or rosy, sepals white or rosy,
petals 1 nerved. Lip recurved, lanceolate, terminal half solid, acumi-
nate, green, spur inflated and as long as the sepals. Flowering during
August. Collected from Lamjura at 3650 m.

Hemipilia Lindl.

These are singularly attractive terrestrial orchids. The name pro-
bably alludes to the sparsely hirsute lip of the type species. Accord-

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Fig. 3. Habenaria triflora D. Don. Fig. 4. Hemipilia cordifolia Lindl. Fig. 5.
Flowers of Hermimium angustifolium (Lindl.) Benth. a. normal flower; b.
abnormal (peloric) flower.

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

39

ing to Hawkes, the flowers closely simulate, superficially atleast, some
sort of Habenaria. However, they are terrestrial, tuberous herbs with
a single broad radical leaf. The flowers are in lax racemes. The lip is
obscurely 3 lobed, and the spur is trumpet-shaped.

Hemipilia cordifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 296, 1835; F.B.I. 6:
167, 1890; Kitamura, 103, 1955. (Fig. 4).

Plants 16-20 cm high, bearing a single leaf at the base. Leaf 7-8 by
4.5-6.5 cm broadly ovate, fleshy. Racemes few to many flowered,
flowers purple c 1.0- 1.5 cm across. Bracts about half the length of the
ovary, sepals equal in length, dorsal sepal oblong, obtuse, erect, lateral
sepals spreading, falcate, oblong petals smaller than the sepals, erect,
forming a hood, broadly ovate, entire. Lip obscurely trilobed, sidelobes
rounded, midlobe broad, subcrenate, spur shorter than the ovary, curved,
tip faintly 2-lobed upturned. Flowering during August and September.
Collected from Tarebhir-Manichur area, Gurmurang (Kitamura). Dis-
tributed at 1825 m.

Herminium R. Br.

Herminium is a genus of mostly small flowered, rather insignificant
terrestrial orchids. Although rare in cultivation these allies of Haben-
aria Willd. are attractive. Plants are small, erect, tuberous herbs with
oblong tubers and with a solitary or few leaves. The Herminia can be
distinguished from Habenarias by the characteristic lip, which is never
with a spur but is provided with a saccate or gibbous base. Although
it is mentioned by Hooker that the Indian Herminia attain the greatest
elevation of any orchid, we have not collected any member from a
high altitude.

Artificial key to the species of Herminium
Lip distinctly 3 lobed -

Lip deeply 3 lobed near the apex angustifolium

Lip 3 lobed near the base and very minute jaffreyanum

Lip quite entire (sidelobes very faint) -

Sides of lip dilated, lip longer than sepals, flowers c 3-4 mm in diam.,

green congestum

Sides of lip not dilated,' lip shorter than sepals, flowers c 2-3.5 mm
in diam., yellowish monophyllum

Herminium angustifolium (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hk. f. in FI. Brit. Ind.
6:129, 1890; King & Pantl. 332, t. 434, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955;
Hara, 439, 1966. Aceras angustifolia Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 282,
1835. (Fig. 5).

Spike 5-10 cm long, flowers decurrent, small, 1.5 cm in diam., sepals
oblong, obtuse, dorsal sepal and petals forming a hood, petals linear,

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

very narrow, 1 nerved, acute, membraneous. Lip as long as the sepals,
trifid beyond the middle, sidelobes filiform, curved, longer than the
midlobe, midlobe very short. Flowering during July and August. Col-
lected from Pheda to Charikot, Manichur, Sheopuri area, Aga (Kita-
mura). Distributed at 2050 to 2400 m.

H. congestum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 305, 1835; F.B.I. 6:130, 1890;
King & Pantl. 355, t. 440, 1898; Kitamura, 103, 1955.

Spike 3-7 cm long, dense flowered, flowers minute, c 3-4 mm in diam.,
decurved, sepals, obtuse, dorsal sepal broadly ovate to orbicular, late-
ral sepals oblong to broadly oblong, petals ovate, equalling the sepals,
fleshy. Lip entire, ovate or triangular-ovate, fleshy, sides faintly dilated
into lobes, base saccate. Authority Kitamura.

H. jaffreyanum King & Pantl. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65:130, 1895;
et Orch. Sikkim Himal. 333, t. 436, 1898.

Spike 3. 5-7.5 cm long, densely flowered, flowers 2-2.5 mm in diam.,
sepals broadly ovate-elliptic, concave, slightly spreading, petals narrow-
ly oblong, obtuse, longer than the sepals. Lip 3 lobed near the base,
side lobes very small and rounded, midlobe elongate with a blunt apex.
Flowering during August and September. Collected from Charikot-
Kalinchok area at 3200 m. This species can be distinguished from H.
angustifolium on the characters of the lip and sepals. It also resembles
H. monophyllum which has a single leaf, floral bracts are longer than
the flowers, and the lip is entire.

H. monophyllum (D. Don) P. F. Hunt & Summerhayes in Kew Bull.
20(1) :51, 1966. Neottia monophyllum D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 27,
1825. Herminium gramineum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 305, 1835;
F.B.I. 6:131, 1890.

Spike lax flowered, flowers minute c. 2-3.5 mm in diam., yellowish,
suberect, dorsal sepal oblong or broadly ovate, lateral sepals ovate,
obtuse, spreading, petals erect, linear, falcate, as long as the sepals,
thick. Lip flat, ovate, acuminate, equalling or shorter than the sepals,
base concave, saccate. Flowering during August. Collected from Chau-
bas to Risingo, Buludanda to Risingo, Tarebhir. Common at 1985 m

Platanthera L. C. Rich.

This is a group of terrestrial orchids which are sometimes included
in Habenaria Willd. from which it is separated on technical data. The
name refers to the unusual width of the anthers.

Artificial key to the species of Platanthera

Lip pectinate, petals smaller than the sepals susannae

Lip entire and blunt, petals equalling the sepals bakeriana

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL — 9

41

Platanthera bakeriana (King & Pantl.) Kraenzl. Orch. Gen. et Spec.
1:611, 1898; Hara, 448, 1966. Habenaria bakeriana King & Pantl. in
Jorun. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65:132, 1895 et Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc.
314, t. 413, 1898; Hara, 189, 1971.

Spike 10-15 cm long, laxly flowered; sepals oblong-lanceolate, dorsal
sepal conniving with the petals forming a hood, lateral sepals reflexed,
petals as long as the sepals, broadly ovate, oblique, subacute, base
broad. Lip fleshy, oblong, blunt, slightly broader towards the base,
entire, equalling the lateral sepals, spur long, slender, twice as long as
the ovary, curved forwards. Collected from Phulchowki.

P. susannae (Linn.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 295, 1835; Sant, in Rec.
Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1): 305, 1953, Sant. & Kapad. in Journ. Bomb,
nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 125, 1960. Orchis susannae Linn. Sp. PI. 939,
1753. Habenaria susannae (Linn.) R. Br. ex Spreng, Syst. Veg. 3:622,
1826; F.B.I. 6:137, 1890; Holttum, 81, f. 13, 1955.

Flowers few and large, c 7.5-10 cm in diam., white, fragrant, sepals
spreading, lateral sepals 3.6 by 2.4 cm, oblong, subquadrately ascend-
ing, obtuse, edges reflexed, dorsal sepal broad, rhomboid, spreading,
petals small, linear, 1.5 cm long, acute. Lip not longer than the sepals,
3 lobed near to the base, sidelobes truncate, pectinate, midlobe 3 cm
long linear or dilated downwards, spur twice as long as the ovary, 10-
12 cm long. Flowering during August and September. Collected from
Markhu, at c. 1525 m.

Satyrium Sw.

Terrestrial leafy erect orchids with the root system consisting of
several ovoid or globular tubers with numerous fleshy roots. When the
large tubers perish after producing the flowering stem, the smaller
tubers gradually increase in size, and later produce flowering stems.
Because of the presumed aphrodisiacal properties possessed by the
tubers the plants are much sought after and possibly it is for this reason
that plants of Satyrium nepalensis are rather rare in the surroundings
of Kathmandu valley.

Satyrium nepalensis D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 26, 1825; F.B.I. 6:168,
1890; King & Pantl. 338, t. 444, 1898; Kitamura, 104, 1955.

Flowering stem even up to 60 cm long, flowers crowded, c. 8-16 mm
in diam., from dark pink to white, fragrant, sepals linear oblong, obtuse,
spreading and recurved, petals rather narrower than the sepals. Lip
broadly oblong, concave, strongly keeled on the back, spurs two, longer
than the sepals and as long as the ovary. Flowering during September
and October. Collected from Chandragiri, Chaubas to Risingo, Nava-
pati to Risingo, Rolkhani to Tamchee, Kokwa (Kitamura), Bangu-
khola (Kitamura). Distributed between 2250 to 3500 m.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

var. ciliata King & Pantl. 339, 1898. S. ciliatum Lindl. Gen. et Spec.
Orch. 340, 1835.

Spur hardly longer than the sepals. Collected from Tarebhir to Nagi,
Borlong forest at 1980 m.

forma albifiora has been described by Tuyama in Hara’s FI. Eastern
Himal., but we are of the opinion that there is a great variation of
colour, thus a forma on colour is not proper. However, plants with
light pink flowers which were collected from Godavari Botanic Garden,
Kathmandu, were grown in the Indian Co-operation Mission, Kath-
mandu garden and during the following year the flowers that appear-
ed had a deeper colour. King & Pantl. (loc. cit.) have also mentioned
that occasionally flowers are pure white.

(to be continued )

A new species of spider of
the genus Cheiracanthium
Koch (Family Clubionidae)

from India1

B. K. Tjkader
{With four text -figures )

The Spiders of the family Clubionidae are little known in India,
I have described previously (1962) a single species of this genus Cheir-
acanthium and subsequently Patel & Patel described a second spe-
cies (1973). This is the third species to be described from India. While
examining the spider collection received from Shri J. C. Daniel, Cura-
tor, Bombay Natural History Society, I came across a new species of
spider, of the genus Cheiracanthium, which is described here.

Cheiracanthium danieli sp. nov.2

General : Cephalothorax and abdomen light brownish-green, legs
pale-green. Total length 6.30 mm. Carapace 3.00 mm long, 2.20 mm
wide; abdomen 3.40 mm long, 1.80 mm wide.

Cephalothorax'. Longer than wide, wider in front, clothed with fine
hairs, moderately convex, cephalic region slightly higher than posterior
region. Eyes pearly white, anterior row straight and posterior row pro-
curved; lateral eyes nearly contiguous; medians oval and white, slightly
larger than laterals. Chelicerae strong, nearly vertical and dark brown
in colour, inner margin provided with two equal teeth but other margin
with one tooth large and another very small. Maxillae and labium (Fig.
2) provided with deep brown colour. Sternum heart-shaped pointed
behind, clothed with hairs. Legs long, stout, clothed with hairs. Femora
I and II provided with a dorsal long spine. Male palp as in text fig. 4.

Abdomen ; Rather long, narrowed posteriorly, clothed with pubes-
cence and some long hairs. Ventral side uniform pale colour. Epigyne
as in text fig. 3.

1 Accepted February 20, 1974.

2 It is with much pleasure that I have named this species after Shri J. C.
Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, who collected this specimen
for my study.

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Cheirdcanthium danieli sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted. Fig. 2. Maxillae and labium. Fig. 3
Epigyne. Fig. 4. Male palp.

45

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS CIIEIR ACANTHIU M

Holotype : One female, allotype, one male in spirit.

Type locality : Borivli National Park, Bombay, India Coll J. C.
Daniel. 25.i.l974 and allotype from Western Regional Station, Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Shivajinagar, Poona - 5 Coll. B. K. Tikader,
3 1-i- 1974.

This species resembles Cheiracanthium saraswatii Tikader, but it is
separated as follows: (i) Chelicerae, maxillae and labium conspicu-
ously dark brown in colour, but in C. saraswatii chelicerae, maxillae and
labium not conspicuously dark brown colour, (ii) Epigyne and male
palp structurally different.

References

Patel, B. H. & Patel, H. K.
(1973) : On some new species of

spiders of family Clubionidae (Ara-
neae: Arachnida) with record of

genus Castineira Keyserling from
Gujarat, India: Proc. Indian Acad.

Sci. 78(1) : 1-9.

Tikader, B. K. (1972) : Studies on
some Indian Spiders (Araneae: Ara-
chnida) : J. Linn. Soc. London Zool.
44: 568.

Some observations on birds at
high altitude lake sides in
Gosainkund, central Nepal 1 2

Hiroyuki Masatomi

Hokkaido College, Senshu University, Bibai, Hokkaido, Japan

( With a map )

Simple bird censuses by the line transect method were carried
out by the side of high altitude lakes, at about 4,300 m altitude
in Gosainkund, central Nepal on June 4-5, 1968. In total, ten species
and a few unidentified ones were noted in the cirque. Another
five species were observed outside of the census areas. The status
of each species at high elevations in Gosainkund is briefly des-
cribed together with previous records from central Nepal. The
average bird density around the lakes was 13.5 per hour or 4.5
per ha. An unusually high density of 54.0 per hour or 18.1 per ha.
was recorded on 4 June. This high concentration probably was due
to a temporary fall of snow. The density of birds at the lake sides
seemed to be higher than that of other areas, excluding tarns or
streams, at the same altitude in Gosainkund.

Since the middle of the last century reports on the distribution of
birds in Nepal have been published by many authors such as Gray &
Gray (1846), Scully (1879), Smythies (1948, 1950), Proud (1949, 1952,
1955), Ripley (1950), Rand & Fleming (1957), Fleming & Traylor
(1961, 1964), Fleming (1968), etc. Recently Biswas (1960-1966) has
compiled serial catalogues of birds known from Nepal based upon a
bibliographical survey and his original observations. But there are few
ecological observations except the important work by Diesselhorst
(1968) and no record on the actual abundance of Nepalese birds has
yet been given at all.

From March to July 1968, I had an opportunity to observe
many birds from the tarai up to the alpine zone in central Nepal and
on the Kali Gandak watershed in west-central Nepal3 as a member of
the Hokkaido University Scientific Expedition to Nepal Himalaya
1968. While trekking in the country, I tried to census birds in different

1 Scientific results of Hokkaido University Expeditions to the Himalayas,
Zoology No. 5.

2 Accepted February 28, 1973.

3 Divisions of Nepal used here conform to the usage by Biswas (1960).

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

47

habitats. The present paper deals with results obtained at the highest
altitude the party reached.

Habitat and Methods

The Gosainkund Lekh lies at about 40 km northwards of Kath-
mandu, the capital of Nepal. Beneath its crest are seven or more mon-
tane tarns at the head of the Trisuli Khola. Trekking along the trail
running upwards to the pass from the Tadi Khola, I came across only
six small lakes, the upper three of which were completely frozen. Beside
a clear lake at an elevation of about 4,300 m, some huts and an altar
with standing tall flags ( tarcho ) were situated on a slope of debris.
This was the famous sacred lake. Three fourth of its circumference was
encircled by steep rocky inclines and water fell from a northwestern
opening down to a lower lake through a cascade of several metres.

These lakes are henceforth abbreviated as GLA and GLB respec-
tively. Accurate measurements of size and shape of both lakes were not
secured, but the circumference was estimated to be about 850 m in
GLA and 1,200 m in GLB (Map).

The slopes around the lakes were barren rock slides extending up-
wards from about 4,000 m (a few shrubs of rhododendrons were still
occasionally seen). The western sides of both lakes were covered with
dwarf rhododendron scrub; R. anthopogon with pale yellow- white
flowers and R. setosum with pink-rose ones past full bloom. Besides
these, the surroundings were covered with meagre patches of vegetation
composed of Primula and Potentilla both in bloom, mosses, lichens,
and withered sedges. Nematocera, Carabus, Lacon, Eubasilissa nepa-
lensis and small dung beetles were found under or on the debris of the
water’s edge and many active long-legged flies, Hydrophorus, on the
snow. Some earthworms and centipedes were also found under stones
on the scree. Although the quantity of these insects was not accurately
measured at each lake side, food for birds was apparently more abund-
ant at GLA than GLB.

Birds were counted twice at the side of GLA and once at GLB by
line transect method. At first all birds encountered along the GLA
side, covering about 300 x 50 m, were recorded from 8.00 to 8.30 on
June 4. It was cloudy but sometimes fine and the light snow that fell
overnight was 4-6 cm deep. Air temperature was 2°C at 8.00. The
next day was cloudy and the snow in the area had almost thawed. Air
temperature was 0.5°C at 6.00 and the second count was carried out
from 6.30 to 7.30, covering 600 x 50 m along the water side.

All birds were counted near the GLB, covering 1,200 x 50 m, from
15.45 to 18.00 on June 4. On the way the census had to be stopped

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

1 0 km

Nepal Valley <—

Kathmandu

Map. Sketch map of Gosainkund and sacred lakes.

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

49

for about three quarters of an hour due to heavy rain-fall and dense
fog. Air temperature was 6.5°C at 15.15.

Results

Birds encountered during each census are arranged in Table 1.
Absolute number counted, dominance, average density per unit time
and area in each species are shown in Table 2, omitting the result of
the first census which was somewhat peculiar as described in the con-
clusion.

Most of the birds observed were moving about or searching for food
among the rocks at the water’s edge, excepting the following indi-
viduals: Two Prunella preening on rocks away from the water, and two
flying towards the scrub of dwarf rhododendrons; four Anthus hodgsoni
flying over the lakes, two of them holding worms or something similar
between their bills, and one calling from a rock and another doing so
on the wing; A. cervinus giving the alarm call from a stone wall; a
pair of Leucoslicte hopping on the small grass field; one Chaimarrornis
often driving away an Anthus from the debris, and two passing over
the lake at about 2 m high; two male Monticola chasing each other
on the rock slide; a Zoothera taking insects or worms on the ground
under the shade of a large rock; two Tadorna coming from southwest
and flying away towards the eastern crest of the ridge after circular
flights at about 20 m height over my head; a female Ay thy a floating
at the margin of GLB (not seen anywhere next morning); all birds of
uncertain identification were flying rapidly between the rocks or high
overhead.

The status of each species at high altitude in central Nepal is briefly
outlined below. These comments are based upon both original obser-
vations and previous records.

Prunella coUaris nipalensis (Blyth): Eastern Alpine Hedge Sparrow.

Three male specimens collected after the census were all nipalensis.
This subspecies seems to be reported only in central Nepal after Hodg-
son’s collection; that is Smythies’ observation on the Gandak-Kosi
watershed at 4,570 m in September. But it was the most dominant and
common bird along streams and tarns at 4,160-4,500 m in the area
observed along the pilgrim trail.

On June 5, I recorded four birds of this species beneath the pass
hopping on rocks near the frozen lake at 4,500 m, another two birds
were each on different streams at 4,250-4,220 m and finally one was
searching for food on the ground of the cirque at 4,160 m at the head
of the Tadi Khola. Three specimens obtained there had already enlarg-
ed testes, 11-14 x 16-20 mm, indicating that they were just in season.

4

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Table 1

Number of individuals, dominance and density of all species observed in

EACH CENSUS.

Census round GLA Census round GLB

First Second

Species

N

Density per
D hour ha

N

Density per
D hour ha

N

Density per
D hour ha

P. collaris

12

44

24.0

8.0

5

28

5.0

1.7

6

25

2.8

A. roseatus

6

22

12.0

4.0

3

17

3.0

1.0

3

13

1.4

0.5

A. hodgsoni

4

15

8.0

2.7

2

11

2.0

0.7

2

8

0.9

0.3

A. cervinus

2

7

4.0

1.3

2

8

0.9

0.3

C. leucocephalus

1

4

2.0

0.7

2

11

2.0

0.7

4

17

1.9

0.7

L. nemoricola

2

11

2.0

0.7

2

8

0.9

0.3

M. rufiventris

2

8

0.9

0.3

Z. mollissima

1

4

2.0

0.7

T. ferruginea

2

11

2.0

0.7

A. fuligula

1

4

0.5

0.2

Uncertain

1

4

2.0

0.7

2

11

2.0

0.7

2

8

0.9

0.3

Total

27

100

54.0

18.1

18

100

18.0

6.2

24

100

11.1

3.9

N: Number of individuals.

D : Dominance

(%)•

Table 2

Total number of individuals, average dominance and density

EXCEPT THE FIRST ONE AT GLA.

OF CENSUSES

Species

No. of

Dominance

Density per

individuals

(%)

hour

ha

P. collaris

11

26.2

3.4

1.2

A. roseatus

6

14.3

1.9

0.7

A. hodgsoni

4

9.5

1.3

0.4

A. cervinus

2

4.8

0.7

0.2

C. leucocephalus

6

14.3

1.9

0.7

L. nemoricola

4

9.5

1.3

0.4

M. rufiventris

2

4.8

0.7

0.2

T. ferruginea

2

4.8

0.7

0.2

T. fuligula

1

2.4

0.3

0.1

Uncertain

4

9.5

1.3

0.4

Total

42

100

13.5

4.5

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

51

The individuals caught by Diesselhorst (1968) in eastern Nepal from
late June to mid August also had well developed gonads and he sug-
gested that their breeding would begin in June.

Anthus roseatus Blyth: Hodgson’s Pipit.

Smythies (1948) did not come across this bird at Gosainkund in
autumn, though Scully (1879), Proud (1955), and Rand & Fleming
(1957) found it not uncommon in the Nepal Valley in winter and
Polunin (1955) recorded it as abundant at about 3,000 m up in central
Nepal in summer. It seems to be common at about 4,300-4,700 m in
west-central Nepal (Lowndes 1955) and breeds in the alpine zone in
Nepal (Biswas 1960; Diesselhorst 1968).

I came across these birds at 4,160-4,300 m in Gosainkund. A speci-
men caught around the lake had developed testes 8x5 mm, and many
bits of insects, mostly broken Nematocera, were found in its stomach.

Anthus hodgsoni Richmond; Indian Tree Pipit.

It is not prudent to identify this as A. h. yunnanensis or A. h. hodg-
soni, but all previous records on the former indicate that it occurs be-
low 3,000 m while hodgsoni seems mainly to breed at the higher alti-
tude of 3,000-4,000 m in Nepal (Diesselhorst 1968).

Anthus cervinus Pallas: Red throated Pipit.

This species seems to be scarce in Nepal; after Hodgson’s collection
there are neither sight records nor collected examples except a single
one obtained by Rand & Fleming (1957). The author, however, met
with several individuals of this species at 4,220-4,350 m and they could
be apparently distinguished from other pipits found in the same area
by means of their bright cinnamon-red supercilium, throat and breast,
especially in comparison with the vinous-pink roseatus .

Chaunarromis ieucoeephalus (Vigors): Whitecapped Redstart.

Three or four birds were sometimes flying about our camping place.
This was a bird characteristic of streams or tarns as already noted by
Smythies (1948) at the eastern side of Gosainkund. These birds, utter-
ing short notes, were observed up to 4,480 m on June 5 and were also
common in the cirque beyond the pass to the Tadi Khola.

Zoothera mollissima (Blyth) or dixoni (Seebohm): Plainbacked

or Longtailed Mountain Thrush.

This thrush was very rare in the alpine zone. This sight record was
insufficient to positively identify the bird as mollissima or dixoni, but
it may furnish information. Diesselhorst (1968) pointed out the pos-
sibility of their ecological segregation with dixoni in forest and mollis-
sima in the alpine or over the forest zone. In eastern Nepal he occa-
sionally found “Zoothera Drosseln” at 4,300-4,400 m in habitats such
as rock slide areas and poor vegetation without trees similar to habitats
in my survey.

52 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

This species has been reported from central Nepal only at 1,500-
3,600 m by Smythies (1948, 1950), Proud (1955), and Rand & Flem-
ing (1957). The present case, however, may be the first sight record
at such a high altitude in central Nepal. Abe, a member of the party,
also recognized a similar Zoothera near the lake in the afternoon.

Leucosticte nemorieola (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Mountain Finch.

Moved in pairs. Neither Smythies (1948) nor Proud (1952) found
this species at the Gandak-Kosi watershed, but Polunin (1955) obtain-
ed it in the Langtan Khola, central Nepal. Diesselhorst (1968) enumer-
ated it as a typical alpine bird in Nepal and Martens (1971) found it
at about 3,000 m in non-breeding season.

Tadoma ferruginea (Pallas): Ruddy Sheld-duck or Brahminy Duck.

Scully (1879), Ripley (1950), and Rand & Fleming (1957) record-
ed it as common in the tarai and occasional in the Nepal Valley. I
saw no other individuals in the country. This case might be a rare
sight record at this high altitude in central Nepal. Biswas (1960) re-
ported that he found this species preparing to breed at about 5,000-
5,300 m, but Diesselhorst (1968) conservatively admitted its probable
propagation, considering the impossibility of its usual breeding activity
at those alpine lakes.

Monticola rafiventris (Jardine & Selby): Chestnutbellied Rock
Thrush.

The individuals observed seemed to be rufiventris, because no white
patches on wings characteristic of cinclorhynchus were seen. A pair
was seen near the frozen tarns at 4,460 m and the male was singing
loudly on a rock. Moreover, a pair calling and moving around on rock
debris at 4,250 m was found beyond the pass on the way to Thare
Pati. Hitherto the species has been recorded only below 3,350 m in
autumn (Smythies 1948) and 2,440 m even in spring (Proud 1952)
in central Nepal.

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus): Tufted Duck.

Ripley (1950) found it in ponds and on the rivers around the Nepal
Valley and it seems to be fairly common in the lowlands during winter
(Rand & Fleming 1957). Masatomi (1971) found four males and six
females floating on a pond near Trisuli at about 700 m on May 28.
The occurrence of the species may be very uncommon at such high
altitude in central Nepal, but Biswas (1960) observed it on montane
lakes at about 5,000-5,300 m in eastern Nepal in May.

Besides the birds mentioned above, the following species were
occasionally found around the sacred lakes during 3-5 June.

Myiophoneus caeruleus (Scopoli): Whistling Thrush.

Noted resting for a moment on rocks near the lake side, then it
flew north towards the ridge. Smythies (1948) did not mention it in his
list, but Proud (1955) and Polunin (1955) found it up to only 3,500 m

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

53

in central Nepal. On the way to Thare Pati at 3,800 m, I saw another.

Grandala coelicolor Hodgson: Hodgson’s Grandala.

One male on June 5. After stopping a while on rocks it flew away
northwards. A flock of this typical alpine species feeding on scree was
found in a cirque and three specimens were collected at the head of
the Tadi Khola at 4,160 m. A female obtained had a fully developed
egg with a soft shell in her uterus. Smythies (1948) saw it at about
4,500 m in the same area and Diesselhorst (1968) caught specimens at
4,100-5,200 m in eastern Nepal.

Caorpodacus puniceus puniceus (Blyth): Nepal Redbreasted Rose-
finch.

A female was obtained near the Kharka on June 3. On the Gosain-
kund Lekh only Smythies (1948) observed a male at about 3,650 m in
September.

Partridge and kite.

The call notes of snow partridges were heard several times from the
upper margin of the northern cliff rising at a distance from the lake,
though I failed to find them in the fog. On June 4 a bird, probably a
kite passed over the ridge far from me, gliding in a southerly direction.

Conclusion

The avifauna of the area observed in early June 1968 were charac-
terized by the most dominant alpine hedge sparrow, P. collaris,
previously recorded at 4,570 m on the Gosainkund Lekh (Smythies
1948). The next abundant birds were subalpine or alpine pipits, Anthus
group, and the redstart, C. leucocephalus, occuring up to 5,335 m in
summer (Biswas 1961). The others were typical alpine birds, that is,
the grandala and the mountain finch. Though Diesselhorst (1968) listed
six species as common dwellers in a restricted vertical range in “Feu-
chte alpine Gebusche und Matten” 4,200-5,200 m, only three of them,
P. collaris, A. roseatus, and L. nemoricola were found common at the
lake sides in the present case.

Appearance of ducks at such high elevations might be rare but
partly relates to the existence of tarns in the area. They must stay here
only temporarily, for they did not appear to be breeding here.

It was remarkable that the results of first census made on June 4
showed a concentration of birds more than three or four times denser
than in other cases. Particularly Prunella and Anthus were abundant
at GLA; about five times as many as on the next day. Although these
unusual results might depend partly on the difference of census time,
they must have been caused mainly by the snow fall on June 4 which
temporarily covered all fields and made food hard to get for the birds.

54 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

In fact, after much of the snow had thawed by afternoon, I found birds
on the rocky slopes studded with grassy patches a little distance from
the lake. Few birds had been counted here during the first census.

The density at GLA seemed to be slightly higher than that at GLB.
Analysis of both habitats were not sufficient to specify the factors
causing such different congregations, but as described above many more
insects were found at GLA, especially at the northern side, than
at GLB. The comparison of individual numbers of birds at the different
sites seems to be of less significance statistically, because the number
of censuses was small and the conditions were fairly different.

The relative abundance of individual numbers in this census at this
high altitude might be caused by birds wandering up to their breeding
grounds. C. leucocephalus, for example, was not seen above 1,500 m
in late March on the Gandak Kosi watershed by Proud (1952), but I
recognized it as common up to about 4,500 m as Smythies (1948)
found it in September. Naturally the population at the area may
decrease in winter owing to freezing and snowfall covering all fields.

Although an actual count at other places at similar altitude was not
undertaken, I felt that rocky slopes, excluding tarns or streams, had
fewer birds than the area censused. Therefore, the number of birds re-
corded in the present case might indicate not the average (or the low-
est) but more or less high (or the highest by Elton, 1933) density at
this altitude in Gosainkund.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my thanks to Professor Mayumi Yamada,
the leader of the expedition, and other members of the party for their
kind interest and encouragement in the present study. I am most grate-
ful to Drs. Shoichi F. Sakagami, Hokkaido University, and Robert L.
Fleming, Jr., Kathmandu, for their many suggestions and critical read-
ing of the manuscript. Drs. Biswamoy Biswas, Indian Museum, Shsichiro
Satsuki, and Mr. Mahide Yoshida kindly helped to obtain literature
on the birds of Nepal.

References

Biswas, B. (1960-1966): The birds 638-654, 63(2) : 365-377.
of Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Diesselhorst, G. (1968): Beitrae
57(2): 278-308, 57(3) :516-546, 55(1) : zur Okologie der Vogel zentral-und

100-134, 55(2) :441-474, 55(3) :653- ost-Nepals. Khumbu Himal. 2:1-417.

677, 59(1): 200-227, 59(3) : 807-821, Elton, C. (1933): The ecology of

69(1) : 173-200, 60(2) : 388-399, 69(3): animals. New York.

BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

55

Fleming, R. L., jr. (1968) : Winter
observations on the ecology and dis-
tribution of birds on the Kosi-Gandak
watershed ridge, central Nepal. Pavo,
6.

Fleming, R. L. & Traylor, A. M.
(1961): Notes on Nepal birds. Fiel-
diana, Zool, 55(8) :441-487.

&

(1964) : Further notes on Nepal birds,
ibid., 55(9) : 489-558.

♦Gray, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846) :
Catalogue of the specimens and draw-
ings of mammalia and bird of Nepal
and Thibet, presented by B. H. Hodg-
son, Esq., to the British Museum,
London.

Lowndes, D. G. (1955) : Some

birds from north-western Nepal. /.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(1): 28- 37.

Martens, J. (1971): Zur Kenntnis
des Vogelzuges im nepalischen Him-
alaya. Vogelwarte 26(1) : 113-128.

Masatomi, H. (1971) : Aves. in

“Animals and plants of Nepal Hima-
laya” (in Japanese). 26-41. Sapporo.

Polunin, O. (1955): Some birds
collected in Langtang Khola, Rasua
Garhi District, central Nepal. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 52(4) : 886-896.

Proud, D. (1949) : Some notes on
the birds of the Nepal Valley, ibid.
45:696-719.

t (1952): Some birds

seen on the Gandak-Kosi watershed
in March, 1951. ibid. 50: 355-366.

(1955): More notes on

the birds of the Nepal Valley, ibid.
55 :(1): 57-78.

Rand, A. L. & Fleming, R. L.
(1957) : Birds from Nepal. Fieldiana,
Zool 47(1): 1-218.

Ripley, S. D. (1950) : Birds from
Nepal, 1947-1949. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 49(3): 355-417.

Scully, J. (1879): A contribution

to the ornithology of Nepal. Stray
Feathers, 8 : 204- 368.

Smythies, B. E. (1948): Some

birds of the Gandak-Kosi watershed,
including the pilgrim trail to the
sacred lake of Gosainkund. /. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 47(3) : 432-5 18.

(1950): More

notes on the birds of the Nepal

Valley, ibid. 49(3) :513-518.

Not referred to in original.

A new species of Rotala
from Palghat, Kerala1

R. Vasudevan Nair
Govt. Victoria College , Palghat
(With eighteen text-figures)

The plant described in this paper is a new species of Rotala, collect-
ed first in August, 1964, from Malampuzha, Palghat, Kerala State,
and subsequently from other places. Details of collection are shown
below.

Date

Place

Habitat

Association

August 1964

Malampuzha,
Palghat Dt.

Very shallow
water holes on
granite rock.

As consociations
or along with
Dopatrium, Ily-
santhes.

September 1965

N. Parur,
Ernakulam Dt.

Water-logged
sandy loam soil.

Small consoci-
ation.

September 1967

Badagara,
Calicut Dt.

Paddy fields.

Along with
Rotala leptopetala,
R. densiflora,
Limnophila.

July 1971

Malampuzha,
Palghat Dt.

Very shallow
water holes on
rock.

Consociation or
along with
Dopatrium,
llysanthes.

The plants formed dense, deep green carpets on the substratum. The
gregarious growth and short, slender, simple erect branches with crim-
son spots of flowers and fruits made the plants conspicuous and dif-
ferent in appearance from the larger species, Rotala leptopetala and
R. densi flora, which were also common in the locality. The latter two
species are not spreading forms and their erect shoots freely branch.
Because of striking differences from all other species of Rotala record-
ed from this state, dry specimens and descriptions were sent to Royal

1 Accepted March 2, 1972.

A NEW SPECIES OF ROTALA

57

Botanic Gardens, Kew, for identification (H. 868/68) where it was
identified as a form of Rotala cf. R . leptopetala. Study of fresh speci-
mens with reference to original diagnosis given by Koehne for the
sub-species and varieties of R . leptopetala, proved that this plant is a
distinct type. Due to the peculiar spreading growth and short, simple
erect branches, the plant is easily distinguished from the other species
of Rotala, even in the vegetative stage. Trimerous flower, staminodes,
and reduced number of seeds are three characteristics of the plant,
separating it from the other species. Hundreds of fresh flowers of R.
leptopetala collected from different localities were examined. Stamino-
des or anything suggestive of staminodes were not found in any. But
staminodes are invariably present in this plant. The characters of this
plant are constant. Specimens from the three localities which are more
than 150 km apart and with different environmental conditions, are
all alike. Even when growing along with R. leptopetala, at the same
spot, it is strikingly different. All evidence indicates that it is a separate
and unidentified species of Rotala. Based on its spreading growth,
small size, simple, short, erect branches, crimson trimerous flower,
staminodes, and limited number of seeds, it is described as a new
species of Rotala.

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Herba annua amphibia profuse ramosa caespitosa perviridis, floribus
et fructibus coccineis minutis sed conspicuis instructa. Rami erecti simpli-
ces tenuesque. Folia angustata minus quam 1.5 cm longa, 2-4 mm lata.
Flores solitarii axillares coccinei trimeri, minus quam 1.5 mm diametro.
Dentes accessorii florum breves deflexi. Petala minuta coccinea. Stami-
nodia 3. Semina 10-15 coccinea.

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Amphibious, annual herbs growing as dense, deep green carpet, spot-
ted with crimson flowers and fruits. Stem procumbent, profusely branch-
ed, spreading, rooting at nodes; erect branches simple, 5-20 cm long;
inter-nodes slender, quadrangular, upper ones short. Leaves simple, exsti-
pulate, opposite decussate, subsessile, angustate, 2-4 mm broad, up to
1.5 cm long, deep green veins indistinct, apex microscopically truncate
(Fig. 2). Flowers solitary, axillary (Fig. 1), sessile, crimson, less than
1.5 mm in dia., trimerous, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, perigynous.
Bracteoles 2, lateral, subulate, shorter than calyx (Fig. 3). Hypan-
thium campanulate, less than 1 mm long, with 6 faint vertical veins.
Sepals 3, free, triangular, acute, crimson (Fig. 3, 4). Accessory teeth
3, very short, acute (Figs. 3, 4). Petals 3, free, very small, linear-oblong,
acute, crimson (Fig. 11). Stamens 3, antisepalous; filaments filiform.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Habit; Fig. 2. Twig; Fig. 3. T. S. of stem; Fig. 4. Leaf and leaf-tip;
Fig. 5. Bud; Figs. 6, 7, 8. Open flowers.

A NEW SPECIES OF ROTALA

59

Rotala malampuzhensis sp. nov.

Fig. 9. Hypanthium opened; Fig. 10. V. S. of flower; Fig. 11. Petal; Fig. 12.
Anther in two views; Fig. 13. Pistil; Fig. 14. T. S. of ovary; Fig. 15. Pollen;
Fig. 16. Fruits; Fig. 17. Seed in two views; Fig. 18. Embryo in two views.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

white or purplish anthers 2-celled, 4-lobed, introrse, cells semicircular,
purplish; pollen white, sub-spherical, smooth, thin- walled (Figs. 9, 12,
15). Staminodes 3, alternating with stamens, shorter than ovary, linear,
apex purplish, entire, emarginate or slightly bifid (Fig. 9). Ovary sub-
spherical, incompletely 3-celled, with vestigial septa only at base;
placenta axile, fleshy, discontinuous at apex; ovules 3-6 per cell; style
short, simple; stigma discoid, papillate (Figs. 10, 13, 14). Fruits less
than 1.5 mm, sub-spherical, crimson, half-exserted (Fig. 16), splitting
vertically into 3 valves; pericarp microscopically horizontally striate.
Seeds 10-15, crimson, obovoid, inner surface slightly excavated (Fig.
17) smooth, shining, exalbuminous.

Diagnosis

Profusely branching, tufted, deep green plants with minute but con-
spicuous crimson spots of flowers and fruits. Erect branches simple,
slender, short. Leaves less than 1.5 cm long, 2-4 mm broad, angustate.
Flowers solitary, axillary, crimson, less 1.5 mm, trimerous. Accessory
teeth very short. Petals small, crimson. Staminodes 3. Seeds 10-15,
crimson.

This species was first identified at Kew as a form coming near
R. leptopetala and at Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, as resembl-
ing the variety littorea, but in the invariable presence of staminodes and
the limited number of seeds, it is more close to R. mexicana than to the
former. However, R. mexicana is a miniature, prostrate plant of dull
green colour and pink, tetramerous flowers. In appearance it is striking-
ly different from Rot ala malampuzhensis.

Ack n owledge m e n ts

For the Latin rendering of the diagnosis I am deeply indebted to
Dr. Adelaide L. Stork of Stockholm University. I am grateful to Prof.
K. Kesavan Nair, Victoria College, Palghat, for taking the photo-
graphs of the plant. This paper would not have come out but for the
encouragement given by Dr. B.K. Nair. Professor of Botany, University
of Calicut. I am also indebted to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew for providing me with the original diagnosis for Rotala and helping
me in identifying the plant.

Paratype specimens are deposited at the herbarium of Botanical
Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore, along with type.

Observations on metamorphosing
behaviour of Cy bis ter larvae
for development of control
measures during pupal stage1

G. A. Shirgur

Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station , Bombay 400002
{With a text figure)

Introduction

Several species of aquatic beetles, of the genus, Cy bister (Family
Dytiscidae) are of common occurrence in fish nurseries. Both larvae
and adults are active predators, on spawn and of fishes.

Mature larvae, at the end of last instar, pupate in moist earth at the
waters’ edge of ponds. The easy accessability of Cy bister beetles at the
pupal stage in the vicinity of fish nurseries, makes control measures
possible and studies were made on metamorphosing behaviour of the
larvae, belonging to five species, namely Cybister cognatus Sharp, C.
limbatus (Fabricius), C. sugillatus Erichson, C. posticus Aube and C.
tripunctatus asiaticus Sharp. Among these, C. tripunctatus is the com-
monest and occurs in large numbers.

The term “metamorphosis” is used in a restricted sense in the text,
only to denote the changes from last larval instar to the finally formed
imago.

Material and Methods

(a) Material

Larvae and Cybister beetles were collected from fish nurseries and
ponds mainly around Bombay. A stock of live material was maintained
at the laboratory and were fed on minnows.

Accepted September 2, 1971.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(b) Methods

(i) Initially, experiments were conducted to find out the total period
of pupation in the soil, once the mature larva encloses itself in the
pupal cell. For this purpose, a single freshly collected larvae of a species
was kept in a glass aquarium tank, measuring 30 x 23 x 23 cm. In the
tank, conditions were made to conform as far as possible to natural
conditions. A block of laterite soil, of approximately 22 x 15 x 15 cm
size, was placed contiguously to the sidewall over a stone slab of 5 cm
thickness kept on the bottom. Water level in the remaining portion of
the tank was maintained at this height in order to prevent the desicca-
tion of the clod.

Time and date of entry of the larva into the earth as well as emer-
gence, as an adult, were recorded in order to determine the total period
of pupation. The temperature of the water at the time of emergence of
the adult was also simultaneously recorded.

Since there were no pupation out of freshly brought last instar Cyb-
ister larvae in the earth-blocks, except once, the experiments were re-
peated by introducing into the tank such larvae, which were fed inten-
sively with Gambusia and other young fishes. These larvae became
progressively dull, and stopped feeding and then readily entered the
earthen-blocks. Five observations were made for each species of Cybister
which were identified later from the imagos that emerged, namely
C. tripunctatus, C. cognatus, C. limbatus, C. sugillatus and C. posticus.

(ii) Since the total periods of pupation varied further laboratory
experiments were conducted to find out whether the total period of
metamorphosis and therefore the duration of moulting into pupa and
imago were constant for each species, from the date of initiation of
metamorphosis by interning larvae of different species into artificial
pupal cells in the earth-blocks, thereby inducing them to undergo post-
larval development.

For this purpose, 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks, each . made of laterite
soil of dry weight of approximately 1500 g and 500 ml of freshwater,
were prepared and kept in enamel trays. Water was poured in the tray
at the base of these blocks periodically, to prevent desiccation. In each
of these blocks, two crude cells of approximately 3 x 2 cm size, were
prepared on either end 10 cm apart.

At a time, two larvae of a particular species which had stopped
feeding, were introduced in these cells, closing them thereafter from
above, with clay- tablets. Next day, the pupal cells were examined to
check whether metamorphosis had been initiated by the larvae, which
was indicated by the presence of a secondary earthen cap made by
the metamorphosing larva under clay-tablets. This was taken as first
day of metamorphosis. Subsequently, observations were made, every
24 hours, by opening the cells in one of these blocks, to examine the

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

63

progress of metamorphosis. Thus, the duration of moulting into pupa
and imago were determined with reference to larvae of different species.

(iii) Larvae of C. tripunctatus being the most predominant in fish
nurseries, laboratory experiments were conducted on these larvae, with
a view to eradicating different metamorphosing stages infesting the
soil above the water level, by using carbon disulphide and formalde-
hyde as fumigants. In all these experiments, mature larvae, showing
no further response for feeding, were introduced in the artificial pupal
cells, in the earthen-blocks as described above. The blocks were cover-
ed with plastic sheets after injecting the fumigants.

Preliminary experiments were conducted to find out the relation-
ship of different quantities of a fumigant injected, and corresponding
period of mortality for different metamorphosing stages, contained
in the blocks.

In the experiments, four quantities of one of the fumigants, 2, 4, 6
and 8 ml were injected in four different blocks (covered thereafter
with plastic sheets), each containing the metamorphosing stages of one
of the five different age groups namely 3, 6, 9 and 18 day-old, at a
time. At the end of 24 and 48 hours, the cells in the blocks were open-
ed to examine the effects of increasing doses of the fumigant. These
experiments showed that even 2 ml of carbon disulphide was lethal
to the insects at the end of 48 hours but formaldehyde had no effect.
Thus, in subsequent experiments, varying quantities of carbon disul-
phide had to be tried for determination of quantities of this fumigant,
lethal at the end of 48 hours, for each of the advanced metamorphosing
stages (1-18 days stages, and unemerged adults).

However, it was important to find out whether the progress in meta-
morphosis of a particular stage was arrested during the 48 hours period
of fumigation. For this purpose, the blocks (covered with plastic sheets
after injection) containing 8 and 17 day-old stages were injected with
the quantities of carbon disulphide, lethal at the end of 48 hours. At
the end of 24 hours and 48 hours, the cells were opened and 8th and
17th day stages were examined to see whether these had moulted into
pupa and adults, respectively, (i.e. 9th and 18th day stages).

Similarly, experiments conducted to find out whether the arresting
effect can also be brought about by the disturbance caused by the open-
ing and closing of the cells containing 8th and 17th day stages, showed
that moulting did not take place at the end of even 48 hours. Thus,
these experiments have shown that in both cases, arresting of meta-
morphosis took place.

With these preliminary but important observations, experiments
were continued by injecting varying quantities of carbon disulphide
in the centre of the 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks, each with two artificial
cells, 10 cm apart, each containing one metamorphosing stage at a

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

time (i.e. one of the 1-18 day old stages + unemerged adults), with a
view to determining the lethal quantities at the end of 48 hours for dif-
ferent stages. Before injecting the fumigant, both cells were opened to
ascertain whether the metamorphosing stages in the blocks were in
normal state of development. This also served as a coordinate arrest-
ing factor of metamorphosis during the period of 48 hours of fumiga-
tion.

(iv) Experiments were also conducted with a view to determining
the comparative toxicity of two more fumigants, namely ethylene dibro-
mide and ethylene dichloride along with carbon disulphide. For this
purpose, a distinct stage common for all the five species, i.e. tenerials of
C. tripunctatus, C. limbatus, C. cognatus, C. sugillatus and C. posticus,
were selected as experimental material. At a time, different quantities
of one of the fumigants were injected into the blocks, forming five
sets. Each block in a set contained two tenerials of one species. Thus,
the quantity of each of the three fumigants, lethal at the end of 48
hours for different species, was determined.

Observations

i) Total pupation period

The experiments have shown that only larvae, which had stopped
feeding readily burrowed into the earth-blocks for metamorphosis after
a day of exploration. The total period of confinement in the case of
C. tripunctatus varied between 19-34 days, and in C. cognatus and
C. limbatus, the period varied between 28 to 32 days. With other two
species, C. sugillatus and C. posticus, the period ranged from 25-32
days. In no case did the larvae penetrate the soil beyond 7-8 cm. Water
temperature at the time of emergence of the adults varied from 29-
30°C.

ii) Total period of metamorphosis and the duration of pupal and

imago stages in different Cybister larvae

The artificially introduced larvae started reshaping the interior of
the artificial cells by making the inner facet smooth, and then lay coil-
ed at the bottom, at the end of 24 hours’ activity. This behaviour was
indicative of their undergoing normal metamorphosis, outwardly mani-
fested by the presence of a secondary cap underneath the clay-tablet,
placed over the opening of the artificial cell, immediately after con-
finement.

Observations at one day intervals subsequently have shown that
in the case of C. tripunctatus pupa was formed on the 9th day, and the
adult on 18th day. In C. sugillatus and C. posticus, pupa was seen on
12th day and the imago on 24th day. With both C. cognatus and

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

65

C. limbatus, the pupation took place on 15th day and the moulting into
imago on 27th day. In all these cases, the newly formed adults remain-
ed in pupal cells for varying number of days before emergence. The
larval skin after pupation is stuck into the inner wall of the pupal cell,
whereas the pupal exuvium is seen underneath the imago in all the
species.

iii) The lethality of carbon disulphide, at the end of 48 hours for dif-
ferent metamorphosing stages of C. tripunctatus (Table 1) (Fig. 1).

Preliminary experiments, to find out whether there was any in-
verse relationship between increasing doses of the fumigant and de-
creasing survival periods, showed that at the end of 24 hours of fumi-
gant action there was no mortality with 2, 4, 6 and 8 ml of the fumi-
gant, whereas at the end of 48 hours, mortality occurred invariably
with each of these quantities of the fumigant for different metamor-
phosing stages comprising 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 day stages showing
that this period was necessary for fumigant diffusion. Similar experi-
ments with formaldehyde, another common fumigant, have shown that
there was no lethal effect during the entire period of observation.

In experiments with 8th and 17th day stages, contained in the pupal
cells, the quantities of carbon disulphide (0.75 and 2.0 m) determined
previously as lethal at the end of 48 hours, were injected. At the end
of this period, that is on the 10th and 19th days, the dead insects were
examined, and it was observed that these had not moulted respectively
into pupa and imago, showing that metamorphosis was arrested during
the entire period of fumigation.

Table 1

Quantities of carbon disulphide lethal at the end of 48 hours for dif-
ferent stages during metamorphosis in case of Cybister tripunctatus.

Age in days of

Quantity of

Age in days of

Quantity of

metamorphosis-

the fumigant

metamorphosis-

the fumigant

stage

in ml

stage

in ml

1

2.0

11

0.75

2

2.0

12

1.0

3

2.0

13

1.0

4

2.0

14

1.0

5

1.5

15

1.5

6

1.0

16

2.0

7

1.0

17

2.0

8

0.75

18

1.0

9

0.5

19 to 35

1.0

10

0.5

Unemerged adults
Emerged adult

1.0

5

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

AGE IN DAYS

Fig. 1. A graph showing comparative lethal effect of 2 ml of carbon disulphide
on various metamorphic stages of Cy bister tripunctatus.

The other factor, responsible for arresting normal metamorphosis,
was the opening and quick closing of the cell-tops. The 8th and 17th
day prepupal and preimaginal stages failed to moult respectively into
pupa and imago even at the end of 48 hours, showing that such a dis-
turbance retarded the normal pace of metamorphosis.

Table 2

Comparative toxicity
Cybister species,

OF THREE FUMIGANTS IN

(at the end of 48 hours

CASE OF TENERIALS OF FIVE
OF FUMIGANT ACTION)

Cybister species

Fumigants

Quantity in ml

1 . Cybister

Carbon disulphide

1.0

tripunctatus

Ethylene dichloride

0.75

Ethylene dibromide

0.5

2 . C. cognatus

Carbon disulphide

0.5

and

Ethylene dichloride

0.75

3. C. limbatus

Ethylene dibromide

0.5

4 . C. sugillatus

Carbon disulphide

0.5

and

Ethylene dichloride

0.75

5 . C. posticus

Ethylene dibromide

0.5

Experiments were conducted, based on preliminary observations,
to determine the quantities of carbon disulphide lethal at the end of
48 hours for different stages contained in 20 x 15 x 12 cm size blocks
(covered with polythene sheets after fumigant injections). The results
are given in Table 1. It can be seen from this Table that 9th and 10th
day stages requiring a lethal quantity of only 0.5 ml of the fumigant
are the least tolerant and l-4th and 16- 17th day stages requiring 2 ml

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

67

of carbon disulphide are the most tolerant. Similar experiments on
adults (emerged), confined in the artificial pupal cells in the blocks,
have shown that even 1 ml of the fumigant was lethal at the end of 48
hours. These results are illustrated in fig. 1.

iv) Comparative toxicity of the three fumigants on unemerged ima-
gines of different Cybister species (Table 2).

From table 2, it can be seen that the quantities of carbon disulphide,
ethylene dichloride and ethylene dibromide lethal for different species
were 0.5- 1.0, 0.75 and 0.5 ml, respectively, showing that ethylene dibro-
mide is the most toxic and ethylene dichloride, the least, except in case
of C. tripunctatus.

Discussion and conclusions

Studies on metamorphosing behaviour of different last instar Cybis-
ter larvae, were made by conducting a series of laboratory experiments,
so that a suitable method for their eradication from infested moist soil
above water level in fish nurseries could be devised.

Initial experiments were conducted for determining the total periods
of confinement in the earth above the water level, after the mature
larva constructed a pupal cell for undergoing post-larval development.
These experiments were of considerable significance, as different Cybis-
ter larvae, which could not be identified to their respective species in
immature condition could be identified as belonging to five different
species from their adults. Amongst the five species of larvae, Cybister
tripunctatus resembles the larvae of C. cognatus and C. limbatus except
for its size, measuring on an average about 5 cm in length, whereas
the larvae of the latter two species are the largest of all the Cybister
larvae measuring about 7-8 cm in length. Both C. cognatus and C. lim-
batus larvae resemble each other except that C. cognatus is slightly
smaller, and possesses conspicuous longitudinal stripes on the dorsal
side. Their adults also appear almost identical except for minor dif-
ferences in abdominal colour. Larvae of C. sugillatus and C. posticus
also resemble each other, measuring 4.5 cm in length on an average.
The larva of C. posticus is slightly larger than C. sugillatus and pos-
sess conspicuous stripes on its dorsal side. The larvae of both species
can, however, be distinguished from other Cybister larvae, by their
distinct black and sclerotized head.

The total period of confinement determined, from the time of last
instar larval internment to that of emergence as an adult, varied con-
siderably in case of C. tripunctatus, being in the range of 19-43 days,
whereas with both C. cognatus and C. limbatus, the variation was in

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

the narrow range of only 28-32 days. At the time of emergence of the
adults the water temperature was seen to be around 29-30°C.

Considering that the total period of confinement in the earth above
the water level are variable, in different Cybister larvae, further series
of experiments were started to ascertain whether the duration of moult-
ing into pupa and adults were also variable. For this purpose, a tech-
nique of inducing the mature larvae to undergo metamorphosis in the
artificial cells (with similar dimensions of natural cell, i.e. 2x3 cm),
prepared in 20 x 15 x 12 cm size earthen blocks, was developed, thus
facilitating greatly, further series of experiments. During the metamor-
phosis period, observations at 24 hour intervals have revealed that
C. tripunctatus had the shortest period for metamorphosis, the pupa and
adult being formed on 9th and 18th day, respectively, whereas with
the other two C. co gnat us and C. limbatus, the period was 15 and 27
days respectively. During experimental period water temperature varied
around 29-30°C.

These results show that although total period of metamorphosis
was constant for each species, the period of confinement of the adult
(tenerials), were variable as indicated by the previous series of experi-
ments. Thus, the adult of C. tripunctatus remains unemerged for vary-
ing periods up to 15 days as against other species which remain quis-
cent for varying periods up to 8 days.

From the number of days required for the emergence after imago
formation, it can be seen that after the pupa moults into adult, it remains
in confinement for a minimum period of about 24 hours. Further con-
finement for varying periods prior to emergence may be dependent upon
factors such as temperature.

These observations on metamorphosing behaviour of different
mature Cybister larvae, thus formed the basis for undertaking further
studies on their eradication. For this purpose, C. tripunctatus was
chosen, as it occurred in large numbers in fish nurseries.

Formaldehyde and carbon disulphide, were selected as fumigants.
Formaldehyde is commonly used as soil fumigant in agriculture to
control root pests. Similarly, carbon disulphide is a well-known fumi-
gant, used for the purpose since 1925 (Fleming 1926, Gough 1945).

Preliminary experiments have shown that; (1) a period of 48 hours
was required for lethal action of different doses of carbon disulphide,
possibly due to time taken for initial diffusion of the fumigant vapour
through the substance of the block, before concentrating in the cavities
of the pupal cells, till mortality occurred; (2) Even 6-8 ml of formalde-
hyde was not lethal at the end of 48 hours, thus ruling out its use for
application in the field and; (3) during the experimental period of 48
hours of fumigation, different stages remained unadvanced in meta-
morphosis due to two factors, the disturbance caused by opening and

CONTROL OF CYBISTER LARVAE

69

rapid closure of the cell and sublethal concentration of the fumigant
vapour in the cell.

With these points in view, different quantities of carbon disulphide
were injected in the centre of the blocks (covered subsequently with
polythene sheets), containing different metamorphosing stages from
1-8 days and unemerged as well as emerged adults.

These experiments revealed that the quantities of carbon disul-
phide lethal at the end of 48 hours for different metamorphosing stages,
were variable. The 8th and 9th day stages were the least tolerant, even
0.5 ml of the fumigant being lethal, whereas l-4th and 16- 17th day
stages were the most tolerant requiring not less than 2 ml of carbon
disulphide. The remaining stages required 0.75, 1.0 or 1.5 ml of this
fumigant depending upon their capacity of resistance. However, in case
of majority of the stages, comprising unemerged as well as emerged
adults, 1.0 ml of the fumigant was quite lethal.

The common lethal quantity for all the metamorphosing stages,
was 2 ml of carbon disulphide per 20 x 15 x 12 cm size block of late-
rite soil, containing any of the stages, for bringing about mortality at
the end of 48 hours.

A final series of experiments on comparative toxicity of the three
fumigants on common stages in metamorphosis, i.e. tenerials of five
Cybister species, showed that 0.5 ml of ethylene dibromide as well as
carbon disulphide were lethal at the end of 48 hours, for all the species
except C. tripunctatus, which required at least 1 ml of carbon disul-
phide, whereas for ethylene dichloride, the lethal quantity at the end
of 48 hours was 0.75 ml. This indicated that ethylene dibromide is the
most toxic and ethylene dichloride, the least.

The use of ethylene dibromide would not only be more effective
but also economically feasible. This fumigant again unlike carbon disul-
phide, has no obnoxious odour and is not inflammable. This chemical
has been in use as a soil fumigant in agriculture since 1945 (Shepard
1951).

For application in the field the following recommendation can be
made. In fish nurseries the soil above the water line may be marked
into units, each corresponding to 20 x 15 x 12 cm size block. Then 2 ml
of the fumigant can be conveniently injected in the centre of each of
these units (at a depth of nearly 7 cm) with subsequent coverage of
the whole strip of 15 cm wide, infested with metamorphosing stages,
with plastic sheet or gunny cloth, which can be fastened to the surface
of the soil by applying nails along both the edges. Since metamorphosis
from last instar larva onwards, in case of C. tripunctatus extends up-
to 18 days with a few additional days for unemerged adults, further
fumigation can be done at intervals of about 18 days. In fish nurseries,
the whole period of spawn to fry stage would not take more than 18

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

days even if two crop rotations are taken. Hence, an initial application
of the fumigant, prior to stocking of the spawn and a second after
about 18 days would be sufficient to check the menace of emerging
adults of C. tripunctatus in fish nurseries.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific
Officer, in the department of Fisheries for his encouragement in carry-
ing out this work. I also take this opportunity to thank Dr. T. G.
Vazirani of Zoological Survey of India for his assisance in identifi-
cation of imagines of Cy bister spp.

References

Fleming, W. E. (1926) : A homo- London,
geneous carbon disulphide emulsion. Shepard, H. H. (1951) : The che-
/. Agr. Research 55:17-20. mistry and action of Insecticides, Mc-

Gough, H. C. (1945) : A review Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,
of the Literature on Soil Insecticides, Toronto, London.

Pseudobrassaiopsis - A new
genus of Araliaceae with a
note on the status of
Euaraliopsis Hutch.1

R. N. Banerjee

Central National Herbarium, Howrah 3

J. Hutchinson (1967) treated a group of Araliaceaeous plants with
leaves digitately lobed or fid formerly included under Brassiopsis Dene.
& Planch, sensu lato as belonging to a distinct genus. He named his
new genus as Euaraliopsis quite aware of the name given by Kurz
(1870). Kurz had not furnished a description of the genus and Hut-
chinson described it in English. In accordance with Art. 36 of ICBN
(1966) a latin diagnosis with points of alliance is to be supplied to valid-
ate the genus Euaraliopsis Hutch. It is, however, noted that Hutchinson
rejected the name Araliopsis of Kurz and gave the genus a new name
Euaraliopsis which means allied to Araliopsis. But as no legitimate
genus of that name exists, naming of the new genus as Euaraliopsis is
also not appropriate.

I therefore proposed another name for this genus as Pseudobrassai-
opsis to indicate its close relationship with Brassaiopsis Dene. & Planch.
A latin diagnosis is given below:

Pseudobrassaiopsis gen. nov.

Araliopsis Kurz, Andaman Rep. App. 39. 1870 nom. nud.
Euaraliopsis Hutch. Gen. FI. Pis. 2:80. 1967; Balak. in
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67(1): 60. 1970 nom. illeg., nom. rej.
prop.

Affine generi Brassaiopsi, a quo differt foliis digitatim dissectis vel
lobatis.

Arbores, frutices'vel plante volubiles; rami et petiole saepe valde
aculeati; folia digitatim dissecta vel lobata, raro tantum dentata; in-
dumentum interdum stellatum; stipulae nonnunquam durae et persis-
tentes; umbellae paniculatae; bractae parvae vel nullae; flores saepe
polygami; calyx ad marginem 5-dentatus; petala 5, valvata; stamina 5,
ovarium biloculare; fructus subglobosi vel obovoidei.

Accepted April 13, 1973.

72 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Type: Pseudobrassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) R. N. Ban. comb.
nov.

distribution: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, Malay Peninsula, Indo-
China and China.

1. Pseudobrassaiopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) R. N. Ban.
comb. nov.

Hedera hainla Buch. Ham. ex D. Don Prodr. 187. 1825.
Euaraliopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) Hutch. Gen. FI. Pis.
2:624. 1967.

Brassaiopsis hainla (Buch. Ham. ex D. Don) Seem, in J. Bot. 2:
291. 1864, Revis. Heder. 18. 1868, pro. parte;

Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 2:735. 1879; Harms in Nat.
Pflanzen fam. 3(8) 43. 1894.

Panax hainla (D. Don) DC. Prodr. 4:203. 1830.

Panax crucifolia Griff. Itin. Notes 2:145. 1848.
distribution: India, Nepal and China.

2. Pseudobrassaiopsis hispida (Seem.) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.
Brassaiopsis hispida seem. 1. c. 292; Clarke in Hook. f. 1. c. 736.
distribution: India, Sikkim, Bhutan and China.

3. Pseudobrassaiopsis alpina (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.
Brassaiopsis alpina Clarke in 1. c. 736.

Euaraliopsis alpina (Clarke) Balak. 1. c. 60.
distribution: India and Sikkim.

4. Pseudobrassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.
Hedera polyacantha Wall. PI. As. Rar. 2:82. t. 190. 1831.

Panax palmatum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 21. 1814, nom. nud., FI. Ind.
2:74. 1832.

Brassaiopsis palmata (Roxb.) Kurz in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 39(2):
77. 1870; Clarke 1. c. 735; Harms 1. c. 43.

Brassaiopsis polyacantha (Wall.) Ban. in. Ind. For. 93(5): 341.
1967 Syn. nov.

distribution: India, Burma, Nepal, China and Malay Peninsula.

5. Pseudobrassaiopsis andamanica (R. N. Ban.) R. N. Ban. comb.

nov.

Brassaiopsis andamanica R. N. Ban. in. Ind. For. 94(10): 775.
1968. Syn. nov.

distribution: India, Nepal, Burma, China and Malay Peninsula.

6. Pseudobrassaiopsis griffithii (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.
Brassaiopsis griffithii Clarke 1. c. 736.; Harms 1. c. 43.

Euaraliopsis griffithii (Clarke) Balak. 1. c. 60.
distribution: India and Burma.

PSEUDOBRASSAIOPSIS GEN. NOV.

73

7. Pseudobrassaiopsis mitis (Clarke) R. N. Ban. comb. nov.
Brassaiopsis mitis Clarke, 1. c. 736.

Euaraliopsis mitis (Clarke), Balak. 1. c. 60.
distribution: India, Indo-China and China.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr S. K. Mukerjee, Retired Scientist and Ex-
Keeper, C. N. H. for his guidance and to Dr N. C. Majumdar for latin
transcription of the description.

References

Hutchinson, J. (1967) : Araliaceae.
Genera of Flowering Plants 2:80, 624.
Oxford.

Kurz, S. (1870) : Report on the

vegetation of Andaman Islands 39.
App. B IX Calcutta.

Lanjouw, J. et al. (1966) : Inter-
national Code of Botanical Nomen-
clature. Utrecht-Nederlands.

Belly-soaking in the
C haradriiformes 1

G. L. Maclean

Department of Zoology , University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg,

South Africa

Belly-soaking consists in wetting the belly feathers for the
purpose of transporting water to eggs or chicks. It occurs regular-
ly in the sandgrouse for watering the chicks. It occurs also in the
Charadriiformes among the families Charadriidae, Glareolidae,
Recurvirostridae, Laridae, Sternidae and Rynchopidae. Its main
function appears to be for cooling the eggs or young; whether
the young also drink the water provided by the parents in 'this way
has not been proven. Belly-soaking appears to be absent from
all other orders of birds. Its presence may be further evidence
for placing the sandgrouse (Pteroclididae) in the order Charadrii-
formes, as suggested by Gatter (1971). The origins of belly-
soaking are discussed.

Introduction

Ever since I began field studies on the sandgrouse (Pteroclididae)
(Maclean 1968), I have been interested in water transport by birds
in their belly feathers (see Cade & Maclean 1967). In view of my con-
clusions that the sandgrouse are actually Charadriiformes, or at least
very closely related to them (Maclean 1967), it is interesting, if not
significant, that the only taxon of birds other than the Pteroclididae
in which belly-soaking occurs regularly is the Charadriiformes. The
suggestion that Ixobrychus exilis in the United States also transports
water in its belly feathers rests on a misinterpretation of the single
observation by Weller (1961) of a male Least Bittern which waded
into water about a metre deep on a very hot day, in an apparent attempt
to cool itself before returning to its young. This behaviour does not
seem to have constituted belly-soaking in the present sense. “Belly-
soaking” refers here to deliberate wetting of the ventral plumage for
the purpose of water transport to eggs or young. The term excludes
incidental wetting of the ventral plumage in aquatic birds, or in species
which do not use the water for watering eggs or young.

1 Accepted April 30, 1973.

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRUFORMES

75

Occurrence of Belly-soaking

Belly-soaking has been observed in six families of the order Chara-
driiformes, excluding the Pteroclididae, namely: Charadriidae, Glareo-
lidae, Recurvirostridae, Laridae, Sternidae and Rynchopidae. The first
three families belong to the suborder Charadrii, the last three to the
suborder Lari. For convenience I shall deal with the published infor-
mation by families.

1 . Charadriidae

(a) Charadrius

Only two species of Charadrius have been shown to soak their
bellies. Dharmakumarsinhji (1964) writes that C. alexandrinus near
Bhavanagar in Gujarat has a frequent changeover at the nest during
the hot hours of the day, and that the relieving bird “would often have
its breast wet to keep the eggs moist”. Hobbs (1972) suggests that the
same species in southeastern Australia may do the same thing, but
his evidence is indirect, based on the muddy coating of eggs which,
however, may be attributed to nesting on a damp substrate.

The most remarkable account of belly-soaking outside of the sand-
grouse family is that of Gatter (1971) in C. dubius. He observed a
breeding population near Plochingen on the Neckar in West Germany.
Between 1200 and 1400 hours on what he considered to be a hot day
(29.2°C in the shade), both parents at a nest with newly hatched chicks
took it in turns to run to a nearby pool, soak their belly feathers by
running quickly through the water, and then run or fly back to the
young, which they brooded with their wet plumage, ostensibly to keep
them cool.

Pitman (1965) indicates that C. pecuarius in Zambia “seemed. . . .
to have wet breasts” when coming to relieve the mate at the nest in
very hot weather.

(b) Vanellus

Five species of Vanellus have been observed soaking their belly
plumage for the purpose of wetting their eggs or young. During a single
period of observation on the Benue River in Nigeria, Serle (1939)
watched V. albiceps make about 12 trips from its nest to the river where
it dipped its breast and belly several times in the water, then dipped
its bill, and finally walked back to its egg. This took place at 1300 hours
in the heat of the day. Bainbridge (1965) recorded similar behaviour
in this species on the Zambezi River, but only when the sun was shin-
ing and air temperatures were over 32°C in the shade; eggs were not
wetted on a cloudy day when the air temperature was less than 32°C.

At two nests of V. spinosus in Egypt, during hot July weather,
Crossley (1964) saw the adults go several times to the water to wet the
belly feathers immediately before returning to the nest; Dharmakum-

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

arsinhji (1964) recorded identical behaviour in V. indicus at Bhavnagar.
Jayakar & Spurway (1965a, b) noted the same thing in V. malabaricus
between 1114 and 1605 hours at one nest where the male parent wetted
the eggs twice and the female eight times; the source of water was a
wet concrete pavement under a dripping tap. The birds would soak
their feathers for up to 10 min at a time before returning to relieve
the mate at the nest. Red lateritic mud was conspicuous on both the
eggs and the parents’ belly feathers. This behaviour was seen only in
April, the hot season, and even occurred after all four chicks of the
brood had hatched.

Wright (1963) recorded wetting of eggs and young in V. senegallus
in Zambia. The parent soaked its abdominal feathers in a water-filled
hippo track and then settled onto the eggs and chicks. When the parents
left the chicks for 10 or 15 min, the chicks died of heat exposure.

Dresser (1902) writes of V. leucurus in the breeding season: “Dur-
ing the hottest part of the day it either rests on the shores of the lakes
or in water which reaches up to its bellly.” This may be no more than
a suggestive coincidence, but Dresser does not mention that birds that
have been resting thus in water have then gone to a nest with eggs.

2. GlareoJidae

(a) Pluvianus

In a footnote to a short communication by Abdulali (1939), to
certain terns, using their belly feathers as the transport mechanism, the
Editors of J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. state that “the Egyptian Plover
( Pluvianus aegyptius ) is said to moisten its eggs in a similar manner”.
They give no reference to their source of information. However, Butler
(1931) mentions that this species regurgitates water onto the sand under
which the eggs are buried.

(b) Glareola

Dharmakumarsinhji (1964) says that the parents at a nest of Gla-
reola lactea changed over on the eggs about every 25 to 35 min during
the hot hours of the day, and that the incoming bird would often have
its breast wet. A similar, but rather inconclusive statement has been
made about G. pratincola at a breeding colony in Zambia (Pitman
1965).

3. Recurvirostridae

Dharmakumarsinhji (1964), again observing in Gujarat, writes that
changeover between the parents at a nest of Himantopus himantopus
was frequent in the heat of the day, and that both parents would wet
their belly feathers before returning to the nest, “by bobbing down
to the water while wading.”

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRIIFORMES

77

4. Laridae

The only account of belly-soaking in the gulls is that of Meinertz-
hagen (1954), who mentioned that parents in a colony of Lams genei
on Bahrain Island have been seen sprinkling their eggs with sea water
during the heat of the day.

5. Sternidae

Three observers have independently recorded belly-soaking in
Sterna albijrons for the purpose of taking water back to the eggs
(Abdulali 1939; Dharmakumarsinhji 1964; Tompkins 1942). The plum-
age was wetted either in flight or when wading into the water. Abdulali
(1939) recorded a changeover of the parents every minute or so
throughout an hour’s observation period on Salsette Island off the west
coast of India.

Currie (1916) found the eggs of Sterna acuticauda near Lahore
“besprinkled all over with water.” In more general terms, Lowther
(1949), who photographed extensively on the Jumna River in northern
India, wrote that “the parent terns and skimmers do overtime splash-
ing water over their eggs and young” during sandstorms in the heat of
summer.

6. Rynchopidae

Ali & Ripley (1969b) state specifically of Rynchops albicollis that
the parents soak their ventral plumage and splash water over the eggs
and young to keep them cool.

Functions of Belly-soaking

The one environmental factor associated with belly-soaking and
subsequent wetting of eggs or chicks in the Charadriiformes in all
accounts that I have read has been intense heat, but only Ali & Ripley
(1969b), Crossley (1964), Gatter (1971) and Tompkins (1942) suggest
that the function of this behaviour is to cool the eggs or young. Tomp-
kins (1942) adds that wetting may serve also to replace moisture lost
from the egg by evaporation.

The latitudes and approximate climatic conditions of the main
study areas mentioned in the literature are shown in Table 1. The driest
region is around Bhavnagar in Gujarat, India, but even this has a mean
annual rainfall of over 500 mm. All the other regions in Table 1 are
wetter than this and some, like Georgia, U.S.A., are very wet indeed.
Evaporation therefore seems to constitute a smaller hazard to the eggs
and young of birds than overheating. The lethal effects of overheating
on plover chicks has been shown clearly by Wright (1963). The best

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

direct evidence is probably that of Bainbridge (1965). The main func-
tion of belly-soaking in ground nesting birds would thus appear to be
cooling.

Table 1

Places in which belly-soaking has been observed in the Charadriiformes,

SHOWING LATITUDES AND APPROXIMATE CLIMATES

Locality

Latitude

Mean midsummer
temperature °C

Mean annual
rainfall cm

Plochingen, West Germany

49 °N

18-22° (warm)

75-100

Benue River, Nigeria

9°N

22-27° (hot)

100-200

Georgia, U.S.A.

30-35°N

27° (v. hot)

200-300

Bhubaneswar, India

20°N

27° (v. hot)

100-200

Jumna River, India

26°N

27° (v. hot)

100-200

Bhavnagar, India

22°N

27° (v. hot)

50-100

Kafue National Park, Zambia

15-16°S

22-27° (hot)

100-150

Victoria Falls, Zambia

18°S

22-27° (hot)

75-100

This conclusion is partly confirmed by the fact that sea water as
well as fresh water is used for egg-wetting. Apart from the fact that the
egg shell and membranes are only slightly permeable to water, so that
evaporation from within and penetration of water from outside are
very slow, the osmotic differences between the egg albumen [freezing
point about -0.45 °C (Romanoff & Romanoff 1967)] and sea water
(freezing point about -2°C) are such that water would tend to pass
out of the egg rather than into it when sea water was applied to the
shell. Further confirmation is the fact that Charadrius dubius seems to
wet its chicks in the same way as other charadriiforms wet their eggs
under the stress of high ambient temperatures, although of only about
29°C, which in other parts of the world in which belly-soaking has
been recorded would not constitute a hot day. Air temperature of only
29 °C accompanied by high relative humidity would certainly not result
in a dangerously high rate of evaporation from a bird’s egg ( cf . Roma-
noff & Romanoff 1949:380).

Tompkins (1942) implies that skimmers, oystercatchers, plovers
and nightjars “using a similar nesting ground” to Sterna albifrons in
Georgia do not need to counteract evaporation from their eggs by wet-
ting them as the terns do, because their eggs have much thicker shells.
I do not believe that actual measurements would substantiate this
claim — certainly it is hard to believe that a nightjar could lay a thicker-
shelled egg than a tern. In any case skimmers and plovers in other

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHA RADR11FORMES

79

parts of the world have indeed been seen wetting their eggs (Dharma-
kumarsinhji 1964; Lowther 1949).

Discussion

Nearly all the species of birds that regularly transport water in their
belly feathers nest near water, or fly daily to water to drink. They thus
have contact with water at least once daily even if, like the sandgrouse,
they are not primarily birds of waterside habitats. The main exception
to this rule is Vanellus malabaricus which is not a waterside breeder
as a rule (Ali & Ripley 1969a), but is sufficiently adaptable to capita-
lize on the water from a dripping tap when it is available. What does
V. malabaricus do for water in the absence of any artificial supply in
a habitat such as a fallow field?

An even more interesting question is: How have those species of
charadriiforms that nest in hot regions in the complete absence of
water become adapted at the egg stage to high temperatures without
the need for water-cooling? I am thinking here especially of the cour-
sers; but the same question could apply to any desert bird, even the
sandgrouse which, as far as I know, do not moisten their eggs during
incubation.

The answer cannot lie simply in the thickness of the egg shell as
suggested by Tompkins (1942), since even such small ground-nesting
birds as larks survive adequately without the need to wet their eggs
in any way. It may, however, lie in a reduced permeability of the egg
shell and egg membranes to water loss (and therefore probably to
water uptake — hence the absence of egg-wetting), or more likely to
an increased resistance of the embryo to high temperatures. Accurate
measurements of embryonic tolerance to high temperatures are needed
to show what differences exist among the charadriiforms, if any. It is
also necessary to know at what ambient air temperature belly-soaking
is initiated, and how this temperature correlates with embryonic tem-
perature tolerance.

Another possible factor is the thermoregulatory ability of the adults
at high temperatures. Desert forms may be more efficient at keeping
their own body temperatures lower than non -desert forms, for example.

The possibility of egg-wetting serving to counteract the effects of
water lost by evaporation cannot be ruled out as a cofactor; here again
quantitative data are essential.

A check of the breeding seasons and distributions of charadriiforms
in which belly-soaking has been recorded shows that they are mostly
spring to summer breeders in the northern hemisphere (see also Table 1),
so that they have eggs or young when air temperatures are high, espe-
cially in India where the habit is most widespread. Most southern Afri-

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

can charadriiforms nest from about midwinter (July) to late spring
when air temperatures are relatively low. Although the charadriiforms
of south America are mainly spring and summer nesters, the climate
is generally mild. These facts may account for the apparent absence
of belly-soaking in these southern hemisphere forms, and support fur-
ther the idea that its function is primarily one of cooling. But belly-
soaking has not been established in Australian charadriiforms, many
of which nest in summer.1

One might also expect equatorial charadriiforms of both hemis-
pheres to practise belly- soaking. It has been suggested for Pluvianus
aegyptius (Butler 1931), and has been recorded in Vanellus albiceps
at 9°N (Serle 1939) and at 18°S (Bainbridge 1965), and in V. sene-
gallus at about 15°S (Wright 1963), but surprisingly has not been seen
in these species elsewhere in their range, nor in any other species of
charadriiforms in Africa or tropical America as far as I know. This
may reflect a scarcity of observers in these regions, rather than an
absence of the behaviour pattern, so that it should be carefully looked
for in future.

What about the origin of belly- soaking? Since it is a transport
mechanism whose function seems to be mainly one of cooling, the
suggestion of Tompkins (1942) that “the origin of the practice may
be merely the wish of the bird to cool herself” is probably correct.
The incidental wetting of the ventral plumage in Ixobrychus exilis while
the parent bird was wading in deep water to cool itself on a hot day
(Weller 1961) seems to offer some small confirmation of the idea.

An alternative suggestion is that belly-soaking might have been de-
rived from bathing behaviour (Cade & Maclean 1967). This idea and
the previous idea are not mutually exclusive, except that, in my ex-
perience in southern Africa, birds bathe more frequently in cold weather
than in hot. However, I have seen a type of “bathing” in both Chara-
drius tricollaris and Vanellus armatus that resembled exactly the belly-
soaking movements of sandgrouse, involving wetting the belly plumage
only, without any of the head and wing movements typical of other
birds. These plovers were doing this on cold days in July and April
respectively. Was this belly-soaking or bathing? If the former, what
was its purpose? On neither occasion did the bird go to a nest follow-
ing the behaviour. If it was bathing, it was manifested in only the most
rudimentary form. The matter is clearly in need of closer attention.

1 In December 1974 I saw a Charadrius melanops in New South Wales soak
its belly feathers before flying to the nest to relieve its mate.

(Note added in proof)

BELLY-SOAKING IN THE CHARADRIIFORMES 31

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Wasseraufnahme im Bauchgefieder zum Zweck des Wasser-
transports, eine Funktion, die ich “Belly-soaking” genannt habe,
kommt nur unter den Flughuhnern nud den Charadriiformes
vor. Diese Wasserspeicherung unter den Charadriiformes dient
hauptsachlich zur Kiihlung der Eier oder Kiiken. Ob die Jungen
auf dieser Weise auch getrankt werden, ist noch nicht festgestellt
worden. Wassertransport im Bauchgefieder fehlt scheinbar in alien
anderen Vogelordnungen; sein Vorkommen scheint ein weiterer
Verwandtschaftsbeweis zwischen den Pteroclididae und den Cha-
radriiformes zu bilden, wie schon von Gatter (1971) vorgesch-
lagen ist. Das Entstehen dieses eigenartigen Verhalten wird dis-
kutiert.

References

Abdulali, H. (1939) : The sun as
a mortality factor among young birds.
/. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 47:433-434.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969a) :
Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford University
Press, Bombay.

(1969b):

Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan. Vol. 3. Oxford University
Press, Bombay.

Bainbridge, W. R. (1965) : Nesting
behaviour of the White-headed Watt-
led Plover. Puku 3:171-173.

Butler, A. L. (1931): The chicks
of the Egyptian Plover. Ibis 1 (13th
Series): 345-347.

Cade, T. J. & Maclean, G. L.
(1967) : Transport of water by adult
sandgrouse to their young. Condor
69: 323-343.

Crossley, R. (1964) : Spur- winged
Plovers wetting their feathers before
incubating. Brit. Birds 57: 515-516.

Currie, A. J. (1916): The birds
of Lahore and the vicinity. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 24:561-577.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (1964):
Some observations on the Small In-
dian Pratincole ( Glareola lactea Tem-
minck) and some other waders breed-
ing in Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Pavo 2 :
1-11.

Dresser, H. E. (1920): On some
rare Palaearctic birds’ eggs. Ibis 2
(8th Series): 177-180.

Gatter, W. (1971) : Wassertrans-
port beim Flussregenpfeifer ( Char ad -
rius dubius). Vogelwelt 92: 100-103.

Hobbs, J. N. (1972) : Breeding of
Red-capped Dotterel at Fletcher’s
Lake, Dareton, NSW. Emu 72: 121-
125.

Jayakar, S. D. & Spurway, H.
(1965a) : The Yellow- wattled Lap-

wing, a tropical dry-season nester
[ Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert),
Charadriidae] . I. The locality, and
the incubatory adaptations. Zool. Jb.
Syst. 92:53-72.

(1965b) : The Yellow- wattled Lap-

wing, Vanellus malabaricus (Bod-
daert) , a tropical dry-season nester.
II. Additional data on breeding bio-
logy. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62:
1-14.

Lowther, E. H. N. (1949) : A bird
photographer in India. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, London.

Maclean, G. L. (1967): Die sys-
tematische Stellung der Flughuhner
(Pteroclididae). J. Orn. 793:203-217.

(1968): Field stu-
dies on the sandgrouse of the Kala-
hari Desert. Living Bird 7: 209-235.

6

82 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Meinertzhagen, R. (1954) : Birds
of Arabia. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh.

Pitman, C. R. S. (1965): The eggs
and nesting habits of the St. Helena
Sand-Plover or Wirebird, Charadrius
pecuarius sanctac-helenae (Harting) .
Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 85: 121-129.

Romanoff, A. L. & Romanoff,
A. J. (1949) : The avian egg. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.

(1967): Biochemistry of the

avian embryo. John Wiley & Sons,

New York.

Serle, W. (1939): Field observa-
tions on some northern Nigerian birds.
Ibis 7959:654-699.

Tompkins, I. R. (1942) : Least

Tern watering eggs: Gideon Mabbett’s
query. Auk 59:308.

Weller, M. W. (1961): Breeding
biology of the Least Bittern. Wilson
Bull. 73: 11-35.

Wright, P. J. (1963): Nesting be-
haviour of the Wattled Plover. Puku
7:218.

Observations on the occurrence
and habits of juvenile fishes
in the nearshore region

of the Mandapam area "1 2

K. V. Sekharan

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin-18

During 1952-55, I made a study of the juvenile fishes and their habits
in the nearshore region in the Mandapam area. The study, confined
mainly to the Palk Bay was facilitated largely because of the existence
of a fishery exclusively for juvenile fishes, although data from other
sources were also available. The present account deals with juveniles
observed in the region up to about 2 km from shore during the period
referred to above.

Studies were undertaken in the Palk Bay along a 5 km stretch of
the coast between Munakkad and Pullamadam, and in the Gulf of
Mannar at a point opposite the jetty of the Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute. Three sources of data were available for this ac-
count: (i) The commercial fishery, (ii) Experimental light fishing con-
ducted by the C.M.F.R. Institute, and (iii) Independent observations
undertaken by me during weekly sea trips at night.

(i) The commercial fishery : Juveniles are landed mainly by torch
and hand-net boats (operated at night) and shore-seines (Sekharan
1955), the catches being greater during the new moon periods than
during other periods. Another net operated is Ola Valai, a small shore-
seine with the dragging ropes on either side having long dry palmyrah
leaves attached to them. Observations on the fishery were conducted
along the Palk Bay coast.

(ii) Experimental light fishing : Chellappa (1959) has described the
experimental light fishing conducted in the Gulf of Mannar at Manda-
pam. On a number of occasions I also made observations on the fishes
caught by this method.

(iii) Independent personal observations : During weekly sea trips
at night, observations were made of fishes attracted by the light from

1 Published with the permission of the Director, C.M.F.R. Institute, Cochin-18.

2 Accepted September 19, 1972.

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(1)

a 2-cell electric torch and also of fishes in the near-shore region.

Data on the important species represented in the catches are based
exclusively on the samples collected from the landings of torch-and-
hand-net boats and shore-seines. Samples were taken, usually once a
week, at night and preserved in formalin. In the laboratory, they were
sorted into species, and the total length measured. The methods adopt-
ed for estimating the landed weight and number of the two important
species of Sardinella which comprised the bulk of the landed catch of
young fishes have been described elsewhere (Sekharan 1971).

The juveniles described here measure generally less than 70 mm.
In terms of numbers and weights of all species combined, their period
of peak occurrence in the Palk Bay is March- June, and only that period
is referred to here in respect of the Palk Bay. In respect of the Gulf
of Mannar the period referred to is January- April.

About 60 species of young fishes have been identified in the near-
shore region, all common to the fish fauna of both the Palk Bay and
the Gulf of Mannar. The more common species and their length ranges
are given in the table.

Observations on the shoals of juveniles

Shoals of young fishes which consisted mostly of Sardinella spp.
and Stolephorus spp., and which are easily recognised as luminescent
patches, were either stationary or showed random movement. The noise
or vibration caused by the outboard engine (10 HP) used did not seem
to scare the fish, inasmuch as no sudden movement could be noted when
I collected plankton samples either directly over the shoals or very
close to them.

On a few occasions, I was able to watch the sardine shoals in dif-
ferent stages of encirclement by the shore-shine. The shoals touching
the wide-meshed part of the wing (made of coir rope) do not show
any tendency to escape; instead individual fishes could be seen darting
to and fro, seeming to peck at the net and then withdrawing, when
the area enclosed by the net is very wide. On the other hand, when
the enclosed area becomes smaller and smaller, the fish begin to escape
from the net, and could easily be collected with a cloth (Sekharan
1959). In other words, the tendency to escape seems caused not so much
by a slight obstruction in the path of the shoal, but by the limitation of
the area of movement. A similar reaction has been inferred from studies
of demersal fishes (Manteufel & Radakov 1964).

During March- June, the sardines are less than 65 mm on the aver-
age and are not normally found at the surface during dav-time

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

85

Table

Gear

Species Length-range

(mm)

Sardinella albella (Val.)

18—70

Sardinella gibbosa (Bleeker)

18—70

Other Sardinella species

20—70

Hilsa kelee (Cuvier)

25—65

Torch-and hand-net.

Stolephorus indica

(Van Hasselt)

15—60

(Palk Bay)

Stolephorus spp.

10—65

Gerres filamentosus

Cuv. & Val.

25—60

Gerres spp.

30—70

Leiognathus splendens (Cuv.)

10—70

Leiognathus spp.

8—60

Atherina spp.

30—70

Shore-seine

The species mentioned above,

plus

(Palk Bay & Gulf

of Mannar)

II is ha spp.

50—75

Escualosa thoracata (Val.)

40—60

Thrissocles spp.

30—70

Selaroides leptolepis

(Cuv. & Val.)

20—60

Other Caranx spp.

25—65

Hemirhamphus spp.

60 — 80 (from lower jaw)

Cypselurus sp.

65—80

Platycephalus spp.

50—65

Plotosus spp.

50—75

Upeneus spp.

55—75

Teuthis spp.

60—75

Pelates sp.

30—60

Sitlago sp.

30—65

Mugil spp.

20—60

Scomberomorus spp.

65—90

Ola valai

Psammoperca waigaiensis

40—80

(Palk Bay)

Lethrinus spp.

50—200

Lutianus spp.

50—200

Leiognathus spp.

20—75

Lactarius sp.

30—80

Experimental :

Sardinella gibbosa

60—90

light fishing

Stolephorus spp.

40—65

II is ha spp.

60—80

(Gulf of Mannar)

Leiognathus spp.

30—65

Gazza spp.

30—60

Plotosus spp.

60—90

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(Sekharan 1959). It would appear that the shoals break up or migrate to
deeper waters during day-time. But after June, the shoals are spotted
near the surface during day-time also; a change of habit with increase
in size is thus apparant.

Observations on the reactions of juveniles to light

(i) In the fishery: In the fishery using light, torches made of dried
palmyrah leaves are employed. When a torch is lighted near a lumines-
cent patch (shoal), the juveniles rapidly move towards it and around
the boat. The torch is held about 1\ metres above the surface of the
water. The fishes, especially the sardines, anchovies and Atherina spp.
even jump towards the light. Sometimes they crowd the entire near-
shore region right up to the water’s edge. Stationed about 75 metres
from a palmyrah torch, I could collect thousands with the bucket of a
\ m plankton net.

(ii) During experimental light fishing : First a 300 cc kerosene petro-
max light was used above the surface of the water. This was later sub-
stituted by an electric bulb, with power varying from 100 to 400 watts.
Later on, a submerged light with power ranging from 6 to 21 watts
was used. A dip net was arranged beneath the light. It was noted that
“while the submerged light by itself was not effective, a combination
of this with surface illumination gave a much bigger catch than either
of the lights used singly” (Chellappa 1959). Only occasionally were
sardines and anchovies seen in the catches; moreover they came in
ones and twos and not in shoals. Plotosus spp. on the other hand appear-
ed in groups of 10-15.

(iii) Independent experiments conducted during this study : An
ordinary electric torch (with two cells) was used in the Pallc Bay on
dark nights. As soon as the beam strikes the water surface, Atherina
spp. jump out of the water. When the beam moves along the surface,
the fish along the track jump out, and falling back, create a sound like
the patter of rain drops falling on water surface. Sardines were not seen
during these trials, probably because they move in groups and not as
individuals. Other fishes were not observed in the course of these trials.

In the evenings small sized Mugil spp. were seen along the water’s
edge in the Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar.

Important fishes in the nearshore region

The data collected showed that Sardinella spp., Hilsa kelee and
Stolephorus spp. comprise the bulk of the juveniles (about 85%) in

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

87

the nearshore region, during the March- June period. Among them,
Sardinella spp. are dominant, in terms of both numbers and mass. To
some extent, this may be correlated with the food of these fishes.

Food of important species of juveniles : On a few occasions the
stomach contents of different species of fishes from the nearshore re-
gion were examined. The important elements are mentioned below:

Sardinella spp.

Hilsa kelee

Stolephorus spp.

Copepod nauplii and

Copepodites

Copepods

Zoea

Lamellibranch larvae
Gastropod larvae
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates

Copepods

Zoea

Lamellibranch larvae
Diatoms (only small
quantities)

Lucifer spp.
Copepods
Other Crustacea

llisha spp.

Leiognathus spp.

Gazza spp.

Copepods

Larger crustaceans
Diatoms (very few)

Copepods
Decapod larvae
Diatoms (very few)

Copepods
Decapod larvae
Diatoms (very few)

It may be seen that the conformity of the food spectrum with net
plankton is more in the case of Sardinella spp. than in the case of other
species, which explains, at least partly, the dominance of the former
in the nearshore region.

The relative importance of Sardinella albella and S. gibbosa : Of
the species of Sardinella, only Sardinella albella and S. gibbosa are
important, the others forming less than 0.5 per cent of the sardine
catch. Between the two species, S. albella is the more important one,
on seasonal average. The ratio between the two species (in numbers)
in 1952, 1953, 1954 and 1955 respectively was 7:2, 7:3, 20:19 and 13:12
in torch-and hand-net catches, and 3:2, 7:8, 17:12 and 1:5 in shore-
seine catches.

Discussion

Since Sardinella spp. comprised the bulk of the biomass of juveniles
in the nearshore region, the entire group may be termed the “ Sardinella
complex”. It would be interesting to find whether Sardinella spp. are
associated with the same or related species in other regions of the east
and west coasts of India.

As Sardinella spp. occupy a lower trophic level than other fishes,
the dominance of the former in the nearshore region is explicable. But

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

the dominance pattern between the two species of Sardinella in the
nearshore region cannot be satisfactorily explained in terms of feeding
relationships alone. Both species occur in the same haul, feed on iden-
tical items with little indication of any item being taken more by one
species than by the other (Sekharan 1970). Ivlev’s (1961) experiments
show that the feeding of a species in an area may be adversely affected
by the mere presence of another species; the effect would obviously
be reflected in the magnitude of the two populations in the area. It is
also generally contended by ecologists that two species with the same
ecological requirements cannot co-exist in the same habitat (Gause’s
theory). Therefore, on these considerations, equal abundance of the
two species in the area is not to be expected. But the seasonal data
indicate near parity in the relative abundance of the two species. This
is of course not true of short-term periods within a season, for which
the pattern is not constant; the dominant species was Sardinella albella
in some periods but S. gibbosa during others, both in numbers and in
biomass. Viewed in this light, the situation here would not run counter
to Gause’s theory.

It was however apparent that the balance between the two species
was delicate and could even be upset in the future. In the Gulf of
Mannar, S. gibbosa was the dominant species of Sardinella while in the
Palk Bay, the inter- specific ‘struggle’ for dominance appeared to be
still on. A reversal of the observed pattern of species abundance in the
Palk Bay could therefore be visualised.

The Palk Bay fishery for juveniles is a good example of commer-
cial sampling of young fishes. Considerable time and expense are in-
volved in the scientific survey of juveniles in fishery biological work.
If commercial fisheries on the Palk Bay model could be established
in areas where young fish are suspected to congregate, it would be
advantageous in fisheries research work.

The recent decline in torch-and hand-net fishing (Dr. R. V. Nair,
personal communication) calls for a serious study. Compared to the
1950’s the character of the fisheries in the Palk Bay had changed con-
siderably in 1960’s with a concomitant increase in mechanisation of
boats. The fishery for Leiognathus spp. is of much greater importance
now-a-days than formerly. If the abundance of sardines has declined,
it has to be determined to what extent the decrease is fishery-dependent.
Similarly the effect, if any, of the recent changes in the fishing methods
in the Palk Bay on the eco-system and the balance of the populations
there merits an investigation,

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS OF JUVENILE FISHES

89

References

Chellappa, D. E. (1959): A note
on the night fishing observations from
a kelong. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 1 :
93.

Ivelev, V. S. (1961): Experimental
ecology of the feeding of fishes (Trans-
lated from Russian by D. Scott) .
Yale University Press, New Haven,
302 pp.

Manteufel, B. P. & Radakov, D. V.
(1964) : Summary account of the in-
vestigations carried out in the USSR
on the behaviour of fish in the zone
of the fishing gear. Rapp. cons. Perm.
Internat. Explor. Mer. 755:21-22.

Sekharan, K. V. (1955): Observa-
tions on the Choodai fishery of Man-
dapam area. Indian J. Fish., 2:115-131.

(1959) : Size-

groups of Choodai caught by different
nets and in different localities, ibid.
5:1-31.

(1970): On the

rates of the sardines Sardinella albella
and S. gibbosa of the Mandapam
area. ibid. 75:96-141.

(1971): Growth

rates of the sardine Sardinella albella
(Val.) and S. gibbosa (Bleek.) of the
Mandapam area. ibid. 75:68-90.

A new species and notes on
the genus Anthoxanthum L.
(Poaceae)1

S. K. Jain2 and D. C. Pal
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta
( With three text-figures)

A new grass Anthoxanthum borii is described. A dichotomous
key is provided for identification of the six species of the genus
Anthoxanthum L.. occurring in India. Important distinguishing
characters of the new species are also illustrated in a text-figure.
Some critical notes on the identity of certain taxa are given.

Introduction

The genus Anthoxanthum L. was formerly included in the tribe
Phalarideae of the subfamily Pooideae (Hooker, 221; Bor, 163, 1940;
Hitchcock, 549); it is now placed in the tribe Aveneae (Bor, 431, 1960;
Hubbard, 433).

Anthoxanthum L. is a large genus of about 50 species and numer-
ous varieties (Chase & Niles 1962), distributed in almost all continents,
particularly in Europe, the Mediterranean region and Old World.

The material of the genus from the herbaria at Shillong (ASSAM),
Coimbatore (MH) and Calcutta (CAL) was examined; this included
two type specimens of A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle and A. sikkimense
(Maxim.) Ohwi.

Four species, namely A. clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi; A. hookeri
(Griseb.) Rendle, A. odoratum L. and A. sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi
are reported to occur in different parts of India, particularly in the
eastern Himalayas and peninsular India. A. puelii Lee. & Lam., a grass
from southern Europe, is comparatively a recent introduction in India.

One new species occurring in south India was discovered.

Anthoxanthum L. Gen. PI. ed. 5:17, 1754.

Annual or perennial. Leaves up to about 10 mm wide. Inflores-

1 Accepted November 14, 1972.

2 Present address : Dy. Director, B.S.L, Eastern Circle, “Woodlands’*, Laith-
umkhara, Shillong, Assam.

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

91

cence a spiciform or lax panicle. Spikelets oblong to linear-lanceolate,
slightly laterally compressed, rhachilla disarticulating above the glumes.
Glumes 2, persistent, 1-3-nerved, 1-keeled, acute or acuminate, upper
longer. Florets 3, heteromorphous; first (lowest) floret male, some-
times barren; lemma oblong-lanceolate, 5-7-nerved, hairy, shortly
awned; palea 2-keeled, lodicules 0; stamens 3; second ( middle ) floret
barren. Lemma and palea similar to that of lowest floret; awn longer,
kneed, arising from near the base or from the middle. Third ( terminal )
floret hermaphrodite; Lemma much shorter than the lower two, broad-
ly elliptic-lanceolate, delicately 1-7 nerved; palea 1-nerved; lodicules
0; stamens 2; styles distinct; stigmas 2, long, exserted from the tip of
the spikelet, plumose. Grain ovoid, slightly laterally compressed.

Etymology : anthos : flower; xanthos: yellow, refers to pale yellow-
ish inflorescence. Type species: A. odoratum L.

Key to species

1. Spikelets less than 5 mm long; awns projecting, -j- equal to the

spikelet itself A. sikkimense

1. Spikelets more than 5.5 mm long; awns projecting equal to,
or much less than, the spikelet:

2. Spikelets very shortly awned, awn not projecting more than

2 mm beyond the spikelet:

3. Perennial; culms unbranched A. odoratum

3. Annual; culms branched, geniculate below A. puelii

2. Spikelets with long awns, awns projecting more than 2 mm
beyond the spikelet:

4. Spikelets about 5.5 mm long; pedicels glabrous; lower and
upper glumes acute (not acuminate); lemmas densely
brownish hairy A. clarkei

4. Spikelets more than 6 mm long; pedicels glabrous or hairy,

lower and upper glumes acuminate, lemmas less hairy,
hairs hyaline :

5. Culms unbranched; leafblades up to 5 mm broad; ligule

longer than broad; pedicels glabrous; lower glume about
half as long as the upper, rarely more; inflorescence

slender loose A. hookeri

5. Culms branched; leafblades up to 10 mm broad; ligule

broader than long; pedicels hairy; lower glumes usually
exceeding half the upper glume; inflorescence

congested A. borii

The distinguishing characters of the new species have also been
illustrated in the plate. In the following account, the species are arrang-
ed alphabetically. The new species is described in detail; for others, full
descriptions are omitted as they are available in published literature, to
which references have been cited.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

■

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3)

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. similis A. hookeri sed culmis ramosis,
foliorum laminis latioribus, pedicellis pilosis, paniculis congestis differt.

Holotype: Pulneys, Pambar stream, near Shenthadikanal, 6-xii-1898.
Bourne 1954 (CAL).

Anthoxanthum borii sp. nov. resembles A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle
but differs in having branched culms, broad leaf blades, hairy pedicels
and congested panicles.

A perennial rhizomatous grass, culms branched, erect, slender
0.6-1 m tall. Roots shallow. Leaf sheaths compressed, glabrous, slip-
ping, from the culms; leaf blades linear, 8-30 cm long, 4-10 mm wide,
rounded at the base, acute, glabrous or sparsely hairy; ligule truncate,
membranous, hyaline, up to 3 mm long. Inflorescence a congested pani-
cle, up to about 13 cm long, 2 cm wide; racemes short. S pikelets oblong-
lanceolate, including the awn: 8-10 mm long, excluding the awn: 6-7
mm long, 1.5-2 mm broad, on short hairy pedicels. Lower glume ovate-
lanceolate, acuminate, 4-5.5 mm long chartaceous, 1 -nerved, upper
glume ovate-acuminate, 6-7 mm long, 3-nerved, 1-keeled, keel scabrid,
margins broad hyaline. First ( lowest ) floret male or barren; lemma 5-6
mm long, thin, membranous, 5-nerved, mid-nerve distinct, others faint,
pilose with brown hairs, 2-lobed, lobes incised, awned in the sinus, awn
up to or slightly exceeding the lemma; palea hyaline, linear-lanceolate,

4-5 mm long, 2-keeled, glabrous; stamens 3 or fewer, anthers 2-2.5 mm
long. Second ( middle ) floret barren, lemma 4.5-6 mm long, oblong-
lanceolate, obtuse, bifid, hairy, awned from the back at about the middle
or lower down, awn slender, scabrid, geniculate, 6-9 mm long. Third
(upper) floret hermaphrodite, lemma almost rotund, obtuse or acute
and shortly aristate, 2.5-3 mm long, hyaline, very faintly 5-7 nerved;
palea lanceolate, about 2 mm long; stamens 3 or 2; anthers 2-2.5 mm;
stigmas 2, long, sometimes protruding beyond the floret; lodicules not
seen.

India: Tamil Nadu, Palnis, Pambar stream near Shenthadikanal,
6-xii-1898, Bourne 1954.

Distribution : India, so far endemic in Tamil Nadu.

Etymology : The grass is being named in honour of Dr. N. L. Bor,
who first suspected this taxon to be new.

Critical note :

The third floret in our new species is normally unawned, but one of
the sheets of Bourne (No. 1954, CAL 533452) shows the lemma of
the third floret also shortly aristate. This character seems to be variable,
as already recorded by Hubbard (p. 235) in an allied genus Arrhen-
therum P. Beauv.

Anthoxanthum borii resembles on the one hand, A. hookeri (Griseb.)
Rendle, and on the other, A. clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi. The following

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

table brings out the distinguishing characters between these species and
should help in identification.

Anthoxanthum borii
sp. nov.

Anthoxanthum hookeri
(Griseb.) Rendle

Anthoxanthum clarkei
(Hook, f.) Ohwi

Leaves up to 10 mm

4-6 mm broad

Up to 4 mm broad

broad

Panicle congested

Panicle loose

Panicle loose

Pedicels of spikelets

Glabrous

Glabrous

hairy

Spikelets 6-7 mm long

6-7 mm long

5.5 mm long

Lower glume about 2/3

Lower glume

half as

Lower glume 2/3 or

of the upper

long as upper or

more than 2/3 of

First (lowest) floret

shorter

Male

the upper
Neuter

male

Second (middle) lemma

4-6 mm long

3.4.5 mm long, brown

4.5-6 mm long
Third (upper) lemma

More or less

lanceolate

pilose

More or less lanceolate

rotund

Anthoxanthum clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi
Anthoxanthum clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi in Bull. Tokyo Sci. Mus.
18:8, 1947; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe 'clarkei Hook. f. FI. Br. Ind. 7:223, 1896; Bor, 167, 1940.
Specimens examined : Arunchal: Jabrang, 2744 m, 15-xi-1951, G. K.
Deka ( ASSAM 20945); Arunachal: Jabrang, 16-X-1955, Seshagiri Rao
1289, ( ASSAM 20944).

Distribution : Eastern India, Burma.

Etymology : The species is named in honour of C. B. Clarke.

Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle
Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle in J. Linn. Soc. (Bot.)
36:380, 1904; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe hookeri (Griseb.) Clarke ex Hook. f. FI. Br. Ind. 7:
223, 1896.

Specimens examined : Sikkim, 2700-3600 m, J. D. Hooker s. n.
{CAL) (Type); Sikkim: Zemu Valley, 2850 m, 9-vii-1909, Smith &
Cave 1036 (CAL).

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas.

Etymology : This species is named in honour of J. D. Hooker.
Critical note : The grass described by Fischer (1846) under this
name is actually A. borii Jain et Pal.

Anthoxanthum odoratum L.

Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sp. PI. ed. 1, 28, 1753; Hooker, 222;

NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ANTHOXANTHUM

95

Bor, 431, 1960; Hubbard, 271.

Specimens examined : Assam: Sept. 1936, N. L. Bor 13765

( ASSAM 32589); Meghalaya: Shillong, 1400-1500 m, 22-vi-1937, N. L.
Bor s.n. {ASSAM 32590); Meghalaya: Shillong, 3-vi-1937, G. K. Deka
13998 (ASSAM 32592); Meghalaya: Shillong, 1500 m, 18-V-1938, G. K.
Deka 20354 (ASSAM 32591); Meghalaya: Shillong 20-V-1957, G. Pani-
grahi 4780 (ASSAM 23269); Madras: Nilgiri, 2400 m, 24-i-1957,
K. M. Sebastine 2214 (MH 4277); Madras: Kodaikanal, 19-iii- 1950,
D. Daniel, S. Roy and J. S. Rao s.n. (MH 93869); Madras; Ooty,
2220 m, 14-ix-1930, V. Narayanaswami, 4345 (MH 30312).

Distribution : All hilly regions of India; often cultivated; occasion-
ally escape and run wild; Europe to Asia.

Etymology : The specific name refers to its odoriferous nature.

Anthoxanthum puelii Lecoq. et Lam.

Anthoxanthum puelii Lecoq. & Lamotte Cat. PI. Prance 385, 1847;
Hubbard 269.

A. aristatum Boiss. Bor, 164, 1940.

The following sheets in the ASSAM herbarium bear the annotation
A. aristatum Boiss.

1. Shillong, Morollos’ Compound, l-vi-1937, Bor 13997 (ASSAM
32593).

2. Shillong, Lake garden, 3-vi-1937, Deka 13998 (ASSAM 32594).

3. Shillong, 21-iv-1941, Dhar 20653 (ASSAM 32595).

The first two sheets have been identified by Bor; and sheet No. 1
bears a note by him “This is a European grass. Pound in Morollos’
Compound, 1 -vi-37. Probably introduced and run wild. Sweet vernal
grass — Bor”.

The characters by which the grass differs from A. odoratum L.
have been brought out in the key; these are based on Hubbard (p. 269),
Hitchcock (p. 549) and Bor (p. 164, 1940). Our examination also shows
that these specimens from Shillong agree with these characters.

It may be mentioned here that Hubbard (p. 269) has described this
grass under the name A . puelii Lee. & Lam. He and Hitchcock (p. 818)
have recorded that many authors consider A. aristatum Boiss. and
A. puelii Lee. & Lam. to be synonymous.

This grass grows along with A. odoratum L.; Deka collected both
species on 3-vi-1937 from the same spot, and erroneously gave the same
field No. 13998 to both.

Anthoxanthum sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi

Anthoxanthum sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi in Bull. Tokyo Sci.
Mus. 18:8, 1947; Bor, 431, 1960.

Hierochloe gracillima Hook. f. PI. Br. Ind. 7:223, 1896; Bor 166,
1940.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

Specimens examined : Sikkim: 3300-3600 m, J. D. Hooker, s.n.
{CAL) (Type).

Distribution : Eastern Himalayas.

Etymology : The species is named after its type locality, Sikkim.

Conspectus of synonymous names

The synonyms appearing in the foregoing account of the genus
Anthoxanthum L. are listed below. Many binomials published under
the genus Anthoxanthum L. refer to grasses which are not Anthoxan-
thum at all, but belong to other genera; several such names relate to
grasses occurring in India and are included in following table:

Synonym

Correct Name

Anthoxanthum aristatum

Boiss.

Anthoxanthum puelii Lee. & Lam.

A. avenaceum Retz.

Dimeria avenacea (Retz.) C.E.C.
Fischer

A. gracillimum (Hook, f.)

Mez

Anthoxanthum sikkimense (Maxim.)
Ohwi

A. indicum L.

Per otis indica (L.) O. Ktze.

Ataxia hookeri Griseb.

Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.)
Rendle

Hierochloe clarkei Hook.

f.

A. clarkei (Hook, f.) Ohwi

H. hookeri Maxim.

A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle

H. hookeri (Griseb.) Clarke ex
Hook. f.

A. hookeri (Griseb.) Rendle

H. sikkimensis Maxim.

A. sikkimense (Maxim.) Ohwi

H. gracillima Hook. f.

- do -

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director and Joint Director of Botanical Sur-
vey of India for facilities for these studies, and to the Regional Bota-
nists for loaning some specimens from their herbaria {MH, ASSAM).
Dr. M. P. Nayar has kindly provided the Latin diagnosis of the new
species.

References

Bor, N. L. (1940) : Flora of

Assam 5 (Gramineae). Calcutta.

(1960): The Grasses of

Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.
London.

Chase, A. & Niles, C. D. (1962):
Index to World Grasses, 3 Vols.
Boston.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1934) : Flora of
the Presidency of Madras. 10.

Hitchcock, A. S. (1950): Manual
of the Grasses of the United States.
Washington.

Hooker, J. D. (1896): The Flora
of British India. 7. London.

Hubbard, C. E. (1968) : Grasses.
London.

Bionomics and immature stages
of the Barleria Lacebug
Habrochila laeta Drake
Heteroptera: Tingidae1

K. Peethambaran Asari2

Southern Regional Station , Zoological Survey of India, Madras-4
( With two text-figures and three graphs)

The life history and population fluctuation for the three prin-
cipal seasons of Habrochila laeta Drake has been studied. The
nymphal stages have been described in detail. Graphs relating to
growth rates of various parts of the body to the body length have
been provided.

Introduction

Tingid bugs, also known as lace wing bugs are phytophagous insects
which often inflict appreciable damage to plants due to their habit of
feeding on plant sap and many species are known to be pests of crop
plants. Studies on the nature of damage caused and biology are avail-
able of a few species namely Telonemia surupulosa Stal. (Khan 1945,
Roonwal 1952), Tingis beesoni Drake (Mathur 1955), Urentius echinus
Dist. (Patel & Kulkarny 1955 ), Monant hi a globulifera Walker (Sharga
1953), Stephanitis typicus Dist. (Ayyar 1963, Mathen 1960, and Mathen
et al. 1969), Monastria minutula Montandon, Tingis buddleiae Drake,
Cadmilos retiarius Dist., Urentius euonymus Dist. (Livingston 1959,
1962 and 1968) and Corythauma ayyari Drake (David 1958, Dorge
1971). Mohanasundaram & Basheer (1963) have reported on the effect
of weather factors on the population fluctuation of the Tingid, Habro-
chila laeta Drake, on Barleria cristata while David & Rangarajan (1966)
noted it as one of the important pests of the flowering shrub Barleria
spp. However, information on the habits, biology and immature stages
of H. laeta appear meagre and the results presented here provide the
necessary data.

1 Accepted June 27, 1972.

2 Present address: Lecturer -in-charge, Dept, of Zoology, Govt. College,
Port Blair, Andamans, India.

7

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Material and Methods

, The observations on the seasonal abundance and behaviour of the
ihsect were made in a field at Poonamallee, near Madras. The popu-
lation of the adult and different instar nymphs on ten leaves, collected
at random was recorded at intervals of about a fortnight, during the
period March 1971 to February 1972. The studies on tfee life history
of the insect were carried out in laboratory. Temp. 29 4; 2°C, R. H.
75 ± 5%). The figures were drawn using a graticule and measurements
were taken with a micrometer. Measurements of body parts of immature
stages when plotted against body length have shown a linear relation-
ship. The regression equations have been calculated using the formula
Yc = a + bx, where ‘Yc’ is the calculated value of each observed value,
‘a’ and ‘b’ constants and ‘x’ body length. (Graphs II & III).

GRAPH I

Graph I. Seasonal fluctuation of Habrochila laeta Drake during the period from
1971 March to 1972 February.

BIONOMICS OF BARLERlA LACEBUG

9§

^Length of Tibia; O Length of Tarsus.

Graph III. Antennal segments in relation to body length.

•“First segment; ASecond segment;

(H Third segment; ©Fourth segment.

Seasonal occurrence and habits of the insect

The insect is found practically throughout the year on Barleria
cristata. The population fluctuations of the adults and different nym-
phal instars for the three principal seasons are presented in Graph I.
Infestation on the plant is more severe during summer months. The
population is much reduced during monsoon and winter, perhaps due
to adverse weather conditions. All the developmental stages occur on
a single leaf and during peak infestations a single leaf may carry as
many as 52 individuals of different stages. Adults and immature stages
feed on the leaf content mainly from the ventral side causing the de-
velopment of pale-yellow patches and ultimately shedding of the leaf.
The younger ones, particularly the first and second instars show a gre-
garious tendency during feeding. The attack on the plant is gradual
but severe. When the leaf is completely covered with excreta, the indi-
viduals migrate to fresh leaves. The adults have very weak wings and
flying ability is very low. Dispersal takes place by contact and also

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

by wind. It was noticed that if the plants are cultivated in separate
batches all of them may not be affected at the same time; whereas
if they are planted in a row, infestation starts from one end and spreads
to the other end.

Copulation and Egg laying

Females mate soon after emergence with males which mate only
after 40 to 50 hours of their emergence. The process of mating is
initiated by the male which approaches the female and flutters its
wings for some time, before climbing over the female. Then the posterior
end of the body of the male is bent posterolaterally and after two to
three attempts it succeeds in copulating. Still attached to the female,
the male slides down the female and takes it’s position on one side of
the female so as to make an angle of about 50°. The mating individuals
do not feed but sometimes exhibit slight movements. They remain with
heads turned downwards and antennae produced upwards. The whole
process lasts for more than one hour (60 to 70 minutes). Similar
type of mating behaviour has been reported for Tingis buddleiae Drake
(Livingston 1968). The females were observed to mate only once in
their life time, while the males mate three to four times with virgin
females.

Pre-oviposition period lasts from 30 to 36 hours and oviposition
period from 7 to 8 days. A female lays an average of 40 eggs in its
life time.

The site on the leaf where eggs are laid varies in different species
of Tingidae. H. laeta lays the eggs mostly on the dorsal surface on
either side of the midrib of the leaves after making a small puncture
with its gonopophysis. The process of egg laying lasts for 7 to 8 minu-
tes. The eggs are always placed singly and in a slanting position. The
opercular region projects out of leaf surface while the posterior part of
the egg reaches the mesophyll (Fig. Ib). Two to three days after egg
laying, the area of the leaf surrounding the egg becomes translucent.
In the case of Telonemia scrupulosa, Roonwal (1952) observed gall
formation in the leaf, where the egg is laid. No gall formation has
been observed in the present study. Johnson (1936) and Livingston
(1962) have reported smearing of the faecal fluid over the operculum
in the eggs after its deposition in Leptobrysa rhododendri and Dictyla
sufjata respectively. No such smearing of the faecal fluid was noted
in H. laeta. -

Egg. (Fig la)

Elongate, pale yellow, shining, marked with irregular sculptures on outer
surface; micropylar part brownish, narrow; inserted end blunt. Outer surface
of operculum irregular with brownish hexagonal sculptures. Eight to eleven
faint longitudinal canals present in the polarito disci (Fig. Tc); canals lead to a
circular canal present below the neck. The polarito disci similar to that of Tingis

BIONOMICS OF BARLERIA LACEBUG

ioi

stachydis (Stusak 1968). Basis operculari thick, continued through the outer
part of chorion.

The incubation period during October-November has been found
to be between 9 to 11 days. The process of hatching lasts for about

Fig. I

Fig. I. a — Egg; b — Opercular part of egg; c — Section of leaf showing the posi-
tion of egg; d — Tubercle of the abdominal segment (enlarged).

BO — Basis operculari; LCH — Limbs chorioni; PD — Polarito disci; MC — Micro-

phylar canal.

ten minutes. The opercular region is lifted and pushed to one side along
with a part of endochorion. The vertex of head emerges first followed
by the first pair of legs which, after establishing a grip on the leaf sur-
face draws out the body. For about 15 minutes the tiny whitish young
do not feed, for the rostrum is attached to the ventral body by the
ecdysial fluid.

First Instar (Fig. Ha)

Head markedly conical; clypeus prominent; anterior part of frons beset
with three small protuberances two lateral and one median, each with a long
spine, median spine bifurcated at base; vertex with a single protuberance bear-
ing two spines; all the spines globulated; ecdysial suture prominent, reaching
up to the second abdominal segment; antennae long, four segmented, hyaline
and setose; terminal segment brown with the setae longer and thicker; rostrum
hyaline, four segmented, with blackish fourth segment; stylets extend beyond
rostral sheath. Eyes rose red with five ommatidia. Pronotum broad with straight
anterior and convex posterior margins; median dorsal side with two protu-
berances one on either side of ecdysial suture, each with a spine; mesothorax

102 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

as broad as prothorax, with median tubercles placed a little away from the
ecdysial line; metathorax narrow, without dorsal spines; pro, meso and meta-
thoracic segments with spines laterally, one on each side; hind leg longer, coxa
broad; trochanter indistinguishable; femur as long as tibia; tarsus unsegmented,
brownish with two claws; setae present in distal segments, those of tarsus longer
and thicker. Abdomen as broad as thorax; first segment narrow; second seg-
ment prominent with a pair of lateral tubercles and spines, median dorsal side
with a tubercle bearing two spines; third and fourth segments similar with
lateral tubercles and spines; fifth, sixth and eighth similar to second in tuber-
cular arrangement; seventh and ninth to third and fourth; tenth narrow, conical
with three or four sharp spines at tip.

Dorsal scent glands hardly visible between third and fourth and
fourth and fifth segments.

The first instar moults to second instar between 48 to 60 hours.
Second Instar (Fig. lib)

Slightly elongate, yellowish brown.

Clypeus elongate, anterolateral sides of the frons with protuberances each
with a pair of spines; median dorsal side of the frons with a club shaped short
tubercle bearing small scoli at its tip; similar tubercles present on vertices too;
ecdysial suture similar to that of first instar; first two antennal segments equal
in length; third longest; fourth longer than the first and second; first three seg-
ments of rostrum hyaline, fourth blackish brown, reaching only up to the
second abdominal segment. Pronotum three times wider than long, with anterior
concave, posterior straight and lateral convex margins; mesonotum with anterior
straight, posterior concave and lateral convex margins; metanotum narrow;
pro, meso and metathoracic segments bear lateral club shaped tubercles, one on
each side. Legs similar and spinous. First segment of abdomen narrow, convex
anteriorly and concave posteriorly; second similar to first but with a median
dorsal tubercle; third similar to first but wider; fourth broader than third and
bears a pair of lateral tubercles; fifth with dorsal and lateral tubercles; sixth
similar to fifth in tubercular arrangement but narrow; seventh similar to fifth
in the tubercular arrangement; eighth with a small stumpy dorsal tubercle and
a pair of lateral processes bearing spines; ninth narrower than eighth and bears
lateral processes and spines as on eighth; tenth tubular with four to six spines.

The second instar transforms to third after 30 to 38 hours.

Third Instar (Fig. lie)

Elongate. Deep brown with a blackish tinge.

Anterior part of head oval; frons bears three club shaped stalked tubercles
two fronto-lateral and one dorso-median. Of the four antennal segments,
second smallest, third longest fourth longer than the first; eyes rose-red with
12 to 16 ommatidia. Prothorax large, almost half the size of entire thorax; with
lateral tergal expansions extending little beyond the level of eyes; mesothorax
smaller than prothorax but longer than metathorax; metathorax very small,
median dorsal side alone is visible; tubercular arrangement as that of second
instar. Abdomen oval. Second segment longer than the first with a median
dorsal tubercle; fourth and fifth constitute the widest part of body; ninth seg-
ment with lateral club shaped tubercles; tenth with five to seven spines.

The third instar moults after 35 to 42 hours.

Fourth Instar (Fig. lid)

Broadly oval and blackish brown.

Measurements of nymphal instars in mm. Each figure is an arithmetic mean based on 10 individuals

BIONOMICS OF BARLERIA LACEBUG

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104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

,35’nr'rr‘

Fig. II. a — First Instar nymph; b — Second Instar nymph; c — Third Instar nymph;
d — Fourth Instar nymph; e — Fifth Instar nymph.

Head oval with conical clypeus; head tubercles similar to those of third
instar except for being longer; fourth segment of antenna deep brown with
almost blackish bristles; rostrum reaches only up to the metathoracic segment;
eyes deep brown with imbricately arranged ommatidia. Prothorax with straight
anterior and convex lateral margins; posterior margin convex with a longitudinal
cleft through centre, the ecdysial suture passing through it; metathorax with
wing pads reaching upto third abdominal segment; outer margin of wing pads

BIONOMICS OF BARLERIA LACEBUG

105

convex, inner concave and posteiror blunt. The process of “translocation”
(Stusak & Stays 1959) by which the tubercles of the mesothorax become asso-
ciated with the wing pads occurs at this stage. Abdomen compact with tubercles
similar to those of third instar; tenth segment very small with five to eight
backwardly directed spines.

After 42 to 50 hours the transformation to fifth instar takes place.
Fifth Instar (Fig. He)

Oval. Blackish brown except for femur, tibia, proximal tarsus and
first three antennal segments which are pale yellow.

Head roughly triangular; tubercles (Fig. Id) much longer and brown, those
of vertices directed side ways; median part of vertex covered over by anterior
extension of pronotum; eyes red brown with imbricately arranged ommatidia.
Fourth segment of antenna black. Pronotum with large lateral and median
anterior expansions; hood developed on its posterior side; dorsal spines of
pronotum become associated with anterolateral sides of hood; wing pads long,
reaching up to posterior limit of fifth abdominal segment; wing pads of meta-
thorax smaller. Central part of abdomen forms the widest part of body; lateral
sides of first five segments almost covered by wing pads; tenth segment very
narrow with posteriorly directed spines.

The fifth instar moults to imago within 60 to 70 hours.

The adults were described by Drake (1954). The males are lighter
in colour, shorter and narrower in size than the females.

General observations

At the time of moulting all the nymphal instars are whitish in colour
which gradually turns to dull yellow in first and second instars, brownish
yellow in third and blackish brown in fourth and fifth. The body surr
face acquires a shining texture after sometime. The fifth instar, white
at the time of emergence, acquires a blue tinge a little later and finally
turns to shiny black.

In all instars the Y-shaped ecdysial suture is not prominent at the
time of moulting. It appears as a transparent streak after two to three
hours. Dorsal abdominal glands which are hardly visible in the first
instar become clearly visible in the second, third, fourth and fifth in-
stars.

At the time of emergence of the imago, the hexagonal and penta-
gonal ridges of the hood are connected by a whitish membrane. This
membrane later becomes transparent and the ridges blackish.

The adult males live from seven to eleven days and females from
eight to fourteen days.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of
India and Dr. K. Reddiah, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Sur-
vey of India for giving facilities. Grateful thanks are also due to Dr.
T. N. Ananthakrishnan, Director, Entomology Research Unit, Loyola
College, Madras for suggesting the problem and his constant encourage-
ment in this investigation.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

References

Ayyar, T. V. Ramakrishna (1963):
Hand book of Economic Entomology
of South India. Second edn; Govt,
press, Madras p. 516.

David, B. V. & Rangarajan, A. V.
(1966): Insects affecting Barleria spp.
in Coimbatore. Indian J. Hort. 23
(3 & 4): 191-195.

David, S. Kanakaraj (1958): In-
sects affecting Jasmine in the Mad-
ras State. Madras agri. J. 45(4): 146-
150.

Dorge, S. K. (1971): A note on
Corythauma ayyari Drake (Tingidae)
as a pest of Jasminum spp. in Maha-
rashtra State. Sci. & Cult. 57:156-157.

Drake, C. J. (1954) : A miscellany
of New Tingidae (Hemiptera). Proc.
Biol. Soc. Wash. 67, p. 12.

Johnson, C. G. (1936): The bio-
logy of Leptobrysa rhododendri Hor-
wath. Ann. Appl. Biol. Cambridge
23: 342-368.

Khan, A. H. (1945): On the Lan-
tana bug. ( Telonemia scrupulosa).
Indian J. ent. 6 (1-2) : 148-151.

Livingston, D. (1959): On the

bionomics and immature stages of
Urentius euonymus Dist. (Heteroptera,
Tingidae) a sap sucker on Hollyhock
and other garden plants. Proc. 1st.
All Indian congress Zool. part 2:

510:519.

(1962): On the

biology and immature stages of a sap

sucker on Zizyphus jujuba, Monastria
minutula Montandon, a species new
to India. (Heteroptera, Tingidae).
Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci). 11(1) : 1 17-
130.

(1962): On the

biology and immature stages of Cad-
milos retiarius Dist. (Heteroptera,
Tingidae) a sap sucker on Compositae.
Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci). 7763) : 47-
62.

(1968): On the

morphology and bionomics of Tingis
buddleiae Drake (Heteroptera, Tingi-
dae) Part I. Bionomics. Agra Univ.
J. Res. (Sci). 77(3): 1-16.

Mathur, R. N. (1955) : Immature
stages of Tingis beesoni Drake. En-
tomologist, London 88 (1110) :248-

251.

Mohanasundaram, M. & Basheer,
M. (1963): Population studies of

Habrochila laeta Drake (Tingidae:
Hemiptera) (abstract). Madras agri.
J. 50(2) : 104.

Patel, R. C. & Kulicarny, H. L.
(1955) : Bionomics of Urentius echi-
nus Dist. (Hemiptera: Heteroptera:

Tingidae) as an important pest of
Brinjal. (Solanam melogenea) in north
Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53
(1): 86-96.

Roonwal, M. L. (1952): The nat-
ural establishment and dispersal of an
important insect in India, the Lan-
tana bug (Telonemia scrupulosa Stal.)
(Hemiptera: Tingidae) with a des-

cription of the eggs, nymphs and
adult. J. Zool. Soc. India 4(1): 1-16.

Sharga, U. S. (1953) : Bionomics
of Monanthia globulifera Walker
(Hemiptera: Tingidae). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 57(4) : 885-889.

Stusak, J. M. (1968): Notes on
the bionomics and immature stages
of Tingis stachydis Fieber (Heterop-
tera, Tingidae). Acta. ent. Bohemoslov
65: 412-421.

& Stays, P. (1959) :

Investigations on the taxonomy and
morphology of imagines and nymphs
of some species of the genus, Mon-
anthia La Pelatier et Serville 1825
(Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Tingidae).

Acta. Univ. Carolane Biologica. 3;
177-205.

Some observations on the
colour changes of the Indian
Chamaeleon1

V. S. Durve2 and H. S. Sharma
Zoological Survey of India, Jabalpur
{With a plate )

In troduction

Chamaeleons are known for their ability to change colour rapidly.
Interesting accounts on this aspect have been recorded by Hogben &
Mirvish (1928), Hingston (1933), Zoond & Eyre (1934), Zoond &
Bokenham (1935), Drimmer (1954) and Goin and Goin (1962). The
work of these authors is on Chamaeleon chamaeleon, C. pumulus and
Lophosauria pumila. In India, Trench (1912) recorded some obser-
vations on colour changes of the Indian Chamaeleon Chamaeleon
zeylanicus Peters. However, these observations are casual and scanty.

In the present study, a young C. zeylanicus was collected on Rani
Durgavati Samadhi road about 20 km south of Jabalpur. It was kept
under observations in a large rectangular aquarium jar with branches of
foliaceous shrubs. The animal was fed on grass-hoppers and water was
provided by sprinkling on the branches. When the animal was seen
adapted to captivity, the experiments on the colour changes were carried
out.

Observations

The experiments were conducted under a fluorescent tube and
white, yellow, red, blue and green backgrounds obtained by pasting
transluscent coloured papers on the experimental jar. Observations
were made from a small window left at one corner of the jar. The ex-
periments were also conducted in coloured lights by employing colour-

accepted May 5, 1973.

2 Present address : Division of Limnology and Fisheries, Department of Zoo-
logy, University of Udaipur, Udaipur.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

ed bulbs of 40 watt power. Out-door observations were made against
the background and surroundings of green grass, 'yellow flowers and
foliage of different shades. Several experiments spread over two days,
were conducted for each background, colour and environment and only
the results obtained consistently have been summarised in this paper.

Observations were also made for the whole day beginning from
sun-rise to sun-set and twilight. At the end, some experiments were
carried out by covering the eyes of the experimental Chamaeleon to
study the role played by vision on the change of colour.

Experiments with different backgrounds

These experiments were conducted against white, red, yellow, blue
and green backgrounds. The general pattern of the change of colours
against these backgrounds is summarised in Table 1. The change in
any colour pattern took about 3 to 4 minutes. There were minor devi-
ations from the general pattern of the colour changes. These are given
below.

Table 1

General pattern of colour changes in C. zeylanicus in different

BACKGROUNDS AND LIGHTS

Background /light

Colour pattern

White

Red

;/¥eMow

Blue

Green

Red

Yellow

Blue

Green

DIFFERENT BACKGROUNDS

Pale green with irregular blackish spots.

Pale green with intermittent appearance of blackish
spots.

Dark green with black spots. Within 5-8 minutes, the
black spots disappeared leaving the animal dark green.

Dark green. Black spots appeared for a short time.

Dark green, perfectly matching the background. At
times, pale green with light yellow bands.

DIFFERENT LIGHTS

Dark grey with light black spots. The side nearer the
light darker than the opposite. Occasionally, black
spots darkened and faded.

Pale lemon yellow over the body and pale green- on
head.

Green with occasional black spots.

Green with occasional black spots and yellow rings.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1)
Durve & Sharma: Indian Chamaeleon

Figs. 1 & 2. The colour pattern ass, med in sunlight in the natural environment. Fig. 3 The colour pattern assumed in
cover to simulate the surroundings of foliage and sunlight passing through the leaves. Fig. 4. Chamaeleon with eyes

covered with rubber teats.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE INDIAN CHAMAELEON

109

In white background on two occasions, the blacky spots became
darker and the semi-circular lemon yellow rings appeared on the sides
of the animal excluding its head. On tail, the rings were replaced by
yellow vertical bands. When the light was switched off, the blackish
spots on the body disappeared save a few small and lighter ones on the
abdomen.

In red background, at one time, yellow spots of the size 8-10 mm
appeared on the body along with vertical yellow bands on the tail.
The spots on the body slowly changed to rings which later disappeared
giving the chamaeleon the usual pale green colour with blackish spots.

In yellow background in the third experiment in the series, lemon
rings appeared on the green body-colour in addition to black spots.
The rings alternated the black spots. On tail, light yellow vertical bands
alternated with pale green patches. Once the horizontal white stripes
appeared on the body for a few seconds.

In blue background when the animal expanded its thorax, the
portion in between ribs turned pinkish and later became light lemon
yellow within a very short period. In the green background in one ex-
periment, black spots appeared on the body momentarily.
Experiments with different lights

The general change of colour pattern in different lights for the
chamaeleon under investigation is also summarised in Table 1. As in
the case of backgrounds, there were some minor deviations in colour
changes in these series of experiments. In yellow light in one experi-
ment, the colour remained deep green. In blue light, the black spots
used to disappear when the animal was at rest. On some occasions, the
black spots alternated the yellow ring& on the body while the tail re-
mained green with vertical yellow bands. It may be mentioned here
that the animal showed considerable movement in blue light.
Observations in natural environment

These observations were made from dawn to dusk. The tempe-
rature ranged from 27.5°C at 7.00 hrs to 35.6°C at noon and at 19.15 hrs
it dropped to 26.2°C. The chamaeleon was allowed to move freely on a
green shrub, grass, dried grass-land, stones, bricks etc., both in the
shade and bright sun-light. Observations were made from a distance
of more than 25 feet with a pair of binoculars and are summarized in
Table 2. The changes in colour pattern could also be seen in Plate 1,
Figs. 1 and 2.

Besides the colours shown in the Table 2, some interesting obser-
vations were made in this study. When a small bird landed on a branch
of the shrub on which the chamaeleon was perching, the latter im-
mediately developed dark black spots on the body and expanded its
trunk assuming a grotesque posture. To avoid bright sunlight the ani-
mal entered thicker foliage. The colour pattern of dark green with

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

yellow spots developed at this time, is perhaps to simulate the sur-
rounding foliage and the sun-light passing through the leaves. The side
of the body facing the sun was darker than the other (Plate I, Fig. 3).
Amongst the large yellow flowers of Allamanda cathartica, the colour-
ing was so perfect that the animal was indistinguishable from a
distance.

The observations in the natural environment tend to suggest that
there is a daily colour rhythm in chamaeleon depending upon the
weather, condition of light etc. This supports the observations of
Waring (1963).

Observations with the animal’s eyes covered

In order to study the role of vision in the change of colour in the
chamaeleon, separate experiments were carried out. For the purpose,
black ink dropper teats were cut to suitable size, smoothened by sand
paper and fixed to the projecting eyes so as to cover them completely.
They were further secured in position with the help of adhesive tape
(Plate I, Fig. 4). This gave considerable discomfort to the chamaeleon
and it tried to remove these by its forelimbs and rubbing its head
against floor and sides of the experimental jar. The animal became
disoriented and started walking backward and walking in circles when
the eyes were capped.

The animal with its closed eyes was exposed to sun and also to the
green, yellow, blue and red lights. The colour changes observed in
these experiments are reported in Table 2. Here again, the side of the
body nearer the source of light was darker than the opposite side.
In the sun-light the colour changes to usual dark grey (Plate I, Fig.
4). There were thus slight deviations in the colour changes when the
eyes were closed (Table 1 & 2). This tend to indicate the role of eyes
along with the skin in the change of colour. This supports the views of
Sand (1935), Drimmer (1954) and Portman (1959), that colour change
is related to light, heat, emotional state and background colour.
General observations on colour changes

At times the grass hoppers given as food would sit on the back of
the chamaeleon which would then turn grey or deep grey. The same
reaction was given when the table on which the experimental jar rested
was tapped or the animal touched by a glass rod. The animal was alive
for five and half months. About 12 days before its death, it refused food
and water and assumed lemon yellow colour which rarely changed.
During these last twelve days it remained motionless closing its eyes.
Even in this condition, it changed its colour to greyish in sunlight but
not to black or deep grey as usual. In shade, it developed green patches
on the general lemon colour. The colour of the body at the time of
death remained lemon yellow all over.

Sand (1935) recognized five stages of progressive darkening in

OBSERVATIONS ON THE INDIAN CHAMAELEON

111

Table 2

General pattern of colour changes in C. zeylanicus in nature
AND WITH COVERED EYES

Type of environment/
Experimental condition

Colour pattern

Early morning before sunrise.

Dark green which changed within 15
minutes to thick semicircular lemon yellow
rings on the body and vertical bands on
the tail.

Sun-shine on green shrub.

Dark green with yellow spots.

Yellow flowers of Allamanda
cathartica.

Lemon yellow within two minutes.

Bright sunlight on dry grass.

Dark grey with the side towards
darker than the opposite.

light

Light shower of rain.

Pale yellow with greenish tinge on

head.

WITH EYES COVERED

Green, yellow and blue lights.

Green, at times changing to yellow
and black spots.

rings

Red light.

Grey with large dark black spots,
side nearer to light darker.

The

Sun-light.

Dark grey.

Lophosaura pumila. These stages are yellow, pale green, medium green,
dark green and black. The Indian chamaeleon C. zeylanicus investi-
gated here was found to change its colour in a few definite patterns
namely, green, yellow and grey with black spots and/ or yellow rings
and bands, irrespective of the background. Pinkish shade and white
strips reported earlier are of rare occurrence. It will match only with
green and yellow colours and their shades. With red colour, it changes
to grey just as in bright sunlight. In blue or perhaps in any mild colour,
it may remain green, yellow or shades of these two. This is more or
less in accordance with the observations of Drimmer (1954). Fright
response or defensive posture is indicated by a grey colour with black
spots and expanded body to scare away the attacker. This supports the
observations of Portman (1959) on C. chamaeleon.

Goin and Goin (1962) mention that the change of colour in Chama-
eleon is in response to changes in light, heat and emotional state and
not to the colour of the background. However, Drimmer (op. cit.) and
Portman (op. cit.) believe it to be by both. The present study supports
the views of the latter workers.

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

References

Drimmer, F. (1954): Lowell Tho-
mas encyclopedia of wild life, Am-
phibians and Reptiles. Educational
Book Guide, N.Y.: 1310-1314.

Goin, C. J. & Goin, O. B. (1962):
Introduction to Herpetology. W. H.
Freeman & Co., San Francisco & Lon-
don: 273.

Hingston, R. W. G. (1933) : Ani-
mal colour and Adornment. Edward
Arnold & Co., London: 164-166.

Hogben, L. & Mirvish, L. (1928):
The pigmentory effector system-V.
The nervous control of excitement
paler in reptiles. British J. Exptl. biol.
Edinburgh 5:295-308.

Portman, A. (1959) : Animal

Camouflage. Univ. of Michigan Press:
90-93.

Sand, A. (1935): The comparative
physiology of colour response in rep-

tiles and fishes. Biol. Rev. 10 : 361-382.

Trench, C. C. (1912) : Note on the
Indian chamaeleon (C. calcar atus)
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27:687-698.

Waring, H. (1963): Colour change
mechanism of cold blooded verte-
brates. Academic Press, N.Y. : 117-

127.

Zoond, A. & Bokenham, N.A.H.
(1935): Studies in reptilian colour
response. II. The role of retinal and
dermal photoreceptors in the pigmen-
tary activity of the chamaeleon. J.
Exptl. Biol. 72:39.

Zoond, A. & Eyre, J. (1934): Stu-
dies in reptilian colour response I.
The Bionomics and Physiology of the
pigmentary activity of the chamae-
leon. Philos. Trans. London (B) 223 :
495-1934.

A Catalogue of the Birds in
the Collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society — 17

Picidae (concluded)

Humayun Abdulali
[Continued from Vol. 71 (2): 265]

495 specimens of 55 species and subspecies, up to No. 863 in Indian
handbook and Registered No. 23788 are covered by this part. Mr. S. A.
Hussain continued to assist.

818 Dinopium benghalense dilution (Blyth) (Sind) Sind Golden-

backed Woodpecker 4 : 69

4:3c?c? 19 (by plumage)

1 Rawalpindi, 1 Nawashar, Jullundur, 1 Rawani, Sujabad, Punjab;. 1
Gholan, Sind.

Northern birds of this species ( benghalense and dilutum) can be
separated from those from the south by the spotting /streaking on the
throat showing an almost equal amount of black and white, contra
largely black in the latter ( puncticolle and tehminae).

Except for $ 10240 from Kumaon, Nainital district, the specimens
listed under nominate benghalense and dilutum do not show any red
on the upper body.

No. 10242 from Sind, a poor specimen, cannot be said to have
paler upperparts than nominate benghalense, but is left here on distri-
butional grounds. The others are distinguished by the slight olive wash
on the upperparts, a character also visible in two juveniles from the
Palnis (see under 821). cT No. 18559 from Delhi is also similarly
coloured but considering that another ( $ 18560) also marked Delhi
is typical benghalense, I am leaving them together.

Koelz’s girensis from Junagadh, Kathiawar, is synonymised in ind.
handbook with dilutum which is not shown to extend into Kathiawar.
If not separable, it should presumably be synonymised with nominate
benghalense which is accepted for this area.

Measurements under No. 821

819 Dinopium benghalense benghalense (Linnaeus) (Chandernagore)

Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 67

[280]

8

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

34: 15 tfc? 19 9 $ (3 by plumage)

1 Kalesar, Jagadhri, 1 Ambala, 1* Bahawalpur, Punjab; 2 Delhi; 1 Bharat-
pur, Rajasthan; 1 Radhanpur, 1 Balaram, 1 Cambay, 1 Gir Forest, 1
Dohad, 1 Bodeli, Baroda, 1 Pandwa, 1 Laochali, Surat Dangs, Gujarat;
1 Sanchi, Bhopal; 1 Betul, 1 Antagarh, 1 Bhanupratappur, Ranker, C.P.;
1 Vizagapatam Hills; 1 Koira, 1 Barkot, 3 Badrama, Bamra, Orissa; 2
Baghowni, 1 Rajputtee, 1 Madhubani, 1 Tirhut, Bihar; 1 Meerut, 1
Cawnpore, 1 Salukapur, 1 Kumaon, Nainital, U.P.; 1 Calcutta.

Of the two from the Surat Dangs, the & has a black chin with
white spots and the coloured back of the south-western bird, but the
white markings on the black forehead of the female are arrow-shaped
as in the present group, and they are both left here. The two from
Delhi have been commented on under 818. The young male has the
forehead black as in the female but with no white markings.

Measurements under 821.

820 Dinopium benghalense puneticolle (Malherbe) (Nilgiris) South-
ern Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 69

5 : 2 a71 c? 39 $

1 Bamangoti, (T. R. Bell = N. Kanara); 1 Coonoor Ghat, Nilgiris; 1 Kurum-
bapatti, 1 Chitteri Range, Salem; 1 Seshachalam Hills, S. Cuddapah.

These specimens include some named puneticolle by Whistler when
describing tehminae and are distinguished from most of the latter by
the clearer yellow of the upperparts which lack the orange-red wash
present in varying degrees in the others, a character not referred to
in the description. The reference to the “orange-yellow” back of this
race in the key to subspecies in ind. hand. 4:196 compared with
“golden olive-yellow” in tehminae is confusing. The black shoulders are
distinctive except in the topotype from Coonoor!

Malherbe’s original description (1845, Rev. Zool.: 404) does not
isolate any subspecies now accepted. The throat is said to be black
with white streaks ( alho striolatus) while on the next page it is said that
in the adult male the throat, front of neck and breast are deep black with
numerous black (? white - HA) triangular spots. He adds that the
female has the forehead and vertex of a deep black, sprinkled with
/twee-shaped white spots; such spots and the streaked throat are charac-
teristic of nominate benghalense and though specimens from the Nil-
giris are referred to, he states that it is common in Bengal and pro-
bably throughout India. Again he refers to the back and tectrices as
orange-yellow washed with vivid red, none of which is shown in any
of the present specimens. Malherbe also said that the young of puncti-
colle lacked the red on the upperparts and resulted in their being mis-
taken for benghalense.

* *(JI 10259 from Bahawalpur was identified as halfway between dilutum and
benghalense (Whistler, JBNHS 42:733).

[281]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 11 115

See remarks and measurements under 821.

821 Dinopium benghalense tehminae (Whistler & Kinnear) (Raj-
ampura, 1350', Panthalam Hills, Travancore) Kerala Goldenbacked
Woodpecker.

21 : 7 cJ’cf (3 imm.) 149 9

1 Alibag, Kolaba District; 1 Dorh Village, 2 Ratnagiri; 1 Katgul, 1 Potali,
1 Kadra, 1 Alanki, 1 Anshi Ghat, 1 N. Kanara; 3 Manalur, Palnis; 1
Peermade, 1 Tekkadi, 3 Thirumalai, 1 Pulayanarkotta, 1 Maraiyur, 1
Jamestown, Kanyakumari.

The birds from the southwest lack the black shoulders and have
their backs and upperparts orange-yellow, usually with a trace of red.
The colour of the back also extends further towards the tail than in
birds of the drier country further east. But when describing tehminae
no reference was made to the richer orange-yellow of the upperparts
with touches of red, though this is the most consistent and striking
difference. Those from the Nilgiris are similar or intermediate and if
the type locality of puncticolle must remain unchanged, tehminae will
have to be synonymised with it; the birds from further east will then
either need another name or be left unnamed as intermediate between
nominate benghalense and the richly-coloured form in the southwest.

Two juvenile males (Nos. 10257 & 23759) are paler and have a
greenish yellow wash above resembling the colour of those under
dilutum.

dilution (3)&cP

(1)9
(c? 9

benghalense ( 1 5) c? c?

(19)9 9

tehminae (4) c? cT
„ (4) 9 9

puncticolle (2) c?

(3) 9 9

822 Dinopium

Ceylon)

Wing

140,147,148

148

142-147

(133), 139-148 av. 144*2
135-148 av. 142*4
(ih cP 9 136-148
143 (3)- 148 av. 144*2
140-148 av. 143*6
138,143
142,145,146

Bill

37,37*5,39*5

33*5

28-37

32-38*5 av*35*5
29-38 av.34
from skull 31-43
38,38*2,40,40*5
33*5-38*4 av.35*6
37*5

32*2,34*5,37*8

Tail

-85,87

95

83-92 av. 87
81-93 av.88*5
89-93)

87 (2), 90
80,85
80,85
-,91,92

benghalense jaffnense (Whistler) (Ulipaikkadavai,

1 c? (by plumage) Ceylon.

In the single specimen available the chin is not black with white
spots as in typical puncticolle / tehminae, but similar to that of nominate
benghalense. The back has slight traces of red, while the front portion
of the head is very weakly marked with red. The breast is heavily
stained with brownish as in other South Indian birds referred to under
821.

823 Dinopium benghalense psarodes

Ceylon Redbacked Woodpecker

2 : 1 cf 1 9

(A. Lichtenstein) (Ceylon)
4 : 71

9

[282]

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

1 Opanake, Hunuwella Estate, Ceylon; 1 no data.

824 Dinopium shorn shorii (Vigors) (Himalayas) Himalayan Gold-
enbacked Threetoed Woodpecker 4 : 74

8 : 5 dd 3 9 9

1* Kolatur North, S.I.R. (South Indian Railway, Madras); 1 Hazaria,
Pattarghat, Bihar; 1 Partapur, Nepal; 4 Kani, L. Chindwin; 1 Kamaing,
U. Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus

dd 148-159 av. 155 32-36 av. 35 24-27 av. 26

(ih 154-159 from skull 39-44

9 9 151,156,157 32,34,37 24,26,27

(ih 152-164 37-41

*See JBNHS 70:200-201.

Tail

95,98(2), 102
96-104)
99,101,102
99-104)

Except for the specimens from Bihar and Nepal, the others were all
listed under Chrysocolaptes guttacri status (Nos. 861/2).

There is no evidence that Dinopium shorii and Dinopium javanense
are anywhere, at least in Indian limits, sympatric, and the difference
between them may perhaps be of a subspecific nature.

825 Dinopium javanense malabancum Whistler & Kinnear (Manan-
toddy, Wynaad) Malabar Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker 4 : 73

4: 2 dd 299 (1 juv.)

1 Wynaad; 1 Santhanpara, Cardamom Hills, 2 Thattakad, North Travancore.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

r> 137,140

31,31

22,23

92,95

(m 135-143

from skull 31-32

22-24

87-95

137

29

24

mltg.

(ih 137-143

27-32

22-24

83-94).

826 Dinopium javanense intermedium (Blyth) (Nepal, Assam,

Tenasserim = Arakan) Burmese Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker

4:72

4 : 2 dd 29 9

1 N. Shan States', 1 Toungoo\ 1 Ataran, 1 Tenasserim.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

dd 144,154

30,31

25,26

95+,96

9 9 -,150

29,30

24,25

95,102

(d 9 136-165

27-30

23-24

85-102)

The two southernmost birds from Tenasserim have

their wings ap-

preciably smaller, approaching javanense q.v.

EL Dinopium javanense javanense (Ljungh) (Java)

1 Wellesley Province, Malaya. Wing 127; bill 25; tarsus 18; tail 82.

827 Gecinulus grantia granfia (Horsfield) (Assam) Paleheaded
Woodpecker 4 : 27

5 : 2 cfc? (1 by plumage) 3 9 9

1 Berrit, 600' Sikkim; 1 Abor Country, 1 Oening, Lohit Valley, 1 Roop-

[283]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 117

chena, Cachar, Assam; 1 1000' Wantho Range, Mu Forest Div., Kolha
Dist., U. Burma.

The last two, both females from south of the Brahmaputra are
paler red, nearly pink above, and also have their heads and underparts
much paler than in the others. One of them has the wing and tail quills
in moult and this may represent a juvenile plumage, though ind. hand-
book (4:205) repeats Stuart Baker’s statement that juveniles are like
females but dark brown on mantle and very dark chocolate brown on
breast, flanks, and abdomen.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

128,129

23,25

24,24

82,85

9 9

125,128,-

24,24,25

23,23,23

84,84,-

(th 125-134

from skull 25-27

23-24

79-87)

828

Miilleripicus pulverulentus mohun Ripley (Jamu

Ghat, Bheri

River, Western Nepal) Nepal Great Slaty Woodpecker

A yet unregistered male from Gaylegphug, C. Bhutan, measures
wing 235, bill 58, tarsus 38, tail 150. In addition to the general colour
being a darker grey, the bill is smaller than that of the next subspecies
(829) than is indicated by the measurements.

829 Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterti Hesse (Type from Pya,
Upper Chindwin River, Burma) Burmese Great Slaty Woodpecker 4:

86

5 : 3$ $

1 Yagyi, 2 Kani, Lower Chindwin, 1 Wuntho, Upper Burma, 1 Burma.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

d71 d71

236,244

61,68

30,39

152,152

9 9

228,239,240

60,66,67

34,35,39

150,155,164

(c? 9

221-245

60-69

39-41

134-162)

The red patch on the cheeks of the male from Kani, Lower Chind-
win, is smaller than that of the other from “Burma”. The latter
No. 10348 has several of the cream-coloured feathers of the upper
neck splashed with red.

830 Bryocopus javensis hodgsonii (Jerdon) (Indian Peninsula;
restricted type locality Telicherry) Indian Great Black Woodpecker

4:90

10 : 6 eft? 4 9? (1 juv.)

1 Songadh, Navsari Dist., 1 Laochali, 2 Mheskatri, Surat Dangs, Gujerat;
2 Kadra, 1 Supa Petha, N. Kanara; 1 Puttapudi, Travancore; 1 Amraoti,
Bastar, M.P.; 1 no data.

Wing Bill

6 d'd' 212-222 av. 216-8 57-63

(ih 213-225 from skull

63-69
56,57,60

from skull 59-65

Tarsus
34-37 av.35
37-43

Tail

156-166 av. 158
139-165)

152,154,157

130-170)

[284]

3 9 9 212,211,219
(th 212-226

35(2), 36
36-39

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

831 Bryocopus javeiisis hodgei (Blyth) (Andaman Islands) Anda-
man Black Woodpecker 4 : 91

5 : 2 3 9 9

1 Long Island, Middle Andamans; 1 Ferrarganj, 3 Wrightmyo, South
Andamans.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

tfc? 182,188 39,43 33,37 134,137

9 9 180,187,190 40,42,45 32,32,35 130,141,144

I have already ( JBNHS 61:565) referred to one of the males in
breeding condition from Ferrarganj, S. Andamans, having only half the
head red, as in females, against all-red in another from Long Island,
M. Andamans.

EL Bryocopus javensis feddeni (Blyth) (Pegu) 4 : 89

1 d71 Nyaungbinloy, Lower Chindwin, Burma.

Wing 218; bill 47; tail 140.

EL Bryocopus martius khamensis (Buturlin) (Eastern slope of the
great plateau of Tibet).

1 Tomg Kyuk, S. Tibet.

Wing 245; bill 51; tarsus 33; tail 158.

832 Hypopicus hyperythrus marshalli (Hartert) (Murree) Western
Rufousbellied Woodpecker 4:31

7 : 3 c?c? 499(1 by plumage)

1 Dunga Gali, Hazara, N.W.F.P.; 2 Narkanda 9000', 1
Simla Hills; 2 Kidernath, 1 Ghat Gharwal.

Wing

dV 120,120,126
9 9 120,122,124,126

(tf"9 126-136

Bill

26,27,28

25,28,29,30

25-27

Tarsus

20,21,23

20,22(3)

Marnauli (?),

Tail

72,73,80

62,66,74,77

)

It is customary to accept birds from Garhwal and Kumaon as of
this form, but their wings are smaller than mentioned in fauna supra
and Vaurie (124-131 av. 127*2). However, all of them can be distin-
guished from the eastern birds by their much heavier bills, which dif-
ference unfortunately is not conveyed by the measurements.

833 Hypopicus hyperythrus hyperythrus (Vigors) (Himalayas, res-
tricted to ‘Nepal or further east’ by Hartert) Eastern Rufousbellied

Woodpecker 4 ; 30

2: IV 19

1* Bolnai, Manipur Hills; 1 Mt. Victoria , 8000', Pakokku Hill Tracts,
Central Burma.

Together with 9 specimens from Bhutan, yet unregistered, the slen-
der bills are a more distinctive difference from marshalli than the slight-
ly smaller wings, though the latter tendency appears to extend east-
wards.

[285]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION 17 119

Wing Bill

6 Bhutan 116-125 av.120 21-25 av.23-7

3 $9 Bhutan 117,118,124 23,25,25

1 cJ1 Manipur Hills 111 26

1 9 Mt. Victoria 108 5

(IH cfi 9 114-122 from skull 23-28

Sp. No. 9980 from Mt. Victoria is the smallest. H. h. heinrichi
(Stresemann) was described from this place, while ICoelz described
H. h. haemorrhous from Korong, Manipur. Both are synonymised with
the nominate form by Vaurie (1965, p. 719), who also accepts Hartert s
restriction of the type locality as above and saves a great amount of
confusion.

EL Bendrocopus leucopterus leucopterus (Salvadori) (Yarkand,
Kashgaria)

1 o?

Keriya, 4300' (collected by A. Sherriff on 25 Feb. 1931).

Wing 128; bill 26; tarsus 22; tail 89.

The 6th primary agrees with that of Zarudny’s korejevi from
Kuldjin, Sinkiang, as illustrated in Vaurie’s ‘Systematic Notes on Pal.
Birds’ (Am. Mus.Nov. 1946, p. 15) but where this race is synonymised
with the nominate.

EL Picoides major tenuirostris (Buturlin) (Western Transcaucasia)

I c? Kusary, Azerbaijan, U.S.S.R.

Wing 130; bill 27; tarsus 21; tail 74.

EL Picoides major cabanisi Malherbe (Shantung).

6: 5(? c? (1 juv.) 19 All Temple of Heaven, Peking, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

cfc? 126,127,130(2) 29(3), 31 22,23,24(2) 79(2), 81(2)

9 130 27 23 81

The males have broad orange-red patches of different shades on
the nape. The juvenile male shows no colour on the head and the under-
tail coverts are faintly marked. The underparts are washed with ochre
contra white in tenuirostris.

834 Picoides major stresemaimi (Rensch) (Tsalila, on the Yunnan-

Sikang border) Blackcrowned Pied Woodpecker 4 : 34

nil.

835 Picoides assimiiis (Blyth) (Himalayas, Rawalpindi) Sind Pied

Woodpecker 4 : 35

II : 4 7 9 9

1 Lukh, 4300', 100 m. south of Kalat, 1 Chaman, Baluchistan; 1 Karung

(?), 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; 3 Campbellpore, Punjab; 1 Sukkur, Sind;

[286]

Tarsus

19-22

20,21,21

19

18

19-22

Tail

73-88 av. 80
77,78,79
69
68

69-87)

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

1 Doulatpur (Sind Frontier); 1 Manthar; 1 City Environments, Baha-
walpur.

The ji from Chaman was listed under himalayensis from which it
can be readily distinguished by the white forehead and the larger patch
of white on the scapulars. The 4 southern birds are smallest and have
their underparts a purer white than the others, which show the range
of colours referred to under himalayensis below.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

Northern d d

119,120,124

26, 27*, 27-5*

18,19,20

68,70,73

Southern d

114

27

20

70

(ih dd

114-123

from skull 28-31

-

71)

Northern 9 $

115,116,117,120

24(2), 26(2)

18, 19(2), 20

68,76

Southern 9 9

110,112,115

22,24(2)

18(2), 19

66,67,69

(ih 9 9

111-120

24-27

-

65-70)

*In two males (Rawalpindi and Campbellpore) the bill is heavier
at the base, contra one from Chaman and another from Sukkur, Sind.
In both the latter, the head is orange contra red.

836 Picoides himalayensis albescens (Baker) (Goona [?], Kashmir)

Kashmir Pied Woodpecker 4 : 34

11 : 4 o^cf1 (1 by by plumage) 7 9 9

1 Kilia Drosh, 3 Chitral; 1 Gora Gali, Murree, Punjab; 3 Liddar Valley;
1 Doossoo, 2 Kashmir.

See remarks under 837.

837 Picoides himalayensis himalayensis (Jardine & Selby) (Mus-

soorie, 6500') Garhwal Pied Woodpecker 4 : 32

26: 19 (3 by plumage + 1 juv.) 79 9 (3 by plumage)

1 Golhar, Kishtwar, Kashmir; 1 Dalhousie, Punjab; 3 Koti State, 9 Simla,
1 Himalayas (J. C. Anderson = Simla ?) ; 1 Dhakuri, 2 Mornaula, 1
Kumaon, 1 Ukhimath, 1 Kalia Ghat, 1 Garhwal; 1 Lambathach ?; 1
Surd 8000', 1 Nishar 7000'?; 1 no data.

There is considerable variation in the colour of the underparts of
these specimens and those listed under serial 836, and the descriptions
in fauna and ind. handbook do not permit their division into two
distinct races — hampered no doubt by the fact that the type localities
are very close together and most of the material available is from an
intermediate area.

Birds from the northern and higher portions of Kashmir together
with those from further west have whiter underparts and are referred
to as albescens. Adult specimens from Garhwal and Kumaon appear
equally pale on the underparts but are listed under the nominate form.

The males appear to show colour on the head in the first plumage,
when after the persistent black line the front half of the head is mark-
ed faintly and irregularly with orange-red spots. Later, the colour on
the head extends to the top, and finally over the whole head. In the last

[287]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 121

stage the colour turns crimson. The colour is always at the tip of the
feathers and the black base shows through to a greater or lesser extent
in all stages, no bird having a uniformly red head. Using the colour of
the head as an index of age, the youngest have the underparts slightly
streaked and appear greyish brown, the feathers around the tarsus
showing a barred effect (Nos. 9988 and 10016 from Kumaon).

The colour of the underparts then changes and is palest and most
uniform with a slight tinge of rufous in the adult. No intermediate sub-
adult plumage is recognisable in the female.

Four ( 1 & 39 Q ) from Kishtwar and Simla show irregular patches
of dark rufous on the upper breast. Two such females from S. Basil-
Edwardes’s collection obtained on 27 and 29 August are marked “juv.
9 ” and “juv. $ ?”. but a male from Koti State (20 January) similarly
marked has the whole head red and is marked “Adult” by the collector
A. E. Jones. This does not appear to be a character of juvenility.

albescens

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

ad. d’o’ (4)
himalayensis

130,132,133,135

31,32,33 (2)

24,26 (2), 27

82,83,85,89

ad. tfc? (5)

133-137 av.134-5

30-34 av.32

24-26

83-90 av.85

sub-ad. cfcf

(7) 129-134 av.132

30-34 av.32

24-26

70-87 av.80

juv. (5)

albescens

121-130 av.125

24-26

20-26

70-83 av.76

$ 9 (7)
himalayemis

127-131 av. 129-5

26-30 av.28

23-24

76-85 av.82

9 9 (6)

123-133 av.127

26-30 av,28-6

23-26

75-83 av.80

albescens 9

127-136

28-32

-

-)

( himalayensis

123-135

29-33

r. 23-24

77-85)

Two males (by plumage) from Surd and Nishar are included in
nominate himalayensis but the places are not traceable.

838/839 Picoides darjellensis darjeliensis (Blyth) (Darjeeling and
Nepal) Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker 4 : 36

1 no data.

Together with 3 6"1 cf and 2 9 9 from Bhutan, yet unregistered,
the measurements are:

Wing
c?9 125-128

(123-135

Bill Tarsus Tail

30-32 21-23 79-84

32-35 c. 22-23 77-86)

840 Picoides cathpharius cathpharius (Blyth) (Darjeeling) Himala-
yan Crimsonbreasted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 37

1 $ Woodcot 5500', Darjeeling District.

Including 4 yet unregistered

Wing
99,101
98,98,100
97-101

specimens from Bhutan, they measure:

Bill Tarsus Tail

18,19 17,18 58,65

18,19,20 17,18,18 60,62,63

16-17 c.15 59-60)

2

3 9 $
(c?9

[288]

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

840a Ficoides cathpharius ludlowi (Vaurie) (Tsera; Pome, south-
eastern Tibet = south-east Sikang) (Tibetan Crimsonbreasted Pied
Woodpecker
nil.

841 Ficoides cathpharius pyrrhothorax (Hume) (Aimole, Eastern

Manipur Hills) Crimsonbreasted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 38

nil.

842 Ficoides auriceps auriceps (Vigors) (Simla) West Himalayan

Brownfronted Woodpecker 4 : 42

30 : 16 tfc? (6 juv.) 14 90 (3 ju'\)

2 Chitral, 1 Ghora Gali; 15 Simla, 1 Bhajji State; 1 Kishtwar, 1 Watur,
7 miles from Srinagar; 1 Jail, Tehri-Garhwal; 1 Garhwal, 1 Dwarkanath,
1 Lohaghat, Almora, 2 Chira, 1 Gurna, 1 Kumaon; 1 Nisbar 7000' (?).

Juvenile males have indistinct markings of red and yellow on the
head, but lack the distinct patch of the same colours on the occiput.
Juvenile females have various degrees of pale streaking on the centre
of the feathers of the head.

The juveniles were all taken between “May” and 22 August.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

Ad.

c?c7 (6)

112-120 av. 116

23-25

18-20

68-74 av. 70-5

cf d71

(4)*

111,113,114,115

23(2), 24(2)

19,20(3)

60.67,68,72

9^

(11)

1 12-117 av. 114

21-23

19-20

65-74 av.70

(c? 9

112-118

21-24

18-20

68-73)

*The foreheads of the four taken in April lack the smooth sheen
of the adults, which difference together with the slightly smaller size
suggests a sub-adult phase.

All the specimens appear to be from the accepted range of the
nominate form, but the wing measurements intrude upon the limits
of incognitus 105-115 indicated in the key between the two races (ind.
handbook 4:221).

843 Ficoides auriceps incognitus (Scully) (Valley of Nepal) Nepal

Brownfronted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 42

nil.

844 Ficoides atratus (Blyth) (Tenasserim) Stripebreasted Pied

Woodpecker 4 : 42

2 : Id' 1 9

1 Thayetmyo Dt., Burma ; 1 French Indo-China-Laos.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

118,114 25,25 22,21 70,65

(d71 9 114-122 24-26 18-19 65-72)

845 Ficoides niacei niaeei (Vieillot) (Bengal) Indian Pied Wood-
pecker 4 : 39

[289]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 123

35 : 20 cf cf (5 by pi.) 14 9 9 0 by pi.)

2 Patiala State, 1 Kalka, 1 Bhagat State, 3 Simla; 1 Sankarametta, 1
Lamasinghi, Vizagapatam; 1 Berbera, Puri Dt., 1 Simlipal Hills, Orissa;
1 Kumaon, Nainital; 1 Hetwada, 2 Bankulwa Morang, Nepal; 1 Dehra
Dun, 1 Kurseong Division; 2 Bhutan; 3 Goalpara, 1 Dibrugarh, 1 Sadiya,
1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Cachar, 2 Dinapur Road, Manipur, 1 Assam; 5
Upper Burma, 1* Myaing, Pokkoku , Burma. *Missing.

No material from the north-west is available but if westernmost
adults really have their wings 114-120 mm. [see Ticehurst JBNHS 34:
468 and Whistler & Kinnear loc. cit. 37:2881] Blyth’s westermani needs
to be recognised. Biswas supports this view but has unfortunately
(JBNHS 58:131) restricted the type locality to Simla, which from the
material available appears to be an intermediate area, with larger birds
(113, 114) from further eastwards in Kumaon and Darjeeling.

An additional difficulty is a sub-adult plumage in which the males
are consistently smaller than the adults.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

4 ad. c? d1
with rufous

109,110,113,114

25(2), 26, 27

19, 20(2), 21

65(2), 69, 70

on breast,

10 sub-ad. (S'

104-107 av. 105*5

22-26 av.24*5

18-20

62-66 av.64

excluding 1 Patiala*

3 c? c? Orissa

97,100,104

19,22,24

19(2), 21

52,59,66

& A.P.

5 ad. 9 $

106-114 av. 110*4

22-26 av. 24*4

17-20

62-68 av, 65*6

8 sub-ad. 9 9

99-106 av. 103*4

22-25 av. 23*6

17-20

57-65 av. 62

1 9 Eastern Ghats 104

22

19

60

The adult

S ^ have a distinct fulvous patch on the

breast. This

patch is paler in the adult 9 9 which have duskier underparts and
larger bills than the other (? sub-adult) females.

♦One & from Patiala (No. 10038) in sub-adult plumage has a
112 mm wing. Two S' S from Dimapur Road, Manipur, 24 October
1946, have yellow streaks on the red of the head, a character not visible
in any of the others.

In ind. handbook 4:224) Picus analis from Java is synonymised
with this form. This is not correct for the species does not extend
east and south of Hukawng Valley and Bhamo in North Burma.

846 Picoides macei andamanensis (Blyth) (Port Blair, Andamans)
Andaman Spottedbreasted Pied Woodpecker 4 : 45

10 : 7 tfc? 3 $ 9

1 Landfall Island, North Andamans; 1 Bakultala, Middle Andamans; 3
Wrightmyo, 2 Mithakhari, 1 Pochang, Shoal Bay, 1 Pyinmanala, 1
South Andamans.

[290]

124 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Picoides mahrattensis

There has been considerable diversity of opinion regarding the
validity of the several races which have been described of this widely
distributed species, ind. handbook (4:226) only accepts the nominate
race, but there is no doubt that birds from the north and west are more
white on the upperparts and less heavily streaked below. Unfortunately,
the names available aurocri status Tickell from Borabhum and Dhol-
bhum and pallescens Biswas from Lucknow both fall within the range
of the nominate race and cannot be used. Pending examination of
more material however I am leaving the northern birds without a name.

847 Picoides mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham) (Mahratta Coun-
try) Yellowfronted Pied or Mahratta Woodpecker 4 : 46

35 : 19 d'd' 16 9 $

1 Galkund, Surat Dangs; 2 Nasi-k, 2 Jubbulpore, 1 Raipur, Melghat, Berar;
1 Murbad Road, 1 Vajreshwari, Thana, 1 Andheri, Salsette, Bombay, 2
Satara, 2 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra; 1 Kadra, 1 Balemani, 2 Karwar, 1
North Kanara; 1 Devon Estate. Hellacuttah, 1 Wadakkancheri, Travan-
core; 1 Kurumbapatti, Salem Dt., 2 Nallamalai Range; 1 Antagarh, 1
Geedam, 1 Golapalli, 1 Chota Dongur, Bastar, 1 Bhanupratappur, Ran-
ker, 1 Gondia, C.P.; 1 Orissa; 3 Baghownie, Darbhanga, Bihar; 2 Pili-
bhit Terai.

There is some variation in the intensity of white and/or brown both
above and below but this is to some extent affected by the method of
preparation. On the west, this form extends up to the Surat Dangs and
appears further northwards on the east, extending through the type
locality of aurocristatus and into Bihar, east of the Ganges.

The measurements do not differ from those of the north-western
birds:

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

d'd'

nominate

97-104 av.100

23-25 av.24

17-20

55-61 av.59

(?C?

north-western

97-104 av.101

23-25 av.24

15-20

51-62 av.58

9 9

nominate

95-103 av.99

20-23 av.21

17-19

5 *-62 av.58

9 9

north-western

94-106 av.99

20-24 av.22

17-19

52-60 av.57

(IHcT1 9

94-110

from skull 21-28

15-21

54-64)

847a Picoides mahrattensis subsp. Northern Yellowfronted Pied
Woodpecker

25 : 13 cfcf 12 9 9

1 Campbellpore, 1 Shikohpur, 1 Ladhwa, Karnal, Punjab; 2 Delhi;
2 Bharatpur, 1 Hamavas Lake, 2 Sunda Hills, Jaswantpura, Rajasthan;
1 Radhanpur, 1 Balaram, 1 Deesa, Palanpur, 3 Kharirohar, 1 Bhujia Fort,
Kutch, 1 Cambay, 1 Dabka, Baroda, Gujarat; 1 Mathai, Narbada Valley,
M.P.; 1 Tirhut, Bihar; 2 Meerut; 1 Netour, 1 Bulandshahr, U.P.

In addition to the differences referred to above, the red on the lower
belly is slightly paler than in southern birds.

The three males from Jodhpur State (Nos. 10115, 10117 and 10118)

[291]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 125

and another from Dabka, Baroda, (cJ1 No. 10125) show much more
white above and below, the latter accentuated by the white of the chin
extending further down the upper breast.

Measurements under 847.

EL Picoides mahraffensis blanfordi (Blyth) (Tounghoo, Burma)

4:47

1 9 Prome.

Wing 102; bill 23; tarsus 19; tail 60.

The single specimen from Burma has the head paler and the under-
parts more finely streaked than in any of the others. This race was
however not based on these characters.

848 Picoides canicapillus mitchellii (Malherbe) (Nepal) West Hima-
layan Greycrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 50

10 : 5 (?(? 5?9

3 Kalka, 1 Bhagat State, 1 Simla Hills, 1 Simla; 1 Bans, Almora, 1 Kum-
aon, U.P.; .2 Bhugwada, Nepal.

The black tail, unbarred tail-coverts and tiny streaks of red on the
male’s nape (as in Picoides nanus) separate this group. One of the
birds (No. 18544) is marked male, but lacks the red.

The measurements are under 850.

849 Picoides canicapillus semicoronatus (Malherbe) (Himalayas,
Darjeeling) East Himalayan Grbycrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 49

16 : 9 7 9 9

1 Renchinpong, 3 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 2 Rangpo, 1 Sikkim; 2 Long-
view, 2 Sevoke, 1 Darjeeling; 2 Kurseong Div., U.P.; 1 Bhutan; 1 Goal-
para Dist., Assam.

The c?1 cT can be easily distinguished by the red running right across
the nape, with a slight gap at the centre in some. Only one 9 No.
10149 marked “Sikkim” (C.M. Inglis, no date) has white spots on the
central tail feathers. In all, the streaks on the underparts are heavier
(broader) than in mitchellii. The series from Sikkim (5 cf c? 1 9 )
is marked mitchellii by Ripley, though this opinion is corrected in ind.
HANDBOOK.

Measurements under 850.

849a Picoides canicapillus subsp.

11 : 4 cf cf (1 by plumage) 4 9 9 3o?

2 Shillong, 2* North Cachar, 1 Samagootling, Naga Hills, Assam; 1*
Kamaing, 1 North Kraing, 1 Suma, Myitkyina Dist., Upper Burma, 2
south-east (2500') and north-east (1200') of Maymyo, North Shan
States, 1* Loikam, Southern Shan States, Burma.

There is some little variation among these birds all from south and
east of the Brahmaputra. Three males* differ from semicoronatus in
having very little red restricted to the sides of the nape as in mitchellii;

[292]

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

the streaking on the underparts is heavier even than in semicoronatus.
None have the upper tail-coverts barred or the central tail feathers
spotted white as in nominate canicapillus. The three from Myitkyina
should, according to Biswas (1950, Proc. Zool. Soc. Bengal 3(i), p. 25),
be intermediate between obscurns (La Touche, S. E. Yunnan) and
omissus (Rothschild) but they appear no larger than semicoronatus
and nominate canicapillus. In the material available the differences in
the characters referred to by Biswas (loc. cit.), i.e. white marks on
inner secondaries and barring on back, are not distinguishable.

Measurements under 850.

850 Picoides canicapillus canicapillus (Blyth) (Arrakan; type from
Ramree Is.) Burmese Greycrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 51

5 : 3 . c? 2 9 $

1 Kay an Chang, U. Chindwin', 1 Kuzeik, Lower Chindwin; 1 Chaungri
Chaung, Kyankpyn Dist., 2 Kyibu, Henzada Dist., Burma.

The two from Henzada District lack the rufous wash on the under-
parts.

All have their uppertail coverts barred and the central tail feathers
spotted with white, separating them quite distinctly from the races re-
ferred to above. The red on the head is also restricted to the sides as
in mitchellii and P. nanus.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

mitchellii

83-92 av. 88-5

15-16

14-15

3947 av.44

(ih 85-89

17-18

14-15

40-47)

semicoronatus

81-87 av. 85

15-17

14-15

40-45 av. 42

(ih 80-90

from skull 16-18

13-16

38-46)

849a subsp. ?

82,85,91

c. 16

14-15

37,43

(Biswas,-

96-99 av. 97-6

18-18-5

14.5-15

50-52 av. 51)

Myitkyina

canicapiltus

82,84,85

15-16

14,15(2)

42

(ih 80-94

from skull 16-19

13-16

34-46)

' $ 9

mitchellii

89-92 av .90

15-17

14-15

41-45 av. 44

(ih 84-94

17-18

14-15

42-50)

semicoronatus

82-92 av. 86-5

14-16

14-15

40-44

(ih 82-91

from skull 16-19

14-15

39-48)

849a subsp ?

82,87,90 (2)

c.15

14-16

40 (2), 44

[Biswas,

98-101

18-19

15-15-5

51-54 (53-2)]

-Myitkyina

canicapillus

81,83

15(2)

15,16

40,44 mltg.

(ih 80-92

from skull 16-19

13-16

39-45, once 49)

The measurements in ind. handbook are all from Biswas (loc. cit.)
and it is not possible to understand how it was determined that some
of the measurements of the bill are “from feathers” and others “from
skull”.

[293]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 127

851 Picoides nanus nanus (Vigors) (Himalaya) Northern Brown-

crowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 53

14: 7 cf'cf (1 by plumage) 5? $ 2o?

6 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Dehra Dun, 2 Meerut, 1 Pilibhit, U.P.; 2 Darbhanga,
2 Rajputtee, Saran, Bihar.

Measurements under 852.

852 Picoides nanus hardwiekii (Jerdon) (Southern India = Goom-
soor, Ganjam) Southern Browncrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 52

26 : 17 cfcf 7 $ $ 2o?

1 Dohad, 2 Jambughoda, 1 Dediapada, Rajpipla, 1 Waghai, 1 Malegaon,

1 Sarwar, Surat Dangs; 1 Mandu, Dhar State, 1 Raipur, Melghat, Berar;

2 Balemani, 1 Kadra, 1 Gundbola, North Kanara; 1 Chitteri Range, 2
Nallamalai, 1 Anantgiri, Vizagapatnam; 4 Bhanupratappur, Ranker, 1
Basrur, 1 Bhopalapatnam, Bastar, M.P.; 2 Badrama, Barma, 1 Keon-
jargarh, Orrissa.

In the material available, even in series, this race is barely separable
from the nominate, the variation within each group making it impos-
sible to pick out individuals.

Four (2 cf d1 2 9 9) from Surat Dangs (3) and Dediapada, Raj-
£ipla (1), Gujarat, have their underparts more heavily streaked, though
the general effect can be matched in individuals from other places, e.g.
,9 No. 18602 from Badrama, Barma, Orissa. Unsexed No. 10131
from Balemani, North Kanara, has a pale, almost golden head, while
that of 10132 ( cf by plumage) from the same place, is as dark as in
einereigula / gymnopthalmus.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

Western nanus

80,81

15,15

14,14

35,36

eastern nanus

75-77 av.76

14(5)

14(2), 15(3)

34-38 av.35- 4

(ih 74-81

from skull 15-17

13-15

35-39)

hardwiekii

72-78, one
81 av.74-4

13-14

13-14

31-40 av.34

$ $

(ih 71-76

from skull 15-17

13-14

33-37)

western nanus

80 (2), 81 (2)

15 (3), 16

14(2), 15 (2)

35,36,39 (2)

eastern nanus

75

14

15

36

(ih 75-81

from skull 14-16

13-15

34-40

hardwiekii

73-78 av.75

13-14

13-14

33-38 av.35-5

V

(ih 71-77

from skull 15-16

12-13

32-36)

In nominate nanus the western birds from the Punjab have slightly
but consistently larger wings than those from further east.

853 Picoides nanus cinereigula (Malherbe) (Madras = Alleppy,
Travancore) Kerala Browncrowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 52

6 (S' <S

1 Fraserpet, Coorg; 1 Coonoor Ghat, 1 Mudumalai, 1 Wynaad, 1 Padagiri,
Nelliampathi Hills; 1 Vambayam, Travancore.

Nos. 10179 from Padagiri, Nelliampathi Hills and 10137 from
Vambayam, Travancore, resemble Ceylon gymnopthalmus in the dark-
ness of the head and absence of streaks on the underparts. They how-

[294]

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

ever agree with other cinereigula in size.

Wing 73-77 av. 75 (ih. 71-76); bill 14*3-15*5; tail 32-38 av. 35 (ih. 33-37).

854 Picoides nanus gymnopthalmus (Blyth) (Ceylon) Ceylon Brown-

crowned Pigmy Woodpecker 4 : 54

1 9 Walgama, Ceylon

Wing 65 (ih 74-77); bill 11 -3 (14-15 from skull); tail 30 (33-35).

In the single specimen, the measurements are smaller than usually
accepted and there is no trace of moult on the wing or tail quills. The
underparts are dirty brown and unstreaked as in a male from Vam-
bayam, Travancore, under 853, and which it further resembles in the
darkness of the head which separates the latter from cinereigula. Jerdon
(1:479 and 3:871) placed the Ceylon race in southern India.

855 Picoides tridactylus funebris Verreaux (Mountains of Chinese
Tibet = Sikang) Yellowcrowned Threetoed Pied Woodpecker

nil.

856 Hemicircus canente (Lesson) (Pegu) Heartspotted Woodpecker

4 : 84

23: llcfc? (2 by plumage) 12 9 9 (2 by plumage)

1 Songarh, Navsari, 1 Waghai, 2 Mahal, 1 Sarwar, Surat Dangs; 1 Borivli,
Salsette, Bombay; 1 Karwar, 2 Kadra, 1 Balemani, 2 North Kanara; 1
Madumalai Forest, 1 Wynaad, 1 Thattakad, 1 Thekady, 1 Periyar, Kerala;
1 Darba, 2 Barsur, Bastar, M.P.; 1 Badrama, Bamra, Orissa; 1 Bagho
Bahar, Cachar; 1 west of Yomas, Bassein District, Burma.

Of five with white caps and dark underparts which are presumably
characters of young of both sexes, four are females and one unsexed.
Specimen No. 10327 from Periyar, dated 23 August, has a white cap
and pale underparts but is marked tfby the collector, J. P. Cook.

The extent of buffiness on the forehead varies individually, some
being almost pure white. In Bull. B.O.C. 86, pp. 162-163 (1966), I have
suggested with some evidence that the “creaminess” on the forehead,
shoulders and rump of the Pied Imperial Pigeon Ducula bicolor (Sco-
poli) was acquired in the course of preening the base of newly-growing
feathers on the rump. I wonder if this “buffiness” which affects other
white portions of the plumage on the wings and rump in the woodpec-
ker may not be similarly acquired or be associated with the tuft on the
back which secretes a fluid of unknown purpose and utility.

Wing Bill

11 93-103 av.96-6 20*5-24 av.22* 3

699 91-95 av.93-5 19*6-21*5 av. 20*4

There is a small decrease in size southwards and Jerdon’s cordatus
which was described without comparison with the nominate race is
now discarded. The 3 largest (and easternmost) specimens from Orissa,
Cachar and Burma (wing 100, 103, 98; bill 22' 5, 23*5, 24) differ from

[295]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT . HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 129

the other males in almost completely lacking the tiny white spots on
the black forehead, which though varying in extent are always distinctly
visible. The male illustrated on plate 52 facing page 208 of Vol. 4 of
ind. handbook shows no speckles on the head.

Incidentally, Jerdon when describing cordatus has mixed up the
male and the female and refers to the underparts as “dull green” and
adds “On the center of the back there is a brush of sap green feathers

The green may possibly be due to the use of some

preservative, but I must mention that in dry skins, the “tuft” which
consists of unbarbed feathers over 20 mm long, lies flat along the back.

EL Miglyptes jugularis (Blyth) (Arakan) Black and Buff Wood-
pecker 4 : 60

2 $ $ (1 by plumage) Ataran, Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

100,103 19 21 19,19 48,49

(97-107) (18-20) (c. 18-19) (43-51)

857 Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Red-eared
Bay Woodpecker 4 : 55

6 : 4 29 9

1 Trepokri, 7500', 2 between Trepokri and Ghoom, Darjeeling; 1 Laithen-
sew, Khasi Hills, 1 Roopchena, Cachar, 1 Margherita, Assam.

Wing

Bill

cf cf 144,144,150,150

41,47 (3)

(ih 145-153

from skull 48-54

9 9 141,142

42,17

(ih 137-151

from skull 45-51

Tarsus Tail

26,27,28 (2) 81,82,84,86

29-30 82-98)

26,28 78,78

c. 82-85

Male No. 10191 from Margherita has a wash of the red of the
collar extending on to the upper breast, as also on the upper back.
There is variation in the amount of streaking on the head, as also the
intensity of the brown on the underparts. In No. 10186 marked “per-
haps $ ” collected by Stuart Baker at Laithensew, Khasi Hills, on
18 May 1906, the collar is paler and shows an orange tinge. The upper
back is distinctly barred, a character shared with No. 10189, the other
female from Darjeeling. This small series suggests that western birds
have greyer, less brown, heads than those from Assam.

858 Chrysocolaptes festivus feUivus (Boddaert) (Goa) Indian Black-
backed Woodpecker 4 : 77

5:1a71 49 9

1 Dediapada, Rajpipla, 1 Pimpri, 1 Galkund, Surat Dangs; 1 Chikalda,
c. 3000', Berar; 1 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

1 d1 150 49 29 73

4 9 9 149,150 (2), 154 42,44,48 (2) 29,30 (3) 77 (2), 81,82

Two females with the shortest bills and tails, collected at Galkund

[296]

9

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

(26 February) and Chikalda (23 January) show traces of red on the
yellow crest, which is not visible in the other two (March and October).

859 Chrysocolaptes festivus tantus Ripley (Embilipitiya, Ceylon)
Ceylon Blackbacked Woodpecker

nil.

860 Chrysocolaptes luck! us sultaneus (Hodgson) (Simra, Central
Nepal) Western Himalayan Larger Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 80

5 : 4 cfcT 1 9

1 Baijnath, Almora, 3 Ranibagh, Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Bhugawda, Nepal.

Wing

- 180,184,184,188

(ih 171-180
9 184

(ih 174-180

Bill

49,50,52,52
from skull 56-62
52

from skull 53-58

Biswas’s measurements quoted in ind.

Taisus Tail

31,32,32,34 98,99,99,103

80-100)

34 98

98-99)

handbook relate to birds

from Central Nepal. There is a distinct increase in size westwards in
the north.

861 Chrysocolaptes lucidus guttacristatus (Tickell) (Jungles of
Borabhum and Dholbhum) Eastern Larger Goldenbacked Wood-
pecker 4 : 78

24 : 12 cfc? 12 9 9

1 Chota Dongar, 1 Basrur, 2 Kameli, Bailadila, Bastar, C.P.; 1 Kutri, 1
Chamundia, Daspalla, 1 Chahala,. Simlipal Hills, Orissa; 1 Singtan, Tista
Valley, Sikkim; 1 Longview, Darjeeling, 1 Kurseong Division, U.P.; 1
Golaghat, 1 Margherita, Upper Assam, 3 Roopchena, 1 Bagho Bahar,
1 North Cachar; 3 Taunggyi, South Shan States', 2 Prome District', 1
Kyiben, Henzada; 1 Sandoway District, Burma.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

I ail

cfd1

161-177 av. 170*5

46-52 av.48

30-32

85-100 av.93

(ih 165-172

from skull 48-50

31-33

90-97)

9 9

162-178 av. 171

45-49 av.47

29-32

85-99

(ih 168-173

from skull 47-49

31-32

88-90)

The smallest wings are presumably of specimens already measured
by Salim Ali in ind. handbook, while those over 173 are from Assam

and Burma.

862 Chrysocolaptes lucidus chersonesus Kloss (Johore, Malaya)
Southern Larger Goldenbacked Woodpecker 4 : 80

22 : 12 c? d1 10 9 9

1 Mahal, 1 Malegaon, Surat Dangs, Gujarat; 1 near Kasa, Dahanu Taluka,
Thana; 1 Funnel Hill, Pen, Kolaba; 1 Satara; 1 Morda, Goa Frontier,

2 Kadra, North Kanara; 1 Linganhally, 1 Jog, Sagar, 1 Billaji, Billigiri-
rangan Hills, Mysore; 1 Munnar, High Range, 1 Parambikulam, Cochin,

3 Kodaikanal, 1 Manalur, 1 Palni Ghats, 1 Perumalmalai, 1 Devanhel-
lucotta, Travancore; 2 Madura, South India.

[297]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 17 131

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

c?c?

148-154 av.151

40-47 av.43

28-31

80-87 av.83

(IH

149-158

from skull 42-52

30-31

77-91)

9 9

148-155 av.151

40-43 av.41-3

28-31

80-87 av.84

(IH

147-157

from skull 41-50

27-30

80-89)

The specimens listed above are duller and less yellow than gutta-
cristatus and the measurements appear exclusive.

It is now customary to accept birds from southern India as of this
race and identical with those from Malaya. In the absence of any topo-
typical material, it is not possible to comment except to draw atten-
tion to the fact that chersonesus was described for its short 143 mm
wing, and the only other specimen referred to also had a 146 mm wing.

8 (5 c? cf 3 $ 9 ) of the 22 specimens have stray tinges of crimson
on their backs. There is no evidence of this being a seasonal character.

863 Chrysocolaptes lucidus stricklandi (Layard) (Gillymale, Ceylon)
Ceylon Crimsonbacked Woodpecker 4:81

3:1c? 2 9 $

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

c? 9 143,146 41,40 30,29 82,78

One female is in poor condition and has not been measured.

{to be continued)

[298]

Temperature, salinity and
Plankton of Daman Ganga
Estuary1

P. SlTARAMAIAH

Department of Biology, Govt. Arts and Science College, Daman

Temperature of air and water of Daman Ganga estuary showed
two maxima in a year and the water was warmer than the Arabian
sea. A wide range of values of salinity were associated with a wide
range of values of biomass of plankton. The values of biomass of
plankton of this estuary, at comparable salinity and temperature,
were three times less compared to the Mississippi Sound. The values
of biomass of plankton in winter were 2.3 times higher compared
to the values of biomass of plankton in summer. A plankton calen-
dar was prepared for this estuary for the year 1968-’69. An increase
in the number of copepods was associated with an increase in the
numbers of phytoplankton. Daman Ganga estuary is a special
ecological habitat with warmer water and more numbers of micro-
plankters compared to the adjoining Arabian sea. Warmer waters
and abundant microplankton of this estuary are the favourable
factors for the survival and rapid growth of planktophagous larvae
of euryhaline marine fishes. Thus Daman Ganga estuary, with its
special ecological conditions, forms one , of the natural factors
responsible for the good fish landings of this part of the west coast.

I NTRODUCTION

Information is not available on the physicochemical and biological
conditions of Daman Ganga estuary. Therefore, to find out the factors
influencing the abundance of plankton, temperature of air and water,
salinity, numbers and dry weights of plankton were studied for a period
of 54 weeks. The interrelations of organisms and the influence of hydro-
graphical conditions on the abundance of plankton were studied and
compared with other areas.

Field collections were made, always at a fixed area, between 12.00
noon and 1.00 p.m. once in every week. The area of investigation is
located at 20°25' N, 72°50' E. The width of the river at Daman is

1 Accepted February 6, 1971.

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

133

224 metres excluding the banks. The depth of the river is 6 metres at
the lowest low tide level and ten metres at the maximum high tide level.

Methods

Temperature of air and water were recorded in the field using a
centigrade mercury thermometer graduated to one tenth of a degree.
A sample of water was brought to the laboratory, in a clean glass stop-
pered bottle and the salinity was measured by Harvey’s method
(Barnes 1959). Ten ml of sample water was titrated against standard
silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as indicator. The neces-
sary correction, as given by Harvey, was made. Three titrations were
made and the average values are presented. Plankton collections were
made concurrently with the h)/drographical studies. Plankton was col-
lected with half metre tow net made of best Swiss organdy. The net
was towed by boat for 5 minutes across the river from bank to bank.
Thus, a cross section of nearly 37 (36.83) cubic metres of water was
filtered by the net, as a distance of 190 metres was constantly covered,
in 5 minutes. The plankton collections were transferred to a pneumatic
trough and the plankters were examined in fresh condition in the labo-
ratory. The debris and other foreign materials were carefully hand-
picked. The plankton was then filtered with the organdy and was wash-
ed in to 5% formalin kept in an enamel tray. Later the plankton was
transferred in to a bottle. Macro-plankton and nekton were separated
and 1 ml of sample was diluted to a constant volume. From this dilut-
ed sample 1 ml was taken in to a Sedgwick Rafter cell and the numbers
of plankters v/ere counted under a microscope. Six counts were made
for each plankton sample and the average numbers of organisms are
presented. Later the plankton was filtered using Whatman No. 42
filter paper (Graham 1943) and dried in a hot air oven at 60°C to
constant weight. The average values for each month are presented.

Results

< • ■

(1) Temperature:

The results of air temperature are presented (Table 1). The tem-
perature maxima (35.2°C) was recorded on 7-iv-1969. The tempera-
ture minima (22.8°C) was recorded on 4-L1969. The submaximum
temperature (35°C) was recorded on 30-ix-1969 and also in the first
two weeks and fourth week of October, 1969. The amplitude of an-
nual variation of daily temperatures was 12.4°C. The amplitude of
variation of mean monthly temperatures was 7.44°C. The mean

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

monthly temperature showed two maxima one in April and the other
in October.

Table 1

Temperature of Daman Ganga estuary during 1968-’69

Month & Year

Temperature of Air °C
Range Average

Temperature of Water °C
Range Average

Nov. 1968™”

30.0-34.40

32.14

27.0-30.0

28.16

Dec.

29.4-32.00

31.00

25.2-28.4

26.60

Jan. 1969

22.8-30.00

26.60

22.0-25.6

24.08

Feb.

27.0-33.10

29.27

25.0-26.4

25.70

Mar.

28.9-32.80

30.58

27.0-31.0

29.10

Apr.

31.4-35.20

33.20

31.4-32.9

32.17

May

32.0-33.20

32.65

32.0-33.0

32.65

June

28.8-32.40

30.65

29.0-32.2

31.25

July

29.4-31.20

30.56

29.0-32.2

30.44

Aug.

29.4-32.80

30.55

28.6-31.9

30.07

Sep.

27.0-35.00

30.08

26.6-33.2

29.60

Oct.

30.4-35.00

34.04

29.8-31.8

30.72

The results of water temperature are also presented in Table 1.
The temperature showed variation in each month. Maximum tempe-
rature (33.2°C) was recorded on 30-ix-1969 and minimum (22.0°C)
was recorded on l-i-1969 and on 4-i-1969. The amplitude of annual
variation of daily temperature was 11.2°C. The amplitude of annual
variation of mean monthly temperatures was 8.57°C. The tempera-
ture of water showed two maxima which were recorded in May and
October, 1969. The air and water temperatures of this estuary showed
two maxima in the year.

In Daman Ganga estuary mean monthly water temperatures rang-
ed from 24.08 °C to 32.65°C. Chacko & Ganapati (1949) recorded
highest temperatures in April and May and lowest temperatures during
December and January with an annual range of 22.0° - 35.0°C in
Adayar estuary. Ganapati & Murthy (1955) reported three peaks in
temperature in October, March and June and three depressions in Ja-
nuary, April and August with an annual range of monthly mean tem-
perature of 4.4°C in the sea off Visakhapatnam coast. Bose (1956)
reported a temperature range of 18.0-33.0°C in Hooghly estuary. The
temperatures of the water of this estuary are higher compared to the
sea water temperatures of Arabian sea off this estuary at 20°N and
21°N (Jayaraman & Gogate 1957) by 2.3°C (December), 1.58°C (Jan-
uary), 2.2°C (February) and 3.6°C (March). Ganapati & Sarma
(1958) recorded a variation of temperature of 24.33 - 29.9°C in sea at
Waltair with two peaks in June and September (1953-1954) and June
and October (1954-1955). Subrahmanyan (1960a) recorded at Calicut

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

135

25.3°C (July) and 30.0°C (April).- But in this estuary 30.44°C and
32.17°C were recorded in the respective months thereby indicating that
the temperature of the estuarine waters of Daman Ganga were 5.14°C
and 2.17°C higher compared to sea water at Calicut. The occurrence
of two peaks was reported for all the warmer areas in and around
India by several workers (Sitaramaiah 1966b). Durve & Bal (1961) re-
ported lowest temperatures during November-December and highest
temperatures during April-May in backwater and sea water respective-
ly near Bombay. Panikkar & Jayaraman (1966) have reported 27-29 °C
in Bay of Bengal and 23-29°C in Arabian sea. Qasim et al. (1969) re-
corded 28-3 1°C in a tropical estuary.

The temperatures of Daman Ganga estuary were higher by a mi-
nimum of 1.58°C (January) and ranged to a maximum of 5.14°C (July)
compared to the adjacent Arabian sea. Malhotra et al. (1970) reported
higher percentage (25-80% and 15-30%) of hatching of fertilized eggs
of Hilsa ilisha at higher temperature ranges (25.5 - 30.4°C and 26.8 -
28.4°C) and low percentage (5-20% except in one case of 70%) at
lower range of temperatures (24.8-27. 1°C). Thus, it is clear that with
its warmer water Daman Ganga estuary forms a good breeding ground
for the fishes to spawn (Table 5) and a natural nursery for the hatch-
ing and development of eggs of euryhaline fishes.

(2) Salinity:

The results of salinity are presented in Table 2. The sali-
nity of this estuary varied from 0.36%0 (on 17-vii- 1969 and on 24-vii-
1969) to 34.3%0 (on 1 8-i- 1969). During the period November 1968
through June 1969 the mean monthly salinities varied from 28.62%0 to
33.27%0> The amplitude of annual variation of mean monthly salinities
was 31.92%0. During the period July 1969 to October 1969 the mean
monthly salinities varied from 1.35%0 to 19.82%0. Thus, the salinities
of this estuary touch both the extremes with two distinct and widely
separated ranges. The high and low salinities of this estuary were due
to the maximum influx of sea water into the estuary and the rainfall
in the upper reaches of the river respectively.

Ganapati & Murthy (1955) reported minimum salinity in November
in the sea at Visakhapatnam while in this study the mean monthly
minima was recorded in August. Bose (1956) reported a salinity range
of 1.6%o to 30.0%o in Hooghly estuary. In the present study highest
salinity was recorded in January (34.3%0) and the mean monthly
maxima was recorded in February 1969, while Ganapati & Sarma
(1958) recorded, maxima in April, in the sea off Waltair coast. Jaya-
raman & Gogate (1957) have recorded, off this estuary in Arabian sea,
at 20°N, a salinity of 32.65%0 (November) to 36.02%0 (December to
May) and at 21°N salinity of 36.45%0 (June), 36.76%0 (August),
33.55%0 (November) and 36.0%o (May). Ramamoorthy’s (1953b)

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Table 2

Tide, colour of water and salinity of Daman Ganga estuary

DURING

1968-’69

Month &

Tide

Colour of

Salinity %0

Year

water

Range

Average

Remarks

Nov.

1968 HHHHL

Blue

26.34-33.50

30.31

Dec.

HHHL

Brownish green

27.22-31.65

29.81

Bloom

Jan.

1969

HHHLL

Blue

16.23-34.30

28.62

Bloom

Feb.

HHLL

Blue

32.70-33.50

33.27

Mar.

HHHLL

Blue

30.18-33.50

32.05

Apr.

HHHL

Blue

30.51-33.30

32.05

Bloom

May

HHHH

Blue

31.58-31.11

31.71

Bloom

Jun.

HHHL

Blue

26.72-31.15

29.64

July

HHHLL

Muddy brown

00.36-07.36

02.37

Aug.

HHHL

Muddy brown

00.90-02.70

01.35

Sep.

HHHLL

Muddy brown

00.72-08.52

03.92

Bloom

Oct.

HHHLL

Blue

06.70-27.78

19.82

results of Madras coast are similar to those of Jayaraman (Subrahman-
yan 1960a) and vary between 23.23%0 to 34.94%0. Panikkar & Jaya-
raman (1966) have reported 30.33%0 in Bay of Bengal and 34.37%0
in Arabian sea. Qasim et al. (1969) recorded 2.2%0 in a tropical

estuary.

(3) Biomass of Plankton:

The results of dry weights of plankton are presented in Table 3.
The dry weights of plankton varied from 0.001 to 16.575 gm. The
values of biomass closely followed the salinity values. A salinity range
of 0.36%0 to 8.52%0 from 3-vii- 1969 to 7-X-1969 was associated with
an average biomass of plankton of 0.063 gm for 5 minutes per collection.
The total number of plankters was also very low in the very low sali-
nity range (Tables 3 & 4). A salinity range of 23.93%0 to 34.3%0
(except 16.23%0 on 25-i-1969 and 13.71%0 on 18-X-1969) from 2-xi-
1968 to 28-vi-1969 and from ll-x-1969 to 31-X-1969 was associated
with an average biomass of plankton of 0.796 gm for 5 minutes per
collection. The biomass of plankton at low salinity was twelve and
half times less compared to the biomass values of plankton at high
salinity ranges. The ranges of temperatures, corresponding to the higher
and lower salinity ranges, were 22.0-33.0°C and 26.6 to 33.2°C res-
pectively.

Sitaramaiah (1967a) reported rich amounts of plankton, nekton
and shrimps at higher salinity ranges in Mississippi Sound. In Missis-
sippi Sound a high salinity range of 18.02%o to 27.75%0 at Deer Island
station and a low salinity range of 12.9%0 to 24.0%o at station 28
were associated with an average production of plankton of 2.423 gm
and 2.371 gm for 5 minutes per collection respectively. In Mississippi

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

137

Table 3

Numbers and dry weights of plankton of Daman Ganga estuary

during 1968-’69

Number/5 Minutes
Thousands

Dry Weights/5
gm

Minutes

Month & Year

Range

Average

Range

Average

Nov.

1968

0.368-37.09

8.699

0.002-0.037

0.014

Dec.

4.682-138000

34542.83

0.001-2.39

0.62

Jan.

1969

7.034-327.291

80.443

0.02 -0.25

0.074

Feb.

0.341-25.893

7.981

0.001-1.435

0.394

Mar.

0.14 -95.788

29.075

0.001-0.86

0.245

Apr.

0.313-476.8

122.979

0.11 -0.34

0.207

May

5.718-3629.3

1612.25

0.18 -3.065

1.446

Jun.

0.011-14.5

6.823

0.001-1.36

0.399

Jul.

0.003-3.192

0.7

0.001-0.655

0.132

Aug.

0.001-0.31

0.119

0.001-0.11

0.028

Sep.

2.643-1592.43

319.66

0.005-0.215

0.045

Oct.

0.842-120.14

41.953

0.05 -16.58

3.431

Sound the ranges of temperature corresponding to the low and high
salinity ranges were 28.7-3 1.4°C and 27.0-32.5°C respectively. Average
biomass values of plankton of Daman Ganga estuary during higher
salinity ranges and at almost identical temperature ranges were three
times less compared to Mississippi Sound. The results of the present
study and those of Mississippi Sound clearly show that the greater the
amplitude of variation of salinity the greater is the range of variation
of dry weights of plankton.

Table 4

Numbers of phytoplankton and copepods of Daman Ganga estuary

DURING

1968-’69

Phytoplankton /
5 Minutes

Copepods/ 5 Minutes

Thousands

Thousands

Month & Year

Range

Average

Range Average

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

1968

0.355-2.89

0.649

0.219-18.88

4.344

3.465-138158.82

34539.7

0.201- 8.25

2.395

2.964-317.2

76.147

0.704-7.106

3.309

0.256-2.75

1.059

0.011-5.915

1.537

0.14 -16.0

5.958

0.105-12.0

2.421

10.14-473.0

121.78

0.003-2.262

1.149

519.0-3561.2

1567.8

5.632-74.75

34.955

0.0 -0.23

0.057

0.003-12.42

3.676

0.0 -0.466

0.093

0.288- 2.1

0.477

0.0 -0.064

0.016

0.084-0.194

0.069

1.761-1229.85

246.79

0.566-362.5

72.798

0.708-4.833

2.508

0.134-80.0

21.206

1969

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

The winter (October to March) biomass of plankton (0.817 gm for
5 minutes per collection) of this estuary was 2.3 times higher compared
to the summer (April to September) biomass of plankton (0.35 gm
for 5 minutes per collection). The temperature ranges of winter and
summer were 22.0.-31. 8°C and 26.6-33.2°C respectively. The low sum-
mer values of biomass of plankton were associated with very low salin-
ity range of 0.36-8. 52%0 during July, August and September. In order
to eliminate the low salinity factor, the biomass of plankton for summer
was calculated for the period April, May and June and compared with
the winter values. The summer value under comparable salinity con-
ditions was 0.684 gm for 5 minutes per collection. Thus, the low values
of biomass of plankton of this estuary were associated with low salinity
and high temperature ranges of July, August and September. The
average value for summer after eliminating the low salinity factor (0.684
gm for 5 minutes per collection) was still lower than the winter value
(0.817 gm for 5 minutes per collection). The low summer values may
be partly due to higher ranges of temperatures (26.6-33.2°C) of sum-
mer. It is well known that the higher temperatures enhance the respira-
tory rates of organisms and cause greater loss of energy (Sitaramaiah
1967b & 1966a).

Table 5

Young and adult fishes contained in the plankton collections of
Daman Ganga estuary during 1968-’69

Species

Size Range in cm
Total length

Total number

Hilsa ilisha

0.3-4. 8

70

Engraulis dussumieri

0. 3-6.4

156

Scianid fish larvae

0.2-1. 2

99

Gobid fish larvae

0.5-2. 1

8

Leptocephali larvae of eels

2.9-3. 3

8

Syngnathus spicifer

5.5

1

Belone strongyhirus

21.6

1

Fish eggs

1268

Crustacea

Palaemon lamarrii

7

Post larval shrimps

68

The total number of young and adult fishes and prawns contained
in the plankton collections are represented in Table 5. Inspite of the
fact that the tow net is not the proper net to collect fish and fish larvae,
considerable number of young, adult fishes and prawns were collected
in the tow net which was operated only in the surface layer of half
metre of water column. The total number of fish eggs contained in the

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

139

plankton collections was 1268. Of the 1268 fish eggs collected during
the year 96 per cent were collected during the period November, 1968
to April, 1969. The occurrence of the fish eggs in the plankton collec-
tions clearly indicates that the fishes spawn either in the estuary or in
the vicinity of this estuary. A plankton calendar was prepared for this
estuary and is presented in Table 6.

Table 6

Plankton calendar of Daman Ganga estuary for the year 1968-’69

NAME
. Spirogyra

MDJFMAMJJASO

A —

— R

R R — R

2. Cladocera

3. Palaemon lamarrii

4. Synedra

5. Ntzchia

6. Cylendrotheca gracilis

7 . Coscinodiscus

8. Copepod;s

9 . Crustacean eggs

10. Nauplius larvae

11. Metanauplius larvae

12. Zoea larva of prawn

13. Zoea larva of Crab

14. Megalopa larva

15. Mysidacea

16. Post larval shrimps

17. Chaetognatha

18. Fish eggs

19. Hits a ilisha

20. Engraulis dussumieri

21 . Belone strongylurus

22. Syngnathus spicifer

23. Leptocephali larvae of eels

24. Gobid fishes

25 . Scianid larvae

26 . Coelenterate medusae

27. Beroc cucumis

28. Pleurobrachia

29. Sal pa

30. Doliolum

— A

— A

CAACABBRRRBA

AAAAAAAACRAA

CRA

C R — R A

RCCRAC

ARCCR — A R — A

R — RRRRR — R

RCCAACAAR — RA

— RRRRRRR

— RRRRRCR RR

RRRRRRRR — R — R

R R R

— RRRRRRRR

R

R

RRR — R — RRR R

RRCRRR

RRRRRR

— RR — RR

— RR RR

RRR — R

Rare : R : 1-100/5 minutes
Common : C : 101-1000/5 minutes
Abundant : A : 1001-100,000/5 minutes
Swarms : S : Above 100,000/5 minutes

Blooms : B :

The dry weight of biomass of plankton increased with increase in
salinity (Table 7) in the estuary, towards the sea, thereby, clearly show-
ing the existence of large sized adults of marine plankters at higher

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

salinities. The numbers of eggs, young ones, diatoms and copepods were
more abundant in the estuarine side at lower salinities, probably be-
cause of the presence of less numbers of plankton predators like chae-
tognath (Table 7) which were present in more numbers in higher salini-
ties. Thus, the rich microplankters (copepods, diatoms, crustacean eggs,
zoea larvae of crabs and metanauplii) form food to the planktophagous
larvae and young ones of Hilsa ilisha and other fishes. The major food
of young Hilsa ilisha consists of Crustacea and diatoms (Haider 1968).
Excluding the sand, more than 50 per cent of the gut contents of young
Hilsa ilisha consist of only diatoms and Crustacea (Haider 1968). Fur-
thermore, the low salinity estuarine areas could not be penetrated by
the stenohaline marine plankton feeders. Thus, the euryhaline plank-
tophagous fish larvae find more advantage in terms of abundance of
food, especially, in the absence of marine stenohaline planktophagous
competitors. Special ecological habitats of this nature are the natural
factors that are responsible for the greater yield of west coast fisheries.
Further studies are needed.

Table 7

Distribution of plankton in relation to salinity in Daman Ganga
ESTUARY IN THE AREA OF CONFLUENCE ON 30-X-1969 BETWEEN 8.00 AND

13.00 HRS.

1.

Salinity %0

20.24

27.87

29.81

2.

Dry weight of plankton: Gm/5

Minutes

0.285

0.525

0.571

3.

Crustacean eggs: Thousands/ 5

Minutes

4.6

—

—

4.

Fish eggs

,,

0.116

0.188

—

5.

Zoea larvae of crabs „

55

4.0

1.771

0.009

6.

Copepods ,,

,,

452.5

350.5

106.65

7.

Coscinodiscus ,,

,,

25.4

77.4

14.35

8.

Metanauplius larvae ,,

,,

12.25

16.23

0.683

9.

Mysidacea

,,

0.602

0.293

0.004

10.

Chaetognatha „

,,

0.005

0.072

0.428

11.

Beroe cucumis ,,

-

—

0.003

0.025

(4) Phytoplankton:

The numbers of phytoplankton varied from 0.016 to 34539.7 thous-
ands for 5 minutes per collection (Table 4). Phytoplankton “Blooms”
were recorded in the months of December 1968, January, April, May
and September 1969. The phytoplankton maxima and submaxima were
recorded in December 1968 and May 1969 respectively. Ganapati &
Murthy (1956) reported two maxima one in November and the other
in April in the bay of Bengal off Waltair coast. Primary maxima of
phytoplankton production was reported in the east coast, in February
at Waltair, in March at Madras, in June at Krusadai and in the west
coast, during January to May at Trivandrum, May to September at
Calicut, September to February at Bombay (Ganapati & Murthy 1956).

DAMAN GANGA ESTUARY

141

Subrahmanyan (1960b) recorded maximum standing crop in May-
September-October attaining peak in July, minimum in November and
with one or more pulses of production. In this study, the diatoms con-
stituted the bulk of the phytoplankton. The total number of zooplank -
ters increased with increase of diatoms. Similar observations have been
made earlier (Subrahmanyan 1960b).

(5) Copepods:

The numbers of copepods varied from 0.069-362.5 thousands for
5 minutes per collection during November 1968 to October 1969 (Table
4). The mean monthly maxima and submaxima of copepods were re-
corded in September and May 1969 respectively. The results of this
study showed peak numbers of copepods associated with peak numbers
of phytoplankton or preceded by large numbers of phytoplankters. On
18-i- 1969 a “Bloom” of phytoplankton was associated with large num-
bers of copepods. During May 1969 the copepods maxima was pre-
ceded by peak numbers of phytoplankton. An increase in numbers
of copepods on l-i-1969 was preceded by large numbers of phyto-
plankton. Thus, the general statement that the appearance of phyto-
plankton will be succeeded by zooplankton holds good in this estuary.
Similar observations have been made earlier in the sea off Waltair coast
(Ganapati & Sarma 1958).

Acknowledgements

I thank the University Grants Commission, New Delhi for the grant
of financial assistance for this project. I also thank Dr. S. C. Arya,
Principal of the college for giving me facilities for this work.

References

Barnes, H. (1959) : Apparatus and
methods of Oceanography (Chemical).
George Allen & Unwin, London,
p. 341.

Bose, B. B. (1956) : Observations
on the hydrology of the Hooghly
estuary. Indian J. Fish. 5:101-118.

Chacko, P. I. & Ganapati, S. V.
(1949) : Some observations of the

Adayar river with special reference to
its hydrographical conditions. Indian-
geogr. J. 24:1-15.

Durve, V. S. & Bal, D. V. (1961):
Hydrology of Kelva backwater and

adjoining sea. J. Univ. Bombay 29:
39-48.

Ganapati, P. N. & Murthy,V. S. R.
(1955) : Preliminary observations on
the hydrography and inshore plankton
in the bay of Bengal off Visakha-
patnam coast. Indian J. Fish. 2:84-95.

&

(1956) : Phytoplankton production in
relation to depth and distance in the
Bay of Bengal off the Waltair coast.
Proceedings of the eighth Pacific
Science Congress, Vol. Ill A, pp. 1 145-
1155. Oceanography and Zoology.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 1 2(1)

& Sarma, D. V.

(1958) : Hydrography in relation to
the production of plankton off Wal-
tair coast. Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra
Univ., Ser. 62, 11:168-192.

Graham, H. W. (1943): Chloro-
phyll content of marine plankton. J.
Mar. Res. 5:153-160.

Halder, D. D. (1968): Observa-
tions on the food of young Hilsa ilisha
(Hamilton) around Nabadwip in the
Hooghly estuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 65(3): 796-797.

Jayaraman, R. & Gogate, S. S.
(1957) : Salinity and temperature vari-
ations in the surface waters of the
Arabian sea off the Bombay and
Saurashtra coasts. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci.
(B) 45 (4): 151-164.

Malhotra, J. C., Mathur, P. K.,
Yusuf Kamal, M. & Mahrotra, S. N.
(1970): Observations on the hatching
of fertilized eggs of Hilsa ilisha (Ha-
milton) in confined freshwaters. Cur-
rent Sci. 39 { 23): 538-539.

Panikkar, N. K. (1950) : Physio-
logical aspects of adaptation to estu-
arine conditions. Proc. Indo-Pacific
Coun., 2nd Meeting, 168-175, Austra-
lia.

& Jayaraman, R.

(1966): Biological and Oceanographic
differences between the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal as observed
from the Indian region. Proc. lnd.
Acad. Sci. (B) 64(5): 231-240.

Qasim, S. Z., Wellershaus S.,
Bhattathiri P. M. A. & Abidi,
S. A. H. (1969) : Organic production
in a tropical estuary. Proc. lnd. Acad.

Sci. (B) 69(2) : 5 1-94.

Ramamoorthy, S. (1953): Hydro-
biological studies in Madras coastal
waters. J. Madras Univ. (B), 25:148-
163.

Sitaramaiah, P. (1966a) : Studies

on growth rates of some freshwater
animals. J. Anim. Morph. Physiol. 13
(1 & 2) : 103-113.

(1966b) : Studies

on the ecology of a freshwater pond
community. Hydrobiologia 27 { 3-4):
529-547.

(1967a): On the

fertility of the Mississippi Sound. Proc.
Zool. Soc. Calcutta, 20: 39-42.

(1967b) : Commu-
nity metabolism in a tropical fresh-
water pond. Hydrobiologia 29 (1-2) :
93-112.

Subrahmanyan, R. (1960a): Stu-
dies on the phytoplankton of the west
coast of India. Part II. Physical and
chemical factors influencing the pro-
ductivity of phytoplankton with re-
marks on the cycle of nutrients and
on the relationship of the phosphate
content to fish landings. Proc. Ind.
Acad. Sci. (B) 50: 189-252.

(1960b): Stu-
dies on the Phytoplankton of the west
coast of India. Part I. Quantitative
and qualitative fluctuations of the total
phytoplankton crop, the zooplankton
crop and their inter-relationship with
remarks on the magnitude of the
standing crop and production of mat-
ter and their relationship to fish land-
ings. Proc. lnd. Acad. Sci. (B) 50
(3) : 113-187.

Food of Rana tiger ina

(Baud.)1

S. Isaac and M. S. Rege
Institute of Science, Bombay 400 032

The Indian Bull-Frog, Rana tigerina (Baud.) is a widely distributed,
important frog of India. A common species in fields under wet culti-
vation, its insectivorous habit helps in no small way, in eradicating
agricultural and other pests. However, as the frog is edible, its heavy
commercial exploitation has resulted in considerable depletion of its
number and as such its present status is a cause for concern. This study
is an effort directed not only towards collecting data on the natural
diet of the frog but also towards determining the role it plays in the
economy of nature.

Earlier literature on the food of R. tigerina includes papers, among
many others, by Gostling (1895), Chibber (1911), Agharkar (1912),
Mullan (1912), Davidson (1916) and Zutshi (1926) but most of these
refer to observations on unusual rather than the normal food of the
species. Wadekar (1963) listed the different food items of the frog
while attempting to correlate the diet with their availability during dif-
ferent months of the year. Joshee (1968) examined the stomach con-
tents of 100 frogs that were brought to the laboratory for dissection.

Materials and Methods

The stomach contents of 347 frogs, collected between September
1970 to August 1971 were examined. The majority were captured dur-
ing the early morning hours, from paddy fields near Bombay. The
specimens were brought to the laboratory, their snout to vent length
and weight were recorded and the stomachs removed and preserved in
10 per cent formalin for subsequent detailed examination of their con-
tents. Different food items from individual stomachs were identified
as far as possible and their numbers, weight and economic importance,
if any, noted. The available data was then tabulated monthwise and
also in relation to the size of the specimens with 20 mm gradation. Frogs

1 Accepted October 14, 1974.

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

below the size of 50 mm were not considered because the food in their
stomachs, besides being scanty, was difficult to analyse.

Food of Rcina tigerina

Table 1, gives monthwise analysis of the different food items con-
sumed by R. tigerina. It indicates that insects and crabs form its main
diet almost throughout the year in the Bombay area. A brief account
of the various food items recorded during the study is given below.
Annelids and Molluscs :

Though a few earthworms and gastropods were recovered from the
stomachs of a few small sized individuals, there is no reason to believe
that they form regular items of the diet.

Arthropod :

Anthropods as represented by insects and crabs from the bulk of the
diet of R. tigerina. An insignificant number of centipedes and arachnids
were also recorded from the stomachs of a few specimens.

Amongst the arthropods, insects appear to be most favoured diet
of this animal. As many as forty-one species of insects belonging to
ten different orders were recovered from their stomachs. There is, how-
ever, no indication to show their particular preference for any of these
species. Since a number of orthopteran and coleopteran species are
available during major part of the year, the representatives of these
two orders naturally form the bulk of their insect diet. A number of
these insects are of significant economic importance. Table 2 gives the
status of the various insects fed on by the frog. Thirteen among these
are important agricultural pests, four house-hold pests and four others
are injurious to trees. As an indiscriminate feeder, the frog feeds on
some harmless or even some of the directly or indirectly useful insects,
but this does not in any way affect the important role it plays in the
biological control of insect pests.

Crabs are next in importance to insects in the diet of R. tigerina.
These crustaceans which are often seen in the paddy-fields cause con-
siderable damage to the bunds in the fields by boring holes in them.
In addition, they also damage the paddy crop during the flowering
season of the paddy (McCann 1932, Jabir Ali 1955). The frog thus
keeps in check the population of yet another group of animals harm-
ful to agriculture. The occurrence of Varuna litterata — an estuarine
crab in the stomachs of a few individuals was thought to be rather un-
usual. However, observations on the feeding habits of this crab reveal-
ed that it often invades the adjoining paddy fields for its food and is
taken by the frog during such visits. The largest of the crabs consum-
ed weighed 27 gm.

FOOD OF RANA TIGERINA

145

Vertebrates :

Representatives of all the vertebrate groups were recovered from
the stomachs of a number of frogs, but they do not appear to form a
part of the regular diet of the frog. However, it may be mentioned that
cannibalism is quite common in R. tigerina. On one occasion a frog
measuring 175 mm in length was seen devouring another frog of the
same species measuring 110 mm. It seems that individuals of other
species of anurans are also taken.

Miscellaneous :

In addition to these varied food items extraneous material like
vegetable matter and gravel was often seen in the stomachs of a num-
ber of individuals. Most of the vegetable matter was, however, also seen
in an undigested condition in the rectum, suggesting thereby that this
material is not digested by them and as such cannot be considered as
forming part of their food. The frequent occurrence of gravel in the
stomachs of frogs is reported by a number of workers. During the course
of the present investigation an individual was seen with as many as
seven small pieces of stones weighing totally about 19 gm. It is not
known whether gravel is swallowed intentionally. It seems more likely
that the gravel as also the vegetable matter is taken up by the animal,
accidentally, along with food.

Table 3 gives the various food items consumed by different 20 mm
size groups of R. tigerina. It is evident that whereas insects and crabs
form the main diet of all the different size groups, annelids and mol-
luscs are consumed by small sized and vertebrates by the bigger frogs.
It can, therefore, be surmised that insects and crabs constitute the main
food of this frog.

The available facts thus indicate that R. tigerina plays a very
significant role in controlling agricultural and other pests in the field
and thus plays a very important role in the economy of nature.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Institute of Science, Bombay 32,
for the facilities provided at the Institute during the course of the in-
vestigations. We also wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to
Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society and Mr.
N. T. Nadkerny of the same organisation for the valuable suggestion?
and help in preparing the manuscript of this paper.

10

Monthwise analysis of the stomach contents of R. tigerina (Daud.)

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

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148

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Table 1 (Continued)

FOOD OF RANA TIGERTNA

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Larvae may harm
roots of plants.

Table 1 (Continued)

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

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152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(1)

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FOOD OF RAN A TIGERINA

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154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (i)

Table 2

Insects consumed by R. tigerina (daud.) grouped according to their

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Species

Number of

Number of

insects

Frogs examined

Insect pests of crops

1.

Gryllotalpa africana

9

6

2.

Gryllotalpa sp.

63

23

3.

Br achy try pes sp.

19

10

4.

Hieroglyphus banian

29

13

5.

Par ell a sp.

21

13

6.

Scelimena sp.

33

18

7.

Corixa sp.

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8.

Eristalis sp

50

26

9.

Ophanus indicus

10

7

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Anomala elata

62

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Anomala bengalensis

24

19

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Batocera sp.

38

17

13.

Chrysomelid

66

17

Total 446

205

Insects injurious to trees

1.

Mecopoda elongata

11

8

2.

Solenopsis geminata

39

9

3.

Oecophylla smaragdina

21

4

4.

Onitis sp.

5

4

Total 76

25

Household pests

1.

Cockroach

11

6

2.

Termites

37

12

3.

Musca sp.

18

3

4.

Priotyrannus mordax

17

9

Total

83

30

FOOD OF RANA TIGERINA

155

Table 2 (continued)

Species

Number of
specimens

Number of
Frogs examined

Carnivorous

1.

Holochlora albida

15

13

2.

Callimenelus opacus

6

4

3.

Labidura riparia

26

23

4.

Belostoma indica

13

12

5.

Sphaerodema sp.

12

9

6.

Laccotrephes ruber

18

12

7.

Rhynchium sp.

6

5

8.

Pherosophus sp.

9

8

9.

Cybister sp.

12

9

10.

Stethoxus sp.

18

13

11.

Catharsius molossus

10

6

12.

Elaterid

22

10

Total

167

124

Indeterminate

1.

Camponotus compressus

28

20

2.

Odonata

8

4

3.

Pseudoblaps sp.

13

9

Total

49

33

1.

Harpalus sp.

29

8

2.

Schizodactylus monstruosus

6

5

3.

Heterocera

45

7

4.

Aphaenogaster beccarii

45

7

Total

125

27

Useful insect

1.

Apis dorsata

3

3

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

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References

Agharkar, S. P. (1912): The diet
of ‘Bull-frog’ ( R . tigrina). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 27(2): 687.

Ali, Jabir (1955): Hunting the

Land Crab ( Paratelphusa guerini ).
ibid. 52: 941-945.

Chibber, H. M. (1911): The food
of a Bull-frog. 7. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 20( 3):865.

Davidson, N. (1916) : Food of the
Bull-frog ( Rana tigrina ). ibid. 25 : ( 1 ) :
152.

Gostling, D. (1895): The food of
the Bull-frog. ibid. 7(9(1) : 150.

Joshee, A. K. (1968): Food habits
of the Bull-frog ( Rana tigerina Daud.).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 498.

McCann, C. (1932) : Notes on In-
dian Batrachians. ibid. 36:161.

Mullan, J. P. (1912): The food
of a Bull-frog ( Rana tigrina ). ibid.
27(4) : 1341.

Wadekar, U. L. (1963): The diet
of the Indian Bull-frog ( Rana tige-
rina Daud.). ibid. 66(1) : 263-268.

Zutshi, B. N. (1926): A Bull-frog
( Rana tigrina Daud.) swallowing a
rat. ibid. 37(1) : 228.

The exotic Flora of Ranchi1

/ ... . </■

J. K. Maheshwari2 and S. R. Paul
Floristic Botany Division, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, U.P.

( With a map)

'

Ranchi, the summer capital of Bihar, has a rich, exotic flora
which forms a dominant part of the landscape. The study covers
209 exotic species and varieties of gymnosperms and angiosperms
that are cultivated or naturalized in the district. An attempt has ,
been made to determine the country of origin of the erotics,
aliens and neophytes of Ranchi which were studied both in the
field and in the laboratory during the years 1957-1959, 1964-1967
and 1970. The study reveals that exotic plants were introduced
in this region both adventitiously and intentionally for purposes
of food and fodder, forage, medicine, ornament, afforestation,
green manuring and soil conservation. In addition, a large number
of exotic weeds have also been introduced in the district, either
intentionally as ornamental plants or accidentally with food grains,
ballast, packing materials and seeds of economic plants.

I NTRODUCTION

Ranchi (23°22' N, 85°22' E), the summer capital of Bihar, is
situated on a picturesque undulating plateau at an altitude of 655 m
above sea level. It forms a distinct physical unit of Bihar (see also
map). The Damodar river forms the northern boundary of the dis-
trict. The Subarnarekha river originates near Piska and passes through
Ranchi city. The Koel, Sankh, Kanchi and Kharkai are other important
rivers which flow through the district. The Subarnarekha river forms
the most attractive waterfall in Bihar at Hundru, situated at a distance
of 35 km east of Ranchi with a drop of over 80 m. There are also
noteworthy waterfalls like Dassam, Sadni, Johna and Sita. The climate is
of the tropical monsoon type with an annual average rainfall of 1476
mm. The maximum temperature reaching to 40°C has been recorded
in the month of May. The minimum temperature of 7°C has been
recorded in the month of December. The relative humidity is higher
during the months from June to August, being maximum in the months

1 Accepted April 1 , 1971.

2 Present address : Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Sibpur,
Howrah 711 103, W.B.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

159

of July and August (88%) and minimum in the month of April (39%).
The soils are of various types, i.e. sandy-loam, gravel, red-ferruginous,
alluvial and even black sticky clay.

Map showing geographic location of the study area of Ranchi District, Bihar.

Ranchi is a famous hill station of the region. In the later part of
the 19th century, it became the summer headquarters of the British.
During this period, a number of exotic plants were introduced for
beautifying the landscape. We made a systematic study of the exotics,
aliens and neophytes of Ranchi during the years 1957-1959, 1964-1967
and 1970. The exotic flora of Ranchi forms today a dominant part of
its gardens, parks and landscape. However, the existing floras are
inadequate for the identification of exotic plants. The present study,
therefore, covers 209 exotic species and varieties of gymnosperms and
angiosperms that are cultivated or naturalized in the district. The data
on the country of origin and probable time of their introduction into
India are determined. It may be mentioned that the time of introduction
of species is in many cases difficult to determine, as exact records of
their introduction are lacking. Much of the information on the early
history of plant introduction is scattered in the old travel records of
several visitors and dignitaries to India and in the classical works of

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Moghul emperors, Missionary botanists and the European officials and
explorers, especially the Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards, French and the
British.

The earliest collection of plants in this area was made by Clarke,
Gamble, Wood, Ball and Rev. Cardon. In his discussion of the immi-
gration of plants into Bengal and Bihar, Bruhl (1908) mentioned some
plants from Ranchi. The introduction of exotic plants in this region
took place both adventitiously and intentionally for purposes of food
and fodder, forage, medicine, ornament, afforestation, green manuring
and soil conservation. The exotic flora of Ranchi includes useful crops
like cereals ( Zea mays L.), pasture and fodder grasses (Clitoris gayana
Kunth, Panicum maximum Jacq., Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst.
ex Chiov., P. purpureum Schumach.), green manure or cover crops
(Calopogonium mucunoides Desv., Centrosema pubescens Benth.,
Pueraria phaseoloides Benth., Trifolium alexandrinum L.), fruits
(Manilkara achras Fosberg, Annona squamosa L., Carica papaya L.,
Anacardium occidentale L., Averrhoa carambola L., Psidium guajava
L.), vegetables and tuber crops ( Manihot esculenta Crantz, Ipomoea
batatas L., Solarium tuberosum L.), drugs and medicinal plants (Ery-
throxylum coca Lamk.), and ornamental trees, shrubs and climbers
(Schizolobium excelsum Vog., Samanea saman Merr., Bougainvillea
spectabilis Willd., Callistemon citrinus Stapf, Quisqualis indica L.,
Hibiscus schizopetalus Hook, f.. Cassia siamea Lamk., Delonix regia
Rafin., Allamanda cathartica L., Thevetia peruviana K. Schum., Jacar-
anda mimosifolia D. Don, etc.), and garden annuals, foliage or bulbous
plants ( Araucaria columnaris Hook., Cupressus sempervirens L., Thuja
orientalis L., Portulaca grandi flora Hook., Dahlia pinnata Cav., Antirr-
hinum majus L., Amaryllis belladonna L., Haemanthus coccineus L.,
Gladiolus gandavensis Van Houtte). A large number of exotic weeds
have also been introduced in the district, either intentionally as orna-
mental plants or accidentally with food grains, ballast, packing mate-
rials and seeds of economic plants. These include noxious weeds and
pests like Argemone mexicana L., A. ochroleuca Sweet, Gomphrena
celosioides Mart., Opuntia dillenii Haw., Croton bonplandianum Bail!.,
Acanthospermum hispidum DC., Eichhornia crassipes Solms, Ipomoea
fistulosa Mart, ex Choisy, Convolvulus arvensis L., Martynia annua L.,
and Hyptis suaveolens Poit.

Enumeration of Species
1. Cycadaceae

1. Cycas revoluta Thunb. Sago Cycas

Native of China and Japan (MacMillan 1952). Introduced in Indian

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

161

Botanic Garden, Sibpur near Calcutta in 1794 (Voigt 1845). Frequently
grown in private and public gardens for its ornamental foliage.

2. Araucariaceae

2. Araucaria columnaris Hook.

Syn. A. cookii R. Br. Columnar Araucaria.

Native of New Caledonia (Bailey 1949). Planted in gardens for its
ornamental foliage.

3. PlNACEAE

3. Pinus roxburghii Sarg.

Syn. P. longifolia Roxb. Chirpine

Native in the Outer Himalayas and extends from Bhutan to Afgh-
anistan. Commonly cultivated in public and private gardens.

4. CUPRESSACEAE

4. Cupressus sempervirens L. Mediterranean Cypress; Italian Cypress
Native of S. Europe and W. Asia. It is the ancient classical Cypress

of Greeks and Romans; introduced into India at an early time. Occa-
sionally grown in gardens for its ornamental foliage.

5. Thuja orientalis L. Oriental Arbor-vitae.

Syn. Biota orientalis (L.) Endl. Platycladus orientalis Franco.
Indigenous to China and Japan (MacMillan 1952). Introduced
into India during the last quarter of the 17th century. Frequently plant-
ed for its ornamental foliage. Local name: Morpankhi.

5. Mag NOLI ACE AE

6. Magnolia grandiflora L. Bull Bay; Southern Magnolia; Tree Lotus
A tropical American species; introduced into India probably during

the year 1840. Occasionally planted in gardens.

6. Annonaceae

7. Annona reticulata L. Bullock’s Heart; Ramphal

Native of tropical America. Introduced into India during the last
quarter of the 17th century; now completely naturalized (Voigt 1845).
Cultivated for its fruits.

8. A. squamosa L. Sugar Apple; Sweetsop; Sitaphal

Native of tropical America. It was one of the first American plants
introduced probably by the Portuguese into India during the 16th

11

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

century (Merrill 1954); frequently cultivated and widely naturalized
in India.

7. Papaveraceae

9. Argemone mexicana L. Mexican Poppy

Native of Mexico and other parts of Central America. Introduced
into India at an early time. Common in waste lands, roadsides, recently
disturbed soils, etc.

10. A. ochroleuca Sweet. Prickly Poppy

An introduced Mexican weed in India; often found mixed with
A. mexicana Linn, in waste lands and recently disturbed soils near
Hathikhana, Ranchi.

11. Eschsdiolzia californica Schau. Californian Poppy

Native of America (Bailey 1949). Flowers remain open during the
day, pale-yellow to orange. Cultivated in gardens as an annual.

8. Brassicaceae

12. Eruca sativa Mill. Garden Rocket

Native of Eurasia (Robbins 1940). Frequently cultivated as a
winter-season crop.

9. Caryophyllaceae

13. Oianthus caryophyllus L. Carnation

Native of Europe and North Africa (Backer & Brink 1963). Com-
monly cultivated in gardens as an ornamental annual.

14. Silene conoidea L.

Native of temperate Asia and Europe. A few plants were located
in vegetable plots and wheat fields of the district.

15. Spergula arvensis L. Corn Spurry

An introduced European weed (Ridley 1930; Backer & Brink 1963);
probably introduced as an impurity in vegetable seeds. Frequently
found as a winter-season weed in cultivated fields and fallow land.

10. PORTULACACEAE

16. Portulaca grandifiora Hook. Rose-Moss

Native of South America (Walters 1964). Cultivated in gardens and
hanging baskets; introduced into India by the Portuguese during the
last part of the 16th century.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

163

17. P. oleracea L. Purslane

A well-known weed in Europe. Frequently found as a weed in
gardens and cultivated grounds.

11. Theaceae

18. Camellia japonica L. Garden Camellia; Japanese Rose
Syn. Thea japonica (L.) Nois.

Native of Japan (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced into India
about 1795. Not common; often planted in private and public gardens.

12. Malvaceae

19. Althaea rosea (L.) Cav. Hollyhock

b Native of China or Asia Minor (Backer & Brink 1963). A tall
herb with hairy stems. Introduced into India about 1835. Common in
gardens. Local name: Gul-Khera.

20. Hibiscus mutabilis L. Cotton-Rose

Native of China. Commonly cultivated in gardens.

21. H. rosa-sinensis L. Rose of China: Chinese Hibiscus; Shoe Flower
Native of China (Li 1959; Pal & Krishnamurthi 1967). According

to Robyns (1966), it is presumably indigenous to eastern Asia; now
common in all warm countries. Extensively planted as an ornamental
hedge plant.

22. H. schizopetalus (Mast.) Hook. f. Fringed Hibiscus

Native of tropical East Africa (Robyns 1966); introduced into
India (Pondicherry) in October 1886 (Gupta & Marlange 1961). Com-
mon in private and public gardens.

23. Maladira capifata L.

Native of tropical America (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced
into India in the middle of the 19th century as a fibre plant. Occurs
commonly in the area.

24. Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke

A widely distributed weed of American origin; first described from
the material collected in the Old World (Merrill 1945). Common in
fields and waste lands.

h- • 13. Bombacaceae

25. Adansonia digitata L. Baobab; Monkey-Bread Tree

Native of tropical Africa. It is considered to be one of the longest
lived trees in the world. It was introduced by Arab traders and by
African negroes employed in the Moghul army. Some trees are planted
near Dorunda Bridge, Ranchi.

164 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 72(1)

14. Sterculiaceae

26. Dombeya mastersii Hook. f. Masters Dombeya

Native of tropical Africa (MacMillan 1952). Occasionally culti-
vated in gardens as an ornamental shrub.

27. Kleinhovia hospita L. Tanag

Native of Malaysia. Cultivated in gardens.

15. Erythroxylaceae

28. Erytfiroxylum coca Lamk. Cocaine Plant

Indigenous to Peru and Bolivia. It was introduced into Ceylon in
1870 and its cultivation was prohibited in British colonies in 1914
(MacMillan 1952). Cultivated for the drug cocaine which is derived
from its leaves.

16. Geraniaceae

29. Achimenes grandiflora DC. Bigpurple Achimenes

Native of tropical America. Introduced into Calcutta Botanic Gar-
den in 1838. Commonly cultivated in gardens.

17. OXALIDACEAE

30. Averrhoa carambola L. Carambola; Komarac

A tropical species; now widely spread in the hotter regions. Duthie
(1903) suggested that the species was introduced into India from Ame-
rica by the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hill (1952) considered it
to be a native of South-eastern Asia. Hayes (1957) believed it to be
a native of Moluccas or of Malayan region. Cultivated in gardens for
its fruits.

31. Oxalis corniculata L. Yellow Oxalis; Yellow Wood Sorrell

A native of Europe (Robbins 1940). Common in lawns, green
houses and gardens. Local name: Pusi-ganju.

18. Tropaeolaceae

32. Tropaeolum in a jus L. Garden Nasturtium

Native from Peru to Columbia (Backer & Brink 1963). Flowers
yellow, red or scarlet. Cultivated as a garden annual in beds and
borders.

19. Rutaceae

33. Citrus maxima Merr. Pummelo or Shaddock

Native of Malaysia and Polynesia (Maheshwari 1961). Introduced

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

165

into India from Java and into West Indies by Captain Shaddock
(Bruhl 1908). Cultivated for its fruit.

20. Meliaceae

34. Melia azedarach L. Persian Lilac

Native of Persia, Asia Minor, etc. Commonly cultivated as an
ornamental tree.

35. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Mahogany

Native of tropical America (Backer & Brink 1965). It was in-
troduced into Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta in 1795 from the West
Indies (Roxburgh 1824). Commonly planted in gardens.

21. Sapindaceae

36. Litchi chinensis Sonner. Lychee

A Chinese species; reported to have been introduced into India
towards end of the 18th century. Commonly cultivated for its fruit.

22. Anacardiaceae

37. Anacardium occidentale L. Cashew; Kaju

Native of Brazil and appears to have been under cultivation
throughout tropical America before the voyage of Columbus to the
New World. It seems to have been introduced into India from Brazil
by the Portuguese in the 16th century and is now naturalized in the
forests of Chittagong and all over the coastal regions of India (Mehra
1966).

Acosta (1578) mentioned: “This tree gives a fruit called caju,
which being a good stomachic, and of good flavour, is much esteemed
by all who know it. This fruit does not grow everywhere, but is found
in gardens at the city of Santa Cruz in Cochin”. Frequently cultivated
in private gardens.

23. Papilionaceae

38. Aeschynomene americana L. American Sensitive Plant; American
Jointvetch

Native of tropical America; introduced into India in recent years.
It was reported for the first time from Hazaribagh (Chatter jee 1960),
and found lately in the vicinity of Kanke, near Ranchi.

39. Arachis hypogea L. Peanut; Groundnut

Native of Brazil; probably introduced into India in the 16th cen-
tury. Commonly cultivated for its pods.

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

40. Calopogonium mucimoides Desv.

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1963). It was introduced into
Burma in 1920. Cultivated as a green manure.

41. Centrosema pubescens Benth. Centro

Native of tropical America. Introduced into India during the
early part of 19th century. It has been cultivated in Malaya since 1921
in rubber, oil-palm and coconut plantations. Cultivated at Kanke as a
cover crop.

42. Crotalaria incana L. Woolly Rattle Pod

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1963). Bressers (1951) report-
ed it from Khunti (Ranchi) where it is now naturalized. Not common.

43. Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. Madre

Native of eastern region of Central and South America (Backer &
Brink 1963). It was introduced into Bombay from Ceylon in 1916 and
plants were raised from the seeds. Cultivated as an ornamental tree.

44. Lathyrus aphaca L.

An Eurasian species; found as a weed in cultivated fields and
used as fodder.

45. Lens oilmans Medik. Lentil
Syn. L. esculent a Moench.

Indigenous to Central Europe, Mediterranean region and Western
Asia including Afghanistan. Introduced into India by the early Aryan
settlers (Bruhl 1908). Cultivated for the seeds.

46. Medicago lupulina L. Black Medic

Native of Europe; introduced into India during the 15th or 16th
century by European settlers. Common as a winter-season weed in
waste grounds and cultivated fields.

47. M. polymorpha L. Bur Clover; Burr Medic
Syn. M. denticulata Willd.

Native of Europe; probably introduced into India during the 15th
or 16th century along with wool to which its fruits adhere by their
curved spines. A common weed in cultivated fields.

48. Melilotus alba Desr. White Sweet Clover; Bokhara Clover
Indigenous to Europe and western temperate Asia. Naturalized

as a winter season weed in moist situations and cultivated fields.

49. M. indicus (L.) All. Yellow Sweet Clover; Hexham Scent
Native of South Europe and South-Western Asia (Backer & Brink

1963); introduced into India at an early time. Common in waste lands
and grassy areas.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

167

50. Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. Kudzu
Syn. P. javanica Benth.

A native of tropical Asia; first introduced into the Tenasserim
Circle, Burma in 1929 from Java (Anon. 1936). Cultivated at Kanke,
near Ranchi as a green manure.

51. Trifolium alexandrinum L. Berseem; Egyptian Clover

Native of Egypt and Syria (Maheshwari 1963). According to a
report by the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, berseem was in-
troduced into India in 1917 from Egypt. Cultivated at Kanke and
other agricultural farms as a green manure.

52. Yicia hirsuta (L.) Gray. Tiny Vetch

Native of Europe, West Africa and Continental Asia (Backer &
Brink 1963). According to Duthie (1903), it was introduced into India
from Europe, where the plant is common. Common in cultivated fields
and waste lands.

53. V. sativa L. Common Vetch

Native of Europe, North Africa and West Asia (Backer & Brink
1963). Introduced as a forage and cover crop in many parts of the
world. Common in cultivated fields and moist, waste grounds.

24. Caesalpiniaceae

54. Bauhinia tomentosa L. St. Thomas-Tree

Native of tropical Asia and Africa. According to J. D. Hooker, it
was introduced at Kew in 1860, and probably came to India about
1872 (Bor & Raizada 1954). Cultivated in private and public gardens.

55. Poinciana pulcherrima L. Flowerfence Poinciana

Probably native of South America. According to Van Rheede
(1686), it was cultivated in Indian gardens as early as 1680. Commonly
cultivated as an ornamental in hedges and garden shrubberies.

56. Cassia javanica L. White and Pink Shower

Native of Sumatra and Java. Introduced into India in the late 17th
century. Planted in gardens, parks and roadsides.

57. C. occidentals L. Coffee Senna

A circumtropical weed, possibly of S. American origin. Introduced
long before the publication of Roxburgh’s Flora Indica (1824). Com-
mon along roadsides and in waste lands. Local name: Chakundar.

58. C. renigera Wall, ex Benth.

Native of dry zone of Upper Burma; introduced into India in the
late 17th century (Troup 1921). Cultivated in gardens and roadsides.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

59. C. siamea Lamk. Yellow Shower; Siam Cassia

Native of South-east tropical Asia (Backer & Brink 1963). It was
planted in Namkum (Ranchi) in the middle of the 18th century for lac
culture. Planted in gardens.

60. C. sophera L.

Introduced from tropical America. Naturalized in waste lands.

61. C. tora L. Sickle-Pod

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced in the early
17th century and became widespread in India by 1824 (Srivastava
1964). A common weed along roadsides, in waste grounds, etc. Local
name: Chakundar.

62. Colvillea racemosa Boj. Colville’s Glory

Native of Mauritius and Madagascar. Introduced in the Indian
Botanic Garden, Calcutta in 1840 (Voigt 1845). Cultivated as an or-
namental tree.

63. Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Rafin. Peacock-Flower; Flame Tree;
Gulmohr

Syn. Poinciana regia Boj. ex Hook.

Native of Madagascar. Some plants were taken to Mauritius about
1824 and their seeds were brought to England. It was then introduced
into tropical countries (Co wen 1950). Bruhl (1908) mentioned that it
was introduced into India from Mauritius about the year 1840. Com-
monly cultivated as an ornamental tree.

64. Schizolobium excelsum Vog. Brazilian Fire Tree

Native of S. America (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced into India
in the middle of the 18th century. Planted in avenues and gardens.

65. Tamarind us indica L. Tamarind

Probably a native of tropical Africa. It is said to be Sudanic in
origin (Murdock 1959). In India, it was introduced at an early time.
Commonly planted along roadsides, in gardens, etc. Local name: Jo jo.

25. Mimosaceae

66. Acacia decurrens Willd. Green Wattle

Native of Australia (Backer & Brink 1963). According to Matthew
(1969), Wattle was introduced in Kodaikanal by Sir Vere Levinge in
1867, but large scale introduction began only in 1883. It was also in-
troduced in the Nilgiris in 1832 by Capt. Dunn. Planted in the area.

67. A. farnesiana Willd. Cassie; Sweet Acacia; Aroma

Native of tropical America; introduced during the 18th century.
Occasionally cultivated in hedges and fields.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

169

68. Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) Wit.

Syn. L. glauca Benth.

Native of the warmer parts of the New World; now cultivated and
naturalized in tropical countries.

69. Mimosa pudica L. Sensitive Plant

Native of Brazil and was introduced into India at a very early
time. Occurs in waste lands, roadsides, etc.

70. Pifhecellobiiini duke (Roxb.) Benth. Manila Tamarind
Indigenous to Mexico. It is an early introduction by the Spaniards

into the Philippine Islands and then into India. It is said to be sensitive
to frost and does not succeed on the Ranchi plateau (Haines 1922).

71. Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Rain-Tree

Native of tropical America. Introduced in the vicinity of Calcutta
and the plantations of Kadapah and Kadur, etc. as an ornamental
tree of rapid growth during the first half of the 18th century (Bruhl
1908). Cultivated as an ornamental or avenue tree.

72. Prosopis juli flora DC. Mesquite

Native of the arid regions of Mexico and Central America; in-
troduced into India from Kew, England in 1877 for afforestation pur-
poses. Cultivated in hedges.

26. Rosaceae

73. Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. Loquat; Japanese Medlar
Native of Japan (Backer & Brink 1963). Cultivated for its fruits

which are sold in the market.

74. Primus persica (L.) Batsch. Peach

Native of China (Backer & Brink 1963). It was recorded from
Palnis, S. India in 1858 by Beddome. Planted in gardens.

75. Rosa banksiae Ait. f. Banksia Rose

Native of China. Commonly planted in gardens.

76. R. damascena Mill. Damask Rose

Origin unknown; probably a cultigen. It is not till the close of the
13th century that we find any reference of rose-water. In India, attar
of roses is said to have been first discovered by Begum Nur-i-Jehan in
1612 A.D. (Bruhl 1908). Commonly cultivated.

77. R. centifolia L. Cabbage Rose

Native of Caucasus. It is one of the most ancient of cultivated
roses. Introduced into Calcutta Botanic Garden in 1841 (Voigt 1845).

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

27. Crassulaceae

78. Kalanchoe piimafa Pers. Lefe-Plant.

Syn. Bryophyllum pinnatum Oken; B. calycinum Salisb.

Native of Africa (Backer & Brink 1963). Introduced into Calcutta
Botanic Garden by Lady Clive in 1799 and thence spread all over
Bengal (Voigt 1845). Frequently found in private gardens.

28. COMBRETACEAE

79. Quisqualis indica L. Rangoon-Creeper

Native of Burma, Malaya, New Guinea and Philippines (Bailey
1949). Commonly cultivated in gardens for ornamental purposes.

29. Myrtaceae

80. Calllstemon citrines (Curt.) Skeels. Lemon Bottle-Brush
Syn. C. lanceolatus Sweet.

Native of Australia (Backer & Brink 1963)., Introduced into India
about the year 1804. Cultivated in gardens.

81. Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. Lemon-Scented Gum

Native of Australia. An early introduction into India; first intro-
duced at Nandi Hills by Tipoo Sultan. Frequently planted.

82. Eo camaSdulensis Dehnh. Red Gum
Syn. E. ro strata Schlecht.

Native of Australia; introduced in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and
Rajasthan. It grov/s well in some plantations in the district.

83. Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. Cajeput Tree; Punk Tree
Syn. M. leucadendron L.f.

Introduced into Calcutta Botanic Garden in 1811 (Bruhl 1908).
Cultivated in gardens as an ornamental tree.

84. Psidiem guajava L. Guava

Native of tropical America. It is a typical Mexican introduction
via the Acapuloc-Manila Galleon route, after 1565 into the Old World
Tropics (Merrill 1954). Introduced into India by the Portuguese (Watt
1892). Commonly cultivated for its fruit. Local name: Tambarsa.

30. Punicaceae

85. Punica granatum L. Pomegranate

Native of Iran and now naturalized in the Mediterranean area and
southern Asia. Cultivated for its fruits.

3 1 . Caricaceae

86. Carica papaya L. Papaya

Native of tropical America. It was not known in India before the

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

171

arrival of the Portuguese, who introduced it in the 16th century (Mehra
1965). Commonly cultivated for its fruit.

32. Passifloraceae

87. Passiflora edulis Sims. Purple Granadilla; Edible Passion-Flower
Native of Brazil (Bor & Raizada 1954). Introduced into India

about 1826. Rather uncommon in the area.

88. P. foetida L. Stinking Passion-Flower

An American species; introduced into India during the 19th cen-
tury (Srivastava 1964).

33. Cactaceae

89. Opuntia dillenii Haw. Prickly Pear

Native of Mexico; now naturalized all over India. It was introduced
in Europe as early as at the end of the 15th century (Bally 1969). It
was brought in India well before 1800 A.D. from Europe with the object
of establishing the cochineal industry. Frequently found in waste lands
and fences. Local name; Nagphani.

34. Araeiaceae

90. Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms.

Syn. Panax fruticosa Hort.

Native of tropical Asia. This shrub was introduced into Indian
Botanic Garden, near Calcutta from Moluccas in 1798 (Bruhl 1908).
Cultivated in hedges.

35. Rubiaceae

91. Coffea arabica L. Arabian Coffee

Native of Abyssinia (Backer & Brink 1965). Voigt (1845) writes:
“From Arabia and Ethiopia, it has been carried to nearly all parts of
the world within the tropics”. It might have been cultivated in India
from the 18th century. Cultivated in the area.

92. Gardenia jasminoides Ellis.

Syn. G. florida L. Rosal

Native of China and Japan (Backer & Brink 1965). Introduced
into India in the 17th century. Cultivated in gardens and hedges.

93. Hamelia patens Jacq. Scarlet Hamelia
Syn. H. erecta Jacq.

Native of S. America and southern parts of N. America (Backer
& Brink 1965); introduced into India in the early 18th century. Accord-

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

ing to Bruhl (1908), the species flowered in Indian Botanic Garden in
1840. Cultivated in gardens and hedges.

94. Mussaenda flava (Verdcourt Bakh. f.

Syn. M. luteola Delile nom. illeg.

Native of Africa (Haines 1922). It was first introduced into Europe
about 1860 (Bor & Raizada 1954), and came to India in the later part
of the 18th century. Cultivated as an ornamental shrub in gardens and
parks.

95. Richardia brasiliensis Gomez.

Syn. Richardsonia pilosa H. B. & K. Mexican Clover
Native of S. America (Backer & Brink 1965). Introduced into India
in the early 19th century. It was first reported from Shillong by Kanjilal
et al. (1939). Very common in Kanke and Boria along roadsides, in
waste lands and cultivated fields. Local name: Hadapoda.

36. Asteraceae (nom. alt.: Compositae)

96. Acaiithospermuni hispiduin DC. Stai* Burr

Native of tropical America. It was introduced into South India
along with ballast and packing material of some imported goods.
Gamble (1921) first reported it from South Kanara and Salem districts.
Later, Srivastava (1964) reported it from Ranchi. Occurs as a weed
along roads, railways and in forest clearings.

97. Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Ktze.

Syn. A. viscosum Forst.

Native of South America, and was widespread throughout India
in the 19th century. Not common; found in grassy areas in valleys.

98. Ageratum conyzoides L. Tropic Ageratum

A South American species now well naturalized throughout India.
Ridley (1930) mentioned that it travels by adhesion to cloth or to
hair of animals. Very common in waste lands, roadsides and culti-
vated fields. Local name: Pooru.

99. Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson.

Syn. B. rhomboidea Cass.; B. latifolia DC.

Native of South America (Ridley 1930); introduced into India
during the 18th century. Frequently found in moist, waste lands.

100. Brachycome iberidifolia Benth. Swan River Daisy

Native of Australia (Bailey 1949). Cultivated as a garden annual.

101. Calendula officinalis L. Marigold

Native of S. Europe, (name. Calendula means ‘of the, Kalends’ i.e.
the first of every month — because Marigold can be found in bloom in
almost every month of the year). Coats (1956) mentioned: “Some

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

173

authorities give 1753 as the date of introduction of the marigold into
England from Europe, but there are numerous references to it in the
13th or 14th centuries and it seems to have been widespread and fami-
liar even then”. It is said that the pain of a wasp or bee sting can be
alleviated by rubbing with the flower. Extensively cultivated in gardens,
parks, etc.

102. Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Trev.) Vis. Dalmatian Pyrethrum
Syn. Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium Trev.

Native of Dalmatia (Bailey 1949). Introduced into Pondicherry,
India in 1886 (Gupta & Marlange 1961). Matthew (1962) mentions:
“The flowers of the Pyrethrum were in great demand during World

War II, when its value as an insecticide was realized The

Government of India urged the Madras State Government, to

undertake large scale planting The scheme was already started

in the Nilgiris in 1942 with seeds brought from Kenya”. Cultivated
in gardens and sometimes found as an escape.

103. Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. Golden Coreopsis

A native of N. America (Coats. 1956). Several varieties were in-
troduced in many gardens near London by 1725. This species probably
came to India about 1740. Extensively cultivated in gardens.

104. Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. Common Cosmos

Native of Mexico. Common in gardens as a border annual; used
for table decoration.

105. Dahlia piimata Cav. Aztec Dahlia
Syn. D. hortensis Guill.

Native of Mexico. It was discovered by Von Humboldt in 1789,
when the seeds were sent to the Royal Garden, Madrid. From there,
it was imported into England in 1804 by the Marchioness of Bute. In
India, it was probably introduced in 1865 (Maheshwari 1955). It is a
favourite garden plant in the area.

106. Elephantopus scaber L.

An American weed; introduced in to the Old World during post-
Columbian time and is now widespread throughout the region. Com-
mon in waste lands, forest undergrowth, etc. Local name: Tape-Singh.

107. Erigeron bonariensis L. Fleabane
Syn. E. linifolius Willd.

Native of the American tropics and now pantropical in distribution.
It was introduced into the Old World in the 16th century. Common
in gardens, lawns, etc:

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 11 (1)

108. Gaillardia picta Sweet. Painted Gaillardia

Nativd of North America. It is a popular annual in garden beds and
is extensively used for the decoration of bowls and vases.

109. Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Kew Weed; Yellow Weed

Native of tropical America; now well naturalized in the country
and grows abundantly in cultivated plots near Ranchi. Local name:
Pardhia.

110. Lagascea mollis Cav.

An introduced Mexican weed in India; now well naturalized all
over the hilly region.

111. Sderocarpus africanus Jacq.

Native of South America. Introduced into India about 1872 and
became common throughout the region (Srivastava 1964). Bressers
(1951) first reported it from Ranchi. Common amongst grass.

112. Tagetes erecta L. Aztec or African Marigold

Native of Mexico; once supposed to be a native of Africa (Bailey
1949). Flowers yellow to orange. Cultivated as a garden annual.

113. Tithonia diversifolia A. Gray. Wild Sun Flower

Native of Central America (Bailey 1949). It was introduced in
Ceylon in 1851. Flower heads yellow, like sunflower. Cultivated in
gardens as an annual.

114. Tridax procumbens L.

Native of the New World; introduced into India about the year
1830 as an ornamental plant (Ridley 1930). It is now widespread over
tropical India. Very common on old walls, in grasslands, roadsides,
waste lands, etc. Local name: Manduli-ba.

115. Zinnia elegans Jacq. Common Zinnia

Native of Mexico (Bailey 1949). Extensively cultivated as a rainy'
and summer-season garden annual.

37. Lobeliaceae

116. Lobelia radicans Thunb.

It was accidentally introduced from China into the Indian Botanic
Garden, Sibpur, near Calcutta. Naturalized in the vicinity of Ranchi
(Bruhl 1908).

38. Primulaceae

117. Anagaliis arvensis L. Scarlet Pimpernel

Indigenous to Europe and Mediterranean region (Taylor 1955).
It was introduced into India about 1500-1665 by the early Dutch settlers

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

175

rrom tne Fast Indies or by the Spaniards into the Philippines. It is
probable that it was introduced into E. Bengal, Assam, etc. as an
impurity, at some time with the vegetable seeds or seeds of garden
plants. Common in garden beds and in moist situations.

39. Sapotaceae

118. Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg. Sapodilla; Chikoo
Syn. Achras-zapota auct., non L.

Native of tropical America. It was introduced into India by the
Portuguese in the 16th century. Cultivated for its fruit. The most im-
portant product of the tree is “chicle” gum which is used in the manu-
facture of chewing gum.

40. Ebenaceae

119. Diospyros discolor Willd. Mabolo

Native of Philippines (MacMillan 1952). Introduced into India in
the early 18th century. Cultivated in gardens.

41. Apocynaceae

120. Allamanda cathartica L. Kampanilya

Native of tropical S. America. It was introduced into India from
Guiana (Voigt 1845). Cultivated as an ornamental in private and pub-
lic gardens.

121. Calharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Madagascar Periwinkle

This species might be native to America, especially West Indies;
believed in recent years to have originated in Madagascar. Probably
first introduced as an ornamental plant. Flowers rose-purple. Exten-
sively planted in gardens, private bungalows, etc.

122. Catharanthus roseus G. Don. var. albus Sweet

An erect, pubescent subshrub. Flowers white. Planted in gardens
in association with the former species.

123. Plumeria rubra L. forma rubra Frangipani Tree
Distributed from Mexico to Venezuela, Ecuador and West Indies.

Introduced into India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Cultivated in gardens,
parks and lawns.

124. P. rubra JL. forma acutifolia Woodson. Pagoda Tree; Temple tree
Indigenous to tropical America. Introduced into India in 1841

(Voigt 1845). Cultivated as an ornamental tree in gardens. Focal name:
Guianch.

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(1)

125. Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Sehum. Yellow Oleander; Cook Tree
Syn. T. neriifolia Juss. ex Miq.

Native of S. America. It is a great favourite of Hindus who offer
its flowers to God Shiva. It was brought under cultivation in Europe
in 1735 and since then distributed throughout the tropics as a showy,
ornamental plant (Bor & Raizada 1954). It might have been intro-
duced into India about 1795. Commonly planted in hedges.

126. Trachelospermum jasminoides Lem. Chinese Star Jasmine
Syn. T. divaricatum K. Schum.

Indigenous to China and Japan (Bor & Raizada 1954). It was
introduced into Europe from Shanghai by Robert Fortune and came
to India in the 17th century. Cultivated in gardens as a creeper on
walls and trellises.

42. Asclepiadaceae

127. Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. Rubber Vine

Native of Africa (Bailey 1949). A climbing shrub. Flowers lilac-
purple. Planted in gardens.

43. Boraginaceae

128. Heliotropium indicum L.

This species is probably of American origin (Reed 1964). It was
introduced into the Old World about 1500 A.D. in ballast or baggage
(Merrill 1954). Common in muddy soils, waste lands and periodically
desiccating pools and ditches.

44. CONVOLVULACEAE

129. Convolvulus arvensis L. Wild Morning-Glory; Lesser Bindweed
Native of Europe and Continental Asia (Backer & Brink 1965);

now widespread in subtropical and tropical regions. Common as a
weed in cultivated fields during the winter season.

130. Ipomoea batatas (L.) L. Sweet Potato

Native of Brazil; introduced into India by the Portuguese in the
early part of 16th century (Watt 1890). Commonly cultivated for the
edible tubers.

131. I. fistulosa Mart, ex Choisy.

Syn. /. crassicaulis Robins

Native of South America; probably introduced into India about
a century ago by the Agri-Horticultural Society, Alipur, Calcutta. It
was known under cultivation in Indian Botanic Garden, Sibpur, Cal-
cutta during the year 1879. It grows extensively along the water courses.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

177

ponds and ditches, roadsides, railway sidings, etc. and is used as a
hedge. Local names: Thethar ka phool; Amri.

132. I. nil (L.) Roth.

Syn. /. hederacea auct. non. Jacq.

Native of Tropical America. A twining hairy annual with blue or
light purple flowers. Grown as an ornamental along the trellises and
walls of gardens.

133. Volvulopsis numinularia (L.) G. Roberty.

Syn. Evolvulus nummularius L.

Native of Tropical America (Roberty 1952). Introduced into India
during the last part of the 18th century. Bressers (1951) first recorded
it from Ranchi. Frequently found in waste lands, fallow fields, etc.

45. SOLANACEAE

134. Brunsfelsia americana L.

Native of West Indies (Backer & Brink 1965). Introduced into
India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Occasionally found in gardens as an orna-
mental annual.

135. Capsicum frutescens L. Chilli; Spur Pepper; Chile Pepper
Syn. C. annuum L. var. frutescens (L.) Ktze.

Native of tropical America. Mehra (1966) mentioned: “Bontius
(1631) thought that it was carried from S. America to Indian Archi-
pelago and thence to India (Yule & Burnell 1886). The Portuguese
brought the plant to India from Pernambuco, according to Clusius
(Dymock et al .)”. Commonly cultivated for its fruits.

136. Cestrum nocturnum L. Lady-of-the-Night

It is an American contribution to Oriental gardens. Widely culti-
vated for its fragrant flowers at night.

137. Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Karsten. Tomato
Syn. L. esculentum Mill.

Native of W. S. America (Bailey 1949). It was known in cultivation
in W. Europe by 1561 (Stafleu 1969). Extensively cultivated for its
fruits.

138. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Native of tropical America; introduced into India quite early, pro-
bably during 1824-1845 (Goodspeed 1954; Srivastava 1964). It spreads
from Bengal towards the west and later in the northern regions. A
common weed in cultivated fields, roadsides, etc.

12

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

139. PhysaJis minima L. Wild Gooseberry

Native of S. America. It spreads through cattle, birds and horse
dung, and was introduced into India during the 17th century from
Malaysia (Ridley 1930). Occurs as a weed in waste lands and fallow
fields.

140. Solanum tuberosum L. Potato

Native of the Andean highlands of South America. It was intro-
duced into Europe in 1570 and came to India in the later part of 16th
century (Mehra 1966).

46. SCROPH U LARI ACEAE

141. Antirrhinum majus L. Snapdragon

Native of S. Europe, Syria and N. Africa (Backer & Brink 1965).
According to Gupta and Marlange (1961), it was introduced into India
in 1886. It is a popular annual for outdoor beddings and edgings.

142. Calceolaria mexicana Benth. Common Slipper Flower

Native from Mexico to the Andes of Peru and Chile (Bailey 1949).
It was introduced into India during 1845-1890. Grown in gardens.

143. Mecardonia dianthera (Swartz) Pennell.

Syn. Herpestis chamaedryoides H. B. & K.

Native of tropical America and recently introduced into India. It
was recorded for the first time from Bengal by Prain (1903). Bressers
(1951) first reported it from Ranchi. A weed in lawns, gardens and
paddy fields.

144. Scoparia dulcis L. Sweet Broomwort

Native of tropical America; now spread throughout the Old World
tropics. Common in moist waste lands, cultivated in paddy fields, etc.
Local name: Ipid-piong.

47. Bignoniaceae

145. Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don. Jacaranda
Syn. /. ovalifolia R. Br.

Native of Brazil and N. W. Argentina (Maheshwari 1963). It was
introduced into India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Planted in parks and gar-
dens.

146. Kigelia pinnata DC. Sausage Tree

Native of Africa (Bailey 1949). Flowers scarlet-coloured. Fruits
grourd-like, hanging on cord-like stalks. Planted in gardens.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

179

147. Tecoma stans (L.) H.B. & K. Yellow Elder; Yellow-Bells
Native of Tropical America. Commonly planted in the hedges of

gardens and also found as an escape.

48. Marty niaceae

148. Martynia annua L. Tiger’s Claw; Devil’s Claw

Native of tropical America; introduced into India before 1843 and
now well naturalized. It spreads by the attachment of its hooked
fruits to goats, sheep, etc. (Ridley 1930). Common on rubbish heaps,
in waste lands and roadsides. Local name: Budi Rama.

49. Acanthaceae

149. Thunbergia erecta T. Anders. Bush Clockvine

Native of tropical America (MacMillan 1952). It was introduced
into India in 1899 from Kew (Bor & Raizada 1954). Cultivated in
gardens.

50. Verbenaceae

150. Clerodendrum philippinum Schauer. Nassau-Rose; Glorybower
Syn. C. fragrans Hort. ex Vent; C. japonicum var. pleniflorum
Mahesh.

Native of China (Bruhl 1908). Extensively cultivated in gardens and
well naturalized in tropical areas.

151. C. thomsonae Balf. f. Bleeding Heart; Thomson Glorybower
Native of tropical Africa (Backer & Brink 1965). It was introduced

into England (Balfour, Edinburgh) in 1861 by a missionary from Old
Calabar on the west coast of Africa and came to India about 1876
(Bor & Raizada 1954). Cultivated in private gardens.

152. Durauta repens L.

Syn. D. plumieri Jacq. Pigeonberry; Golden Dewdrop
Native of S. America and West Indies (Maheshwari 1963). Com-
monly planted in gardens and hedges.

153. Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Moldenke. Spiny Lantana;
Planter’s Curse

Syn. L. aculeata L.

Native of America (Backer & Brink 1965); introduced in 'the Cal-
cutta Botanic Garden in 1809. According to Ridley (1930), it was in-
troduced as an ornamental plant and was first recorded from Ceylon
in 1824. Widely cultivated and common as a weed in forest clearings,
cultivated fields and waste lands. Local name: Poostu.

154. L. trifolia L.

Syn. L. indica Roxb.

Widely distributed throughout tropical America (Moldenke 1955);

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

introduced into India at an early time. Bressers (1951) first reported
it from Ranchi. Occasionally found in waste lands.

155. Lippia alba (Mill.) N. E. Br. ex Britton & Wilson.

Syn. L. geminata H. B. & K.; Lantana alba Mill.

Widely distributed throughout the West Indies, Mexico, Central
America, tropical and subtropical South America to Argentina and
introduced elsewhere (Moldenke 1955). Frequently found in marshy
lands and moist situations.

156. Petrea volubilis L. Purplewreath Retrea

Native of tropical America (Maheshwari 1963). It was introduced
into India in 1841 (Voigt 1845). Cultivated in gardens.

157. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. Jamaica False Valerian
Syn. S. indica Vahl; Verbena jamaicensis L.

Native of America (Moldenke 1955). Introduced into India in the
early 19th century. It escapes from cultivation and has become a pest
in the vicinity of Ranchi. Focal name: Sitir-kar.

158. S. mutabilis (Jacq.) Vahl. Variable False Valerian

Native of tropical America; introduced into India in the last part
of the 18th century for the medicinal properties of its leaves which
are applied to wounds and sores.

51. Lamiaceae (nom. alt.: Labiatae)

159. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Ganga-Tulsi

Native of S. America; found throughout Africa and Asia (Epling
1936). It was introduced into India during 1872-1897 when Hooker
published his Flora of British India. Occurrs as a weed in waste lands.

160. Salvia coccinea Juss. Red Salvia

Widely distributed in tropical America. Commonly cultivated as an
ornamental in gardens under the name “Salvia” and “Scarlet Sage”.
Flowers scarlet in erect, lax spikes.

52. Nyctaginaceae

161. Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. Bougainvillea

Native of Brazil. It was introduced into England in 1860 from
Brazil by way of Mauritius and thence into India during 1884-1894
(Bor & Raizada 1954). Commonly cultivated as an ornamental in
private and public gardens.

162. B. spectabilis Willd. Hairy Bougainvillea

Native of Brazil. Introduced into India from England during 1860
(Bor & Raizada 1954). Commonly cultivated in gardens.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

181

163. Mirabilis jalapa L. Four o’clock; Marvel-of-Peru

Native of tropical America (Webb 1964). Dymock et al. (quoted
in Mehra 1966) mentioned as follows: “Five varieties of this plant
with red, white, yellow, red and white, and red and yellow flowers were
introduced from the West Indies in 1596 and these must have been
carried by the Portuguese to the East shortly afterwards, as the plant
is said to have been introduced into Persia in the reign of Shah Abbas,
the First, and was established on the Malabar coast in the time of
Van Rheede.” Cultivated as an ornamental plant.

53. Amaranthaceae

164. Altemanthera paronychioides St. Hil.

Native of South America and West Indies. Introduced into India
during the 20th century. Common in moist situations.

165. A. philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. Alligator Weed

Native of S. America; probably Brazilian in origin. Introduced
into India during recent years and has been collected from Ranchi
Lake (Maheshwari 1964).

166. Gomphrena celosioides Mart. Gomphrena-Weed

Native of South America. Introduced into India recently (Srivastava
1964). Found in waste lands and along roadsides. Local name: Garun-
diara.

167. G. globosa L. Globe Amaranth; Bachelor’s Button

Probably native of America, but was originally described from
India. Cultivated and naturalized in tropical regions. Common in
gardens and often found as an escape in waste lands.

54. Polygon ace ae

168. Antigonon leplopus Hook. & Arn. Coral Creeper

Native of S. America. Commonly planted in gardens, along trellises,
poles and pergolas.

55. Aristolochiaceae

169. Aristolochia elegans Mast. Calico-Flower

Native of tropical America (Maheshwari 1963). It was introduced
into India in the early part of 18th century. Grown as an ornamental
climber in gardens and hedges.

56. PlPERACEAE

170. Peperomia pellucida (L.) H.B. & K. Sliiny Peperomia

Native of Central America; introduced into India in the later part

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

of 19th century (Srivastava 1964). Bressers (1951) first reported it from
Ranchi. Rarely found in waste lands; often grown in conservatories
and ferneries.

57. Proteaceae

171. Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br. Silky-Oak; Silver Oak
Native of Queensland and New South Wales (Maheshwari 1963).

It was introduced into Ceylon in 1856 (MacMillan 1952); occasionally
planted in gardens, lawns and avenues. It has been recently introduced
at the Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum (Ranchi) as an orna-
mental tree.

58. Euphorbiaceae

172. AcaSypha wilkesiana M.-A. Copper Leaf

Native of New Hebrides and the Viti Island. Often planted in parks
and gardens as an ornamental shrub.

173. Croton bonplandianum Baill.

Native of South America. According to Ridley (1930), it was first
introduced into Chittagong (East Pakistan) in 1897 with ballast of
mud. Common as a weed along roadsides, railway lines and waste
lands. Local name: Puttri; Kutti.

174. Euphorbia geniculata Orteg.

Native of tropical America. It was introduced into India before
Hooker published the flora of British India. Found as a weed in gar-
dens, nursery beds and waste lands.

175. E. prostrata Ait. Red Caustic Creeper

Native of tropical America; introduced into India early in the 19th
century. It was first recorded in Bihar by Woodhouse (Srivastava 1964)
from Sabour and later recorded by Bressers (1951) from Ranchi. Com-
mon as a weed in gardens and waste lands.

176. E. pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotz. Poinsettia; Christmas Flower
Syn. Poinsettia pulcherrima R. Grah.

Native of Central America. It is the Poinsettia of local gardens and
florists. Commonly planted in gardens.

177. Jatropha curcas L. Physic Nut

Native of tropical America (Backer & Brink 1963). Dymock et al.
(quoted in Mehra 1966) mentioned that it was introduced into India
by the Portuguese. Commonly planted in gardens and hedges. Local
name: Totuka.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

183

178. J. podagrica Hook. Tartogo Nettlespurge

Native of Panama; introduced into India by the Portuguese. Plant-
ed in private gardens.

179. Manihot esculenta Crantz. Cassava; Tapioca-Plant; Manioc
Native of tropical America. It is said to have been introduced into

India variously, viz. (i) by the Portuguese, (ii) by the Dutch from the
East Indies into Ceylon and India, and (iii) through Spanish influence
into the Philippines from where it appears to have passed into Burma,
Assam, E. Bengal and other places (Mehra 1966). Cultivated for the
starchy tubers which yield tapioca.

180. Ricinus communis L. Castor Bean

Its original home, according to De Candolle (1886), is in Abyssinia,
Sennaar and Kordofan. Backer and Brink (1963) regard it as an ancient
plant of cultivation, probably from Africa. It was introduced into
India at an early time. Planted near villages and in gardens; often self-
sown.

59. Casuarinaceae

181. Casuarina equisetifolia J. R. & G. Forst. Horsetail-Tree; Australian
Pine

Its chief centre of distribution is Australia, Malaysia and the Pacific
Islands. It was introduced in 1798 in the Calcutta Botanic Garden
(Santapau 1965). Cultivated in gardens for decorative purposes.

60. Musaceae

182. Ravenala madagascariensis Sonn. Travellers-Tree

Native of Madagascar. It was introduced into Ceylon about 1824
(MacMillan 1952). Planted in gardens.

61. Cannaceae

183. Caiuta flaccida Salisb. Canna

Native of tropical America. Planted in beds as an ornamental
shrub.

62. Amaryllidaceae

184. Amaryllis belladonna L. Belladona Lily

A tropical American species; introduced into India in 1808 and
again in 1841, but has not flowered till 1845 (Voigt 1845). Occasionally
grown in gardens.

185. Haemanthus coccineus L. Blood-Lily

Native of S. Africa. Introduced into India in March 1841, but did
not flower till 1845 (Voigt 1845). Cultivated in gardens.

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

186. Zephyranthas grandiflora Lindl. Crocus

Native of Cuba, Jamaica and Mexico (Bailey 1949). Flowers rose-
red or pink. Planted in pots, window gardens, etc.

63. Iridaceae

187. Gladiolus gandavensis Van Houtte. Breeders Gladiolus
Native of South Africa (Bailey 1949). This hybrid was raised by

the nurseryman Van Houtte in 1841 (Fletcher 1969). Rare; cultivated
in private gardens for its flowers.

64. PONTEDERIACEAE

188. Etchhomia crassipes Solms. Water Hyacinth; Terror of Bengal;
Million Dollar Weed; Devil’s Lilac; Morgan’s Folly

Native of Brazil; introduced into the Old World about 1829. It
was brought by a gardener in Dacca towards the end of the 19th cen-
tury and has been carried all over India. Common in ponds, ditches
and swamps.

65. Com m eli n ace ae

189. Rhoco spathacea (Sw.) Stearn. Boat-Lily
Syn. R. discolor Hance.

Native of Central America (MacMillan 1952). Introduced into India
in the 16th century. It is the so-called Tradescantia of gardeners and
florists. Cultivated as a pot plant in green-houses and gardens.

190. Zebriua pendula Schnizl. Wandering Jew
Syn. Tradescantia zebrina Hort. ex Loud.

A native of Mexico (Bailey 1949). Cultivated for its foliage in hang-
ing baskets, pots, tubs and beddings.

66. Arecaceae (nom. alt.: Palmae)

191. Livistona chinensis R. Br. ex Martius. Tub Palm

Native of E. Asia and Malaysia. Introduced into India during
1795-1809. Commonly planted in private gardens as a tub-plant.

67. Poaceae (nom. alt.: Gramineae)

192. Aristida adscencionis L. Sexweeks Threeawn

A native of North Africa. According to Ridley (1930), it was des-
cribed by Plukenet in 1696 as a Madras plant and was introduced into
India prior to this date. Common in waste lands.

THE EXOTIC FLORA OF RANCHI

185

193. Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf. Signal Grass;
St. Lucia Grass

Introduced into India in the early 19th century from tropical Africa
as a fodder grass (Bor 1960). Cultivated in the premises of Agriculture
College, Kanke near Ranchi.

194. Chloris barbata Sw.

Native of tropical America; introduced into India about 1897 or
in the early part of the 19th century as a fodder grass. Cultivated at
Kanke near Ranchi.

195. C. gay ana Kunth. Rhodes Grass

It has been introduced into India from Africa in the early 19th
century (Bor 1960). Commonly cultivated as a fodder grass.

196. Cynodon plectostachyus (K. Schum.) Pilger. Giant Star Grass
A native of Africa (Bor 1960); introduced into India as a fodder

grass in the early 19th century. Cultivated in the Agricultural Farm,
Kanke, near Ranchi.

197. Eragrostis curvuia (Schrad.) Nees. Weeping Love Grass
Syn. Poa curvuia Schrad.

Native of Africa; introduced early in the present century. Cultivated
in Ranchi as a fodder grass.

198. Melinis minutiflora P. Beauv. Molasses Grass

A native of Africa (Bor 1960); introduced into India as a fodder
grass about 1892. Cultivated in Kanke, near Ranchi.

199. Panicum coloratura L.

A tropical American species; introduced into India (Bor 1960).
Frequently cultivated.

200. P. maximum Jacq. Guinea Grass

A native of tropical Africa but now introduced into several warm
countries including India (Bor 1960). Cultivated at Agricultural Farm,
Kanke as a fodder grass.

201. Paspalum notatum Fluegge. Bahia Grass

An American species; introduced into India quite recently (Bor
1960). A good soil binder; cultivated at Agricultural Farm, Kanke.

202. P. plicatulum Michx. Brownseed Paspalum

Distributed in Georgia and Florida to Texas (U.S.A.), southwards
through Brazil to Argentina and through West Indies (Bor 1960). In-
troduced into India quite early in this century. It has been found to
be slow growing, susceptible to frost and seed setting is not satisfactory.
Cultivated at Kanke.

203. Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst. ex Chiov. Kikuyu Grass
Native of tropical East Africa (Bor 1960); introduced into many

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

countries including India as a pasture grass and a soil binder. Culti-
vated at Kanke.

204. P. purpureum Schumach. Napier or Elephant Grass

A native of tropical Africa (Bor 1960); now introduced into many
tropical countries including India. Commonly cultivated as a fodder
grass.

205. Phalaris tuberosa L. Toowoomba, Canary Grass

Native of the Mediterranean region (Bor 1960); cultivated in Aus-
tralia and India as a valuable pasture grass. Commonly cultivated in
the area.

206. Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. Rabbitfoot Grass; Beard Grass
Widely distributed in Europe and temperate parts of Asia and

Africa, and now introduced into many countries including India (Bor
1960). It is also found in cooler parts of northwest Himalaya and
Ceylon. Commonly cultivated as a fodder grass.

207. Setaria sphacelata (Schumach.) Stapf

Native of tropical and South Africa (Bor 1960). Introduced into
India recently as a fodder grass. Frequently cultivated at Kanke.

208. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Johnson Grass

Snowden (quoted in Bor 1960) considers it as a native of tropical
America. Introduced into India at an early time. Common as a weed
and also used as a fodder.

209. Urochioa mosambicensis (Hack.) Dandy

A native of East Africa and Burma (Bor 1960). Introduced into
India quite recently as a fodder grass. Cultivated in the plots of Agri-
cultural College, Kanke.

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Reviews

1. FORCED MOVEMENTS, TROPISMS & ANIMAL CON-
DUCT. By Jacques Loeb. pp. xxvii + 209 (20 x 13.5 cm), with 42 text-
figures. New York, 1973. Dover Publications, Inc. Price $ 3.00.

Jacques Loeb is chiefly known today as a biochemist. Few people are
aware that he was one of the founders of the modern science of ani-
mal behaviour. Loeb’s careful experimental work disproves the anthro-
pomorphic views of his time, when it was believed that lower organisms
were capable of exercising judgment when they avoided unfavourable
conditions or were attracted to favourable ones. T. H. Huxley had al-
ready pointed out the fallacy in this kind of thinking, but it was Loeb
who demonstrated the mechanical nature of the behaviour of lower
organisms, and provided an explanation which covered his own obser-
vations and those of others. The attraction of certain insects to light,
or to shade, can be attributed to changes in muscle tension induced
by light falling on the eyes of each side of the body. When one eye is
blackened with paint the insect creeps in circles because the tension
on both sides is unequal. Loeb called such movements “forced move-
ments” and sought to explain all animal behaviour in these terms. In
his book he deals with heliotropism, or behaviour in relation to light,
in most detail, but also deals with chemotropism, galvanotropism, and
others. He points out that the growth of plants and of certain hydroids
shows the same response to the action of gravity (geotropism).

Loeb’s work has been forgotten mainly because interest has since
shifted to the role of learning in behaviour a phenomenon not adequa-
tely covered by his theories. While Loeb perhaps tried to explain too
much in terms of tropisms, there is no doubt of the basic correctness
of his approach. This reprinting of his book, originally published in
1918, is very welcome, since it gives students the opportunity to appre-
ciate his contribution to the subject, and to re-assess its significance in
the light of later work. The foreword by Professor Hirsch of the Uni-
versity of Illinois puts it in perspective and adds to the value of the
book.

R. R.

190

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

2. UNDER THE INDIAN OCEAN. By A1 J. Venter, pp. 219
(27.5 x 21.5 cm), with 23 coloured plates and many black-and-white
illustrations. U.K., 1973. Nautical Publishing Company Ltd. Price £ 5.00.

Not only is it fashionable to establish National Parks but it is becoming
more of a necessity these days. In 1968, Kenya was perhaps the first
country to create a Marine National Park with a view to preserve or
rather conserve the coral and the marine life regarded as the best to be
found anywhere in the East Coast of Africa. A1 J. Venter has described
the establishment of this wonderful park in his book.

under the Indian ocean can perhaps best be described as glimp-
ses on the marine life and biology of the Western Indian Ocean. He has
successfully created a unique atmosphere for people of diverse interests
such as skin-divers, under-water photographers, conchologists, scientists
and the laymen, who by reading this book will not only pick up a great
deal of information but enjoy it as if they themselves were going through
this vast Marine Park, the Indian Ocean and loving the nature below
the waves.

Mr. Venter who is a professional journalist and a skin-diver of
considerable skill has not only written wonderfully well but obtain many
internationally known authorities to join hands in putting across their
experiences in some of the specialist fields, for instance, George Hughes
on loggerhead turtle ( Caretta caretta), late Professor JLB Smith on
Ichthyology, and Lallie Lee Didham on shells.

The most absorbing thing about the book being the anecdotes and
description of the adventures undertaken by the skin-divers to view
things of interest under the least known of our oceans. The book is
fully illustrated with both colour as well as black and white pictures.
The details of marine life obtaining in Seychelles, Mauritius, in the
coastal waters stretching right from South Africa to Kenya including
Madagascar are generously dealt with. Separate chapters have been
devoted to turtles, dolphins, stone fish, sharks, coelacanth (a fish sup-
posed to have become extinct 80 million years ago but live specimen of
which were caught) and ship-wrecks and their treasures. It is partly a
journey into adventure-land.

A pitty that Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands which
are equally endowed with interesting wonders of the blue are conspi-
cuously absent.

The book is very readable and I would recommend it to everyone
interested in marine life as well as adventure under the Sea.

R. N. GULATI

REVIEWS

191

3. TURTLES OF THE NORTH-EASTERN UNITED STATES.
By Harold L. Babcock, pp. 105 (21 x 15.5 cm), with 16 plates including
14 in full colour. New York, 1971. Dover Publications, Inc. Price $ 2.50.

In this book, a reprint publication, the author has compiled avail-
able information on the life-histories of seventeen species of the Order
Testudinata of North Eastern United States. The differences between a
‘Turtle’ (inhabitant of the sea), a ‘Terrapin’ (of fresh water) and a
‘Tortoise’ (inhabitant of the land) are explained and made understand-
able to the layman by simple anatomical descriptions. The morphology
of the various testudines, their habits and habitats and geographic dis-
tribution are discussed.

The fascinating accounts of the breeding habits of many of the testu-
dines inspires one to collect such details for the testudines of one’s own
region, which appear to have been neglected hitherto compared to their
counterparts in the United States of America.

The book is an attempt to acquaint the reader, particularly the
younger generation with the ecology and ethology of the different spe-
cies of testudines and their economic importance. The book is well
written and the plates, both coloured and monochrome, are very well
produced and instructive.

SHAILAJA S. SOMANE

4. SUMMER OF A MILLION WINGS: Arctic Quest for the Sea
Eagle. By Hugh Brandon-Cox. pp. 184 (21 x 14.5 cm). Illustrated with
phoetographs and sketches by the author. Newton Abbot, 1974. David
& Charles. Price £3.50 net.

The author has made several long expeditions to the Lofoten Islands
in the north of Norway for filming and study of the wildlife there. The
two small islands of Vaeroy and Rost have received his special attention
as they are the summer nesting sites of millions of sea birds such as
razorbills, puffins, kittiwakes, guillemots, skuas and others. Here his
particular quest was to track down occupied nests of the Whitetailed
Sea Eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla ) once common, but whose numbers
have now dwindled to danger levels chiefly due to human persecution
for alleged wrong-doing. Enormous numbers of sea eagles used to be
trapped on Vaeroy during the 1880s and 90s when one old trapper
could take as many as 50 to 100 birds in the short period between Octo-
ber and December. He received two shillings as subsidy for each bird
destroyed, and made one shilling extra by selling the wing feathers
“which made excellent brooms”! Not till the subsidy was withdrawn
did the killings decrease. Egg-collectors paid handsome prices for the
eagles’ eggs. In adjoining Sweden considerable infertility of eggs and
lethal thinning of shells, resulting from extensive use of DDT had fur-

192 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HI 1ST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

ther aggravated the position. Owing to ill-founded objections from
sheep farmers, however, no legal protection was provided to the eagles
in Norway till 1968, by which time eagle populations had dwindled
almost to vanishing point. The author recounts a backbreaking expedi-
tion that he undertook to locate an occupied eyrie which nearly ended
fatally for him while going up a sheer slippery cliff rising out of the
sea, laden with heavy equipment. Good descriptions are given of these
rugged rocky islands which, till comparatively recently, were thinly
populated by a few tough fishing families but are now practically desert-
ed, leaving the cliffs undisturbed for the nesting of millions of sea birds.
The nesting behaviour of the various species in interestingly described,
especially the tribulations of the young birds on the exposed ledges of
the precipitous cliff faces or in fissures and hollows among the loose-
piled rocks. The special adaptations which enable them to brave the
harshness of the elements and overcome the hazards from avian pre-
dators— chiefly Blackbacked Gulls and Ravens — and culminating in
their vertical descent to the sea where they will spend most of their non-
breeding lives and face a different set of hazards. He gives a graphic
account of the arrival of the birds on the cliffs in early spring as soon
as the worst of winter is over, the occupation of the traditional nesting
sites by each species, their reactions to neighbours, and the rivalries and
social intercourse between members of their own and other species.
Black guillemots are said to be tough and silent, not constantly clamor-
ous like kittiwakes. They take fish from reed-filled water by diving to
a depth of 25 feet or more. Thousands of kittiwakes are killed by villa-
gers along the Newfoundland coastline, their flesh being preferred to
that of all other birds. In overhead flight razorbills’ wings produce a
high screaming sound “exactly like a projectile fired from a cannon”.
The Raven population of the great cliffs apparently does not vary year
to year in spite of each pair successfully raising batches of 5 young to
a nest! There is a good account of puffins of which Vaeroy is said to be
one of the greatest strongholds in the north. These curious birds nest
in holes tunneled in a mixture of broken rock and earth with their mas-
sive flattened bills used as shovels. They live and fly in huge swarms
“a whirring mass of wings”. Non-breeding and immature birds assist
in the 40-day incubation of the single egg. Mention is made of the
“Puffin Hound” — a dying race of ancient hunting dogs, unique in the
possession of six toes — which hunt and retrieve puffins from their steep
nesting slopes on the island. They are regarded as relics of the Ice Age
and as probably the rarest dogs in the world today.

This is an interesting book giving a good overall picture of the bird
life and the rigorous living conditions in the Land of the Midnight Sun.

s. A.

REVIEWS

193

5. DEER OF THE WORLD. By G. Kenneth Whitehead, pp. xii +
194 (24.5 x 19 cm) with colour frontispiece, 32 pages of black and
white photographs and 27 maps. London, 1973 (?) Constable & Co. Ltd.
Price £5.00.

The last review of the family Cervidae was by Lydekker in 1898. A
re-appreciation was necessary and has been ably handled by Kenneth
Whitehead. The family with forty species of seventeen genera currently
recognised is distributed indigenously or through introduction by human
agency throughout all the regions of the world. Like all other wild life,
several species face severe stress from human interference in their en-
vironment. Many of the species in the more populated areas of the world
face extinction. The review is therefore timely.

The book has introductory chapters on the family followed by a
regionwise study of the species, and includes a useful appendix on the
classification of the Cervidae and a bibliography of works referred to
in the preparation of the book.

One looks for familiar faces in such a compilation and while the
treatment of Indian Deer is uniformly satisfactory, the information on
their present status has to be updated. For instance is is unlikely that
there are 300-400 Hangul still in existence. A useful handbook for all
those interested in the Deer of the World.

J. G. D.

13

Miscellaneous Notes

1. A NOTE ON THE HOOLOCK

Village Chanki is half way between Moryani, the road-head for
Jore-hut (Assam) and Mokok Chunge in Nagaland. It was about 8 a.m.
when we stopped at Chanki, near a way-side tea stall for a cup of tea.
As we were having tea, the loud call of Hoolocks came floating down
the valley. There was a pattern in the call, first a single call would be
heard and then more Hoolocks join in the chorus and the calls grow
intense until they reach a crescendo and stop. The troup was quite
close to the main road and therefore, within 20 minutes walking
distance. I was able to get fairly close to the spot where the apes were.
They were all in the higher branches distributed among three trees at
the bottom of the valley. Taking a slightly elevated position on the
other side, I was able to watch them comfortably with field glasses.

The female Hoolock spotted me and the whole troup moved further
up. The calling stopped. Two males were engaged in a sort of game
chasing each other. They were using their legs with such dexterity that it
looked as if they were moving with four limbs like some giant spider.
The female was greyish brown and male jet black. Though I could
spot the two Hoolocks swinging through the branches, I did not have
the occasion to observe their brachiation.

Back in Shillong where I was stationed at the time, I began to en-
quire about the distribution of this Hoolock. In Meghalaya itself, they
have been spotted at Bagmara in Garo hills, Lailad near Nongpoh and
Nia Bangla in Kasi hills. The Kasis of Meghalaya referred to this ape
as ‘Huleng’ which I gathered is an onomatopoetic name.

B 49, 9th Cross, S. THEODORE BASKARAN

Sastri Nagar,

Madras 600 020,

June 13, 1973.

2. URINE OF BATS AS MEANS OF OFFENCE

Dr. J. L. Harrison in an interesting note (/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
56 ( 1 ) : 125, 1959) mentioned that flying individuals of an unidentified
species of horse- shoe bat in Malaya gave out squirts of urine well
directed towards the intruder and pointed out the possible importance
of this habit in the spread of leptospirosis, an infectious disease of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

195

man and animals transmitted through the urine. He was much interest-
ed in obtaining further information on the subject. I have observed
similar habit in a number of species of bats as shown by the following
observations:

1. Several individuals of a large colony of the Lesser Rat-tailed Bat,
Rhino poma h. hardwickei Gray in a rock cave observed in August and
September near Jabalpur city started urinating a few minutes after my
entry into the haunt. The urination was accompanied by frequent shift-
ing and spreading of wings. There were several outlets and the indi-
viduals were not under fear of being captured. The colony was also
quite used to human presence and did not disperse. I was at a distance
of about 4\ m from the colony. The urination stopped as soon as the
intrusion ended.

2. A large colony of the Blackbearded Tomb Bat, Taphozous m.
melanopogon Temminck was observed in Mandla town (M.P.) in
November in second storey of a ruined house. The ceiling was low,
hardly 4 m high and I could approach the bats within a distance of
about 2\ m. Several urinating individuals flew very near to me during
my stay for about 45 mins. Similar observations have been made in
some other places also.

3. A colony of the Indian False Vampire, Megaderma l. lyra Geoff roy
inhabiting a ruined temple near Jabalpur city started urinating after
about ten minutes of my presence inside the temple.

4. Fying specimens of the Lesser Yellow Bat Scotophilus temmincki
wroughtoni Thomas have been observed to urinate on the observer.
Drops of urine came out of captured specimens when they were
roughly handled.

5. One of the flying specimens of the Greater Yellow Bat, Scotophilus
h. heat hi Horsfield when too closely watched at the time of return to
its roost early in the morning gave out squirts of urine while flying near
the observer.

The above observations show that the habit appears to be of quite
common occurrence in bats.

454, South Civil Lines, H. KHAJURIA

Jabalpur, M.P.,

September 4, 1971.

3. OCCURRENCE OF FISHING CAT ( FEUS VIVERRINA) IN

ORISSA

A young male of the Fishing Cat ( Felis viverrina) was caught by
some villagers near the village of Balarampur (Keonjhar district,
Orissa) on 27-iv-1973 and the animal was received at Nandankanan

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Biological Park on 27-iv-1973 through the good offices of Sub-Divi-
sional Officer, Anandpur. However, it died soon after its arrival. The
animal weighed 3.6 Kg and measured 83 cm from tip to tip including
23 cm long tail. This appears to be the first record of occurrence of *
this cat in Orissa.

An adult female Fishing Cat received in this Park on 26-vi-1967
through an animal dealer of Calcutta died on 2-iii- 1974 after remain-
ing for 6 years, 8 months and 5 days in captivity. The estimated age
at the time of death was about 10 years. After death it weighed 6.8 Kg
and measured 102 cm including 26 cm long tail. It was fed on a mixed
diet of beef and mutton with a chicken once a month and used to take
fish whenever offered. It had the peculiar habit of urinating most of
the time into the water trough. It was very shy, and kept inside its
shelter throughout the day coming out for feeding late in the evening
when all the visitors had left and moving about in the enclosure from
late evening to early hours of the morning.

Prater (1971)1 gives the distribution as forests up to 1525 m in the
Himalayas and the swamps at the base of the mountains. Parts of
Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Sind and unknown in the Peninsula of
India except in the creeks and backwaters of the Malabar coast bet-
ween Mangalore and Cape Comorin.

Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P.O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack.

Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA

Old Secretariate Building,

Cuttack 1 (Orissa),

April 25, 1974.

4. AGE OF SEXUAL MATURITY OF TWO SPECIES OF
WILD CARNIVORES IN CAPTIVITY

In this note, an attempt is made to present some information on the
age of sexual maturity of two species of wild carnivores observed at
Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa.

Tiger Panthera tigris (Linn.)

A female tiger cub with an estimated age of about 7 weeks was
received in this Park on 2-xi-1967. She came into heat for the first
time on 3-ix-1970 and was allowed to remain with a male tiger born

1 Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, Bombay: 74-75.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

197

in the Park on 31-vii-1967. Mating was observed during the following
periods, 3-ix-1970 to 5-ix-1970; 22-xii-1970 to 25-xii-1970; 2-iv-1971
to 6-iv- 1 97 1 ; 1 -vi-1971 to 5-vi-1971; and 23-vii-1971 to 27-vii-1971. A
female cub was born on 7-xi-1971. From these facts it can be said
that while the first signs of sexual maturity in the female appeared at
the age of about 3 years, the male did not reach sexual maturity at
least one week before he reached the age of 4 years.

According to Prater (1971) lions and tigers take from 3 to 5 years
to become fully adult but males and females are capable of breeding
soon after, or even before, they are 3 years old. The first cubbing of
a tigress takes place at about the age of four and a tiger is fully grown
in about 5 years (Chaturvedi 1970). A female tiger became sexually
mature soon after passing the age of 3J years whereas a male tiger
became sexually mature at least 15 days before he reached the age of
4 years (Crandall 1965).

Common Palm Civet or Toddy Cat Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
(Pallas)

A male common palm civet born in this Park on 3-iv- 1 97 1 was allow-
ed to remain with its mother and mating of the young male with the
female was first observed from 12-iii-1972 to 14-iii-1972 resulting in
the birth of 3 young on 18-V-1972. From these facts the age of sexual
maturity of the male common palm civet can be said to be not less
than 11 months, 10 days or say 11 months.

The age at which the civets became fully adult is not known (Prater,
loc. cit.).

Veterinary Asst. Surgeon, L. N. ACF1ARJYO

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P.O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack.

Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA

Old Secretariate Building,

Cuttack 1 (Orissa),

March 12, 1973.

References

Chaturvedi, M. D. (1970) : The vity. The University of Chicago Press,
Felines. National Book Trust. India, Chicago and London, p. 387.

New Delhi, p. 28. Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book

Crandall, Lee S. (1965) : The of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural
Management of Mammals in Capti- History Society, Bombay pp. 65-93.

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

5. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE WILD DOG IN THE
KANHA NATIONAL PARK

During my stay in the Kanha National Park, Mandla District,
Madhya Pradesh, in connection with the study of wildlife from March,
1971 to March, 1972, some interesting unrecorded observations on the
wild dog were made by me and are reproduced from my field diary.

On ll-vi-1971 at about 6.00 p.m. a wild dog was seen running to-
wards a large tank called Srawantal. It was being followed by four
jackals, three of which were at a distance of about 60-70 metres from
the wild dog, while the fourth was close behind. The dog went straight
to a fairly large herd of chital on the bank of the pond, and attacked
a large (about 2-3 year old) stag. The dog caught hold of the chital’s
muzzle and during the struggle both moved into the water. The dog
did not let lose its grip and the stag’s muzzle was pushed under water.
Within minutes, the chital died of suffocation. The dog dragged the
dead chital towards the centre of the tank where it was left without
any attempt to eat. The dog came out of water and trotted back in the
same direction from which it had come. The observations were made
from a watch tower and the dog did not detect the presence of the
observer. It did not return to its kill till next morning when the chital
was removed from the tank. The possible explanation for dragging the
dead chital towards the centre of the water tank appears to be that
it wanted to save the kill from the jackals.

On 21-vi-1971 at 6.20 p.m. an alarm call was given by a grazing
herd of chital from the meadow close to the rest house. The cause of
the call was a wild dog, and an yearling chital hind was soon caught
and killed. As we moved towards the dead chital, the wild dog started
running and we spotted another wild dog close by and both escaped
into the forest. Another kill, a large chital stag, was spotted by us close
to the one mentioned above. It appeared to have been made a day
earlier, but had not been eaten.

Beside the above observations, I have observed a number of kills
of chital and sambar made by wild dogs during my one year stay.

Zoological Survey of India, N. K. SINHA

Central Regional Station,

1544- A, Napier Town,

Jabalpur (M.P.),

August 29, 1973.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

199

6. WHITETAILED EAGLES [HALIAEETUS ALBICILLA
(LINN.)] AT BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

At about 1500 hrs on December 6th, 1973, SCM was sitting by the
edge of a road overlooking the wetlands of the Bharatpur reserve, when
two adult Whitetailed Eagles ( Haliaeetus albicilla) came flapping over
the trees and low over the water. The birds were watched for several
minutes at a range of about 200 yards.

SCM returned about an hour later with PAD, MCR and CWW
and the birds were then watched for about 20 minutes both sitting on
low trees, on the ground and flying about.

They were massive eagles, with long, broad wings and very short
wedge-shaped white tails, the short tail being almost hidden when the
birds were at rest. In colour they were uniform dark brown with pale,
buff-brown heads and necks. Tail pure white. The large bill was bright
yellow, uniform with the cere and gape. Iris yellow. Legs and feet
were naked and also bright yellow.

The birds were watched in the same place the following morning
(7th) and again with Dr. Salim Ali on the morning of the 8th De-
cember 1973.

57, Tewkesbury Road, P. A. DUKES

Carshalton,

Surrey, U.K.

82, Clarence Road,

Torpoint,

Cornwall, U.K.

Oatlands, Iford,

Lewes,

Sussex, U.K.

203, Town Lane,

Ashford,

Middlesex,

U.K.,

January 18, 1974.

7. A NOTE ON THE FEEDING OF THE SARUS CRANE
GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE (LINNAEUS)

Three Sarus cranes were seen feeding on the 24th January, 1974
at 4.45 PM in the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary at Bharatpur. One of
them was a subadult, in all probability the half-grown young of the
adult pair.

S. C. MADGE
M. C. ROBINSON
C. W. WESTWOOD

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

The subadult bird was approximately three-fourths the size of the
adult feeding besides it. The head and upper neck were yellow ochre,
in place of the red of the adult. It had a few grey plumes on the crown,
which in the adults form a grey patch.

The young bird could not find food on its own. The adults plunged
their heads into the water which was a few inches deep, and probed
the bottom with their bills for food. The young merely took the food
directly from the bill of the adult or picked the surfaced food and
swallowed it. The food, as observed through an 8 x 30 binoculars was
on most occasions a small dark mass, which could have been a small
crab? The period of immersion of the head in the water by the adult
sarus crane was timed. It was timed on twenty occasions and on most
occasions it was five seconds. Only on two occasions did the time
exceed five seconds, by two seconds.

I was also keen on finding out the percentage of success in finding
food in that area, as that would give an idea of the abundance of food.
On twenty separate bouts of searching for food one adult sarus crane
came up with food on four occasions, a 20% success. The two adult
birds took little respite from their effort at finding food and their heads
used to be out of water for a very brief period of two to three seconds
between each bout of five seconds of assiduous searching for food.

The Sarus Cranes were quite unperturbed by my presence only
about twenty five yards away and continued to feed for half an hour,
at the end of which they flew away on their own.

‘Vikas Bhavan’, AJAI M. GHORPADE

29-Sankey Road,

Bangalore-52,

April 22, 1974.

8. ON THE NESTING HABITS OF THE SMALL MINIVET
(PERICROCOTUS CINNAMOMEUS)

While glancing through W. Jesse’s On the Birds of Lucknow, Ibis 1902,
p. 541), I was struck by the following note regarding the Small Minivet
{Verier ocotus peregrinus now cinnamomeus) :

“A most curious fact in connexion with this bird is that — with, I think, only
one or two exceptions at the most — I have always found nests, whether building
or with eggs, in possession of three birds, two females and one male. What is
the exact duty of this second wife I cannot make out. Possibly she may be a
drudge. That she exists I have satisfied myself time after time, and so convinced
are the Martiniere (College — H.A.) boys of the fact that they — no mean ob-
servers by the way — rarely troubled to look for a nest if only one female is
present”.

He goes on to say that he does not think that they both lay eggs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

201

but cannot say whether they both share the incubation or feeding the
young.

Stuart Baker in nidification (1933, II, pp. 294 et seq.) has over-
looked this though he quotes Xnglis as having once found a young
one and three fresh eggs in a nest, though the usual complement was
three, and sometimes only two.

Here the matter lay until in 1950 K. K. Neelakantan ( JBNHS
49 : 554) writing from Palghat, recorded a male and two females
sharing the labour at a nest. Of the two females, one was more active
than the other, but the second was seen to bring nesting material.
About a month later, all three fed the two chicks in the nest.

The last note is referred to in Indian handbook (<5 : 44) but the
earlier note suggests that this habit is more wide-spread than generally
realised and provides an excellent item for study in the field.

75, Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay 400 003,

April 15, 1974.

9. ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FOR PAKISTAN

During the past year I have been lucky to encounter several in-
teresting new distributional records for different regions of Pakistan and
feel that it is important to record these if only to indicate how much
fresh information still has to be worked out for this country which
has not been as intensively studied in the past few decades as has been
the case in many parts of India.

Phivialis dommica (Horsfield) Eastern or Lesser Golden Plover.

This has been recorded as wintering in India and Bangladesh
(Ripley 1961) with no mention of what was then called. West Pakistan1.
Vaurie also records only an eastern migration route to the Maldives,
Ceylon and the southeast coast of India (Vaurie 1965). This is rather
surprising in view of Dr. Ticehurst’s records for the Karachi area {Ibis,
October 1923, pp. 662).

I have only encountered it near the Indus mouth, generally on the
east bank, and preferring the margins of drying-out swamps. It is one
of the rarest waders visiting Sind in winter, but as it is usually en-
countered in small flocks, and its dark grey axilliaries are easily seen
when in flight, it is not difficult to recognise in the field.

Rhipidura hypoxantha (Blyth) Yellowbellied Fantail Flycatcher.

This bird has been described as occurring in the Himalayas, in

1 But see handbook of the birds of india & Pakistan 2:223 — Eds.

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

India from Kareri Lake near Simla, eastwards through Nepal, Bangla-
desh and Burma (Ripley 1961).

On December 6, 7 and 8, 1973 I was camping in the old muni-
cipal gardens of Sialkot Cantonment (32° 28' N., 74° 33' E.) and
there were at least three individuals, (one obviously a female) frequent-
ing the tree groves around these gardens. They were always seen feed-
ing in trees and often in the company of the Greyheaded Flycatcher-
Warbler ( Seicercus xanthoschistos) , another altitudinal winter migrant.
A considerably smaller, and if possible, even more restless version of
the Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher (R. aureola), they were neverthe-
less fearless of humans and very easy to observe. Though Sialkot is
roughly two hundred miles northwest of Simla, perhaps its occurrence
so near to the hills of Jammu is not surprising, but after twenty-three
years residence in Pakistan, to see a new species, and one so gaudily
attired was an especial thrill.

Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus) Paradise Flycatcher.

In the “Newsletter for Birdwatchers”, edited by Mr. Zafar Fateh -
ally, I recorded in about 1966 the attempted breeding of this flycatcher
in an irrigated forest plantation near Khanewal in the southwest Punjab.
It is probably a not infrequent breeder in suitable forested regions of
the Punjab because in May 1973, a pair attempted to breed in my own
garden in Khanewal (30° 18' N., 71° 56' E.). This is at 600 feet above
sea level and maximum daily temperature in early May is usually
about 112°F. so these flycatchers would normally be only tarrying
briefly on northward passage. We have a small swimming pool sur-
rounded by shady trees and the female was first seen carrying nest-
ing material on May 7th. Anxious not to disturb the pair, I did not
discover the completed nest until May 12th! — a grass-lined, sleeve-
like structure suspended in a hanging creeper. Unfortunately on May
19th, I had to go away on business and found the nest robbed upon
my return. However I have several fairly good 300 mm telephoto lens
picture of both parent birds sitting on the nest. Both sexes were ex-
tremely restless, never staying long to incubate. There were only two
eggs at the time of my departure. The female generally came and
perched on the nest rim to relieve the male and she usually sat from
ten to fifteen minutes at a spell. The male never came to incubate
except when the nest was unoccupied and never sat for more than
ten minutes, usually only five. Both sexes frequently left the nest to
chase after insects, even when incubating.

Sylvia mystacea Menetries’s Warbler.

Perhaps this is also not such a surprising record for Baluchistan,
in view of what is known about the species’ migration routes and breed-
ing range.

However, it is a new record for the sub-continent as it is not listed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

203

in Stuart Baker’s fauna of British India (1924) nor in Dillon
Ripley’s synopsis of the birds of india and Pakistan (1961). It
is listed as a passage migrant and summer visitor for Afghanistan
(Paludan 1959). He only secured one specimen in Seistan and consi-
dered it rare. Hue & Etchescopar (1970) give its distribution as, occur-
ring across northern Afghanistan as a breeding species.

On March 23rd and 24th, 1974 during a visit to Baluchistan pro-
vince and Pishin district, northeast of Quetta, I explored a relatively
remote valley called Sorkhab, running roughly east west at 5,500 feet
elevation and situated at 30° 33' N., 67° 12' E. The valley contains a
small stony stream of flowing water (unusual in this arid part of the
world), flanked by quite large willow trees, tamarisk scrub and thickets
of Phragmites reeds. On one afternoon’s walk I encountered at least
eight different individuals of this species. Though typically Sylviine in
their relatively furtive habits, they advertised their presence by con-
tinuously scolding “tchk-tchk-tchk” calls. The males also were fre-
quently heard singing a very soft but melodious song which I recorded
as being Very similar to that of a Common Whitethroat’s ( S . communis) .
The males were remarkably like C. cantillans, the Subalpine Warbler in
appearance (in fact this is what I assumed them to be at first), in that the
upper breast was distinctly strawberry red or terra-cotta and both sexes
had noticeable white loreal streaks. Moreover the males had dark grey
rather than black crowns, napes and ear-coverts. The orbicular ring
was fleshy orange and conspicuous in both sexes as also the white
outer margins to the outer tail feathers.

The breasts of several females seen, I recorded at the time, as
pinkish-buff, with one individual having a distinctly fulvous tone.

From their behaviour and numbers I would say that they were
by no means accidental visitors but that this valley is regularly used
on spring passage.

Prunella fulvescens (Severtzov) Brown Accentor.

In Pakistan, it is recorded as a winter visitor, occurring in the
northern reaches of the Indus Valley in Baltistan, Hunza, Astor and
northern Gilgit. Also in Chitral down to the main valley it has been
recorded. However it is also generally encountered above 10000 feet
elevation, even in these far northern areas. It apparently breeds in
north-central Afghanistan at about 9000 feet elevation (Paludan 1959)
and eastwards to Chinese Turkestan and Ladakh (Vaurie 1959).

During the same visit to Baluchistan (mentioned above) on March
30th, 1974, I visited the Mashelakh range in Quetta district, located
about 30 miles northwest of Quetta at 6000 feet (30° 15' N., 66° 34' E.).
This area is at least 300 miles south of previous records for Pakistan’s
Himalayan regions.

I encountered but one individual frequenting a dry bush-studded

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

gulley on a sloping plain. It perched conspicuously on bush tops
fluttering periodically to the ground nearby to pick up food. It was
tame and allowed continuous and close observation and appeared to
be in quite bright fresh plumage though it is not possible to state
whether it was a male or female. Looking at the coloured plate by
Paul Barruel, of this species in “Les Oiseaux du Proche et du Monjen
Orient”, this Baluchistan specimen had more conspicuous black or dark
brown streaking both on its crown and mantle whilst its throat was a
yellow-buff or fulvous tone and the outer margins of the scapulars
were pale creamy-buff. The broad supercilium was much whiter than
that of either P. strophiata or P. atrogularis which have creamy-yellow
superciliums. These latter species, with a more marked altitudinal mi-
gration pattern are more frequently encountered in Pakistan.

Project Manager, T. J. ROBERTS

Vertebrate Pest Control Centre,

Post Box 8401,

Karachi University Campus,

Karachi-32,

Pakistan,

May 10, 1974.

Referen ces

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1924): The
Fauna of British India — Birds, Vols.
1 to 6. Taylor & Francis. London.

Hue, F. & Etchecopar, R. D.
(1970): ‘Les Oiseaux due Proche et
du Moyen Orient’. N. Boubee & Cie.
Paris.

Paludan, Knud (1959): ‘On the
Birds of Afghanistan’, Vidensk Medd.
Dank Naturh For. Vol. 122.

Ripley, Sidney Dillon (1961): A

Synopsis of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Bombay Natural History So-
ciety. Bombay.

Ticehurst, Claud B. (1922/24):
“The Birds of Sind”. The Ibis, Part I
to VIII, October 1922 to July 1924.

Vaurie, Charles (1965): The

Birds of the Palaearctic Fauna, Vol. 1
Non-Passeriformes, Vol. 2 Passerifor-
mes. H. F. & G. Witherby. London.

10. A NOTE ON THE BIRD PREDATORS OF THE DEATH’S
HEAD HAWKMOTH, ACHERONT1 A STYX W.

The sphingid Acherontia styx W. is a polyphagus pest noted on
sesamum, lab lab, brinjal, groundnut and jasmine. The caterpillar is
a defoliator. Sesamum is badly effected especially during the months
of September - November at Coimbatore with as much as 20% damage.
However, the outbreak is often effectively checked by birds that feed
on these fleshy caterpillars. The following are the birds that have been

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

205

observed preying on the caterpillars of Acherontia styx W. in sesamum
fields.

Corvus splendens Vieillot, Common House Crow

This is the most effective predator and observed in the field through-
out the day. The birds usually fly around the fields to locate the cater-
pillars and perch on any available support or walk around the bunds
to pick the caterpillars. They pick up the half to full grown caterpillars
while earlier instars usually escape. The birds identify the prey by the
light movement of the caterpillars and the swinging of the twigs caused
by the weight of the fleshy larvae. The predation can be effectively
increased by providing bamboo stakes in the fields at random locations.
It is interesting to note that these birds pick only the caterpillars of
A. styx even though the caterpillars are often found with Estigmene
lactinea and Euproctis faterna larvae and certain lygaeid bugs.

C. macrorhyiichos Wagler, Jungle Crow

This bird is also an effective predaior. However, they come in less
numbers than C. splendens, and are seen more in the morning hours.

Turdoides caudatus (Damont) Common Babbler

These birds fed on earlier instars of this sphingid. The birds fly
over and go deep into the field between the plants to pick the prey.
The common babblers’ nest was also been met with in the field.

Acridotheres tristis Linn., Common Myna

The common myna picks up the small earlier instars on the ground
in the field. Their activity was more during the earlier hours of the
morning, but visited the field throughout the day in small flocks of
three to five. Their food, included grasshoppers and crickets.

Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein), Black Drongo or King Crow

These birds were also frequently noted every day. Two or three
were seen perched on electric or telegraph lines over the field. They
just plunged into the field and took away large sized sphingids. Be-
sides the sphinx, this bird preys upon various other caterpillars and
lygaeid bugs too. Other insectivorus birds included the green bee-eater,
Merops orientalis Latham., the night- jar, Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham
and the common palm swift, Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein).

All these birds are very common (Fletcher and Inglis 1924; Salim
Ali 1967) and are a good check to pests like A. styx.

Department of Entomology, S. THIRUMURTHI

Tamil Nadu Agricultural E. V. ABRAHAM

University, Coimbatore,

June 28, 1973.

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

References

Ali, Salim (1969): The Book of Fletcher, T. B. & Inglis, M.
Indian Birds. Bombay Natural History (1924) : Birds of an Indian Garden.
Society, Bombay. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.

11. A NOTE ON TESTUDO HORSFIELDI GRAY, THE
AFGHAN TORTOISE OR HORSFIELD’S FOUR-TOED
TORTOISE

Five hatchlings of this species were picked up in the summer of
1967 in Baluchistan. I have kept them on the earth floor of a rather
spacious aviary in the Punjab, since that date.

Some of my observations on their behaviour do not appear to have
been recorded hitherto.

Description

It is a relatively robust and purely terrestrial tortoise, distinguished
from other species of the genus by having only four instead of five
claws on the fore feet.

The tail in male specimens appears slightly longer than those of the
females, and also the concavity in the posterior region of the plastron
is more marked and clearer than is the case with females. However,
I have not recorded sufficient measurements to substantiate this im-
pression. In both sexes the tail terminates in a horny nail, which is
again, slightly longer in that of the males.

The carapace is markedly flared along its posterior edges, so that
its width at the broadest point, just anterior to the hind legs, is roughly
ninety percent of its length. Minton (1966) records carapace length in
adults from 170 mm to 208 mm. In March 1974 I came across two
particularly massive specimens in the Sorkhab valley of Pishin District,
Baluchistan. One, which appeared to be a female measured approxi-
mately 220 mm carapace length and the other was approximately
210 mm.

Distribution

Murray (1884) recorded them as occurring in the Lakhi Hills of
Sind but there is no recent evidence of its occurance east of Baluchistan.
It is still fairly plentiful in that Province, at elevations between 5000
up to 7000 feet. I have found it as low as 3000 feet in the Chagai Dis-
trict, near Anam Bostan. It extends northwards into southern Wazir-
istan, specimens having been collected from Wano (Smith 1931). Else-
where it occurs in Afghanistan, Kazakhistan in the USSR, and in
northern Iran, westwards to the shores of the Caspian (Minton, op. cit).
Growth Rate

Minton (op. cit) records a hatchling given to him in August, hav-
ing a carapace length of 51 mm. Three years later it had grown to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

207

70 mm. 1 picked up a hatchling in March in Baluchistan, in which
the plastron was still quite soft and pliable. It measured 50 mm cara-
pace length and 46 mm width anterior to the hind legs. Another captive
born hatchling (described below) measured 49 mm carapace length.

The five young tortoises which provided most of the data for this
note measured from 56 to 58 mm carapace when given to me in Octo-
ber 1967. Having been picked up in Baluchistan during the earlier
part of summer, I presumed them to be between three and six months
old at that time. They are now eight years old and measure from 172
to 181 mm in carapace length. Growth in the intervening years cer-
tainly appeared more rapid to my casual observation, that I would
have anticipated. A relatively generous diet, available in captivity, may
not be significant since they are only active and feeding for about five
months in a year.

Habits

My captive specimens bury themselves completely from about mid
October until early March. I have recorded emergence on March 2
and March 15 in different years. Even when they are not in physical
proximity (one individual having buried itself in a separate corner of
the enclosure), it is significant that all five emerge within 24 hours
of each other. Aestivation occurs throughout June, July and the early
part of August (in the Punjab), even when plentiful drinking water
and forage is daily provided.

During their active periods, they feed mostly in the early morning
and late afternoon, partially burying themselves during the heat of the
day under any convenient object. In the wild they burrow into old
rodent holes or underneath overhanging stones. The many wild speci-
mens 1 have encountered, appeared quite wary and they can move
relatively quickly if they want to conceal themselves. They are capable
of climbing very steep hillsides and move with their plastron carried
well clear of the ground.

Breeding Behaviour

When they first emerge in March all the captive tortoises are very
active roaming round and round their enclosure. It is believed that
the males at this time are seeking females. I have often encountered
two and three tortoises in close proximity during March, in Baluchis-
tan. When they encounter another tortoise they approach it directly
until a few inches away. Then withdrawing the head and neck, they
almost run forward, and by raising the forelegs, endeavour to tip over
the other tortoise. I observed this reaction when both males and females
are encountered, but presumably females do not retaliate by attempt-
ing to push over their opponent, and this agonistic behaviour is the
only manner in which the males determine the sex of the encountered
individual (Carr 1968). I have seen tortoises successfully turned up-

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

side down on several occasions as a result of these “shoving matches”
but was always surprised to see how the victim was able to obtain
enough purchase with one wildly waving hind leg, to right itself un-
aided, especially if the ground was a little uneven. Frank Finn (1929)
described similar behaviour in the Indian Starred Tortoise ( Testudo
elegans) though this has not previously been recorded for T. horsefieldi
to my knowledge. It may well be a common courtship behaviour pat-
tern with the genus.

The Starred Tortoise, a typically oriental faunal species, is sexually
active at the onset of the rainy season in early August, whereas the
Afghan tortoise confines its sexual activity to March so that this may
be termed the rut season and is fairly typical of many hibernating
Palaearctic mammals, also.

In their sixth year of age in late March, I observed attempted copu-
lation, but no eggs were laid. In their seventh year, on March 22, 1973
I observed apparently successful copulation which lasted for about six
minutes. The male stood almost vertically on his hind legs with the
head and neck bent at right angles, and during this time he emitted
faint but clearly audible squeaking noises at intervals of about half a
second. This is the only occasion that I have ever heard vocalizations
though Annandale in Smith (1931) remarks that “when eating or
drinking, it occasionally emits a low croak like a frog”.

By chance, I was home from the office in mid-morning on April 25
of the same year, when a female was observed digging a nest hole.
She used only her hind feet, scrapping backwards with vigorous actions.
When discovered, the hole was about five inches deep and practically
completed. In it, she laid only two eggs. Each was surprisingly large
(considering the size of the mother) and almost spherical. I did not
measure these but estimated them to be fractionally under the size
of a ping pong ball (which has a diameter of 35 mm). Dr. Minton
(op. cit) gives the dimensions of one egg as 41 mm by 28 mm and
Smith (op. cit) records a female killed, containing five fully formed
eggs, which measured 50 mm by 35 mm. From the time of laying the
first egg till covering and tamping down the excavation, took hardly
twenty minutes. From these two eggs, which I made no attempt to
disturb, one tortoise hatched on July 10, 1973 (76 days after egg
laying). Unfortunately it appeared to have died of dessication when
it was discovered by my Mali (gardener) two days later.

Project Manager, TOM J. ROBERTS

Vertebrate Pest Control Centre,

Post Box 8401,

Karachi University Campus,

Karachi, Pakistan,

May 21, 1974.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

209

References

Carr, Archie (1968) : The Reptiles.
Time-Life International, Nederland.

Finn, Frank (1929): Sterndales

Mammalia of India. Thacker, Spink
& Co., Calcutta.

Minton, Sherman A. (1966) : A

Contribution to the Herpetology of
West Pakistan. Bull. American Mus.

of Nat. Hist. 1 34 (Article 2).

Murray, James A. (1884) : The
Vertebrate Zoology of Sind. Bombay,
India.

Smith, Malcolm A. (1931) : The
Fauna of British India, Reptilia and
Amphibia. Volume I. Loricata and Tes-
tudinae. Taylor and Francis, London.

12. THE OLIVE KEELBACK ( ATRET1UM SCHISTOSUM
RUSSELL) FEEDING ON MOSQUITO LARVAE

At the Madras Snake Park several local species of snakes are kept
in a large natural-foliage enclosure surrounded by a 4 ft cement wall
and moat. Frogs, mice and lizards are put in as food but the Olive
Keelback supplements its diet by actively hunting and feeding on mos-
quito larvae, probably Culex sp., average length 10 mm. We observed
300 mm long keelbacks swimming slowly along the smooth, algae
choked bottom and sides of the water moat. Occasionally lowering
or bending its head to the side while swimming, the snake disturbed
the algae and invariably several larvae would shoot out in their odd
jerky way. The Keelback would then grab at the larvae with its char-
acteristic sideways bending jab we have observed it using on frogs.
The larva is swallowed with a few quick ‘chews’. One specimen observ-
ed continuously for 25 minutes caught an average of 17 larvae per
5 minute period and we estimated that only 10% of the snake’s jabs
were failures. Larger specimens (i.e. females) have not been observed
catching larvae.

Considering bio-mass, this feeding behaviour seems a bit imprac-
tical. There are other snakes which regularly feed on invertebrates but
usually it is of a more logical size relationship, for instance, the Saw-
scaled Viper ( Echis carinatus) feeding on the large black scorpion
Heterometrus sp. The snakes observed were not in an emaciated state
so we consider this to be the normal feeding behaviour of the Olive
Keelback, exhibiting a modified frog hunting technique combined with
very good close vision and accuracy. Very little is known about the
feeding habits of Indian serpents.

Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER

Guindy Deer Park,

Madras-22,

June 29, 1973.

14

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

13. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN TOXICITY OF
VENOM OF THE COBRA AND EXTRACTION BY
VACUUM METHOD

Venom output studies are important to the Immunologist, the
Clinician and the Biochemist. The first one requires more venom of
sufficient toxicity for immunisation, the second one would like to know
the quantity for neutralisation in treatment and third for experimenta-
tion. These records for some Indian snakes were completed for pe-
riodicity, differences in male and female and the output in farm and
room (Deoras 1963, 1966). There are three varieties of Cobras show-
ing different head markings. They are geographically separated. The
monocellate is found in Bengal and Assam, and the Binocellate and
Acellate in other parts of India. The differences in the toxicity of these
three were not known. Secondly the vacuum method of extraction
of venom had not been tried in India. This has been done for cobra,
krait and Russel’s Viper.

Material and Methods

In the routine method stainless steel funnel as used by Deoras
(1963) was employed and the venom collected directly in the ampoule
This was deep-frozen and lyophilised and kept sealed under vacuum
at -4°C. In the second method, a glass bottle was held by clamp. A
thick plastic transparent sheet was firmly tied to the mouth by threads
and elastic tape. A glass tubing with a thin point was inserted in one
corner of the plastic cloth. The other end of the tubing was connect-
ed to a vacuum pump run on half horse power motor. Snake was made
to bite the cloth and the vacuum started. Venom trickled in the bottle
from the fangs.

The toxicity of the venom was worked out by I/V route in mice

Observations

Table No. 1 shows the maximum and minimum output of venom
from the three mark-different varieties of cobra ( Naja naja). The
month at the base of the figures indicates the period of maximum and
minimum output for each variety. The toxicity of the venom is highest
in the monocellate cobra, though the maximum output is more in
Acellate variety. Cobra is a powerful snake and after a bite it tries
to move the fangs thus not only tearing the cloth but also nullyfying
the vacuum. It is thus noted in Table No. 2 that there is no apparent

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

211

difference in the output of venom in cobra snakes by the vacuum
method and otherwise. The snake also exhibited convulsive movements
after the vacuum operations.

Table 1

Differential output of venom in gm from three hood mark varieties

of Cobras

( Naja naja)

(Naja naja

(Naja naja

Season

Month

Binocellate

oxiana)

kaouthia)

Acellate

Monocellate

1969

July

0.1116

0.4553

0.1824

Rainy

August

0.1479

0.1194

0.0423

September

0.1314

0.2894

0.1981

October

0.1511

0.2963

0.1481

November

0.1096

0.2663

0.1660

Winter

December

1970

0.1029

0.2807

0.1337

January

0.0875

0.1144

0.2272

Summer

February

0.0863

0.1238

0.1611

Average :

0.1160

0.2432

0.1573

TOXICITY

Binocellate

(Naja naja)

8.87

Monocellate

(Naja naja

kaouthia)

8.055

Acellate ( Naja naja oxiana)

19.57

Table 2

Differential output of venom

IN GM IN COBRAS WITH

MODIFIED

MILKING

METHODS

Month

Without

vacuum

With vacuum

1969

Male

Female

Male

Female

September

0.1518

0.1191

0.1438

0.1026

October

0.1838

0.0749

0.1356

0.0866

November

0.1552

0.0680

0.1097

0.0609

Average :

0.1636

0.0873

0.1297

0.0833

In the case of Krait (Bungarus caeruleus ) the teeth being small
and there being no further movements the vacuum method gave more
amount of venom as shown in Table No. 3. The snake after the bite
lifted the head releasing the grip as such it was easy to disentangle.
There is no apparent difference in the toxicity of venom collected by
the two methods as shown by Table 3.

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Table 3

Differential output of venom in gm in Kraits with modified

MILKING METHODS

Without

1968

vacuum

With vacuum
1969

With vacuum
1970

January

0.0097

April

0.0179

January

0.0115

February

0.0035

May

0.0236

February

0.0135

March

0.0047

June

0.0170

March

0.0172

April

0.0034

July

0.0210

April

0.0155

May

0.0148

August

0.0233

May

0.0231

November

0.0117

September

0.0207

June

0.0118

December

0.0064

October

0.0181

July

0.0139

1969

January

0.0098

November

0.0178

August

0.0151

February

0.0076

December

0.0169

September

0.0167

March

0.0079

October

0.0141

December

0.0133

Average

0.0080

0.0196

0.0150

Discussion

Karlsson & Eaker (1971) have shown differences in the amino acid
content of cobras collected from different geographical locations. Our
findings give an answer to his observation. Cobra snakes having diffe-
rent markings are believed to be more toxic or otherwise. Our present
findings show that the maximum output is given by the Acellate, but
the toxicity is more in Monocellate cobras. These would help the
clinicians to devise doses for curative purpose and the immunologist
to incorporate all these three venoms as a pool to get good results in
immunisation.

The vacuum method will now become a tool to collect more venom
from Krait snakes, as this has been in short supply for some time.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We are extremely thankful to the Director, Haffkine Institute for
all facilities during these investigations. University Grants Commission,
New Delhi, covered a grant for the Senior author and the Principal,
Patkar College, Bombay gave help from time to time; we are thankful
to them.

Haffkine Institute,
Bombay- 12,

July 25, 1973.

P. J. DEORAS
N. E. VAD

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

213

References

Deoras, P. J. (1963) : Studies on
Bombay yield records and their pro-
bable significance, chapter in “Veno-
mous and Poisonous Animals and
Noxious plants of Pacific Region”.
Pergamon Press. Oxford, p. 337.

(1966): Probable

significance of venom yield record
studies. Proc. Inter Symp. Ven. Ani-
mals Nem. Institute, Butantan 33:161.

Karlsso&, E. & Eaker, D. (1971) :
Isolation of the Principal neurotoxins
of Naja naja subspecies from the Asian
Mainland. Toxicon 70:217.

14. ON PSILOCEPHALUS BARBATUS (GRAY),

AN INTERESTING BALISTOID FISH TRAWLED OFF
GANJAM COAST, ORISSA

(With a text -figure)

Recently Shri S. K. Mohanty, Superintendent of Fisheries, Biolo-
gical Research Station, Balugaon, Orissa, sent the senior author a
specimen of Psilocephalus barbatus (Gray), trawled on 25.i.73, at 15
fathoms depth off Rushikulya river mouth, Ganjam Coast, Orissa. A
search of the Zoological Survey of India fish reserve collections re-
veals that the fish is represented by a single specimen collected by F.
Day from Madras coast. Day’s (1878 : 694) description and figure of
the species were based on this specimen. Regarding the habitat of the
fish he stated that the fish occurs in the “Seas of India to the Malaya
Archipelago. Is very common at Madras, especially the young. It at-
tains at least 10 inches in length.” There is, however, no record of this
fish from the Indian seas subsequent to that of Day and the present
record of it from Orissa coast is, therefore, of special significance.

We know next to nothing of the biology of Psilocephalus barbatus
eventhough it is found in shallow waters and the young according to
Day (op. cit.) is in abundance along the Madras coast. The presence
of a long fleshy barbel below the symphysis of the lower jaw strongly
indicates that the fish is bottom dwelling, but it will be interesting to
investigate, with its elongated snout and upturned mouth with small
incisiform teeth in the jaws, how the fish makes a living. The gut
content examined in the specimen available to us is found to mainly
consist of a mush of Polychaete worms.

P. barbatus is the only representative of the family Psilocephalidae
of the superfamily Balistoidea of the suborder Balistoidei. There are
two suborders of the order Tetraodontiformes (Plectognathi) namely,
Balistoidei (Sclerodermi) with three superfamilies (Triacanthoidea,
Balistoidea and Ostraciontoidea), and Tetraodontoidei with four super-
families (Triodontoidea, Tetraodontoidea, Diodontoidea and Moloidea).
The superfamily Balistoidea composed of the filefishes, triggerfishes

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

and the leather jackets, embraces four families namely, Balistidae, Mona-
canthidae, Aluteridae and Psilocephalidae.

A detailed description illustrated with a drawing made from the
present specimen (Zoological Survey of India, Regd. No. F 68912;
female) measuring 198 mm in T.L., is given below.

Psilocephalus barbatus (Gray)

1831. Anacanthus barbatus Gray, Zool. Miscll., p. 8. (type loc: Singapore).
1865. Psilocephalus barbatus Bleeker, Atlas Ichth., Vol. 5, pp. 5 & 143, pi.
226, fig. 1.

1878. Anacanthus barbatus Day, Fish. India, pt. 4, p. 694, pi. 179, fig. 1.
1889. Anacanthus barbatus Day, Fauna Brit. India, Fishes, Vol. 2, p. 483, fig.
173.

1955. Anacanthus barbatus Munro, Mar. Freshw. Fish. Ceylon, p. 276.

1962. Anacanthus barbatus Beaufort & Briggs, Fish. lndo-Austr. Arch., Vol.
11, pp. 344, 345.

Psilocephalus barbatus (Gray), a. Female; b. Male after Bleeker 1865.
D.I + 53 A. 65 P. 8 C. 10

Body elongate and strongly compressed; depth 9.3 times, head 3.5
in standard length; snout elongated 1.2 times, diameter of eye 7.0 in
head length. Mouth upturned, small and curved, incisifonn teeth in
two rows in upper jaw and one row in lower jaw. A fleshy barbel
below the symphysis of the lower jaw, which is thick at the base and
gradually tapering into a thread, 2.0 times in head length. Gill open-
ing about as long as eye. Origin of pectorals slightly behind the posterior
edge of the eye. The first dorsal fin in the form of a single flexible
spine situated over the hind border of the eye, the length of the second
dorsal fin base 3.0 times, and anal fin base 2.4 in standard length;
pelvic absent; caudal fin wedge-shaped, it is longer than head, 2.5
times in standard length. Length of the caudal peduncle 7.3 times in
standard length, its depth 2.5 times in its length. Distance between the
anterior tip of snout and origin of first dorsal fin 3.8 times, that be-
tween the anterior tip of snout and origin of second dorsal fin 2.0 and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

215

that between the anterior tip of snout and origin of anal fin 2.2 in
standard length.

Colour in preserved specimen is uniformly dull brown on body
with the caudal black, dorsal, anal and pectoral whitish. The six vertical
dark caudal bands seen in the male ( vide Bleeker’s figure) are absent
in our specimen and probably well marked only in the male.

A skinny prolongation on the throat extending as far as the anal
base ( vide Bleeker’s figure) is a secondary sexual character of the
male.

Distribution. From east coast of India through Indo- Australian
archipelago to Philippines and to Queensland and West Australia.

Zoological Survey of India, A. G. K. MENON

Calcutta, T. K. CHATTERJEE

June 20, 1973.

References

Bleeker, P. (1865): Atlas Ichthyol. Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India,
Indes. Orient. Nepal. 5, pp. 1-152, pt. 4, pp. 553-778, pis. 134-195, Lon-
pls. 1-231. don.

15. ON THE OCCURRENCE AND BREEDING OF LABEO
ROHITA (HAMILTON) IN A SECTION OF NARBADA RIVER
IN GUJARAT STATE

Labeo rohita (Hamilton) is widely cultured all over India and is
the most esteemed fish in Bengal and Orissa. The natural distribution
of this fish, as recorded by Day (1878), is from Sind and the Punjab
along upper India and Assam as far as Burma, though it is now known
to occur in Peninsular India in the Hirakud stretch of the Mahanadi
Job et al. 1955), the Godavari river system (Alikunhi & Chaudhuri
1951) and the lower reaches of Godavari and Krishna rivers (David
1963). Of the two important westerly flowing rivers of Peninsular In-
dia, this fish is not known to occur in Narbada (Anon. 1956; Hora &
Nair 1941; and Rajan & Kaushik 1958), though recently this fish has
been recorded from Tapti, where it was accidently transplanted (Ka-
ramchandani & Pisolkar 1967). The nonavailability of this species in
Narbada was also indicated by the enquiries made from fishermen
during fishery survey of 1958-59 and the observations on the capture
fishery of the entire stretch of the river in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat
State (1958-1966).

While exploring new fish seed resources in the lower stretches of

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Narbada river in Gujarat State during south-west monsoon season of
the years 1959 to 1964, the occurrence and breeding of Rohu were
observed in a section of Narbada river during 1960 monsoon season.
The evidence thereof are reported in the present note.

The representative samples of carp spawn collected at Malsar,
Poicha and Mangrol centres from Narbada river from 30.vi.1960 to
29.ix.1960 were reared in the field laboratory and the local nursery
tanks, with a view to ascertaining the quality of Narbada seed. The
percentage composition of rohu, catla, mrigal and the minor carps in
the Narbada seed collected at various centres was found to be as
follows : —

Centres

Percentage

composition of

Rohu

Catla

Mrigal

Minor carps

Mangrol

4.97

67.7

11.18

16.15

Malsar

4.0

65.0

25.0

6.0

Poicha

—

12.1

66.3

21.6

Since

the seasonal tanks at

these centres

were stocked

exclusively

with Narbada fish seed, these observations have conclusively indicated
that Rohu not only occurs in Narbada river but also breeds success-
fully during monsoon season in the lower reaches of this river above
Mangrol. These observations are particularly significant in view of the
belief that rohu does not occur in Narbada (Anon. 1956).

The occurrence of rohu in Narbada river, as reported above, appears
to be the result of accidental stocking. Recently, Karamchandani &
Pisolkar (1967) reported accidental transplantation of catla and rohu
into Tapti river from Vyara tank through Mindhola river. The culture
of major carps namely catla, rohu, mrigal and kalbasu in large tanks
all over the country, by transplanting their seed from natural habitats,
is an age old practice. The occurrence of rohu in some of the major
rivers of Peninsular India (Job et al. 1955; Alikunhi & Chaudhuri
1951; David 1963, and Karamchandani & Pisolkar 1967), well out-
side the range of its natural distribution (Day 1878), seems to point
out that the involuntary and accidental transplantation of major carps
from over-flooded stocking tanks during monsoon floods directly into
the rivers or through their tributaries is a common feature and perhaps
has been mainly responsible for their subsequent wide distribution in
the country. In the present case, the overflowing of stocked tanks during
monsoon seasons must be the reason for the presence of rohu in Nar-
bada river.

Karamchandani et al. (1967) have observed that the percentage
of major carps in the commercial catches of Narbada river is extremely
poor. The occurrence and the breeding of rohu in Narbada river have

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

217

conclusively indicated that this fish is capable of thriving in Narbada
river. Extensive stocking of rohu and other major carp species in Nar-
bada river appears to be desirable with a view to augment their fisheries
as well as enrich the resources of the quality fish seed of this river.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director for his interest in
this work and to Shri J. C. Malhotra, Fishery Scientist, for going
through the manuscript. Their grateful thanks are due to the Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for confirming the identification.

Narbada-Tapti Unit, S. J. KARAMCHANDANI1

Central Inland Fisheries P. K. PANDIT2

Research Institute,

Hoshangabad (M.P.),

March 30, 1974.

References

Alikunhi, K. H. & Chaudhuri, H.
(1951) : On the occurrence of Labeo
rohita (Hamilton) in Godavari river
system. Sci. & Cult., 16 (II) : 527.

Anonymous (1956): Revised Re-
port on Fisheries Extension work in
Madhya Bharat. Bull. No. 3, Dept, of
Fisheries, Govt, of Madhya Bharat,
Gwalior, 14 p. (mimeo).

David, A. (1963): Studies on fish
and fisheries of the Godavary and
Krishna river system — Part I. Proc.
nat. Acad. Sci. India (B) 33( 2):263-
286.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of In-
dia, London.

Hora, S. L. & Nair, K. K. (1941):
Fishes of the satpura range, Hosh-
angabad District, Central Provinces.
Rec. Indian Mus. 43(3) : 361-373.

Job, T. J., David, A. & Das, K. N.
(1955): Fishes and fisheries of the

Mahanadi in relation to the Hirakud
Dam. Indian J. Fish.

KARAMCHANDANI, S. J., DESAI, V. R.,
PlSOLICAR, M. D. & Bhatnagar, G. K.
(1967) : Biological investigations on
fish and fisheries of Narbada river
(1958-1966). Bull. Centr. Ini. Fish.
Inst., Barrackpore No. 10, p. 40 (Mi-
meo).

- — — & Pisolkar, M. D.

(1967) : Survey of the fish and fishery
of the Tapti river. Survey Rep. Centr.
Ini. Fish. Res. Inst., Barrackpore. No.
4. p. 49 (Mimeo).

Rajan, S. J. & Kaushik, D. K.
(1958): Boori Narbada makes a good
fish breeding sanctuary. Indian Fmg.
7(12) : 20-23.

Present address: 1 Small Resrvoirs Unit, Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute, Rewa (M.P.).

2 Central Fisheries, Kakdwip P.O., Dist. 24 Parganas, West
Bengal.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

16. NEW RECORDS OF OFFSHORE FISHES FROM THE
WEST COAST OF INDIA

While collecting marine animals in March, 1971 from otter trawl
hauls made over a rocky bottomed continental slope off Quilon coast
(Kerala) at depths ranging from 135-150 fathoms, the following spe-
cies were obtained. The sharks, Scyliorhinus ( Halaelurus ) natalensis
(Regan) 1904 known from the coast of Natal and Proscyllium alcocki
Misra, 1950 fro mthe Andaman Sea. A ray Narcine mollis Lloyd 1907
known from Gulf of Aden and now reported for the first time from
the west coast of India. In addition, a brotulid, Neobythites squami-
pinnis (Alcock) 1889 known from Bay of Bengal and Zanzibar, a
triglid, Trigla hemisticta Schlegel 1842 from Muscat, off Madras and
Japan and a triacanthodid, Mephisto jraserbrunneri Tyler 1966 from
Andaman Sea and off Somalia are also new records for the west coast
of India.

Marine Biological Station, K. V. RAMA RAO

Zoological Survey of India,

10, Leith Castle South Street,

Madras-28,

July 25, 1973.

17. A NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS (CYPRINIFORMES :
CYPRINIDAE) FROM KHASI & JAINTIA HILLS
(MEGHALAYA), INDIA

(With a text- figure)

The fish described here has often been confused with Puntius ticto
(Ham.) (Day 1889; Misra 1862), for both appear alike due to their
small size and presence of spot on the tail. However, a detailed exa-
mination of this fish undertaken recently has revealed the fact that
it represents a new species closely related to Puntius ticto.

Puntius shalynius sp. nov.

Diagnosis :

Carp-minnow without barbels, having the last undivided dorsal ray
serrated; 6-7 scales in the transverse and 20-23 scales in the longitudinal
row; lateral line incomplete, ending on or before 11th scale; two black
spots on tail and a horizontal blue line on the body.

Description :

B. 3; D. 3/7; P. 13-14; V. 1/7; A. 2/5; C. 18-20

Greatest depth of body 28.6 to 37.8, length of head 26.0 to 34.10,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

219

length of caudal peduncle 18.6 to 23.00, depth of caudal peduncle
12.25 to 17.35, longest ray of dorsal 21.60 to 29.10, length of caudal
26.00 to 37.20; all in standard length. Height of head 73.30 to 84.60,
length of snout 25.00 to 30.80, post-orbital head length 40.00 to 46.20,
interorbital head length 30.40 to 46.20, eye-diameter 25.00 to 33.30,
all in head length.

2 cm.

Puntius shalynius sp. nov.

Dorsal profile a little more convex than the ventral profile; origin
of dorsal nearer the base of caudal than the tip of snout; three undi-
vided dorsal rays, the first almost indistinct and the third longest with
serration on its posterior face; barbels absent; scale sfairly big, hexa-
gonal with anterior margins distinctly wavy; lateral line incomplete,
ceasing on or before 11th scale and variable between two sides in the
same individual; 20 to 30 scales in the longitudinal and 6 to 7 scales
in the transverse rows; 3 to 4 scales between base of dorsal and lateral
line and to 3^ scales between lateral line and base of ventral; 9 to
10 scales before dorsal. In some males, minute white tubercles present
on head.

Colour variable (in spirit) : Females yellow to black on sides and
back, silvery below; scales black-edged; fins mostly orange with light
blackish tinge; Males more blackish in appearance, fins except caudal
jet black. Two spots on either side of the tail in both sexes, the anterior
one (situated nearly opposite the end of the anal) more distinct than
the posterior (situated near the base of caudal); a blue horizontal
line along the middle or body and minute black spots on sides of head.
T ype-specimens :

The type-specimens are deposited in the National Collection, Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Holotype : Male, total length 58.0 mm from Barapani lake.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

c. 20 km north of Shillong, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, Coll. S. K. Talukdar,
February 11, 1972, altitude 1,100 metres. Reg. No. V/ERS 511, Zoolo-
gical Survey of India.

Paratypes : Nine specimens, total lengths 28.5 to 60.0 mm; out of
which one (Allotype), total length 53.5 mm, with same data as that
of holotype and two from Mawpat c 1 km NE of Shillong, coll. G. M.
Yazdani, September 3, 1970; three from Mylliem c 25 km SW of Shil-
long, coll. S. K. Chanda, March 18, 1971; three from a tank at Jowai,
Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya, coll. K. Reddiah, December 18, 1960. Reg.
No. V/ERS 512-515, Zoological Survey of India.

Relationship :

Puntius shalynius belongs to that group of Puntius spp. which lack
barbels and possess serration on the last undivided dorsal ray. It, how-
ever, differs from all the species of this group by having 7 (vs 8)
branched rays in the dorsal and can be distinguished further from its
close ally, Puntius ticto, by 6-7 (vs 12) scales in the transverse row,
a horizontal blue line on the body and two spots on the tail.

Remarks :

Puntius shalynius, the specific name of which is derived from local
(Khasi & Jaintia) name ‘shalym , occurs in most streams, lake and
pools in the Khasi & Jaintia hills. Sehegal (1959) reported Puntius ticto
from Shillong, Jowai and Jaintiapur in these hills. Although we have
examined a large collection of Puntius spp. from the eastern Indian
region, we have not come across P. ticto in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
We, therefore, feel that Sehegal’s records of P. ticto from Shillong,
Jowai and Jaintiapur are due to erroneous identification. This fish is
eaten by the local people and is of some commercial value.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, former Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing the opportunity and to Dr. R.
S. Pillai, Superintending Zoologist of this Station for encouragement
and advice.

Zoological Survey of India, G. M. YAZDANI

Western Regional Station,

Poona-5.

Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta- 12,

July 15, 1974.

S. K. TALUKDAR

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

221

References

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of
British India, including Ceylon and
Burma. Fishes Vol. I, xviii + 548 p.,
164 figs. — London (Taylor & Francis).

Misra, K. S. (1962) : An aid to the
identification of the common com-

mercial fishes of India and Pakistan.
Rec. Indian Mus. 57 : 1-320.

Sehegal, K. L. (1959) : Two new
fish records from Assam. /. Bombay
nat. Hist . Soc. 56: 147-149.

18. ON TWO SPECIES OF TICKS (IXODOIDEA: IXODIDAE)
ON A TIGER FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH

During a recent faunistic survey in the Siang district, Arunachal
Pradesh twelve tick specimens were collected from the body of a tiger
which had been killed by tribals in the forested mountain of Kaying,
20 Km north of Along. The tick specimens belong to two different
species and are reported here.

1. Haemaphysalis (Kaiseriana) davisi Hoogstraal, Dhanda & Bhat.

5 & & , Arunachal Pradesh: Kaying (Alt. 400 metres), Siang dis-
trict, lO.ii. 1973 from Tiger, Panthera tigris.

The species has been described in detail only recently (Hoogstraal
et al. 1970) from collections made in Burma, Sikkim and Arunachal
Pradesh. Recorded hosts of adults from Arunachal are gaur, cattle,
goat and mules but elsewhere hosts include tiger, hog badger and
barking deer. The present specimens collected at Kaying show excep-
tionally developed postero-external juncture of palpal segment 2. The
available records show its occurrence in tropical and temperate zones
between 145 - 2700 metre altitude.

2. Ixodes (Partipalpiger) ovatus Neumann.

3 cf cJ1 and 4 9$, Arunachal Pradesh : Kaying, Siang district,
lO.ii. 1973 from Tiger, ( Panthera tigris).

Another asiatic species, which is distributed according to Hoog-
straal et al. (1973) in Burma, China (Tibet), Japan, India (Jammu;
Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh), Nepal, Taiwan and Thailand.
Recorded hosts include birds (Pheasant), wild dog, jackal, deer, goral,
serow, domestic dog and cattle. Tiger is thus a new host for this species
and its record from Kaying extends its distribution within Arunachal.
It may be added that members of the genus Ixodes are normally highly
specialized in their habits and frequently parasitize seldom-examined
hosts which may explain lack of any previous record of Ixodes from
Tiger. Hoogstraal et al. (op. cit.) have recently erected a new sub-
genus Partipalpiger for accommodating /. ovatus which shows a number
of unique and unusual features in both adult and immature stages and
shares characters of Ixodes s. str., Afrixodes and Exopalpiger.

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. Harry Hoogstraal, Head of the Medical Zoology De-
partment, United States Naval Medical Research Unit No. 3, Egypt
for his valuable help in the determination of tick specimens and Dr.
R. S. Pillai, Officer-in-Charge, E.R.S., Z.S.I. for working facilities.

Eastern Regional Station, A. K. GHOSH

Zoological Survey of India,

Shillong,

November 16, 1973.

References

Hoogstraal, H., Dhanda, V. &
Bhat, H. R. (1970): Haemaphysalis
( Kaiseriana ) davisi sp. n. (Ixodoidea:
Ixodidae), a parasite of domestic and
wild mammals in Northeastern India,
Sikkim and Burma. J. Parasit. 56 :
588-595.

, Clifford, C. M.,

Saito, Y. & Keirans (1973) : Ixodes
(Parti pal pi ger) ovatus Neumann, Sub-
gen. Nov. : Identity, Hosts, Ecology,
and distribution. (Ixodoidea: Ixo-

didae). J. Med. Ent. 10(2) : 157-164.

19. PREFERENTIAL FEEDING IN CAPTIVITY BY A FRESH
WATER CRAB, POTAMON AT KIN SON 1 AND M WOOD-MASON
(CRUSTACEA: POTAMONIDAE) ON NOTONECTA
UN DU LATA (INSECT A : HEMIPTERA)

Potamon atkinsonianum Wood-Mason was recently collected and
identified by me from the fresh waters of the Poonch valley. The abun-
dance of this crab varied in different localities of the valley in associa-
tion with microcrustaceans, aquatic insects and small fishes. This note
is an account of the selective feeding by this crab on the aquatic insect
Notonecta undulata.

Five specimens of the crab were captured between 12- 15th Novem-
ber 1970 with specially designed nets of c.22 cm diameter and one
metre scoop. They were brought alive to the laboratory for observa-
tion. Of the five, two were male and 3 were female. One male was
kept in an aquarium, to study its preferential feeding on some aquatic
insects collected from the same habitat. Various aquatic insects which
were collected from the same locality as the crab were given as meals
to the crab. The insects included Gerris sp., Nepa sp., Dysticus margi-
nalis, Notonecta undulata and Hydrophilus sp.

In addition, nymphs and larvae of chironomids, mayflies and Odo-
nata were also used. Among this variety of possible food the crab

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

223

favoured Notonecta undulata as food. The table givees the data of the
experimental feeding of the crab.

Table

Date

Species of
Insect

Number of
insects given

Number of
insects taken

16.xi.1970

Nepa sp.

16

1

17.xi.1970

Notonecta undulata

7

7

18.xi.1970

Gerris sp.

10

2

19.xi.1970

Hydrophilus sp.

5

1

20.xi.1970

Notonecta undulata

15

15

21.xi.1970

Chironomids

10

8

22.xi.1970

Mayflies (Larvae)

6

2

23.xi.1970

Odonata (Larvae)

14

3

In the

available literature on the

Potamonidae of

India, there is

no specific reference to the occurrence of the crab Potamon atkinsoni-
anum Wood-Mason in the Poonch Valley. This note is therefore, a first
record of the crab from the Poonch Valley.

Department of Zoology, B. D. SHARMA

Government College,

Poonch, (Jammu & Kashmir),

July 3, 1971.

20. RECORD OF NEW HOST-PLANTS OF FOUR
AGROMYZIDS

The Agromyzids, destructive in larval stages, not only devour the
pallisade and spongy mesenchymatous tissues and largely avoid the
endodermal cells containing starch (Trehan & Sehgal 1963), but also
render the seeds unfit for human consumption and sowing purposes.
The mines caused by the larvae are irregular linear and distinct but,
in certain cases, they anastomose. The following four Agromyzids have
been collected from the host plants shown under each.

1. Liriomyza brassicae Ril.

Spencer (1961) has reported this species from New Delhi, Singa-
pore, Manila (Philippines), and Colombo (Ceylon), from leaf mines
on cauliflower; Cleome graveolens Rafin; and Gynandropsis speciosa
D.C. Sehgal & Trehan (1963) have bred L. brassicae from the leaf
mines on Brassica campestris L. and Trapaeolum majus L. at Chandi-
garh and Ferozepur (Punjab), and Ranchi (Bihar). The following five
host plants at Damoh, Madhya Pradesh, form new records of hosts.

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

Species of host plant

Brassica juncea Czerm & Coss (Cruciferae)
Dahlia variabilis Desf. (Compositae)

Reseda odorata L. (Resedaceae)
Trapaeolum minus L. (Trapaeolaeae)
Verbena phlogiflora Cham. (Verbenaceae)

Date of

COLLECTION

17.11.1966
19.iii.1965

18.11.1966
7.ii. 1966

26.iv.1966

2. MeSanagroinyza theae Green

This Agromyzid is active during the rainy season though the da-
mage is not noticed till November. M. theae has been bred from the
mines on the leaves of the following host plants:

Species of host plant

Argyreia sericea Dalz. & Gibs. (Convolvulaceae)
Clitoria pilosula Wall. (Papilionaceae)

Gossypium hirsutum Linn. (Malvaceae)

Sida acuta Burm. (Malvaceae)

Date of

COLLECTION

18.ix.1965

17.ix.1965

28.ix.1966

7.X.1965

G. hirsutum has been collected from village Berdi (Distt. Chhind-
wara), Madhya Pradesh, and the three other hosts have been collected
from Damoh, Madhya Pradesh.

3. Opfaiomyia (= Melanagromyza) feeckeri Hd.

Sehgal & Trehan (1963) had bred M. beckeri for the first time
from the Oriental region from the host plant Launea nudicaulis (Com-
positae). This species has now been noted on the following host plants
at Damoh, Madhya Pradesh.

Species of host plant

Launea asplenifolia D C. (Compositae)
Sonchus arvensis Linn. (Compositae)

Date of

COLLECTION

l.iii. 1965
16.V.1966

4. Pseudonapomyza asiatica Spencer

Spencer (1961) has recorded P. asiatica from Singapore, Bombay
and Hyderabad from the leaf mines on Cynodon dactylon Pers., Era-
grostis sp. and rice. Sehgal & Trehan (1963) bred this species from
leaf mines on C. dactylon Pers. Oryza sativa L. and Eragrostis nigra
Nees. The species has been now bred from the leaf mines on the follow-
ing host plants at Damoh, Madhya Pradesh.

Species of host plant

Eragrostis pilosa Beauv. (Graminae)
Zea mays L. (Graminae)

Date of

COLLECTION

lO.viii. 1966
9.viii. 1966

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

225

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Mr. S. C. Sen Gupta, Director and Dr. A. Bhatta-
charya. Entomologist, for providing the facilities to work; to Mr. B. P.
Mehra, Scientific Officer, for scrutinising the manuscript; to Mr. K. A.
Spencer, London, for identifying the agromyzids; and to Mr. S. Ke-
dharnath and Mr. H. B. Naithani, Forest Research Institute, Dehra
Dun, for identifying the host plants.

Indian Lac Research Institute, R. S. GOKULPURE

Namkum, Ranchi, Bihar,

September 17, 1971.

References

Sehgal, V. K. & Trehan, K. N.
(1963) : On some dipterous leaf

miners from India. (Diptera : Agro-
myzidae). Indian J. Ent. 25(1): 17-20.

Spencer, K. A. (1961) : A synopsis
of the Oriental Agromyzidae (Dip-

tera). Trans. R. ent. Soc. London 113
(4): 87, 92-93.

Trehan, K. N. & Sehgal, V. K.
(1963) : Range of host plants and
larval feeding in Phytomyza atricornis
Mg. (Diptera: Agromyzidae). Ento-

mologist’s mon. Mag. 99: 1-3.

21. NEW ALTERNATE HOST RECORD OF LEAF ROLLER,
MARASMIA TRAPEZALIS GN.

(LEPIDOPTERA : PYRALIDAE)

The leaf roller, Marasmia trapezalis Gn. has been recorded on
maize, Jowar, bajra, ragi, and cane as a minor pest. During the
course of field observations, Marasmia trapezalis was noticed on Para
grass ( Brachiaria mutica Raddi). To record its incidence, 60 plants
growing on bunds, were observed for counting the number of cater-
pillars and damaged leaves. The larva lives in a folded leaf and strips
the upper surface so that the leaf turns white and dries. The average
number of caterpillars and damaged leaves per plant was found to be
1 and 3 respectively.

The para grass Brachiaria mutica, is a new alternate host of Maras-
mia trapezalis. In combating the pest on main crop it is suggested
that bunds should be kept clean to reduce their multiplication.

J. N. K. Vishva Vidyalaya, R. K. PATEL

Jabalpur, M.P., B. S. CHOUDHARY

March 30, 1972. A. K. KHATRI

15

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

22. FURTHER COLLECTION OF THE SYRPHIDAE
(DIPTERA) FROM CENTRAL INDIA

R. S. Gokulpure’s note under the above heading in this Journal,
Vol. 6#(3):848 states that the Syrphidae play an important part in
checking aphids. This remark, without qualification, may give rise to
misunderstanding as many Syrphids do not feed on aphids in the
larval stages.

I quote from Imm’s textbook of entomology as under: — The
larval habits of Syrphidae are extremely varied. They may be: — (a)
Phytophagous, feeding externally upon plants ( Mesogramma polita) or
internally in bulbs ( Merodon equestris, Eumerus strigatus) or within
stems or in fungi ( Chilosia ). (b) Carnivorous, living predaceously upon
aphids and the nymphs of other Flomoptera (species of Pipiza, Paragus,
Melano stoma, Baccha, Syrphus, etc.), (c) Saprophagous, living in de-
caying organic material, dung, liquid mud or dirty water (species of
Eristalis, Helophilus, Platychirus, Sericomyia, Syritta, Tropidia, etc.) :
in the sap and wet rotting wood of diseased parts of trees ( Xylota ,
Mallota, Myriatropa, Myiolepta, Ceria, etc.): or as scavengers in the
nests of ants and termites ( Microdon ) or of Aculeate Hymenoptera
( Volucella ).

From the above it will be seen that not all Syrphids are the
gardener’s friends.

P.O. Box 95206, D. G. SEVASTOPULO

Mombasa,

April 16, 1972.

23. ON A NEW SUBSPECIES OF AETHUS LAT1COLLIS
WAGNER (HEMIPTERA : HETEROPTERA : CYDNIDAE)
AS A SERIOUS PEST OF PENNISETUM TYPHOIDES
(BURM.) IN INDIA

(With two text-figures)

A small collection of burrower bugs of the genus Aethus have been
submitted for identification by Dr. Gurdev Singh Sandhu, Entomo-
logist (Maize), Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, with
a short note reporting their appearance as serious pest of Pennisetum
typhoides (Burm.), commonly known as Bajra or Bajri, a millet crop
traditionally cultivated as Barani crop in semi-arid areas around Delhi,
Rajasthan, Haryana and South East Punjab. Dr. Sandhu also informs
that this new pest is now shifting to Wheat in sandy areas of Punjab.

Examination of the specimens revealed that they belong to a new

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

227

subspecies of Aethus laticollis Wagner (1954, pp. 1-3). Hitherto, this
species has been known from Canary Is., Southern Europe, North
Africa and adjoining areas, more or less between latitude 30-35 North.
The present finding of a new subspecies between the same latitudes
but a little eastward is not surprising. As far as it is known Aethus
laticollis or its allies have never been reported as pest of economic
crops from any area of their distribution, prior to Dr. Sandlin’ s report.
The appearence of the new subspecies as a serious pest is therefore
unusual. The reason for a sudden increase in its population could be
attributed to the ecological changes being brought about as a result
of artificial irrigation in and around traditionally semi-arid districts of
Ludhiana, Ferozepur etc. A parallel case occurred in the districts of
Lower Baluchistan and Upper Sind, Pakistan, in the early thirties of
this century (Ahmad & Ghauri 1953).

There the scanty annual rainfall maintained a limited, nevertheless
a fluctuating population in direct proportion to the amount of moisture
available, of two species of Gryllids, Acheta domestica (Linneaus) and
Acheta hispanica (Rambur). With the advent of canal irrigation, vast
areas began to receive regular moisture. The new irrigation facilities
were planned to be utilised for extensive cotton growing by the then
British Cotton Growing Association, in India. The supply of moisture
coupled with the cotton seeds and seedlings serving the crickets as
food gave such a boost to their population that within a short period
their small and scattered pockets rose steeply in numbers and assumed
out-break proportions. The damage inflicted to the newly introduced
Cotton crop was so serious that after a few futile attempts to control
the pests, the B.C.G.A. had to abandon their project in these areas.
Aethus Dallas

Dallas, 1851, pp. 110 & 112. Type species, Cydnus indicus Westwood,
1837, p. 19.

Aethus laticollis Wagner subspecies orientalis ssp. n.

Colour.

Dark brown to chestnut brown, more or less similar to that of no-
minate species.

Size.

Total length of body 3.75-4.00 mm, maximum width at about mid-
dle of body 2.50-2.75 mm.

Structure.

Ocelli prominent, space between them slightly more than 1 \ times
width of an eye (4.00 : 2.85); width of vertex between eyes 2\ times
width of an eye (6.45 : 2.85), total width of head across eyes 4 times
width of an eye (11.33 : 2.85); eyes prominent. Paramere (clasper)

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

with subapical lobe very prominent, apex slightly conical, setose margin
appreciably concave, marginal denticulation very clear, dorsoventral
setae extending upto middle of paramere; aedeagus and theca similar
to that of Aethus /. laticollis Wagner.

Fig. 1. Left paramere of Aethus laticollis ssp. n. Fig. 2. Left paramere of Aethus
/. laticollis Wagner, based on the d paratype in the British Museum (Natural

History), London.

Comments.

The new subspecies differs from its nominate form mainly in its
prominent ocelli and eyes, narrower vertex and the apex, the subapical
lobe and more numerous setae of paramere (compare fig. 1 and 2).

Holotype d , Ludhiana, ix. 1971 ( Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana. ); paratypes 2 d d7* and 1 9 , same data as holotype; deposited
in the British Museum (Natural -History), London.

Vidal (1949) and Stichel (1961) illustrated and described Aethus

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

229

laticollis Wagner under the name of Aethus pilosulus Klug {vide
Wagner 1954, pp. 2-3).

ACK N OWLEDGE M EN TS

I take this opportunity to express my thanks to Dr. P. Freeman,
Keeper, Department of Entomology, British Museum (Natural His-
tory), London, for facilities provided. Thanks are also due to Dr. G.
S. Sandhu who supplied the material.

Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, M. S. K. GHAURI
56, Queen’s Gate,

London, S.W.7,

February 17, 1972.

References

Ahmad, T. & Ghauri, A. S. K.
(1953) : Studies on Acheta domestica
(Linn.) I. Biology and Habits. Agric.
Pakistan 4 : 235-286.

Dallas, W. S. (1851): List of the
specimens of hemipterous insects in
the collection of the British Museum.
Pt. 1., 368 p., 11 plus.

Stichel, W. (1961): Illustriete Bes-

timmungstabellen der Wanzen. II
Europa (Hemiptera-Heteroptera Euro-
pae) (Cydnidae) vol. 4, 22 heft: 688.

Wagner, E. (1954): Neue Hetero-
pteren von den Kanarischen Inseln.
Commentat. biol. (1) 74T-28.

Westwood, J. O. (1837) : Catalogue
of Hemiptera in the collection of the
Rev. F. W. Hope. London.

24. DATURA SUAVEOLENS H.B. EX WILLD.
(SOLANACEAE)— FROM DISTRICT CHAMOLI IN
WESTERN HIMALAYAS

Datura suaveolens H.B. ex. Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 227.

An indigenous species of Mexico introduced in India as an orna-
mental plant. Raizada (1931) recorded it, growing in shady places in
perfectly naturalized conditions, from Dehradun of upper Gangetic
plain. In 1936 Raizada further gave its account.

During a floristic field study of Karanprayag block in Chamoli
district I collected this species, from village Jakh, Tallachandpur, near
Manda Khali on 24.vi.72. Nautiyal 5502, 145 m; wild in dry exposed ha-
bitat.

The taxon is distinguished by its shrubby habit and large, pendulous,
white, sweet scented, flowers.

Department of Botany,

Meerut University,

Meerut,

June 18, 1973.

K. N. NAUTIYAL

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

References

Raizada, M. B. (1931): Contribu- (1936): Recently

tion to Duthie s Flora of the Upper introduced or otherwise imperfectly
Gangetic plain from the neighbour- known plants from the Upper Gan-
hood of Dehradun. J. Indian Bot. Soc. getic Plain, ibid. 75(2) : 149-67.

10: 155-58.

25. A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF
SPERGULARIA RUBRA (LINN.)

J. & C. PRESL. (CARYOPITYLLACEAE)

Spergularia rubra (Linn.) J. & C. Presl. is a caryphyllaceous
common arable weed of cultivated fields. It is widely distributed in
North and West Asia and throughout Europe. Although it is reported
from the plains of Punjab and adjacent areas, this is the first report
of its occurrence in Delhi.

The correct nomenclature, and ecological notes of this taxon are
given here.

Spergularia rubra (Linn.) J. & C. Presl. FI. Cechica 94. 1819-

Arenaria rubra Linn. Sp. PI. 423. 1753 — Spergula rubra (Linn.) Dietr.
Sym. PI. 2: 1598. 1840; Edgew. & Hook f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1 : 144.

1874; Duthie FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1. 64. 1960 (repr. ed.).

Spergularia rubra is infrequent on old alluvial soils and is absent
on recent alluvial, low lying alluvial and residual soils of Delhi.

Specimens examined; Delhi : Alipur, Bhat WW 382 (Herb, of S.S.
College). Flowers and fruits: February- April.

Dept, of Botany, J. L. BHAT

Swami Shraddhanand College, S. KUMAR

Alipur, Delhi- 110 036,

July 21, 1973.

26. NOTES ON SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM
SOUTH INDIA— III
{With a photograph)

Cissus vitiginea Linn. Sp. PI. 117. 1753; Planchon in DC. Monogr.
Phan. 5(2): 472. 1883; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 2: 234. 1918.
Vitis linnaei Wall, ex Wt. & Arn. 1: 126. 1834; Lawson in Hook,
f. FI. Brit. India 1: 649. 1874; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 1:268. 1958
(rep. ed.). V. vitiginea (Linn.) Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2: 201.
1921.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

231

Since Linnaeus’ publication the climbing habit of the plant has
been emphasized by all workers, including Planchon (1883) who has
done a monographic study of the taxon on a world basis. Apparently
the additional arboreal habit of this plant seems to have escaped notice.

Cissus vitiginea Linn.

(Bairani, Diguvametta, Nallamalais, Andhra Pradesh, 7-8-1972,
Ellis MH 42193)

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72 (1)

Gamble (1918) who had considerable field experience appears to be
the only one to have indicated rather hesitantly about its arboreal
habit. This hesistancy had stemmed from his collection from Nigadi
Hills (800 m) in Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh, S. India, the
herbarium specimen of which is represented in MH on which he has
made the following annotation: “Sm. Tree — erect, 6 in. diam.”

The present collections from Nallamalais have definitely indicated
its arboreal habit also (Photo). The trees are rather stunted and
dichotomously branched, reaching a height of 4-5 m and having a
trunk of about 60 cm diameter. The bark of the trunk is suberous and
fissured. The search for the tendrils, if any, proved futile. These trees
are commonly found in Nallamalais, Eastern Ghats, South India.
Exsicc.: Andhra Pradesh: Nigadi Hills, Cuddapah Dt., July 1884,
J.S. Gamble 15210; Chelama, Nallamalais, 5-7-1963, Ellis MH
Pathalaganga-Srisailam, Nallamalais, Andhra Pradesh, 20-10-1964,
Ellis MH 22107; Bairani, Diguvametta, Nallamalais, Andhra Pra-
desh, 7-8-1972, Ellis MH 42193.

Parinari indicum (Bedd.) Bedd. Ic. PI. Ind. Or. p. 22-23, t. 109. 1874;
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 311. 1878; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 3:
437. 1919. Entosiphon indicus Bedd. in Madras Journ. Sci. ser. 3.
1: 45. 1864.

This member of the chrysobalanaceae has been collected on the
western slopes at low elevations near Pandiar dam site, Nadugani,
Nilgiris, during a seasonal visit to the western portion of the Nilgiris.

Beddome’s description of the plant in 1864 is from a collection of
the plant from the Carcoor Ghat in Wynaad. Since the first collection,
apparently it has not been collected subsequently, indicating thereby
that the plant is rare and endemic to the western slopes of the Nilgiris.
The plant, however, is rather conspicuous amidst the evergreen forest
with its prominent bracteate inflorescence and white flowers. It attains
a height of 15 m, having a girth of 25 cm. The bark is greyish with
large white patches.

Excise: ‘Wynaad, Entisiphon indicus ’ (Beddome?) (Date not given)
Ac. MH 19328; Carcoor Ghat, Wynaad, ‘ Parinarium indicum Bedd.
(Entosiphon)’, (Beddome?) (Date not given), Ac. MH 19330
(TYPE?); Devala, 3000 ft., 10-2-1890, M. A. Lawson s.n., Ac.
MH 19329; Nadugani, Nilgiris, 500 m, 18-10-1972, Ellis MH 43246.

Polypogon fugax Nees ex Steud. Syn. PI. Gl. 1: 184. 1854; Bor in Kan-
jilal’s FI. Assam 5: 155. 1940; Mitra, FI. PI. East. India, Monocot.
1: 171. 1958; Bor, Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan
403. 1960. P. higagaweri Steud. Syn. PI. Gl. 1 : 422. 1855. P. littoralis
Sm. var. higagaweri Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 7: 246. 1896; Prain,
Beng. PI. 2: 913. 1963 (rep. ed.); Mitra, FI. PI. East. Ind. Monocot.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

233

1: 171. 1958. P. monspeliensis sensu Hook. f. l.c. 7: 245-246. 1896,
P-P-

This grass has been collected from the western slopes of the Nilgiris,
south India, at an altitude of 2000 m. It has been hitherto reported
only from the eastern Himalayas. In addition to its being a new record
for peninsular India, its apparent preference for orophytic habitats de-
serves special attention.

The plant’s taxonomic position seems to have had a tortuous
course, for several workers have accorded it different treatment, in-
cluding Hooker, f. (1896), Prain (1903), Haines (1924), and Mitra
(1958). Bor (1940 and 1960) with his vast knowledge of the tropical
grasses, however, has settled the problem by treating it as a species
distinct from P. monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. He differentiates the two
species thus:

1. Awns 5-9.75 mm long, 2-3 times the length of the glumes

P. monspeliensis

1. Awns 1.25-3.75 mm long, as long as or shorter than the glumes

P. fugax

Exsicc. : Assam: Manipur Road, Naga Hills, 30-8-1937, N. L. Bor
15458; On way to Sadiya, Assam, 1950, K.W. (?) 19506; K.W.
20089; No locality, no date, nor collector given, FI. Nos. 2801 and
4461. South India: along the streams — Porthimund, Nilgiris,

27-10-1972, Ellis MH 43422.

Strobilaixthrs spp. (sensu lato) in the Nilgiris.

The periodicity in the gregarious flowering of the members of the
genus Strobilanthes Bl. (sensu lato ) has attracted both the botanist and
the common man, the former for the scientific reasons and the latter
for aesthetic and economic reasons. The recent gregarious flowering
of Phlebophyllum kunthianum Nees in 1970 in peninsular India attract-
ed a lot of attention. Time and again Nees (1832), Wight (1850), T.
Anderson (1864), C. B. Clarke (1885), Cooke (1904), Fyson (1915,
1932), Gamble (1925), Bremekamp (1944), Santapau (1951), among
others, have recorded the periodicity of gregarious flowering of this
taxon. Press reports have also come in periodically. The periodicity
of flowering, however, has to be taken with caution in case one judges
only from the herbarium specimens; the collections may be of sporadic
flowering. However, the following data collected from the herbarium
sheets kept in MH, in addition to the recent collections, should indi-
cate with a fair amount of accuracy the periodicity and gregarious
flowering in the Nilgiris. This gains all the more importance because
of the position of the Nilgiris which happens to be in the meeting
ground of the two great hill ranges of peninsular India, namely
Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats ranging in altitude from 500 m to
2000 m, and a rainfall from 20 cm to 400 cm.

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

It is interesting to note that some species which had been collected
earlier from the Nilgiris have not been collected since, suggesting the
possibility of their having become extinct from the Nilgiris; these taxa
have been indicated with asterisks. Gamble has recorded by name 22
taxa as occurring in the Nilgiris, out of which 5 taxa, Mackenziea viol-
acea (Bedd.) Brem., Nilgirianthus urceolaris (Gambel) Brem., Pleocaulis
sessiloides (Wt.) Brem., Taeniandra micrantha (Wt.) Brem. and Stro-
bilanthes tristis T. Anders, apparently have not been collected since
from the Nilgiris.

i. Didyplosandra lurid a (Wt.) Brem. in Verh. Nederl. Akad.

Wet. Nat. 41(1): 177. 1944. Strobilanthes luridus Wt.
November 1883; November 1886; February 1972; October
1972.

ii. Leptacanthus amabilis (C.B. Cl.) Brem. l.c. 184. 1944.

Strobilanthes amabilis C.B. Cl.

March 1883, November 1883, April 1884; January 1971,
November 1971; October 1972.

* iii. L. rubicundus Nees in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3:90. 1832.

Strobilanthes rubicundus T. Anders.

November 1863; February 1888.

iv. Mackenziea homotropa (Nees) Brem. in Verh. Nederl. Akad.
Wet. Nat. 41(1): 182. 1944. Strobilanthes homotropus Nees.
January, October and November 1883; April 1884; June
1970.

* v. Nilgirianthus barbatus (Nees) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes barbata Nees.

November 1885.

* vi. N. campanulatus (Wt.) Brem. l.c. 172. 1944.

Strobilanthes campanulata Wt. No date is given on the sheet.

vii. N. ciliatus (Nees) Brem. l.c. 172. 1944.

Strobilanthes ciliatus Nees.

November 1885.

viii. N. foliosus (Wt.) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes foliosa (Wt.) T. Anders.

November 1883; August 1885; May, July & August 1896;
October 1956.

* ix. N. heyneanus (Ness) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes heyneana Nees.

July 1883; November 1884; November 1885; November
1886; October 1887.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

235

x. N. neilgherresnsis (Bedd.) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes neilgherrensis Bedd.

November 1884; October 1972.

* xi. N. popillosus (T. Anders.) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes papillosa T. Anders.

October & November 1883; April 1884; 1867; 1869.

xii. N. perrottetiamis (Nees) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes perrottetiana Nees.

June & November 1883; May 1885; July 1886; October
1956; June & July 1970; October 1972.

xiii. No punctatus (Nees) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes anceps Nees. var. microstachya (Benth.) C.B.
Cl.

July 1970.

xiv. N. warreensis (Dalz.) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes as per Wt.

September & November 1883; October 1884; October 1890;
November 1891; October 1956; February & October 1972.

xv. N. wightiana (Nees) Brem. l.c. 173. 1944.

Strobilanthes wightiana Nees.

September 1882; August & November 1883; August 1886;
September 1930; January, August & December 1957; July,
August, September & December 1970; October 1972.

xvi. Phlebophyllum ktmthianum Nees in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3;

83. 1832. Strobilanthes kunthianum (Nees) T. Anders, ex
Benth.

May & September 1883; August 1886; October 1889; Nov-
ember 1890; September 1905; September 1930; September
& October 1956; October 1957; March 1958; July, August,
November & December 1970; July 1971; October 1972.

xviii. P. lanatum (Nees) Brem. in Verh. Nederl. Akad. Wet. Nat.
41 (1); 169. 1944.

Strobilanthes gossypina T. Anders.

November 1883; April 1950.

* xviii. P. lawsonii (Gamble) Brem. l.c. 169. 1944.

Strobilanthes lawsonii Gamble.

November 1883; April 1884.

* xix. P. spicatum (Roth) Brem. l.c. 169. 1944.

Strobilanthes consanguinea (Nees) T. Anders.

February 1885.

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

xx. P. spicatum (Roth) Brem. var. amomum (Nees) Brem. l.c.

169. 1944.

Strobilanthes consanguinea var. amomum (Nees) C.B. Cl.
January 1883; November 1884; February 1885; September
1970; December 1971.

xxi. P. spicatum (Roth) Brem. var. hypoleucum (Nees) Brem. l.c.

169. 1944. Strobilanthes consanguinea var. hypoleuca (Nees)
C.B. Cl.

December 1970.

xxii. P. versicolor (Wt.) Brem. l.c. 169. 1944. Strobilanthes cuspi-

data (Benth.) T. Anders.

1873; January, June & November 1884; June 1885; Jan-
uary, August & November 1886; February 1890; October
& December 1957; August 1970; January, April & Novem-
ber 1971; January & February 1972.

xxiii. Pleocaulis sessilis (Nees) Brem. l.c. 185. 1944. Strobilanthes
sessilis Nees.

1878; August 1883; August 1886; September 1905; Septem-
ber 1918; September 1928* September 1930; July & August
1970.

xxiv. Xenacaaithus heteromallus (T. Anders ex C.B. Cl.) Brem. l.c.

176. 1944. Strobilanthes heteromalla T. Anders, ex C.B. Cl.
May 1884; February 1885; February, March, October &
November 1886; November 1970; January & April 1971;
January & February 1972.

xxv. X. pulneyensis (C.B. Cl.) Brem. l.c. 176. 1944. Strobilanthes

pulneyensis C.B. Cl.

October 1885; July & August 1886; November 1958; August
& November 1970.

xxvi. X. zenkerianus (Nees) Brem. l.c. 176. 1944. Strobilanthes

zenkeriana (Nees) T. Anders.

1868; 1873; September 1883; October 1884; 1886; October
1972.

Botanical Survey of India, J. L. ELLIS1

Coimbatore-2, M. S. SWAMINATHAN

September 8, 1973.

1 Present address : Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden,
Howrah-3, (W.B.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

237

27. A NEW RECORD OF ME1NECKIA PARVIFOLIA
(WIGHT) WEBSTER FROM INDIA

During a study of the flora of Calicut, we came across a rare speci-
men, which turned out to be Meineckia parvifolia (Euphorbiaceae).
As far as we know, this is the first report of this species from India.
This is not described in any of the local floras and, therefore, a brief
description of the species is given below to help its identification.

M. parvifolia (Wight) Webster: A perennial, glabrous herb with
many weak branches; leaves about 3 x 2.5 cm alternate ovate, acute,
truncate or rounded at base, membraneous, glabrous, green above,
glaucous beneath, with 3-4 pairs of lateral veins, petiole filiform up to
2.5 cm; stipules minute, lanceolate; flowers in axillary monoecious
clusters; female flowers solitary, terminal; males 1-3 below; pedicels
filiform up to 2 cm. in fruits; perianth lobes 5, ovate or obovate obtuse,
hyaline with green midrib, 1 mm long, slightly larger in female flowers,
persistant; stamens in male flowers 5, filaments partially connate,
anthers 2 celled dehiscing by a transverse slit, pistillode 0; ovary in
female flowers subglobose, styles 3, spreading, deeply bifid, stigma capi-
tate; fruits glabrous, 2.5 mm long; seeds flattened, brown, reticulate,
2 mm long.

Flowers and fruits : August - September.

Acknowledge m e n ts

We are very thankful to Prof. Grady L. Webster of the University
of California for confirming the identification and to Dr. B. K. Nayar
for encouragement.

Department of Botany,

University of Calicut,

Kerala,

February 20, 1973.

28. ON FRESH WATER PHYTAL FAUNA OF
VISAKHAPATNAM

Qualitative animal community studies of the aquatic vegetation are
of recent origin. The fauna of fresh water weed Eichhornia crassipes
was worked out by Michael (1968) from Barrackpore, India in a fresh
water fish pond. Petr (1968) studied the fauna of Pistia stratiotes L.
and Ceratophyllum demersum L. from man made Volta lake of Ghana.
The only pertinent reference in the marine environment in India is

V. V. SIVARAJAN
K. S. MANILAL

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

that of Sarma (1972). Omitting these references there are practically
no published accounts evaluating the importance of the weeds as a
biotope and their significance in the bioeconomy of the aquatic systems.
The importance of the weeds in the studies pertaining to the biological
productivity need not be overemphasized as they harbour varied and
abundant life which forms the chief sources of food for the littoral
fishes.

The ecological advantages of the phytal are that the weeds provide
good amount of oxygen, a variety of hiding places from predators,
abundant food supply, firm anchorage and protection from current
velocity. It further serves as breeding ground for the spawning of cer-
tain organisms and as nursery ground for the young (Sarma 1972).

The present communication deals with the preliminary observations
of the fauna associated with two fresh water weeds {Char a and Spiro-
gyra) in a fresh water stream at Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.

Material & Methods

Samples of algae were collected and the quantitative estimation of
organisms were related to unit volume/ unit weight of the plant as was
done by Ball (1948), Stube (1958), Michael (1968) and Petr (1968).
Samples of algae were collected from the margins of the stream, trans-
ferred to polythene bottles and were brought to the laboratory. The
samples were transferred to basins containing filtered fresh water for
a general observation of the animals in the living condition. The dis-
placed volume of the weeds along with the animals was taken by keep-
ing the algae in a measuring cylinder of one litre capacity containing
known volume of filtered water. After preliminary examination of the
living animals they were fixed in 10% formaldehyde solution and
throughly shaken to remove the majority of the clinging animals. To
make sure that all the adnating and clinging life was removed, small
amounts of algae were taken in a petridish and were throughly combed
with a needle under a binocular microscope. The animals thus sepa-
rated were counted under a stereo microscope with incident illumina-
tion. The wet weight of weeds was taken after removing the external
moisture by pressing the algae in between the two folds of a blotting
paper. The biomass values of two important groups namely oligochaetes
and chironomids were also calculated. A minimum of 12 individuals
of each group were kept in a hot air oven at 60°C temperature for
about 24 hours. They were weighed in a microbalance. The individual
weight of each animal was calculated and was multiplied by the total
number of organisms of the group.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

239

Observations

The numerical density and percentage composition of the animal
populations inhabiting the Chara and Spirogyra per 100 gm wet weight
of algae are given in the table. The maximum total animal densities
on the two selected weeds ( Chara and Spirogyra ) were 6741 and 9175
organisms per 100 gm respectively. As many as 10 major taxonomic
groups of animals namely turbellarians, nematodes, oligochaetes, cope-
pods, ostracods, cladocera, hydrocarines, chironomids, insect larvae, and
gastropods were recorded.

Table

Groups

Chara

Percentage

No / 100G Composition

Spirogyra

Percentage

No/IOOG Composition

Turbellaria

123

1.82

225

2.45

Nematoda

533

7.90

1925

20.99

Oligochaeta

1495

21.43

2175

23.71

Copepoda

500

7.41

775

8.44

Ostracoda

1198

17.77

925

10.08

Cladacera

328

4.86

550

5.99

Hydrocarina

328

4.86

150

1.63

Chironomida

974

14.44

1025

11.17

Insect larvae

369

5.47

975

10.62

Gastropoda

943

13.98

450

4.90

Total

6791

99.94

9175

99.98

Among the Chara fronds oligochaetes (1495), ostracods (1198),
chironomids (974), gastropods (943), nematodes (533), and copepods
(500) were dominant comprising more than 70% of the total fauna.
Among the Spirogyra thalli all animal forms attained their maximum
abundance. However while all other animals attained maximum num-
bers among the Spirogyra filaments, the gastropods and hydrocarines
were found in their greatest abundance among the coarse, cushion type
thallus of Chara. This may be a case of specificity for these two groups
of animals. Further studies on the specific relations of algae and ani-
mals are under progress.

The biomass values of the two selected groups (oligochaeta and
chionomidae) were high in the case of Spirogyra as shown below.

Chara Spirogyra

Oligochaeta 173.4 mg/lOOg 261.0 mg/lOOg

Chironomidae 730.5 mg/lOOg 891.7 mg/lOOg

The maximum total density found in the present studies is more
or less comparable with that of Michael (1968) who observed a den-
sity range 9000 to 11200 per litre of Eichhornia crassipes. The high

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(1)

numbers observed on Eichhornia may be due to its root systems which
carries good amount of sediment which in turn acts as an incentive
for the colonization of detritophobus fauna.

ACK NOWLEDGEME NT

We are thankful to the authorities of the University for providing
the necessary facilities to carry out the present work.

Department of Zoology, A. L. N. SARMA

Andhra University, C. GOPALA SWAMY

Waltair, A.P.,

October 17, 1973.

References

Ball, R. (1948): Relationship bet-
ween available fish food, feeding ha-
bits of fish and total fish production
in a Michigan Lake. Michgan Tech.
Bull. 206: 1-59.

Michael, R. George (1968) : Fluc-
tuations in the relative abundance of
the weed fauna of a tropical fresh
water fish pond, Hydrobiologia 31 : 37-
59.

Petr, T. (1968) : Population chan-

ges in aquatic invertebrates living on
two water plants in a tropical Man-
made lake, Hydrobiologia. 52:449-85.

Sarma, A. L. N. (1972): The Phy-
tal Fauna of littoral algae off Visa-
khapatnam coast (Bay of Bengal).
Ph.D. thesis submitted to Andhra
University, Waltair.

Stube, M. (1958): The fauna of
regulated lake. Rept. Inst. Freshw.
Res. Drottingholm. 39: 162-224.

29. DIATOMS OF NAINITAL

The collections were made during a botanical excursion in October
1970 and were preserved in 4% formalin. The diatoms were cleaned
by treating them first with concentrated hydrochloric acid and then
with concentrated sulphuric acid to which a few crystals of potassium
dichromate were added.

In this preliminary note seventeen common diatoms belonging to
seven genera are included. Of these one belongs to the order Centrales
while the remaining sixteen belong to Pennales. The dominant genera
are Cymbella and Gomphonema.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

241

Cyclotella kuetzingiana Thwaites
Diam. 9.6-12.8 y ; striae 10-12 in

10 y

In Naini lake and in a pond.
Synedra ulna (Nitz.) Ehr.

L. 62-106 /x ; B. 6.4-9.6 (at tip 2-
3.2) y ; striae 10-11 in 10 /*.

In pools and poddies.

Navicula cryptocephala Kuetz.

L. 32-49 y ; B. 6-6.5 /u ; striae 12-
18 in 10 ,u.

In Naini lake.

Caloneis silicula (Ehr.) Cleve
L. 48-53 y ; B. 10-13 ^ ; striae 16-
18 in 10a*.

In pools and puddles.

Gomphonema aequatoriale Husted
L. 27-43 /j. ; B. 6-11 /x ; striae 10-
13 in 10 At-
In pools and puddles.

G. gracile Ehr.

L. 40-42.5 a* ; B. 8-8.5 y 5 striae 9-
10 in 10
In Naini lake.

G. olivaceum (Lyngb.) Kuetz. v.
calcarea Cleve

L. 50-52 n ; B. 10-11.4 a* ; striae 12-
13 in 10
In a pool.

G. parvulum (Kuetz.) Grun.

L. 35-41 At; B. 9-9.6 n; striae 12-
13 in 10 y.

In pools and in Naini lake.

G. sphaerophorum Ehr.

L. 30-40.5 a* ; B. 10-11.3 y ; striae

10- 11 in 10 At-
In Naini lake.

Cymbella aspera (Ehr.) Cleve
L. 84-90 At ; B. 26-28.6 /* ; striae 6-
8 in 10 At-
In a small pond.

C. hustedtii Krasske
L. 17.6-18.8 A1; B. 6.4-7 y; striae
12-13 in 10 At-
In a puddle.

C. kerkevarensis A. Cl.

L. 20-22 A* ; B. 7-8 y ; striae 11-
12 in 10 At-

In a pool and in a small pond.

C. rupicola Grun.

L. 30-40 At ; B. 10-12 At ; Striae 12-
14 in 10 At.

In a pool.

C. tumescens A. Cl.

L. 28.8-32 At ; B. 8-9.4 y ; striae 10-
12 in 10 a*.

In Naini lake.

C. tumida (Breb.) V. H.

L. 57-62 At ; B, 18-19.5 y ; striae

11- 12 in 10. At.

In puddles and in Naini lake.

C. tumida (Breb.) V. H. f. Yentri-
cosa Gandhi

L. 68-72 A1 ; B. 19-20.5 y. ; striae
10-13 in 10 At.

In a small pond.

Nitzschia amphibia Grun.

L. 19-22 At ; B. 4.5-5 y ; striae 15-
18 in 10 a t ; punctae 17-21 in 10 a*
In pools.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E N T

We take this opportunity to thank Dr. R. S. Nadkarni of this de-
partment for kindly collecting the algae.

Botany Department, N. D. KAMAT

Institute of Science, RITA AGGARWAL

Nagpur,

July 15, 1973.

ERRATA

Vol. 70 (2) — Miscellaneous Note No. 25, on p. 412
The name of the junior author

‘P. R. FERNANDEZ’ read ‘R. R. FERNANDEZ’.

Vol. 71 (1) — Miscellaneous Note No. 6, on p. 144, in the 3rd para,
line 1

‘Primaries 2 to 8 (counting from the proximal end) had recently
completed their growth’

read

C I I l C '

‘The inner seven (counting from the proximal end) primaries had
recently completed their growth’.

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Observations on the occurrence and habits of juvenile fishes in

the nearshore region of the Mandapam area. By K. V. Sckharan 83

A new species and notes on the genus Anthoxanthum L. (Poaceae).

By S. K. Jain and D. C. Pal . . . . . . 90

Bionomics and immature stages of-the Barleria Lacebug Habrochita

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Some observations on the colour changes of the Indian Chama-

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A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural

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Temperature, salinity and Plankton of Daman Ganga Estuary.

By P. Sitaramaiah . . . . . . ..132

Foe© of Rana tigerim (Daud.). By S. Isaac and M. S. Reg© .. 143

"The exotic Flora of Ranchi. By J. K. Maheshwari and S. R. Paul 158

Reviews .. .. .. .. "189

Miscellaneous Notes . . . . . . 194

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Journal of the Bombay Natural
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VOLUME 72 NO. 2 — AUGUST 1975

Date of Publication: 31-1-1976

CONTENTS

Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary and the Browantlered Deer — 1972 with

notes ON A visit in 1975. By Ranjit Sinh. ( With two plates ) . . 243

The Mountain Hawk-Eagle. By S. M. Osman . . . . . . 256

Methods for estimating bird populations. By A. J. Gaston. (With a

plate & two diagrams ) . . . . . . 271

Ecology of Indian Desert; IV — Photoperiods in relation to growth
behaviour of two desert species of Sida. By D. D. Chawan and
D. N. Sen .. .. .. .. ..284

Observations on the reproductive Biology and early postnatal deve-
lopment of the Panther, Panthera pardus L., in captivity.

By J. H. Desai. ( With three text- figures ) . . . . 293

Plant-pest status of root-eating ant, Dorylus orientalis, with notes
on taxonomy, distribution and habits (Insecta: Hymenoptera).

By M. L. Roonwal. (With three text- figures ) . . . . . . 305

Sacred groves of India — A plea for continued conservation.

By Madhav Gadgil and V. D. Vartak. (With a plate) . . . . 314

Hunting and feeding in wild dogs. By Michael Fox and A. J. T. John-

singh. (With a graph) . . . . . . . . 321

A Contribution to the Flora of Pacchaimalais, Tiruchirapalli Dis-
trict, Tamil Nadu. By K. M. Matthew. (With a map) . . 327

Biology and fishery of Pseudosciaena sina (C.) at Ratnagiri, South

Maharashtra. By B. V. Bhusari. (With five text-figures) . . 357

Studies on Indian Crickets (Orthoptera: Insecta), Part — III.

By H. K. Bhowmik. (With eighteen text-figures) . . . . 368

Crop preference of rodents at Ludhiana. By G. S. Mann . . 383

The cocoon spinning behaviour and fecundity of Stegodyphus sarasi-
norum Karsch (Araneae: Eresidae) from India. By B. L. Bradoo.

(With seven text-figures) . . . . . . . . 392

Notes on South Indian Hepaticae — 1. By Ram Udar and

S. C. Srivastava. (With seventeen text-figures) . . . . 401

The Terrestrial Mammals of Bahrain. By Michael Gallagher and

David L. Harrison. (With a map) . . . . . . 407

Food-habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24 Pargans District,

West Bengal, India— V. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee. (With three
text-figures) . . . . . . . . 422

On a new subspecies of the Skylark Alauda gulgula Franklin in

Gujarat, India. By Humayun Abdulali . . . . . . 448

Algae of Vidarbh, Maharashtra. By N. D. Kamat . . . . 450

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society— 18. By Humayun Abdulali . . 477

Field Guide to the Amphibians of Western India — Part 3. . .

By J. C. Daniel. (With two plates) . . . . . . 506

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Notes on the status of the Noseleaf Bat, Hipposideros speoris
pulchellus Andersen (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Rhinolophidae) . By Y. P. Sinha
(p. 523); 2. A note on ecology of the Golden Langur ( Presbytis geei Khajuria).
By A. K. Ghosh and S. Biswas (p. 524) ; 3. A note on the breeding habits of
Four-horned Antelope ( Tetracerus quadricornis) in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo
and R. Misra (p. 529); 4. Observations on conflict among males of Black Rat
Rattus rattus frugivorus. By Jamil Ahmed Khan (p. 530); 5. Note on a collec-
tion of Rats from Goregaon-Malad in Bombay. By P. J. Deoras, Manorama
Mittal and M. S. Pradhan (p. 534).

Birds: 6. The Indian Moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus ) breeding in Kerala. By
K. K. Neelakantan (p. 537); 7. Unusual behaviour of Psittacula krameri bore-
alis. By J. Tessier-Yandell (p. 538); 8. Nomenclature of the Asian Palm Swift.
(With a plate). By Lord Medway (p. 539); 9. The Bluecheeked Bee-eater
Merops superciliosus, its status in Kutch and Saurashtra. By Lavkumar J.
Khacher (p. 543); 10. A day at a nest of the Great Black Woodpecker ( Dryo -
copus javensis). ( With two plates). By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 544); 11. On the
occurrence of Lanius excubitor aucheri Bonaparte in Punjab. By Humayun
Abdulali (p. 548); 12. Change of iris colour during the post-fledging period in
the Common Babbler ( Turdoides caudatus). By A. J. Gaston (p. 548); 13.

Occurrence of the Purple Cochoa Cochoa purpurea Hodgson, near Mussoorie,
U.P. By S. A. Hussain and Robert C. Waltner (p. 552) ; 14. Some systematic
notes on the Yellow-breasted Tit (Parus flavipectus) . By G. Mauersberger
(p. 552); 15. Occurrence of Redthroated Pipit Anthus cervinus (Pallas) in
Bhavnagar. By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 557).

Reptiles: 16. Reflected glow from the eyes of the Gharial. By Charles A. Ross
(p. 557); 17. Some notes on Gharial [ Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)] in capti-
vity. ( With a plate). By L. N. Acharjyo, S. Biswas and R. Misra (p. 558); 18.
Hemipenal structure in Elaphe radiata Schlegel with a diagnostic key based on
Hemipenis. By R. K. Bhatnagar (p. 560); 19. Echis in Tamil Nadu. By R.
Whitaker (p. 563).

Fishes: 20. On the fishes of the genus Ctenops McClelland (1845). By K. P.
Singh (p. 563); 21. An interesting case of fish spawning in an overcrowded
nursery pond. By S. D. Tripathi and R. K. Sharaf (p. 568); 22. Introduction of
Indian Trout in Lonavala waters. ( With a photograph). By C. V. Kulkarni
(p. 572); 23. Some interesting methods of fishing for the giant freshwater prawn
in Kerala. ( With two text-figures) . By K. Raman (p. 575); 24. Fouling organ-
isms on fibreglass coated hull of a boat in an estuarine environment. (With two
text-figures). By Padmakar V. Dehadrai, Arun H. Parulekar and Arvind G.
Untawale (p. 580).

Insects: 25. The genus Delias Hubn. from the plains of Assam. By T. Norman
(p. 584); 26. Danaid butterflies attracted to Heliotropium indicum (Boragin-
aceae), an alkaloid containing plant. (With a plate). By S. R. Amladi (p. 585);
27. New record of Army Worm Pseudoletia separata Walker (Lepidoptera :
Noctuidae) as a pest of ragi in India. By R. Balasubramanian, K. V. Seshu-
reddy, R. Govindan and M. A. Deviah (p. 588); 28. Observations on the bio-
logy and habits of Sycanus affinis Reut. (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) and its status
as a predator. By J. M. Satpathy, N. C. Patnaik and A. P. Samalo (p. 589);
29. On the occurrence of Homoeocerus taprobanensis Dist. (Hemiptera: Core-
idae) from Poona with a note on the Scutellar levigate line. By K. Ramachandra
Rao (p. 595); 30. A predacious Pentatomid Bug, Cantheconidea furcellata

(Wolff) attacking Latoia lepida (Cramer) on mango near Bangalore. (With

three plates). By Kumar D. Ghorpade (p. 596); 31. On the mode of preying
of a giant water Bug ( Belostoma indicum Le Peletier & Serville, 1775) on a
Frog ( Rana tigerina Daudin, 1903). By S. K. Mitra (p. 599); 32. Death of cer-
tain insects on Shrub Bidens pilosa. By R. K. Bhatnagar (p. 600).

Botany: 33. Nomenclatural note on Mimusops elengi Linn. By G. M. Oza
(p. 601); 34. Nocturnal pollination in Antirrhinum majus Linnaeus by Xylocopa
rufescens Fabricius. By G. Bhaskar and K. Gopinath (p. 602); 35. Neotype of
Farsetia macrantha Blatt. & Hallb. (Cruciferae) . (With four text-figures). By
M. M. Bhandari (p. 604); 36. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. — a rival to Dendrophthoe
falcata (L.F.) Ettingsh in home gardens. By V. Ravindra Nath and
S. Indira (p. 607); 37. New plant records for India from Kashmir — II. ( With
two text-figures). By M. K. Kaul (p. 609); 38. Some interesting plants from
Rajasthan. By Vijendra Singh (p. 612); 39. Desmids of Marathwada, Maha-
rashtra. By N. D. Kamat (p. 616); 40. On the occurrence of Urtica urens Linn,
in India. By M. Sharma (p. 618); 41. Some noteworthy plant species from
Gorakhpur. By M. O. Siddiqui and S. N. Dixit (p. 620).

JOURNAL

•OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1975 AUGUST

Vol. 72

No. 2

Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary and the
Bro wan tiered Deer— 1972 with
notes on a visit in 1975

Ranjit Sinh1
(With two plates )

There has been no investigation done of the status of this animal and
its unique habitat since E. P. Gee’s report of November, 1959 and
March, 1960, in this Journal (1960). But it is certain that the Manipur
stag ( Cervus eldi eldi McClelland, 1842 is today one of the rarest and
the most localised subspecies of the family Cervidae in the world. Zeal-
ously protected by the former rulers of Manipur State in the past, the
stag was relentlessly hunted by both local people and army personnel
once the area came under British hegemony. By 1950 the Manipur sub-
species of the browantlered deer was regarded as extinct till located
once again in a small area called the Keibul Lamjao at the south-eastern
corner of the Logtak Lake. An area of approximately 20 sq miles was
formed into a sanctuary in 1954, and was subsequently reduced to 10 J
sq miles in 1959. The other subspecies of the browantlered deer or
Thamin in the Burmese subspecies (Cervus eldi siamensis Lydekker,
1915), the Manipur variety, locally called the sangai or occasionally

1 Director, Wild Life, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt, of India, Krishi Bhavan,
New Delhi.

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

sangrai, carries the smallest pair of antlers and has always been confined,
even in historical times, to the vale of Manipur. At present, it is restrict-
ed to the Keibul Lamjao.

About 20 miles south of Imphal, the Capital of Manipur, lies the
Logtak Lake, approximately 25 sq miles in extent, and famous for its
fish and migratory waterfowl. There are floating islands or “Phumdi” on
the lake, on which live fishermen in temporary huts. It is one of the
largest natural lakes in the country, and forms a vast inland drainage
area. South of the Logtak Lake and separated from it by the Thanga
Hills, lies another low lying swamp called the Keibul Lamjao. Its eastern
boundary is the Manipur river which drains the Logtak and indeed the
entire vale of Manipur, ultimately joining the Chindwin river in Burma.

To the east of the Manipur river, is another marshy area called the
Khoidum Lamjao, — rather larger than Keibul, which had its own popul-
ation of the deer. This area is now reclaimed and cultivated, and the
Sangai have been destroyed, a few of them crossing over into the Keibul
sanctuary. To the west of the sanctuary and below the western hills of
the Manipur valley was another Sangai area centring around a village
called Sangailou (the Sangai paddy fields). Now this region also has
been cultivated. In effect, therefore, the Sangai has been now restricted
completely to the Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary and even here its habitat
has shrunk.

Between 1959 to 1968 the area of the sanctuary was 10 J sq miles. In
1968 a further 3 sq miles of the area north of the Khordak River, which
drains the northern portion of the sanctuary, was added to the sanctuary,
increasing the total area to 13| sq miles.

There are three hill features in the sanctuary. The northernmost is
the Chingjao Hill, the Pabot Hill with the observation shed being a
little to the south of this; and the third, Toya Hill, approximately 3 miles
further to the south. There was much more vegetation on the Pabot
Hill which I visited, than is shown in the photograph accompanying
EPG’s report of 1960. This proves that this area at least has been better
protected since then. However, there is considerable grazing on Ching-
jao Hill which has practically no trees left. In fact, the entire portion of
the sanctuary a quarter mile from the north-west of Pabot Hill is grazed
intermittently, and there is cultivation and habitation on the Khordak
River which bisects the northern portion of the sanctuary. These culti-
vations are illegal. Further to the south, there is a sickle shaped
tongue of lowland called Thang-Brel-Maril which practically cuts
the entire sanctuary into half. This is a strip about 300 to 500
yards wide, and though there are only about 4 or 5 official patta holders
at the western corner of it, illegal encroachments continue to delve
deeper and deeper along this strip of land. Though the area has been
demarcated and there are boundary pillars, encroachment continues to

BROW ANTLERED DEER

245

spill over these lines. Mostly paddy is grown, and from here cattle sally-
forth and disturb adjacent regions. South of the Toya Hill and along
the Khuga River north of Ithai village, there is more grazing by a
substantial number of cattle, and the area is fast degenerating. The
effective habitat of the Manipur deer is now confined to an area
east and south of the Pabot Hill up to the Thang-Brel-Maril, and another
area further south of this strip of cultivation extending up to Toya Hill.

Thus though the total area of the Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary is 13J
sq miles, the real habitat of the Manipur deer does not exceed 6 sq
miles, and this too is under imminent danger of being divided into two
halves. The total world population of the subspecies is now confined to
this last tenuous habitat, and at the rate at which encroachment and
grazing is increasing, if no urgent steps are taken to reverse this pro-
cess and to safeguard the sanctuary, the Sangai will be extinct very soon.
It is evident that the prime reason for the survival of this unique deer
in this heavily populated area is the floating swamp. If the swamp (or
phumdi) goes, the deer will vanish with it.

Status of the Sanctuary

The Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary is a protected forest today. There is
not even a proposal to make it into a reserve forest for the time being.
In my opinion this should be done forthwith as it will give the Forest
Department the right of removal of any encroachers. The sanctuary has
been notified in the gazette in 1966 and its boundaries have been out-
lined. It is under the Eastern Forest Division of Manipur, with range
headquarters at Moirang.

Climate:

The average annual rainfall is approximately 125 cm. The humidity
is highest in the month of August at 81 per cent and lowest in March
at 49 per cent. The maximum temperature is 35 °C and the minimum
1.66°C. Frost occurs during the winter.

Flora:

Apart from the three hills of Pabot, Toya and Chingjao, the remain-
der of the sanctuary is one vast morass of floating organic matter called
the phum or phumdi. A passage of free water for boating up to Pabot
Hill, has been cleared. The phumdi is made up of decayed vegetation,
and varies in thickness from 1 to 4 feet. It floats upon the water, whose
level varies with the season. Thus during the driest months of February
and March, some of the phumdi especially along the edge of the sanctu-
ary, rests on the hard ground below. Actually only 1 /5th of the phumdi
shows above water, the rest being below it. The floating islands are a

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

growing organic unit and the thickness of the phumdi increases from
year to year. This is particularly applicable to the phumdi which during
the summer season rests upon the ground. With onset of the monsoon,
the major portion of the sanctuary gets covered with water and the
animals seek refuge on the hills. Then in approximately three or four
days the phumdi which had settled on the ground, sets itself free and
once again floats on the top of the water. In 1966, there were heavy
floods with the water level rising to an unprecedented height of 2531
feet above msl. The phumdi got carried away with the current and with
it went a certain number of the deer.

Walking on the phumdi is a unique experience — as if one was walk-
ing on an air-mattress. Where the phumdi is not thick enough to support
the weight, one can sink up to one’s thigh in the ooze — and this happens
every few steps.

The reeds and grasses which grow on the phumdi, and the ratio
thereof, are listed in E. P. Gee’s account. Since I myself did not carry
out a detailed investigation in this regard, Mr. Gee’s list is reproduced
below : -

“Tou

Phragmites karka 45% of the sanctuary

Singut

(not yet identified)

25%

Khoimum

Saccharum munja

15%

Ishing Kombong

Saccharum latifolium

5%

Pulai

Alpinia allughas

5%

Singnang

Saccharum procerum

2%

Miscellaneous

3%”

The Ishing Kombong ( Saccharum latifolium) is the favourite food of
the Sangai and is relished even by the hind which was in captivity at the
Keibul chowki. Secondly, the percentage which it occupied in the sanc-
tuary, if not 5 per cent as E. P. Gee’s reports, would certainly not be
more than 10 per cent. An adequate supply of the Ishing Kombong
grass is essential for the conservation of the deer and the matter be-
comes more significant when it is realised that it is also a favoured food
of the encroaching domestic buffalo.

As has been mentioned above, the phumdi becomes thicker and
heavier with the passage of time with more vegetation being added to
it each year. This process of annual increase is more evident in the
phumdi at the edges of the sanctuary* where it has the opportunity of
settling on the ground for the longest period and thereby derives sus-
tenance from the soil below. If for two to three years consecutively,
there is no heavy flooding, this bordering phumdi would not be forced
to leave the ground to float. It will become a part of the hard ground
as humus. The factor of trampling by domestic buffalo during the dry
season would also, I am sure, help in pressing the phumdi to the hard

BROW ANTLERED DEER

247

ground below and making it a permanent fixture thereupon. The ulti-
mate result of such a process is that the phumdi at the border becomes
hard ground with the passage of time, and the actual area of the floating
phumdi decreases. It is this process which decreases the floating phumdi
habitat of the sangai in the Keibul Lamjao. Water Hyacinth has made
its appearance in the open water areas of the sanctuary, but this being
very limited it has not yet reached significant proportions in the sanctu-
ary. The three hills within the sanctuary are not only very important
observation points in the sanctuary, but constitute a very significant
factor in the eco-system. They are the only hard ground in the sanctu-
ary to which the animals can repair to from time to time. Though the
sangai has adapted itself admirably to the phumdi habitat, the alacrity
with which the captive sangai move over hard areas and hilly ground and
the fact that it used to inhabit other non-phumdi areas is evidence enough
that unlike the situtunga, the sangai is not exclusively a marsh animal.
The fact that they regularly visit the hills is proved by their droppings
there. Other animals such as the hog deer also use these hills,
which during the floods provide the only refuge for the larger mammals
of the sanctuary. All the three hills should be strictly protected from
grazing and other exploitation and trees and shrubs should be allowed
to grow there. Simul and other indigenous trees like Salix tetrasperma
may be planted, especially on the now barren Chingjao Hill, but no
exotic should be introduced.

Exploitation :

The right of grass cutting is auctioned each year in the months of
March and April for approximately Rs. 2,000/-. The singang grass is
utilised for thatch purposes. Burning occurs during the dry season and
is reported to be accidental. However, it is possible that some of these
fires, at least on the periphery are caused by graziers to obtain fresh
grass.

Grazing :

It is most prevalent in the northern and southern part of the sanc-
tuary and around Keibul village has succeeded in degenerating these
lands. Only buffaloes are able to traverse the marsh though a few cows
were seen grazing along the periphery. Some buffaloes were observed in
the centre of the sanctuary just south of the Pabot Hill in the best sangai
area. Though no cutting of trees was noticed, the fact that Chingjao
Hill has no trees and that Toya Hill also has rather sparse vegetation,
is an indication that there is grazing and cutting on these two hills.

I was informed that approximately 100 people cut grass in the sanc-
tuary every day. Certain plants are collected for consumption as vege-
tables. Fishing in the open patches is also indulged in, and I saw a num-
ber of fish traps along the channel leading to Pabot Hill. Apart front

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

the grass cutters, fishermen and the graziers, some people pass through
the sanctuary on their way to Khordak and the Logtak for purposes
of fishing.

Poaching does occur in the sanctuary, especially in the northeastern
region. The poachers use shot guns and drive the deer with dogs. A
wooden trap which resembles a yoke is also used. The main offenders
are from the Muslim community whose population around the sanctu-
ary has increased. To a certain extent poachings is also done by the
tribes such as the Kukis who live to the south of the sanctuary. Luckily
the Hindu population is mostly vegetarian. However, the Muslim com-
munity possess a large number of weapons, and the crop-protection
weapons are issued to the land-owners including those occupying land
in the Thang-Brel-Maril. Poaching and habitat destruction are the two
significant causes for the present precarious status of the sangai. Most
of the poaching occurs from March to May during the dry season.

The remains of a young hog deer was found on Pabot Hill, but its
cause of death could not be ascertained. A hog deer stag was reported
to have been killed by poachers in north-west part of the sanctuary a
few days before our arrival.

Fauna :

The browantlered deer :

E. P. Gee had carried out a sample survey of an area of a quarter
sq. mile, and from the deer counted in this patch, he had estimated that
the total population was 100. I was only able to see one stag from Pabot
Hill and was told that I was lucky. A drive was attempted in a small
patch at the southwestern corner of the sanctuary close to Thang-Brel-
Maril. No deer was put up. Despite the fact that some of the deer which
must have then lived in Khoidum-Lamjao across the Manipur river, and
which subsequently must have crossed to Keibul Lamjao following the
opening of that area for cultivation, the number of sangai today is less
than that when E. P. Gee visited in 1960. This was confirmed by Babu
Singh the most knowledgeable amongst the staff of the sanctuary. The
reason is primarily poaching, and secondly the further shrinking of the
habitat due to grazing, cultivation and grass cutting. The floods of 1966
in which the phumdi was swept away from certain areas, must have
also contributed to the decimation. The total area which would now be
fit for sangai habitation would only be about 6 sq. miles as has been
mentioned above, and unless the process reverses, it will shrink still
further. The largest number of sangai reported to have been seen to-
gether recently is five and the usual number are ones and twos. Though
it is not possible to assess correctly the total population in such a habi-
tat, I would certainly put the figure as less than 100. More in the neigh-
bourhood of 50. It is imperative that a census of this animal be carried

BROW ANTLERED DEER

249

out, and the only way it can be done is from a helicopter flying low over
the morass.

Hog-deer {Axis porcinus ) occur in the sanctuary and their droppings
were observed on Pabot Hill. Wild pig also exist and raid the surround-
ing crops. Their droppings were seen. A wild cat locally called “Sadung”
was reported in the sanctuary. From its description it appears to be a
civet of an indeterminate variety.

Staff :

The sanctuary is under one deputy ranger, three forest guards, one
game chaprasi and one boatman, and two daily-wage employees
working as boatmen. This very small staff is stationed at three points
Keibul to the west, Ithai to the south and Paphu-pat in the east. They
have residential accommodation. The staff is wholly inadequate and
would have to be greatly augmented.

Residential Accommodation and facilities for Tourists :

There are two rest houses — one at Phubala off the Imphal-Moirang
road. It is situated close to the Logtak lake and has 4 rooms with two
beds each, quite well furnished. It is under the control of the Publicity
Department and the charges are Rs. 3/- per day. There is no catering
arrangement. The rest house is electrified but there is no running water.
It is a beautifully situated bungalow and could be developed. There is
another rest house at Sendra on the Thanga Hills that commands a
magnificent view of Logtak Lake as well as the southern aspect of the
valley. This also has 4 suites, but was under repairs. There are no vehi-
cles for tourists to hire. The only method whereby tourists can visit the
sanctuary is to go up to Keibul by road and then along the water chan-
nel in dug-out boats upto Pabot Hill, where there is an observation shed.
(Plate I). Usually, mornings and evenings are preferred and if the visitor
is lucky he may see from the hill top the deer moving about on the
phumdi. The view from here is magnificent but the chance of seeing deer
are remote. If driven out by beaters, deer can be seen from the hill tops,
but walking on phumdi is very difficult and the villagers are not keen to
undertake the job. Besides, such regular drives would be a great factor
of disturbance to the deer and should not be normally practised.

The Logtak project:

A coffer dam is being put up below the junction of the Khuga and
Manipur rivers, south of Ithai village and approximately half a mile
below the southern tip of the sanctuary. The gate of the Ithai dam will
be 2525 feet above main sea level. This will therefore, be the height of
the water in the Logtak Lake; and since the Logtak is connected with
the Keibul Lamjao through two channels running through the Thanga
Hills, the water table of the Keibul Lamjao will also be 2525 feet above
msl. The surplus water of the Logtak which would have otherwise

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

spilt over the dam at Ithai, would be diverted through a channel running
west-ward from the Logtak. This water .will then go through a tunnel
in the western range of hills, and a drop of thousand feet, will generate
35 Kw of power.

The height of the water in the Logtak Lake and in the Keibul Lam-
jao varies from 2518 to 2528 feet above msl. The lowest level is in
February-March, the highest of course being during the monsoon. In
1966 the water level of the flood waters rose to 2531 feet above msl
as a result of which some phumdi is reported to have been swept away.
Now the water level is sought to be retained at 2525 feet constantly. The
danger of a flood has been averted as the river is being widened. In the
dry season the water level of the Logtak and the Keibul sanctuary would
not also go down to 2518.

At the height of 2525 feet above msl, the area under water in the
Keibul sanctuary will increase. Since the level is going to be retained
at that height, the extent of the phumdi habitat would also theoretically
remain constant. The phumdi will not settle on the ground in the dry
season and the predilection for becoming heavier and heavier and finally
settling on the hard ground would be lessened. The cattle and the
poachers will not be able to make their inroads during the dry season
to the extent they do now. The total area of the phumdi will increase
and its extent would be retained at a contour of 2525 feet msl which
is achieved today only during the monsoon and post-monsoon period.
On the face of it, therefore, it would appear that maintenance of the
water at a given level would prevent further decrease of the sangai habi-
tat and make poaching more difficult. Indeed, it may even be that
the habitat of the sangai would be increased with the constant water
level at 2525' above msl. However, certain factors will have to be kept
in mind. The Logtak Lake and the Keibul Lamjao with which it is con-
nected, are a very complex aquatic eco-system. The disturbance of its
ecology may have other complex and unforseen results. The project is
almost nearing completion and it will not be possible and advisable to
stop it. But a research be carried out on the ecological aspects of this
project, indeed on the ecology of the entire Keibul Lamjao-Logtak com-
plex. If any factor which proves to be adverse to either of the two, the
project should be modified to that extent. Perhaps the lowering of the
water table from 2525' above msl, if such is proved to be necessary may
have to be carried out. Certain other considerations may also have to be
investigated. Now that the annual flooding and the lowering of the water
table in the summer would not be permitted, what would be the ecolo-
gical repurcussions? The phumdi which settles on the hard ground in
the dry season would not now be permitted to do so. Would this have
any effect upon its composition, and would the phumdi continue to
flourish if it is not allowed to settle on the hard ground? In other words.

j. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 72(2)
Ranjitsingh: Browantlered Deer

Plate I

Above : View from the Channel of Pabot Hill. Below: West view from Pabot

Hill.

J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 72(2)* Plate II

Ranjitsingh: Browantlered Deer

Above-. Deer seen from the Helicopter in 1975. Below : Captive deer in the
enclosure at the Sanctuary.

BROW ANTLERED DEER

251

is the periodic settling of the phumdi on the hard ground essential for
its existence? It may be pointed here that phumdi is unique to the Kei-
bul Lamjao, there being very few phumdi islands on the deeper and
larger Logtak Lake close by. Moreover, water hyacinth has invaded
the Logtak but not the Keibul Lamjao. There is hardly any open water
in the latter. But with the water table at 2525' above msl, would there
be more open water and as a consequence more water hyacinth? A very
significant and interesting factor is that the peak rutting period is in
the month of February and March when the water level is at its lowest
and the phumdi has settled on the ground, at least on the fringes. The
coinciding of the rut with the dry season is not a coincidence in my
opinion. And if this assumption is correct, would maintenance of the
water table at 2525' above msl adversely affect the rut. Do the animals
mate on the floating phumdi or do they require hard ground.

Lastly, the Logtak project envisages the reclamation of the land bet-
ween contours 2525 and 2528 feet above msl. This is supposed to be
an area of 6000 acres. It must be made very sure that the area which
is proposed to be reclaimed for cultivation between these two contours,
is not from within the Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary.

Recommendations :

Manipur is the only part of India in which the Browantlered deer
is found, and it is in fact the only habitat in the world where this parti-
cular subspecies occurs. To focus attention on this unique deer, it is
suggested that just as Assam has declared the Rhino as the state em-
blem, the Manipur Government should declare the ‘Sangai’ as its state
emblem.

2. The Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary should be declared a reserve forest
and a National Park. This would not only give the State Forest Depart-
ment adequate power to conserve this unique habitat, but will also set
aside this small piece of territory as an area of national importance in
which the State and Central governments could work in harmony to
achieve a common goal.

3. An adequate wildlife legislation should be adopted. The Govern-
ment of India has already approached the Government of Manipur for
the adoption of the Central Wildlife Conservation and Management
Bill. It is hoped that the Manipur Government will adopt this. The exist-
ing manual of “Preservation of Wildlife and Reserve Forest and other
parts of Manipur” also needs to be revised.

4. The present staff of the sanctuary is totally inadequate. The follow-
ing personnel is recommended for the sanctuary. One full time A.C.F.,
one ranger, 6 foresters, 10 forest guards, three boatmen and three game
chaprasis. The A.C.F. with two foresters, two forest guards, one boat-
man and two game chaprasis, should be at Keibul. The ranger, with one

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

forester, two forest guards and one boatman, should be at Komla-Khong-
north-east of the sanctuary. At Ithai one forester, two forest guards and
one boatman be stationed, and at Khordak village one forester, two
forest guards and one chaprasi. This staff is absolutely essential to pre-
vent poaching and illicit grazing.

5. Service rifles — .410 muskets or .303 rifles for which cartridges are
only available with the Government and not in the open market needs
to be supplied to the Ranger and each of the Forest Guards. The Police
Department of the State should make available these weapons, as has
been done in some other States.

6. The poaching is done mostly with the help of dogs, and traps, and
is usually from the north-east of the sanctuary. This will have to be
effectively curbed and the poachers prosecuted. Poaching is most
prominent in the dry season and if during this time additional staff is
required, they could be provided on a temporary basis, to augment the
permanent staff. This would be over and above the staff suggested above.
The Forest Department should keep a copy of the license holders on the
periphery of the sanctuary, and if anything adverse comes to notice,
they could move the Government for the cancellation of the licenses.

7. The incidence of grazing is most from November to May. This must
be stopped, specially in the northern region around the Chingjao Hill
and to the south near Ithai village. As the grazing is mostly from the
western, northern and southern sides, a trench could be dug from Thanga
Hills to Ithai village to prevent the ingress of cattle. Not only do the
cattle constitute a factor of disturbance but also pose a threat as the
carriers of disease. One single epidemic is sufficient to wipe out the
total world population of the Manipur stag today. Besides, as has been
pointed out above, cattle is the main competitor with the Sangai for the
grass Ishing Kombong which constitutes less than 10 per cent of the
total grass in the sanctuary.

8. Other factors of human exploitation such as fishing, wood cutting
on the hills, grass cutting and transit through the sanctuary, should be
totally prohibited. Grass cutting only fetches Rs. 2000/- a year and this
must be stopped.

9. No person should be allowed to enter the sanctuary without a valid
permit from an official not below the rank of a Ranger.

10. Burning of grass should not be allowed in the sanctuary.

11. Illicit cultivation in the Thang-Brel-Maril should be done away
with. If this is not implemented the sanctuary is in danger of being cut
into two halves with disastrous results. Illegal settlements on the Khor-
dak river must also be removed.

12. Prophylatic innoculation of peripheral cattle and buffaloes, speci-
ally the latter, be carried out intensively. In Pabot Hill it may be worth-
while to experiment by placing rock-salt. I am sure the deer would wel-

BROW ANTLERED DEER

253

come this and apart from providing them with nutrition, it would also
result in their being seen more frequently seen from this observation
post.

13. No exotic plants or trees should be introduced or planted in the
island or elsewhere in the sanctuary. However, the planting of indigen-
ous trees should be carried out on the Chingjao Hill and to a lesser ex-
tent on Toya Hill.

14. A wooden observation tower should be put up at Toya Hill with a
canal cut through the phumdi from the west. However, this should only
be done when effective protection can be provided to this spot.

15. The A.C.F. to be placed in charge of the sanctuary should receive
wildlife training at Dehradun.

16. Since the Keibul Lamjao and the Logtak lake are areas of inland
drainage and being a complex aquatic eco-system, are extremely fragile,
care should be taken to prevent any action which may endanger
the eco-systems. Spraying of insecticides and pesticides which will im-
mediately find their way into the lakes, should be prohibited at all cost,
otherwise the entire life including the fish, may be jeopardised.

17. A detailed scientific study of the effects of the Logtak project on
the Keibul Lamjao, needs to be started forthwith. The salient features
of the investigation have been suggested before in this report. In fact
there is urgent need to carry out a research on the ecology of the Keibul
Lamjao; on its unique phumdi habitat, the deer and the aquatic life.

18. Since the Keibul Lamjao is today the only habitat of the brow-
antlered deer, disease or a radical setback, not to mention the in-
cidence of poaching, could wipe out the entire population of the deer.
It is therefore, essential that a second suitable home for this deer should
be set up in the valley of Manipur itself. This could be in the Khoidum
Lamjao (what now remains of it), or any other suitable habitat in the
valley. The Forest Department may make investigations in this regard
— where a second sanctuary could be created wherein a small breeding
group of the sangai could be released at a later juncture.

However, to augment the present low population of the deer in the
sanctuary, to enable research on the deer in at least a semi-captitve stage,
and to provide an added attraction to visitors, a captive breeding pro-
gramme of the brow-antlered deer on its own habitat, is imperative.
At present there is an enclosure which is behind the Keibul forest
office in which a hind is kept. Though this is a fairly large enclosure,
there is no phumdi nor marsh in it. An ideal enclosure would be one in
which a part of the phumdi is enclosed as well, as a certain portion of
the hillside to which the animal could move over when they wish to«be
on hard ground. Such an enclosure could be situated on the Ching-mei
Hill southeast of the Keibul forest beat-office. Here the hind held in
captivity could be released, and a herd of two stags and three hinds

254 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

could be brought over from the Delhi Zoo for breeding purposes. These
deer in the Delhi Zoo are the progeny of the sangai which were cap-
tured from the Keibul Lamjao some years back. Browantlered deer
breed well in captivity and I am sure if properly looked after, and if
attached to a research project, they could form a nucleus for an effective
captive breeding project.

The Sanctuary in March 1975

I visited Keibul Lamjao after a lapse of three years in 1975. Con-
siderable progress has been made since my earlier visit at the instance
of the Government of India, and due to the keen interest now being
evidenced by the Government of Manipur.

I took the opportunity of the presence of the Pre-Investment Survey
helicopter in Manipur to carry out an aerial survey of the population
of the deer, this being the only feasible way of counting them in the im-
penetrable floating morass. March being the height of dry season, the
“phumdi” had been set on fire by the surrounding villagers and fresh
green grass was sprouting. The deer could therefore hide only in the
remaining patches of dry grass which made the counting easy (Plate II).
I flew low over the Keibul Lamjao for a period of about 45 minu-
tes, and the number of deer revealed was far below even the most pes-
simistic estimate. There are only 14 Manipur Browantlered deer left
in the wild, 5 stags, 6 hinds and 3 fawns. This makes the Manipur deer
the most threatened animal in the entire sub-continent, and amongst
the half a dozen most endangered species in the whole world.

It is fortunate that this species breeds well in captivity and we have
a viable herd in the Delhi Zoo, and have given them to other re-
putable zoos in the country for breeding purposes. However, if the deer
are to survive in the wild, and if the captive breeding stock is to be re-
habilitated in the wild, it is imperative that the Keibul Lamjao Sanctu-
ary must be preserved at all costs. This is the only suitable habitat left
for this deer in the valley of Manipur. I have been advocating the acqui-
sition of a suitable territory for the deer on the other side of the Mani-
pur river where they once lived. This is now in private hands and can
be acquired for the deer if the Manipur Government so deems fit. How-
ever, the primary task is to preserve absolutely the existing habitat in
the Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary.

All grazing and fishing inside the sanctuary must be stopped. I saw
more evidence of grazing and fishing in the sanctuary in March, 1975
than was the case in March, 1972. If necessary, this should be done by
putting up a physical barrier for which funds have been provided to the
Manipur Government, and which have not been utilised so far.

BROW ANTLERED DEER

255

The cultivation within the sanctuary, especially in the Thang-Brel-
Maril strip which bisects the sanctuary almost into two, should be pro-
hibited. In case where the property rights have been given over to the
cultivators, these lands should be acquired, for which Government of
India can meet the cost of acquisition under the scheme of Financial
Assistance to Selected National Parks and Sanctuaries, and under which
we are already providing funds to the Keibul Lamjao.

No person should be allowed into the sanctuary without a valid per-
mit from the officer in charge, and this would preclude the entry of re-
gular parties of villagers who enter the sanctuary to collect grass and
wild vegetables.

Protective staff to be augmented and posted at strategic points on
the periphery of the sanctuary. At least jour Home Guards units should
be posted on the periphery to patrol the area with the forest staff.

Weapons given to the villagers on the periphery especially on the
eastern side of the sanctuary, are regularly mis-used for the poaching
of deer with the help of dogs. All these weapons should be withdrawn
and the licenses cancelled.

Repeated prophylactic innoculations should be carried out on the
cattle of the periphery for preventing cattle disease from affecting the
remnant population.

The sanctuary should be upgraded into a national park and the
boundary of this park should be the contour 25 25', which will be the
level of the water when the Logtak project is completed, and lastly, as
has been discussed above, the raising of the water level due to the Log-
tak project will have certain obvious advantages. However, if the const-
ant maintenance of the water at the level of 25 25' is to have a deleteri-
ous effect on the ecology of the Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary and the for-
mation of the floating islands which are the very raison d’etre of this
sanctuary, the level of the water held by the dam on the Manipur river
would have to be manipulated so as to restore the ecological factors
prevailing prior to the building up of the dam.

It must be emphasised that the Manipur deer and the Keibul Lam-
jao Sanctuary on which it is existing, are in a desperate situation and
unless the matter is given very urgent priority, there is no doubt that
this beautiful deer will become extinct in the wild, in the very near
future.

The Mountain Hawk-Eagle1

S. M. Osman2

I was resting on a high stretch of the Theri-Mussoorie road one morn-
ing, where it marks the northern boundary of the Motidhar shooting
block, when I noticed an eagle spiralling up from the plains. Soon it
was flying level with the road and passed so close overhead that I could
see each detail. To a falconer it was a real beauty, handsome and very
large. Without a single wing-beat, it glided towards a rocky out-crop,
perching as delicately as if its huge bulk were without weight. It was
not more than a hundred and fifty yards away, and I had to act quickly.

I hissed at my servant to produce the dogaza and live pigeon that
always accompany me to out-of-the-way places, and set my trap in a
terraced field just below the road. Then we hid and prayed.

Soon the eagle dived in a most spectacular fashion straight into the
net, and no mother could have shown greater love or gentleness to-
wards her first-born than I felt towards this tigress from the sky as I
freed her from the net. My permit expired that day and I had intended
to shoot some more pheasants before catching the last bus at Sahastrad-
hara, but now I decided to head for the taxi-stand at Mussoorie. I had
no hood with me, but was able to borrow needle and thread in Soakholi,
the first village I came to, and after I had sealed its eyes the eagle was
calmer.

Before I proceed to narrate the obstacles my father and I had to
overcome before this eagle was trained, and some of the incidents in the
six happy years we hunted with her, let me attempt a more general
description of the Mountain Hawk-Eagle, Spizaetus nipalensis.

In immature birds the head is dark brown, but the feathers on top
of the head are edged with light cinnamon. The colour changes to a
darker shade with each successive moult, so that in old birds the head
is almost black. In addition, dark moustachial stripes are developed.
On top of the head is a long crest, the feathers of which are tipped with
light cinnamon, or in older birds with almost pure white. The back and
upper parts are light chocolate, becoming dark brown after a few years
of moulting. The wings are barred with dark chocolate, and the tail-
coverts barred with white. The tail pens are of a light olive-grey colour
with dark brown bands running across.

1 Accepted April 1973.

2 No. ll-D/10 Circular Road, Dehra Dun, U.P.

THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE

257

In juvenile birds the general colour scheme is of a light or pale
shade. The wing-covert feathers in all such birds have almost white
edges. All immature birds have a salmon patch below their chins. In
older birds this patch is cleft by a dark brown streak, which tends to
broaden with each moult and also to become more and more dark till
it appears almost black in birds that are more than six years old. This
streak reaches down till it almost touches the crop. The underparts ap-
pear to be white or almost so. In such birds the breast is pale cinnamon
in colour, and is streaked with light brown feathers that extend to well
below the crop. From here downwards, white barrings are found right
to the belly. In older birds these broken white bars touch the crop of
the eagle, and are well pronounced. Streaks that in immature birds are
of a light brown shade change to a dark brown colour after a few moults.
In young birds, the tail pens seem to have more numerous and narrower
bars running across them.

In an unusually long head, that is very conspicuous in the female
birds, is set a black beak. In juvenile birds, the eyes are yellow, but

with advancing age the colour changes to a deep orange. The toes are

usually of a faded yellow shade, but the colour depends on the food
the eagle has been eating, as some birds killed by an eagle are not al-
ways as nutritious as rodents such as hares, squirrels and hamsters. Food
that is rich in fat and vitamin B12, if fed to the eagle or any hawk for
some length of time, will change the colour of the toes of that predator
to a bright yellow. This indicates very good health. In these eagles, the
feathers on the tarsi not only come down as far as the toe- joint, but

grow in between the toes as well. By looking at the extreme limit of

the feather range on the tarsi of hawk-eagles it is easy to differentiate
between nipalensis and cirrhatus .

This eagle has the most formidable claws to be seen in birds of its
size and weight. On the other hand, its beak is not as broad-based as
Bonelli’s. This slender beak in no way impairs its efficiency as a big
killer of game.

Male birds rarely go above twenty-five inches. Females may measure
thirty inches or more at times.

In the Himalayas, nipalensis keeps to the higher ranges and prefers
forested slopes. Because of snow, and cold, and also because other birds
such as pheasants migrate to the foothills during winter, nipalensis also
is obliged to come down to the plains, when it may be seen as far down
as the lower reaches of the Siwaliks. In its winter habitat it still prefers
wooded areas, especially where peafowl and junglefowl abound. Be-
yond the Siwaliks, it has seldom been reported, and on the whole it is
seen to prefer the mountain fastness of the mighty Himalayas, where it
breeds. It is the most voracious raptor, for its size, that I have seen. It
kills a huge variety of game, taking both big and small birds with ease.

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

It also kills and eats hares, squirrels, an occasional stone mar-
ten, and flying foxes the large fruit bats that are found in the Doon
Valley. Large birds that are frequently taken are peafowl, chir and
monal pheasants, junglefowl, and waterfowl such as the greylag goose.
The smaller birds include partridges, wood pigeons and even swift
parakeets. Since most of these birds are taken on the wing some idea of
the speed this eagle is capable of achieving can be formed. I am con-
vinced, and my conviction is probably shared by quite a number of
falconers and naturalists, that nipalensis is the fastest eagle on the In-
dian subcontinent.

In flight it is graceful, showing an enormous degree of manoeuvra-
bility. When our eagle had been fully trained I had ample opportunities
of watching her when flown after nightjars. This fly-by-night is no easy
prey even for the fast sparrow-hawks, but our eagle would capture it
on the wing nine times out of ten. The nightjars, or goatsucker as it is
sometimes called, is remarkable for its powers of flight and great speed.
It twists and turns in mid air so effortlessly that it is amazing just to
watch it perform.

In all my years of wandering in the hills I have come across only
three nipalensis nests. One of these was not far from a village close to
Mussoorie. In early spring I am often gripped by restlessness. At such
times I drop whatever work I have on hand, and with rucksack and
valise strike for the hills or the forests. Then, after a few days of aim-
less roaming around in the wilderness, I return home, once again a con-
tented man. In March the hills to the north of Dehra are a veritable
paradise, and if you go to the right places you will find the countryside
teeming with wild life, especially birds of all kinds, including local mig-
rants that each year return to their old nesting sites. Most of the bird
population is busy either courting or building a nest, but the Mountain
Hawk-Eagle completes these preliminaries in January, and in March
is settling down to the more serious business of incubation and egg-
hatching.

The village I am speaking of stood near a terrifying precipice, cock-
ed at such a dizzy angle on the slope of the hill that just to reach it was
sufficient to put the fear of God into the heart of any plainsman. Bang
on the edge of the precipice, and no more than twenty yards from the
cluster of huts that make up the village, there stood a towering pine
tree. In the village lived hillmen with their families, buffaloes, and goats,
all in the same huts. A rickety cot had been pulled out of one of the
huts for me, and as I sat talking to the headman I heard the unmistak-
able Kwick Kwick call of an eagle coming from the direction of the
giant pine. Immediately I was on my feet, and in order to get a better
look at the nest I climbed up the hill for a hundred feet or so, enough
to put me level with the nest. It was about ten feet below the top of the

THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE

259

pine tree, and in full view from where I stood. I watched the male bird
leave the nest, and the female eagle, which was the bigger of the two,
settle down to incubate the eggs. I sat there for almost an hour in the
hope of getting a better glimpse of the contents of that nest, but no
amount of shouting or clapping would make the hen bird leave the nest
even for a short while. In fact my efforts had just the opposite result,
for thereafter she crouched lower in the nest with her head barely show-
ing above the rim. From this behaviour I concluded that there must
be eggs, though I did not know how many.

Two months later I returned to the village hoping to see the eaglets
in full glory. But I could see no nest and the headman told me that it
had been blown down in a terrific storm, some weeks after my last visit.
I was inclined to believe this as no one could have molested the nest
since the tree stood on the brink of an abyss, and even getting near the
pine was enough to make my head reel.

I came across a second nest at a place in Uttar Kashi in the Garh-
wal hills. Here I had an excellent view of the two eaglets, as they used
to stand up in the nest whenever the parents came to feed them. What
struck me as odd was that the parent birds were not of the same age.
The male eagle was an immature bird, for I could clearly see the white
edges of the feathers on its wing-coverts, and I had been under the im-
pression that immature birds did not breed. The female eagle was un-
usually big, and from the darkness of her colour appeared to be six or
seven years old. The chin stripe referred to earlier was most conspicu-
ously drawn under her chin.

I was able to watch the nest to my heart’s content for two whole
days, and could see not only the eaglets, but the parent birds too as they
came with food for their offspring. I was fascinated to see the female
bring home sometimes a lizard, sometimes a hill partridge or chukor,
and once a blue rock pigeon. It was touching to see the tender care she
exercised in feeding the eaglets. The nest itself was an untidy pile of
sticks high in a huge tree. I found the eaglets were being fed at all times
of the day by the parent birds, and one of these would always be on
hand to defend the nest and eaglets against marauders. It was so well
guarded that ravens ,and kites gave it a wide berth. There was quite a
lot of wing-flapping and screaming by the eaglets when one of the parents
flew home with food.

The third nest was at Binahar in the western Doon valley, about 5000
ft above sea level. As I was walking at dusk across a terraced field I
saw an eagle fly out of the only oak tree at the far end. My host told
me that there was a nest, and that the eagle could be seen flying in and
out of it many times during the day, so next morning I walked over and
had got quite close to the tree before the eagle decided to fly away. I was
easily able to see she was a female Mountain Hawk-Eagle, some five

260 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. 72(2)

years old. The nest was untidy, but not very big, and was placed not
more than thirty feet from ground-level. From this I concluded that the
nest had not seen many years of tenancy, and must have been built a
year or so ago. I did not see the male bird, but I did not stay at the nest
site for more than a few minutes, and probably he was either out hunt-
ing, or on the other side of the ravine. When I inquired about the nest
again, a couple of years later, I was told the oak tree had been cut down.

I have seen these eagles in Naini Tal and am sure they extend over
the entire Himalayan range. I don’t think they spread into Kashgaria,
but they do reach Assam, and on to Burma. A planter friend in Assam
once showed me the skin of an eagle he had shot in the hill ranges of
southern Bhutan, and on examination I found it to be the skin of a
Mountain Hawk-Eagle. Accounts of naturalists engaged in field work
over the Arakan Yomas, in western Burma, mention that the eagle has
been seen there also.

Now let us return to the bird I had so easily captured. We
called her Kohistani, which in Persian means mountaineer. I was
not at all prepared for the many difficulties and troubles that we had
to overcome in training her, and that she was ultimately trained and
gave us many happy hours of hunting was made possible only by the
inestimable help extended by my father. Single-handed I am sure it
would not have been possible for me to achieve much with this parti-
cular bird. Even with my father’s help it still took almost twice the nor-
mal amount of time and labour required for the training of an eagle.
Our concentrated efforts and experience had only a very gradual effect
in subduing the wild and unpredictable nature of this Himalayan Queen.

To begin with, we found the eagle carried a heavy infestation of
mites, which it had probably gathered from the snow pigeons it had
been feeding on. And when its mutings were examined under the micro-
scope we found tell-tale traces of tapeworm infestation. In dealing with
the external parasites I made my first mistake. When all the old known
methods of eliminating the mites had proved unsuccessful, I invoked
the assistance of our local veterinary surgeon, who advised me to dust
the eagle with Gammexane powder, which is commonly used in this part
of the world for ridding poultry of ticks. In spite of the expert advice, as
the tin was labelled ‘for poultry only’ I reduced its strength by mixing
it with an equal quantity of wood ash. I hoped in this way to eliminate
side effects, and little realised how wrong I could be.

Less than an hour after a liberal application of this mixture of Gam-
mexane and wood ash, Kohistani had a very severe attack of convul-
sions and threw up all the food she had taken earlier in the day. After
these epileptical fits had passed off, the eagle sat up very groggily and I
was hoping that the worst was over when she got another attack. This
time the trouble lasted much longer and was more intense. She fell off

THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE

261

the perch and got hopelessly entangled in her leash. In trying to rescue
her, for I did not want her feathers to be broken, my hand came close
to her talons, and she gripped the bare and unprotected palm, sending
the main back claw right through it. In her delirium the eagle kept up
a spasmodic tightening of her grip, every time sending excruciating pain
shooting up my whole arm. It was difficult to say how long I could
stand this without fainting, but luckily my father had heard me cry out
and rushed to my help. Together we managed to free my hand, which
mercifully had started to become somewhat numb.

The swabs of cotton-wool saturated with iodine that I squeezed into
the hole in my palm did not put me to any great discomfort, but this
anaesthetized feeling unfortunately did not last for long and when the
circulation was back to normal I found I had not only a swollen but
also a throbbing palm.

During the course of the night I recorded nine such fits. By next
morning Kohistani had lost the use of her legs, and remained lying on
her breast all the time. The intervals between the fits however gradually
grew longer and the next night we registered only three fits. On the third
day the eagle was able to sit up for short intervals. During these three
days she did not eat anything, and as attempts to force-feed her would
induce an attack she was left alone in a warm dark place.

From the third day onwards Kohistani showed signs of improvement.
During the day she did not suffer a single attack, and in the evening she
ate a little meat, the liver of a hare I had shot in the afternoon. After
that she never looked back. But the experience had left her in a state of
extreme excitability and great nervousness. Any sudden noise would
cause intense agitation and excessive distraction. She refused to cooper-
ate, and would only jump to the fist from a very short distance when
pressed by hunger. We could not hope to condition her while she was
in this plight, so we decided to feed her up, and refrain from handling
her until she was once again in the highest health condition.

Gradually the eagle gained weight, and after some time was back
to normal. To all outward appearances, she looked as well as any eagle
could, yet she never lost her neurotic jumpiness, and the training was an
ordeal for both trainer and trainee. For what seemed an endless num-
ber of minutes, you would watch her sitting on the perch with my father
standing in front of her, extending a welcoming fist with a little meat.
He would beckon and beckon the eagle to jump to the fist, but she
would not budge. Kohistani would simply look at all this with a tran-
quil gaze, and remain so still that you could swear she was a stuffed
specimen, and not alive at all.

This went on for almost a month. Then she began to jump with less
hesitation and soon she was flying to the fist from a distance of eight to
ten feet. These flights were always from the ground, or from the block

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(2)

perch, and hence from a lower to a higher level. By this time my pati-
ence was almost exhausted and I was ready to let the eagle go, but my
father kept grinding away at the training as though such resistance was
only to be expected from our beauty. It is this quality of being able to
withstand resistance for longer than the normal man that makes the
difference between a good and a mediocre falconer. It is also a sign of
stronger character, and I could see this asserting itself on the eagle. The
foundations of her resistance were gradually being sapped and she was
beginning to cooperate.

In another few days, I was pleased to see her fly to the fist from the
branch of a tree that stood some fifteen feet high. During this period
of the training, we were not prepared to take any chances so we used
a creance. This meant that if during her short flight from the branch
to the fist the eagle decided to quit and turned aside, she would be res-
trained by the long cord attached to her leash. As soon as she started
to come when called from distances beyond eighty feet, the creance be-
came redundant. Once an eagle is flying to the fist without hesitation,
whenever called, the creance should not be used. It is very liable to get
tangled in a bush or branch, and if a bird under training is suddenly
brought up short by the creance it is naturally upset and discouraged
from further flight.

Kohistani was now doing very well, and within a few days was in
yarak. The time had come to fly her at game. I would here once more
like to emphasize that the first flight at game for any newly trained hawk
is a very important occasion, for should the first few attempts at catch-
ing game be unsuccessful, the hawk loses confidence and is much dis-
couraged.

We chose Kersali, a village nestling under a bluff on the right bank
of the Song river at its confluence with the Bandall, for Kohistani’s first
flight after game. A few paddyfields extended from the village to the steep
edge of the tableland lying to the west. Pheasants come from the dense
cover on the bluff to feed on the paddy left after harvesting. We arrived
very early, before the sun had made its appearance. My father had the
bagle on his fist and we had not moved far when I noticed pheasants
dodging in and out of the patches of bramble, making for the rising
ground ahead. I signalled my father to be ready but it was not necessary,
for not only had he seen the birds himself, but the eagle also was keenly
following their movements. She bated, and my father let her go immedi-
ately, but the wily birds had already sensed danger and scurried back
into the nearest bramble-patch. Seeing this, the eagle executed a right-
hand sweep and flew to the nearest tree overlooking the bush. She per-
ched on the topmost branch, facing the spot where the pheasants had
gone to cover. It was now our business to force the cunning birds out
into the open. The pheasants were in a thicket of about a dozen bram-

THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE

263

ble bushes, and were all the while trying to break back, as we tried to
drive them towards the eagle. Meanwhile the eagle was becoming restive,
her bells tinkling as she constantly shifted her position to get a better
view of what was going on below.

Perhaps, after running around so many times in a small circle, the
pheasants had lost their sense of direction, or maybe they too had be-
come desperate and had decided to take their chance in the open, eagle
or no eagle, when at last the cock bird exploded out of cover with a shrill
chirr and made for the next lot of brambles. The moment it appeared
the eagle shot out like a flash of light and the birds met in mid-air with
a reasounding smack.

The eagle came to earth almost at once, gripping the ill-fated pheas-
ant so powerfully that it could not move at all. For a few seconds it
squawked pitifully and then was quiet. You could not have found two
happier men than Father and I as we stood watching the eagle bother
the dead pheasant.

I always found Kohistani very brave, but she would sometimes
ignore game no matter how well the stage had been set. I fear my ini-
tial blunder of having exposed her to the toxic pesticide was largely
responsible for her changing moods. She showed a special fondness for
hares, and always bated hard after them if not slipped. I was one day
exercising her by letting her follow me, flying from tree to tree. We
usually covered a mile or more like this. We were in the middle of our
morning jaunt when a hare sprang from almost under my feet, when
the eagle was on a tree more than hundred yards behind me. She must
also have seen the hare for I heard the tinkle of bells and knew that
she had taken off from the tree, and when I turned round she was quite
near, flying like smoke. She flew low, hardly three feet above the ground,
and the wind escaping through the slits in the bells made a continuous
whistle. In the six years the eagle had been with us, I had often before
seen what followed next, but the memory of it even today sets the blood
throbbing in my temples. The eagle effortlessly grabbed the hare by the
nape of the neck, lifted it clean off the ground and raised it over five
feet before coming down to earth with both feet firmly planted in the
victim. A falconer’s dream.

What I wish to stress is not merely the way in which rodents were
dealt with, but also the speed at which these birds can fly. Looking at
the Mountain Hawk-Eagle one could never imagine how fast it can
travel. It is twice the size of an ordinary goshawk and it would be re-
asonable to surmise that it is slower. On the contrary, I have substan-
tial proof that the Mountain Hawk-Eagle is able to perform just as well
if not better than a goshawk, as well as being five times as powerful.
The fact that it can capture such fast and nimble prey as parakeets and
pigeons is a clear indication that provided it is above the quarry, it can

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

fly even faster than a goshawk. In manoeuvrability, it is quite its equal.

I had Kohistani with me for slightly more than six years, and dur-
ing this period she accounted for more than sixty hares apart from other
game. She did not always register a kill, and on some occasions the
hares got away with a whole skin, but such instances were few compared
to the times when hares were bagged. Whenever a hare escaped, I attri-
buted it to the eagle’s changing moods, and remembered her ordeal with
the Gammexane powder.

I have mentioned the speed at which these birds can move, and the
way they can twist and turn when hot on the heels of the quarry. I have
had countless opportunities to witness the performance not only of wild
mountain hawk-eagles, but also of tame eagles of this species, under
controlled conditions that excluded the chance of any error in judge-
ment. Experiments were repeated again and again, and a stop-watch
used for timing. Photographic records of the eagle’s flight were also
made and all confirmed its remarkable speed and manoeuvrability. I
have been an ardent falconer ever since my schooldays, and have been
lucky enough to handle many hawks, falcons, and eagles. Therefore I
have had many opportunities to observe the relative speed of the dif-
ferent birds of prey. My findings are based on personal experience and
keen interest.

Bam Owls are often hunted with sparrow-hawks, merlins and other
small hawks such as shikras, and I have frequently succeeded in gather-
ing an owl or two with a Peregrine tiercel. But owls are very cunning
and can dodge in and out between the branches with exceeding ease.
In all cases the hawks and falcons had to stretch themselves to their
maximum capacity to catch their prey. One would not have thought the
seemingly ungainly Mountain Hawk-eagle able to compete, but I have
time and again captured owls both big and small with Kohistani.
Amongst the bigger members of the Bubo tribe the Homed Owl was the
favourite and the eagle was also very keen on Barn Owls. These screech
owls are usually found living by the dozen in a banyan standing isolated
from other trees, preferably on the edge of an open field. These stygian
creatures love to dwell in such trees, where the thickly overgrown bran-
ches give them good protection from enemies during the day. Hollows
in the twisting limbs provide excellent tenements for raising a family
and it is as difficult to drive the blighters out of this sanctuary as it is to
drive a man out of his home. They are always very reluctant to fly, and
it takes a lot of shouting and stone-throwing to persuade a novice bird
to leave his ancestral abode for the uncertain comfort of the next tree
a few hundred yards away.

At such times it was possible to slip the eagle after the retreating owl,
and on all such occasions I have witnessed a show magnificent beyond
description. The eagle would catch up with the owl in a few determined

THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE

265

wing-strokes and grab it effortlessly. I suppose the mere sight of the
monstrous adversary close on their heels made the owls forget how to
dodge and swerve. What is surprising is that after the capture of an owl
Kohistani always came down to the ground, and did not carry the kill
into some tree where it would be difficult for me to get her down. Only
when an owl did gain the protection of the next tree, but could not find
any convenient hollow to hide in, would the eagle catch it as it sat on
the branch. Even then, in nine cases out of ten Kohistani came floating
gracefully to the ground with the owl almost hidden in her mighty claws.

As for the bigger owls. Bubo bubo, the Great Horned Owl, present-
ed no problem at all. Once it had been located in some ravine its fate
was sealed. It never got a chance to get away and its feeble efforts at
self-defence were unavailing. There is only one way an owl can outsmart
an eagle, and that is if it decides to soar.

Though the Great Horned Owl rarely attempts it, the Turkestan
Owl is much given to this sort of escape tactics, and it is great fun to
watch these bold fliers hunted by a Saker falcon. Both falcon and owl
ascend in what to the observer may appear to be never-ending mount-
ing spirals till they show as mere specks in the azure blue of the sky.
Unfortunately for it, the owl is not what may be termed a stayer, and
the moment it tires and starts on its downward journey, its fate is seal-
ed. The Saker begins its classic dives and the falconer is rewarded with
an astounding series of mid-air strikes. Every time the Saker makes con-
tact with the quarry, feathers explode in the sky as though the owl has
been hit by a charge of shotgun pellets.

Towards the close of each hunting season, and just a few days be-
fore Kohistani was to be grounded for moulting, I would make it a
point to slip her at whatever small game we came across. These last few
days of the shikar season always witnessed most intensive hunting, for
we bagged all sorts of game, from squirrels, mongoose, and hares, to
partridges, bush quail, and neophrons. This was at the start of the hot
season, when hunting was possible only during the early morning hours
or just before sunset. In spite of the short period at our disposal, we
were still able to have an immense amount of sport.

I remember how one day Kohistani killed a mongoose. With a couple
of friends, I was out hunting in the morning. The sun was quite warm
notwithstanding the early hour — it was hardly 8 a.m. — and we decided
to call a few minutes’ halt in a mango grove in the shade of the trees
that had already started budding. One of my friends was carrying an
air-gun and he went ahead to see if he could shoot some bird for Kohis-
tani to be fed upon. Very soon he came charging back to say he had
seen a mongoose roving at the far end of the grove. ‘Let us try and grab
it with the eagle,’ I said. But when we reached the spot where my friend
had seen the mongoose, we found that it had disappeared. Presuming

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

it had gone to earth in a nearby warren, we gathered round the hole
and were debating what to do next, when all of a sudden the creature
poked its head out of the burrow and then shot out as if a posse of de-
vils were after it. I was standing quite close to the hole.

By the time I had unhooded the eagle the mongoose was clear away
and was moving at a goodish clip towards the hedge that marked the
boundary of the grove. The eagle saw what was happening and hesitated
for a fraction of a second, this being her first time at mongoose. Then
she launched herself off my fist — I did not cast her after the quarry —
and a cheer of exaltation went up from the small crowd as we watched
the eagle dodge through the trees and cut out the victim’s line of re-
treat to the boundary hedge. It grabbed its prey with a terrific woosh
and lifted it clean off the ground. I was horrified to see that Kohistani
had gripped her prey by the rump, and that the business end of the pro-
testing quarry was snapping viciously, trying to bite the eagle’s hold
from its tender behind. Like lightning, the eagle shifted her other foot
and firmly nailed the mongoose just behind the ear. All this happened
while eagle and quarry were still in the air. After delivering the coup-
cle-grace Kohistani landed not far from where she had first lifted the
mongoose from the ground. It was the first mongoose I had ever hunt-
ed with Kohistani and I was very happy about her and my achievement.

In dealing with squirrels, she found the going a bit rough. As a mat-
ter of fact squirrels are not easy prey even for hawks. The way they can
dodge and turn round the branches of a tree would make survival diffi-
cult even for a sparrowhawk, if it had to depend solely on catching
squirrels for food. During the six years the eagle was with me, however,
I managed to get almost a dozen squirrels. A treed squirrel being next
to impossible for an eagle to capture, I would try to drive it out into
the open by shouting and throwing stones. Meanwhile my father would
be waiting, with Kohistani held unhooded and in readiness to be cast
off the moment the squirrel touched the ground. There it can never hope
to evade an eagle hot on its heels.

Kohistani possessed one unusual quality that enthralled me when-
ever I witnessed it. Quite unlike some other birds of prey, she never car-
ried game and would always come down to rest on the ground no matter
how small the quarry she held in her mighty grip. There was only one
exception, when she carried a dead crow up into a tree, but the circum-
stances were peculiar. One evening, I had gone to a mango garden close
to our home with the idea of shooting a crow for Kohistani to eat the
next day. I did not have long to wait, for this was a roosting site for
crows, and they would come over in huge numbers, cawing, just before
dusk. I winged one with the powerful air-gun I was carrying, but un-
fortunately I had no more pellets with me, and it kept hopping from
one branch of the tree to the other, knowing full well that any attempt

THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE

267

to take off would only end in its downfall.

I was thinking of going back for more ammunition when I saw my
father approaching with Kohistani. She sat unhooded on my father’s
fist and was already bating after the wounded crow.

She was unleashed and cast after the crow which was nervously
cawing, for it too had seen the eagle. The crow did not have the ghost
of a chance, but as Kohistani grabbed it her jess knotted round the twig
on which the crow had taken refuge and though she managed to smash
loose she flew into another tree some distance away. It had got dark
by this time and all we could see was a dark shape moving on the branch
where it had alighted and the tinkle of her bells as she shifted her posi-
tion.

I was under the impression that the eagle was preparing to feather
and start eating the crow, but to make sure I dashed home to fetch a
powerful torch. When I got back my father told me that the eagle had
flown to yet another tree, where the torch’s beam showed Kohistani
comfortably reposing on a thick branch. There was no trace of the crow,
so we had a look in the tree where the eagle had been moving so rest-
lessly and found the crow wedged in the fork of a small branch, ready
for Kohistani’s breakfast next morning.

We felt sure that she would return to her kill at the first streak of
dawn, and feared that, once she had taken her fill, it would be difficult
to persuade her to fly to the gloved fist. So we lashed some bamboo
poles together, and after some neck-breaking work — for we had to look
directly upwards while aiming the long and whipping pole at its target —
we managed to topple the dead crow down. Then we left the eagle to
sleep in expectation of a marvellous repast the following morning.

Though we came back next day before the sun had risen, we found
Kohistani searching the branch where she had stored the crow. When
called she flew down obediently to my father’s fist, and was perhaps for
the first time happy to see us after a night’s separation.

On more than one occasion Kohistani followed and robbed other
birds of prey of their rightful prize. When the eagle was not taken out
hunting she was exercised, and one day, when I had just called her back
to fist after letting her follow me, I was about to reward her with a
dainty morsel of pigeon meat from my falconer’s bag, when a sparrow-
hawk flew past with a thrush in its claw. This was too great a tempta-
tion, and Kohistani immediately took off and with a few sweeping beats
of her wings, had caught up with the lesser hawk and claimed her re-
ward. She could have easily killed the sparrowhawk of course but she
was on the whole quite kindly disposed towards the weaker birds of
prey. I have often left her at home, sitting on the same perch with a
Sparrowhawk I had at the time, scarcely a foot apart. And in the pre-
sence of other eagles Kohistani behaved very well, maintaining an un-

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

ruffled, uninterested pose and showing no inclination to fight or quarrel.
In one instance, I remember, there was a lot of provocation from ano-
ther hawk-eagle that would scream, and glare, and try to attack Kohis-
tani. But she would sit quietly on the perch for hours together, while
the uncouth hooligan screamed close to her. Her only response to the
bad manners of her neighbour was to preen. In spite of her huge size,
formidable strength, and undisputed prowess as a killer of game, she
was always well-behaved on the perch at home. She was quite indif-
ferent to dogs and did not mind their sniffing at her. She displayed un-
paralled bravery when required, but otherwise was as gentle as a lamb.

Funnily enough the sight of a bicycle struck terror in her heart. A
motorcycle, a truck, or even a railway engine meant nothing to her, but
let her see a bicycle and she would start bating. Sometimes she was so
much upset that she lost her appetite. If recently fed, she might even
throw up her last meal. What could have been the real cause to trigger
all this I was unable to know. I tried very hard to find the origin of this
strange behaviour.

I had Kohistani for a little over six years, and found that the most
difficult period was just after the moulting season had finished, when
she was taken from the mews for a refresher course of training. During
the moulting season she was fed on a diet of extra fine delicacies, to
assist moulting, and naturally she grew very fat. When the moult finish-
ed towards the end of September it was quite warm even in Dehra Dun,
and the combination of heat, overweight and a long spell of inactivity
perhaps accounts for her dislike of being handled. She bated so much
that I feared a return of her epileptic fits. To reduce the risk, her diet
was gradually reduced towards the end of the moult, and handling post-
poned until she had lost a few ounces.

She was very choosy so far as her hoods were concerned. For no
apparent reason she would take a liking to one particular hood but
would not tolerate another of the same size and pattern, and cut from
similar leather. I tried many experiments, using the same pattern and
leather but different colours, and found that Kohistani never resisted
the clamping on of a hood of orange or deep yellow colour. Other
colours were never favoured, and if the hood were of a dark brown
shade she would start screaming at the mere sight of it.

Kohistani disliked any newcomer to the mews, particularly if it was
a child. Perhaps her instinct told her that children’s behaviour was un-
predictable and that they were not to be trusted. Another curious anti-
pathy was towards brooms.

Keeping a hawk is always uphill work, but one’s troubles are ampli-
fied when one decides to keep an eagle. The first consideration is natu-
rally how to procure enough food, especially towards and during the
moulting season. Hawks can be fed on mutton or beef occasionally.

THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE

269

but this kind of food is not conducive to the growth of healthy feathers
and so must be avoided during the moulting period. During moulting,
food rich in carotin, and bird or rodent fat, is essential. Collecting doves
or pigeons with an air gun did not appeal to me, for at this season birds
also are nesting and rearing their young. I always avoided this method
of finding fodder for my eagle. Instead I got four pairs of rabbits, and
these proved so prolific that in a short time I had more than twenty
bunnies running all over the place. I got so fond of those dear little balls
of fluff, that I simply could not steel myself to slaughter any one of
them. But at the rate they kept multiplying feeding the rabbits became
a big problem and soon I was begging people to come and take them
as gifts.

One day about this time I noticed mounds of earth freshly thrown
up by the gerbille rats that abound in this part of the country, living in
colonies of a hundred or more together. The next evening found me
carrying four baited rat-traps, which I left in spots where I thought the
rats would come out in the night to feed. The idea proved to be a very
good one, for early next morning I found all the traps sprung and four
worthies stretched out.

Unlike ordinary field rats, gerbilles are not ugly or dirty. All the
rats I trapped were very healthy, and extremely clean. In this way I
avoided the unnecessary slaughter of birds, and had no longer to bear
the burden of supporting a family of rabbits. Every evening the traps
were laid and baited, and early next morning I would go and collect
the dead rats. They were disembowelled on the spot and carried home
to Kohistani. She liked this kind of fare and grew fat on the rodent
meat. It was economical for me too, for I no longer had to buy a pigeon
every alternative day to feed the eagle. As a matter of fact it made it
possible for me to keep two eagles at a time. It only meant laying out
more traps, which was no hardship, as there were colonies not far from
my home, and my nocturnal nibblings did not seem to have any visible
effect on them. Nevertheless I always moved to the next lot of burrows
after having trapped in one area for any length of time.

Kohistani always moulted quite well. She started by shedding the
primaries as early as March, and moulting would be completed by the
third week of September or slightly earlier. During the first year, when
the eagle still had a mantle of juvenile feathers, I noticed that these
showed a tendency to break off quite often. I followed the usual prac-
tice of dipping a dented feather in nearly boiling water. This straighten-
ed it out, but unfortunately the feather was extremely brittle after this
hot-water treatment, and would snap off whenever the least pressure was
applied. When hares or even pheasants were being hunted, the eagle
would have a slight struggle to finish the prey off, which would result
in one or two feathers breaking or bending. After her first moult, how-

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

ever, and when she had had a regular diet of rodent meat for a full
season, her new feathers were strong, and could be bent without their
snapping. From then onwards, no imping or hot-water treatment was
ever called for.

All good things must come to an end, and the time came when cir-
cumstances beyond my control compelled me to part with Kohistani. I
could have given her to a falconer friend in India or Europe, but de-
cided instead to restore her to the free life of the wild.

In preparation, we kept her in the mews after her moult was com-
pleted and continued to feed her on rodent meat. We handled her as
little as possible, so that after a few weeks she was quite fat and almost
wild. Then Father and I took her to a remote area in the Rajaji Sanctu-
ary, where there was plenty of small game for her to feed on, and re-
leased her. I don’t suppose she remained there long, for it was the mat-
ing season. Soon she must have been gripped by a huge restlessness, and
have soared up and crossed the Siwalilcs to the Himalayas only twenty
miles away, to find a mate and raise a family. I often see her in my
dreams and hope that, one fine day, I shall see her in reality.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (2)
Gaston : Bird populations

Plate

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 1. Typical visit Map {see p. 276); Fig. 2. Species Map {see p. 277)

Methods for estimating bird

This paper attempts to describe a number of methods for the esti-
mation of bird populations. The kind of method employed will
depend on a variety of factors; the purpose for which the estimate
is required, the ecology and behaviour of the species concerned,
and the degree of accuracy considered necessary.

In the case of an economically important bird pest, causing direct dam-
age to a standing crop it may be sufficient simply to estimate the dam-
age, and assess the reduction in damage resulting from various control
measures tested. An example of this kind of situation would be the use
of tape-recordings or shots to scare birds away from orchards. The suc-
cess of the technique can be assessed directly from the decrease in the
percentage of damaged fruit, without knowing how many birds are in-
volved.

In situations requiring some estimates either of the actual number
of birds involved, or of relative changes in the size of a particular popul-
ation, a method must be chosen appropriate to the task in hand. Popul-
ation estimates, in terms of birds/unit area are generally more difficult
to achieve than population indices, which allow comparison between
different years, seasons, or areas without giving an idea of the actual
number of birds involved.

Where a detailed population study is being carried out it is best to
employ both estimates and indices. If a number of populations of the
same species are examined, and estimates and indices compared then
it may become possible to relate the index figures to the estimates so
that actual population figures can be derived from the indices, which
usually involve less field-work.

1) Line transects. These are performed by one or more observers walk-

1 Accepted September 1973.

2 Edward Grey Institute, Dept, of Zoology, Oxford.

A. J. Gaston1 2

{With a plate & two diagrams )

Comparative Indices

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

ing or driving through the area of study, and counting all individual
birds seen. The observer’s route should be selected prior to the start of
the transect, and should, if possible, be random with respect to variations
in the habitat, though this is not always possible if pre-existing foot-
paths or field borders are followed. When comparing population chan-
ges with time over a particular area then the transect, one chosen, should
be followed exactly on each subsequent visit. If two different areas are
being compared for their relative population densities then transects in
the two areas should be equal in length, and an equal length of time
should be spent on each.

The length of the transect will depend on the abundance of the bird
species being censused. If the area is small then there is no theoretical
objection to criss-crossing the same ground, or to counting the same
bird twice, provided that this is not done knowingly. A transect of 2-3
miles might be sufficient for counting Bulbuls ( Pycnonotus spp.) in
scrub, whereas a suitable transect for Coursers ( Cursorius spp.) in the
desert might involve a jeep ride of 50 miles.

Line transects are usually used in fairly uniform habitat, or in habit-
at such as mixed scrub and woodland, where the observer can, on any
random route, pass through several patches of each of the constituent
vegetational types.

The activity, and hence the visibility, of birds varies with season,
weather conditions, and time of day. In order to make successive trans-
ects comparable it is important that these factors be taken into consider-
ation. Comparison between different habitats by the transect method is
very difficult because birds are unlikely to be equally visible in different
types of vegetation. In habitats where the vegetation is dense an audi-
tory transect, made by counting the number of calls heard, rather than
the number of birds sighted, may be most useful, but it depends on the
species being censused having an unmistakable call. Contact calls and
alarm calls are more suitable for this purpose than songs, since singing
tends to be seasonal, and usually confined to one sex. The auditory
transect is particularly useful in tall woodland where most birds are out
of sight in the canopy.

In very open habitats, such as flat desert, or counting sea birds at
sea, it is necessary to impose some limit on the distance that birds can
be counted from the transect line. At sea a limit of 200 metres is suitable
but this has to be estimated by eye, and hence tends to introduce a sub-
jective bias.

An advantage of the transect method is that it is simple to carrry out,
and requires no special apparatus. Also, if it is repeated several times
over a short period then the resulting figures can be used to calculate a
mean and standard deviation, and these give some indication of the
reliability of the method.

ESTIMATING BIRD POPULATIONS

273

2) Tape recordings. Many birds can readily be attracted to the tape-
recorded calls of their own species. A comparative estimate of density
can be obtained for these species by using a transect, and playing suit-
able calls at intervals along the route. Birds attracted to the calls can be
counted as they appear, or calls heard in reply can be counted. This
method is particularly useful for shy skulking species.

The kind of call employed will depend on the species involved. For
most small passerines the song is best, particularly during the breeding
season. For birds like Babblers ( Turdoides ), which do not sing, the con-
tact call or the mobbing call can be used. Care must be taken to ensure
that the volume at which the call is played remains constant through-
out the census, and only observations made at the same time of day, or
season can be compared.

3) Mist netting. Mist nets (fine nylon nets which trap birds unharmed
when they fly into them without seeing them) can be used to assess
changes in the abundance of a particular species in a given locality. The
number of birds caught depends on many factors; the activity of the
birds, the area of nets deployed, the siting of the nets in relation to the
vegetation, the amount of time that nets are deployed. Catches made on
two days can only be compared if all these factors remained equal.

The effectiveness of mist nets for trapping resident birds declines
steadily from the time that they are erected, and if the nets remain in
the same sites for several consecutive days local birds learn to avoid
them. Ideally there should be sufficient nets available to be able to allow
catching 20 or so of the required species within a few hours. Different
sites vary widely in the numbers of birds trapped, without any relation
to the density of the population, and for this reason it is only permissible
to compare catches when nets have been set in exactly the same sites.

This method is probably highly inaccurate, but it can be used in con-
junction with population estimates by “capture-recapture” methods. It
cannot be used to compare population densities in different habitats,
since the structure of the habitat is bound to affect the ease with which
birds are trapped. Young birds seem to be more susceptible to trapping
with mist nets than older birds, and estimates of populations containing
many young birds cannot, therefore, be compared with older popula-
tions.

4) Random nest searching. An index of the year to year fluctuations
in the size of breeding populations of certain species in a particular area
can be obtained from the number of nests found annually by random
searching, provided that the same amount of time and 'effort is expend-
ed on each year. This makes no allowances for increases in the efficiency
of the searcher, and is best suited to species such as Larks, and Partrid-
ges, where the nest is usually located by flushing the mother bird off
the eggs after a systematic beat.

274 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Population estimates

1) Estimation of breeding populations. These will be treated under four
headings, depending on the kind of social structure involved. It has to
be borne in mind that the breeding population in any one season is usual-
ly substantially smaller than the total population size. In some species
breeding is deferred until they are several years old, and in other species
birds potentially old enough to breed may be inhibited by social factors.
In the Jungle Babbler ( T . striatus) only about 30 per cent of the popul-
ation breeds in one year.

At the same time establishing the size of the breeding population
may be important in some cases because it relates directly to the pos-
sible rate of increase of the total population.

a) Colonial nesters. Birds which breed in large colonies tend to occupy
the same nesting area every year, and such colonies are usually well
known locally. Storks, herons, cormorants, pelicans, vultures, and flamin-
gos all come into this category. During the non-breeding season birds
from a single colony may spread out over thousands of square miles,
and because of this it is very difficult to assess the area which is served
by a particular colony or to derive an idea of birds’ density in terms of
pairs/unit area.

Counting nests in a large colony is subject to a number of potential
errors. Some birds may make more than one nest if their first effort is
robbed by a predator. In some cases previous years’ nests persist, and
in others nests may be built so close together that it is impossible to tell
the boundaries of individual structures. Uncertainty is increased by the
fact that in mixed colonies, such as a heronry, several different species
may be the owners of such adjacent nests.

The timing of the count is important. If it is too early then some
pairs may not have begun to nest, if it is too late in the season then
many will have abandoned their nests due to predation or accidents to
the eggs. Ideally several counts should be made at different stages in the
season. In tree nesting colonies each tree can be tagged with a label
stating the number of nests it carries, or the trees can be mapped, and
the number of nests in each entered on the map. The total breeding
population can then be calculated by summing the maximum counts for
each tree.

In a few cases, such as flamingos, or sea-birds nesting on open
beaches, it may be possible to count occupied nests from aerial photo-
graphs. This is only useful when the colony is known to comprise only
a single species, because the identification of species from aerial photo-
graphs is probably not possible. For tree nesting birds, such as storks
and vultures, this method is not appropriate because nests in the tops
of the trees are likely to obscure those lower down.

ESTIMATING BIRD POPULATIONS

275

Photography can also be useful in counting colonies of cliff-nesting
species, such as Griffon Vultures ( Gyps julvus ), and bank nesters, such
as Sand Martins ( Riparia riparia), and Bank Mynas ( Acridotheres
ginginianus) . Once the colony has been photographed a blow-up can
be used by the observer to tick off nest holes or nests which can be seen
to be in use. At old colonies of Bank Mynas, for instance, some holes
may not be in use, while others may be occupied by sparrows. A few
hours spent observing the colony, and ticking off those holes in use,
should be sufficient to estimate the population at that time, but counts
should be repeated at intervals throughout the breeding season to allow
for early and late nesters.

Weaver colonies are more difficult to count than those of hole-
nesters. The nests are quite conspicuous but not all of those built are
used. In the case of the Baya ( Ploceus philippinus) nests are usually
suspended in palms or other trees and can be scored for occupation by
observing them from a distance. Colonies of Blackthroated Weavers
(P. benghalensis) in tall grass, or Streaked Weavers (P. manyar) in
reed beds, are more difficult to watch, and in these cases it is necessary
to examine each nest in order to ascertain whether it is occupied.

Small passerine birds, which have a relatively short breeding cycle,
may nest several times in the course of a year, and only a proportion
of the population may be breeding at any one time. If this is so it may
be impossible to get an accurate idea of the size of the breeding popula-
tion from counting nests at any time during the season. Colonial nesters,
however, tend to have their nesting fairly well synchronised. In cases
where strongly asynchronous nesting is suspected it may be that assess-
ment of breeding populations gives no real indication of the size of the
total population, and the method is then useful only for comparative
purposes.

b) Semi-colonial nesters. These are species which do not exhibit much
overt territorial behaviour, and tend to nest in the general vicinity of
others of their own species, but which may on some occasions nest
alone. Colonies are not necessarily in the same place from year to year,
and are often rather spread out. In some cases the aggregation of nests
may be due to the clustering of suitable nest sites, rather than any posi-
tive gregariousness on the part of the birds.

Birds in this category include Munias ( Lonchura spp.). Parakeets
(Psittacula spp.), and Bee-eaters (M crops spp.). The last two of these
probably aggregate due to the proximity of suitable nest sites. A big old
tree with a number of holes may accommodate several pairs of Para-
keets, and sandy bank in otherwise flat country may concentrate the
nests of Bee-eaters.

Methods for assessing the size of colonies are the same as for colo-
nial species, but the amount of work required to ensure that all colo-

3

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

nies are located is much greater. Watching for concentrations of birds,
and searching suitable sites, should be sufficient in open country, but
the area that can be covered diminishes rapidly in scrub and woodland,
c) Territorial species. This category includes most species of passerine
birds, as well as many birds of prey, game birds, waders, pigeons, non-
parasitic cuckoos, owls, kingfishers, and woodpeckers. A number of
methods for assessing breeding populations of territorial species by
mapping sightings of individual birds, and particularly of singing males,
have been devised for use in temperature regions. The ‘Common Bird
Census’ method used for its national survey by the British Trust for
Ornithology, will be described, and its drawbacks in the Indian situa-
tion discussed.

Finding nests for territorial species is usually impractical for a
population of more than about 20 pairs. Instead it is easier to map the
territorial system of the population, and this has the advantage that,
while nesting may be sporadic, territories should remain fairly constant
throughout the breeding season.

The British Trust for Ornithology method (hereafter known as the
BTO method) is based on surveys carried out at weekly intervals
throughout the season by observers on foot. A study area of about 300
acres of farmland, or 100 acres of woodland is chosen, and a base map
of the area at the scale of 25" to the mile prepared, and duplicated.

If the study area is relatively featureless it may be necessary to erect
marker posts or paint numbers on the trees in order that the observer
can locate himself accurately at any time.

A separate map is used each time that the study area is visited, and
this is carried on a clip -board so that observations can be drawn on it
easily. The observer follows a route designed to bring him to within
about 50 metres of every part of the study area, and each bird sighted
in the course of this walk is plotted on the map, using a code of different
letters to denote different species, and symbols to denote whether sing-
ing or not.

Fig. 1 shows a typical visit map as it appears at the end of one day’s
visit. Sightings enclosed by circles denote birds seen in song, dots denote
individuals not singing, and an arrow connecting two points indicates
that the individuals concerned was seen to move from one spot to the
other in the BTO census all species are recorded, but the same method
could be applied to a few, or only a single species.

A minimum of about 10 visits are made during the season, for each
of which a separate map is used. At the end of the season an individual
map is prepared for each species by plotting the points for that species
from each daily map in turn. Each point is numbered corresponding
to the number of the visit, day 1, day 2, etc. An example of the result-
ing species map is shown in fig. 2.

ESTIMATING BIRD POPULATIONS 277

Fig. 2 depicts a fairly idealised example, and it can be seen that
points tend to fall into 6 clearly defined groups, which presumably
center on pair territories, with a few scattered observations outside these
which can be ignored. This map, therefore, suggests a population of 6
pairs of this species.

The BTO method has been in use in Britain for more than 10 years
and its drawbacks are fairly well known. Species which are best census-
ed by this method are those having a short breeding season during which
they sing a lot. Birds which like to perch prominently are particularly
suitable.

Care should be taken to distinguish unmated males. These usually
appear prominently at the beginning of the season, and then later dis-
appear. In some cases they may continue singing long after the other
birds have given up.

Birds which present particular difficulties are semi-colonial species,
polygamous species, species living in dense vegetation, and species like
larks which sing high above the ground, making mapping very difficult.
A good practice with singing larks is to watch them until they return
to the ground, and then mark that spot.

Species which might be censused by this method in lowland India
include those which perch and sing in obvious places, such as the Pied
Bushchat ( Saxicola caprata ), Shrikes ( Lanius spp.). King Crows ( Die -
rurus adsimilis). Rollers ( Coracias benghalensis) , Flycatchers ( Musci -
capa spp.), Robins ( Saxicoloides fulicata ), Magpie Robin ( Copsychus
saularis), and Purple Sunbird ( Nectarinia asiatica).

Because song is much less important for tropical birds than for their
temperate counterparts this method has usually been thought inappli-
cable in tropical situations, but with some modification it should prove
useful. Certain species tend to sing a lot at particular times of day, and
particular season, and this should be taken into account. Robins, for
instance, sing most vigorously before sunrise, while Wren-Warblers
(Prinia) sing particularly after rain.

A lot depends on the density of the population being censused. If
birds are very dense, then it becomes impossible to distinguish the boun-
daries of individual territories. If birds are fairly spread out, however,
it may be possible to map the territories even without observing song,
particularly if the birds are attached to a few look-out posts, as is usual-
ly the case with shrikes.

In a few cases this method can be used to assess wintering popula-
tions, where these defend territories. This applies to the Black Redstart
(Phoemcurus ochruros ), and the Lesser Whitethroat (Sylvia curruca),
although it must be borne in mind that in this case the territories are in-
dividual, not pair territories.

Two factors may tend to upset population estimates based on the

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

BTO method; if there is an unequal sex ratio then an assessment based
on singing birds (males) may not give an accurate idea of the number
of pairs. For some species there is evidence that males outnumber
females, and in this case unmated males may inflate the estimate. Also,
if there is a large non-breeding, non territory-holding population this
may tend to confuse the estimate by obscuring the pattern of territories.

A technique which can be employed in conjunction with a BTO type
mapping survey is colour marking with coloured plastic leg-rings, so
that birds can be identified individually. This can be used as a check
over a small part of the study area to assess the efficiency of straight-
forward mapping.

Plastic rings are commercially available in England in different sizes
and colours, but can also be manufactured out of sheets of coloured
plastic, cut into suitable lengths and moulded. Birds should be marked
with combinations of different colours. If 10 colours are available this
gives a possibility of 100 combinations using two rings in either order
(i.e. Red/Green and Green/Red). It is usually advisable to use the
same combination on both legs so that the bird can be identified even if
only one leg is visible.

This method is best for species which can be readily trapped, such
as Robins, Tailor Birds ( Orthotomus sutorius ), or Yellow-eyed Bab-
blers ( Chrysomma sinensis). Once a suitable number of birds have been
marked (about 30-40 at least) then mapping can be carried out as for
the BTO census, with the advantage that the territory of a particular
individual can be distinguished by known sightings inserted of inferred
from the grouping of points.

An advantage of the colour marking method is that it enables non-
breeding wanderers to be readily detected. A population containing
many of these would result in some colour ringed birds being seen re-
peatedly (the territory holders), and others never, or seldom being seen
again after their marking (the wanderers). From the proportion of those
judged to be territory holders to those judged to be wanderers it may
be possible to assess the actual size of the non-breeding population, but
a snag here is that the trapping method may not be equally effective
for both categories. Territory holders are usually less susceptible to cat-
ching in mist nets, for instance, than non-territory holders.

The main drawbacks of the colour marking method is that it is very
time consuming, and it requires an observer with acute colour vision.
It provides much more information about the structure of the popula-
tion, the size of territories, and the movements of individuals than any
other method, however, and is probably the best if a really detailed study
of the species’ biology is required.

d) Group territorial species. These are species in which territories are
occupied not by pairs, but by groups of birds, ranging in size from 3-30.

ESTIMATING BIRD POPULATIONS

279

These are fairly easily censused because most of these species are strict-
ly resident throughout the year, and also defend their territories year-
round. Because of the variation in the size of flocks these can often be
identified individually over small areas by the number of birds that they
contain, alternatively some members can be colour marked. The flocks
can then be mapped in the same way that their territories are mapped.
The winter season is probably the most suitable for counting of flocks,
because during the breeding season these have a tendency to fragment
during the day. At this season flocks are best counted in the evening
when they always join up before flying to roost together.

2) Sampling methods. These methods are based on the assessment of
the total population by capturing and marking a sample, releasing it,
and then taking a second sample in order to find the proportion of mar-
ked to unmarked birds. This technique is known ‘capture- recapture’, or
Lincoln Index.

Birds can be marked either with plastic rings, aluminium rings, or
with painted or dyed marks on the plumage, or even by clipping the
toes. The only limiting criterion for the marking is that it should endure
the duration of the study, and that it should not impair the normal acti-
vities of the bird.

Once a sample has been marked, and a second sample taken, the
total population is calculated from the formula
P = S2 x S2/M
where P = total population

51 ■= first sample marked and released

52 = second sample captured

M = number of marked individuals captured in the second
sample

Hence if 30 birds are captured and marked in the first sample (Sx) and
40 captured in S2, of which 20 are marked, then the total population
is estimated by

P = 30 x 40/20
= 60

Theoretically there are several conditions which must apply for this
calculation to give an accurate approximation. Both samples should be
taken from the population entirely at random (i.e. there should be an
equal chance of any individual in the population being captured). The
first sample should mix completely with the population after being re-
leased, and before the second sample is taken. There should be no im-
migration into, or emigration from, the population between the two
samples.

In practice birds do not usually satisfy any of these requirements.
Except in isolated cases, such as land birds on an island, or water-birds
in a marsh surrounded by arid country, all bird populations are subject

Total trapped up to and including day *j

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

to continual immigration and emigration at the periphery. Even birds
which do not hold territory tend to have a preferred range, and this
prevents the population from mixing randomly, and in any case there
is no trapping method available that can give an entirely random sam-
ple of an entire population.

If this method is to be used, then probably the best trapping techni-
que is to use mist nets, but these should be shifted around in such a
way as to ensure even coverage of the entire area, both for the first, and
the second samples. Baited wire traps cannot be used for this type of
calculation as there are always some individuals which repeatedly enter
the traps, while others are trap-shy, and never get caught.

This method may be useful when assessing the size of dense roost-
ing flocks, or the population of skulking species inhabiting dense vege-
tation. It is unlikely to yield an answer better than 50 per cent accurate.

Successive samples can be treated with more elaborate mathematical

Fig. l

No. of unringed birds trapped on day T

ESTIMATING BIRD POPULATIONS 281

procedures to yield better estimates but the drawbacks to the method
remain the same. These results can also be used in a comparatively
simple way, if each successive sample is marked, to yield a population
estimate. This is done by plotting the number of unringed birds trapped
on any one day against the running total of all birds marked, up to and
including that day, on a graph. A sample graph is shown (diagram 1).
The x axis shows the total number ringed up to and including day 4i\
and the y axis shows the number of unringed birds trapped and ringed
on day T. By plotting 3 or more points a line of best fit can be drawn,
and extrapolated to meet the x axis. This point (at which no more un-
ringed birds could be caught) gives the total population. This method
uses the same assumptions as the capture-recapture method but is easier
to calculate for a number of recaptures.

A capture-recapture (Lincoln Index) can also be made using only
one day’s trapping if the birds are marked in a conspicuous manner. If
this is done then, instead of a second trapping, the population can be
counted visually for marked and unmarked birds. The resulting calcul-
ation is the same as for the usual capture-recapture method, except that
in this case S2 is the number of birds observed on the visual survey, and
M is the number of those observed which are marked. A sample calcul-
ation, therefore, would be; number of birds captured and marked (Si) =
50, number seen on a four hour visit to the area the following day (S2)
= 60 , of which 15 were marked (M).

Population estimate (P) = 50 x 60/15 = 200
3) Roost counting. Many species of birds, outside the breeding season,
roost in large flocks during the night, scattering to feed during the day,
and flighting in to roost about sunset. The size of these roosts can some-
times be estimated by a team of observers counting birds as they arrive
at the roost. Most species fly in to the roost in flocks of up to 100 birds
and these can be fairly accurately estimated with practice, or in some
cases actually counted. At least 4 observers are generally necessary, sta-
tioned around the roost, and the sectors covered by each must be clearly
defined in order to avoid double counting.

Some water-birds, such as egrets, tend to fly to roost following the
line of waterways, and these can be counted by observers sited on these
flight lines. Other species which roost communally, and which might
be estimated by this method are parakeets, starlings (Sturnus spp.),
mynas ( Acridotheres spp.), and crows (Corvus).

Roosts can be located by one or more observers moving around by
car, and taking compass bearings on the direction taken by flocks flying
purposefully just before sunset. Arrows indicating these flight lines can
be plotted on a suitable map of the district, and the area at the cover-
gence of the arrows searched on foot to pinpoint the roost. A typical
roost-line map is shown (diagram 2).

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

■i — Direction of flocks. * Position of roosts. Boundary between feeding

areas of 2 roosts.

Only roosts of moderate size (about 100-10,000) can be counted in
this way. Larger roosts are more difficult because individual flocks fly-
ing in tend to be too large to estimate accurately.

A few species which form much smaller roosts might be censused
in this way. In particular peafowl, which roost high up in tall trees might
be susceptible to this method. On a moonlight night the birds are quite
conspicuous against the sky, and can be easily counted. In areas where
tall trees are only found in patches roosts can be located during the day
by searching the ground under each group of trees for peafowl drop-
pings, which are readily recognisable.

Very large roosts of small birds such as wagtails ( Motacilla spp.)
or swallows ( Hirundo ), which tend to fly in to the roost in ones and
twos, cannot be counted satisfactorily. In this instance an estimate can
be obtained by catching birds with mist nets and using the capture-
recapture techniques. It has been shown for some species, however, that
individual birds tend to return to the same position in the roost every
night. If this is true then a capture-recapture estimate will be badly
biased.

Roosting is not only a nocturnal phenomenon, gulls and shore birds
often form resting flocks at high tide, and these can be counted either

ESTIMATING BIRD POPULATIONS

283

while flighting in or while leaving. Ducks and geese tend to feed at
night, and form roosting flocks during the day on open water, which
can be counted provided that the stretch of water is not too large. Those
ducks which feed mainly on open water such as Ay thy a spp. are parti-
cularly easy to count. Dabbling ducks ( Anas spp.) are more difficult
because they tend to prefer marshes and reed beds to open water.

In Britain all major open waters are counted monthly by teams of
volunteers, and when coverage is complete this can yield a valuable
estimate of the water bird population. The important thing is that all
counts should be made simultaneously because ducks are extremely
mobile, and counts made at different localities on different days would
almost certainly lead to double counting.

Conclusions

Every species of bird, every different habitat requires a technique
specially adapted to it. The methods described above are not exhaustive,
but provide some indication of the approaches available.

A great deal of work in Britain is being carried out with a view to
providing population indices of common birds, and the BTO Common
Bird Census is the main outcome of this. Interest mainly centres around
the idea that bird populations may provide a sensitive indicator of pollu-
tion in terrestrial ecosystems, in the same way that fish can be used as
an indicator of river pollution.

Though the kind of amateur participation which can be enlisted in
Britain is not available in India it seems likely that a small professional
team could provide the same kind of information over limited but re-
presentative areas. This kind of work could help to assess the impact
of new agricultural techniques, particularly the massive application of
fertilisers and pesticides, on bird populations in rural areas. This in
turn could furnish evidence, and “early warning” about potentially dis-
astrous changes in the ecosystem.

Ecology of Indian Desert; IV—
Photoperiods in relation to
growth behaviour of two
desert species of Sida 1

D. D. Chawan and D. N. Sen
Botany Department , University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, India

Varying photoperiods appeared to influence the growth patterns
of two desert species of Sida. The photoperiod observed for the
optimum growth in both the species was 12 hours. However, when
compared among themselves, the fresh weight, dry matter accu-
mulation and moisture content in S. spinosa were found to be al-
ways more than in S. grewioides. Flowering was first initiated in 9 and
12 hours photoperiodic exposures in S. grewioides and S. spinosa ,
respectively. Sida grewioides indicated a preference for longer
photoperiod as the seedlings did not survive in less than 9 hours
exposures, although in longer ones beyond 12 hours the plants
remained only in vegetative state. In S. spinosa plants did not die
even in 3 hours photoperiodic exposures in the 24 hours cycle,
but remained in vegetative state like those in longer photoperiods
of 18 and 24 hours.

Introduction

In the recent past voluminous information has been accumulated on the
relation between growth behaviour and photoperiods in a number of
plant species. The photosynthetic process in green plants which takes
place in light masks the respiratory activity, since in the latter process,
the products are broken down, which are produced in the former. The
different photoperiods definitely affect the production and growth of
new leaves resulting either in a well developed shoot system or a poor
one, this in turn affects the productivity. The translocation of extra
photosynthetic products to the root affects the growth and morphology
of root system. Garner & Allard (1920) stress the importance of the
length of the daily light periods as a factor influencing the growth and
development of plants. Root growth and its subsequent development has
always been recognised as important phenomenon.

1 Accepted March 1972.

PHOTOPERIODS IN SIDA

285

Light energy is one of the important factors affecting a large number
of known and unknown biochemico -physiological processes as well as
plant size and shape. In many plants the length of the daily photo-
periods also regulate the meristematic activities (Kadam-Zahavi &
Alvarez- Vega 1968). Flowering is primarily an ecological phenomenon,
yet comparatively very little study of the flowering process has been
made from purely ecological standpoint (Salisbury 1963). The photo-
periods and temperature may act at any of the several stages in the
ecological life cycle of any plant species. Several reviews on the physi-
ology of flowering are available. Lang (1952) initiated the series cover-
ing photoperiodism and vernalization; whereas Liverman (1955), Door-
enbos & Wellensiek (1959) and Salisbury (1961) emphasised the im-
portance of mainly photoperiodism and plant growth.

Photosynthetic process is of paramount importance with respect to
physiological adaptation of the species to the environment. Ketellaper
(1965) has shown that dry matter production of tomato and soybean
plant responds to variations in the length of the light-dark cycle. It has
been earlier proposed that unfavourable cycles are injurious to plant
growth (Ketellaper 1960; Tukey & Ketellaper 1963).

Light as the energy source is of primary importance which brings ab-
out the most striking changes as compared to other environmental fac-
tors. Information on the effects of photoperiods on the root and shoot
growth, dry matter production, floral initiation and fruit setting in arid
zone plants is extremely meagre. Floral initiation in long day plant and
short day plant is determined by a floral stimulus, which is generated in
the leaves under the influence of photoproduction and is then translocat-
ed to the growing points (Lang 1952). It is generally assumed that scar-
city of water leads to the poor development of root and shoot system, but
it also leads to early flowering and ultimately fruit setting which is based
solely on field observations. To test this assumption, experiments were
conducted on varying photoperiods in relation to two desert species of
Sida.

Experimental methods

Five days old seedlings of S. grewioides and S. spinosa were trans-
planted in 12 cm wide earthen pots. One seedling per pot was main-
tained till the experiments were over. The soil in the pots was kept moist
by regular watering and they were placed in shade in the beginning to
ensure better seedling growth and establishment. After 10 days these
experimental pots were exposed to various photoperiods viz., 3, 6, 9, 12
and 18 in the 24 hour cycle and also in continuous light. The extra light
duration besides sunlight was supplied by six flourescent tubelights of

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

40 watts each from a distance of one meter. One set of plants was kept
in total darkness. These experiments were started from 8th August 1969
and the observations were made up to 60 days (8th October 1969). Dur-
ing this period the durations of day and night periods were approxi-
mately equal. Three replicates of each set were used for the present
study. The observations have been made for growth behaviour of root
and shoot, fresh weights, dry matter accumulations, moisture contents,
flowering and fruit settings. The temperature during the day remained
32° + 2°C and in the night 24° + 2°C.

Observations

(a) Root and shoot growth

The growth of the two Sida species in the experimental pots remain-
ed comparatively poor from those growing in nature, which may be
due to edaphic factors. The growth analysis in different photoperiods
has been given in tables 1 and 2.

Table ]

Growth performance of S. grewioides in different photoperiods after 30 and
60 DAYS OF TREATMENT. ALL MEASUREMENTS ARE IN MM.

Photoperiods
in 24 hr
cycle

Days

Main

shoot

length

Main

root

length

Length of
longest
lateral
root

No. of

axillary

branches

Total No.

of leaves
per plant

3 hours

30

80

100

60

—

14

6 hours

ou

30

120

150

130

—

25

9 hours

ou

30

220

200

200

5

52

60

253

310

330

9

98

12 hours

30

220

220

220

8

65

60

320

480

360

11

113

18 hours

30

180

220

120

—

33

60

240

310

220

—

54

24 hours

30

140

200

120

—

24

60

180

240

180

—

44

It would be evident from table 1 that the root system was poorly
developed in 3 hours photoperiodic exposures in both the plant species.
The number and length of laterals were less when compared with plants
in other photoperiodic exposures. S. grewioides could not survive in 3
and 6 hours photoperiodic exposures till the end of the experimental
period. The growth of the root system was increasingly favoured with

PHOTOPERIODS IN SIDA

287

the increase in photoperiodic exposures up to its optimum period of 12
hours in both the species studied. However, the photoperiod beyond 12
hours exposure appeared to inhibit the growth of the root system. The
best growth of root system in both the species was found in 12 hours
photoperiods (Tables 1 and 2). Further increase in the photoperiodic
exposures did not favour the growth of root system. When compared
among themselves, the root system of S. spinosa was more extensive and
better as compared to that of S. grewioides.

Similar to the root system, the shoot system was also poorly de-
veloped in 3 hours photoperiod (Tables 1 and 2). The shoot growth was
progressively better with the increasing photoperiodic exposures. The
best shoot growth in S. grewioides as well as in S. spinosa was observed
in 12 hours photoperiodic exposures, which was similar to root system.
In 12 hours optimum photoperiods these plant species exhibited maxi-
mum shoot branches and leaves.

Table 2

Growth performance of S. spinosa in different photoperiods after 30 and
60 DAYS OF TREATMENT. ALL MEASUREMENTS ARE IN MM.

Photoperiods
in 24 hr
cycle

Days

Main

shoot

length

Main

root

length

Length of
longest
lateral
root

No. of

axillary

branches

Total No.
of leaves
per plant

3 hours

30

180

180

81

—

10

60

250

200

100

—

22

6 hours

30

370

320

260

18

94

60

460

380

300

24

205

9 hours

30

400

400

300

20

110

60

520

460

340

28

254

12 hours

30

550

450

400

26

163

60

700

550

480

32

318

18 hours

30

380

330

290

8

72

60

510

480

450

20

147

24 hours

30

290

230

275

4

57

60

350

410

380

9

88

With respect to longitudinal growth, the data indicated that the
length of photoperiods has a qualitative influence on both the species.
Under relatively short photoperiods the plants remained stunted
S. grewioides could not survive for 60 days under short photo-
periods of 3 and 6 hours. Under longer photoperiods elongation of the
main axis as well as lateral branches occured. Photoperiods longer than
the optimum were found to be inhibiting shoot growth. However,
S. spinosa expressed better growth performance when compared with
S. grewioides.

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Table 3

Effect of different photoperiods on fresh weight, dry matter accumul-
ation AND MOISTURE CONTENT IN ROOT AND SHOOT OF S. grewioideS AFTER 30
AND 60 DAYS OF TREATMENT. ALL VALUES ARE IN GRAMMES

Photoperiods
in 24 hr
cycle

Days

Root

Shoot

Fresh

wt.

Dry

matter

Moisture

content

Fresh

wt.

Dry

matter

Moisture

content

3 hours

30

60

30

60

30

0.050

0.035

0.015

0.350

0.050

0.300

6 hours

0.120

0.050

0.070

1.020

0.180

0.840

9 hours

0.640

0.250

0.390

3.620

0.900

2.720

60

3.300

0.870

2.430

10.400

2.920

7.480

12 hours

30

0.890

0.330

0.560

3.970

0.920

3.050

60

3.500

0.940

2.560

10.800

3.070

7.730

18 hours

30

0.240

0.108

0.132

1.800

0.350

1.450

60

0.840

0.190

0.650

2.500

0.490

2.010

24 hours

30

0.230

0.105

0.125

1.400

0.260

1.140

60

0.520

0.150

0.370

2.000

0.320

1.680

Table 4

Effect of different photoperiods on fresh weight, dry matter accumul-
ation and MOISTURE CONTENT IN ROOT AND SHOOT OF S. SpinOSCI AFTER 30 AND
60 DAYS OF TREATMENT. ALL VALUES ARE IN GRAMMES

Photoperiods
in 24 hr Days

cycle

Root

Shoot

Fresh

wt.

Dry

matter

Moisture

content

Fresh

Wt.

Dry

matter

Moisture

content

3 hours

30

0.070

0.050

0.020

0.740

0.120

0.620

; c ■

60

0.170

0.080

0.090

1.500

0.740

0.760

6 hours

30

0.440

0.210

0.230

4.110

0.950

3.160

5i‘f| 1 !

60

2.250

0.520

1.730

6.900

2.520

4.380

9 hours

. 30

1.140

0.510

0.630

5.940

1.620

4.320

60

2.500

0.730

1.770

8.600

3.370

5.230

12 hours

30

1.920

1.020

0.900

11.250

3.250

8.000

60

8.790

2.290

6.500

13.800

6.950

6.850

18 hours

30

1.400

0.410

0.990

5.620

1.870

3.750

60

4.290

1.450

2.840

12.100

6.500

5.600

24 hours

30

0.500

0.230

0.270

4.090

1.020

3.070

60

1.590

0.390

1.200

6.300

1.920

4.380

PHOTOPERIODS IN SIDA

289

(b) Fresh weight, dry matter accumulation and moisture content

The experimental plants died after a few days when placed in con-
tinuous darkness. The experimental plants of S. grewioides under 3 and
6 hours photoperiodic exposures could not survive up to the end of 60
days. The effect of different photoperiods on fresh weights, dry matter
accumulations and moisture contents of root and shoot in S. grewioides
and S. spinosa are given in tables 3 and 4.

It would be evident from table 3 that the maximum fresh weight in
roots, 0.890 g and 3.500 g in S. grewioides ; and 1.900 g and 8.790 g in
S. spinosa in 30 and 60 days respectively, were found in both the spe-
cies when exposed to 12 hours photoperiods. The maximum fresh
weights of shoots in S. grewioides were 3.970 g and 10.800 g at the end
of 30 and 60 days, respectively. The maximum fresh weights in S. spi-
nosa were 11.250 g and 13.800 g at the end of 30 and 60 days, respecti-
vely. The fresh weight, dry matter and moisture contents of roots as well
as shoots in both the species increased with the increasing photoperio-
dic exposures till 12 hours of the optimum. Further increase in photo-
periodic exposures caused a decline in the fresh weights, dry matter
accumulations and moisture contents.

(c) Flowering and fruiting

(i) S. grewioides — The effect of various photoperiods on flowering
and fruiting status of this species at different intervals of time has been
studied and expressed in table 5.

Table 5

The flowering and fruiting status of S. grewioides at the end of 15, 30,

45 AND 60 DAYS AFTER THE PLANTS WERE EXPOSED TO DIFFERENT PHOTOPERIODS

IN A 24 HOURS CYCLE.

No. of Photoperiods in 24 hours Cycle

days 3 6 9 12 !8 24

15 — — fl — — —

30 — — fr fp — —

45 + 4- fr fl — —

60 + + fr fr — —

— = vegetative; + = plant did not survive; fp = floral
primordia; fl =■ flowering; fr = fruiting.

It would be evident from table 5 that floral initiation in S. grewioides
is controlled by 9 and 12 hours photoperiods. The first initiation of
flowering could be observed as early as after 10 days in 9 hours and
after 25-30 days in 12 hours photoperiodic exposures. The plants in
other photoperiods remained vegetative.

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Plants kept in total darkness did not survive and died within the
period of 10 days of starting the experiment. The plants in 3 and 6 hours
photoperiods died after 30 and 45 days, respectively. However, the plants
under 18 and 24 hours photoperiods remained completely in vegetative
state. The earliest fruit setting could be observed only in 12 hours photo-
periods during the experimental period.

(ii) S. spinosa — The bud initiation to certain extent appeared to
be apparently independent of photoperiods, but the formation of com-
plete floral buds and flush of flowering in this species depended on the
light exposures of definite periods. The flowering and fruiting status of
the plants was estimated when the plants had already received the des-
cribed photoperiods at the end of 15, 30, 45 and 60 days. The periodic
observations for the above mentioned plant species have been tabulated
in table 6.

Table 6

The flowering and fruiting status of S. spinosa at the end of 15, 30, 45
AND 60 DAYS AFTER THE PLANTS WERE EXPOSED TO DIFFERENT PHOTOPERIODS IN

A 24 HOURS CYCLE.

No. of Photoperiods in a 24 hours cycle

days ~3 6 V ~YL~ 18 24

15
30
45
60

— = vegetative; fp =: floral primordia; fl M flowering;
fr = fruiting.

It is evident from table 6 that the first floral initiation was observed
in 12 hours photoperiods as early as after 7 days of the start of the ex-
periment. After 15 days additional floral initiation were observed in
plants exposed to 9 hours photoperiods. Further initiation of flowering
was seen later in plants exposed to 6 hours photoperiods. The plants
kept in total darkness did not survive and died within 15 days of the
start of the experiment. However, no floral initiation could be visualised
in plants exposed to 3, 18 hours photoperiods and continuous light.
Besides flowering, the first fruit setting was also observed in plants ex-
posed to 6, 9 and 12 hours photoperiods during the experimental period.

Discussion

— — fp

— fp fl fr

— fl fr fr

— fr fr fr

Information on the effects of photoperiods on the plants of desert

PHOTOPERIODS IN SIDA

291

environment is extremely meagre. Hardly any plant species of arid re-
gion of India lias been classified as to its photoperiodic requirements.
Sida grewioides and S. spinosa appear to be influenced by day lengths.
The photoperiods definitely affected the production and growth of new
leaves and the magnitude of growth of roots and shoots. The leaves of
the plants are perceptors of the radiant energy. The photoperiodic treat-
ment of the leaves causes the photosynthetic apparatus to stimulate
there. This photosynthetic apparatus starts different physiological and
biochemical processes in the chlorophyllous organs of the plant.

Ketellaper (1965) showed that variations in the length of light-dark
cycle affect the growth behaviour and dry matter production of tomato
and soybean. Sharma & Sen (1971) observed that the growth behaviour
and dry matter production in Solarium nigrum was changed with the
different photofractions. Austin (1948) reported that in Impatiens bals-
amina fresh and dry weights of the aerial and subterranean parts were
maximum under the 16 hours photoperiods. Root development was
proportionally greater under longer photoperiods. The percentage of
moisture contents in aerial system was greater under the longer photo-
periods. Chawan (1970) has observed that various photoperiods defi-
nitely affected the growth behaviour of roots in Corchorus aestuans and
the short photoperiods were unfavourable for the growth. It has been
earlier proposed that unfavourable photofractions are injurious to plant
growth (Ketellaper 1960; Tukey & Ketellaper 1963).

Wareing (1956) showed that there is a relation between the length
of the optimal light period and the duration of dark period. The initi-
ation of flower buds and their further development has been connected
with the auxin production. Chawan & Sen (1971) showed that day
length influence the bud initiation, the flush of flowering and specially
the fruit setting in Corchorus aestuans. The morphological changes in
the vegetative parts of shoot and the development of yellow-red pig-
ments appeared to be connected with fruit setting in C. aestuans. Hala-
ban (1968) stated that flowering response of Coleus frederici and C. blu-
mei is dependent on the photoperiods. Both these plant species have
a critical day length of about 12 hours. Photoperiodic effects on floral
initiation in a wide variety of plants have been thoroughly reviewed in
recent years (Chouard 1960; Lockhart 1961; Salisbury 1963).

The growth behaviour, flowering and fruit setting in the two species
of Sida have been studied from purely ecological standpoint in this
study. Short photoperiodic exposures were found to be unfavourable
for the plants. Certain photoperiodic exposures were the direct require-
ments for flower initiation and fruit setting. This may be interpreted as
(a) complete absence of floral initiation in plants exposed to certain
photoperiods, (b) change in the growth behaviour of root and shoot
system, (c) plants not getting sufficient daily photoperiodic exposures

4

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

remained vegetative for a long time, when in contrast to those getting
the required photoperiods flowered and showed fruit setting in the ex-
perimental duration of 60 days.

Acknowledgements

Facilities provided by the department for this work are gratefully
acknowledged. The material of this paper is from a Ph.D. thesis by the
senior authors, approved by the University of Jodhpur.

References

Austin, J. P. (1948): The influence
of length of photoperiod on the vege-
tative and reproductive development
of Rudbeckia bicolor superba, Delphi-
nium ajacis, Cosmos sulpheurs and
lmpatiens balsamina. Amer. J. Bot 28:
244-250.

Chawan, D. D. (1970) : Ecophysi-
ological observations on arid zone
plants with special reference to seed
germination and rhizology. Ph.D the-
sis, Jodhpur University (unpubl.).

& Sen, D. N. (1971):

Photoperiodic influence and floral ini-
tiation and fruit setting in Cor chorus
aestuans Linn, (in press).

Chouard, P. (1960): Vernalization
and its relation to dormancy. Ann. Rev.
PI. Physiol. 11: 191-238.

Doorenbos, J. & Wellensiek, S. J.
(1959) : Photoperiodic control of floral
initiation. Ann. Rev. PI. Physiol. 10:
147-184.

Garner, W. W. & Allard, H. A.
(1920): Effect of relative length of
day and night and other factors of the
environment on growth and reproduc-
tion in plants. J. Agri. Res. 18: 553-606.

Halaban, R. (1968) : The flowering
response of Coleus in relation to pho-
toperiod and the circadian rhythm of
leaf movement. PI. Physiol., 43: 1894-
1898.

Kadam-Zahavi, A. & Alvarez-Vega
(1968) : The use of coloured light for
agriculture. Final report to Ford Foun-
dation Grant No. A-6/5.

Ketellaper, H. J. (1960) : Inter-
action of endogenous and environ-
mental periods in plant growth. PI.
Physiol. 35 : 338-341.

(1965): Inter-
action of endogenous and environ-
mental periods in plant growth. PI.
Physiol. 38: 337-345.

Lang, A. (1952): The physiology
of flowering. Ann. Rev. PL Physiol.
3: 265-306.

Liverman, J. L. (1955): The phy-
siology of flowering. Ann. Rev. PI.
Physiol. 6:177-210.

Lockhart, J. A. (1961): Mechanism
of photoperiodic process in higher

plants. Encyclopaedia Plant Physiol.
76:390-438 (ed. W. Ruhland, Sprin-
ger-Verlag, Berlin).

Salisbury, F. B. (1961): Photo-

periodism and flowering process. Ann.
Rev. PI. Physiol. 72:293-326.

(1963): The

flowering process. Pergamon Press,
New York.

Sharma, K. D. & Sen D. N. (1971).

Photofraction in relation to growth

behaviour in Solanum nigrum Linn.
Oecol. Plant. 6:35-42.

Tukey, H. B. Jr. & Ketellaper,
H. J. (1963) : Length of the light and
dark cycle and plant growth. Amer.
J. Bot. 56:110-115.

Wareing, P. F. (1956) : Photoperio-
dism in woody plants. Ann. Rev. PI.
Physiol. 7: 191-214.

Observations on the reproductive
Biology and early postnatal
development of the Panther,
Panthera pardus L., in
captivity1

J. H. Desai2
(With three text -figures)

Introduction

Among the big cats, the panther is the most widely distributed species
over the world (Walker 1964). Like the tiger it has been subjected to an
increasing hunting pressure and persecution from the last century. In
the recent past it has declined noticeably in peninsular India and is most-
ly found in certain favourable localities such as sanctuaries and is al-
most rare in many places where it was common formerly (Krishnan
1972). Considerable information regarding its habits, habitat and hunt-
ing technique is available from the records of hunters and naturalists,
but little is known of its breeding habits in the wild.

Considering the secretiveness of the panther it is little wonder that
such information is notably lacking in literature. However, in view of
its importance as one of the major predators, a knowledge of the re-
productive biology is essential background information. This study was
undertaken to provide information (1) on the reproductive behaviour
of the panther; (2) to ascertain the duration of oestrus, breeding season,
gestation period and size of litter; and (3) to provide comparative data
on the early postnatal development of the panther. This paper is based
on data collected at the Delhi Zoological Park from 1958 to 1973 and
on comparative records available from various other zoos.

Materials and methods

The Delhi Zoological Park was officially opened to the public on

1 Accepted June 1973.

2 Joint Director, Delhi Zoological Park, New Delhi- 3.

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

1st November 1959 but work on the zoo had started in 1955. In 1956
the zoo received four panther cubs as presents from different sources.
The Delhi zoo was successful in breeding panthers for the first time in
1960, when a litter of two cubs was born on 29th May. Until May 1973,
63 panther cubs had been born to nine pantheresses.

The panthers at the Delhi Zoological Park are kept in spacious en-
closures which provide sufficient room for exercise. Each enclosure has
small cells at the back where the panthers are shut in during the night.
The floors of the cells are cemented but wooden platforms are provided
as warm resting places.

The panthers are fed six days in a week on buffalo calf meat and
on Friday of each week no food is given. On average, an adult panther
is given 5 kg of fresh raw meat with bones daily, but the quantity is
adjusted according to the size, age and general condition of the animal.

For the purpose of this study, data have been drawn from my own
observations from 1963 onward, supported by the records maintained
at the Delhi Zoological Park in the form of individual animal history
cards, daily observation reports and Plead Animal Keepers’ registers.

The measurements of seven newly born cubs were recorded within
twelve hours after their birth. The early postnatal growth of one cub
was recorded from the time of birth till the age of four months, when
it had weaned completely; and that of other two cubs till the age of two
months. All the three cubs were raised by their respective mothers.

Comparative data on early postnatal development of the cubs were
derived from Zurich zoo (Weillenmann 1963); New York zoo (Cran-
dall 1964) and Sao Paulo zoo, Brazil (Carvalho 1968).

Fig. 1. Frequency distribution of oestrus periods and birth of Panther cubs.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF PANTHER A PARDUS

295

Breeding season

Panthers breed all the year round (Prater 1971). Between the years
1828 and 1961, panthers had bred during all seasons at Whipsnade and
Regent’s Park (Jarvis & Morris 1962). It has been stated that in India
panther cubs are born between February and March (Blandford 1888-
91).

At the Delhi Zoological Park the females come in oestrus during
all the months of the year (Fig. 1). From 1958 to 1973, 55 oestrus or
heat-periods of nine females have been recorded, during which these
females were mated several times by the males and from 1960 to 1972,
63 cubs were born in 39 litters. These data are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Breeding season of Panther, Panthera pcirdus, in captivity

Months

Number of
oestrus or

heat-periods

Percentage

No. of
litters
born

Percentage

January

4

7.3

5

(8)

12.8

February

6

10.9

1

(2)

2.5

March

6

10.9

-

-

—

April

9

16.4

3

(5)

7.7

May

5

9.9

6

(9)

15.4

June

4

7.3

4

(4)

10.3

July

4

7.3

7

(12)

17.9

August

1

1.8

2

(3)

5.1

September

4

7.3

4

(7)

10.3

October

6

10.9

4

(7)

10.3

November

4

7.3

1

(3)

2.5

December

2

3.6

2

(3)

5.1

Total

55

100

39

(63)

100

Figures in bracket indicate number of cubs.

Duration of oestrus

Behaviour such as willingness to be stroked by their keepers, incre-
ased rubbing on bars and walls of the cages, repeated rolling over on
the back indicate that the female is in oestrus (Sadlier 1966). The dura-
tion of oestrus was taken as the total number of days on which the above
behaviour of a female was recorded and when she permitted mounting
and copulation by the males.

Available data on the oestrus periods of 9 adult pantheresses show
a wide range of variation (Table 2).

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Table 2

Breeding

BIOLOGY OF

Panther,

Panther a pardus, at Delhi

Zoological Park

Specimen

No. of
oestrus
periods

Range of
oestrus
(days)

Average

oestrus

period

(days)

Average of
last day of
oestrus to
birth (days)
(gestation
period)

Average
number of
cubs /litter

Budhi

9

6-12

Tara

7

4-10

Heer

3

5-10

Rani

4

7-13

Vimla

6

6-12

Ganga

3

8-11

Kali

7

6-12

Meenu

9

7-12

Jamuna

7

8-14

9

92.2 (5)

1.6

(6)

7.4

94.6 (3)

1.7

(4)

5.0

91.0 (2)

1.7

(4)

7.5

91.0 (3)

1.6

(5)

8.5

93.6 (3)

1.6

(5)

10.0

8.1

8.0

93.0 (2)

1.0

(2)

93.0 (5)

1.6 (11)

10.0

87.5 (2)

1.5

(2)

Figures in brackets indicate number of litters.

Sexual maturity

Mivart (1881) reports that the domestic cat becomes reproductively
mature at the age of one year. The Scottish wild cat breeds first when
about 12 months old (Mathews 1941). Sankhala (1967) states that tiger
cubs mature at an age between 3^ and 6 years. Young female lions
become cyclic at the age of about 3 years, while males appear to require
several months longer to achieve sexual maturity (Crandall 1964).

One pantheress (Tara) came into oestrus for the first time at the
age of 1 year and 8 months at the Delhi Zoological Park. Another pan-
theress (Ganga) became cyclic at the age of 2 years 11 months and
Heer and Jamuna did so at the age of 3 years 2 months and 3 years 3
months respectively. Two females Meenu and Rani littered for the first
time at the age of 2 years 3 months and 2 years 9 months respectively
(Table 3). One male Ajay mated for the first time at the age of 2 years.

Table 3

Observations on sexual maturity of Panther, P anther a pardus, at Delhi

Zoological Park

Date of

Specimen birth

Date of
first oestrus

Age at which
observed in
oestrus for
the first
time

Date on
which first
litter was
bom

Age at which
littered for
the first
time

Tara

20.8.56

5.4.58

1 - 8

5.8.60

4-0

Ganga

15.4.63

5.3.66

2 - 11

15.6.66

3 - 2

Heer

March 56

24.5.59

3-2

29.5.60

4-2

Jamuna

15.4.63

3.7.66

3 - 3

-

Meenu

27.4.58

Records not available

11.7.60

2-3

Rani

Oct. 58

Records not available

18.7.61

2-9

Budhi

24.5.57

10.3.61

3-10

18.6.61

4 - 1

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF PANTHERA PARDUS

297

Mating behaviour

Properly adjusted and well-mated pairs of panthers breed freely in
captivity but attempts to introduce mature specimens to each other are
not without risks of injury (Crandall 1964). When any female comes in
oestrus at the Delhi Zoological Park, a male is put in the adjoining cage
from where the two can see and smell each other. If both show signs
of compatibility, it is assumed that they will accept each other and sub-
sequently both are introduced to each other in a large enclosure. They
approach each other very cautiously. The muscles of both animals re-
main taut and they continually growl and snarl at each other. After
some time they relax and gradually come closer, till they are face to face.
They sniff each other. When mutual confidence is established, the fe-
male starts rolling on her back in front of the male and presents herself.
She sits with her forelimbs extended fully on the ground, her hind limbs
remaining half bent. The male approaches from behind and mounts, and
his first insertion takes place within 4 to 8 seconds. Actual coition time
varies from 10 to 50 seconds. During coition, the animals emit a variety
of guttural sounds. As the climax of the act approaches, the male firmly
holds the skin of the female’s nape between his incisors and both pan-
thers make a high-pitched sound. As soon as copulation is complete, the
male dismounts quickly or is thrown off. Sometimes a short scuffle takes
place. After each copulation the female lies flat on the ground for some
time. After a short interval, the female again approaches the male, and
the whole process is repeated.

During the peak of oestrus copulation takes place 5 to 60 times bet-
ween 8.00 a.m. and 5.00 p.m. At this time the male and female are both
unconcerned about any other activity and show no interest even in the
food offered to them.

As stated earlier, bringing male and female together in zoos is not
without risk. Sometimes the partners behave aggressively and one of
them may be seriously injured or even killed by the other. In June 1967,
one of the females Rani was introduced to a male Milu. For some time
they behaved very well, but suddenly the male, which was heavier and
bigger, caught hold of the female, and a serious fight took place. Rani
died of injuries two days later.

Gestation period

The gestation period of the panther is given as 90 to 100 days or 98
to 105 days by Kenneth (1953). Asdell (1946) records it as being 92
to 95 days and Pocock (1939) notes a gestation period of 102 days for
an African leopard at Whipsnade Park Zoo as being exceptional. Cran-

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

dall (1964) gives one gestation length for a black leopard as 90 days
from the middle of the heat period. Sadlier (1966) notes 100 day gest-
ation period for two litters of the Chinese leopard from the second day
of oestrus. The longest gestation period of the species is recorded as
112 days, at Prague zoo (Dobroruka 1968). Prater (1971) gives the
gestation period as 13 weeks. It is difficult to compare the above data
as in most cases the date of conception is defined differently. For pur-
poses of this study, the duration of gestation is estimated as the period
from last day of mating to birth, and the mean period was 91.9 days,
the extremes being 84 and 98 (Table 2).

Litter size

Prater (1971) records that two to four cubs are usually produced.
Dobroruka (1968) states that over a period of 15 years at Prague zoo,
three young have been born on only two occasions. One was born in two
instances and two in seven instances. Jobaert (1960) mentions that in
the Congo leopards give birth to two or three young. Zuckermann
(1953) records one to three young per litter in the Zoological Gardens
of London from 1839 to 1937. According to Pushp Kumar (Curator,
Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad), usually one to two cubs have been
born in a litter at the Nehru Zoological Park, three cubs have only been
born on two occasions (pers. comm.).

Data on 39 litters at the Delhi Zoological Park indicate that two
cubs per litter were born on twenty occasions, one on seventeen occa-
sions and only in two instances were three young born. The average was
1.6 cubs per litter (Table 2).

Postnatal development of the young

The panther cubs born in the New York and Zurich zoo weighed
0.567 kg and 0.430 kg at birth respectively as recorded by Crandall
(1964) and Weillenmann (1963).

The weights and measurements of seven cubs at Delhi Zoological
Park indicate that a newly born cub weighs approximately 0.500 kg to
1.00 kg and measures 360 mm to 483 mm from tip of nose to tip of tail
between pegs (Table 4). All cubs were born with their eyes closed.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF PANTHERA PARDUS

299

Table 4

Measurements of cubs of Panthera pardus, recorded within twelve hours

AFTER BIRTH

Date of
birth

Sex

Weight
in kg

Total length
in mm

Tail length
in mm

Ear length
in mm

Forefoot
in mm

29.1.66

Male

1.000

483

181

25

103

25.6.66

Male

0.750

360

130

—

75

29.9.66

Female

0.575

420

133

15

95

29.9.66

Female

0.600

430

165

15

102

24.4.67

Female

0.500

360

120

11

80

10.6.67

Female

0.600

370

140

15

90 .

20.6.67

Male

0.950

432

163

24

108

Average

0.710

407.8

147

15.8

93.2

At birth the panther cub is a helpless little creature as its eyes are
closed and the movements of the limbs are uncoordinated and rather
random. The skin on nose-tip, paws and perineal area is mostly pink.
The fur is short, the spots are faintly developed and the whiskers are
black in colour. A cub emits a low cry when hungry or uncomfortable.

Fig. 2. Growth rate of body parts of cub born at Delhi Zoo (Table 5).

A panther cub born in 15th January 1966 was measured and weigh-
ed from birth till the age of 129 days when it was completely weaned
and handling was no longer possible. Details of the measurements are
given in table 5.

WEIGHT

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Table 5

Growth in weight and length of Panther, Panthera pardus, born at Delhi

Zoological Park

Age in
days

Weight
in kg

Total length
in mm

Length of tail
in mm

Length of
forelimb
in mm

Length of
ear in mm

0

0.750

360

130

75

—

8

1.000

420

140

90

—

15

1.250

490

160

110

30

21

1.450

530

190

120

35

29

1.550

580

200

130

40

36

1.800

600

230

135

40

43

2.150

640

240

145

43

50

2.400

700

270

155

45

57

2.800

725

280

160

50

64

3.050

760

300

185

50

71

3.250

800

330

200

50

86

4.000

890

390

210

50

98

4.750

940

390

210

50

114

5.600

1010

420

220

50

129

6.250

1080

450

255

50

In Fig. 3, the growth rates of panther cubs hand-reared at Zurich
and New York zoos are compared with those of young cubs reared by
their mothers at Delhi Zoological Park and Sao Paulo Zoo, Brazil. Fur-
ther details of the physical development and tooth eruption of panther
cubs at Delhi Zoological Park, Sao Paulo Zoo, Brazil and New York
Zoo, USA are given in Table 6.

Fig. 3. Growth rate of cubs born at Delhi zoo compared with cubs in other zoos.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF PANTHERA PARDUS

301

Table 6

Comparison of physical development of panther cubs born at Delhi
Zoological Park and other zoos

Age in

days when:

Specimen

eyes

incisors

1st canine

1st molar

weaned

permanent

open

erupt

erupts

erupts

canine erupts

Born at
Sao Paulo Zoo
Brazil on
18.7.1966

9

20

45

120-125

280

Born at

New York Zoo,
U.S.A. on
23.2.45

Born at

6

—

—

—

—

—

Delhi Zoological
Park (India) on
15.6.1966

8

21-29

29

52

114-129

Born at

Delhi Zoological
Park on
29.9.1966

4

22

30

53

—

—

Discussion and conclusions

Figure 1 shows that the panther breeds throughout the year and
cubs are produced during all seasons in captivity. However, there is a
peak period of births during the months of January, May and July,
while February and November show a low percentage of births. During
March not a single cub was born at Delhi Zoological Park between
1958 and 1973. This corresponds to the low breeding activities during
December. According to the records of Whipsnade and Regent’s Park
from 1828 to 1961, the maximum number of births took place during
the months of March, August and October while minimum births took
place during January. The records of San Francisco zoo, USA, from
1929 to March 1967, show a high percentage of births during April and
May and a low percentage during November, December, February and
March (Reuther & Doherty 1968). The breeding records of panthers
at Jaipur zoo indicate that from 1954 to 1963 not a single cub was bom
during the months of February and November (Sankhala & Desai
1969).

The records of San Francisco zoo and Jaipur zoo compare well with
those of the Delhi Zoological Park. The variations in peak periods of

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

birth may be due to the different climatic conditions and local condi-
tions.

2. All the larger felidae appear polyoestrus in captivity (Eckstein &
Zuckermann 1956). Several authors (Asdell 1946; Eckstein & Zucker-
mann 1956; Sadlier 1966) give seven days as the duration of the oest-
rus period in lionesses. Sankhala (1967) states that the mating period
of the tiger ranges from 3 to 23 days. Sadlier’s data (1966) of three
female panthers of three different types show mean length of oestrus
for the species as 6.7 days.

The duration of oestrus varies from 4 to 14 days, according to the
data of nine females at Delhi Zoological Park. There is also a wide range
of individual variation among the pantheresses as shown in Table 2. It
is not known whether age, physical condition, climate and frequency of
copulation are responsible for such variations. The mean length of oest-
rus calculated from 55 oestrus periods of nine females is 8.1 days.

3. There is much individual variation in the age at which panthers
attain sexual maturity. It appears that panthers become sexually mature
at an age of between 2 and 4 years. However, no definite conclusion
can be drawn from this small sample.

4. Well-adjusted pairs of panthers breed freely in captivity, but the
first meeting involves risks of fatal injury. The mating behaviour of
panthers is very similar to that of the tiger described by Sankhala
(1967). The entire act of copulation lasts from one to three minutes
but the actual coition takes only ten to fifty seconds. Mating takes place
any time during the day. Panthers may mate five to sixty times in a day.

5. Data on 39 litters born at the Delhi Zoological Park from 1960 in-
dicate a gestation period of 84 to 98 days with an average gestation of
91 *.9 days. This compares well with the gestation periods given by seve-
ral authors (Asdell 1946; Kenneth 1953; Crandall 1964 and Prater
1971).

6. The ratio of number of cubs per litter shows that usually one or
two cubs are born at a time in captivity. A litter of three cubs is bom
only occasionally. The average of 39 litters is 1*6 cubs per litter.

7. A newly-born panther weighs on an average 0.710 kg and measures
408 mm (Table 4). Its eyes are closed at birth and open any time from
four to nine days later. It has no co-ordination of movements and can-
not walk properly or stand upright. During the first four weeks it re-
quires extreme care and nursing by the mother. Infant mortality occurs
mostly during the first four weeks. The incisors are cut at the age of
21 to 29 days and the canines erupt at the age of 30 days. It starts lick-
ing and biting solid food when it is 52 days old and the first molar is
cut. At the age of about 70 days, it starts taking buffalo calf meat or
goat meat in captivity. In the beginning, nursing is frequent but the
period of suckling at each feeding is reduced. As the cub grows, the fre-

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF PANTHER A PARDUS

303

quency of nursing is reduced but the period of suckling at each feeding
increases. At the age of 70 days, it suckles only two to three times in a
day. It is completely weaned at 114 to 130 days. The growth rate of the
cubs reared by their mothers is much better than that of hand-reared
cubs. This is evident from the data of cubs reared by their mothers at
Delhi Zoological Park and Sao Paulo zoo, Brazil as compared to the
hand-reared cubs of New York and Zurich zoos (Fig. 2).

There is much individual temperamental variation. Some mothers
take good care of their cubs, others neglect them and some pantheresses
even eat their own cubs. Cannibalism although not common, is preva-
lent among panthers even in well-managed zoos and needs further in-
vestigation. As a rule all pantheresses are very possessive and protective
of their cubs and become very ferocious if they sense any danger to
them.

The panther is one of our most magnificent and graceful animals.
It is well adapted for survival in highly variable climates and habitats.
Its short gestation period and reproductive potential suggest that under
normal conditions it can maintain itself. However, with large-scale dest-
ruction of habitat due to industrialization and agriculture, depletion of
its prey and indiscriminate poaching, it has a slender chance of survival
in the wild. In order to evolve suitable measures for its protection fur-
ther scientific study of the species in its natural habitat is desirable.

References

Asdell, S. A. (1946) : Pattern of
mammalian reproduction. Ithaca, N.Y.
Cornell University Press.

Blandford, W. T. (1888-91): The
Fauna of British India including Cey-
lon and Burma. Mammalia, London.

Carvalho Cory, T. D. (1968) : Com-
parative growth rates of hand-reared
big cats. Int. Zoo Yb. 8: 56-59.

Crandall, L. S. (1964): Manage-
ment of Wild Animals in Captivity.
London and Chicago. University of
Chicago Press, p. 761.

Dobroruka, L. J. (1968): A note
on the gestation period and rearing of
young in the Leopard at Prague Zoo.
Int. Zoo Yb. 8: 65.

Eckstein, P. & Zuckermann, S.
(1956) : The oestrus cycle in Mam-
malia, Vol. 1 Part I, Marshall’s Phy-
siology of Reproduction. Parks A.D.
(Ed.), London: Longmans Green &
Co. p. 688.

Jarvis C. & Morris D. M. (1962):
The breeding season of mammals in
captivity. Int. Zoo Yb. 5:292-301.

Jobaert, A. J. (1960): Le Leopard.
Zooleo. 56 ( 5, 6): 223-230.

Kenneth, J. H. (1953): Gestation
periods. Techn. Comn. 5 Edinburgh:
Commonwealth Bureau of Animal
breeding and genetics.

Krishnan, M. (1972) : An ecologi-
cal Survey of larger mammals of
Peninsular India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 69(1): 26-54.

Mathews, L. H. (1941): Reproduc-
tion in the Scottish Wild Cat, Felis
silvestris grampia Miller. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London 111: 59.

Mivart, St. G. (1881): The Cat.
London.

Pocock, R. I. (1939): The Fauna
of British India. I. Mammalia. Lon-
don : Taylor & Francis.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Indian Animals: Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., Bombay, p. 263.

Reuther, Ronald T. & Doherty,
James (1968): Birth season of mam-
mals at San Francisco Zoo. Int. Zoo.
Yb. 8:96-101.

Sadlier, R. M. F. S. (1966): Notes
on reproduction in the larger Felidae,
ibid 6:184-187.

Sankhala, K. S. (1967): Breeding
behaviour of the tiger in Rajasthan,
ibid 7: 133-147.

Sankhala, K. S. & Desai, J. H.
(1969): Reproductive pattern of some
Indian mammals. Cheetal — Jr. Wildlife
Soc. India. 72(1) : 114-129.

Walker, E. P. et al. (1964): Mam-
mals of the World: Johns Hopkins
Press, Baltimore, USA.

Weillenmann, P. (1963): Notes on
hand-rearing a Leopard, Panthera par-
dus. Int. Zoo Yb. 4:317-318.

Zuckermann, S. (1953): The bree-
ding season of mammals in Captivity.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 722:827-950.

Plant-pest status of root-eating
ant, Dorylus orientalis , with
notes on taxonomy, distribution
and habits (Insecta :

The history of the economic status of the large root-cutting ant, Dory-
lus orientalis Westwood (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Dorylinae), in
the Indian Region has been curiously controversial. The very first re-
cord of it as a plant-pest (potatoes) by Barlow (1899) was immediately
disputed by Forel (1899) who then, and also later (1923), maintained
that the species is exclusively insectivorous. Subsequently, several ento-
mologists recorded it as attacking various plants in India, Sri Lanka and
Burma, but Mukerji (1934) again asserted that it is exclusively carni-
vorous (eating insects and earthworms) and refused vegetable food. Like
several other earlier observers, I have personally seen this ant seriously
attacking potato tubers, in Dehra Dun, but here again we have the fol-
lowing denial (in lift ., 3 November 1971) from so authoritative a source
as the Director, Central Potato Research Institute, Simla:

“We have no recorded reference about these ants as pests of potatoes or
about the control measures against them.”

In view of this confusion and controversy, I have in the present paper
examined briefly, from the available records and from personal obser-
vations, the economic status of this ant as a pest of plants, and also add-
ed some notes on its control, taxonomic status, geographical distribu-
tion, habits and biology.

1 Accepted April 1972.

2 Emeritus Scientist (CSIR) , Desert Regioinal Station, Zoological Survey of
India, Paota, Jodhpur.

M. L. Roonwal1 2
( With three text-figures )

Introduction

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Status as Plant-pest, and Control

Status as plant -pest. In view of the controversy as stated above, I
have given below a summary of the available records regarding the at-
tacks of this ant on plants.

1. Barlow (1899). — Damages potatoes (but see Forel 1899).

2. Forel (1899, 1923).— (i) (1899, p. 198): Doubts Barlow’s (1899) record
of damaging potatoes; says it eats only insects, (ii) (1923, p. 17) : Doubts its
herbivorous nature and considers it as entirely carnivorous.

3. Green (1903, p. 39). — Sri Lanka: Its workers live entirely underground and
are confirmed vegetarians. It’s a serious pest of potatoes, making galleries in
tubers. Also attacks tubers of dhalias and roots of sunflower ( Helianthus sp.);
in later case eating off tender bark below collar.

4. Stebbing (1905, p. 683; 1908, p. 73). — India (Calcutta): Attacks potatoes
and “cornflour plants”.

5. Lefroy (1906-09): India and Sri Lanka: (i) (1906, pp. 231-232): Attacks
healthy living plants, e.g., cauliflowers, cabbages, artichokes, etc., just below soil
and completely destroys them, (ii) (1907, p. 128): Damages vegetable crops.
Sporadic local pest of vegetable gardens, (iii) (1909, p. 238) : Attacks plants,
eating them below or at soil-level. Workers also attack workers of the harvest
ant, Pheidole indica.

6. Dutt (1912, p. 247). — Pusa (Bihar): Damages vegetable crops but not
seriously.

7. Rutherford (1914). — Sri Lanka: Attacks kohl-rabi.

8. Fletcher (1914-20). — (i) (1914, p. 274): South India: Attacks growing
plants including young coconut palms. Ceylon: Perforates pods of groundnut
and consumes contents; also attacks its roots. Attacks sugarcane, (ii) (1917,
p. 281) : India (Bihar) : Regularly attacks cauliflower seedlings below ground,
(iii) (1920, p. 35): India (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh): Attacks underground
parts of vegetables (potatoes, cauliflower, etc.) and early-sown groundnuts.
Ceylon: Attacks roots of potatoes and other vegetables.

9. [Burma] (1918, p. 52). — Burma: Attacks sugarcane setts.

10. Speyer (1918). — Sri Lanka: Attacks vegetables.

11. Hutson (1919-39). — Sri Lanka: (i) (1919, pp. 276-77): Bores in potatoes,
(ii) (1920) : A pest of potatoes, (iii) (1933a) : Attacks carrots, onions and
Arachis sp. (iv) (1933b, pp. 276-279:) Workers attack underground portions of
several vegetables and also some young trees, e.g., citrus. Attack chiefly in May-
September. (v) (1936, pp. 293-295): Attacks vegetables, shrubs and trees, (vi)
(1937): Attacks ginger rhizomes, (vii) (1939): Severely attacks coconut seed-
lings; also attacks potato tubers and roots of tree-tomato ( Cyphomandra
betacea ) .

12. Mukerji (1934). — India (Calcutta): Workers are not vegetarians; seen
feeding on live beetle grubs and live earthworms (reared on them in the lab-
oratory); did not eat vegetable food offered.

13. Ghosh (1936, 1940): (i) (1936, pp. 23-24): India: Attacks bee-hives
and eats larvae and pupae [attack is presumably by winged males], (ii) (1940,
pp. 130, 138, 141): Burma: Attacks seedlings of trees, cutting roots and killing
plants; also attacks potato tubers and seedlings of coconut palms.

14. Beeson (1941; reprint 1961, p. 386). — India and Sri Lanka: “Appears to be
entirely herbivorous”, and is occasionally a pest in gardens (particularly of
vegetables) and in seed-beds in nurseries; bulbs and tubers are hollowed out.

15. Cherian and Ramachandran (1943). — India: Occasionally attacks bee-

ROOT-EATING ANT DORYLUS ORIENTALIS

307

hives for honey and pollen, and also destroys bees and brood.

16. Wilson (1964, pp. 442-443). — Sri Lanka: Workers found underground in
disturbed forests and cultivated land.

17. Pruthi (1969, p. 466). — India: Attacks plants; is also carnivorous.

18. Unpublished records. — (i) Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun: (a)
West Bengal (Batasi, 1830 m. Darjeeling District): Attacking oak, Quercus
lamellosa. (b) Assam: Jiri Forest, Cachar: Found in decaying climber, (ii) Mr.
P. L. Chaturvedi, U.P. Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Kanpur (in lift., 28
August 1971): Attacks potato tubers especially in early stages of growth; also
vegetable seedlings of cauliflowers, cabbages, etc. (iii) Director, Central Potato
Research Institute, Simla (in lift., 3 November 1971): Not known to attack
potatoes (sicl). (iv) Present authoi : Serious pest of potato tubers in Dehra Dun
(February and April).

It will thus be seen that in India, Burma and Sri Lanka Dorylus ori-
ental™ is a plant-pest, sometimes a serious one, of several plants includ-
ing vegetables, tubers, bulbs, shrubs, trees and also including cash crops
such as sugarcane, coconut palm, citrus and groundnut. Tubers of pot-
atoes and bulbs are eaten through hollow (see Figs. A and B, potato),
while in other cases the roots and root-collars, especially of seedlings in
gardens and nurseries, are eaten. The damage is entirely underground
and is done by the workers. (Workers, it should be noted, are not en-
tirely herbivorous; they also eat insects and earthworms, vide infra,
Habits.).

Control. The following is a summary of the available information
on control. The ant is entirely a soil pest, doing its damage underground.
Control methods must, therefore, be based on treatment of the soil with
insecticides and fumigants. The earlier workers (Lefroy, Fletcher, Hut-
son, Ghosh) recommended the following treatments which they found
to be effective:- (i) Add small quantities of crude oil emulsion or kero-
sene oil emulsion to the irrigation water, (ii) Fumigate soil with petrol
before planting (1-2 pints to 30 sq ft), by pouring in small holes and
then plugging them, (iii) Before planting, treat a few inches of surface
soil with wood-dust or ashes soaked in carbolic acid and diluted with
water, (iv) Treat soil with the fumigant paradichlorobenzene at 1 oz
to 1 sq yard of soil.

P. L. Chaturvedi (Entomologist, U.P., Kanpur, in litt., 28 August
1971) recommends soil treatment by the following insecticides:- (a) 3
litres of 30 per cent emulsifiable concentrate (E.C.) of aldrin in 1,000
litres of water. Spray this quantity in root region per acre of potato crop,
(b) Heptachlor (2 % E.C.). (c) Gamma benzene hexachloride (B.H.C.)
(20% E.C., based on lindane). Both to be used as above.

Taxonomic Status and Distribution

Taxonomic status. The synonymies and the more important taxono-
mic references are given below:

5

308 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

c

Dorylus orientalis Westwood

Figs. (A) and (B) : Potato tubers showing damage caused by the workers.
Dehra Dun. (A) In surface view. (B) In cross-section. Fig. (C) : Map of Indian
Region and neighbouring areas, showing the approximate geographical distri-
bution (shaded in diagonal lines). Solid circles indicate the major localities
where the species has been found.
p., pits excavated by the workers.

ROOT-EATING ANT DORYLUS ORIENTALIS

309

Dorylus (Alaopone) orientalis Westwood 1835

1835. Dorylus orientalis Westwood. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond., London, 3, p. 72.
“India Orientali”.

1840. Typhlopone curtisi Shuckard, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., London, 5, p. 265.
Worker.

1840. Dorylus longicornis Shuckard, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., London, 5, pp. 321-
322. Bengal.

1881. Alaopone oberthueri Emery, Ann. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova, Genoa, 16,
p. 274. Worker. Calcutta.

1889. Dorylus fuscus Emery, Ann. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova, Genoa, 27, p. 487.
Worker. Rangoon, Burma.

1901. Dorylus orientalis Westw. (and D. curtisi Sh., fuscus Em. and longicornis
Sh.), Forel, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 73(3), pp. 462-464. Re-
vision.

1903. Dorylus orientalis. Westw., D.o. fusca Em. and D.o. longicornis Sh., Bing-
ham, Fauna Brit. India, Hymenoptera, London, 2, pp. 3-5.

1964. Dorylus ( Alaopone ) orientalis Westw., Wilson, Pacific Insects, Honolulu,
6(3), pp. 442-443. Revision.

Field diagnosis

Male (winged) : Length of head and body 17-25 mm; of forewing
16-18 mm. Brownish yellow, head dark reddish brown.

Female : Unknown.

Worker : Without wings and eyes. Head and body castaneous brown.
Antennae with 9-11 segments (Wilson 9, Sri Lanka, Forel 11). Abdomen
elongate, flattened dorsally and thus without a distinct waist. Of two
forms, major and minor. Total length: Major 5-11 mm, minor 2.5-
3 mm.

Illustrations

The illustrations available in the literature are: (1) Emery (1881,
p. 274): Worker, head and antenna, A. oberthueri. (2) Bingham (1903,
p. 5): Good figure of a c? and a worker major. (3) Stebbing (1905,
p. 683; and 1908, PI. XXIII): Figure of a cf and a worker (the latter
wrongly labelled as $ ). Lefroy (1906, p. 232): Good figure of a
worker. This is repeated by several authors, e.g., Lefroy (1907, p. 128),
Dutt (1912, p. 247) and Ghosh (1936, p. 24; 1940, p. 130).

Geographical distribution. In addition to the records of Forel (1901),
Wilson (1964) and others, I have examined examples from the follow-
ing Indian localities in the collection of the Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun:- (i) Bernag, 1830 m alt. (Almora District, Uttar Pradesh),
(ii) Batasi, c. 1830 m alt. (Darjeeling District, West Bengal), ex “ Quer -
cus lamellosa”. (iii) Jiri Forest (Cachar, Assam), ex “ decaying clim-
ber'. The following are the detailed locality records, countrywise : -
(1) India: Uttar Pradesh : Dehra Dun, 610 m.; Berenag (Almora
Dist.), 1830 m.; “Siwaliks”. Bihar: Pusa. Orissa: “Orissa”. West Ben-
gal: Calcutta and vicinity (Calcutta, Sibpur, Barrackpore); Darjeeling;
Batasi, c. 1830 m.2 (Darjeeling Dist.). Assam: Jiri Forest (Cachar

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

[Silchar] Dist.); Nambour Reserve (Sibsagar Dist.). Maharashtra :
Poona. Karnataka : “Kanara”. Tamil Nadu: Madras; Coonoor. (2)
Nepal: Amlekhganj, 520 m. (3) Burma: Tenasserim; Rangoon; Pegu;
Moulmein; Bhamo; Kowkareet; Palon; Carin Cheba; Kabo, 120 m.
(4) Sri Lanka: Kandy, 600-700 m. (5) China: Meitan, Kweichow
(southern China).

On this basis the approximate geographical distribution may be
summarised thus: India (whole, except the extreme northern and north-
western parts); southern Nepal; Sri Lanka; Burma (south to Tenas-
serim); east to southern China (Kweichow) (Fig, C). Going up to about
1830 m altitude above sea-level.

Habits and Biology

Swarming

Males swarm at night and are attracted to light (females are un-
known). In north India they swarm at the end of the cold weather, in
late February (Lefroy 1909). But swarming in April also occurs at
Dehra Dun (note in Ledger Files in Fmtomology Branch, Forest Re-
search Institute, Dehra Dun; extract given below) :

About 820 examples [presumably winged males] emerged in a 10 x 20 feet
outdoor cage in New Forest, Dehra Dun, on 10 April 1928. Cage erected in
March 1926, and planted with roots and cuttings of teak in June 1926. Possibly
at that time a pair (or more) of this ant was introduced in the cage with the
soil adhering to the roots. If so, the time between egg-laying and swarming of
next brood is about two years. It is hardly likely that the species got entry into
the cage through a tunnel from outside; no swarming occurred in the neighbour-
ing cages or in the vicinity.

Season of damage

The season when the workers cause damage seems to vary with
climate. In Dehra Dun I observed them attacking the potato crop in
early February and again in April. In Sri Lanka, the attack is chiefly
in May and September (Hutson 1933b).

Food habits etc.

Workers have the termite-like habit of living entirely underground
and making tunnels and galleries through the soil to reach the plant
parts. They are largely vegetarian, eating tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots
and other underground parts of plants. They also eat animal food such
as insects and earthworms, but it is not known whether this is habitual
or occasional. In the laboratory, Mukerji (1934) reared workers exclu-
sively on beetle grubs and earthworms; they refused plant food. They
also occasionally eat larvae and pupae of bees, as well as pollen and
honey from bee-hives (Ghosh 1936; Cherian & Ramachandran 1943).

ROOT-EATING ANT DORYLUS ORIENTALIS

311

Sometimes they are also known to attack the workers of the harvest
ant, Pheidole indica, which are carried to the nest where they are killed
and cut into pieces (Lefroy 1909). Males are probably carnivorous but
no exact information is available.

The nest is made underground rather deep in the soil but little else
is known about it.

It will thus be seen that our knowledge of the habits and biology of
this ant is very limited and there is scope for considerable work.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the following persons for supplying useful infor-
mation and for other assistance: K. S. Pradhan, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta; P. K. Sen-Sarma and the staff of the Entomology
Branch, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun; P. L. Chaturvedi, Ento-
mologist, U.P. Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Kanpur; and the Direc-
tor, Central Potato Research Institute, Simla.

Summary

1. In view of the controversy about the status of the ant Dorylus
orientalis as a plant-pest (some authors maintaining that it is exclusively
carnivorous), all the available information has been re-examined and
fresh observations added.

2. It is established that in India, Burma and Sri Lanka the ant (in
the worker stage) is a definite, sometimes serious, pest, attacking the
underground portions of several plants including economic ones such
as vegetables, potatoes, groundnuts, coconut seedlings, citrus and sugar-
cane setts.

3. Information on its taxonomic status is summarised. There are four
synonyms: D. curtisi (Shuckard), D. fuscus Emery, D. Jongicornis
(Shuckard) and D. oberthueri (Emery).

4. The geographical distribution is, India (whole, except N and NW
parts), S. Nepal, Sri Lanka; Burma and S. China (Kweichow).

5. Notes on habits and swarming are given.

References

Beeson, C. F. C. (1941): The Eco- Barlow, E. (1899): Notes on insect
logy and control of the Forest Insects pests from the Entomological Section,
of India and the Neighbouring Coun- Indian Museum. Indian Mus. Notes,
tries, p. 1007, sev. figs. Dehra Dun Calcutta, 4(4): 180-221. (Also: Note
(Vasant Press). Reprint, 1961. on Dorylus orientalis by Forel, p. 198).

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

i

Bingham, C. T. (1903): The Fauna
of British India, including Ceylon
and Burma. Hymenoptera Vol. 2. Ants
and Cuckoo-wasps. London., pp.1-5.

[Burma] (1918): Annual Report of
the Department of Agriculture, Burma,
for the Year ended 30 June 1918. Ran-
goon (Govt, of Burma), p. 52.

Cherian, M. C. & Ramachandran,
S (1943) : Bee enemies. Indian Fmg.,
Delhi, 4(5) : 25 1-25 3.

Dutt, G. R. (1912): Life-histories
of Indian Insects (Hymenoptera).
Mem. Dept. Agric. India (Ent.), Cal-
cutta, 4(4): 247.

Emery, C. (1910): Genera Insect-
orum. Hymenoptera, Fam. Formicidae,
Subfam. Dorylinae. Brussels, pp. 14-
15

Fletcher, T. B. (1914) : Some South
Indian Insects and Other Animals of
Importance. Madras, p. 274.

(Ed. by) (1917):

Cruciferous crops. Proc. 2nd ent. Meet.
( Pusa , Feb. 1917), Calcutta, p. 281.

(1920): Annotated

list of Indian crop-pests. Proc. 3rd ent.
Meet. (Pusa, Feb. 1919), Calcutta, 1:
35.

Forel, A. (in E. Barlow) (1899):
Note on Dorylus orientalis. Indian
Mus. Notes, Calcutta, 4(4): 198.

Forel, A. (1901): Les Formicides de
FEmpire des Indes et de Ceylon. Part
VIII. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13(3) :
462-577.

(1923) : Le Monde Social

des Fourmis du Globe. 5. Geneva. See
p. 17.

Ghosh, C. C. (1936): Bee-keeping
(3rd Revised Ed.). Misc. Bull. Imp.
Counc. agric. Res., Delhi, No. 6, vi +
91+8 pp.

(1940) : Insect Pests of

Burma. Rangoon (Govt. Press). See
pp. 130, 138 and 191.

Green, E. E. (1903) : Note on Dor-
ylus orientalis, West. Indian Mus. No-
tes, Calcutta, 5(2): 39.

Hutson, J. C. (1919): Quarterly

Report of the Entomologist. January-
March, 1919. Trop. Agriculturist, Per-
adeniya, 52(5) : 276-277.

Hutson, J. C. (1920) : Report of
Entomologist. Ceylon Dept. Agri., t
Adm. Rept. for 1919, Peradeniya, pp.
C8-C10.

(1933a): Report on

the work of the Entomological Divi-
sion (Ceylon Department of Agri-
cuture, 1932). p. 23, typescript. Pera-
deniya, 1933 (Summary in Rev. appl.
Ent. (A), London, 21: 361-362).

(19336) : Pests of

garden plants. 1. The root-eating ant
(Dorylus orientalis Westw.). Trop.
Agriculturist, Peradeniya, 80(5) : 276-

279.

(1936) : Entomolo-

gical notes. Trop. Agriculturist, Pera-
deniya, 87(5) : 289-295.

(1937) : Report on

the work of the Entomological Divi-
sion. Adm. Rept. Dir. Agric. Ceylon,
1936, Colombo, pp. D22-D-28.
(1939): Report on

the working of the Entomology Divi-
sion. Adm. Rept. Dir. Agri. Ceylon
1937, Colombo, pp. D37-D42.

Lefroy, H. M. (1906): Indian In-
sect Pests. Calcutta, pp. 231-232.

(1907) : The more

important insects injurious to Indian
agriculture. Mem. Dept. Agric. India,
Calcutta, 7(2): 128.

(1909): Indian In-
sect Life. Calcutta, pp. 227-228.

Mukerji, D. (1934): On the ana-
tomy of the worker of the ant Dory-
lus (Alaopone) orientalis W. Zool.
Anz., Leipzig. 705:97-105.

Pruthi, H. S. (1969): Textbook on
Agricultural Entomology, ix + 1 +977
pp., 92 pis. New Delhi (Indian Counc.
Agric. Res.). See p. 466.

Rutherford, A. (1914): Report of
the Entomologist. Rept. Ceylon Dept.
Agric., July 1, 1912 to December 31,
1913). Colombo.

Speyer, E. R. (1918): Report on
the work of the Entomological Divi-
sion, including special investgations in-
to shot-hole borer of tea. Ceylon Adm.
Repts. for 1917, Dept. Agri., pp. C10-

C13.

Stebbing, E. P. (1905): Insect life

ROOT-EATING ANT DORYLUS ORIENTALIS

313

in India and how to study it, etc. J. dia. Calcutta, pp. 72-73 and PI. XXIII.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 683, fig. 86 Wilson, E. O. (1964): The true

(male; and worker, wrongly labelled army ants of the Indo- Australian area
as female). (Hymenoptera : Formicidae: Dory-

(1908): A Manual linae). Pacific Insects, Honolulu, 6(3):

of Elementary Forest Zoology for In- 427-483.

Sacred groves of India — A plea
for continued conservation1

Madhav Gadgil2

AND

V. D. Vartak

Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Sciences, Poona 411 004

{With a plate)

Introduction

The practice of nature conservation is a very ancient tradition in India,
so ancient in fact, that its roots go back to the pre-agricultural, hunting
gathering stage of the society. The protection accorded to many plant
and animal species such as the Peepal and Umber trees and the Langur
and Nilgai is well known. There are also instances of entire biological
communities such as all aquatic creatures in a rock-pool or all plant life
in a patch of forest receiving protection because of their association with
some deity. With the weakening of religious beliefs these creatures and
communities are now in danger of losing this traditional protection. We
are writing this to make a plea that we must not lose our legacies from
these ancient practices, but must make every effort to incorporate them
in an enlightened approach to nature conservation.

Sacred groves are one of the most valuable of such legacies from the
primitive practices of nature conservation. Scattered, presumably
throughout India, are tracts of sacred forests which have been com-
pletely or nearly completely immune from human interference on
grounds of religious beliefs. The nature of religious cults associated with
such sacred groves suggests that the practices are very ancient, deriving
from the hunting-gathering stages of the society. The composition of
the vegetation, corresponding to the climax formation for that region,
corroborates the supposition that the sacred groves have been immune
from human interference for a very long period of time. These sacred
groves may range in size from a clump of trees to as much as twenty
hectares in area. Even the smaller groves often harbour some old and

1 Accepted January 1974.

2 Present address : Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2)

Gadgil & Vartak: Sacred Groves of India

Plate

Above: Sacred grove of goddess Janni at Mangaon, Velhe Taluka, Poona Dis-
trist. Below : Sacred grove of the saint Somjibuva at Dhaman Vahal, Mulshi

Taluka, Poona District.

SACRED GROVES OF INDIA

315

magnificent specimens of trees and climbers. The larger groves are a
veritable treasure-trove for the naturalist, supporting many species of
plants which are rare in the area, and are becoming rarer and rarer
with the deforestation which seems to gather pace daily. These sacred
groves are also often serving as a last refuge for arboreal birds and
mammals especially monkeys, and no doubt for other forest loving
animals as well (Plate).

TWO EXAMPLES

We will illustrate the phenomenon of these sacred groves with the
help of two examples from Maharashtra; one, a grove of the goddess
Janni at Mangaon in Velhe taluka of Poona district and the second, a
grove of the goddess Kalkai at Gani in Shrivardhan taluka of Kolaba
district. Both are amongst the largest groves that we have visited, being
about fifteen hectares in size, and lie along the Crestline of the Western
Ghats. Both lie in regions which receive about 4000 mm of rainfall dur-
ing the months of June to September, and consequently support montane
subtropical evergreen forests.

Mangaon lies near the southwestern edge of the Panshet reservoir
and is at a distance of one km from the motor launch stop at Mangaon.
The grove is about three quarters of a kilometre away from the village
itself and is situated on a hill slope of about 30° to 40°. About five hect-
ares of this grove was felled in 1948, but this was allowed to grow with-
out further disturbance and is now a good second growth forest. The
other ten hectares appear to be in their primaeval condition. This pri-
mary forest is composed almost entirely of trees about ten to thirty
metres tall with little shrubby or herbaceous undergrowth. The dominat-
ing tree species are Yeru (Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook, f.), Jamun
(. Syzygium cuminii Skeels) and Anjan ( Memecylon umbellatum Burm).
Particularly remarkable specimens are those of Bhorab ( Sterculia gut-
tata Roxb.) and Peepar ( Ficus arnottiana Miq.). The forest is rich in
woody climbers notable amongst which are Shikekai ( Acacia rugosa
Ham.) and Ombali ( Gnetum ula Brong.).

The reigning deity of the grove is a mother goddess, Janni. She is
now in the form of a simple icon in a primitive temple. However, even
this grandeur is recent. Originally she was in the form of uniconic stone
lumps smeared with minium lying out in the open. These stones are
still in the temple, along with a stone representing the mulpurusha or the
founder of the Polekar clan of the Mangaon village. The deity demands
animal sacrifice and is supposed to be very ferocious in nature. It is
believed that the femininity of the deity indicates that the worship ori-
ginated in the hunting gathering stage of the society which was still

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

awed by the miracle of birth and in which there was little of male do-
mination. The fact that the temple is fairly recent, and away from the
village also supports the conjecture that the cult originated when the
society was not yet settled in permanent dwellings (Kosambi 1962). 1

Removal of any plant material, even of dead wood from the grove is
taboo. The villagers seem to respect this taboo with near-complete sin-
cerity even today. Wood from the grove was however occasionally re-
moved in the past with special permission from the deity in case of a
disaster such as a major fire in the village. Apart from such, presumably
very rare violations, the grove must have been in a completely primae-
val condition till 1948. In that year there was a dispute regarding the
ownership of the grove between two clans in the village. The dispute
was settled by the Government by the entire grove being auctioned for
felling. A coal merchant from Poona bought the grove in the auction
and commenced felling with the help of imported tribal katkari
labourers. The villagers, who were at first unhappy about the destruc-
tion of their sacred grove, decided that they should at least make some
money if destruction was inevitable. They also felt that it was the mer-
chant who will be subjected to the wrath of the gooddess. They there-
fore refused to let the katkaris do the felling and volunteered to do the
felling themselves but on wages higher than those demanded by the
katkaris. This dispute lasted for quite a while, but finally the merchant
gave in and the villagers completed about five hectares of felling. At
this point there was a further dispute which was terminated with the
merchant dying a sudden death vomiting blood. The villagers decided
that the death was a just punishment meted out by the goddess because
of the violation of her sacred grove. Felling was stopped, and the rest
of this magnificent grove was saved from disaster. Today, the rest of the
region has been completely deforested and the grove of Janni stands as
the last refuge of the magnificent vegetation that covered the entire
region till only twenty years ago.

Our second example is from Konkan. The village of Gani is about
twenty kilometres from Shrivardhan isolated atop a hill plateau. The
base of the hill may be reached by a bus, or jeep but one has to climb
a distance of five kilometres before reaching the village. The sacred
grove of Kalkai lies about half a kilometre from the village itself and is
situated on a gentle slope. The grove is about fifteen hectares in area
and all of it is in its primaeval state; there has never been any felling in
the grove within human memory. The forest is dominated by Termi-
nalia paniculatct Roth, Mangifera indica Linn., Holegerna grahami
Hook, f., Alstonia scholar ae R. Be. and is about twenty to forty metres
in height. There is little shrubby undergrowth, but a rich growth of

1 Kosambi, D. D. (1962): Myth and Reality. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.

SACRED GROVES OF INDIA

317

climbers of species Gnetum ala Brong. Acacia rugosa Ham., Combre-
tum ovalifolium Roxb. and Schefflera venulosa Harms. The most re-
markable specimen in the grove is a magnificent tree of Garud ( Ficus
sp.) which has a girth exceeding fifteen metres.

The reigning deity of the grove is like that in Mangaon a mother
goddess, Kalkai. She is in an uniconic form and lies open to the sky.
She demands blood sacrifice. In all these features as well as in lying at
a distance from the village, the cult at Gani resembles the Mangaon
cult. Removal of any live wood from the grove is taboo. However the
taboo on the removal of dead wood and leaf litter appears to have been
relaxed within recent times. As with Mangaon, all the region surround-
ing the village Gani has been completely deforested. The effects of this
deforestation which has been more thorough at Gani, are being felt
much more acutely by the villagers. They now have no source of fuel-
wood or of leaf litter for preparing the paddy fields except for the
grove. Moreover, apart from a village well, the only perennial source
of water is a spring in the grove. Deforestation has led to the drying up
of all the other perennial springs in the vicinity of the village. The spring
in the grove is therefore the only perennial water source for the cattle,
or for the people working in the field.

The villagers of Gani are now acutely aware of the crucial role of
the grove in their economy. This grove, as many others, is classified as
temple land in the revenue records, and therefore cannot be exploited
except at the initiative of the temple trust. The villagers, as trustees, have
no wish to destroy this last source of fuel and water. It so happened,
however, that part of the grove was classified as forest land. As this
coupe was due for felling by rotation in 1972, some of the trees from
the grove were marked for felling by the departmental personnel. The
villagers were very unhappy at this, and on being informed by some
forest department official of our interest in the sacred groves wrote to
us for help. We visited the grove and were convinced of the merit of the
villagers’ case. We are very happy to state that the forest department
very considerately halted the felling in the grove at our request.

Geographical, Distribution

Such sacred groves are a very ancient and widespread phenomenon
in the old world cultures. They are mentioned in Greek and Sanskrit
classics and are reported to exist today in a number of countries besides
India e.g. Ghana, Nigeria, Syria, Turkey. We have not come across any
comprehensive account of the sacred groves, and this list based on per-
sonal conversations with other naturalists is definitely very incomplete.
It appears, however, that this phenomenon is entirely unknown in the

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

New World (R. E. Schultes, personal communication). In India they
have been reported to us from the entire length of the Western Ghats,
in Maharashtra, Mysore and Kerala. The reigning deities of the groves
in Mysore and Kerala are cobras rather than mother goddesses as in
Maharashtra. Aravalli hills in Rajasthan have groves dedicated to a
mother goddess Jogmaya (I. Prakash, personal communication). Sacred
groves are also found in the hill states of northeastern India, and in fact
are notable for harbouring rare species of orchids (A. G. Raddi, per-
sonal communication).

The finest sacred groves of India presumably occur in the Sarguja
district of Madhya Pradesh (G. G. Takle, personal communication).
Here every village in the area has a grove about 20 hectares in extent.
What is remarkable is that not only plant, but also animal life receives
absolute protection in these groves. The groves therefore serve as sanc-
tuaries for herds of ungulates as well. These groves are locally known
as sarana forests, a word which probably derives from the Sanskrit
“sharana” or sanctuary.

Economic Significance

It is well known that the climax form of vegetation in any locality
often tends to be richer in species than the earlier stages of succession.
As climax forests, the sacred groves are particularly diverse in species
of trees and the life forms dependent for their existence on trees, namely
climbers and epiphytes. With the felling of forest all around them, the
sacred groves have become the last refuge of many plant species. Many
of the plant species which depend for their very survival in the region
on the sacred groves are of considerable practical value. A striking ex-
ample of this was provided by the grove at the village of Tunbad in
Shrivardhan Taluka. This rather small grove harboured a magnificent
specimen of Garabi or Gaidhari ( Entada phaseoloides Merr.) a legu-
minous climber. The local inhabitants use the bark of this climber in
treating cattle against snakebite. We were told that this was the only
specimen of this species within a radius of 40 kilometres, and people
came up from considerable distances to this grove for the medicinal
bark. It is certain that many species now preserved in the sacred groves
possess such medicinal properties and may prove to be of considerable
economic value if properly studied and exploited.

Apart from the preservation of rare species the sacred groves may
be serving the function of preservation of biological diversity even in
the case of commoner species of trees. Thus we have been told of two
groves in Maharashtra which support ancient Teak ( Tectona grandis)
forests although teak has disappeared from the vicinity of those groves

SACRED GROVES OF INDIA

319

(1) Dhamani in Junnar Taluka of Poona district; (Shri U. K. Mavin-
kurve, personal communication) and Dapora in Wani Taluka of Yeot-
mal district (Shri M. G. Gogate, personal communication). It is very
likely that the teak specimens in these groves represent genetic variants
which are peculiar to that geographical region. Experience with forest
tree breeding programmes in North America has shown that the success
of such programmes depends crucially on the availability of abundant
genetic variation over the entire geographical range of the species. The
genetic variation of species like Teak likely to be preserved in the sacred
groves may therefore prove to be of great value in a future forest tree
breeding programme in India.

Conservation

Continued conservation of these sacred groves is obviously desirable
both from a practical and an aesthetic point of view. Unfortunately, the
religious beliefs on which this conservation was based are beginning to
weaken at the same time as the need for their conservation is becoming
more and more urgent with the deforestation of the surrounding regions.
Both the sacred groves described in detail above have been just saved
from threats of destruction. Many others have succumbed. The larger,
more valuable sacred groves are in fact more susceptible because they
can fetch considerable money in the short run for the poor farmers.
For example, there were originally four sacred groves of an area greater
than five hectares in the Panshet reservoir catchment area. Two of these,
one at Shirkoli and the second at Gondekhal, both of fifteen hectares
each, were felled in 1956. A third, at Tav is likely to be felled in the
next one or two years. That at Mangaon continues to be coveted by char-
coal merchants. We were told that just last year a merchant offered the
village headman a bribe to agree to bid as a dummy in an auction the
merchant was hoping to arrange.

All of this obviously points to the need for immediate measures to
conserve all the remaining sacred groves of substantial extent. Most of
these are classified as lands reserved for a temple. The land may be own-
ed either by the Government or privately. Where the land is under
governmental control the logical measure is to turn it over to the forest
department which can classify these groves as preservation plots. It is,
however, the privately owned groves that are in more imminent need of
protection. Those mentioned above as already felled at Shirkoli and
Gondekhal were privately owned, and so is that at Tav likely to be fell-
ed very soon. Such privately owned groves could probably be best pre-
served through the good offices of charity commissioners who regulate
the functioning of the religious trusts. This could be accomplished by

320 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

the charity commissioners adopting the view that the grove associated
with a temple is an important asset that the trustees must preserve. We
are also happy to note that the Flora Wing of the Indian Board of Wild
Life is considering the possibility of setting up a system of nature pre-
serves to protect the sacred groves of northeastern India. It would be
obviously desirable to extend the scope of such a system to embrace all
of India.

Summary

Scattered, apparently throughout India, are a large number of forest
tracts which have remained immune from human interference because
of religious beliefs. As deforestation has been taking place at a rapid rate
in many areas, such forests have come to be the only remnants of the
original forest in a number of cases. Because of the absence of human
interference the sacred forests support the climax vegetation appropriate
for their particular locality. Such a climax vegetation is very rich in spe-
cies of trees, climbers and epiphytes. As such these sacred groves serve
the vital function of preservation of plant species which have become
very rare or extinct elsewhere. Preservation of these species could be of
great economic significance. Some of the species so preserved are already
of medicinal significance; others could acquire such a significance in
future. Even in the case of species not in any danger of extinction, the
sacred forests may serve to preserve genotypes which may be useful in a
future forest tree breeding programme. The sacred forests are also of
great silvicultural interest as indicators of the natural productivity of the
region. It is, therefore, imperative to survey these sacred forests and pro-
perly assess their role in nature conservation so that these forests may
continue to be preserved even if the religious beliefs associated with
them weaken and may disappear.

ACK N OWLF.DGEM E NTS

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the willing help received from many
officials of the Maharashtra State Forest Department in our survey of the
sacred groves of Maharashtra. We would particularly like to mention
Shri V. D. Mehendale, Additional Chief Conservator of Forests for
Maharashtra, without whose interest this project could not have been
pursued. Many others have helped with information and these have
been acknowledged in the text. We are also thankful to Drs. G. B. Deo-
dikar and T. S. Mahabale for their encouragement and for generously
supporting this research through the facilities of the Maharashtra As-
sociation for the Cultivation of Science.

Hunting and
in wild

feeding

dogs1

Michael Fox2 and A. J. T. Johnsingh3
(With a graph)

These observations are based on our preliminary study of the Indian
Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus) in the Mudumalai Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.

Wild Dogs at Mudumalai usually hunt in the early hours of the
morning between 6 and 8 a.m. They generally avoid strenuous activity
during the heat of the day, seeking shade under rocks, dense underbrush
or lying in along the banks of a river. This behavioural thermoregula-
tion greatly influences the daily activity and movements of these dogs
living in the tropical and subtropical regions. In cooler seasons they may
be active and hunt at any time of the day. They rarely hunt at night but
are most active on moonlight nights. This implies that they rely greatly
on the sense of sight for hunting. But, in fact, all senses including those
of sound and smell, are used flexibly without any particular specializa-
tion on any one modality.

During our two month study we were lucky to see a vain attack by
wild dogs on a gaur calf which was protected by the determined mother
and other members of the herd. Yet the agility and tenacity of the wild
dogs gave us an idea of how they tackle a large prey such as the spotted
deer or sambar. Further, four fresh kills were discovered before the vul-
tures and other scavengers had arrived to remove everything. They were
in varying degrees of mutilation and by the various signs that the dogs
had left it was possible to piece together how the prey is brought down
and dismembered.

It is highly probable that one of the dogs seizes the deer by the nose,
which, like a twitch on a horse, must greatly inhibit its movements.
Other dogs attack the hind end, biting the thighs, buttocks and flanks.
One dog may secure a hold on the tail and with the other on the nose,
one or two dogs on the ears and the rest of the pack pulling at the prey’s
flanks and hind quarters, a tug-of-war ensues. The prey is pulled down
and if it is a fawn it is literally torn apart. There is no killing bite as in
the big cats to dispatch the prey swiftly. The wild dogs, although they

1 Accepted December 1974.

2 Washington University, U.S.A.

3 Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College, Sivakasi, India.

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

have powerful jaws, have relatively short canine teeth which could not
be used to serve the spinal cord of larger prey. These shorter canine teeth,
aided by the outer upper incisors which are curved and have evolved in-
to a pair of secondary canines, enable the wild dog to secure a hold on
the prey. The sight of several dogs securely attached to the prey and pull-
ing, twisting and tearing at it, has shocked many a hunter who sees the
wild dog as bloody killers. They are indeed messy, having no clean and
efficient way of killing their prey.

When the flanks are torn open, the prey may be eviscerated as it
struggles or is dragged along the ground by other dogs at the head end.
The liver, kidneys and the lungs may be eaten and some sections of the
intestines except the stomach and rumen which are torn out and left
untouched. Similarly with the wildpig, the stomach was untouched by
the dogs. The dogs may eat portions of the animal that are torn off as
it struggles. Hence the frequent observation that the wild dog will even
eat their prey while it is still alive.

The eyelids and eyes may also be eaten. It has been said that the
dogs bite out the eyes of the deer and blind them first. Considering the
difficulty a wild dog would have in seizing the eyeball, retracted deep
into the orbit by retractor oculi muscles as a defensive reflex, this inter-
pretation is unlikely. Rather the dogs remove the eyes when the prey
is dead or immobilized in shock, prior to death.

In the absence of a killing bite, what physical stimulus kills the prey?
Young fawns suffering from multiple bite injuries have been rescued
from wild dogs and they have recovered; others have ‘played dead’ (the
tonic immobility reaction) and suffering from less extensive injuries,
were able to run off, once the dogs were chased away. (Davidar: per-
sonal communication). Presumably the prey goes into a state of shock,
death ensuing rapidly after evisceration, this latter not being the major
physical stimulus that kills the prey. In the absence of evisceration, the
onset of shock may be prolonged and wild dogs would have to fight
with the prey longer and, possibly, sustain injuries themselves during
the attack. What more efficient method then, in the absence of more
effective weapons, than to disembowel the prey? An understanding of
these facts will hopefully give to the hunter and naturalist a clearer un-
derstanding of why the wild dogs seem to be such bloody killers.

Analysis of wild dog faeces shows the presence of fur, skin, hooves,
and teeth of fawns and large quantities of digested bone, which has the
consistency of fine chalk. It would be highly adaptive for the wild dogs
to ingest fur to protect the alimentary tract from possible injury, espe-
cially from the extremely sharp bone spicules from small mammals. It
was often with much difficulty that we were able to remove the matted
fur that formed tight wads and balls around these splinters of bone.
Clearly, if carnivores in captivity are fed on small mammals such as

HUNTING AND FEEDING IN WILD DOGS

323

hares, the carcass should not be skinned but left intact so that the ingest-
ed fur may be used to form a protective bolus around any fragments of
ingested bone.

The composition of successive stools passed by one dog reflected
even more of their eating habits. Some stools contained little or no hair,
but mainly dark digested meat protein and occasional strips of partially
digested muscle and tendon. Other stools contained fur and a lower pro-
portion of digested protein and bones. Bone fragments were never found
in those stools that contained no hair. From this we may conclude that
the dogs either purposefully ingested quantities of hair when they also
crushed and swallowed bones or in the process of digestion the fur
aggregates around the bone fragments and are usually voided together
and separate from the meat portion of the meal. Fragments of skull,
teeth, claws and ocular lenses embedded in fur attested the fact that
small mammals were eaten whole.

A high proportion of sambar remains included ingested grass (Iseil-
ema prostratum). One faecal sample contained only grass and twigs;
this dog was probably sick since the stool was liquid. The only other
vegetable matter ingested in a significant amount was the fruit of Zizy-
phus, which was present in one sample. This fruit is commonly eaten
by langur, bonnet macaque, porcupine, spotted deer, pigs and bear. Some
fragments of grass, seeds, twigs and bamboo leaves were found in many
of the faeces and their presence was probably accidental since a wild
dog eating its prey on the ground is bound to pick up such material.

There is no satisfactory answer as to why carnivores eat grass. Like
fur it may be an anti-irritant. Grass may also be an important source of
vitamins and trace elements not available in the all meat diet, since the
stomach contents of chital and pig were not eaten. We were not able to
ascertain whether or not the wild dog eviscerated small mammals before
eating them but this was certainly the case with the deer and the wild
Pig-

To determine the predation by wild dog on the deer population of
our study area we collected the pelvises and lower jaws of deer. Of the
sixty- three pelvises collected fifty- six were chital and the remaining seven
sambar. Sex ratios were 23 male to 33 female chital and 5 female to 1
male sambar. (One fragment of pelvis could not be sexed).

In order to gain some insight into the degree of maturity of these
kills pelvic index was taken by measuring the distance from the top
(anterior rim) of the acetabulum or hip joint and the bottom of the
obturator foramen. This index was chosen since it was the most intact
region — the ilium and ischium usually being chewed and splintered by
the dogs (text figure).

From the figure, it appears that pelvises with an index less than 7.5
cm would be ingested entirely by the wild dogs, since no remains were

6

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

found in the field (with the exception of a 2-3 month old fawn killed by
three dogs near our camp). This conclusion may not be warranted since
a pelvis of 7.5 cm index would be well ossified especially at the region
of the acetabulum and could not therefore be easily ingested. It is quite
possible then, that wild dogs do not kill many sub-adult fawns with a
pelvic index of 6.5-7.5 cm. But this conclusion also may not be warrant-
ed, since the field samples were taken in the spring and most fawns
would not attain this pelvic index until late summer or autumn. The ab-
sence of such remains in the spring collection in this study is an open
question. We do not know how long moderately calcified bones remain
intact. Their half life may be as short as 2-3 months, since many scaven-
gers, notably porcupines and small rodents, will ingest such bones which
constitute a rich source of mineral salts essential to their diet.

A similar age gap was found in the samples of lower jaws. The same
arguments posed above hold for the absence of sub-adult jaws in the
collection. Interestingly enough the greatest proportion of kills was in
the 4-6 year (prime) age group. This may not be an indication that the
wild dogs selectively kill animals of this age, but rather that the majority
of animals in the herds fall (with the exception of the large annual
fawn crop) within this age group. This conclusion is supported indirect-
ly by the Nilgiri Game Association records of the number of chital shot
each year. The numbers have increased greatly over the last few years,
indicating that there must be more individuals in the herds which fall
into this highly productive age range.

The age classes of kills identified from lower jaws are shown in the
figure and this follows Schaller’s (1967) age classification based on the
wear on various teeth. Class I represents the fawns and in most of these
kills the jaws are eaten by the dogs, since we found only two specimens.
Classes 2 and 3 are yearlings and young adults and classes 4, 5 and 6 re-
present prime adults. Class 7 is past prime. Interestingly no really aged
specimens were found, indicating that chital in the Nilgiris rarely live
over 8 or 10 years of age.

Only eight lower jaws of the Sambar were collected in contrast to
31 lower jaws of the chital and all of these were subadults. Analysis of
faeces confirmed the fact that the chital was the most commonly killed
prey during the period of study. We were wary about collecting too
many faecal samples from the packs because this might have had some
effect on their marking behaviour since the faeces were deposited main-
ly at communal dunging areas.

The ratio of chital to sambar remains found in the faeces was very
close to the ratio of chital to sambar pelvises that were collected in the
field (approximately 10:1.5 or for every twenty chital killed three sam-
bar). This ratio accords with the lower population of sambar and with
the fact that these deer are very large and powerful and difficult for the

HUNTING AND FEEDING IN WILD DOGS

325

wild dogs to bring down. Presumably the wild dogs kill mainly fawns
and subadult sambar since no adult lower jaws were found in the study
area.

With greater expertise we might have been able to distinguish bet-
ween the fur of chital fawns, subadults and adults but this was not pos-
sible. Judging from the number of faeces containing digested calcium
(from the bones of ingested fawns) the ratio of fawns to adults during
the period December-February in the samples was in the ratio of 2:1.
A complete tail of a fawn, many small tarsal and carpal bones and un-
digested hooves were commonly found in these faeces.

It has been said that on a long chase the wild dogs run after the
prey in relays and this may be a misinterpretation of canid hunting be-
haviour and has been clarified somewhat by Hugo & Jane van Lawick’s
observations of cape hunting dogs in their book the innocent killers.
‘As the prey zig-zags in front of the pack it comes closer to some
dogs than to others; the closest dog takes up the chase until the prey

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

again turns wide and another dog closer to it will take over. The open
plains of Serengetti where the cape hunting dog lives is very different
from the jungle habitat of the wild dog, although a few small clearings
have the park-like appearance of this great African plain. Consequently
the hunting strategy of the wild dogs would be adapted to the terrain.
Running in relays would result when the prey in front of the lead dog
turns wide and the dogs in the rear could intercept it by taking a short
cut along one of the many narrow game trails that labyrinth through the
dense scrub.

Often chital and sambar kills are found near water and this has led
to the common deduction that deer at bay will run to water in their at-
tempt to escape. Many kills, however, are made when deer come to water
or at traditional crossing points along the river which they use while
travelling from one browsing area to another. Another reason for so
many kills being made near a river is that the prey takes the swiftest
route away from the dogs, which is down hill where, coincidentally, lies
the river.

Beyond doubt, our study confirms that the wild dogs are to be left
in peace in the Nilgiris as they are the remaining major predators re-
gulating the deer population. Shooting by sportsmen for ‘trophy stags’
has little value in maintaining the deer population as the fawn, does,
young stags and aged stags would rapidly produce a situation of over-
population, overgrazing and ultimately, enormous deer mortality from
starvation and stress disease (aggravated also by competition with in-
digenous domestic cattle). As the wild dogs kill on a random-chance
basis and as they rarely take sub-adult deer, 1-2 years old, which will
be highly productive, their predation is ecologically more adaptive than
the human pattern of hunting only trophy stags. The question is whe-
ther we are going to allow these graceful hunters to do their job un-
disturbed.

Reference

Schaller, G. B. (1967) : The Deer and the Tiger. University Press, Chicago.

A contribution to the Flora of
Pacchaimalais, Tiruchirapalli
District, Tamil Nadu

K. M. Matthew

The Rapinat Herbarium , St. Joseph's College , Tiruchirapalli 620 002

(With a map)

Situation and Physical Features

Tiruchirapalli is an inland district of Tamil Nadu, with an area of 14,281
sq km, and comprising the taluks of Tiruchirapalli, Karur, Kulithalai,
Lalgudi, Musiri, Perambalur, Udayarpalayam, Alangudi, Kulathur and
Thirumayam.

Forests occupy less than 7 per cent of the total area. Of this, the
Pacchaimalais (‘green hills’) lying along the north-western border of
the district and rising to 950 m account for the larger share. Irregular
in outline, they have a maximum (north-south) length of 32 km. “In
plan, the range has a very rude resemblance to an hour-glass in shape,
being nearly cut in two by two ravines of great size and depth, opening
to the northeast and southwest. Of the two parts thus formed, the north-
western is the larger, and has generally a higher level than the south-
eastern. Besides the rambling shape of the range, the most noteworthy
and striking feature is the great steepness of the western slopes com-
pared with those of the east, which are rarely precipitous, and are broken
by sundry long buttress-like spurs, projecting far into the low country”
(King & Foote 1864). The total area is 480 sq km of which 274 are in
the Tiruchirapalli district, and 206 in the Salem district. The entire
southern slopes and parts of the eastern and western slopes fall within
the Musiri taluk of the Tiruchirapalli district. The Pacchaimalais of the
Tiruchirapalli district are separated from the Kollimalais of the Salem
district by the narrow Thammampatty valley.

Situated 70 km from the town of Tiruchirapalli and at the foothills
of the Pacchaimalais is the small village of Sobanapuram. At the centre
of the plateau of the Pacchaimalais is the village of Top Sengattupatty,
with an Inspection Bungalow the only place suitable for camping on the

Accepted March 1971.

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

plateau. The two villages are connected by a 10 km bridle path, now
being replaced by a motorable road.

Soil : The rocks are geneissic, with pockets of cretaceous sedimentary
deposits. The soil varies in texture from sandy loam to loam. On the
slopes it is dry, stony, poor in humus, and even less than 1 m deep, while
the plateau has deep sandy loam with a good admixture of humus. There
has been considerable erosion, accelerated by various forms of mis-
management like overexploitation, overgrazing, or even destruction of
forests for shifting cultivation.

Climate : Whereas the district as a whole is characterized by a warm
climate with low humidity, the Pacchaimalais have a relatively moderate
climate owing to altitude and vegetation.

More than half of the mean annual rainfall of about 130 cm is re-
ceived during the northeastern monsoon in October-November. The
southwest monsoon is generally light; occasional summer showers also
occur. The plateau is said to be malarial.

People : The portion of the Pacchaimalais within the Tiruchirapalli
district has three nadus or groups of villages — Vannadu with 19 villages,
Tanparanadu with 16 and Kambainadu with 13. The inhabitants are
‘Malaiyalees’ (‘hill men’). Agriculturists of the hills (cultivating just
the mere essentials of subsistence like cereals and pulses), sparsely dres-
sed, speaking a dialect of Tamil, these people are a well-knit group, with
their own family, social and religious customs and agricultural practi-
ces. Education or anything like modern amenities have scarcely reached
them; their only contact with the outside world is the weekly trek down
the hills to the plains for marketing. The general shyness of these peo-
ple hides a great store of unassumed friendliness. Sociologists will find
the habits, customs and community organization worth study.

Vegetation: The forests are of the Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous
(Champion 1961) type. Below 450 m the forests, within easy access of
the villages around, are much degraded owing to heavy grazing or ran-
dom fellings. The vegetation is rather sparse and regeneration poor.
Among the more dominant species are Acacia leucophloea, Chloroxy-
lon swietenia, Dichrostachys cinerea, Erythroxylon monogynum, Zizy -
phus leucopyrus, Tamarindus indica, Randia dumetorum, Memecylon
edule and Dodonea viscosa.

On the upper slopes, however, the forests are denser owing to better
growth conditions and less interference; besides the species mentioned,
are Maba buxifolia, Murraya koenigii, Carissa spinarum, Elaeagnus in-
dica, and Scutia circumcissa. Sandalwood is the main item of forest
revenue in these forests. Bamboos are occasionally present; the few
climbers are large and woody; ferns and epiphytes are scarce except at
the higher altitudes.

Patches of Southern Subtropical Hills Forests occur in the plateau

\ AY

nat. Hist. Soc, 72(2)

Map of the Pachchaimalai Hills.

FLORA OF P ACCH AIM ALAIS

329

areas of Karuppankadu Thittu and Sholamadevi, where annual rainfall
exceeds 120 cm, and trees exceed 20 m tall, with a lower shrubby, most-
ly evergreen, layer.

There has been considerable human interference in the form of des-
truction of forests for shifting cultivation. One obvious consequence is
the invasion of Lantana camara var. aculeata and Dodonea viscosa.
Stachytarpheta urticae folia is the most conspicuous weed of neglected
gardens, where they form dense masses. Exotic ornamental species are
scarce. The first plant colonizers on the motor road under con-
struction are Tridax, Vernonia, Tephrosia, Cor chorus, Dolichos, Ipo-
moea , Sida and several species of grasses.

The crops of the plateau consist of cereals like Oryza sativa, Penni-
setum typhoides, Sorghum vulgare, Eleusine corocana, Setaria italica,
Panicum miliare, Paspalum scrobiculatum; pulses and vegetables like
Dolichos lablab, Vigna sativa, Phaseolus mungo, Phaseolus radiatus,
Dolichos biflorus, Brassica juncea, Capsicum annuum; and cash crops
like Sesamum indicum. Coconut and bananas are seen around habita-
tions.

The presence of some very old trees of Terminalia spp., Artocarpus
heterophyllus, Ficus bengalensis, Diospyros spp. suggests that certain
tracts of the interior have not been tampered with; even in the villages
themselves, the scarcity of introduced species, of economic or aesthetic
value, is noteworthy.

The Scope of the Present Exploration

The Pacchaimalais have so far not been exhaustively explored
(Sebastine & Henry 1961) though the region does show certain interest-
ing features. There are several species of restricted distribution that
verge on the endemic; many more species are new records to the Tiru-
Chirapalli district.

Ethnobotanical studies have considerable scope here on account of
the intimate knowledge of plants possessed by the Malaiyalees. Depri-
ved of modern medical amenities, these people depend on plants for
medicines. The fact that each family seldom has more than a child or
two, may suggest that the people depend on some plant of contracep-
tive value. Certain individuals in every village are known for their inti-
mate knowledge of plants — in fact the author realized that such a Malai-
yalee companion was indispensable for good field work. The local
names and uses of plants given below are largely taken from data given
by such a field assistant.

The distributional notes under each species are given under one of

three headings: ‘at the foothills’ (chiefly around Sobanapuram), (‘on
the slopes’ (ghats), and/or ‘on the plateau’ (chiefly at Top Sengattu-
patty, Karuppankadu Thittu, Kaliammankovil Thittu, Masimalaiyan

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Thittu and Kannimar Shola). The notes refer to the actual places of
collection without suggesting anything about the overall distribution of
the species on the Pacchaimalais. The paper summarises the work of
two collection trips — in December 1969 and July 1970. It is of a preli-
minary nature, reporting the first attempts towards an eventual Flora
of the district.

Identification of the plants was done personally by me at the Madras
Herbarium, Coimbatore. The collections are preserved in the Rapinat
Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli. The following enumer-
ation consisting of 349 species from 269 genera belonging to 82 Families
follows Gamble & Fischer (1956) for the order of the Families; genera
and species are given in alphabetical order. Nomenclature has been
brought up to date as far as possible; Tamil names, given in brackets
closely following the botanical name, have generally been collected or
verified in the field, failing which they have been taken from Seshagiri
Rao & Krishnaswamy (1941).

Enumeration of species
Ranunculacfae

Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.

An extensive climber; leaves highly variable in shape; flowers white,
in dense axillary or terminal panicles; common on the plateau.
Naravelia zeylanica DC.

On the upper slopes and on the plateau; usually spreading on thic-
kets, etc.

Menispermaceae

Cissampelos pareira L. (Appatta)

A tomentose climber; on the plateau.

Cyclaea peltata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Th.

A climbing shrub with peltate leaves; on the plateau.

Diploclisia glaucescens (Bl.) Diels

A woody climber with small yellow flowers on the old stem; on the
plateau.

Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers

A climber with small flowers in axillary umbels; on the plateau.

Capparaceae

Capparis sepiaria L. (Thoratti)

A large straggler with hooked thorns and small white flowers; the
petals fall early; on the upper slopes and on the plateau.

FLORA OF P ACC HA IM ALA IS

331

VlOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell. (Orilaithamarai)

( lonidium suffruticosum Ging)

A small herb with solitary pink flowers; along the slopes.

Bixaceae

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Sothaippallu; Sottaikala)

(F. se pi aria Roxb.)

A dense shrub with small green flowers; fruits said to be harmful
to teeth; abundant on the plateau.

Scolopia crenata Clos.

An armed tree up to 8 m tall; flowers small, white, with spreading
stamens and thick styles; abundant on the plateau.

PlTTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporam fioribundum Wt. & Arn. (Kattusampangi)

A tree up to 12 m tall, with white flowers in terminal panicles; on
the plateau in the forests.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala javana DC.

Several branches from a woody base; flowers relatively large, pink;
plants seldom seen entire owing to grazing; common on the slopes.

Malvaceae

Hibiscus vitifolius L. (Manithuthi)

A shrub with yellow flowers; on the plateau, near habitations.
Malvastmm coromandelianum Garcke
A weed of wastelands on the plateau.

Pavonia procunibens Boiss.

An undershrub with white flowers; on the slopes and on the plateau.
Pavonia zeylanica Cav. (Mammatti)

An undershrub with pinkish flowers; on the slopes.

Sida rhombifolia L. (Tenacham)

A shrub with yellow flowers; on the slopes and on the plateau.
Urena lobata L. (Ottati)

A weed of wastelands; flowers pinkish.

Sterculiaceae

Helicteres isora L. (Valambiri)

A tree up to 10 m tall, with red flowers and spirally twisted follicles;
on the plateau.

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, VoL 72(2)

Pterospermum obtusifolium Wt. (Mulipolavu)

A small tree on the slopes; reported to be scarce by Gamble.
Pterospermum xylocarpum (Gaertn.) Sant. & Wagh (Odupai)

(P. heyneanum Vahl)

A tree of the plateau forests; numerous seedlings as undergrowth.

Waltheria indica L.

An undershrub with reddish stems and yellow flowers; one of the
first colonizers on the freshly cut road.

Tiliaceae

Corchorus ? olitorius L. (Sanal; Peratti)

Robust specimens seen along the newly cut ghat road; not seen else-
where.

Corchorus tridens L.

Same as above.

Grewia disperma Rottl. ex Spreng. (Anaikkatimaram)

A small tree; fruit conspicuously 2-lobed, covered with golden tom-
entum.

Grewia emargiuata Wt. & Arn.

A large shrub with leaves whitish on the undersurface.

Grewia ftavescens Juss. (Karichili)

A small tree with yellowish flowers; on the slopes.

Grewia orientalis L.

A shrub with long arching branches and white flowers; throughout
the range.

Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne
A tree; throughout the range.

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl (Thadachi)

A tree of the plateau forests.

Grewia umbellifera Bedd.

A shrub up to 4 m tall; on the plateau.

Linaceae

Hugo ilia mystax L. (Mothirakkanni)

A straggling shrub with extensive branch system spreading on the
trees; flowers bright yellow, showy, aggregated at the apices of branches;
fruits red when ripe; on the slopes.

Erythroxylon monogynum Roxb. (Sembulichai)

A spreading shrub up to 3 m tall; flowers yellow; ripe fruits red;
throughout the range.

Malpighiaceae

Hsptage madabflota Gaertn. (Kurukathi)

FLORA OF PACCHAIMALAIS

333

A woody straggler; leaves said to be used for smoking by the local
people; on the plateau.

Geraniaceae

Oxalis corniculata L. (Puliyarai)

A diffuse creeper with yellow flowers; common on the plateau.

Rutaceae

Atalantia monophylla Correa (Kattu Elumichi)

An armed tree up to 12 m fall; on the plateau.

Chloroxylon swietenia DC. (Vamparai)

A large shrub or small tree with pinnate leaves; the dehisced cap-
sules persist for long; throughout the range.

Clausena dentata (Wlild.) R. & S. (Aanai)

C. willdenovii Wt. & Arn.

A large shrub or small tree; aromatic leaves said to hasten the ripen-
ing of fruits like bananas in storage; on the plateau.

Evodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merr. (Kattushanbagam)

A densely foliaceous tree over 20 m tall, with copious flowers; on
the plateau.

Feronia limonia (L.) Swingle (Vilamaram)

F. elephantum Correa
Occasional trees on the plateau.

Glycosmis cochinchinensis Pierre (Kulapanai)

A large shrub or small tree up to 5 m tall; on the slopes and on the
plateau.

Murraya koenigii (L.) Spr. (Karuveppilai)

A shrub with aromatic leaves used in cooking; one of the most do-
minant species on the plateau.

Pleiospermium alatum (Wall, ex Wt. & Arn.) Swingle
Limonia alata Wt. & Arn.

A densely foliaceous tree with winged leaves; throughout the range.
Toddalia asiatica Lam. (Milagaranai)

A prickly straggler with greenish flowers; on the plateau.

OCHNACEAE

Ochna ? squarrosa L. (Kalkuruvi)

A large shrub or small tree with yellow flowers; on the plateau.

Burseraceae

Commiphora caudata (Wt. & Am.) Engl. (Pachaikkiluvai)

A large shrub or small tree, the thin bark flaking off exposing the
green bark; on the slopes.

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Meliaceae

Aglaia elaeagnoidea (Juss.) Benth. (Chokla)

A. roxburghiana Hiern.

A tree over 15 m tall, in the forests of the plateau.

Cipadessa baccifera (Roth.) Miq. (Savattuchedi)

A shrub of the forest margins on the plateau.

Soymida febrifuga Juss. (Somadanam)

A tree over 12 m tall with large, ovate, woody capsules; planted at
the Top Sengattupatty Rest House.

Olacaceae

Olax scandens Roxb. (Kadalranchi)

A thorny shrub with arching branches and yellowish flowers; at the
foothills.

Opiliaceae

Cansjera rheedii Gmel.

An armed shrub with arching branches and dark green leaves; on
the plateau.

Opilia amentacea Roxb.

A straggler with pendulous racemes and oblong drupes.

Celastraceae

Celastrus paniculate Willd. (Manjakadi)

A straggler with crenulate leaves, and white flowers in pendulous
panicles; throughout the range.

Elaeodendron glaucum Pers. (Kanniramaram)

A tree of the plateau forests.

Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou
Gymnosporia emarginata Laws.

A common shrub of the plateau; the thorns on the apical portions
of shoots are longer, and bear leaves and flowers.

Maytenus heyneana (Roth.) Raju & Babu

Gymnosporia heyneana Laws.

A woody shrub with woody thorns up to 3 cm long on the older
stem; on the plateau.

Rhamnaceae

Sageretia filiformis (Roth.) Don
S. parviflora R. Br.

A shrub with arching branches; on the slopes.

FLORA OF PACCHA1MALA1S

335

Scutia circumcissa (L.f.) Druce (Kokkimullu)

S. myrtina Kurz

A strongly armed shrub abundant on the slopes.

Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn. (Vennyangodi; Karadikkodi)

A climbing shrub; on the plateau.

Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. (Kattu Elanthai; Churaimullu)

A large, very thorny shrub; throughout the range.

Zizyphus xylopyrus Willd. (Kottai Ilanthai)

A tree of the foothills with velvety leaves when young and large
fruits.

VlTACEAE

Cayratia pedata (Vahl) Gagnep. (Kattupirandai)

A scandent shrub with pubescent leaves; on the plateau.

Cissus quadrangularis L. (Perandai)

The leaves are notably persistent; on the slopes.

Cissus vitiginea L.

A trailing shrub along the slopes.

Leea crispa L.

A shrub usually at the borders of forests, on the plateau.

Sapindaceae

Cardiospermum canescens Wall.

Mature capsules globose, not winged; on the plateau, not common.

Cardiospermum haiicacabum L. (Modakkathan)

Mature capsules elongated, winged; at the foothills and on the slopes.
Dodonea viscosa L.

Abundant in the forest clearings on the plateau.

Filidum decipiens Thw. (Athadali)

A densely foliaceous tree of the plateau forests.

Sapindus emarginatus Vahl (Naikottai)

A tree yielding fruits which are locally used as substitute for soap;
throughout the range.

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken.

S. trijuga Willd.

A large tree over 30 m tall; on the plateau.

Anacardiaceae

Rhus mysorensis Heyne (Chippamaram; Sappula)

An armed, dense shrub with numerous arching branches and small,
yellowish flowers.

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Moringaceae

Moringa oleifera Lamk. (Murungai)

Planted near habitations on the plateau.

Papilionaceae

Alysicarpus ? longifolius Wt. & Arn.

A stout undershrub with prominently veined leaves; along the slopes.
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. var. nummularifolia Baker

A herb of unweeded gardens, pasture lands, etc.; on the plateau.
Atylosia albicans Benth.

A twiner noted for the whitish foliage and large yellow flowers;
abundant on the plateau.

Canavalia ensiformis DC. (Valavarai)

A twiner from the woody base; flowers purple; along the slopes and
on the plateau.

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

A low herb with rather showy yellow flowers; throughout the range.
Crotalaria nana Burm.

A prostrate herb with small, yellow flowers; on the plateau, in pas-
ture lands.

Dalbergia paniculata Roxb. (Porapatchalai)

A tree on the slopes; not common.

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Pulladi)

An erect undershrub with lilac- tinged flowers; on the plateau.
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. (Sirupulladi)

A profusely branched creeping herb, rooting at the nodes, forming
dense mats on the ground; flowers purple; on the plateau.

Dolichos falcatus Klein ex Willd.

A wiry twiner on the slopes and on the plateau; flowers yellow.
Indigofera colulella (Burm. f.) Merr.

/. viscosa Lamk.

A branched subshrub along the slopes; flowers red.

Indigofera cordifolia Heyne

A prostrate herb conspicuous for the silky white foliage; abundant
at the foothills.

Indigofera linifolia Retz.

A prostrate, well-branched herb; abundant at the foothills.

Mucuna atropurpurea DC. (Kakkavali)

A woody climber; pods covered with yellow to brown irritant brist-
les; pods 2-seeded; on the plateau.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Pungu)

P. glabra Vent.

A densely foliaceous tree, with tubercled bark; on the plateau.

FLORA OF PACCHAIMALA1S

337

Tephrosia hirta Ham.

An erect subshrub of the foothills and slopes.

Tephrosia tinctoria Pers.

A pubescent subshrub from a woody stock; flowers red; on the pla-
teau.

Zornia gibbosa Span.

Z. diphylla (L.) Pers.

A diffuse herb with yellow flowers and prickly pods; foothills and
slopes.

Caesalpiniaceae

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. (Athi)

A deciduous tree up to 10 m tall; common at the foothills.
Caesalpinia crista L. (Kalachikkai)

A very thorny, massive straggler with yellow flowers; along the
slopes.

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth.) Alst. (Putthadukki)

C. sepiaria Roxb.

A very pubescent thorny shrub ascending to several metres along
nearby trees, etc.; flowers yellow; on the slopes and on the plateau.
Cassia auriculata L. (Aavaram)

A shrub less than 1 m tall; flowers bright yellow; common in open
ground at the foothills. Plants in the areas are notably smaller than
elsewhere in the district.

Cassia fistula L. (Sarakkonnai)

Stray trees on the plateau; apparently less luxuriant than in the
plains.

Cassia occidentals L. (Ponnavarai; Thagarai)

In wastelands near habitations on the plateau.

Cassia siamea Lamk. (Manjakkonnai)

A tree with bright yellow flowers and coppery pods; on the plateau.
Delouix regia (Boj.) Raf. (Valnarayanamaram)

Stray trees near habitations on the plateau.

Pterolobium indicum A. Rich. (Karu Indu)

A very thorny straggler with white flowers and reddish young pods;
really abundant at the foothills and along the slopes.

Tamarind us indica L. (Puli)

At the foothills, as an avenue tree.

Mimosaceae

Acacia chundra (Roxb.) Willd. (Karungali)

A. sundra DC.

A tree with copious yellowish flowers; very abundant at the foothills.

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. (Vellai Indu)

A very thorny straggler with white flowers; common and abundant
at the foothills.

Albizzia amara Boiv. (Usil)

A deciduous tree up to 10 m tall, with whitish flowers; foothills and
slopes; pods used as substitute for soap.

Dichrostachys cinerea Wt. & Arn. (Vidathalam)

A thorny shrub or tree with spicate flowers pink below and yellow
above; common at the foothills.

Mimosa pudica L. (Thottalsurungi)

Common wayside weed on the plateau.

Mimosa rubicaulis Lamk. (Kattusikkai)

A very thorny straggler, near fences; flowers pink.

Crassulaceae

Bryophyllum pinnatum Kurz. (Ranakkalli)

In moist, shady ground rich in humus; on the plateau.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus latifolia Wall. (Vellainagai)

A large, deciduous tree; on the plateau.

Terminalia arjuna Wt. & Arn. (Vellamaruthu)

A large, usually buttressed tree, over 30 m tall; on the plateau, near
rivulets.

Terminalia chebula Retz. (Kadukkai)

A large tree over 30 m tall, common in the forests of the plateau;
fruits yield a local tanning material.

Terminalia paniculata Roth. (Pulavaimaram)

A large tree over 35 m tall, with dark corrugated bark, heavy hori-
zontally spreading branches, and brown, winged fruits; on the plateau.

Myrtaceae

Psidium guajava L.

Planted on the plateau.

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Navalmaram)

S. jambolanum DC.

A large tree over 25 m tall; near streams on the plateau.

Lecythidaceae

Careya arborea Roxb. (Aamimaram)

A densely foliaceous tree up to 15 m tall; on the plateau.

FLORA OF PACCHAIMALAIS

339

Melastomataceae

Memecylon edule Roxb.

A large shrub or small tree with blue flowers and dark purple fruits;
on the plateau.

Memecylon umbellatum Burm. f. (Kasamaram)

A shrub with yellowish leaves and small, yellow berries.

Lythraceae

A mman mo baccifera L. (Neermael Nerupp u)

In paddy fields; on the plateau.

Onagraceae

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven
Jussiaea suffruticosa L.

An erect, pubescent undershrub, with green stems; in marshy places
on the plateau.

Ludwigia perennis L. Roxb.

L. parviflora

A decumbent, glabrous herb with purple stems, reddish leaves and
yellow flowers; in the marsh on the plateau.

Passifloraceae

Passiflora calcarata Mast.

Along thickets, etc., on the plateau.

CUCURBITACEAE

Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn. (Pulivanji)

A climber with polymorphic leaves and striped fruits; on the pla-
teau.

Momordica charantia L. (Pavai)

Near habitations on the plateau.

Begoniaceae

Begonia malabarica Lamk.

A branched, succulent herb up to 1 m tall, with white flowers, in
the crevices of rocks in the shade, at higher altitudes on the plateau.

Aizoaceae

Mollugo pentaphylla L. (Parpadagam)

On the slopes and on the plateau. This is the only species of the
genus collected on these hills.

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Umbelliferae

Centdla asiatica (L.) Urban (Vallarai)

On the plateau, in pasturelands.

Araliaceae

Schefflera racemosa Harms. (Kanagi)

A large tree of the forests on the plateau.

Schefflera stellata Harms.

A straggler or a tree near rocks in the forests on the plateau.

Alangiaceae

A small tree, at times spinous; on the plateau.

Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. (Azhingimaram)

Rubiaceae

Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f. ex Brandis (Manjakkadambai)

A tree of the plateau forests.

Borreria articulata (L.f.) F.N. Will. (Nathaichuri)

B. hispida (K. Schum.); Spermacoce hispida L.

A hispid, procumbent herb of pasturelands; throughout the range.
Borreria ocymoides DC.

An erect herb with small white flowers; at the foothills.

Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) T. & B. (Naluvai; Nallamandaram)
Plectronia didyma Kurz

An evergreen tree with shining leaves; on the plateau.

Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC.

K. corymbosa Willd.

An erect herb with lilac flowers; on the plateau; rather scarce.
Oldenlandia corymbosa L.

An erect herb with white flowers on long pedicels; in pasturelands
on the plateau.

Pavetta indica L. var. montana Thw. (Kuttippilathi)

A large, bushy shrub with white flowers; good fodder for calves and
iambs; on the slopes and on the plateau.

Pavetta indica L. var. tomentosa Hook. f.

In the forests of the plateau.

Plectronia parvfflora Bedd. (Mullukkarai)

A thorny shrub; galls often present; on the plateau.

Randia dumetorum Lamk. (Karai)

A thorny shrub with white flowers; abundant at the foothills.
Randia malabarica Lamk. (Sirukarai)

An erect thorny shrub with fragrant, white flowers and red fruits;

FLORA OF PACCHA1MALA1S

341

on the slopes.

Tarena asiatica (L.) Alst. (Therani)

( Chomelia asiatica Kze.)

A large shrub with shining leaves, drying black; on the plateau.
Xeromphis spmosa (Thunb.) Keay
(Randia brandisii Gamb.)

A large shrub with prominently veined leaves; mature fruits 4 cm
across; on the plateau.

Compositae

Acanthospermum hispidium DC. (Multhulasi)

A weed of wastelands, especially near habitations; on the plateau.
Ageratum conyzoides L. (Poompillu)

A gregarious herb in unweeded gardens; heads white or violet; on
the plateau.

Bidens pilosa L.

A weed of cultivation; on the plateau.

BlainviUea acmella (L.) Philipson
(B. rhomboidea Cass.)

A scabrid subshrub with white heads; on the plateau.

Blumea hifoliata DC.

A bushy herb in wasteland near habitations; rays yellow; on the
plateau.

Blumea lacera DC. var. glandulosa Hook. f. (Naraklcarandai)

A glandular hairy herb, abundant in unweeded gardens; heads yel-
low; on the plateau.

Eclipta prostata (L.) L.

{E. alba Hassk.)

A herb of moist places; heads white; on the plateau.

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. (Mulsevi)

A soft-pubescent herb of pasturelands, etc.; on the plateau.
Erigeron bonariensis L.

( E . linifolius Willd.; Conyza ambigua DC.)

An erect, sparsely branched herb of unweeded gardens; on the
plateau.

Notonia grandMora DC.

A robust shrub over 1 m tall, with yellowish heads; on the slopes,
near rocks.

Siegesbeckia orientalis L.

A weed of wastelands near habitations.

Tridax procumbens L. (Vettukayachedi)

An abundant weed near cultivated places; throughout the range.

Vemonia cinerea (L.) Less.

A common weed; heads pink turning white; throughout the range.

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC. (Mookkuthippondu)

In unweeded gardens; heads yellow; on the plateau.

Myrsinaceae

Ardisia solanacea (Poir.) Roxb. (Manipudpam)

A large shrub with coriaceous, shining leaves; in the plateau forests.
Embelia basaal DC.

A large shrub with arching branches covered with numerous, large
lenticels; on the plateau.

Sapotaceae

Madhuca longifolia (L.) Macbr. (Nattu Iluppai)

( Bassia longifolia L.)

A large and densely foliaceous tree over 40 m tall; on the plateau.

Ebenaceae

Diospyros ebeniim Koenig

A medium-sized tree with woody fruits; in the plateau forests.
Diospyros ovaiifolia Wt. (Vedukanari)

A small tree of the plateau forests.

Maba buxifolia Pers. (Kattuthovarai)

A shrub or small tree from half way up the ghats; one of the most
abundant species of the plateau; occasional shrubs at the foothills.

Oleaceae

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl (Udigai)

A climbing shrub with dense clusters of white, fragrant flowers; on
the plateau.

Jasminum rigidum Zenk. (Oosimalligai)

In the forests of the slopes and of the plateau; flowers white.
Jasminum ? trichotomum Heyne

A woody straggler; flowers white; throughout the range.

Ligustrum perrottetii DC.

A large shrub with white flowers; on the plateau.

Ligustrum roxburghii C. B. Cl.

A shrub up to 5 m tall, with white flowers; on the plateau.
Linodera intermedia Wt. (Musiladi)

A tree with white, fragrant flowers; on the plateau.

Apocynaceae

Carissa spinarum L. (Sirukila)

A shrub with white flowers on the ziz-zag branches; one of the do-

FLORA OF PACCHAIMALAIS

343

minant species throughout the range.

Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) Don (Milagaippoondu)

( Vinca pusilla Merr; Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.)

A glabrous annual herb with white flowers; in cultivated places on
the plateau.

Catharanthus roseus (L.) Don (Kallaraippoo)

( Vinca rosea L.; Lochnera rosea Reichb.)

On the plateau; the white-flowered plants are far more numerous
than the pink-flowered ones.

Ichno carpus frutescens R. Br. (Manippilangodi)

A profusely branched, climbing shrub with rusty- tomentose bran-
ches; on the plateau.

Plumeria rubra forma acuminata Sant. & Irani ex Shah

( P . acuminata Ait.; P. rubra forma acutifolia (Ait.) Woods.)
Planted near a shrine on the plateau; petals white, with shades of
yellow.

Wrlghtia tomentosa R. & S. (Tondampalai)

A small tree, tomentose on the younger branches; on the plateau.

Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias curassavica L.

Stray plants along a stream on the plateau.

Cosmostigma racemosum Wt. (Vattuvalli)

A climber with yellowish flowers; on the plateau.

Cryptolepis buchanani R. & S.

A profusely branched shrub with copious latex, yellowish flowers
and green pods; on the plateau.

Cryptolepis grandiflora Wt.

A climber; on the slopes.

Cynanchum pauciflorum R. Br.

A climber; on the plateau.

Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook. f. (Kudasappalai)

( Marsdenia volubilis (L.f.) Cooke)

A woody climber with green flowers; on the plateau.

Gymnema hirsutum Wt. & Arn.

A climber with spirally twisted stems; on the plateau.

Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. (Sirukurinji)

A woody climber; on the slopes.

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Schult. (Nannari)

At the foothills; flowers yellow.

Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt (Kodikkalli)

( S . brevistigma Wt. & Arn.)

The succulent green branches seen in masses on thickets, etc.; flo-

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

wers noted only at the foothills, not above.

Secamone emetica R. Br. (Aatangodi; Angaravalli)

A well branched, wiry twiner in dense masses from a woody base;
on the plateau.

? Telosma pallida (Roxb.) Craib.

A twiner with watery latex; on the plateau.

Toxocarpus kleinii Wt. & Arn.

A slender, villous, twiner with yellowish flowers.

Loganiaceae

Strychnos ? potatorum L.f. (Thethankottai)

A densely foliaceous tree with numerous fruit-like galls; on the
plateau.

Gentianaceae

Exacum pedunculatum L.

A herb up to 15 cm tall; in moist ground; at the foothills.

Boraginaceae

Cordia evolutior Gamb.

A tree up to 6 m tall, with yellow drupes; on the slopes.

Cordia wallichii Don (Namavirai)

A tree up to 10 m tall; fruits yellowish; on the plateau.

Cynoglossum furcatum Wall.

A herb up to 1 m tall with bluish flowers on slender, elongate race-
mes.

Ehretia ? laevis Roxb. (Aadali)

A tree up to 10 m tall; flowers white; on the slopes and on the
plateau.

Con VOLVU LACEAE

Argyreia kleiniana (R. & S.) Raiz.

(A. bract eata Choisy)

A large climber noted for the showy, pink flowers and masses of
persistent bracts; on the slopes and on the plateau.

Evolvulus alsinoides L. (Vishnukiranthi)

Common in open ground on the plateau.

Ipomoea obscura Ker.-Gawl. (Thalikodi)

A twining herb with delicate, yellowish corolla 1 cm across; on the
slopes and on the plateau.

Ipomoea staphylina R. & S. (Ononkodi)

A massive climber with white flowers, dark purple in the tube; on

FLORA OF PA CCHA IMA LA IS

345

the slopes.

Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy

A twiner on wayside thickets, etc.; at the foothills.

SOLANACEAE

.. . .

Datura fastuosa L. (Oomathai)

Stems dark purple, somewhat succulent; in wastelands near habi-
tations on the plateau.

Physalis peruviana L.

Plants found as new colonizers along the newly made ghat road.

Solanum giganteum Jacq.

A large shrub, white tomentose on the younger parts; flowers white;
on the plateau.

Solanum khasianum Cl. var. chafterjianum Sengupta
A wayside subshrub; on the plateau.

Solanum nigrum L.

An annual herb with small, white flowers; on the plateau.
Solanum torvum Swartz (Sundai)

A shrub of open places on the plateau; flowers white.

Solanum verbasci folium L. (Malaichundai)

A large shrub or small tree, usually along fences; flowers white; on
the plateau.

SCROP H U LARI ACE AE

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. (Neerpirami)

( Moniera cuneifolia Michx.)

In marshy land on the plateau; flowers violet; opening by 9.30 a.m.
Ilysanthes oppositifolia Urban

In perennially moist ground on the plateau; flowers violet.
Limnophila ? rugosa (Roth.) Merr.

Notably robust specimens gregarious in marsh on the plateau; cor-
olla purple.

Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Penn.

{Ilysanthes serrata Urban)

Abundant in marsh on the plateau; corolla purplish with a yellow
blotch on the lower lip.

Lindernia cmstacea (L.) F. Muell.

( Vandellia Crustacea Benth.)

In pasturelands and unweeded gardens on the plateau.

Striga angustifolia (Don) Said.

{S. euphrasioides (Vahl) Benth.)

Parasitic on Pennisteum typoides; flowers white; on the plateau.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Striga aslatica (L.) Kze.

Stray plants along the slopes; flowers white.

Le n tibu lariaceae

Utricularia caerulea L.

In perennially moist ground; flowers purplish.

Utricularia ? graminifolia Vahl

On moist rocks along a stream on the plateau; flowers violet.

Acanthaceae

Andrographis alata (Vahl) Nees

An erect herb on the floor of the plateau forests; stems angular, al-
most winged at the apices.

Andrographis elongata T. And.

A herb with white corolla and purple stamens; at the foothills and
on the slopes.

Asystasia gangetica T. And. (Meddaikkeerai)

A straggling and spreading herb along thickets, etc.; flowers purplish,
on the plateau.

Barieria pilosa Wall.

An undershrub of the slopes with large crowded bracts.

Barieria prionitis L. (Kattu Kanagambaram)

An armed shrub with yellow flowers; very common along the ghats.

Dicliptera cuneata Nees

A branched herb with pink flowers; on the plateau.

Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees (Pottakanchi)

( RiielUa prostrata Poir.)

A diffuse, spreading subshrub with axillary flowers; corolla violet,
falling off easily; on the plateau.

Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Alst.

(E. linneanum Kurz)

A shrub with bluish flowers, and bracts purple along the margins;
along the slopes.

Eranthemum capense L.

( E . montanum Roxb.)

A shrub up to 1 m tall, with blue flowers; on the plateau.

Justicia glauca Rottl.

A herb rather variable in size; flowers pink; on the slopes.

Justicia quinqueangularis Koen.

An undershrub with ascending branches; along bunds of paddy
fields on the plateau.

Justicia simplex Don

A pubescent herb with small pink flowers; along the bunds of paddy
fields on the plateau.

FLORA OF P ACCH AIM ALAIS

347

Phlebophyllum ? versicolor (Wt.) Brem.

( Strobilanthes ? cuspidatus T. And.)

A gregarious shrub over 1 m tall; leaves white, on the undersurface;
flowers not seen; sparse on the slopes, abundant on the plateau.
Strobilanthes ? micranthus Wt. (Korakkuthazhai)

An erect shrub with leaves green throughout; flowers not seen; gre-
garious in patches in the plateau forests.

Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. var. vestita C. B. Cl.

A tomentose twiner with white flowers 3 cm across; on the plateau.

Verbenaceae

Gmelina asiatica L. (Nilakkumil)

An erect shrub with golden yellow flowers; at the foothills.
Lanlana camera var. aculeata (L.) Mold. (Arippu; Unni)

Only stray plants along the slopes; on the plateau it is almost non-
existent in the forest, whereas it forms dense masses in the cleared
areas; flowers pinkish; generally in fruit in July.

Lantana indica Roxb.

An erect shrub over 1 m tall with pinkish flowers; on the plateau.
Phyla nudiflora (L.) Greene (Poduthalai)

( Lippia nodiflora Mich.)

A prostrate herb rooting at the nodes; on the plateau in pasture-
lands.

Premna corymbosa Rottl. & Willd. (Munnaikkeerai)

A shrub over 1 m tall with spreading branches; on the plateau.
Premna tomentosa Willd. (Podaganari)

A small tree, densely tomentose on the younger parts; on the pla-
teau.

Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Salisb.) Sims (Seemainayuruvi)

( S . indica Vahl)

Stray plants on the slopes, over 50 cm tall; abundant and gregari-
ous in unweeded gardens on the plateau but the plants are smaller;
flowers blue to purple; one of the most abundant weeds of the plateau.
Svensonia hyderabadensis (Walp.) Mold. (Naranjedi)

( Bouchea hyderabadensis Walp.)

Plants even up to 3 m tall, with pink flowers; at Masimalaiyanthittu,
inside forests, on the plateau; said to be restricted in distribution.
Symphorema involucratum Roxb.

A shrub with arching branches; on the plateau.

Vitex altissima L. f. (Mayiladi)

A tree over 20 m tall, with violetish flowers; fairly common in the
forests of the plateau.

Vitex negundo L. (Nochi)

A shrub with purple flowers; along streams, near villages, etc.; on
the plateau.

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Labiatae

Amsomeles indica (L.) Kze. (Vattapeimarutti)

Shrubby, over 1 m tall; at the foothills.

Leucas biflora R. Br. var. proctimbens Gamb.

On the floor of the forests of the plateau; less on the slopes; flowers
white.

Leucas lanaia Benth.

Erect shrub with branches spreading to over 1 m; on the plateau,
in thickets.

Leucas lavandulaefolia Rees
(S. Uni folia Spr.)

An erect herb of wastelands; particularly abundant near cultivated
places; on the plateau.

Ocimum adscendens Willd.

A branched herb; flowers with purple calyx and white corolla; along
the slopes.

Orthosiphon glabratus Benth.

A branched herb; along the slopes.

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhaavia diffusa L. (Sattaranai)

Several procumbent branches from a stout rootstock; along the slo-
pes.

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus viridis L. (Kuppaikkeerai)

In wastelands near habitations; on the plateau.

Celosia argentea L. (Pannaikkeerai)

An erect herb up to 1 m tall, near cultivation; flowers pinkish; on
the plateau.

Chenopodiaceae
Basella rubra L. (Sirupasali)

A glabrous, succulent twiner, with reddish spicate inflorescence; on
the plateau.

Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

In wastelands near habitations; plants strongly scented; on the
plateau.

ArI STOLOC H I ACE AE

Aristolochia indica L. (Isuramuli)

FLORA OF PA CCH A IMA LAIS

349

A perennial twiner; perianth with shades of yellow and green, tinged
purple; on the plateau.

PlPERACEAE

Peperomia dindigulensis Miq.

A succulent herb with pinkish stems; on moist rocks in the shade,
on the plateau.

Piper attenuatum Buch.-Ham.

On the plateau.

Lauraceae

Cassytha filiform is L. (Erumaikkottam)

At the foothills; parasitic, without any host specificity.
Cinnamomum ? iners Reinw.

A tree with large, coriaceous, shining leaves; on the plateau.

Litsaea deccanensis Gamb.

A tree with grey branches and rusty tomentose buds; on the plateau.

Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagnus indica Ser.

A straggler with arching branches; undersurface of leaves white-
tomentose; common, even abundant, in and around the forests on the
plateau.

Lora nth ace ae

Dendrophthoe falcata (L. f.) Etting (Pulluruvi)

( Loranthus longiflorus Desv. var. falcatus Kurz)

A densely branched parasite with yellow perianth and reddish sta-
mens; at the foothills; on a variety of hosts.

Helicanthus elastica (Desr.) Danser (Andagan)

{Loranthus elasticus Desv.)

Perianth white at the base, green on the lobes; filaments red; on the
plateau.

Loranthus ? courtallensis Gamb.

On the plateau.

Loranthus ? recurvus Wall.

On the plateau.

Scurrula cordifolia (Wall.) Don

{Loranthus cordifolius Wall.)

A massive parasite with rusty-tomentose foliage and orange-yellow
flowers with short perianth tube; on the plateau.

350 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Viscum orientate Willd.

On the plateau; no host specificity.

Viscum ramosissimum Wall. (Ottu)

Parasitic on Dendrophthoe falcata itself parasitic on Zizyphus; at
the foothills.

Santalaceae

Santalum album L. (Santhanam)

The most important source of forest revenue from the district, the
bulk of which comes from the Pacchaimalais; several trees are affected
by the “spike” disease; throughout the range.

Euphorbiaceae

Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. (Chinni)

A well branched shrub; along the slopes.

Antidesma zeylanicum Lamk. (Nolaidali)

A tree up to 8 m tall, with the tender parts rusty-tomentose, and
fruits red.

Bridelia roxburghiana Gehrm.

A tree of the plateau forests.

Cleistanfhus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook. f. (Oduvan)

A large shrub or small tree up to 5 m tall with capsules up to 3 cm
across; one morsel of ground leaves or the rind of the capsules said
to be lethal; said to be used for suicide by the hill tribes; throughout
the range.

Dalechampia indica Wt.

A twiner with large bracts and glandular calyx; on the slopes.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Nellikkaimaram)

Occasional trees on the plateau; fruits few.

Euphorbia hirta L. (Ammanpaccharisi)

In the pasturelands; throughout the range.

Givotia rottleriformis Griff. (Boothalai)

A tree over 20 m tall; leaves densely white tomentose on the under-
surface; fruits with a hard shell, covered with fluffy tomentum; on the
slopes.

Jatropha curcas L. (Kattamanakku)

Along hedges; throughout the range.

Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill. (Neerpalai)

A shrub, usually near streams; on the plateau.

Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg. (Kapilapodi)

In dense groups in cleared lands where it seems to be a colonizer;
on the plateau.

Melanthesa turbinata (Koen. ex Roxb.) Oken
( Brevnia patens Rolfe)

FLORA OF PACCHA IM A LA IS

351

A shrub over 1 m tall; on the plateau.

Phyllanthus fratemus Webster (Keezhanelli)

(P. niruri auct., non L.)

A delicate herb in wastelands; throughout the range.

Phyllanthus gardnerianus Baill.

Several branches from a woody rootstock; in pasturelands on the
plateau.

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L.

A decumbent herb; at the foothills.

Phyllanthus polyphyllus Willd. (Keelanelli)

A tree resembling Emblica officinalis in habit; on the plateau.
Phyllanthus urinaria L. (Shivappunelli)

A herb with creeping branches; leaves and fruits reddish; on the

plateau.

Sebastiania chamaelea Muell.-Arg.

A weed of pasturelands; fruits reddish.

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Pax & Hoffm. (Pula; Veppulathi)

( Fluggea virosa Baill.)

A large shrub with minute flowers; on the plateau.

Tragia involucrata L. (Canchori)

A twiner with stinging bristles; on the plateau.

Ulmaceae

Celtis wightii Planch. (Vellaithovarai)

A densely foliaceous tree up to 10 m tall, with solitary fruits; on the
slopes and on the plateau.

Holoptelea intergrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. (Aavili)

A tree up to 12 m tall; on the plateau.

Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. (Amparuthi)

A tree of the plateau forest borders.

Moraceae

Arfcocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. (Pila)

(A. integri folia L.)

Found in cultivation, and probably also wild.

Ficus benghalensis L. (Aalamaram)

Occasional trees throughout the range.

Ficus hispida L. f. (Peiyathi)

A tree up to 10 m tall, without aerial roots; tender parts hispid;
throughout the range.

Ficus ? luscens Bl. (Malai Ichi)

(F. ? inject oria Roxb.)

A large tree over 30 m tall, with heavy, horizontal branches; near

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

habitations, on the plateau.

Ficus mysorcnsis Heyne (Kal Aal)

A large tree with copious foliage; on the plateau.

Plecospermum spinosum Tree. (Koratti)

A large shrub with numerous arching branches, with conspicuous
thorns all over; on the slopes and on the plateau.

Streblus asper Lour. (Parungu; Piramaram)

A large shrub or small tree; on the plateau; said to be locally used
for decorations on festive occasions.

Streblus taxoides (Heyne ex Roth.) Kurz
( Phyllochlamys spinosa Bur.)

An armed shrub up to 3 m tall; very abundant in the forests of the
plateau.

Gnetaceae

Giietuin ual Brongn. (Karunjaraikkodi)

Fairly common in the forests of the plateau; the vernacular name
refers to the use of the stems as ropes.

Orchidaceae

Cymfoidium aloifolium Sw.

Epiphytic; flowers brownish red; on the plateau.

Eulophia epsdendracea Fischer

Terrestrial; perianth green but for the white lip; on the slopes.
Hafoenaria plantaginea Lindl.

Terrestrial; leaves 3-4, spreading on the ground; flowers white; in
moist, shady ground on the plateau.

Habenaria viridiflora R. Br.

In marshy ground; flowers green; on the plateau.

Hetaerla ? ovalifolia Benth.

Terrestrial; abundant in moist, shady places, in humus; on the pla-
teau.

Vanda parviflora Lindl.

Epiphytic; on the plateau.

Vanda spafhulata Spreng.

Usually terrestrial initially, but epiphytic later; shoots showing up
conspicuously above the thickets, especially during flowering; on the
plateau.

Hypoxidaceae

Curculigo orchsoides Gaertn. (Nilappanai Kizhangu)

An acaulescent, ground herb with bright yellow flowers; very abund-
ant in pasturelands on the plateau.

FLORA OF PA CCHA IMA LA IS

353

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea ? esculenta Burk. (Musilamvalli Kizhangu)

A climber from a tuberous rootstock, found all over the plateau; the
rhizomes are eaten, even raw, by the local people.

Liliaceae

Asparagus ? racemosus Willd. (Seemai Sadaveri)

On the plateau.

Gloriosa superba L. (Kalappai Kizhangu)

Throughout the range; not too common.

Sansevieria roxhurghiana Schult. f. (Marul)

Acaulescent; rootstock creeping; flowers white, along a scape up to
1 m tall; at the foothills.

Scilla hyacinlhina (Roth.) Macbr. (Sirunari Vengayam)

(5. indica Baker)

A scapigerous herb with tunicate bulbs and leaves with black blot-
ches; flowers purple; at the foothills.

Smilax zeylanica L. (Malaithamarai)

On the plateau.

PONTEDERIACEAE

Monochoria vaginalis Presl.

In marsh, paddy fields, etc.; flowers blue; on the plateau.

COMM ELI N ACE AE

Commelina benghalensis L. (Kanavazhai)

In shady places, along the bunds of paddy fields, etc.; perianth blue;
on the plateau.

Commelina paludosa Bl.

(C. obliqua Ham.)

The uniformly white perianth seems to be characteristic of the
plateau.

Commelina paleata Hassk.

On the plateau; perianth blue.

Typhaceae

Tvpha angustafa Bory & Chaub. (Jambu)

Plants stunted, scarcely exceeding 1 m tall; along a rivulet at Sob-
anapuram, at the foothills.

Araceae

Acorus calamus L. (Vasambu)

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Gregarious in marsh at Sembur, on the plateau.

Colocasia eseulenta (L.) Schott.

(C. antiquorum Schott.)

Gregarious, in marsh; petioles dark purple; leaves up to 50 x 50 cm;
spathe yellow.

Cyperaceae

BulbostyMs barbata Kunth
On the slopes.

Cyperus eleusiuoides Kunth

Robust plants in marsh on the plateau.

Cyperus haspan L.

Culms even over 1 m tall; in stagnant water on the plateau.
Cyperus sanguinolentus Nees

In marshy land; spikelets green; on the plateau.

Fimbristylis bisumbellata Bub.

In marshy ground; on the plateau.

Fimbristylis dichotoma Vahl

On the plateau, in marshy land.

Fimbristylis miliacea Vahl

On the plateau, in marshy land.

Fimbristylis spathacea Roth.

On the plateau.

Fimbristylis tetragona R. Br.

Culms ash-coloured, in dense clusters in marshy ground; on the
plateau.

Kyllinga sp.

Along the bunds of paddy fields; on the plateau.

Pycreus globosus Reichb.

On the plateau in wastelands.

Pycreus puncticuiatus Nees
On the plateau.

Scirpus erectus Poir.

Gregarious in marshy places on the plateau.

Gramineae

Apluda niutica L.

( A . aristata L.)

Culms exceeding 1 m tall, scrambling along thickets; on the plateau.
Arachne racemosa (Heyne) Ohwi
( Eleusine verticilJata Roxb.)

Robust specimens along the freshly cut ghat road.

Aristida depressa Retz.

FLORA OF PACCHA1MALA1S

355

Robust specimens along the freshly cut ghat road.

Bamhusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. (Perumungil)

On the slopes; young culms yellow.

Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf (Puliampullu)

Along the slopes.

Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. (Cholappullu)

(C. montanus Trin.)

At the foothills; spikelets with conspicuous yellow anthers.

Eleusine corocana (L.) Gaertn. (Kael Varagu)

An escape from cultivation; along the freshly cut ghat road.
EragrostielSa bifaria (Vahl) Bor (Shemaipullu)

( Eragrostis bifaria Wt. ex Steud.)

At the foothills, in open ground.

Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv. ex R. & S.

[E. plumosa (Retz.) Link]

On the plateau.

Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.

In marshy ground; spikelets purple.

Hackelochloa granulans (L.) Kze
On the plateau; cultivated.

Heteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv. ex R. & S. (Oosippullu)

At the foothills.

Panicum repens L. (Injippullu)

In moist ground, along bunds of paddy fields, etc.; on the plateau.
Perotis indica (L.) Kze

At the foothills; recognized by the long, purple, feathery awns.
Setaria verticillaia (L.) Beauv.

Along the freshly cut ghat road.

Themeda cymbaria Hack. (Sadumpullu)

Culms robust, over 2 m tall where ungrazed; a good fodder.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I thank the following persons of the Madras Forest Department:
K. Arunachalam, B.Sc. (Ag.), A.I.F.C., District Forest Officer, for his
keen interest and various help; T. Yuvaraj, Range Officer, Thuraiyur
and his subordinates for assistance in the field. My thanks are due to
the following officers of the Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore, for help in the identification of plants: Dr. B. D. Sharma
(Regional Botanist); J. L. Ellis, E. Vajravelu and G. V. Subbarao
(Systematic Botanists); S. Karthikeyan, N. C. Rathakrishnan, and parti-
cularly M. Chandrabose (Scientific Assistant); S. R. Srinivasan (Her-
barium Assistant); and M. V. Viswanathan (Research Scholar). Finally

8

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

I thank my colleague R. Natarajan, M.Sc. for cooperation, J. S. Antoni-
raj for preparing the map, and Mr. A. Saverimuthu and assistants of
the Rapinat Herbarium for unstinted collaboration.

KEFER

Champion, H. G. (1961): A preli-
minary survey of the forest types of
India. Indian For. Rec. 7(1): 1-204.

Gamble, J. S. & Fischer, C. E. C.
(1956): Flora of the Presidency of
Madras (reprint) . Calcutta.

King, W. & Foote, R. B. (1864):
On the geological structure of parts of
the districts of Salem, Trichinopoly,
Tanjore and South Arcot in Madras

ENCES

Presidency. Mem. Geol. Surv. India
4{ 2): 1-152.

Sebastine, K. M. & Henry, A. N.
(1961): Vascular plants of the Pacch-
aimalais. Bull. bot. Surv. India 3:5 5-65.

Seshagiri Rao, V. S. & Krishna-
swamy, M. H. (1941): List of the
more important trees, shrubs, clim-
bers and herbs occurring in the forests
of the Madras Presidency with their
local names. Madras.

Biology and fishery of
Pseudosciaena sina (C.) at
Ratnagiri, South Maharashtra1

B. V. Bhusari2

(With five text -figures)

Sciaenids constitute 3 per cent of the total marine catch in India contri-
buting nearly 26,000 m tonnes per annum (on average for 10 years). In
Maharashtra the percentage of sciaenids is 4.6 per cent (9,111 m ton-
nes) (on average for 10 years) per annum on total marine catch and 35
per cent of the total sciaenid catch of India.

Ratnagiri is an important fishing centre in southern Maharashtra
and sciaenids contribute nearly 22 per cent of the total trawl catch.
Fourteen species of sciaenids have been recorded, and among these
Pseudosciaena sina predominates, contributing nearly 38.5 per cent to
the total trawl catch.

Material and methods

Fishes required for the purpose of this study were collected regularly
from the trawl catches landed at Ratnagiri. The trawlers operate in an
area (arc) about 20 miles north and south of Ratnagiri and land their
catches at different landing centres in Ratnagiri, i.e. Kalbadevi, Mirkar-
wada and Rajivvada. As the trawling and shore seine operations are sus-
pended during the monsoon season specimens were obtained from the
catches of cast nets and hook and line, brought to Ratnagiri fish market.
In all 600 specimens were measured to the nearest millimetre and weigh-
ed to the nearest gramme. For the study of food and feeding habits the
specimens were cut open and measurements of the component parts of
the alimentary canal were taken. The relative length of intestine (RLI)
and relative length of the gut (RLG) were noted. Qualitative analysis
of food was done in both adults and juveniles whereas the quantitative
analysis of food items was done by displacement method for the adults
only.

1 Accepted June 1973.

2 Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station, Bombay 400 002.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

For determining the minimum size of maturity in the female fifty
specimens were examined. As the sexes cannot be distinguished in sizes
below 7 cm, fishes of 8 cm and above only were examined for the dif-
ferent maturity stages in females. The colour of the ovary and its exten-
sion in the body cavity were taken into consideration for measurements
of ova diameter. Ovaries were preserved in 5 per cent formalin for 8-10
days. About 700 ova were measured from each ovary. The ova were
separated by testing out a portion of the posterior region of the ovary on
a glass slide and were measured by means of eyepiece micrometer.

Ova measuring less than 5 md (1 md = 0,03 mm) were not considered
as these were present in the ovaries in all stages of maturity (De Jong
1939, Clark 1934). Fecundity was estimated by weighing one gram
sample of the ovary and counting the number of eggs contained in it.
The number of eggs in the ovary was computed by taking into consider-
ation the total weight of the ovary. The maturity scale adapted by
ICES (Wood 1930) was followed for studying the progression of ova
towards maturity. The spawning in this species was determined by study-
ing the different stages of the ovary occurring in each month. The per-
centage of occurrence of males and females was observed for the sex
ratio.

The fishery of the species was estimated from random samples of
c 10 kg once every ten days for analysis. For studying the length fre-
quency distribution, 1500 specimens were measured within a period of
3 months. *

Food and feeding habits

Earlier works [Gopinath (1942), Mookerjee et al. (1946), Chacko
(1949), Kow (1950), Jacob (1948) and Rao (1964)] indicate that adult
sciaenids consume a variety of food consisting mainly of crustaceans,
fishes, molluscs, polychaetes and echinoderms and are thus carnivorous
and benthic. During this investigation it was found that juveniles rang-
ing in total length from 5.6 to 7 cm mainly feed on planktonic cope-
pods, Lucifer, My sis, Acetes, small prawns and polychaetae larvae.

The following items of food were seen in the gut contents of Pseu-
dosciaena sina —

1 ) Teleosts — Sole fish, Leognathus sp., young of sciaenids.

2) Crustaceans — Penaeus sp., Metapenaeus sp., crustacean larvae,

crabs, Mysis, Squilla, hermit crabs and Amphi-
pods.

3) Echinoderms — Sea urchins.

4) Polychaetes — Nereid worms.

5) Molluscs — Bivalves.

Fluctuations in the composition of the main food items consumed
by adults of Pseudosciaena sina in different months are shown in table 1.

It will be seen from table 1 that crustaceans form the most do-

Percentage composition of important food items during different months
in THE YEAR August 1962 to July 1963 in Pseudosciaena sina

BIOLOGY OF PSEUDOSCIAENA SINA

359

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360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

m inant group as its food. Among crustaceans, prawns, Squilla, Acetes
are the most common items.

Prawns: Prawns are taken practically throughout the year. The per-
centage of prawns as food in the gut contents varies from 8.16 to
56.25. The average percentage of prawns in August, September and
October was 45. The percentage of prawns during these three months
in the fishery is also high and its average percentage is 70 during this
period.

Squilla : Squilla in the food was observed during whole year except
in the months of August and February. The percentage of Squilla in the
food was observed to be more in the month of December (50%), March
(65%) and was maximum in the month of April (86%).

Fish: This is the third important item. Fish as food was observed
throughout the year with maximum in February (70%) and minimum
in May (3.93%). The average percentage of fish in food in the months
of November, December, January and February was 40.

Acetes : Acetes was commonly observed from May to November in
food. Maximum percentage was in June (41%) and August (42%)
whereas it was minimum in November (2.42%).

The absence of Acetes in food from December to April in spite of
their presence in the locality and availability indicates that the fish pre-
fers prawns, Squilla and fish. The presence of benthic animals like
prawns, Squilla, molluscs, crabs in the gut contents indicates its bottom
feeding habits.

Maturation and Spawning
Description of the ovary

Until the fish attains 7 cm in total length it is difficult to dis-
tinguish females from males. The gonads in both the sexes are thread-
like and whitish in colour. The ovaries in specimens over 7 cm appear
slightly swollen compared to testes of corresponding size. Different
stages of ovarian maturity as determined from external appearance of
the ovary and its extension in relation to the body are given below:

1) Immature Ovary — The ovary is transparent with reddish appear-

ance and extends to about \ of the body cavity.

2) Maturing Ovary — The ovary is yellowish in colour. The ova are

granular in nature and are also visible to the
naked eye. The ovary extends to nearly f of
body cavity.

3) Mature Ovary — The ovary is similar in appearance to the mat-

uring ovary but is more swollen and extends
the entire length of the body cavity.

4) Ripe Ovary — The ovary at this stage is fully swollen occupy-

ing the entire body cavity. Ova are transparent.

BIOLOGY OF PSEU DOSCI AEN A SINA

361

5) Spent Ovary — The ovary is flaccid, blood-shot and wrinkled
and extends \ of the body cavity or more.

Size at first maturity

To study the minimum size of maturity in the females a number of
specimens were examined. As already stated sexes are not clearly dis-
tinguishable below 7 cm and, as such specimens ranging from 8 to 14
cm were only considered. From the data plotted in Fig. 1, it will be seen
that 15 per cent of the fish matured in the 11.2 cm groups, and 48 per
cent in the 12.5 cm groups. Nearly 50 per cent of the females of Pseu-
dosciaena sina reached first maturity at a length of 11.2 to 12.5 cm. This
is, therefore, considered as the minimum size of first maturity. The fishes
measuring 13 cm and above were 100 per cent mature.

Development of Ova

An ovary in advanced maturity was selected for studying the matu-
ration stages of the ova. A sample of ova from this ovary was taken and
ova diameter measurements were made. The ova were classified in
micrometer division groups and a percentage frequency polygon was
drawn.

First batch

Ova ranging in size from 0 to 5 m d. in diameter. The ova are trans-
parent and the nucleus is clearly visible. Such ova are present through-
out the year and represent the general stock of eggs.

Second batch

Diameter 6 to 10 m.d. These ova are also transparent with nucleus
and protoplasmic layer visible.

Third batch

Diameter 11 to 15 md. Ova granular and yellow in colour and with
yolk.

Fourth batch

Diameter 16 to 20 m d. Ova granular, round, and yellow in colour.

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Fig. 2. Different stages of Maturation in Pseudosciaena sina.

BIOLOGY OF PSEUDOSCIAENA SINA 363

Fifth batch

Diameter 21 to 25 m d. Ova round and transparent with a single oil
globule. This is perhaps the spawning stage of the ovary.

To determine the growth of the ovary from immature to spent stage,
it is necessary to arrange the data in chronological order starting from
the month in which immature ovaries are observed until the period when
spent ovaries occur.

However, when the observations on the condition of the ovary were
undertaken, it was found that fish in different stages of maturity occur-
red in any sample indicating that all the fish do not mature simultane-
ously. It was, therefore, decided to group the data on the basis of largest
mode in diameter frequency percentage of ova.

Accordingly, a number of fishes in different stages of maturity were
selected and ova diameter measurements were made. They are represent-
ed by frequency polygins (Fig. 2). In all 10 stages of maturity were en-
countered. They are:

1) Immature

i) Stage “a” frequencies with a mode at 3 m d.

ii) Stage “b” frequencies with a mode at 5 m d.

2) Maturing

iii) Stage “c” frequencies with a last mode at 7 m d.

iv) Stage “d” frequencies with a last mode at 10 md.

v) Stage “e” frequencies with a last mode at 12 m d.

vi) Stage “f” frequencies with a last mode at 15 m d.

3) Mature

vii) Stage “g” frequencies with a last mode at 17 m d.

viii) Stage “h” frequencies with a last mode at 20 m d.

4) Ripe

ix) Stage “i” frequencies with a last mode at 25 m d.

5) Spent

x) Stage “j” frequencies with a last mode at 5 m d.

More than seven stages of maturity could be described in Pseud os-
ciaena sina but as per standards of the International Council of explo-
ration of Sea (Wood 1930) the stages examined are:

Stages in Pseudosciaena sina

Ova diameter

Stages described

range in m d.

by I.C.E.S.

Stage “a” & “b”

0 to 5

I

Stage “c” & “d”

5 to 10

II

Stage “e” & “f”

10 to 15

III

Stage “g”

15 to 17

IV

Stage “h”

17 to 20

V

Stage “i”

20 to 25

VI (Spawning)

Stage “j”

Less than 6

VII (Spent)

Fishes with ovaries in

all these stages of maturity

were observed

nearly throughout the year.

However, to study the spawning season, the data from 400 speci-
mens were converted into frequency percentage of stages of maturity
for each month (Fig. 3).

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

«»0 -

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TAN

SPT •

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Fig. 3. Percentages of different stages of maturity in Pseudosciaena sina in

different months.

BIOLOGY OF PSEUDOSCIAENA SIN A

365

From the histograms it is seen that fishes in stages III, IV and V of
maturity are very common, forming 50 to 80 per cent. During the study
period few fishes in stage VI of maturity were observed.

There is no information on the eggs and larvae of Pseudosciaena
sina. Attempts to collect these were also not successful. In the absence of
any information on eggs and larvae it is difficult to fix up a definite
spawning period. The fishes in stages IV and VI of maturity are avail-
able from October to May, and fish in spent condition (VII stage) from
October to July. Nearly 85 per cent spent ovaries were encountered in
the months of June and July.

Frequency of spawning

The multiplicity of modes in the ova diameter frequency curves
shows that the size range of ova is large and there is a continuous gra-
dation, indicating several batches of eggs in all stages of maturity. Thus,
it appears that the production and withdrawal of eggs is a continuous
process and the species spawns more than once over a greater part of
the year. The presence of fish in advance states of maturity IV, V, VI
and spent individuals over a greater part of the year seems to corrabor-
ate this inference. The availability of these fishes in large quantities in
trawl catches at Ratnagiri also supports the above findings.

Fig. 4. Percentage of occurrence of Males and Females.

Fecundity

The ova count of this species shows that ova produced by individuals
of the same length showed variation. The fecundity varies between
32,174 to 60,840 eggs.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(2)

Weight of the ovary in gm

No. of eggs

0

9.420

60,840

ii)

6.900

47,140

hi)

5.530

46,610

iv) , ,

4.640

1 ■' i pi • ! ( r'?.:-'rvy" p • ( j ; t ■ p • • ■■■'.

40,620

v) *

2.550

32,174

Since specimens of the same length show variation, it is probable
that there is a prolonged spawning period, and that the spawning is in-
termittent and that the eggs are spawned in batches.

Sex Ratio

From Fig. 4 it is evident that the female of Pseudosciaena sina pre-
dominates in the commercial catches throughout the year.

Fishery

As already stated, the trawl catch landings of sciaenids, the Otoli-
thus and Pseudosciaena sina together contribute nearly 83 per cent of
the total sciaenid catch at Ratnagiri. To analyse the length frequency
distribution 1,500 specimens were measured at random for a period
of three months, i.e. October, November and December, when fishing
season is in full swing at Ratnagiri. The catch analysis shows (Fig. 5)

20
« a
o
<
e
m

m | o

o

(6

P*

(U

Total length (cm)

Fig. 5. Length frequency distribution in Pseudosciaena sina.

that fishes ranging in size from 12-13 cm in total length are most com-
mon and dominant in the trawl catches and form the major group in
the fishery at Ratnagiri . It has been observed that these fish mature for
the first time at this length and are caught in trawl without giving any
chance to spawn even for the first time; probably this is detrimental to
the sustained yield of sciaenid fishery. Attention should be drawn to the
fact that the catches of sciaenids have been going down during the last
ten years. Vellappan Nair et al. (1969) found the average annual
landing of sciaenid catches in India to be 36,320 M. tonnes (1950-1962)

BIOLOGY OF PSEUD6SCIAENA SlNA

367

whereas the 1962-1971, average is 26,000 M. tonnes and that of Maha-
rashtra 13,570 M. tonnes (1960-62) and 9,111 M. tonnes (1962-71).

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, former Director of Fisheries,
Maharashtra State, Bombay, for constant guidance and encouragement
throughout this work. Thanks are due to Dr. A. R. Longhurst, Director,
Marine Environmental Research, Plymouth, United Kingdom, for kind-
ly going through this paper and making valuable suggestions. I am thank-
ful to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Specialist (Fisheries), National Com-
mission on Agriculture, Delhi, and Dr. M. R. Ranade, Senior Scientific
Officer, Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri, for kindly go-
ing through the manuscript and for helpful suggestions.

Studies on Indian Crickets
(Orthoptera: Insecta),
Part-IIF

H. K. Bhowmik1 2

Entomology Laboratory, Dept, of Zoology, Calcutta University ,
35, Bally gunge Circular Road, Calcutta-\9
(With eighteen text -figures)

j ’ 3 . •' ■ , -f , !:■; ; . , fS Stl | ; . ■ ■ | L |

This paper deals with 13 species of Indian Crickets comprising of
six genera of the subfamily Gryllinae, of which Gryllopsis rajas-
thanensis Bhowmik, female of Turanogryllus dehradurensis Bhow-
mik, immature stages of Turanogryllus rufoniger (Chopard), and
male genitalia of Stephoblemmus humbertiellus Saussure (which is
also a new record from India) and of Coiblemmus compactus
(Chopard); Gryllopsis jammuensis Bhowmik (1967) has been des-
cribed and transferred to the genus Turanogryllus.

Introduction

This paper is the third in the series on Indian Crickets (Gryllidae) and
is a portion of the unpublished material of the thesis submitted for the
award of doctorate degree of the Calcutta University. Additional infor-
mation on the morphology, abundance and nomenclatural changes of
13 species belonging to the subfamily Gryllinae are described. In order
to avoid duplication in respect to references etc. only those which have
been omitted by Chopard (1969) are included here.

Genus Gryllopsis Chopard, 1928
Gryllopsis Chopard, 1928, Rec. Ind. Mus. 5(9:13.

Diagnosis : The genus is characterized by large rounded head and nearly
cylindrical body; usually perfectly developed, very wide elytra in males;
females may be apterous or may bear very short elytra which sometimes
may be reduced to only pads; internal tympanum absent on anterior
tibia; subgenital plate with conical or rounded apices; absence of styli-
form process in male genitalia.

1 Accepted August 1971.

2 Present address : Zoological Survey of India, 27, Chowringhee Road, Cal-
cutta 13.

STUDIES ON INDIAN CRICKETS

369

Remarks : The genus Gryllopsis had been thought so far as one of the
very widely distributed genera of oriental crickets. But recent studies
based on male genitalia show that this genus and the genus Turanogryl -
lus Tarbinskii (1940) though they have in common many morphologi-
cal characters are readily distinguishable from each other by the presen-
ce or absence of styliform process in the male genitalia. It is found that
quite a few species described previously as Gryllopsis possess styliform
process in the genital structures like those of Turanogryllus. In the fit-
ness of things those Gryllopsis possessing styli in genitalia, inter alia,
are transferred to the latter genus,

Gryllopsis furcata (Saussure)

1877. Gryllodes furcatus Saussure, Me’m. Soc. phys . Hist. not. Geneve ,
25 : 399-400.

Additional characters': female: Apterous, testaceous brown or rufous
brown, pubescent insect with very stout cylindrical body. Head spheri-
cally convex, the pale lines on occiput and vertex usually very obscure;
in rare exceptions they have four distinct testaceous light lines (speci-
men from Mysore); arched posterior band about thrice as wide as an-
terior band, connects the eyes and is brown or dark brown; anterior
band also arched and connects only the antennal sockets; frontal rost-
rum about four times as wide as the first antennal segment; facial shield
prominent, convex and with a median suture; clypeofrontal suture al-
most straight. Pronotum transverse and so convex that it appears saddle
shaped, both anterior and posterior margins straight but sides parallel;
lateral lobes square shaped, the inferior margin being horizontal. Ovi-
positor large, strong, shorter than posterior femora, apical valves with
acute apices but the superior valves are longer than their corresponding
inferior valves. The valves remain wide open at rest. Subgenital plate
with truncated apex. Anterior tibia with an oval, elongated tympanum
at external face only. Posterior femur very stout and wide, rufous brown,
striations on it hardly recognizable but knee is distinctly dark brown;
posterior tibia with variable number of spines, usually the inner ridges
with four or five spines and the external ridges with five to six spines
but specimens from Mysore show four external and five internal spines
in both sexes; supero-internal spurs almost subequal to the intermediate
internal spurs; posterior metatars; with four to five internal and four to
six external denticles on each margin.

male: Differs from female in having well developed brownish or
dark brown elytra with three oblique veins extending up to about two-
thirds of abdomen; diagonal vein short, straight and biforked at base;
mirror much obliquely disposed, wider than long, divided by a curved
vein and united with the first chord by a veinlet; apical field very short.

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

usually with three much obliquely disposed veins and a false vein and
with distinct but irregular areolae; triangle intercale distinguishable;
anal vein almost broken at right angle, and the scantly reticulated field
with five regularly spaced, feebly curved veins; mediastinal vein with one
branch only.

Measurements (in mm): Male: Length of body 16.25-17; length of
pronotum 4.25-4.55; width of pronotum 5.25-5.5; elytra 6.75-8; posterior
femora 11.5-12; posterior tibiae 8-8.75.

Female: Length of body 16.25-20; length of pronotum 4.75-5; width
of pronotum 5.25-6.25; posterior femora 14-15.75; posterior tibiae
9.9-10.5; ovipositor 7-14.25.

Material examined : 1 male, 1 female from Mysore city; 1 female from
Coimbatore; 2 females from Rajpur (Dehra Dun); 2 males, 2 females
from Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh).

Remarks : This species can easily be distinguished from all other species
of the genus by its strongly cylindrical body, besides its rounded head
with two transverse bands and open type of ovipositor.

Gryllopsis rajasthanensis Bhowmik (Figs. 1 & 2)

1967. Gryllopsis rajasthanensis Bhowmik, Proc. lnd. Sci. Cong. Assoc.
Benaras, Part B: 491.

Description : female: Small, body cylindrical, yellowish and densely
pubescent. Head as wide as the pronotum in front, yellowish, with two
transverse brown bands and of these anterior one connects the bases of
antennal sockets and the posterior one the inter-ocular sockets; occiput
and vertex with five very indistinct longitudinal brownish lines. Lateral
ocelli brownish, anterior ocellus very small and yellowish. Frontal ros-
trum almost twice as wide as the first antennal segment and parallel
sided. Labrum broad, rounded at apex and partially trilobed; clypeus
partially divided by a median longitudinal suture; elypeofrontal suture
strongly arcuate. Eyes black, very prominent and oval. Pronotum pale
yellowish and transverse, anterior margin being slightly concave and
posterior margin nearly straight, both margins ciliated, sides a little con-
vex at the middle; disc convex, densely pubescent, with a median longi-
tudinal Suture and two triangular lobes brown, rest yellowish, inferior
margins ascending posteriorly. Abdomen yellowish but mottled with
brownish spots on dorsum. Ovipositor yellow, straight, long, apical val-
ves acute. Legs yellow. Anterior tibia with a long oval tympanum at its
external face only. Posterior femora very stout, longer than abdomen,
indistinctly striated at external face; posterior tibia with four external
and five internal spines; posterior metatarsi with seven external and five
internal brownish denticles.

Elytra extending up to the middle of abdomen, yellow, these overlap on

STUDIES ON INDIAN CRICKETS

371

Fig. 1. Gryllopsis rajasthanensls, female head, dorsal view,
elytra, x 15; Fig. 3. Turanogrylliis rufoniger, male genitalia, dorsal view, x 18;
Fig. 4. ibid., male genitalia, ventral view, x 18; Fig. 5. ibid., apical end of ventral
lobe of ectoparamere. x 55; Fig. 6. ibid., subgenital plate of an advanced nymph,
x 20; Fig. 7. Turanogrylliis jammuensis, female head, dorsal view, x 17; Fig. 8.
ibid., pronotum and elytra, x 15; Fig. 11. Turanogrylliis histrio, male elytra.

x 15.2.

9

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

the median line and are obliquely truncated at apex; dorsal field with
five oblique veins besides a sort of a branch from the discoidal; hume-
ral edge brownish and lies in a line with the pronotal band; lateral lobes
with four regularly spaced oblique veins; the mediastinal vein with one
branch at the apex.

Measurements (in mm): Female: Length of body 9.75; length of pro-
notum 2; width of pronotum 2.75; elytra 2.6; posterior femora 7; poste-
rior tibiae 4.5; ovipositor 5.7.

Distribution : Rajasthan.

Material examined : 1 female from Gudha (Rajasthan), Coll. T.G. Vazi-
rani, dated 4.11.1958.

Gryllopsis falconneti (Saussure)

1877. Gryllodes falconneti Saussure., Mem. Soc. phys. Hist. nat. Geneve ,
25: 230.

Additional characters', females Body moderately stout, cylindrical.
Head more wide than long (5-5.25 to 2.95-3 mm), occiput with or with-
out ornamentation, when ornamented it is with four very short, yellow
lines. Clypeofrontal suture slightly arcuate. Pronotum transverse, test-
aceous with blackish patches, anteriorly as wide as the head. Elytra se-
parated by a distance of 1.5 to 2.25 mm. Ovipositor very long, apical
valves rufous, acute and closed at rest. Subgenital plate testaceous, navi-
cular and with a shallow apical emargination.

Measurements (in mm): Female: Length of body 13-16; posterior
femora 10.5-11; ovipositor 18-18.25.

Material examined : 2 females from Rajaji Sanctuary (Saharanpur dist.);
2 females from Udhampur (Jammu).

Remarks'. The species is remarkable for its three distinct longitudinal
dark bands on abdomen, stout body, ornamented head, widely separated
elytra and closed type of ovipositor. The description of male which is
yet unknown is, however, essential to be sure about its position in the
genus.

. .

Genus Turanogryllus Tarbinskii

Turanogryllus Tarbinskii, 1940, Salt. Orth. Ins. Azeb. S.S.R., 19,115.
Diagnosis'. The most important diagnostic feature of Turanogryllus
is the presence of styli on the posterolateral extremities of epi-
phallus. Spherically convex head, quite lateral lobiform female elytra,
triangular and strong, longitudinally sulcated male supra anal plate often
with two spinules, somewhat bilobed subgenital plate in both sexes and
externally visible dorsal lobes of ectoparameres are also remarkable.
Distribution'. Russia; Africa; Western Asia; Pakistan and India.

STUDIES ON INDIAN CRICKETS

m

Key to Indian species1
1(4) Elytra as long as the abdomen

2(3) Body cylindrical; clypeofrontal suture moderately arcuate; head blackish

brown with four distinct yellow lines on occiput quadrilineatus (Bh.)

3(2) Body rather depressed; clypeofrontal suture indistinct, straight; head

strongly rounded and without any ornamentation dehradurensis (Bh.)

4(1) Elytra shorter

5(8) Clypeofrontal suture more or less strongly arcuate

6(7) Pronotum dark brown with light impressions; two oblique veins; female

elytra rudimentary or absent virgulatus (Bol.)

7(6) Pronotum brown varied with blackish brown spaces; female elytra short,
obliquely truncated and separated from each other by a short distance;

abdomen with three dark brown bands jammuensis (Bh.)

8(5) Clypeofrontal suture almost straight or a little arcuate
9(10) Pronotum fulvous with a wide posterior brown band; three to four obli-
que veins; female elytra longer than the metanotum, separated by a very

narrow space rufoniger (Ch.)

10(9) Pronotum without any posterior band; clypeofrontal suture a little arcu-
ate; female elytra short, widely separated histrio (Sauss.)

Turanogryllus dehradyrensis Bhowmik

1969. Turanogryllus dehradurensis Bh., Zool. Anz., Bd. 182, Heft 1/2:

143-144.

The species was described on the male only. Since its publication,
new material has become available from Bihar and the Punjab and from
the latter a female specimen was obtained, and is described here.

female: Size large, head dark brown, pronotum and abdomen
generally rufous brown whereas the dorsum of abdomen is dark brown
variegated with brownish spaces; head rather larger and wider than that
of male; frontal rostrum about two and half times as wide as the first
antennal segment; post clypeus yellowish white as in male from Panipat.
Pronotum slightly widened at anterior margin; lateral lobes almost con-
colorous with the pronotum. Elytra oblique, as long as the mesonotum
and separated from each other by a width which is more than the dor-
sal width of any one of them and with five longitudinal veins. Ovipositor
rufous brown, as long as the length of body, moderately curved upwards
and with acute apical valves; subgenital plate yellowish with distinct
concave apex, thus giving it a bilobed appearance. Posterior femora
stout, shiny rufous brown throughout; rest of the posterior legs yellow-
ish; posterior metatarsi with five brownish denticles on each margin.
Measurements (in mm); Female: Length of body 18.5; length of pro-
notum 4.5; width of pronotum 6; elytra 2.75; gap of elytra at base 2.5;
posterior femora 13.25; posterior tibae 9.5; ovipositor 19.5.

1 T. babaulti, T. maculithorax & T. fascifrons described in the fauna by
Chopard (1969) are not included in the key.

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 72(2)

Material examined : 1 male from Hazaribagh (Bihar); 1 male and 1 fe-
male from Panipat, Karnal dist. (Punjab).

Turanogrylius quadrilineatus Bhowmik
(vide 1969. ZooL Anz 182, 1/2: 144-145)

Additional material of this species is not available for study.

Turanogrylius rufoniger (Chopard) (Figs. 3, 4, 5 & 6)

1925. Gryllodes rujoniger Chopard, Ann. Soc. ent. France , 94: 292.
1963. Paragryllopsis rufoniger Chopard, Bull. Res. concil Israel , 115;
169.

*1967. Turanogrylius rujoniger Chopard, Orth. Cat., 10.

Additional characters: male: Head deep brown with six distinct test-
aceous lines on occiput and vertex; clypeofrontal suture appears straight
but effaced at the middle; a longitudinal suture extends from anterior
ocellus to the extremity of anteclypeus. Pronotum almost parallel sided
or slightly widened at posterior end but in the specimens from Dehra
Dun the anterior end narrowed while the posterior end gradually
widens; inferior margin of lateral lobes of pronotum straight, with
angles almost rounded. Knees of posterior femora brown; posterior tibia
with five to six internal and six external spines. Elytra testaceous brown
and cover the abdomen; mirror oblique, rounded anteriorly, divided by
a distinct curved vein, more than one and half times as wide as long,
connected to first chord by one or two veinlets; oblique vein varies from
three to four, in one example the last oblique being biforked; three
chords of which first two strongly curved; apical field short, with four
clear veins and with rectangular areolae; lateral field testaceous, with
seven regularly spaced, moderately curved veins, mediastinal vein tri-
ramous. Subgenital plate bilobed at apex. Genitalia typical for the genus,
the posterior emargination of epiphallus penetrating up to about half
of the entire length and with a V-shaped projection in the middle; the
dorsal lobe of ectoparameres with a lateral process which is digitiform
(three to four digits) on its inner face, apical end of the ventral lobe
with twelve denticles.

female: Completely tallys with Chopard’s (1925) original description.
Immature stages: Immature stages of the species are readily recogni-
zable but some minor variations are found in colour pattern, elytra and
genital apparatus etc.

In two immature females (length of body 12mm, ovipositor 3mm)
abdominal dorsum not entirely black but with two lateral and one medi-
an longitudinal blackish brown bands; elytra present as lateral pads
only.

In four immature males (length of body 8 mm to 13 mm and width

STUDIES ON INDIAN CRICKETS

375

about 1.5 mm long, overlapping elytral pads) and in one female (length
of body 11 mm) the colour bands are on lateral margin of pronotal
disc and not on anterior and posterior borders.

Measurements (in mm): Male: Length of body 13.5-14; length of

pronotum 3-3.3; width of pronotum 5-5.5; elytra 8-9.5; posterior femora
10-11; posterior tibiae 7-7.25.

Female: Length of body 14.75-16.25; length of pronotum 5.25-5.8;
elytra 3.25-3.75; posterior femora 10.75-11.5; ovipositor 12.9-13.6.
Material examined : 2 males, 2 females from Mysore city (University
campus) ;1 female from Gagret forest, Dist. Hoshiarpur (Punjab);
1 male from Hispana river, Dehra Dun.

Remarks : The species is readily identifiable by its particular colour
pattern of head and of pronotum.

Tumnogryllus jamsnuensis (Bhowmik) (Figs. 7, 8 & 9)

1967. Gryllopsis jammuensis Bhowmik, Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Assoc.
Benaras, Part B: 491.

1969. (?) Gryllopsis pakistana Chopard, Fauna lnd. Grylloidea, 2:75.
Description: female: Size medium. Body moderately cylindrical, spar-
sely pubescent and testaceous varied with brown. Head rounded, dark
brown, shiny and with six distinct yellow longitudinal lines, the lateral
two of which are united at base and end near the eyes; front slightly
flattened; frontal rostrum nearly twice as wide as the first antennal seg-
ment. Face yellow; clypeofrontal suture moderately arcuate. Eyes black,
prominent and oval. Pronotum transverse, slightly narrowed both in
front and behind, with both anterior and posterior margins straight; disc
somewhat convex, varied with brown to blackish brown spaces, spar-
sely pubescent; lateral lobes yellowish except the extreme superior mar-
gins which are deep black, rounded at anterior angle, inferior margin
slightly ascending posteriorly. Abdomen thinly hairy with a very pro-
minent longitudinal median and two lateral blackish bands on the dor-
sum, ventrum yellowish. Ovipositor long and straight, inferior apical
valves a little shorter than the superior ones. Legs testaceous. Anterior
tibiae with a long oval tympanum at their external faces only. Posterior
femora moderately stout, striated with brown at external faces, tibiae
with six internal and seven external spines, the first external being very
small. Elytra about 3 mm long and separated from each other by less
than 1 mm distance, obliquely truncated; dorsal field shiny brown with
four complete and slightly oblique veins, the venation is confused in the
space between the fourth vein and the second discoidal; lateral lobes
yellowish, with six regularly spaced veins, the mediastinal having a small
branch at apex.

Measurements (in mm): Female: Length of body 12; length of pro-
notum 3; width of pronotum 4; elytra 3; posterior femora 10; posterior
tibiae 7; ovipositor 11.

376 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Fig. 9. Turanogryllus jammuensis, ovipositor, x 25; Fig. 10. Turanogryllus vir-
gulata, male clypeofrontal suture, x 15; Fig. 12. Turanogryllus histrio, lateral
pronotal lobe, x 22; Fig. 13. ibid., subgenital plate, x 25; Fig. 14. ibid., oviposi-
tor. x 25; Fig. 15. Coiblemmus compactus, male genitalia, ventral view, x 20;
Fig. 16. Stephoblemmus humbertiellus, male elytron, apical portion, x 10; Fig. 17.
ibid., male genitalia, dorsal view, x 20; Fig. 18. ibid., male genitalia, ventral

view, x 20.

STUDIES ON INDIAN CRICKETS

377

Material examined : 1 female from Jhajjar (Jammu & Kashmir), coll.
R. Tilak, dt. 5. 10. 1964.

Remarks'. The species somewhat resembles T. rufoniger in its general
aspect and coloration but can be easily separated by its longer elytra and
their close approximation, sparse pubescence etc. Male yet unknown.

The description of the species shows that it is very close to the fe-
male of G. pakistana Ch. (1969) and the latter may turn to be a syno-
nym. At present it has been provisionally included in the synonymy list.

Turanogryllus virgulatus (Bolivar) (Fig. 10)

1900. Gryllodes virgulatus Bolivar, Ann. Soc. ent. France 68:191.
1933. Gryllopsis virgulatus Chopard, Rev. Suiss, Zool., 40: 163.

1963. Paragryllopsis virgulatus Chopard, Bull. Res. Council, Israel,
11 B: 169.

1964. Turanogryllus virgulatus Randell, Canad. Ent., 96: 1571; Chopard.
1967, Orth. Cat., 10.

Additional characters: male: General coloration dark brown, shiny.
Head strongly rounded, glossy, without ornamentation; frontal rostrum
strongly convex, about twice as wide as the first antennal segment; facial
parts testaceous rufous. Pronotum concolorous with head, anterior mar-
gin slightly concave,. { osterior margin straight, nearly parallel sided or
very indistinctly narrowed at anterior end; disc convex with two pyri-
form brownish impressions at the middle; inferior margin of lateral lobes
testaceous rufous while the superior margin concolorous with the pro-
notum and with the anterior angle nearly rounded and the posterior
angle a little ascending. Dorsum of abdomen dark brown while the vent-
rum concolorous with facial parts, no incision on mctasternal plate.
Legs hairy, testaceous. Anterior tibia with an oval external tympanum.
Posterior femora stout, posterior tibia with five internal and six external
spines, the supero internal spurs equal in length to supero intermediate
ones; posterior metatarsi with five to six brown denticles. Elytra cover
the abdomen; two curved oblique veins; mirror more wide than long,
postero-inferior angle broadly rounded, divided by a curved vein at the
middle and united to the first chord by one veinlet; apical field very
small and reduced to a few irregular areolae where two oblique veins
and one false vein are recognizable.

female: Differs from male in being apterous and in having the colour
of head, pronotum, abdominal dorsum much darker and size bigger;
ovipositor remains open at rest, testaceous, straight, apex very acute.
In one specimen from Mt. Stuart, Madras, the posterior tibiae with seven
internal and six external spines; subgenital plate a little concave at apex
but not bilobed as in other species of the genus.

Measurements (in mm): Male: Length of body 10.5-10.75; length of

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(2)

!

pronotum 2.75-3; width of pronotum 3.5-3. 8. Female: Length of body
12-16; length of pronotum 2.75-3.5; width of pronotum 4-4.25; oviposi-
tor 8.5-10.

Material examined : 2 males, 1 female from Mysore city; 1 female from
Nilgiri Hills (alt. 2628 m); 1 female from Mt. Stuart (Madras).
Remarks : The species is readily recognizable by its blackish appear-
ance, somewhat depressed shape of female with its open type of oviposi-
tor. It is only known from south India.

Turanogryllus histrio (Saussure) (Figs. 11, 12 13 & 14)

1877. Gryllodes histrio Saussure, M'em. Soc. phys. Hist . not . Geneve ,
25:397.

1963. Paragryllopsis histrio Chopard, Bull. Res. Council Israel , 11B:
160.

*1967. Turanogryllus histrio Chopard, Orth. Cat., 10.

Additional characters: male: Head spherical and convex; occiput and
vertex with six yellowish light lines; frontal rostrum wider than first
antennal segment. Clypeofrontal suture slightly arcuate. Fourth seg-
ment of maxillary palpi shorter than third, fifth largest, widened opicad
and obliquely truncated. Pronotum transverse; lateral lobes with round-
ed angles. Elytra a little shortened or as long as the abdomen; mirror
almost transversely disposed, undivided; three oblique veins; apical
field with somewhat irregular areolae. Anterior tibia with a long, oval
internal and a very small rounded external tympanum; first external
spine of posterior tibia denticle like. Supra anal plate with two spinule
like projections. Subgenital plate more or less bilobed and projected
much beyond the supra anal plate,

female: Differs from males in having reduced elytra which are widely
separated, and with long, slender ovipositor with narrow and lanceolate
apical valves.

Measurements (in mm): Male: Length of body 8-9.5; elytra 4.25; pos-
terior femora 7-7.25.

Female: Length of body 11.5; posterior femora 8; ovipositor 7.
Material examined: 1 male from Kaziranga (Assam); 1 male, 1 female
from Noorpur forest range, Dist. Gurdaspur (Punjab).

Remarks: The species is remarkable for its cylindrical, slender body
with a brown band on the extreme superior margin of each pronotal
lobe and two brown, prominent, spots near the postero median margin
of pronotal disc.

Genus Gryllodes Saussure, 1874
Gryllodes sigillatus (Walker)

1869. Gryllus sigillatus Walker, Cat. Derm. Salt. Br. Mus., l'A6.

1877. Gryllodes sigillatus Saussure, Me'm. Soc. phys. Hist. Nat. Geneva ,

STUDIES ON INDIAN CRICKETS

379

25: 210; B. Bienko, 1933, Bol. Soc. Esp. Hist, nat., 33: 325;
Randell, 1964, Canad. Ent., 96:1588.

Additional characters: male: Pale yellowish to testaceous in colour.
Body depressed. Head as wide as the pronotum anteriorly; front yellow-
ish and sloping; frontal rostrum a little narrower than the first antennal
segment with lateral sides characteristically dark brown. Pronotum trans-
verse with silky pubescence, anterior margin slightly concave, posterior
margin straight and with a characteristic irregular dark transverse band
continuing on either side up to the lateral margin of the lateral lobes;
disc flat, a little widened in the middle, with a longitudinal suture at the
middle and with two pyriform colour impressions at the superior part.
Elytra extend beyond half of abdomen (leaving last five tergites free);
mirror obliquely disposed, antero-internal and postero-external angles
somewhat rounded but the other two angles more or less angulated,
divided by a curved vein at the middle and united to the first chord by
one or two veinlets; diagonal straight, bifurcated at base and sometimes
united with the first chord by a veinlet; anal field very sparsely reti-
culated; lateral field with four regularly spaced slightly curved veins;
mediastinal vein with a short apical branch. Posterior femora rufous
brown, stout, longer than posterior tibiae and with indistinct dark obli-
que striations on external faces; posterior tibiae with five spines on each
margin.

female: Differs from male in having the elytra reduced to very small
lateral pads. Ovipositor slender, subequal to posterior femora, with
acute apical valves.

Immature stages: Females are apterous with reduced ovipositor while
the males are with imperfectly developed elytra without clear neuration.
Measurements (in mm): Male: Length of body 12-14; length of pro-
notum 2.25-2.5; width of pronotum 3.75-4.25; elytra 4.75-5.5; posterior
femora 9.5-11; posterior tibiae 7-7.5.

Female: Length of body 15.25-16; length of pronotum 2.5-3; width of
pronotum 4.25-4.75; posterior femora 10.5-11.5; posterior tibiae 7.25-8;
ovipositor 10.5-11.5.

Material examined: 1 male from Banisaugh (Jammu); 3 males, 21
females from Ambala (Punjab); 1 female from Dhaukhand Forest
Range, Dist. Saharanpur; 3 males, 3 females from Dehra Dun; 2 males
from Sahastna Dhara Hills, Dehra Dun; 1 female from Timli Forest
Range, Dehra Dun; 1 female from Rajpur (Madhya Pradesh); 1 male
from Santal Parganas (Bihar); 1 male from Subhasgram (W. Bengal); 5
males, 9 females from Calcutta; 1 male from Nagarjunsagar (Andhra
Pradesh) ; 2 males, 1 female from adjoining area of Mysore city; 1 male
from Couriaghat (south Andaman Island); 1 male from Mallaca vil-
lage (Car Nicobar).

Remarks: The species is readily recognizable by its general appearance

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(2)

and colour pattern and is commonly seen in undisturbed places in
houses.

Genus Itaropsis Chopard, 1925
Itaropsis tenellus (Walker)

1869. Gryllus tenellus Walker, Cat. Derm. Salt. Br. Mus., 1: 37.
Additional characters’, female: Head shiny dark brown, with or with-
out four indistinct brownish light lines on posterior head. Clypeofrontal
suture almost straight. Pronotum almost parallel sided, both anterior
and posterior margins straight; disc with two rufous brown pyriform
impressions and with a median longitudinal suture. Elytra cover the
abdomen in one specimen, in another, they are slightly shorter; dorsal
field with four to five obliques, somewhat regularly spaced veins and
one to two branches from the discoidal.

Measurements (in mm): Female: Length of body 11.5-12; elytra 8-9;
posterior femur 8.5-9; posterior tibia 4.5-5.

Material examined : 1 female from Dehra Dun, coll. S. Lai, dt. 9-5-1961;
1 female from Mussoorie (Uttar Pradesh), coll. R. P. Mukherjee, dt.
5-12-1961.

Remarks'. Female of this species is unique among the Gryllidae for its
rudimentary ovipositor which is represented by a styliform process al-
most enclosed by the subgenital plate.

Genus Coiblemmus Chopard, 1936
Coiblemmus compactus (Chopard) (Fig. 15)

1928. Homaloblemmus compactus Chopard, Spol. Zeyl., 74:201.
Additional characters', male: Head slightly wider than pronotum. Fron-
tal rostrum almost twice as broad as the first antennal segment. Lateral
field of elytra yellowish and with four somewhat parallel and equidist-
ant veins; the mediastinal vein with a branch originating either from
its very base or at most from its basal half and also with a small apical
branch. Male genitalia: Epiphallus roughly H-shaped when viewed dors-
ally, the anterior margin moderately emarginate, the emargination is
maximum at the middle; the posterior margin roughly U shaped and
also emarginate, posterior lobes become evenly pointed and are curved
inwards. Ectoparamere, when viewed ventrally, appears as a stout and
simplified structure, its posterior margin having the corners produced,
pointed and curved dorsally, basal half of ectoparamere divided into
two processi of unequal width, the anterior internal process being thin-
ner and rod like, a little curved outwards and comparatively longer than
the external one. The courses of mesal lobes cannot be completely seen.
Endoparameres, on profile somewhat C shaped, basal union of two en-
doparameres greatly expanded and with inwardly angulated lateral

STUDIES ON INDIAN CRICKETS 381

prqcessi., Virga unspecialized, moderately long and quite narrow.
Measurements (in mm): Male: Length of body 14-14.8; length of pro-
notum 3.2-3.5; elytra 7.8-8.25; posterior femora 10.25-10.6; posterior
tibiae 6.9-7.25.

Material examined : 2 males from Mysore city (University campus), coll.
S. Vasantha, dt. 1964.

Remarks: This monotypic genus is widely distributed in Ceylon and
less commonly in Tamil Nadu. The male genitalia has been described
elaborately for the first time.

Genus Stephoblemmus Saussure, 1877

Siephobleinmus humbertiellus Saussure (Figs. 16, 17 & 18)

1877. Stephoblemmus humbertiellus Saussure, Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist,
nat. Geneve, 25: 428.

Additional characters: The specimen at hand tally in majority of chara-
cters with the description and diagrams given by Saussure (1877) but
some minor variations are also found viz., the mediastinal vein in left
elytron with two branches at apex and in the right one with one branch;
lateral field with three prominent but irregular and slightly curved veins,
the middle one biforked apically in left lateral field; apical field com-
prised of a few irregular but distinct areolae; anterior tibiae with a small
internal and a moderately long, oval external tympanum in each; poste-
rior tibiae with five internal and six external spines in each.

Male genitalia: The genitalia in general resembles that of genus Miog-
ryllus Saussure and thus it should be placed in the subtribe Sciobiina
Bolivar (Vide Randell 1964, Canad. Ent., 96: 1589).

Epiphallus: Distinctly H shaped in dorsal view, emargination of ante-
rior border rather very broad and relatively deep, reaching up to one
third the length of epiphallus; emargination of posterior border notic-
eably narrower but reaching still deeper; the bridge formed by the two
emarginations is about one third the entire length; anterior internal
apodemes moderately long. Ectoparameres almost rod like, slightly in-
curved structures with spine like projections at apices and each is bent
on itself. Mesal lobes remarkably prominent in the form of a double
ribbon, the external process very thin, irregular but comparatively
broader and connected with the spine like projection of the ectopara-
mere by a thread like connection which can be seen only on profile, the
internal process descends downwards as a narrow process, one on each
side of the virga and ultimately united with each other forming a V
shaped projection just on the medio-posterior emargination of epiphal-
lus and is visible both dorsally and ventrally. Endoparameres J shaped
on profile and with the antero-ventral edge weakly expanded. Virga
long, narrow, and unspecialized; basal portion connected by the expand-
ed bases of the endoparameres; the apical portion being visible dorsally

382 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . 72(2)

i

in between the apices of the mesal lobes. Rami simple, rod shaped, a
little expanded and shallowly divided at their dorsal extremities. Ramal
plates cannot be traced.

Measurements (in mm): Male: Length of body 10; elytra 5.25; wings
14; posterior femora 7.25; posterior tibiae 5.25; width of frontal lamel-
lar process 5.2.

Material examined : 1 male from Rajaji Sanctuary, Dist. Saharanpur
(Uttar Pradesh), Coll. T. D. Soota, Dt. 13-7-1963.

Remarks'. This species of the monotypical genus is reported for the first
time from India. The species is rare since the specimen dealt with here
is the third one known so far.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Dr. D. N. Raychaudhuri, Reader, Calcutta Uni-
versity, for his guidance and to late Prof. L. Chopard, Paris, for subst-
antial help in many ways.

References

Bey-Bienko, G. Y. (1933): Records
and descriptions of some Orthoptera
from U.S.S.R. Bol. Soc. esp. Hist. nat.
33: 317-341.

Bhowmik, H. K. (1967): Six new
genus of Gryllidae from India. Proc.
55th lnd. Sc. Cong. Part 3:491-492.

(1969): Studies on

Indian Crickets (Orth.: Insecta), Part
I. Zool. Anz. Bd. 182, Hefl. 7/2:143-
152.

Bolivar, I. (1900) : Les Orthopte’res
de St. Joseph’s College a Trichinopoly
(Sud de l’lnde) 2 me partie. Ann.
Soc. ent. France 65:761-812.

Chopard, L. (1925): Descriptions

de Gryllides nouveaux (Orthopte’res).
Ann. Soc. ent . France 94: 291-332.

(1928) : Revision of the

Indian Gryllidae. Rec. lnd. Mus. 30: 1-
36.

(1928): Additional

notes on the Gryllidae of Ceylon.
Spol. Zeyl., 74:197-208.

(1933): Gryllidae de

l’lnde me’ridionale. Rev. Suiss. Zool.
40(5): 161-167.

(1963) : Notes sur la

faune des Orthopte’roides d’Israel et

de quelques regions limitrophes (Blat-
todea, Gryllacridoidea, Gryllodea) .
Bull. Res. Counc. of Israel 7715:161-
176.

* (1967-68): Orthopter-

oides Catalogus, 10 & 12.

(1969): The fauna of

India and the adjacent countries, Gryl-
loidea, Calcutta. 2:421, (1964).

Randell, R. L. (1964) : The male
genitalia in Gryllinae (Orth. Gryllidae)
and a tribal revision. Canad. Ent. 96:
1565-1607.

Saussure, H. de (1877-78): Mel-
anges Orthopterologiques, Vme. Fasci-
cule, III Gryllides (I & II partie).
Me'm. Soc. phys. Hist. nat. Gene’ve,
25: 169-504, 509-836.

♦Tarbinskii, S. P. (1940): Pryigay-
ushchiye pryamokriliye nasyekomiye.
Azyerbaidjandkoi S.S.R. (Muscow and
Leningrad).

Walker, F. (1969) : Catalogue of
the specimens of Dermaptera Salta-
toria in the collection of the British
Museum, London 7:225-423.

* Denotes references not seen in ori-
ginal.

Crop preference of rodents at
Ludhiana1

G. S. Mann

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

Rodents are the most destructive vertebrate pests of field crops in the
Punjab. The loss from rodents to wheat, groundnut and sugarcane
crops were reported by Bindra & Prem Sagar (1968). However, rela-
tively little is known about the preference of different species for dif-
ferent field crops.

Materials and methods

Capture, mark, release and recapture method (Davis 1964) using 2
types of wonder traps (Deoras et al. 1969) to avoid cannibalism was
employed. In one type, the entrance was only 4x2 cm, so that Bandi-
cota bengalensis (Gray) and Tatera indica (Hardwicke) could not enter,
and the pressing-disc was so adjusted that the animal weighing as little
as 5 gm could enter. In the other type, the pressing disc was so adjusted
that the animals weighing less than 20 gm could not enter. A mixture
of husked rice, bajra (Pearl-millet) and wheat was used as bait. The
traps were laid in different crops at a distance of 100 m from one ano-
ther in a 53 ha cultivated area of the Punjab Agricultural University
Farm, Ludhiana. This study was conducted during December 1970 to
November 1972 for a 10-day period in the first fortnight of each month,
month.

The preference was determined by using the following preference
categories.

Categories of crop preference based on the number of specimens

per species per trap per day (x 108).

Species

Highly

preferred

Moderately

preferred

Less

preferred

Mus musculus bactrianus Blyth

200-650

100-199

0-99

Mus booduga (Gray)

100-450

10-99

0-9

Rattus meltada (Gray)

100-650

10-99

0-9

Tatera indica (Hardwicke)

100-158

10-99

0-9

Total

600-975

300-599

0-299

Results and discussion

The observed preferences by different species are given in Table 1,
and are discussed below briefly.

1 Accepted January 1974.

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

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pue clover, lucerne, pea,
sarson and spinach.

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388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

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390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(2)

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CROP PREFERENCE OF RODENTS

391

The pooled data of all the species of rodents shows their preference
for cow-pea, fenugreek, fodder (mixture of pearl-millet, cow-pea, cluster-
bean and sorghum), groundnut and radish, and followed by brinjal,
cluster-bean, desi cotton, pearl-millet, potato, sarson + Egyptian clover,
sorghum, soybean, sugarcane and tomato than the other crops (Table 1).

All the species, except Tat era, were found more in the closely-spaced
crops. This difference might be due to the hopping type of movements
of Tat era.

The frequent tillage operations that caused lack of weeds and dis-

However the rodents were found in a variety of crops, but the num-
turbed the habitat during early stages of growth of vegetables could ex-
plain the lower incidence of rodents during early stages than during later
stages. Also, in fodder crops, absence of tillage operations might be
responsible for the high incidence of rodents.

bers in which they were observed in different crops suggest that they
exhibit preference for different crops. For instance, Rattus preferred
onion, cauliflower and soybean; M. booduga preferred groundnut and
radish; M. m. bactrianus preferred fenugreek, radish, spinach, tomato
and potato; M. platythrix preferred oats; Bandicota preferred bottle-
gourd, musk-melon, squash-melon, lucerne and wheat; Golunda prefer-
red lucerne and Tat era preferred met ha and brinjal. It would be desir-
able to examine as to whether these preferences are on the basis of the
olfactory or gustatory stimuli presented by the crops.

Ack n owledge m e n ts

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for ar-
ranging identifications of the rodents and to Dr. O. S. Bindra for pro-
viding facilities and for reading the manuscript.

References

Bindra, O. S. & Prem Sagar (1968) :
Study on the losses to wheat, ground-
nut and sugarcane crops by the field-
rats in Punjab. Proc. International
symp. binomics control rodents Kan-
pur. Sept. 20-Oct. 2, 1968. p. 28-31.

Davis, D. E. (1964) : Manual for

analysis of rodent population. The
Pennsylvania State Univ. Pennsylvania

82 p.

Deoras, P. J., Renapurkar, D. M.
& Chaturvedi, G. C. (1969): Import-
ance of baiting and trapping. Pestici-
des 3 : 41-42.

The cocoon spinning behaviour
and fecundity of Stegodyphus
sarasinorum Karsch (Araneae:
Eresidae) from India1

B. L. Bradoo2

Department of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Abohar (Punjab), India
(With seven text-figures)

Observations on the sequence of cocoon spinning behaviour and
fecundity of the social spider Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch
(Eresidae) are given.

Introduction

In the genus Stegodyphus , cocoons have been observed by Marshall
(1898), Jambunathan (1905), Millot & Bourgin (1942), Phanuel (1960)
and Bradoo (1972a ), but the mechanism of cocoon spinning in Stegody-
phus has not been investigated before. The cocoon spinning behaviour
among spiders affords a good example of a succession of instinctive
responses controlled by both internal and external stimuli. The spinning
activity is so organised that no stage can be omitted and no stage re-
peated. The different stages of this behaviour follow one after the other
as in a chain automatic behaviour.

This paper, describes the sequence of cocoon spinning behaviour
and fecundity of the social spider S.. sarasinorum Karsch, common in
Kerala, south India.

Methods of study

The cocoon spinning behaviour of S. sarasinorum Karsch, was stud-
ied in seven batches that were established in the laboiatory. Each batch

1 Accepted October 1972,

2 Present Address’. Lecturer in Zoology, D.A.V. College, Sector 10, Chan-
digarh.

COCOON SPINNING OF STEGODYPHUS SARASINORUM

393

contained 5 to 10 gravid females placed within a loosely closed glass
jar. After a few days of nest construction inside the jar, the females
make their cocoon on the nest surface or on the web around the nest.
As the cocoon spinning is a nocturnal activity in this spider, a dim torch
light was used during the course of these observations.

The complete sequence of cocoon spinning behaviour was observed
only seven times in the laboratory and the duration for each stage in
the sequence, was recorded. The later stages of this sequence were also
observed in several field colonies of this species that were regularly ex-
amined during the breeding season.

For studying the fecundity of S. sarasinorum Karsch, a total of 41
cocoons collected from different localities in Calicut (Kerala), were
examined for egg count in the laboratory.

Cocoon spinning behaviour

S. sarasinorum Karsch, has an annual life history (Jambunathan
1905). The breeding season of this spider starts from the middle of
January and continues till early April, but the maximum number of
cocoons are made in the month of February. Marshall (1898) reports
that the egg-laying season of a South African Stegodyphus sp. starts
in the month of February or March and Millot & Bourgin (1942) re-
port that the solitary species, S. lineaius lays eggs in the month of June,
in southern Europe.

Behaviour of gravid females. The gravid females of S. sarasinorum
are larger in size and they move more slowly than the normal females.
The gravid females bear well developed and functional silk glands
(Bradoo & Majupuria 1973), but they do not take an active part in
snare construction. They feed on prey, captured mostly by other mem-
bers of the colony. During the breeding season, gravid females construct
several brood chambers lined with soft cribellar silk for storing their
cocoons, within the tunnels of their nest. This makes the nest architec-
ture suitable for the breeding purpose and for the new generation of
spiders that hatch from the cocoons.

The gravid females also spend most of their time in ‘toilet move-
ments’, grooming the dorsal surface of the abdomen with hind legs,
upper side of the cephalothorax with anterior legs and they groom their
appendages with one another. Such toilet movements are more com-
monly performed by the mature and the gravid females of the colony.
The gravid females also take part in colony foundation, as they leave
their nest, individually or in groups of few individuals and then they
establish new breeding nests, close to the parent nest (Bradoo 1972b).
Each gravid female makes a total of 2 to 4 cocoons during the breeding
season.

The Cocoon spinning behaviour of S. sarasinorum Karsch.

Fig. 1. Platform with the central disc; Figs. 2 and 3. Construction of the receiv-
ing valve; Fig. 4. Oviposition; Fig. 5. Concealing the egg-mass; Fig. 6. Spinning
of Cribellar silk around the cocoon; Fig. 7. Transportation of the cocoon.

COCOON SPINNING OF STEGODYPHUS SARASINORUM

395

In S. sarasinorum , the cocoon spinning behaviour normally involves
ten stages in the following sequence:

1. Construction of the Platform : The first step in cocoon spinning be-
haviour is the construction of a loose silken platform (Fig. 1) consisting
of numerous closely arranged silk threads, placed side by side, close to
the nest surface. The spinning of the platform is finished within about
9 to 15 minutes. The finished platform appears as an oblique or hori-
zontal thin sheet of smooth supporting silk, on the upper middle surface
of which the cocoon is spun.

The construction of the platform starts normally after midnight,
when the other members of the colony are busy, either spinning cribel-
lar silk on the web or feeding on some ensnared prey. The spinning of
the platform indicates the start of the cocoon spinning behaviour and if
the spider is disturbed at this stage, she at once retreats into her nest
and never returns back to resume the work on the platform. The cocoon
spinning is also suspended, as and when the spider receives strong web-
signals from other members of the colony, rushing to their nest due to
some disturbance in the surroundings. Undisturbed and calm sur-
rounding is hence essential for the successful completion of the platform.
After the platform is ready, the spider examines it by palpal contacts
and quickly shakes her abdomen sidewise and this releases the next
phase of the spinning behaviour i.e. the construction of the receiving
valve.

2. The Receiving Valve : The receiving valve is made by rubbing the
mid and hind spinnerets over the upper middle surface of the platform.
During this process, the spider taps (dabs) her abdomen up and down,
adding silk over the platform and at the same time, she changes her
orientation, turning clockwise or anticlockwise. Such dabbing move-
ments continues for a short time till the platform shows a thin smooth
pinkish-white circular disc (Fig. 1), that later becomes the cup-like re-
ceiving valve of the cocoon. After the formation of this disc, the spider
then thickens only the margin of the disc by making two types of spinn-
ing movements on the upper side of the disc. These movements include,
(i) a short sidewise movement of the abdomen, resulting in the repeated
brushing of the spinnerets along the margin of the disc. This results in
the gradual thickening of the periphery of the disc that becomes the re-
ceiving valve (Fig. 2). (ii) The second type of movement involves the
rotation of the spider (clockwise or anticlockwise) over the same upper
side of the receiving valve. This results in a uniform thickening of the
margin of the receiving valve so that a shallow depression is gradually
formed in its middle (Fig. 3).

The above mentioned two spinning movements continue simultane-
ously, as the spinnerets add silk over the receiving valve. During this
spinning activity, the spider receives tactile stimuli through the palps.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

that are constantly kept in contact with the margin of the valve and it is
accompanied by a slight arching of the abdomen. The palpal contact
is necessary for the continuity of the spinning movements. A single rota-
tion of the spider over the valve is completed in an average of one and
a half minutes and such rotations continue for about 25 to 40 minutes,
after which the construction of the receiving valve is complete. The re-
ceiving valve is supported by the platform.

3. Rest. The completion of the receiving valve is always followed by
about 4 to 5 minutes rest. During this period, the spider remains motion-
less over the receiving valve without making any visible movements.
This duration may be necessary for the eggs to move down from the
ovaries into the basal part of the oviducts for deposition.

4. Oviposition : The rest stage is followed by certain characteristic
movements of the cephalothorax and up and down movement of the
abdomen, accompanied by quick shivering of the legs. The spider re-
mains flat and then adjusts her epigynal furrow over the receiving valve
and within 2 or 3 minutes, she starts depositing her eggs. During this
process, the spider again remains motionless, the anterior pair of legs
remain deflexed beneath the cephalothorax. Some fluid is also secreted
along with the eggs that keeps them glued into a single yellowish egg-
mass as also reported in S. Jineatus by Miliot & Bourgin (1942). The
completion of oviposition is followed by the next stage, provided the
spider is not disturbed at this stage.

In some field colonies of S. sarasinorum, sometimes after oviposition,
the spider suspends her further spinning activity due to some external
disturbances and leaves her incomplete cocoon so that the egg-mass fin-
ally shrivels.

5. Concealing the Egg-mass : The eggs deposited within the receiving
valve are immediately covered by loose thin silk threads taken out
quickly from the spinnerets. In this process, the spider moves her abdo-
men sidewise, brushing her spinnerets very quickly over the surface of
the egg-mass (Fig. 5) which is concealed in about 4 to 7 minutes. With
each stroke of the abdomen, the spinnerets produce many straight silk
threads extending from one to the other margin of the valve (Fig. 5).
This phase is then followed by spinning of the covering valve.

6. The Covering Valve : The spinning of the covering valve is brought
about by the repeated brushing of the spinnerets all over the concealed
egg-mass, in a haphazard manner. The spider always changes her direc-
tion during this spinning activity. The spinning movements of this phase
are exactly similar to those made at the start of the formation of the
receiving valve. The covering valve is completed in about 40 to 50 minu-
tes, after which it appears as a thin whitish papery cover over the eggs.

After the completion of the covering valve, the smooth double con-
vex white cocoon is looked after by the mother. Even if disturbed, she

COCOON SPINNING OF STEGODYPHUS SARASINORUM

397

does not leave her cocoon now, but firmly holds it with her palps and
legs. My observations revealed that it is mainly the size and the tactile
stimuli from the cocoon surface that she responds to, as an empty co-
coon from another nest of its kind would also be accepted by the mother,
and looked after like her own cocoon. The gravid females, that have
not oviposited, do not show maternal care, although they may accept
cocoons temporarily.

These observations show that the maternal care in Stegodyphus starts
shortly after the oviposition and completion of the covering valve of the
cocoon and that this behaviour shown by the mother is instinctive, releas-
ed probably by both internal and external stimuli. The internal stimulus
probably comes from the brain while the external stimulus involves
mainly the tactile stimuli received from the cocoon surface. That the
central nervous system of spiders contain certain neurosecretory cells,
has recently been reported by Legendre (1954a, 1954b, 1958) and
Sasira Babu (1965).

With the completion of the covering valve of the cocoon, the spider
continues the next phase of her behaviour.

7. Removal of some supporting threads'. The completion of the cover-
ing valve is followed by the removal of a few supporting silk threads
present around the cocoon. The mother slowly cuts only a few of these
silk threads of the platform by the help of her chelicerae within 2 to 5
minutes and this results in a slight tilt in the original flat position of the
cocoon. The cocoon becomes slightly free along one side. This is follow-
ed by the next phase, the spinning of the cribellar silk.

8. Cribellar silk : For the first time in cocoon spinning behaviour, the
spider starts spinning sticky cribellar silk over the cocoon surface and
along the margin (Fig. 6). This provides a firm attachment between
the two valves of the cocoon. The spinning of cribellar silk is a slow
process for which both the hind legs are used by the spider and this
stage lasts for about 35 to 49 minutes. Like Stegodyphus, other cribel-
lates also cover their cocoons with cribellar silk and this has certain
advantages. Norgaard (1941) reports that the cocoons of Eresus niger
Pet. are covered with cribellar silk and many foreign bodies like sand
grains, remains of prey and plant matter are also added to camouflage
the cocoon. Bradoo (1972b) found a Uloborus spider covering her bag-
like cocoon with cribellar silk, that is useful to a great extent for pre-
venting the ovipositional activity of its egg parasite. In S. sarasinorum
the cribellar silk not only unites the two valves of the cocoon but it also
provides a rough surface for convenient transportation by the mother.
The adhesive cribellar silk also protects the cocoon from ants that some-
times raid the nests of social spiders (Bradoo 1972a).

9. Separation of the Cocoon : After adding some cribellar silk over the
cocoon surface, the mother cuts all the remaining supporting threads

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

of the platform in about 10 minutes around the cocoon. The cocoon
becomes free from the platform and the spider then removes the cocoon
that may be covered with additional sticky cribellar silk before it is
carried to the nest.

10. Transportation : This is the last phase of the cocoon spinning be-
haviour. The cocoon after it is completely free, is carried by the mother
within 1 to 3 minutes towards her nest. The method of transportation
of the cocoon is different from the method used in transport of prey.
The prey is practically dragged by several spiders towards the nest, but
the cocoon is held by the palps and one or two anterior legs (Fig. 7),
and is carried by the female into the brood chamber of her nest. The
mother remains with the cocoon and she is often observed adding more
cribellar silk on the surface of the cocoon. At times, she takes the co-
coon out through a nest exit and exposes it to the rays of the sun. This
behaviour has also been reported by Millot & Bourgin (1942) in
S. lineatus, who believe that it is necessary for receiving the warmth
from the sun.

The duration of different stages of cocoon construction is given in
table 1. Each cocoon mesaures 6 to 8 mm in diameter.

The different silk glands involved in the construction of the cocoon
in this social spider has been described in detail by Bradoo & Maju-
puria (1973). In addition to cribellar silk, produced by different
glands, at least two types of silk glands, namely, cylindrical glands and
tubular glands are involved in cocoon construction. These two kinds
of glands are characteristic of females only.

Table 1

Duration in minutes of ten stages in cocoon spinning behaviour of
S. sarasinorum Karsch

Stages

Jan. 21

Feb. 8

Dates

15th

of observation
16th 25th

Mar. 5th

9th

Platform

11

13

12

15

14

9

13

Receiving valve

31

40

29

30

35

32

25

Rest

5-

5

5

5

5

4

5

Oviposition

2

3

2

2

3

2

2

Concealing

5

7

5

5

6

4

5

Covering valve

40

50

46

43

41

48

45

Removal of supporting
threads

2

3

5

2

2

3

2

Cribellar silk

45

37

46

35

40

49

45

Separation

6

4

5

7

9

7

9

Transportation

1

2

1

2

2

3

1

Total duration

148

164

156

146

157

161

152

COCOON SPINNING OF STEGODY PHUS SARASINORUM

399

Fecundity

Each female S. sarasinorum makes a total of 2 to 4 cocoons during
her lifetime. The total number of eggs contained in a cocoon varies from
60 to 115, as found in 41 cocoons opened in the laboratory (Table 2).
The average number of eggs deposited in each cocoon varies from 67
to 93. The total number of eggs deposited by a single female in her life
time varies from 164 to 280. Millot & Bourgin (1942) found that each
cocoon of S. lineatus contained 150 to 250 eggs. The immature indi-
viduals of S. sarasinorum that attain maturity late, deposit only few eggs
and generally make a single cocoon. A female of this species made a
cocoon on 18th January, 1965 in the laboratory, that contained 122
eggs and when this spider was shortly dissected in the laboratory, its
ovaries contained 65 more eggs in different sizes within the two ovaries.

Table 2

Number of eggs in 41 cocoons of S. sarasinorum Karsch, in 1965

S. No. Date

No. of Cocoons

No. of Eggs

Average No.

1.

29th Jan.

4

71-115

67

2.

9th Feb.

4

62-115

82

3.

25th Feb.

6

60-114

84

4.

26th Feb.

4

73- 95

87

5.

2nd Mar.

9

77-105

88

6.

10th Mar.

10

66-111

93

7.

23rd Mar.

4

61- 98

83

Total

41

60-115

67-93

References

Bradoo, B. L. (1972a): Some ob-
servations on the Ecology of social
spider S. sarasinorum Karsch (Eresi-
dae) from India. Oriental Ins. 6(2) :
193-204.

(1972b): Life his-
tory and bionomics of Idris sp. (Sceli-
onidae: Hymenoptera) egg parasite of
Uloborus, a commensal on the web of
S sarasinorum Karsch. Zool. Anz.
Leipzig, 188(\ /2) :43-52.

& Majupuria, T. C.

(1973) : Studies on the anatomy of

social spider S. sarasinorum Karsch
(Eresidae) Part — I : Spinnerets and

Siikglands. ibid. 796(1 /2) :67-73.

Jambunathan, N. S. (1905) : The
habits and life history of a social spi-
der Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch.
Smiths. Misc. Coll. 47: 365-372.

Legendre, R. (1954a): Sur la pre-
sence de cellules neurosecretrices dans

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

le systeme nerveux central des Aran-
eids. C. R. Acad. Sci. 238: 1267-1268.

— (1954b): Donnes ana-

tomiques sur le complexe neuroendro-
crine retrocerebral des Araneids. Ann.
Sci. Nat. Zool. 76:419-426.

(1958) : Contributions

A L’etude du systeme nerveux des
Araneids. (Summary D.Sc. thesis Paris
Univ.). Ann. Biol. 34( 5-6) : 193-223.

Marshall, G. A. K. (1898): Notes
or. south African social spiders ( Stego -
dyphus). Zoologist. 688(2) : 417-422.

Millot, J. & Bourgin, P. (1942):

Sur la biologie des Stegodyphus soli-
taires. Bull. Biol. France et Belg. 76:
299-314.

Norgaard, E. (1941): On the bio-
logy of Eresus niger Pet. Ent. Medd.
Kopenh. 22(2/3) : 150-179.

Phanuel, G. J. (1960) : Unusual
nest site of a social spider S. sarasi-
norum Karsch. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 57(3) : 686-688.

Sasira babu, K. (1965) : Anatomy
of the central nervous system of Ara-
chnids (Ph.D. thesis, Sri Venkateswara
Univ.). Zool. Jb. Anat. Bd. 82: 1-154.

Notes on South Indian
Hepaticae — 1

Ram Udar and S. C. Srivastava
Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow {India)
( With seventeen text-figures )

Introduction

The bryological flora of south India, a territory luxuriant in liverworts
both in frequency and variety, has not received adequate attention.
Stray references to some liverworts from this area occur in some publi-
cations (reviewed by Pande & Bharadwaj 1952; Udar 1975).

The leafy genera belonging to acrogynous Jungermanniales, which
form the bulk of the hepatic vegetation of south India, have not been
studied much. The present paper gives an illustrated taxonomic account
of the genera Trichocolea and Notoscyphus. It is interesting that both
these taxa are also commonly found in the eastern Himalayas.

Descriptions

1. Trichocolea tomenteila (Ehrh.) Dumort., Corr. Nees, Naturg. Eur.
Leberm. 3:105 (1838). (Figs 1-8).

*Jungermannia tomenteila Ehrhart, Beitrage zur Naturkunde, 2:150. (1788).
Thrichocolea tomenteila Dumort., Comment. Bot. 113. (1822).

Thricolea tomenteila Dumort., Syllog. Jungerm. 67. (1831).

Tricolea tomenteila Dumort., op. cit. p. 99.

Tricholea tomenteila Dumort., Rec. d’Observ. Jungerm. 20. (1835).
Trichocolea biddlecomiae. Austin, Bot. Gaz. 3:6. (1878).

Plant whitish green becoming yellowish on drying; stem about 10 cm
or more in length, regularly bi-tri-pinnate, dorsally covered with para-
phyllia (in the form of simple or branched filamentous cilia), 23-30

1 Accepted July 1971.

* Synonymus adopted from Hatcher (1957).

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Trichocolea tomentella

Fig. 1. Cross section of stem (a portion magnified); Fig. 2. Leaf of the main
axis; Fig. 3. Cells of the leaf lamina; Fig. 4. Underleaf of the main axis. Fig. 5.
Leaf of a branch; Fig. 6. Underleaf of a branch; Fig. 7. Cells of the cillia mag-
nified; Fig. 8. Branched paraphyllium.

cells across diameter, cells differentiated into cortex and medulla, corti-
cal cells 9.6-38.4 /* in diameter, with slightly thickened v/alls, medullary

cells not thickened, 24-52.8 /* in diameter. Leaves in three rows, two
lateral and one ventral, lateral leaves alternate, about 1.5 mm or less
long, (from the base to the apex of the cilia), 1.7 mm broad, deeply
divided into 6-8 (usually 6) segments with simple or branched cilia,
cells of the cilia 57.6-105.6 n long, 9.6-24.0 a* broad, cuticle striolate-
papillose; cells of the undivided lamina 67.2-124.8 a* long, 19.2-28.8 a*
broad; underleaves smaller than the leaves, c. 1 mm long, 1.5 mm
broad, bifid, each lobe further divided into 4-6 simple or branched cilia
similar to those of the leaves. Male inflorescence branched, antheridial
branches similar to that of the vegetative branches; bracts concave.

NOTES ON SOUTH INDIAN HEPATICAE

m

similar to that of the leaves, occur in series; antheridia large, stalked
and globose, solitary or in pairs in the axils of bracts; bracteoles similar
to that of the underleaves. Female inflorescence terminal on the main
stem or branch, perianth absent, archegonia clustered at the apex pro-
tected by three series of bracts and bracteoles, the inner most series of
bracts and bracteoles larger than the rest of the outer series; bracts ap-
parently similar to that of the leaves and bracteoles to that of the ventral
row of leaves. Sporophyte enclosed within a club shaped coelocaule
(shoot calyptra), capsule large, oblong, dehisces in to 4 valves; capsule
wall 6-7 cell layers thick, cells of the outer layer large and thin-walled,
cells of the inner layer small with rod shaped thickening bands on the
tangential wall. Elaters reddish-brown 1 17 m long, 10 /* wide with 2
spiral bands and rounded tapering ends.

The plants investigated in the present work were collected by Rev.
I. Pfleiderer (of Esslingen, Germany) from Kudremukh, south India.
The study was further supplemented from fresh collections made by the
authors from Palni Hills in south India in December- January, 1965 and
from Darjeeling in eastern Himalayas in December- January 1960-70.

T. tomentella has a characteristic feathery appearance in nature. It
grows on moist rocks in dense overlapping tufts either in pure forma-
tion or occasionally mixed with other hepatics and mosses. Unfortunately
the specimens from south India and eastern Himalayas are not fertile.
The account of male and female inflorescence given in the taxonomic
description is based on contributions made by Hatcher (1957, 1959)
on the genus Trichocolea from America.

The development of fruiting structure in Trichocolea is of three dis-
tinct types (Hatcher 1959). In T. tomentella “fertilization and the begin-
ning of development of the young sporophyte apparently stimulate the
formation of a broad meristematic zone of stem tissue between the base
of the fertile archegonium and the point of insertion of the inner most
series of bracts.” After fertilization of one of the archegonia which are
clustered at the apex, the young developing sporophyte grows down-
ward into the stem tissue and gets differentiated into an haustorial foot,
a seta and a capsule. In the meantime the stem tissue which surrounds
the developing sporophyte, grows upwards completely enclosing the
young sporophyte. This covering of the thick-walled stem tissue which
surrounds the sporophyte was termed coelocaule (Goebel 1930; Knapp
1930). The outer surface of the coelocaule is stated to be densely cloth-
ed with paraphyllia. The coelocaule is surrounded by bracts and brac-
teoles below, while at the top of the coelocaule numerous unfertilized
archegonia are found. On maturation of the sporophyte, seta elongates
and the tip of the coelocaule ruptures irregularly by the emergence of
the large, oblong capsule. The spores in this genus are reddish-brown,
30-35 in diameter, oval to rounded, smooth or minutely punctate.

11

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 72(2)

Notoscyphus lutescens
Figs. 1-2. Dorsal and ventral niew of the plant respectively; Fig. 3. Leaf; Figs.
4-5. Underleaves (amphigastria) ; Figs. 6-8. Marginal, middle and basal cells of

the leaf respectively.

NOTES ON SOUTH INDIAN HEP AT 1C AE

405

2. Notoscyphus lutescens (L. et L.) Mitt. FI. Viti, p. 407, 1862. (Figs.

1-17).

*Jungermannia latescens L. et L., Pug. IV p. 16 (1932).

Gymnomitrion lutescens G., Syn. Hep. 4 (1844).

Plants small 10-18 mm or so long, prostrate, green to yellowish-
green, rarely branched; rhizoids ventral, arising in fascicles from the
base of the amphigastria. Leaves in three rows, two lateral and one
ventral; lateral leaves simple, succubous, entire, unistratose, cells with
conspicuously bulging trigones, oil bodies in fresh leaves 2-4 per cell,
elliptical, prominently granular with rough outline, apical cells of the
leaf 19.2-28.8 x 38.4-48.0 #*, middle cells 19.2-28.8 x 24.0-57.6 /f .and
basal cells 24.0-38.4 x 28.8-48.0 (52.8) n, underleaves minute, bifid, c.
264.0 m long, 100.8 p broad, cells with conspicuously developed trigones.
Dioecious. Antheridia in the axils of the bracts, bracts sac like in two

Notoscyphus lutescens

Fig. 9. Magnified view of the perianth with elongated seta and dehisced capsule;
Fig. 10. A portion of the perianth; Figs. 11-12. Female bracts; Figs. 13-14. Male
bracts; Fig. 15. Spores; Figs. 16-17. Elaters.

Synonyms adopted from Arnell (1963).

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 72(2)

alternate rows enclosing a single antheridium in each. Archegonia apical,
enclosed within the perianth, bracts and bracteoles bifid, sporophyte dif-
ferentiated into foot, seta and capsule, seta elongated bearing a spherical
dark-brown capsule, capsule dehiscence into 4-valves, capsule wall multi-
stratose, cells with thickening bands; spores unicellular, more or less
spherical c. 12.0-14.4 n in diameter; elaters tapering at both ends, usual-
ly bispirate, rarely with a tendency to become trispirate, 67.2-249.6 n
long and 9.6-14.4 ^ broad in the middle.

The plants were collected by us from Kodaikanal (alt. 6500 ft, Palni
Hills), south India in December- January 1965-19 66. This species also
grows abundantly in east Himalayan territory. The study of the oil-
bodies was completed from the specimens collected from Darjeeling dur-
ing December- January 1969-70 (Udar et al. 1970).

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the authorities of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, New Delhi (India) for the project “Studies in the
Hepaticae of south India” under which the present work was completed.

Refei

Arnell, S. (1963): Hepaticae of

south Africa. Stockholm.

Goebel, K. (1930) : Organographie
der Pflanzen II. pp. i-x, 643-1378. Jena.

Hatcher, R. E. (1957): The genus
Trichocolea in North, Central and
South America — (Hepaticae). Lloydia
20: 139-185.

(1959): The struc-
ture of the female inflorescence and its
taxonomic value in the genus Tricho-
colea (Hepaticae). ibid. 22: 208-214.

Knapp, E. (1930): Untersuchungen
liber die Hiillorgane um Archegonien

ences

und Sporogonien der Akrogynen Jun-
germaniaceen. Bot. Abhandl. 16: i-iv,
1-168. Jena.

Pande, S. K. & Bharadwaj, D. C.
(1952): The present position of In-
dian Hepaticology with a note on the
hepatic vegetation of the country. Pal-
acobotanist 1: 368-381.

Udar, R. (1975): Bryology in In-
dia. The Chronica Botanica, New
Delhi, (in press).

Udar, R. & Srivastava, S. C. &
Kumar, D. (1970): Oil-bodies in In-
dian liverworts. Curr. Sci. 39: 458-459.

The Terrestrial Mammals of
Bahrain1

Michael Gallagher2 and David L. Harrison3
{With a map)

I NTRODUCTION

A summary is given here of 13 species of terrestrial mammals which
occur in Bahrain, in the Persian (Arabian) Gulf, based upon the identi-
fication by Harrison of specimens collected by Gallagher during the
latter’s residence on the island from December 1968 to July 1971, and
during a visit in April 1974, supplemented by field observations and
reports in the literature. Eight species are recorded for the first time
from the Bahrain Islands.

No other systematic account of Bahrain’s mammalian fauna has
been published, and as changes are inevitable under pressure from an
expanding human population future assessments may be measured
against this brief account.

Bahrain

The independent State of Bahrain is an archipelago of about 30 small
desert islands at the entrance to the V-shaped Gulf of Salwa ( Dow hat
al Salwa) mid-way along the Arabian shore of the Persian or Arabian
Gulf. The largest of the group is Bahrain Island, some 30 miles in length
from north to south, 10 miles at its broadest and with its centre at
26°03'N, 50°33'E. It is connected by causeway with Muharraq Island,
on which is the international airport, and by a short bridge and a new
causeway with Sitra Island and its oil terminal. Other islands on the
east side include Nabi Salih and, near the shore of the Qatar peninsular,
the Howar group; on the west side are Umm Nassan, Jidda and Umm
Saban.

The greater part of Bahrain and its satellite islands is a desert of

1 Accepted August 1974.

2C/o. Lloyds Bank Ltd., 6 Pall Mall, London SY1Y 5 NH, England.

3 Bowerwood House, St. Botolph’s Road, Sevenoaks, Kent, England.

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

sand, stones and rock. Bahrain Island itself is an elongated dome, prin-
cipally of Eocene limestone, parts of which have slumped and eroded j
to form dusty depressions bordered by low cliffs and hills. The Jebel
al Dhukhan, at 440 feet the highest surviving part of the original dome,
stands in the central, saucer-like depression. The stony flanks slope out-
wards and downwards to the peripheral extension of recent deposits,
mostly of sabkha (salt mud flats) but also of silt, blown sand and rais-
ed beaches; only in one place (at Ras Noma, south of Zallaq on the
west coast) is there an area of medium-sized dunes, though this is not
extensive. In some of the larger wadis (dry water courses) cut in the
west flank, deposits of windblown sand against the wadi walls produce
near dune conditions, with rocks, bushes and sand hummocks in the
wadi bed. There are some caves and many niches and crevices in the
limestone sheets, hills and cliffs.

Howar Island, the largest of the group 13 miles south east of the
southern tip of Bahrain Island, is 12 miles from north to south but only
3 miles at its broadest. It is uninhabited except for half a dozen police-
men who live in the fort near a deserted fishing village at the north west
tip and have one landrover, but it is occasionally visited by fishermen,
and also by picnic parties who stay at the guest house near the north
east tip. It consists mainly of an uneven limestone plateau, which slopes
up from raised beach flats in the west to end as 30 foot cliffs on the east
side. Some variety on this bleak desert island is provided by much flot-
sam cast up on the north and west coasts, by two small elongate hills
with eroded niches used by animals for shelter, by sand-filled wadis and
shallow depressions and by traces of old cultivation.

Vegetation occurs over most of the islands (Good 1954, 1955 and
Wiltshire 1964), but in all except the irrigated part of the northern culti-
vated zone it consists of hardy xerophytic and sub-halophytic species,
improved and supplemented by carpets of ephemerals after heavy
rain. There are numerous plant species suitable for herbivores, but these
are patchy in distribution.

Cultivation, mostly in date gardens, is restricted by the availability
of water to a narrow discontinuous belt which stretches in an arc from
near Zallaq on the west coast of Bahrain Island to Sitra on the east, and
to parts of Muharraq, Sitra and some smaller offshore islands. Most of
the available water seeps slowly along pervious strata from Saudi Arabia
in the west and is tapped by hundreds of artesian wells or emerges as
land and submarine springs; it is supplemented by some water which
accumulates from local rains. The salinity increases and the static head
decreases from the north-west to the south-east and supplies are dwind-
ling rapidly and becoming more saline. The lowering of this water table
has, over the years, caused some springs to cease or reduce their flow
and the ancient subterranean aqueducts ( qanat in Bahrain and Iran,

MAMMALS OF BAHRAIN

409

the equivalent of falaj in Oman) to dry up. Nevertheless there are still
some brackish wells in use in the southern part of the island for the
watering of domestic animals. On Howar Island there are at least three
cisterns for the collection of rain water; these were full in April 1974

Map of Bahrain Island,

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

but only one has an access for animals. The domestic oil town of Awali,
in the desert, has its own water supply and flora.

The harsh desert climate is modified by the surrounding sea and the
prevailing north-westerly wind ( Shimaal ) and is less severe than on the
Arabian mainland, temperatures varying (in the 20-year period 1947-
1966) between extremes of 39°F in winter and 113°F in summer; cold,
stormy conditions can occur in winter and periods of unpleasant humi-
dity in summer. Rainfall is very variable, averaging 75 mm over the
same period, but there was a peak of 165.9 mm in 1969 and the resulting
improvement in the vegetation was long-lasting.

Mammalian fauna

As is to be expected on small desert islands, the number and variety
of species on the Bahrain islands is limited. Up to April 1974 only
thirteen terrestrial mammalian species have been identified from the
wild with certainty; these are: one hedgehog and one shrew (Insecti-
vora), three bats (Chiroptera), one mongoose (Carnivora), one gazelle
(Artiodactyla), one hare (Lagomorpha) and five small rodent species
(Rodentia). Eight of these had not been reported from the Bahrain
islands previously, but this is more probably due to the fact that no sys-
tematic collecting had been attempted previously, rather than to the re-
cent introduction and naturalisation of all the species. The discovery on
Bahrain Island of the Iraq race of the Naked-bellied Tomb Bat Tapho -
zous nudiventris, its most southerly record, is of interest, as is the exist-
ence of a distinct race of the hare Lepus capensis endemic to Bahrain
Island. The local hedgehog Paraechinus aethiopicus also exhibits at least
one characteristic which may, when more material has been studied,
show that it has evolved as a separate race.

There appear to be no foxes or wild cats, though at least one of the
cat skulls found on Bahrain Island is very probably that of the Arabian
Wild Cat Felis silvestris. The absence of such species, which occur on
the neighbouring mainland, is not surprising, for even if they had once
occurred they would be unlikely to survive for long.

On Howar Island in April 1974 the sand rat Meriones crassus was
found. Other species seen there were gazelle Gazella subgutturosa , the
hare and Brown Rat Rattus norvegicus; a skull of the Common Mouse
Mus musculus was found. Two Wild Goat Capra aegagrus were brought
to the island in 1973, but later killed.

The apparent absence of other bats and smaller desert animals such
as the gerbils Gerbillus spp. is lpss understandable, for conditions in
some parts of the islands would seem suitable and more species may
well be found.

MAMMALS OF BAHRAIN

411

Origins

The Bahrain Islands began emerging from the sea near the close of
the middle Miocene, and further local uplift in the late Miocene and
Pliocene, followed by much weathering, gave the islands their present
configuration (Willis 1967), though the sea level at the end of the Plio-
cene was probably 150 m higher than at present (Fairbridge 1961, in
Kassler 1973).

Kassler (1973) has shown that from about 80,000 years ago the sea
began to retreat, and that from about 70,000 to 17,000 years ago, dur-
ing the maxima of the Pleistocene glaciations, the Gulf was almost whol-
ly exposed in the form of a very large river valley.

The sea returned in stages to its present level about 5,000 years ago,
the last two stages entered the Gulf of Salwa, cutting marine platforms
at 18 m and 9 m present depth, approximately 8,000 and 7,000 years
ago. There are, however, some marine deposits in the Gulf of Salwa
which are 11,000 years old. Bahrain was therefore probably connected
with the mainland from about 80,000 to 11,000 (or 7,000) years ago,
during which time vertebrate fauna from the mainland must have occu-
pied suitable niches in the Bahrain ecosystem.

The Bahrain Islands now lie wholly within the 18 m depth contour
and are joined to the mainland of Qatar and Saudi Arabia by a narrow
structural feature, known as the Bahrain Ridge, over which the water
depth is less than 9 m. To the south in the Gulf of Salwa is a shallow
depression in the sea bed formed by subsidence early in the Pleistocene
period. The Bahrain Ridge has been rising in the last few thousand
years and marine growth and deposits have caused very shallow condi-
tions around Bahrain. It has been suggested (A. J. Standring, in pers.
comm, to Gallagher) that it is not impossible that temporary shoal de-
velopment, combined with exceptionally low tides, could have produced
short lived connection with the mainland sufficient to permit the migra-
tion of some species after the flooding of the Gulf of Salwa. The distance
(some 20 miles to Qatar from Bahrain Island across the shallower part
of the Ridge), and the tidal regime, would seem to make this only a re-
mote possibility, except perhaps for gazelle, which are known to wade
in search of marine algae. It is said that it is now possible for a man to
wade at low tide to some Howar islands from Qatar.

It is considered that 2,000 to 3,000 years would have been required
for the hare to have developed its distinct morphological characters; the
length of Bahrain’s isolation indicated above would have provided the
necessary time. The shrew Suncus murinus, mongoose Herpestes ed-
wardsi, gazelle and some rodents have probably been introduced or re-
introduced by man, but the hedgehog, hare, jerboa Jaculus jaculus (not
Meriones as given by Wiltshire) and many reptiles (Gallagher 1971)

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

have probably been present since Bahrain became isolated. Wiltshire
(loc. cit., p. 121) also says that the presence of the Uromastyx lizard
and the jerboa “suggest that Bahrain was formerly united with the main-
land and has never been entirely submerged, to the detriment of its
desert fauna, since that union”.

Threats and conservation

The increase in the human population (to over 216,000 in April 1971,
representing an increase of nearly 3 per cent annually since the previous
census in 1965), and the continued improvement in living standards,
have led to greater mobility; to a spread of urbanisation, of factories
and of roads; to the neglect of some plantations, and to an increased
demand upon the natural resources of the island, such as oil, gas, water,
stone and sand for construction, and generally wider facilities for re-
creation. These factors have increased the pressure upon the country-
side and, to a greater or lesser degree, upon the fauna and flora.

It is pleasing to be able to report that H H the Amir has continued
to deny the general public access to the southern half of the island un-
less special permission is obtained. This was formerly the reserve for
the hunting by the ruling family, by falcon or Saluki hound, of game
birds, particularly the Houbara Chlamydotis undulata, the hare and pos-
sibly the gazelle. Due probably to the scarcity of the first two such hunt-
ing is now rarely practised, but the area is regularly traversed by staff
of the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) as it lies over the oil and
gas fields; fishermen and weekend picnic parties are occasionally per-
mitted to enter and to drive anywhere.

The killing of gazelle and hare is forbidden everywhere, but the
shooting of hare is known and both these and other species, such as the
jerboa and mongoose (and the lizard Uromastyx microlepis ) are killed
by traffic, particularly in Spring. However, such species as the rats Rat-
tus spp.. Common Mouse and shrew will probably benefit from further
urbanisation.

Apart from Man the predators of mammals probably include feral
dogs and cats; some birds, mostly migratory (Rogers & Gallagher 1973),
and the resident terrestrial snakes (Gallagher 1971). In 1974 tracks of
large feral dogs were seen in the desert which would indicate an exten-
sion of their range.

MAMMALS OF BAHRAIN

413

SYSTEMATIC LIST
Order Insectivora

Family Erinaceidae

Paraechinus aethiopkus Ehrenberg, 1833. Ethiopian Hedgehog
1 ?o, 21 March 1970, near Zallaq.

1 ?o, 29 July 1970, between Nuwaidrat and Malamir.

In or near cultivated or well vegetated areas, including Muharraq
Island, but rarely seen. Reported in January, March, April and July,
usually on roads, so it is probably active throughout the year.

This is the first record of the species on Bahrain (Harrison 1972).
The sides of the carapace of the two specimens are noticeably whiter
than other examples of this species from Arabia in the Harrison collec-
tion and described in Harrison (1971). These specimens may well re-
present a local race, but more material is required to determine the con-
stancy of this character.

Family Soricidae

Sttncus murinus Linnaeus, 1766. House Shrew or Grey Musk Shrew
1$, 18 April 1970, near Manama

1$, 2$ $, 6 May 1970,

2$ 8, 2$ $, 5 June 1970,

1 $, 1$, 1 September 1970, „ „

1$, 1$, 29 September 1970, „ „

1$, 20 May 1970, Awali.

The first record of Suncus in Bahrain was a very small female, found
dead by T D Rogers on the soil covering the municipal rubbish tip
near Manama. Despite many subsequent searches both here and else-
where only the larger, more common form was found. The very small
size and the different dentition of the first specimen make it probable
that either the smaller form represents an additional introduction from
the Orient or that S. murinus is a polymorphic species.

Almost entirely nocturnal, it was very common and noisy on the rub-
bish tip in May 1970, but was rather less common at other times and it
seemed to be absent in the cold months. It also occurs quite commonly
in and around some houses and gardens near Manama, where it has
been recorded climbing the creeper on houses, and it has also been re-
corded at Awali. Also called the Blind Rat, and known by some Iranians
on Bahrain as musha, some locals believe them to be poisonous.

Order Chiroptera

Bats were seen in the cultivated zone of Bahrain and Muharraq

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Island most of the year. Three species were indentified, but the roosts of
only two were found and these could not be checked regularly.

Family Emballonuridae

Taphozous nudiventris magnus Wettstein, 1913. Naked-bellied Tomb
Bat

5$ $, 1$, 10 June 1970, Qala’at al Bahrain.

1$, 12 July 1971, near Tubli.

These specimens are the first record of this species on Bahrain and
the most southerly record of the Iraq race (Harrison 1972).

The largest bat seen on Bahrain, they usually fed in the clearings
between date plantations. Only one roost was found, in the roof of a
tower of the Qala’at al Bahrain (the “Portuguese fort”) on the north
coast; no other species were seen to share this roost, which was not oc-
cupied all the year; very few were present there in April 1974.

Family Hipposideridae

Asellia tridens Geoff roy, 1813. Trident Bat

46 $, 6$ $, 5 July 1970

46 S, 3$ $, 17 November 1970

2$ 6, 2$ $, 15 January 1971

A fairly common species, of which three roosts were found. The first,
on 5 July 1970, was of about 20 bats in a subterranean aqueduct
(qanat) near the village of Malichya, at the foot of the west flank. These
qanat have open man-holes reaching to the surface, like wells, every 20
metres or so, through which the bats fly. Very little dung was present,
indicating that this roost is not in regular occupation; no bats were pre-
sent on 10 December 1970, 26 April 1974, nor on some other occasions.

The second, on 17 November 1970, was in a series of caves reached
by a very small tunnel leading from the south face of the historic forti-
fied hill near the settlement of Amar, in the centre of the southern half
of Bahrain Island. About a hundred bats seen before they fled down
other passages. A huge bank of dung and a very strong smell were evi-
dence of undisturbed occupation over a long period.

The third roost was in a natural cave in the limestone of the east
flank, about two kilometres south of the village of Askar. The mouth of
the cave was partly walled round, suggesting that it was used as a cistern
to collect rain water. The large outer cave is connected to some smaller
ones, and in a hollow about 3 metres by 2 metres in one of these about
60 bats were found on 15 January 1971, but only about six bats were
present on 27 May 1971.

Although a widely distributed species and known from neighbouring

MAMMALS OF BAHRAIN

415

Qatar and from Hufuf, eastern Saudi Arabia, these were the first re-
cords from Bahrain (Harrison 1972, p. 627).

Pipistrellus kuhli ikhwanius Cheesman and Hinton, 1924. Kuhl’s Pipi-
strelle

1$, 4 May 1971, near Manama.

This specimen was taken by T D Rogers at 8 p.m. from amongst
many small bats flying in clearings between date gardens at the edge of
the marshes near Manama. Small bats, possibly this species, were wide-
spread in the cultivated zone of Bahrain and Muharraq islands, and
they were said to be found occasionally on trees as well as buildings.

A widespread species, it was known from Bahrain previously from
two specimens in the Cox-Cheesman collection and collected on 9 April
1921 (Cheesman & Hinton 1924, and Harrison 1964, p. 155).

Order Carnivora
Family Viverridae

Herpestes edwardsi ferrugineus Blanford, 1874. Common Mongoose

1 $ , 2 November 1969

1$, 30 March 1970

1 ?o, 4 June 1970 (skull only) Malichiya

A successful species, presumably introduced from Iran or India, and
known from the cultivated zone, where it is widespread and even occurr-
ing in the capital (Mandaville 1971) and once at Awali, where at least
one was kept in captivity and later released (I W Hanwell, in pers.
comm.).

They live in burrows, drain pipes, holes in the wall etc., and are
active throughout the year, foraging singly or in family parties in and
near gardens and digging in lawns. The food includes snakes, chickens,
eggs and young birds (Belgrave 1953) as well as Coleoptera larvae and
possibly rodents, the Marsh Frog Rana ridibunda and the eggs of the
Terrapin Clemmys caspica.

Copulation was reported only at the end of January and in Febru-
ary, though in India the species breeds throughout the year (Prater
1971).

Both specimens were found by Mrs C Stroud killed by traffic on the
north coast road. These are the first mongooses to be recorded from
Bahrain (Harrison 1971).

Family Felidae

Fells spp.

1 ?o, 12 July 1970 (skull only), Ras al Qarain.

1 ?o, 15 January 1971 (skull only), near Askar.

There is no certain record of wild cats having existed on Bahrain.

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 72(2)

!

However, two very large cat skulls were found, one near the beach j
about 6 km south of the almost deserted village of Durr on the east,
coast, and the other with some remains of the animal in the bat cave
near Askar. They are not F. margarita, but they are quite possibly genu-
ine Wild Cat F. silveslris. The first could just possibly be from a feral
animal, but the second skull and teeth closely match other specimens of
silvestris in the Harrison collection; it is however, impossible to be cer-
tain without the skin.

One of these might be from a “ Fells lybica (= F. silvestris) from the
Ethiopian frontier and released by a friend” in 1969 (R W B Izzard,
in pers. comm.).

Mr L D Josephson (later of BAPCO) said, in pers. comm, in 1971,
that “a lair of two wild cats in the Bahrain desert was reported in the
Bahrain Islander (a BAPCO journal) about 15 years ago”, but this re-
port has not been traced. Some residents in 1974 said that they had seen
large cats, but these animals may be feral domestic cats, of which there
must surely be a number.

Order Artiodactyla
Family Bovidae

Gazella sp.

Gazelle, apparently all Gazella subgutturosa (see later), wander free-
ly over the southern part of Bahrain Island and they have been recorded
as far north as Hamala Camp. They often frequent the coasts, usually
leaving early in the morning; they also visit Jebel al Dhukhan when
water and vegetation is available. The maximum number seen together
was 27 (on 13 August 1971, west of Amar, by M C Jennings, in pers.
comm.). Young have been seen with adults in spring and a freshly dead
juvenile was found in July 1971. Formerly hunted with Saluki hounds
and falcons, they are now protected but are occasionally killed by traffic.
Some have been reported being drowned in the sea after bolting to es-
cape from helicopters.

Their origin and present status is not clear. Even if there was an in-
digenous stock it must have been increased by gifts to the Amir and by
escapes from the small captive herds kept by some sheikhs.

Gazelle on Howar Island could have been introduced or might have
waded from the mainland of Qatar at very low tide. Seven were seen on
Umm Nassan Island on 18 April 1970, where there was also a large
Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra on 27 December 1970, no doubt intro-
duced. About twenty gazelle are said to have been introduced to Umm
Nassan from India by Sheikh Hamad, the grandfather of the present
Amir. Two Wild Goat were introduced briefly to Howar Island in 1973.

MAMMALS OF BAHRAIN

41 1

Gazella subgutturosa marica Thomas, 1897. Rhim Gazelle

1 ?o, 12 July 1970, Ras al Qarain

1 ?o, 26 July 1971, Ras Noma

1 ?o, 28 July 1971, Wasmiya, Zallaq

This race was represented from Bahrain by a single specimen in the
British Museum (Natural History) collected in 1922. The head from the
whole mummified remains of a very immature gazelle, found behind the
beach crest on the south east coast, was therefore the first example of
this species obtained on Bahrain for nearly .fifty years.

Two other young gazelle of this species were found dead on the road
near Zallaq on the west coast but, as for the first specimen, only the
skulls were retained.

About ten gazelle are said to survive on Howar Island, where at least
three were seen regularly at a water cistern and vegetation near the
Police Fort in April 1974; resting places were found under rock ledges
in the jebels near the centre of the island. The skull of one found dead
in a cistern by J H Clingly in 1973 proved to be this sub-species. Mr
Clingly says that he believes that it is they that make the small excava-
tions to be seen along the beach crest, and it is presumed that this is in
a search for the basal tubers of Cistanche lutea (Orobanchaceae) which
flower there after Spring rains.

Order Lagomorpha
Family Leporidae

Lepus capensis atallahi Harrison, 1972. Bahrain Hare

1$, 14 April 1971, near Isa Town

1 imm. ?o, 29 July 1970, Khadra. BM (NH) No. 1970.2035

1 $, 12 May 1971, Ras Noma

This very small hare, distinguished from all other Arabian hares by
its remarkably short ears, was first described (Flarrison 1972) from a
specimen found dead on the road near Isa Town by T D Rogers. A
leveret, found alive by M C Jennings on 29 July 1970 and killed by a
dog on 5 August, is in the British Museum (Natural History) spirit
collection, and another leveret, taken in the dunes at Ras Noma on 12
May 1971 by Capt D M Dever, is in the Harrison collection.

With the rapid spread of urbanisation and main roads the hare is
not as widespread and as common as it was (Belgrave 1953). However,
it is still present in most desert areas, including Jebel al Dhukhan, as far
north as Isa Town, as far south as the southern tip and on the east and
west coasts. One was also seen on Umm Nassau Island on 27 December
1970 and it was present on Howar Island in 1974. Hunted formerly with
Saluki hounds it is now protected, but is occasionally shot, and also
killed by traffic.

It is mainly crepuscular or nocturnal, and avoids the heat of day by

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

lying in a shallow form under a bush or rock, or in a burrow of about
its own length dug into the sand at the base of a bush, from which it
will tend not to move unless approached very closely.

The specimen found on 14 April was host to the sucking lice (Phthi-
raptera) Haemodipsus setoni group Anophira: Hoplopeuridae, the first
recorded example from this species.

Order Rodentia
Family Dipodidae

Jacuius jaculus vocator Thomas, 1921. Lesser Three-toed Jerboa
1 ?o, 7 February 1969, Sakhir
1 ?o, 23 March 1969, Central desert
1$, 1 December 1969, Central desert near Awali
1 ?o, 12 February 1970, Central desert
1 ?o, 22 August 1970 (skull only) Wasmiya
1 $ , 20 November 1970, Central desert
1 ?o, 20 February 1971 (skull only), near Malichiya
1 ?o, 3 March 1971 (skull only preserved), Sitra

Widespread in desert and semi-desert, and occurring as far north as
Budaia. It is active during all but the cold months, though it may not be
seen so frequently in mid-summer.

The burrow is not easily found, presumably because it is usually on
flat open ground and the animal usually seals it from within. At Rifa’a
boys are said to catch them after pouring water down the burrow. After
heavy rain one jerboa was found dead outside a small burrow 10 metres
up on a small hillside near Sakhir. Most other specimens have been
found killed by traffic on the roads.

One previous specimen from Bahrain is in the British Museum
(Natural History) collection (Ellerman 1948).

Family Muridae

Rattus rattus Linnaeus, 1758. Black Rat
1$, 13 February 1970, Jufair, near Manama
1 $ , 25 February 1970, near Manama
1$, 3 March 1970, near Manama
1$, 8 March 1970, Manama
1 ?o, 22 August 1970, coast at Ras Jazayir
3 $ $ , 18 September 1970, Khadra
1 ?o, 25 September 1970, Nakhl Lozi, near Buri
1$, 9 November 1970, Jufair
1 ?o, 5 April 1971, Budaia

Widespread in habited and vegetated areas and in semi-desert. Speci-
mens, all of the pale form, have been seen in most parts of the northern

MAMMALS OF BAHRAIN

419

half of Bahrain and on Muharraq Island; tracks, . probably of this species,
were found on Jebel al Dukhan and on all beaches, so that it may exist
over the southern half also. They commonly climb trees by day and
night. The specimen on 5 April was found in the gut of a snake Coluber
ventromaculatus.

Two specimens were host to the Sucking Louse (Anoplura) Poly -
plax spinulosa (Burmeister 1838) and one to a tick Hyalomma sp.
(probably impeltatum).

Earlier specimens from Bahrain are in the British Museum (Natural
History) collection (Harrison 1972, p. 460).

Raftus norvegicus norvegicus Berkenhout, 1769. Brown Rat
1 ?o, December 1968, (skull), Ras abu Jarjur
1 $ , 23 August 1969, Jufair, near Manama
1 A , 25 August 1969, Jufair, near Manama
1 ?o, 30 August 1969, Ras Noma
1$, 1 January 1970, near Manama
1 A , 7 November 1970, Muharraq causeway

1 ad. $, 1 imm. ?o, 16 April 1974, Howar Island (skulls retained)

It occurs around the harbour and habited areas of Muharraq Island
and of Bahrain Island, certainly as far south as Sitra and Ras Noma.

The specimens collected are the first to be recorded from Bahrain
(Harrison 1971, and 1972, p. 465).

Discovered for the first time on Howar Island near the old village
and police fort. Skulls were also found in bird pellets from the centre
of the island, and burrows were seen in debris and dry seaweed along
the west coast.

The Howar specimens were host to the mite Laelaps nuttali Hirst.
Mus musculus gen til ulus Thomas, 1919. Common Mouse

Very common and widespread over most of the islands, where it has
been taken in domestic areas, under vegetation, in pure desert and on
beaches. The burrows are in or at the base of sand hummocks, under
vegetation or on flat ground (as on some beaches); some are sealed
from within. Entirely nocturnal.

One had been swallowed by a snake C. ventromaculatus, and one
on 31 May contained four embryos. The skull of one was found in an
old pellet of a predatory bird on Howar Island in April 1974.

An earlier specimen from Bahrain is in the British Museum (Natural
History) (Harrison 1972, p. 474).

Family Cricetidae

Meriones crass us crassus Sundevall, 1842. Sundevall’s Jird
2$ $, 17 April 1970, Howar Island, Bahrain

These specimens came from burrows under rocks on the plateau at

12

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

the north of the island. Others were seen in a colony of burrows in
sandy hummocks and soft ground under bushes near the west coast, and
other rodent burrows, possibly of this species, were in rocky and sandy
ground in other parts of the island.

In subsequent searches of similar ground on Bahrain Island the liz-
ard U. microlepis was found to occupy most likely sites. However, Mem-
ories may yet be found to occur in parts of that island also.

These are the first specimens from the Bahrain Island. The nearest
previous examples came from A1 Khobar, 26 miles west of Bahrain
Island. The specimens resemble series of the typical form from Sharjah,
on the mainland, in all essential respects.

These specimens were host to the mites Androlaelaps longipes (Bre-
getova); an association with Meriones species was noted by Bregetova
(1952) in USSR and Costa (1951) in Israel.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to the many people on Bahrain who gave practical
help and encouragement to us in our study of the animals of the island,
in particular to Siddiq al Alawi, W G Anderson, Mohammed Attya-
tallah, H F Blackmore, G Clarke, J H Clingly, Capt D M Dever, Mrs
Fenton, Mrs N George, Major General (now General Sir Roland)
Gibbs, Miss J C Grant, Capt (now Major) W A C Griffiths, C I
Griffiths, Dr I W Hanwell, S R G Hubbert, R W B Izzard, Mohammed
Jaffari, M C Jennings, L D Josephson, T D Rogers, Mrs C Stroud,
M M Whiteley and the members of the Bahrain Police on Howar Island.

We are also particularly grateful to H E Khalifa bin Sulman al Kha-
lifa for making it possible for Clingly and Gallagher to visit Howar Is-
land in 1974.

Dr A J Standring and M Goodchild gave helpful comment on the
geomorphology of Bahrain, and J George provided climateological data.
Dr T R Clay and Mrs B W Parry, both of the British Museum (Natural
History), kindly provided the identifications respectively of the mallo-
phaga and mites, and M N Kaiser of United States Naval Medical Re-
search Unit No. 3 that of the ticks. We also wish to thank Miss Jill
Gallagher for typing our final draft.

References

Belgrave, J. H. D. (1953) 1968:
Welcome to Bahrain. London: Augus-
tan Press.

Bregetova, N. G. (1952): New spe-
cies of mites of the genus Haemolae-

laps (Gamasoidea: Laelaptidae) para-
sitizing rodents. Zool. Zh. 57:860-882.

Cheesman, R. E. & Hinton, M.A.C.
(1924): On the mammals collected in
the desert of central Arabia by Major

MAMMALS OF BAHRAIN

421

R. E. Cheesman between November
1923 and March 1924. Ann. Mag. nat.
Hist. (9) 14: 548.

Costa, M. (1961) : Mites associated
with rodents in Israel. Bull. Brit. Mus.
nat. Hist. (Zool.) . 5:1-70.

Ellerman, J. R. (1948) : Key to the
rodents of south-west Asia in the Bri-
tish Museum collection. Proc. Zool.
Soc. (London) 775:765-816.

Gallagher, M. D. (1971): The am-
phibians and reptiles of Bahrain. Bah-
rain : Oriental Press.

Good, R. D.’O. (1954): The Bah-
rain Islands and their desert flora. Bio-
logy of Deserts. Proc. Sympos. Biol.
Hot & cold deserts: 45-55. London.

(1955): The flora of

Bahrain. In Dickson, V. The wild
flowers of Kuwait and Bahrain, Lon-
don: Allen & Unwin.

Harrison, D. L. (1964) : The mam-
mals of Arabia, Vol. 1. Insectivora,
Chiroptera, Primates, pp. 1-192. Lon-
don: Benn.

(1971): Observa-
tions on some notable Arabian mam-
mals, with the description of a new

gerbil (Gerbilles, Rodentia: Criceti-

dae). Mammalia 55(1) : 1 1 1-125.

(1972) : The mam-
mals of Arabia. Vol. 3. Lagomorpha,
Rodentia. pp. 383-670. London. Benn.

Kassler, P. (1973) : The structural
and geomorphic evolution of the Per-
sian Gulf in The Persian Gulf, Ed.
Purser, B. H. Berlin, Heidelburg and
New York: Springer.

Mandaville, J. P. (jr.) (1971):
Notes and records. Arabian nat. Hist.
Assoc. 1 : 8-9.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of
Indian Animals. (3rd ed.) Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

Rogers, T. D. & Gallagher, M. D.
(1973) : Birds of Bahrain, [an unpub-
lished, stencilled, annotated check list
deposited at the British Museum (Na-
tural History)].

Willis, R. P. (1967) : Geology of
the Arabian Peninsula — Bahrain. Geo-
logical survey, professional paper 560-
E. Washington: US Government Print-
ing Office.

Wiltshire, E. P. (1964) : The Lepi-
doptera of Bahrain. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 67(1): 119-141.

Food-habits of water-birds of
the Sundarban, 24 Parganas
District, West Bengal,

India — V

Lapwing, Sandpiper, Stint, Tern, Kingfisher

Ajit Kumar Mukeierjee,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
{With three text-figures)

{Continued from Vol. 71 { 2): 200)

Yanellus indicus indicus (Boddaert), The Red-wattled Lapwing

The Red-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus indicus (Boddaert), is
a common bird of the Sundarban area. It is generally met with singly
or in pairs. In the reclaimed area it is found in cultivated fields especi-
ally after harvesting, on elevated bunds between such fields Avhen these
are inundated, as well as in fallow lands, edges of freshwater pools,
tanks, etc. In forested area, it is sometimes seen on exposed mud-flats
of tidal rivers and forest fringes, and sometimes near pools of water in
the interior.

About the food-habits of the Red- wattled Lapwing, Jerdon (1864,
p. 648) remarked that it feeds on various insects, shells, and worms.
Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 265) examined the food of nine examples
at Pusa (Bihar) and stated: “Of 118 insects taken by 9 birds, 51 are
injurious; 6 birds took injurious insects, 4 neutral and 4 injurious. One
bird took a prawn. 1 shell and 2 vegetable matter”. Baker (1929,
p. 188) writes that its food consists of worms, grubs, insects of all kinds
as well as freshwater mollusca, tiny crayfish, etc. Ali (1955, p. 92) found
that it fed on insects, grubs, molluscs, etc.

On an examination of the stomach-contents of 69 specimens of the
European Lapwing, Vanellus, v. vanellus (Linnaeus), Collinge (1927,
p. 234) found that of the total food consumed during the year 89 per
cent was animal food. Of this, injurious insects formed 60 per cent,
neutral insects 4 per cent, slugs and snails 10 per cent, earthworms 10
per cent, and miscellaneous animal matter of a neutral nature 5 per cent.

1 Accepted September 1972.

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

423

Only 11 per cent of the food was of vegetable nature, 6 per cent of
which consisted of weed seeds and 5 per cent of miscellaneous vegetable
matter. He thus concluded that 70 per cent of its food was of a bene-
ficial nature and 30 per cent neutral.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 174 adult speci-
mens of Vanellus i. indicus that I collected in the Sundarban is given in
Table 18.

Table 18

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Red-wattled Lapwing
N = Number of specimens.

Weight = Total weight (in gramme) of examples of all species under a Class.
Length of fish = Its standard length.

Items of diet No. Wt.(g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Phylum Chordata

Class R e p t i 1 i a
Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae

Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus) 6 Common in cultivations.

Parts of head, and body
partly disgested.

Xenochrophis piscator

(Schneider) 2 Common in paddy-fields.

Amphiesma stolata

(Linnaeus) 4 Common on tidal mud-

flats, partly digested.

Total: 12 120 1.96

Phylum Mollusca

Class Gastropoda
Order Archaeogastropoda
Family Neritidae

Nerita ( Odontostomia )

lineata (Dillwyn)
Order Mesogastropoda
Family Viviparidae
Viviparus bengalensis

31

Complete shells.

(Lamarck)
Family Pilidae

56

Freshwater form.
Mostly complete

Pila sp.

to

-do-

Littorina melanostoma Gray 21

-do-

Digonistoma sp.
Melanoides tuberculatus

10

-do-

(Muller)

85

-do-

[85]

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.)

Remarks

Melanoides ( Plotia )

scabra (Muller)

17

-do-

Order Basommatophora
Family Lymnaeidae
Lymnaea acuminata
(Lamarck)

40

-do-

Family Planorbidae

Indoplanorbis exustus
(Deshayes)

22

Land-snail.

Shell fragments

Not identifiable.

Total: 292 1830 27.91

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Insccta
Order Orthoptera
Family Locustidae
Heiroglyphus banian
Fabricius

Attractomorpha sp.

81

25

Oxya sp. 31

Chrotogonus sp. 82

Acrotylus sp. 22

Heteropternis sp. 19

Locust a danica Linnaeus 35
Pyrgomorpha sp. 6

Lefroya sp. 27

Coptotettix sp. 8

Family Tettigidae
Acrydium sp. 21

Scelimcna sp. 16

Family Gryllidae
Gryllus sp. 35

Liogryllus sp. 45

Acheta bimaculata

(De Geer) 30

Brachytrypes sp. 23

Family Gryllotalpidae
Gryllotalpa africana
Beanvois 91

Gryllotalpa sp. 27

Orthopteran fragments
Order Dermaptera
Family Labiduridae
Labidura sp.

Family Labiidae
Labia minor (Linnaeus) 17
Family Chelisochidae
Chelisoches morio (Fab.) 3

Paddy-pest. In fragments.
Pest of tobacco and veget-
ables.

Pest of paddy.

Pest of cotton.

Pest of paddy nurseries,
-do-
-do-
-do-

Pest of cultivated plants.

Pest of roots of paddy, etc.
-do-

-do-

-do-

Mostly parts of body,
-do-

Not identifiable.

[86]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

425

Items of diet No. Wt. (g) °/o (Wt.) Remarks

Family Forficulidae
Forficula sp. 12

Forficulid claspers and
fragmentary remains
Order Isoptera
Family Termitidae
Odontotermes sp. ? 26

Order Odonata
Suborder Zygoptera
Family Coenagriidae
Ischneura sp. ? (Naiads) 40

Coenagrion sp. ?

(Naiads) 32

Suborder Anisoptera
Family Aeschnidae
Anax sp. ? (Naiads) 20

Aeschna sp. (Naiads) 27

Family Libellulidae
Pantala sp. (Naiads) 6

Crocothemis sp. (Naiads) 9

Odonata fragments
Order Hemiptera
Family Pentatomidae
Nezara viridula Linnaeus 25
Family Coreidae
Leptocorisa sp. 80

Family Pyrrhocoridae
Dysdercus cingulatus

(Fabricius) 32

Family Jassidae
Nephotettix sp. 100+

Family Gerridae
Halobates sp. 6

Gerris sp. 9

Family Belostomatidae
Belostoma sp. 7

Family Nepidae
Ranatra sp. 10

Nepa sp. 13

Family Notonectidae
Notonecta sp. ? 21

Family Corixidae
Corixa sp. 8

Order Lepidoptera
Caterpillars

Not identifiable.

Partially digested. Therefore
identification doubtful. Pest
of Sugarcane and other
Gramineae.

Aquatic form,
-do-

-do-

-do-

-do-

Aquatic form.
Not identifiable.

Pest of vegetables.
Pest of paddy-shoots.

Pest of cotton, etc.

Rice leaf-hopper, pest.

Aquatic form.

-do-

Aquatic form, body in parts.

Aquatic form.

-do-

-do-

Partially digested. Not iden-
tifiable.

[87]

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.)

Remarks

Order Coleoptera
Family Cicindelidae

Cicindela sp.
Family Rutelidae

6

Anomala elata (Fabricius)
Family Coccinellidae

81

Pest of garden plants.

Epilachna sp.

27

Elytra only.

Family Tenebrionidae

O pat rum sp.
Family Meloidae
Mylabris pustulata

38

Pest of potato-tubers, etc.

Thunberg

Gnathospastoides rouxi

26

Pest of earheads of paddy.

Castalenau

Cylindrothorax ruficollis

14

-do-

(Fabricius)

14

-do-

Cylindrothorax ? tenuicollis

19

-do-

Epicauta sp.

Family Chrysomelidae

28

-do-

Podagria sp.

6

Pest of Hibiscus.

Sagra sp. ?

3

Pest of Dolichos lablab.

Oides affinis Jacoby

7

Pest of paddy.

Haltica cyanea Weber
Dicladispa armigera

13

-do-

(Olivier)

Family Curculionidae

19

-do-

Episomus sp.

5

Pest of foliage of cultivated
plants, especially pulses.

Myllocerus sp.

18

Pest of paddy.

Atactogaster sp.

10

Pest of cotton, vegetables,
etc.

Alcides sp.
Pempheres affinis

7

Pest of indigo, agathi, etc.

Fabricius

Family Scarabaeidae
Heliocopris bucephalus

11

Pest of cotton.

(Fabricius)

16

Catharsius sp.
Family Dytiscidae

12

Dytiscus sp.

9

Aquatic form.

Family Gyrinidae

.

Gyrinus sp.

Family Hydrophilidae

8

-do-

Hydrocharis sp. ?

7

-do-

Berosus sp.

6

-do-

Coleoptera larvae

Mutilated beyond identifi-
cation.

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

427

Items of diet

No.

Wt. (g)

% (Wt.)

Remarks

Order Hymenoptera
Family Formicidae
Dorylus orientalis

Walker

108

Pest of sugarcane, but I
have found it on jute also.

Solenopsis geminata
Fabricius

Oecophylla smaragdina

92

Pest of brinjal.

Fabricius

62

Pest of mango and other

Camponotus compressus

trees.

Fabricius

188

Pest of various plants.

Phidole sp.
Miscellaneous insect

30

fragment

Not identifiable.

Total :

2017

3750

63.21

Class Arachnida
Order Araneae
Family Argyopidae
Argyope sp.

100+

Cyrtophora sp. ?
Leucage dec or at a

100+

In bush.

(Blackwall)

100+

Common in paddy and
grass.

Araneus sp.
Cyclosa sp.

50+

Common, in bush and
paddy.

10+

Common in bush.

Family Tetragnathidae

Ecuta javanica Thorell

100+

Very common in paddy and
grass. Invariably found in
stomachs.

Family Lycosidae
Lycosa sp.

10+

Common in ground and in
grass. Invariably present in
stomachs.

Hippasa sp.
Family Oxyopidae

20+

-do-

Oxyopus sp. ?
Miscellaneous spider

30+

fragments

Total :

520+

345

5.63

Phylum Annelida

Class Chaetopoda
Order Oligochaeta
Family Megascolecidae

Pheretima sp. 10+ In bits. Invariably present

in stomachs.

[89]

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.)

Remarks

Peri onyx sp.

10+

Eutyphoeus sp. ?

5

Partially digested. Identifi-
cation doubtful.

Family Naididae
Chaetogaster sp. ?

6

Partially digested. Identifi-
cation doubtful.

Family Tubificidae
Limnodrilus sp.
Miscellaneous Oligochaeta

10+

Tangled mass.

(bits)

Not identifiable.

Total: 41+ 75 1.22

The diet of this bird is solely of animal nature (Fig. 1). Of the total
food consumed by 174 birds, 63.2 per cent represent insects, comprising
2017 examples belonging to 72 species. Of these 1683 examples repre-
senting 45 species are crop and vegetable pests; the rest are predators
or neutral. The other items are mostly freshwater Mollusca (27.91%),
spiders (5.63%), snakes (1.96%) and Oligochaeta (1.22%).

From the analysis it is seen that the Red-wattled Lapwing is a very
useful bird, feeding on injurious insects that affect agriculture.

Tringa gSareoIa Linnaeus, The Spotted Sandpiper

The Spotted Sandpiper, Tringa glareola Linnaeus, is a bird of the
open marshes. It frequents freshwater bogs, inundated paddy-fields,
flooded parts of the reclaimed area and tidal swampy forests. It moves
in parties from one mul-flat to another pecking and . probing for food
on the exposed muddy banks during the ebb tides and at the edge of
shallow water. It is a winter visitor.

Very little information is available about the food-habits of this bird.
In India, Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 268) analysed the stomach-contents
of 24 examples and stated: “Of insects eaten by 24 birds, 9 are injur-
ious, 3 beneficial and 43 neutral. Of 12 birds that contained insects, 4
took beneficial, 9 neutral and 6 injurious. Sixteen contained shells, 1 a
prawn, 1 a shrimp, 3 a feather and 6 vegetable matter”. Ali (1955,
p. 94) stated about this and Tringa ochropus Linnaeus, that: “They run
along on the squelchy mud picking up tit-bits or probe with their bills
for food: insects, larvae, worms and molluscs”. In Europe, Voous
(1960, p. 97) found that the food consisted predominently of small
water and marsh insects; also worms and small molluscs outside the
breeding season.

[90]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

429

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 38 adult specimens
that I collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 19.

[91]

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Table 19

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Spotted Sandpiper

Items of diet No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Phylum Mollusca

Class Gastropoda
Order Archaeogastropoda
Family Neritidae
Nerita ( Odontostomia )

lineata (Dillwyn) 8

Order Mesogastropoda
Family Viviparidae
Viviparus bengalensis

(Lamarck) 21

Family Littorinidae
Littorina melanostoma
Gray 19

Family Hydrobiidae
Digoinostoma pulchella

(Benson) 6

Family Melaniidae
Melanoides tuberculatus

(Muller) 18

Melanoides scabra

(Muller) 27

Order Basommatophora
Family Lymnaeidae
Lymnaea acuminata

(Lamarck) 19

Family Planorbidae
Indoplanorbis exustus

(Deshayes) 32

Family Patellidae
Patella sp. ? 15

Family Pilidae

Pila sp. 17

Family Galeodidae

Melongena sp. ? 6

Class B i v a 1 v i a

Family Arcidae

Area sp. 3

Miscellaneous molluscan fleshy
pulp and shell-fragments

Total :

Minute shells. Brackish
water form.

Minute shells. Freshwater
form.

Brackish water form.
Freshwater form.
Brackish water form.

Brackish water form.
Not identifiable.

191 720 49.03

[92]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

431

Items of diet

No. Wt. (g)

% (Wt.)

Remarks

Phylum Arthropoda

Class I n s e c t a
Order Orthoptera
Family Tettigidae
Acrydium sp.

Family Locustidae

165

Pest of paddy nurseries.

Chrotogonus sp.
Order Odonata

26

Pest of cotton, paddy, etc.

Suborder Anisoptera
Naiads

25+

Mostly mutilated.

Suborder Zygoptera
Family Libellulidae
Naiads

40

-do-

Family Coenagriidae
Naiads

35

-do-

Order Hemiptera
Family Gerridae
Halo bates sp.

60

Brackish water form.

G err is sp. ?

Family Gelastocoridae

78

-do-, partially digested.

Limnocoris sp. ?

18+

Partially digested and most-
ly in fragments, v

Family Nepidae
Ranatra sp.

35

Freshwater form.

Nepa sp.

Family Jassidae

28

-do-

Jassids

100+

Invariably present in
stomachs.

Order Ephemerida
Mayfly naiads

100+

Partially digested. Identifi-
cation not possible.

Order Coleoptera
Family Gyrinidae
Gyrinus sp.

Family Dytiscidae

16

Canthydrus sp.

6

Elytra and parts of body.

Laccophilus sp.

35

-do-

Bidessus sp.

40

-do-

Hydratictus sp.

3

-do-

Eretes stictus Linnaeus

100

Order Diptera
Family Culicidae
Larvae & pupae
Family Chironomidae

1000+

Patially digested.

Larvae

Miscellaneous insect

100+

fragments

Not identifiable.

Total:

2010+ 425

29.10

[93]

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No.

Wt. (g)

% (Wt.)

Remarks

Class Arachnida
Order Araneae
Family Argyopidae
Tetragnatha sp.

100+

Invariably present in

Family Oxyopidae
Oxyopes sp. ?

100+

stomachs.

Family Hersilidae
Hersila sp.
Miscellaneous spider

50+

fragments

Not identifiable.

Total :

250+

130

8.94

Phylum Annelida

Order Oligochaeta
Family Tubificidae
Limnodrilus sp.

Family Magascolecidae

100+

Tangled mass.

Pheretima sp.

6

Perionix sp. ?

7

Order Polychaeta
Family Serpulidae
Mercierella sp.

10+

Brackish water form. In
bits.

Ficopomatus sp. ?

10+

-do-

Miscellaneous

Partially digested. Not

Annelida

identifiable.

Total :

133+

60

4.10

Vegetable matter
Fragments of aquatic

Partially digested. Not

plants and weed seeds:

identifiable.

Total :

100

6.84

Sand

25

1.57

The food of the Spotted Sandpiper is composed of 91.59 per cent of
animal matter, 6.84 per cent of vegetable matter and 1.57 per cent of
sand (Fig. 1) which is found mixed with the food. The animal matter
is comprised of 49.08 per cent Mollusca in the form of minute shells
and 29.10 per cent insects. Except three species of terrestrial grasshop-
pers, the other 20 species of insects found in the stomachs are immature
aquatic forms representing naiads of dragon- and damsel-flies and, lar-
vae and pupae of mosquitoes, chironomids, etc., and a few adult bugs
and beetles. Spiders constitute 8.94 per cent of the diet, and Annelida
which are represented by freshwater Oligochaeta and brackish water

[94]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

433

Polychaeta, only 4.10 per cent. The vegetable constituents of the food is
made up of fragments of aquatic plants and wild seeds to the extent of
6.84 per cent.

Since the bird destroys many harmful aquatic Diptera, such as larvae
and pupae of mosquito and chironomid, it is certainly beneficial. The
agriculturists are also benefitted by this bird as it devours some grass-
hoppers and leafhoppers.

Calidris miiustus (Leisler), The Little Stint

The Little Stint, Calidris minutus (Leisler), is a winter visitor to the
Sundarban area from early December to the end of March. It is a social
bird, often mixing with other stints and other waders, forming flocks,
sometimes of considerable size. It inhabits freshwater marshes as well
as the salt marshes of the estuaries, and prefers broad mud-flats of tidal
rivers keeping close to the edge of the water. During the ebb tide, it sear-
ches in the silt for minute creatures and follows the water as it recedes.
With the high tide it moves up to the bank and finally to the freshwater
mud-flats in the interior.

Very little information is available about the food-habits of this bird.
In India, Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 270) examined the stomachs of
three specimens at Pusa and found 15 neutral insects and shells. Whistler
(1928, p. 364) mentions that it collects minute insects, Crustacea,
worms, and the seeds of various aquatic plants. According to Baker
(1929, p. 236) its food consists of insects, tiny worms, mollusca, beetles
and sometimes seeds. Ali (1955, p. 96) mentions that it picks up tiny
insects, crustaceans and molluscs. In Europe, Voous (1960, p. 101)
found that its food consists of mainly small insects, including large
quantities of mosquitoes and their larvae; and outside the breeding
season large numbers of small crustaceans and snails are also taken.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 86 adult specimens
that I collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 20.

Table 20

Analysis of the stomch-contents of the Little Stint

Items of diet No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Phylum Mollusca

Class Gastropoda
Order Mesogastropoda
Family Littorinidae
Littorina melanostoma

Gray 61 Some complete and some

broken shells.

[95]

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No.

Wt. (g)

% (Wt.)

Remarks

Order Basommatophora
Family Lymnaeidae
Lymnaea acuminata
(Lamarck)

Family Planorbidae
Indoplanorbis exustus

32

Mostly complete shells.

(Deshayes)

19

-do-

Class B i v a 1 v a

*

Family Arcidae
Area sp. ?
Miscellaneous shell

6

Part of opercula.

fragments

Miscellaneous Mollusca

Not identifiable.

pulp

Not identifiable.

Total :

118

425

46.18

Phylum Arthrupoda

Class Crustacea
Order Decapoda
Family Palaemonidae
Macrobrachium sp.

27

Mostly in parts.
Freshwater form.

Macrobraehium rude
(Heller)

Palaemon sty lifer us

35

-do-

(Milne-Edward)

29

-do-

Family Penaeidae
Metapenaeus sp.
Family Grapsidae
Varuna litterata

18

Brackish water form.

(Fabricius)

33+

Brackish water form,
partially digested.

Miscellaneous crustacean

Not identifiable.

fragments

Total:

142

172

17.70

Class I n s e c t a
Order Orthoptera
Family Tettigidae
Acrydium sp.

9

Semi-aquatic and ground-
hopper.

Scelimena sp.

13

-do-

Loxilobus sp.
Order Dermaptera

7

•d°-

Family Labiidae
Labia sp.

3

'

Miscellaneous earwigs

Claspers and parts of body.

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

435

Items of diet

No. Wt.(g) % (Wt.)

Remarks

Order Ephemerida
Family Ephemeridae
Naiads

5

Partly digested.

Order Odonata
Suborder Zygoptera
Family Coenagriidae
Naiads

8

-do-

Suborder Anisoptera
Family Aeschnidae
Aeschna sp. ? (naiads)

2

-do-

Miscellaneous dragon- &

damselflies larvae

Not identifiable.

Order Hemiptera

Family Gerridae
G err is sp.

17

Aquatic form. Partially

Halo bates sp. ?

9

digested.

Family Naucoridae
Laccocoris sp.

6

-do-

Limnocoris sp.

4

-do-

Family Nepidae
Ranatra sp.

3

Aquatic form.

Order Coleoptera
Family Dytiscidae
Laccophilus sp.
Eretes stictus
Linnaeus

17

Aquatic form.

Family Gyrinidae
Dineutes sp.

4

Aquatic form. Elytra and

Gyrinus sp. ?

7+

parts of body.
Mostly mutilated.

Family Jassidae

100+

Digested beyond identifica-

Hpi ■

tion.

Order Diptera
Family Culicidae
Larvae

100+

In tangled mass. Partially

digested.

Miscellaneous insect
fragments

Not identifiable.

Total:

314+ 230

25

Vegetable matter :
Panicum sp. ? (seeds)
Grass and leaves (bits)

Total :

55

6

Sand Total :

40

4.35

[97]

13

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

The food of the Little Stint consists of 89 per cent of animal matter
and 6 per cent of vegetable matter, the balance (4.35%) being made
up by sand (Fig. 1). The animal matter comprises of minute molluscs
(46.18%) which are generally taken complete with shells; arthropods
represented by freshwater and brackish water crustaceans (17.70%),
and insects (25%) of mostly aquatic and a few terrestrial species. The
crustaceans are of commercial value.

Since the bird consumes some crustaceans of commercial value, it
does not appear to be completely a harmless bird, but its adverse effect
on fishery is too little to warrant branding it as a injurious bird.

Chlidonias hybrida indica (Stephens), The Indian Whiskered Tern

The Whiskered Tern, Chlidonias hybrida indica (Stephens) is a
common bird of the freshwater and brackish water marshes of the Sun-
darban area. It frequents open water bordered by dense vegetation and
reedbeds. It is a winter visitor and is commonly seen in parties consist-
ing of half a dozen to a dozen individuals, circling over drying pools
and gheries diving from time to time to collect food.

About the food-habits of the Indian Whiskered Tern, Jerdon (1864,
p. 837) stated: “This tern is exceedingly abundant in India, frequenting
marshes, tanks and rivers, usually preying on aquatic food, not unfre-
quently hunting over fields, beds of reeds, and marshy ground, where
it captures grasshoppers, caterpillars and other insects”. Whistler (1928,
p. 373) recorded: “Dragonflies and their larvae appear to be their staple
food, but water beetles and other aquatic insects are freely taken”.
Baker (1929, p. 112) writes that it lives principally on water insects and
larvae, dragonflies, grasshoppers, etc., and also on fish and tadpoles. Ali
(1955, p. 91) states that the food comprises of tiny fishes, tadpoles,
crabs, grasshoppers and other insects. The allied European subspecies
C. h. hybrida (Pallas) takes all sorts of small animals living on or near
the water’s surface, such as small fish, frogs, dragonflies, and other aqua-
tic and marsh insects (Voous, 1960, p. 131).

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 13 adult specimens
of the Indian subspecies that I collected in the Sundarban is given in
Table 21.

Table 21

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Indian Whiskered Tern
Items of diet No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Phylum Chordata

Class Amphibia
Order Anura
Family Ranidae

Tadpoles 10 Partially digested beyond

identification.

[98]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

437

Items of diet No. Wt.(g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Rana limnocharis

Boie 2 Subadult.

Rana tigerina Daudin ? 1 Subadult.

Miscellaneous frogs Mutilated beyond identifi-

cation.

Total: 13 20 6.66

Series Pisces
Class Teleostomi
Order Cypriniformes
Family Cyprinidae

Chela sp.

7

Partly digested.

Puntius sp.

Family Clariidae

Clarius batrachus

14

Length 30-40 mm. Invari-
ably present in stomachs.

(Linnaeus)
Family Bagridae

1

Length 50 mm.

Mystus sp.

Order Perciformes
Family Anabantidae
Anabas testudineus

8

Length 30-40 mm.
Partially digested.

(Bloch)

Miscellaneous fish

2

Length 40-50 mm.

remains

Not identifiable.

Total: 32 50 20

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Crustacea
Order Decapoda
Family Palaemonidae
Macrobrachium sp. 19

Palaemon styliferus

(Milne-Edward) 6

Family Atyidae
Caridina gracilipes
de Man 10+

Miscellaneous crustacean
fragments

Invariably present in
stomachs.

Fragmentary remains.
Partially digested.

Not identifiable.

Total: 35 50 20

[99]

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No. Wt.(g) % (Wt.)

Remarks

Class I n s e c t a
Order Orthoptera

Family Locustidae
Hieroglyphus banian
Fabricius

6

Pest of paddy.

Locusta migratoria

(Reiche & Fairmaire)

4

Pest of paddy.

Attractomorpha sp.

5

Pest of paddy, vegetables,

Family Gryllidae
Brachytrypes sp.

3

etc.

Pest of roots of crop, etc.

Miscellaneous orthopteran
fragments

Not identifiable.

Order Odonata

■

Suborder Zygoptera

Family Coenagriidae

, . v.

Naiads

25

Partially digested beyond

Ceriagrion sp.

4

identification.

Wings and parts of body.

Ischneura sp.

8

-do-

Suborder Anisoptera

-

;

Family Libellulidae

Crocothemis sp.

16

-do-

Brachythemis sp.

13

-do-

Order Hemiptera

■ -Taum

Family Nepidae

• •

Nepa sp.

8

Aquatic form.

Family Belostomatidae

Belostoma sp.

4

Elytra and fragments of

Order Coleoptera

body.

'■ :i;A A i

Family Dytiscidae

Laccophilus sp.

9

Aquatic form.

Family Gyrinidae

r

Gyrinus sp.

• • •

Miscellaneous coleopteran

fragments

Order Hymenoptera
Family Vespidae

Vespa orientalis

Linnaeus

7

Mutilated body.

Miscellaneous insect
fragments

Not identifiable.

Total: 87 170 53.33

The Whiskered Tern subsists solely on animal rood (Fig. 2), of
which 6.66 per cent consists of tadpoles and frogs; 20 per cent of small
fishes (30-70 mm standard length) of commercial value; 53.33 per cent

[100]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

439

of insects (mostly aquatic, some immature dragon- and damselflies, a
few adult bugs and beetles), and some terrestrial grasshoppers which
are pests of cultivated plants; the crustaceans taken are in small pro-
portion (20%) and are of commercial value.

From the economic point of view the bird does not appear to be
beneficial since 40 per cent of food consists of fishes and crustaceans
of commercial value. This is far from compensated by the few insect
pests of agriculture that it destroys.

Ceryle rad is leucomelanura Reichenbach, The Pied Kingfisher

The Pied Kingfisher, Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach, is a
common bird of the tidal rivers and creeks, inland pools and inundated
fields of the Sundarban. It has not been observed in the interior of for-
ests, and it appears to be more common in the creeks and rivers than
in inland waters.

Regarding the food of the Pied Kingfisher, both Jerdon (1863,
p. 234) and Blanford (1895, p. 120) state that it feeds entirely on fish.
Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 167) analvsed five stomachs and concluded
that the birds fed entirely on fish. Whistler (1927, p. 232) stated: “Its
diet consists entirely of small fish”. Baker (1927, p. 248) mentioned:
“Its food is entirely aquatic and principally small fishes, though it will
also eat water-insects, tadpoles, tiny prawns or very small frogs”. Ali
(1955, p. 56) lists fish, tadpoles, frogs and aquatic insects as its food.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 299 adult specimens
that I collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 22.

Table 22

Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Pied Kingfisher

Items of diet No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Phylum Chordata
Series Pisces

Class Teleostomi
Order Cypriniformes

Family Cyprinidae
Punfius sp.

122

Freshwater form.

Chela sp.

29

Quite common in stomachs.

Family Bagridae
Mystus sp.

187

-do-

Order Scopeliformes

.

Harpodon nehereus
(Hamilton)

18

Brackish water form.

Order Cyprinodontiformes
Family Cyprinodontidae
Oryzias melastigma
(McClelland)

51

[101]

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No. Wt.(g)

% (Wt.)

Remarks

Order Mugiliformes
Family Mugilidae
Rhinomugil corsula

(Hamilton)

17

Length 35-45 mm.

Mugil parsia (Hamilton)

117

Brackish water form.

Mugil fade Forskal
Order Polynemiformes
Family Polynemidae
Polynemus paradiseus

6

Quite common in stomachs.

Linnaeus

12

Length 30-60 mm.

Order Perciformes
Family Ambassidae
Ambassis sp.

126

Freshwater form. Quite
common in stomachs.

Family Sciaenidae
Pseudosciaena sp.

10

Johnius sp.

18

Length 45-55 mm. Brackish
water form.

Pama sp.

6

/

-do-

Miscellaneous fish remains

Not identifiable.

Total :

719 2246

57.0

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Crustacea
Order Decapoda
Family Palaemonidae
Macrobrachium lamerrei
(Milne-Edward)

Macrobachium rude
(Heller)

Pataemon styliferus
(Milne-Edward)

Family Atyidae
Cardina gracilipes
de Man

Family Penaeidae
Metapenaeus brevicornis
(Milne-Edward)

Metapenaeus monoceros
Fabricius

Miscellaneous crustacean
fragments

Total :

81 Freshwater form. Quite

common in stomachs.

17

12 Freshwater form.

62— Partly digested.

109 Brackish water form. Quite

common in stomachs.

61 -do-

Not identifiable.

342 680 17.0

—

[102]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

441

Items of diet

No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.)

Remarks

Class I n s e c t a
Order Hemiptera

Family Belostomatidae
Belostoma sp.

69+

Freshwater form. Quite
common in stomachs.

Family Notonectidae
Notonecta sp.

Family Corixidae

32

Some in fragments.

Corixa sp.

Order Coleoptera
Family Dytiscidae

63

Laccophilus sp.

28

Freshwater form.

Bidessus sp.
Eretes stictus

26

Linnaeus

75

-do-. Quite common in
stomachs.

Family Gyrinidae
Gyrinus sp.

50

Freshwater form. Quite
common in stomachs.

Miscellaneous insect

fragments

Not identifiable.

Total: 343 1040 26.0

The bird consumes wholly animal food comprising of 57 per cent
fishes, 26 per cent aquatic insects and 17 per cent crustaceans (Fig. 2).
The fishes and crustaceans, which form the major bulk are of commer-
cial value. Most of the fishes are brackish water forms but a few are
freshwater species. These fishes measure 30-60 mm in standard length.
The crustaceans on the other hand are mostly freshwater species with
a few brackish water forms.

Since as much 74 per cent of its diet consists of fishes and crustaceans
of commercial value, it may be regarded as a bird destructive to pisci-
culture.

Hrtfcyon sniyoiensis fissca (Boddaert), The Whitebreasted Kingfisher
The Whitebreasted Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis fusca (Bodd-
aert), is mainly a bird of the plains of India. In the Sundarban area dur-
ing the wet season, it is found near about freshwater ponds, jheels, water-
logged areas along the embankments and inundated or dry fields. It is
rare in tidal creeks and rivers. It dives from its perch to capture its prey
from either the edge of tanks or very shallow water. During dry season,
however, it does not depend upon water for its food, and it disperses
over a wide area perching on poles, horizontal wires across fields, trees
standing in dry land and even enters thin forests in search of food. It
has also been found sometimes to remain close to Cattle Egrets or graz-

[103]

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

ing cattle by flying from perch to perch, and insects disturbed them
are picked up by it.

The food of this kingfisher is of varied nature. Jerdon (1862, p. 225)
mentions that it is composed of land-crabs, mouse, lizard, grasshoppers
and other insects; and near water, fish, tadpoles and water-insects. Blan-
ford (1895, p. 132) states that though it occasionally but rarely catches
fish by plunging after them, it lives chiefly on insects and small lizards
and sometimes on mice and land-crabs. Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 168)
observed the bird taking grasshoppers at Pusa and Chindwara, and once
eating a lizard at Pusa. Baker (1927, p. 270) wrote: “Its principal article
of diet are undoubtedly grasshoppers and locusts, but it will eat almost
anything not too large to swallow. Frogs, small lizards, worms, etc., are
all thankfully taken and eaten; I have seen it taking cicadae from the

l , —

CRUSTACEA

INSECTA

PISCES

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION of the percentages of
FOOD OF WATER BIRDS.

Chlidonias hybrids ( Pallas )

MAMMALIA

REPTILIA

ANNELIDA

Ceryle rudis ( Linn&eus )

Halcyon smyrpensis ( Linnaeus )

[104]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 443

trunk of trees, whilst prawns, small crabs, etc., are taken in preference
to fishes when it haunts streams”. Whistler (1928, p. 235) stated: “This
very typical kingfisher is mainly a land-bird and feeds largely on insects,
lizards, frogs and such , small fry, which it captures after the manner of
a Roller, flying down to them on the ground from an elevated perch.
It is said very occasionally both to plunge into water after fish and to
take insects on the wing”. Ali (1955, p. 57) mentions fish, tadpoles,
lizards, grasshoppers and other insects, young birds and mice as its food.

Gibson Hill (1951) mentions that the principal constituent of the
diet of the- allied form, //. 5. prepulchra Madarasz, in Singapore is un-
doubtedly insects, mostly grasshoppers and other Orthoptera. Often
these are taken in the larval stage. It also eats a number of lizards, chief-
ly skinks. He examined eight stomachs which yielded the remains of
three skinks, Mabuya sp., feathers and head of Munici sp., some 15 grass-
hoppers and mantids, four beetles, three bees, four large black ants, a
small scorpion, lsdmetrus maculatus, and two centipedes, Scolopendra
subspinipes. There wai^no trace of fish or Crustacea.

The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 192 adult speci-
mens that 1 collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 23.

Table 23

Analysis,. QF ) the stomach-contents of the Whitebreasted Kingfisher

Items of diet v*** No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.)

Remarks

Phylum Chordata a '

Class Mammalia
Order Rodentia
Family Muridae

Mus sp. 12 Partially digested.

Family Sciuridae
Funambulus pennanti

Wroughton 7 Mutilated, young.

Total: 19 180 6.92

Class Reptilia

Order Lacertilia

Family Agamidae

Calotes sp. , ....... 31

Order Squamata
Suborder Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Ptyas mucosus

(Linnaeus) 1 1

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet

No.

Wt.(g)

% (Wt.)

Remarks

Natrix sp.

Miscellaneous Reptilia

13

Mostly small lizards.

(mutilated)

Not identifiable.

Total:

55

360

13.84

Class Amphibia
Order Anura
Family Ranidae
Rana sp. (tadpoles)
Rana ? limnocharis

200+

Partially digested.

Wiegmann

21

Some mutilated.

Rana tigerina Daudin
Family Bufonidae
Bufo melanostictus

6

Schneider

Miscellaneous tadpoles

9

Digested beyond identifi
cation.

Total :

236+

496

19.07

Series Pisces
Class Teleostomi
Family Cyprinidae
Puntius sp.

60

Length 10-20 mm.
Freshwater form.

Family Bagridae
My st us sp.

82

Length 10-25 mm.

Order Perciformes
Family Anabantidae
Anabas testudineus

Partly digested.

(Bloch)

42

Length 20-40 mm.

Total :

184

812

31.23

Phylum Arthropoda

Class Crustacea
Order Decapoda
Family Palaemonidae
Macrobrachium sp.
Macrobrachium rude

71

Freshwater form.

(Heller)

Palaemon sty lifer us

26

-do-

Milne-Edward

18

-do-

Family Potamonidae
Paratelphusa sp.
Miscellaneous Crustacea

9

Parts of body.

fragments

Not identifiable.

Total :

124

292

11.23

[106]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

445

Items of diet No. Wt.(g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Class I n s e c t a
Order Orthoptera
Family Locustidae
Hieroglyphus sp.

21

Paddy pest.

Attractomorpha sp.

15

Pest of tobacco and

Family Tettigidae
Acrydium sp.

22

vegetables.

Family Gryllidae
Gryllus sp.

5

Pest of paddy-roots.

Achaeta sp.

9

-do-

Br achy try pes sp.

19

-do-

Family Gryllotalpidae
Gryllotalpa sp.

36

-do-

Miscellaneous orthopteran
fragments

Not identifiable.

Order Dermaptera
Family Labiduridae
Labi dura sp.

6

Family Chelisochidae
Chelisoches sp.

4

Forficulid claspers and
fragmentary remains

Not identifiable.

Order Hemiptera
Family Belostomatidae
Belostoma sp.

6

Aquatic form.

Family Pyrrhocoridae
Dysdercus cingulatus
Fabricius

4

Pest of cotton and

Order Lepidoptera
Miscellaneous larvae

vegetables.

Partially digested beyond

Order Coleoptera

identification.

Family Dytiscidae
Eretes stictus Linnaeus

12

Aquatic form.

Family Dynastidae
Oryctes rhinoceros
Linnaeus

3

Pest of coconut palm.

Phyllognathus diony sius
(Fabricius)

11

Pest of paddy-ears.

Family Rutilidae
Anomala data (Fabricius)

16

Underground stem-and root-

Family Meloidae
Epicauta sp.

27

feeder of cultivated plants.
Pest of paddy-ears.

Family Cicindelidae
Cicindela sp.

9

Miscellaneous Coleoptera
(elytra)

Not identifiable.

[107]

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Items of diet No. Wt.(g) % (Wt.) Remarks

Order Hymenoptera
Family Formicidae

Dorylus sp. 4 Pest of sugarcane, jute, etc.

Solenopsis sp. 6 Pest of brinjal.

Miscellaneous insect

fragments Not identifiable.

Total: 235 420 16.15

Phylum Annelida

Class Chaetopoda
Order Oligochaeta
Family Megascolecidae

Pheritima sp. 13+ Partially digested.

Miscellaneous earthworms

(bits) Not identifiable.

Total: 13+ 40 1.53

The entire food of the Whitebreasted Kingfisher consists of animals.
It is composed of 31.23 per cent of fishes which are small fry of com-
mercial freshwater species, 19.07 per cent of Amphibia (tadpoles, frogs
and toads), 13.84 per cent of reptiles (snakes and lizards), 6.92 per cent
of mammals (mouse and squirrel), 11.23 per cent of Crustacea of com-
mercial value; 16.15 per cent of Insecta, and 1.53 per cent of Annelida
represented by moist soil earthworms (Fig. 2). The insects taken by the
bird have been found to be mostly pests of crops and vegetable. Out of
the 235 examples representing 20 species recorded from the stomachs,
198 examples representing 14 species have been found to be injurious
to crops, two predators and four neutral.

The food of this bird during the rainy (wet) season varies to some
extent from that of dry season. During the wet season (May to Octo-
ber) when the water level is much higher and the whole area is largely
inundated, the birds live more on aquatic animals, such as tadpoles,
fishes, shrimps* prawns, aquatic insects and annelids; while during the
drier months from November to April it consumes more of land orga-
nisms.

Out of the 192 specimens of the bird studies, 109 were collected dur-
ing the wet period and 83 during the dry season. Analysis of their sto-
mach-contents reveals the following seasonal variation (Fig. 3):

[108]

FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS

447

DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE PERCENTAGES OF
FOOT) OF WATER BIRDS

Wet Season Dry Season

( May-October ) ( November-April )

Halcyon smyrnensis ( Linnaeus )

Amphibia Annelida

Animal groups:

Mammalia

Reptilia

Amphibia

Pisces

Crustacea

Insecta

Terrestrial

Aquatic

Annelida

Reptilia Mammalia Crustacea

Wet season:
(food percentage)

8.84

25.00
.. 42.96

10.00

3.00

8.14

11.14

2.06

Dry season :
(food percentage)
14.10
18.74
13.14
19.40
12.46

16.00

5.16

21.16

1.00

From the data presented above it may be generalised that during the
wet season this bird is not beneficial since it consumes fish fry and
shrimps of commercial value which constitute more than half (52.96%)
the total bulk of its food. On the other hand, in the dry season it does
immense service to the agriculturists by consuming insect and rodent
pests of agriculture, which together form 35.26 per cent of its diet.

(to be continued )

[109]

On a new subspecies of the
skylark Alauda guigula
Franklin in Gujarat, India1

Humayun Abdulali

While cataloguing the Skylarks Alauda guigula Franklin in the collec-
tion of the Bombay Natural History Society, I noticed that 7 (4 d d
1 9 2o?) of the 8 specimens from Kutch and Gujarat could be distin-
guished from the neighbouring subspecies punjaubi Whistler to the
north and nominate guigula to the east and south by the following
characters :

(a) Upperparts darker than in both punjaubi and guigula.

(b) Breast more prominently streaked and coloured.

(c) Larger bill and hind claw, as per table of measurements attach-
ed.

On these differences, I separate them as:

Alauda guigula dharmakumarsinhjii subsp. nov.

Holotype : d collected by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji at Bhavnagar,
Gujarat, on 26 April 1953, bearing No. 21279 in the collection of the
Bombay Natural History Society.

Paratypes : d d Nos. 21276, 21277 and unsexed 21278 and 21378
collected at Bhavnagar, Gujarat, by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji on 26
April and 17 June 1953; and d No. 9058 from Saiat, Kaira District,
Gujarat, on 12 December 1945, and $ No. 9057 from Mandvi, Kutch,
on 8 March 1944, both by Salim Ali.

On the last date another skylark was obtained at the same place,
which I have placed with punjaubi. One or the other was an immigrant
or straggler.

This bird is named after R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar,
the author of birds of saurashtra and well known in ornithological
circles in India. He sent the birds to the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety in two lots in 1953 but no correspondence other than the covering
letter is now traceable and I do not know if they were ever carefully
examined by anybody before.

It may also be of interest to mention that in the course of my work,
I have examined some 580 sexed specimens of different species of larks,
of which 65 per cent are males, the preponderance in some groups, as
in the present instance, being more pronounced.

1 Accepted December, 1974.

A NEW SUBSPECIES OF SKYLARK

449

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I

Algae of Vidarbh, Maharashtra’

N. D. Kamat1 2

Botany Department, Institute of Science, Nagpur 1

In this paper 636 taxa belonging to Chlorophyceae, Euglenophyceae,
Xanthophyceae, Dinophyeeae and Cyanophyceae are recorded from
25 different places an Vidarbh.

During the years 1964 to 1969, I collected 2538 vials of algae from
Khamgaon, Mehkar and Lonar (Buldhana District), Akola, Karanja
and Malegaon (Akola District), Amravati (Amravati District), Yeot-
mal (Yeotmal District), Pavnar, Wardha (Wardha district), Katol, Sat-
navri. Vena Dam, Dahegaon, Umred and Mansaf (Nagpur District),
Gondia, Tumsar, Tiroda, Bhandara Road, Bhandara, Jawahar Nagar
and Sakoli (Bhandara District), Warora and Chandrapur (Chandrapur
District). The collections were made mainly from ponds and lakes used
for pisciculture. All these collections were preserved in 4% formalin.
Camera lucida diagrams" of all these algae have been drawn.

Vidarbh region consisting of eight districts, forms the north-eastern
part of Maharashtra State. The maximum and minimum temperatures
for the region are 50°C and 8°C. The rainfall varies from 70 to 125 cm
for the different places of collections. The soil is mostly black and
clayey.

So far Chara brachypus Br;, C. corallina Willd., C. zeylanica Willd.,
Lychnothamnus barbatus (Meyen) Leonhardi and; Nitella hyalina (De
Cond.) Agardh from Ambazari lake, Nagpur (Kamat 1967) and Pedi-
astrum boryanum (Turpin) Meneghini, P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs and
Tetraedron minimum (A. Br.) Hansgirg from ponds in Nagpur (Phili-
pose 1967) have been recorded from this region.

In this paper 391 taxa of Chlorophyceae, 96 taxa of Euglenophyceae,
2 taxa of Xanthophyceae, 11 taxa of Dinophyeeae and 136 taxa of
Cyanophyceae are included. Members of Charophyceae and Bacillario-
phyceae and the algae of Nagpur proper are still under study and hence
not included in this paper. Many algae could not be identified for the
lack of mature reproductive parts.

Rich collections were made from Vadali lake at Amravati and Ram-

1 Accepted April 1971.

2 Present address : Botany Dept., Institute of Science, Aurangabad.

ALGAE OF V1DARBH, MAHARASHTRA

451

sagar lake at Tiroda while very few algae were found in Januna lake at
Khamgaon and Rishi lake at Karanja. The algal flora was negligible
in ponds with a dense floating vegetation particularly of species of
Azolla, Wulfia, Lemna and Pistia occurring either alone or in combi-
nations.

The pH of the water of the collection spots when studied, is given
in the bracket immediately after the collection spot. The pH was found
out by studying at least three samples of water from three different
places of the collection spot, by using B.D.H. Universal indicator. The
pH of the collection spots ranged from 7.2 in Ramsagar to 11 in a lake
at Lonar.

Common algae of this region are Coelastrum cambricum Archer v.
intermedia (Bohlin) G. S. West, Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda)
Ralfs, Scenedesmus bijuga (Turpin) Lagerh. v. alternans (Reinsch)
Hansg., Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kuetz., Pithophora oedo-
gonia (Mont.) Wittr., ClosteriUm dianae Ehreb., Cosmarium auricula-
tum Reinsch, Euastrum spinulosum Delp., T rachelomonas hispida
(Perty) Stein em. Defl., 7’. volvocina Ehrenb., Aphanothece pallida
(Kuetz.) Rabenh., Merismopedia glauca (Ehrenb.) Naeg., Spirulina
major Kuetz. ex Gomont, Oscillatoria okeni Ag. ex Gomont and
O. splendida Grew ex Gomont.

Only the important works referred for the identification of these
algae are given in the references.

CHLOROPHYCEAE

Chlamydomonas globosa Snow
In a puddle, Amaravati (18-10-
64). In a pond (8.2), Katol (8-12-68).
C. snowii Printz

In a small pond, Akola (16-10-
68).

Gonium pectorale Muell.

In a pool, Khamgaon (13-10-67).
In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
10-68). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhan-
dara (9-12-68).

Pandorina morum (Muell.) Bory
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In pools, Amravati
(18-10-68). In Mendhe lake (9.5),
Bhandara (19-1-69). In Ramsagar
lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhadara
(28-12-68).

Sphaerocystis schroeteri Chodat
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara

(29-11-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2),
Tumsar (22-12-68). In Ramsagar lake
(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Gloeocystis ampla (Kuetz.) Lagerh.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

G. gigas (Kuetz.) Lagerh.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

Tetraspora geladnosa (Vauch.)

Desvaux

In a lake (8), Yeotmal (14-11-68).
T. lacustris Lemm.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(28-11-68).

Elakatothrix viridis (Snow) Printz
In paddy fields, Amravati (13-10-
64). In newly constricted cement
cisterns, Khamgaon (13-10-67), Akola
(13-10-68), Bhandara (12-1-69).
Micractinium pusillum Fresen

In Khamb lake (9), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

14

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Wood
In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(21-12-68).

Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Br.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (28-12-
68). In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

Schroederia indica Philipose

Planktonic in a bodhan, Amravati
(18-10-64).

S. robusta Korsh.

Planktonic in a pool, Wardha (14-
10-65).

S. setigera (Schroeder) Lemm.

Planktonic in a bodhan1, Amravati
(18-10-64). Pyrenoids present.
Korshikoviella gracilipes (Lamb.)
Silva

Planktonic in a pool, Amravati
(18-10-64).

Pediastrum boryanum (Turpin)
Meneghini

In a lake (8.2), Dahegaon (27-12-
64). In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-
3-65). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69).

P. duplex Meyen

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68). In
Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69).
P. duplex Meyen v. clathratum (A.
Br.) Lagerh.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

P. duplex Meyen v. cohaerens
Bohlin

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69). In Ramsagar lake (7.2),
Tiroda (2-2-69).

P. duplex Meyen v. gracilimum West
et West

In a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road
(19-1-69).

P. integrum Naeg. v. perforatum
Racib.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69). Cells broader up to 35 p.

P. muticum Kuetz.

In ponds, Mansar (13-12-64).

P. simplex Meyen

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In droppings of birds near
Vena dam (1-2-69). In a pond, Bhan-
dara (3-3-69).

P. simplex Meyen v. duodenarium

(Baily) Rabenh.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road (19-

]

1-69).

P. tetras (Ehrenb.) Ralfs

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Vadali lake, Am-
ravati (3-3-65). In Sarkari lake (7.2),
Tumsar (22-12-68). In Mendhe lake
(9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69).

P. tetras (Ehrenb.) Ralfs. v. tetrae-
dron (Corda) Hansg.

In Pavnar dam (27-10-64).
Sorastrum americanum (Bohlin)
Schmidle

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-12-68).

S. americanum (Bohlin) Schmidle v.
undulatum G. M. Smith
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
S. spinulosum Naeg.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar
(22-12-68). In Abkari lake (7.5),
Bhandara (19-12-68).

Coelastrum cambricum Arch. v. in-
termedium (Bohlin) G. S. West
In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64; 3-3-65). In ponds, Umred (30-11-
64). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar
(22-12-64). In Abkari lake (7.5),
Bhandara (29-12-68). In Mendhe lake
(9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69). In Ram-
sagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69),

C. microporum Naeg.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (29-
12-68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiro-
da (2-2-69).

C. reticulatura (Dang.) Senn
In Abkari lake (7.5) Bhandara (29-
12-68).

Westella botryoides (W. West) De
Wild.

In a nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

1 Bodhan = Buffalo wallow.

ALGAE OF V1DARBH, MAHARASHTRA

453

Nephrocytium hydrophilum (Turn.)
Wille

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).

N. obesum West et West

In paddy fields, Amravati (13-12-
64).

Trochiscia reticularis (Reinsch)
Hansg.

In ponds, Mansar (13-12-64).
Oocystis borgei Snow

In Pavnar dam (27-10-64). In Zar-
pat stream, Chanda (1-11-64). In Sar-
kari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68).
In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-
12-68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiro-
da (2-2-69).

O. elliptica W. West

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64). In
Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).

O. gigas Arch.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

O. macrospora (Turn.) Brunnth.

Rare. In a pond, Mansar (13-12-
64).

O. pusilla Hansg.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhan-
dara (29-12-68).

O. solitaria Wittr. v. major Wille
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).
Gloeotaenium loitsbergianum Hansg.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64; 3-3-65). In Abkari lake (7.5),
Bhandara (19-1-69).

Ankistrodesmus convolutus Corda
In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Vadali lake, Am-
iavati (3-3-65). In Sarkari lake (7.2),
Tumsar (22-12-68). In Ramsagar lake
(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs v. acicul-
aris (A. Br.) G. S. West

In a cement cistern, Amravati (18-
10-64). In Nursery pond (8), Bhan-
dara (28-12-68).

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs v. mira-
bilis (West et West) G. S. West
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs v. tumidus
(West et West) G. S. West
In paddy fields and in cement cis-
terns, Amravati (18-10-64).

A. spiralis (Turn.) Lemm.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (26-12-
68).

Selenastrum bibraianum Reinsch
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).
Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchn.) Moe-
bius

In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

K. lunaris (Kirchn.) Moebius v. irre-
gularis G. M. Smith

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64).

K. subsolitaria G. S. West
In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

Cells sometimes bigger in size, up
to 6.5 n broad and 20 n long.
Tetraedron hastatum (Reinsch)
Hansg.

Very rare. In a bodhan, Amravati
(13-10-64).

T. minimum (A. Br.) Hansg.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
T. pcntaedricum West et West
In Khamb lake (9), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

T. pusillum (Wall.) West et West
In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(12-1-69).

T. trigonum (Naeg.) Hansg.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

Scenedesmus arcuatus Lemm. v. pla-
tydisca G. M. Smith

In a pool, Satnavari (18-10-64). In
ponds, Umred (30-11-64). In Mendhe
pond (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69).

S. bijuga (Turp.) Lagerh.

In a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road
(19-1-69).

S. bijuga (Turp.) Lagerh. v. altern-
ans (Reinsch) Hansg.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Zarpat stream,
Chanda (1-11-65). In Sarkari lake
(7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68). In Abkari
lake (7.5), Bhandara (28-12-68).

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

S. bijuga (Turp.) Lagerh. v. altern-
ans (Reinsch) Hansg. f. parvus G. M.
Smith

In pools, Wardha (14-10-64). In
Zarpat stream, Chanda (1-11-65).

S. denticulatus Lagerh.

In Abkari lake (7.2), Bhandara
(29-12-68).

S. denticulatus Lagerh. v. australis
Playf.

In Abkari lake (7.2), Bhandara (29-
12-68).

S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kuetz.

In Zarpat stream, Chanda (1-11-

64) . In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-

65) . In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar
(22-12-68). In a pond (8.5), Bhandara
Road (19-1-69).

S. hystrix Lagerh.

In Abkari lake (7.2), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

S. longus Meyen

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64).

S. longus Meyen v. minutum G. M.
Smith

In Abkari lake (7.2), Bhandara
(29-12-68).

S. obliquus (Turp.) Kuetz.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68). In Nursery pond (8). Bhan-
dara (22-12-68).

S. quadricauda (Turp.) De Breb. v.
longispina (Chodat) G. M. Smith
In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64). In
Zarpat stream, Chanda (1-11-64).

S. quadricauda (Turp.) De Breb. v.
maximus West et West
In a gutter, Wardha (27-10-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68).
In a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road (19-
1-69).

Crucigenia rectangularis (Naeg.) Gay
Rare. In Vadali lake, Amravati
(18-10-64).

Tetrallantos lagerheimii Teiling
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).
Ulothrix aequalis Kuetz.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

U. cylindricum Prescott

In a pool, Wardha (27-10-64).

U. subconstricta G. S. West
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

U. tenerrima (Kuetz.) Kuetz.

In a drying bodhan, Satnavri (18-
10-64). In a pond, Umred (20-11-64).
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In a pond (8.2), Tumsar (22-11-68).
Cylindrocapsa oedogoniodes Rand-
hawa

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-67).
Stigeoclonium attenuatum (Hazen)
Collins

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

S. hubneri Heering

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

The alga is characterized by long,
multicellular hairs.

S. lubricum (Dillw.) Kuetz.

Adhering to the stones in a stre-
amlet, Amravati (18-10-64).

S. nanum Kuetz.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64).

Chaetophora pisciformis (Roth)
Agardh

Common. In puddles, pools, Man-
sar (20-9-64).

Coleochaete irregularis Pringsheim
Epiphytic on Chara sp. in Sark-
ari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-11-68).

C. orbicularis Pringsheim

Epiphytic on aquatic plants in
ponds, Mansar (13-12-64). In Vadali
lake (9), Amravati (18-10-69). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

C. scutata De Breb.

Epiphytic on Ipomoea sp. in Sar-
kari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68).
Epiphytic on grass in Ramsagar
(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

C. soluta (De Breb.) Pringsheim
Epiphytic on grass in Ramsagar
lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).
Protococcus viridis C. A. Agardh
On moist earthen pots, Amravati
(18-10-64).

Fritschiella tuberosus Iyengar
On moist soil near Gaon lake,
Sakoli (5-10-69).

Chaetosphaeridium globosum
(Nordst.) Klebahn
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

455

C. pringsheimii Klebahn f. conferta
Klebahn

In Abkari lake (7.5), Tumsar (29-
11-68).

Gomontia holdcnii Collins
In mucilaginous masses of other
algae, in a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (C. A.

Ag.) Kuetz.

Common. In a streamlet, Amra-
vati (18-10-64). In Pavnar dam (27-

10- 64). On dripping rocks, Amravati
(3-3-65). In cement cisterns, Kham-
gaon (13-10-67), Bhandara (12-1-69),
Amravati (2-3-69), Wardha (4-4-69).
On dripping stone and brick walls
near Gaumukh, Lonar (24-10-68),
Khamb lake (9), Tiroda (2-2-69). On
shaded moist soil, Akola (6-3-69).

The alga shows variation in size.
Usually there is no branching and
when it is present, the branches are
very short and one to two-celled.
Pithophora oedogonia (Mont.) Wittr.

Common. In small pools, puddles,
cement cisterns and at the shore of
ponds, Amravati, Dahegaon, Katol,
Khamgaon, Gondia, Sakoli, Wardha,
Tiroda (August-March).

Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kuetz.

Attached to the sides of cement
cisterns, Amravati (18-10-64). Epi-
zoic on snails in ponds, lakes, Am-
ravati, Gondia, Lonar, Sakoli and
Yeotmal (October-March).
Oedogonium aster Wittr. ex Him
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
O. australianum Hirn
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

O. autumnale Wittr. ex Hirn
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64).

O. calvum Wittr. ex Hirn
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

O. cardiacum (Hass.) Wittr. ex Hirn
f. interjectum Hirn
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-

11- 68).

O. crispum (Hass.) Wittr. ex Hirn
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

O. elegans West et West v. ameri-
canum Jao

In a pond, Ramtek (13-12-64). In

Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

The alga from Ramsagar lake has
longer vegetative cells — up to 80 n
long.

O. ellipsoideum Jao

In a pond, Mansar^ (13-12-64).
Oogonia slightly longer — up to 81 n
long.

O. flexuosum Hirn
In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68).
Hirn (1900), Tiffany (1930) and
Gemeinhardt (1939) describe the alga
as incompletely known. In Yeot-
mal material male filaments are also
present. Vegetative cells 19-22 n
broad, 21-23 (-24.5) /t long; antheri-
dia in series of 4-12, 16.2-17.4 fi

broad, 6.5-12.2 long.

The alga is heavily calcium incru-
stated.

O. inconspicuum Hirn

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

O. inframediale Jao
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

O. obestim (Wittr.) Hirn
In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (12-

1- 69).

O. obtruncatum Wittr. ex Hirn v.
ellipsoideum Wittr. ex Him
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-11-68).

O. plagiostomum Wittr. ex Him v.
gracilis Wittr. ex Hirn
In Khamb lake (9), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

O. poecilosporum Nord. et Hirn
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-

2- 69).

O. porrectum Nordst. ex Hirn
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

O. pringsheimii Cramer: Wittr. ex
Him v. nordstedtii Wittr. ex Hirn
In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

Male filaments not observed. Fe-
male filament cells slightly capitel-
late.

O. pseudospirale Nygaard
In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

O. pusillum Kirchn. ex Hirn
In paddy fields, Vadali lake, Amr-
avati (18-10-64). In Sarkari lake

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

(7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68).

O. santurcense Tiff.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Abkari lake (7.2), Bhandara (28-11-
68).

O. subaerol^um Jao

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

O. tapeinosporum Wittr. ex Hirn
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

O. undulatum (Breb.) Al. Braun;
Wittr. ex Hirn

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64, 3-3-65). In a pond, Umred (30-
11-64). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69). In Ramsagar lake (7.2),
Tiroda (2-2-69). In a pond, Wardha
(15-10-69).

O. urbicum Wittr. ex Hirn
In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-

1- 69).

O. virceburgense Hirn

In paddy fields, Vadali lake, Am-
ravati (18-10-64). In Ramsagar lake

(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Bulbochaete diamesandria Nordstedt
ex Hirn

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Ramsagar lake

(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

B. lagoensis Wittr. ex Hirn
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-

2- 69).

B. varians Wittr. ex Hirn
Very rare. In Vadali lake, Amra-
vati (3-3-65).

Netrium digitus (Ehrenb.) Itzig. et
Roth v. lamellosum (Breb.) Gronbl.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

Cylindrocystis americana West et
West v. minor Cushm.

In a pond (7.8), Mansar (9-10-69).
Gonatozygon aculeatum Hast.

In a pond (8), Mansar (9-10-69).
G. kinahani (Arch.) Rabenh.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

G. monotaenium De Bary
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68). In Gaon pond (8), Sakoli (7-1-

69). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69). In Ramsagar lake (7.2),
Tiroda (2-2-69).

G. pilosum Wille
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).
Pleurotaenium baculoides (Roy et
Biss.) Playf.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-
64). In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-
69).

Zygospores are present in Tiroda
material. They are ellipsoid, 56-62 n
broad, 80-84 n long, with spiny outer
wall.

P. ehrenbergii (Breb.) De Bary
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

P. datum (Turner) Borge v. subun-
dulatum Hirano

In a rock pool, Satnavri (18-10-
64).

P. indicum (Grun.) Lund
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-11-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2),
Tumsar (22-12-68).

P. inermium (Moeb.) Hirano

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-65).
In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

P. ova turn Nordst.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-

64) . In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).
In Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-

65) . In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

P. simplicissimum Gronbl.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

P. simplicissimum Gronbl. v. semi-
undulatum Hirano

In a pond, Umred (20-10-64). In
Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-65).
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

P. subcoronulatum (Turn.) West et
West

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

P. trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naeg.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10'
64). In Motha lake, Umred (30-11

ALGAE OF V1DARBH, MAHARASHTRA

457

64). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar
(22-12-68).

Curved semicells are commonly
found in Tumsar material.

P. trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naeg. f.
clavata (Kuetz.) West et West
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).
Occasionally cells longer — up to
615 n long.

P. trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naeg. v.
maximum (Reinsch) Roll f. constric-
tum Scott et Prescott
In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-

I- 69).

P. trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naeg. v.
rectum (Delp.) West et West
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), and Belati pond
(7.5), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Closterium acerosum (Schrank)
Ehrenberg

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenb. f.
rectum Scott et Prescott
In Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-

II- 65).

C. aciculare West et West
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
C. acutum Breb.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64), and in Nursery pond
(8), Bhandara (28-12-68).

C. acutum Breb. v. variable (Lemm.)
Krieger

In a rock pool, Satnavri (18-12-
64). In Nave lake (8), Sakoli (5-1-
69).

C. calosporum Wittr.

In a puddle, Wardha (3-4-65).

C. calosporum Wittr. v. brasiliense
Borg.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. cornu Ehrenb.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

The Yeotmal alga agrees with form
alfa of Croasdale (1955).

C. cornu Ehrenb. v. upsaliense Nor-
dst.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. cynthia De Not
In a pond, Umred (13-11-64). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Striations 6-8 in 10 n .

C. dianae Ehrenb.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In a
lake (8.2), Dahegaon (27-12-64). In
Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65). In
Abkari lake (7.2), Bhandara (29-12-

68) . In a pond (8.2), Jawahar Nagar
(12-1-69). In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bha-
ndara (19-1-69).

C. ehrenbergii Menegh.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. gracilc Breb.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64).
In Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-11-
65).

C. idiosporum West et West

In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68).
C. incurvum Breb.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-64,
3-3-65). In a lake (7.2), Sakoli (14-

1- 68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar
(22-12-68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2),
Tiroda (2-2-69).

C. jenneri Ralfs

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In a pond (8.2), Dahegaon (27-12-

67) . In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

C. jenneri Ralfs v. tenue Croasdale
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-

69) .

C. kuetzingii Breb.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. lanceolatum Kuetz.

In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64). In
bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64). In
ponds, Umred (30-11-64).

C. leibleinii Kuetz.

In puddles, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. libellula Focke
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-

2- 69).

C. lineatum Ehrenb.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. littorale Gay

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-1 2-

68) . In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

(28-12-68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2),
Tiroda (2-2-69).

C. mad le mum Breb.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68). In Gaon lake (7.2), Sakoli
(5-1-69).

C. parvulum Naeg.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In Ra-
mala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-65). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

C. setaceum Ehrenb.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. sinense Lutkem.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

C. tumidulum Gay

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65,
18-10-69). In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-
11-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tum-
sar (22-12-68). In Abkari lake (7.5),
Bhandara (29-12-68).

C. tumidum Johnson

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. venus Kuetz.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-1-
69).

C. venus Kuetz. v. incurvum (Breb.)
Krieger

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
Cosmarium abbreviatum Racib.

In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

C. abbreviatum Racib. f. pygmaea

Messik.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64, 3-3-65).

C. amoenum Breb.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-11-
68).

C. angulosum Breb. v. concinuum

(Rabenh.) West et West
In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-
1-69).

C. auriculatum Reinsch

In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64). In
Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-64). In
Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-11-65).
In ponds, Mansar (10-12-65). In Sar-

kari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68).
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-
12-68).

Cells slightly shorter up to 48 /*
long and cell wall finely punctate.

C. bengalcnse (Grun.) Turn.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

Bhandara alga is slightly bigger —
up to 49 n broad, 82 n long.

C. biloculalum Breb. v. subpunctu-
latum Krieger et Gerloff

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69).
C. binum Nordst.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. botrytis Menegh.

Rare. In Vadali lake, Amravati
(3-3-65).

C. ceylanicum West et West f. minus
Scott et Prescott

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. connatum Breb.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. contraction Kirchn.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. contractum Kirchn. f. jacobsenii
(Roy) West et West
In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64). In ponds, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

C. contractum Kirchn. v. ellipsoide-
um (Elfv.) West et West
In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).
C. contractum Kirchn. v. minutum
(Delp.) West et West
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. contractum Kirchn. v. norvegi-
cum Racib.

In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-
1-69).

C. cucurbitinum (Biss.) Lutkem.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).
C. cucurbitinum (Biss.) Lutkem. v.
grande Gronbl.

In paddy fields. Amravati (18-10-
64).

ALGAE' OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

459

C. depressum (Naeg.) Lund v. inter-
medium (Gutw.) Messik.

In the scum on submerged stones
in Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (18-10-68).

The cells much smaller, 21-25 /z
broad, 22-27 /z long, isthmus 6-7 /z
broad.

C. difficile Lutkem. v. dialatum

Borge

In ponds, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. dispersum Johnson

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara

(29-12-68).

Cells slightly broader.

C. dispersum Johnson v. truncatum
(West et West) Krieger et Gerloff
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara

(22-11-68).

C. dubicum Borge

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69).

C. dybowskii Gutw.

In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara

(19-1-69).

C. elegantissimum Lund f. minor

West

In ponds, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. exiguum Arch.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. freemanii West et West
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. furcatospermum West et West v.
koreana Skv.

In cement cisterns, Amravati (18-
10-64).

C. fusceense Hirano
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
scum on the submerged stones in
Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-10-68).

Present alga is bigger than the
type — 13-15 /z broad, 10-20 /z long.
C. garrolense Roy et Biss. v. crassum
Jao

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. granatum Breb.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. hammeri Reinsch v. homaloder-
mum (Nordst.) West et West
In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

C. hammeri Reinsch v. protuberans
West et West

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. impressulum Elfv.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In Zarpat stream, Chandrapur
(1-11-65). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tum-
sar (22-12-68).

C. impressulum Elfv. v. octangularis
Hirano

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. inconspicuum Arch.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. infirmum Gronbl. v. minus
(Gronbl.) Krieger et Gerloff

In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-
1-69).

C. laeve Rabenh.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). Adhering to the rocks near
Gandhi ghat, Pavnar (27-10-64). In
a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. laeve Rabenh. v. depressum Cro-
asdale

In Vadali lake and nearby paddy
fields, Amravati (18-10-64). In Sar-
kari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68).

The alga is sometimes slightly big-
ger, 10.5-10.8 /z broad, 14.5-15 /z
long. It agrees well with the figures
given by Croasdale (1956) but not
with the figures given by Krieger and
Gerloff (1969), pi. 44, f. 7a) though
the figures are reproduced from Cro-
asdale, the sinus being shown dif-
ferently.

C. lagenarioidcs (Roy) Lutk.

In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

C. lunatum Wolle v. sparsum (Turn.)
Krieger et Gerloff
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

The present alga is bigger in size,
40-42 fi broad, 28-29 /z long, isthmus
10-10.5 n broad.

C. lundellii Delp. v. circulare (Re-
insch) Krieger

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In the scum on the submerged stones

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

in Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-10-

68).

C. lundellii Delp. v. corruptum

(Turn.) West et West
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. lundellii Delp. v. ellipticum West
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69).
In Nave lake (8), Sakoli (12-1-69).
In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-
1-69). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69).

C. maculatism Turn.

In a pond, Umred (21-11-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

C. mansangense West et West

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

C. margaritafum (Lund) Roy et
Bisset

In the scum on the submerged
stones in Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-
10-68). In a pond (8), Jawahar Na-
gar (12-1-69).

C. margaritatum (Lund) Roy et
Bisset f. minor (Boldt) West et West
In. a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-1-69).
In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

C. moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs v. pan-
duriforme (Heimerl) Schmidle
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-
12-68).

C. nymannianum Grun.

In a pond (8.2), Dahegaon (27-12-
64).

C. nymannianum Grun. v. brevis
(Wille) Krieger et Gerloff
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64),

C. obsoletum (Hantzsch) Reinsch v.
sitvense Gutw.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. obtusatum Schmidle
In a dam, Pavnar (27-10-64). In a
pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In Sarkari
lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68). In
Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-
69).

C. orthostichum Lund

In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68).

C. orthostichum Lund f. subpolonica

Messik.

In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68).
C. phaseolus Breb. v. achondrum
Boldt

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

C. polonicum Racib.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

C. poiygonum (Naeg.) Arch.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

C. portianum Arch.

In the scum on the submerged
stones in Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola
(16-10-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tu-
msar (22-12-68). In Ramsagar lake
(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

C. portianum Arch. v. nephroideum
Wittr.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64, 20-10-69).

C. pseudadoxum Jao

In Chattri lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. pseudoconnatum Nordst.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. pseudohexagonoides Bruhl et Bis-
was

On the stone wall of Vadali, Am-
ravati (18-10-64).

C. pseudopyramidatum Lund

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. pseudopyramidatum Lund v. b ur-
ge i Krieger et Gerloff

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-2-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tum-
sar (22-12-68).

C. pseudopyramidatum Lund v. car-
niolicum Lutk.

In a lake (7.5), Tumsar (22-12-68).
In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-1-
69).

C. pseudopyramidatum Lund v. lenti-
ferum Taylor

On submerged soil in Vena dam
(1-2-69).

C. pseudopyramidatum Lund v. rot-
undatum Krieger et Gerloff
In Painganga river (8.5), Mehkar
(20-10-68).

.

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

461

C. pyramidatum Breb.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64). In a lake (8.2), Dahegaon (27-
12-64). In Vadali lake (9), Amravati
(18-10-69).

C. pyramidatum Breb. v. convex um

Krieger et Gerloff

In Vadali lake (9), Amravati (18-
10-69).

G. quardratulum (Gay) De Toni
In a dam, Pavnar (27-10-64).

C. quadratum Ralfs
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

Krieger and Gerloff (1969) include
C. quadratum f. major Irenee Marie
in C. quadratum. The present alga
agrees with f. major in size.

C. quadratum Ralfs f. willei West et
West

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
C. quadrum Lund
In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

C. quinarium Lund
In Nave lake (9.2), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

C. ralfsii Breb. v. aipinum Racib.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. ralfsii Breb. v. monianum Racib.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. rectangulare Grun. v. africanism
West et West

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. regnellii Wille
In a lake (8.2), Dahegaon (27-12-
64).

C. regnellii Wille v. kerguelense
Krieger et Gerloff
In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. reni forme (Ralfs) Arch.

In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-
1-69).

C. repandum Nordst. f. minor West
et West

In Nave lake (8), Sakoli (5-1-69).
C. retusiformae (Wille) Gutw.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-68).

C. sexangulare Lund

In Vadali lake (9), Amravati (18-
11-68).

C. sexangulare Lund f. minimum
Nordst.

In Vadali lake (9), Amravati (18-
11-68). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhan-
dara (25-11-68). In Ramsagar lake
(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

C. sikhimense Turn.

In the mucilaginous mass of Glo-
eotrichia sp. floating in Vadali lake,
Amravati (18-10-64).

C. speciosum Lund v. incrassatum
Ins am et Krieger

In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-
1-69).

The present alga differs from the
type in having rounded apex as
shown by Croasdale (1956).

C. striolatum Naeg. v. nordstedfii
(Moeb.) Krieger
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64).

C. subacufangulum Gronbl.

In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-

1- 69).

C. sublatere-imdatelm West et West
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. subreinschii Schmid v. ocellaiiim
West et West

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
C. suMransiens Croasdale

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-

2- 69).

The alga differs from the type in
having 12 undulations instead of 10.
G. subtumidum Nordst.

In Vadali lake (9), Amravati (18-
11-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tum-
sar (22-12-68).

C. subtumidum Nordst. f. minor
Krieger

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

C. subtumidum Nordst. v. rotundum
Hirano

In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12^
1-69).

C. supraconeatura (Turn.) Krieger et
Gerloff

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-11-68).

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

C. striolatum Naeg.

In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-

1- 69).

C. trachydermum West et West
In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
C. trachypleurum Lund v. nordstedtii
Gutw.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-

2- 69).

C. trafalgaricum Wittr.

In a cement water passage in a
garden, Wardha (12-3-68).

C. trilobatum Reinsch v. printzii

Messik.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).
Umred alga agrees with Skuja's
Westonian island form (Hirano 1957).
C. triplicatum Wolle

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

C. tryolicum (Nordst.) Krieger et
GerlofF

In Vadali lake (9), Amravati (18-
11-68).

C. tuddalense Strom
In Nave lake (8), Sakoli (5-1-69).
C. tumidum Lund

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. undulatum Corda ex Ralfs
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

C. undulatum Corda ex Ralfs v.
crenulatum (Naeg.) Wittr.

In a pool, Wardha (27-10-64).

C. undulatum Corda ex Ralfs v.
minutum Wittr.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In a dam, Pavnar (27-10-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-12-
68). In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar
(12-1-69).

C. undulatum Corda ex Ralfs v.
wollei W. West

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. variolatum Lund v. rotundatum

(Krieger) Messik.

In a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road
(19-1-69).

C. venustum (Breb.) Arch. v. brevis
Bernard

In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64).

C. virde (Corda) Josh. f. minor W.
West

In small ponds, Wardha (27-10-
64).

C. virde (Corda) Josh. v. hibernicum
(W. West) Krieger et Gerloff
In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-

1- 69).

C. wittrockii Lund

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

Euastrum bidentatum Naeg.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

E. binale (Turp.) Ehrenh. v. koreana
(Skv.) Okada

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

E. binale (Turp.) Ehrenb. v. sectum
Turn.

In a lake (8.2), Dahegaon (27-12-
64).

E. ceylanicum (West et West) Krie-
ger

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

E. denticulatum (Kirchn.) Gay
In a lake, Mansar (13-12-64).

E. divergens Josh. v. ornatum
(Borge) Schm.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

E. elegans (Breb.) Kuetz. v. pseude-
legans (Turn.) West et West
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Vadali lake, Am-
ravati (3-3-65).

E. inerme (Ralfs) Lund

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-

2- 69).

E. insulare (Wittr.) Roy

In Vadali lake (9), Amravati (18-
11-68). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhan-
dara (29-11-68). In a pond (8), Jawa-
har Nagar (12-1-69).

E. irregulare Gonz. et Gang.

In a puddle, Satnavri and in Va-
dali lake, Amravati (18-10-64). In
pools near a dam, Pavnar (27-10-
64).

E. turneri West

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-11-68).

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

463

E. lutkemuelleri Due. v. carniolicum

(Lutkem.) Krieger
In a pool, Mansar (13-12-64).

E. platycerum Reinsch

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-11-
68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar
(22-12-68).

E. spinulosum Delp.

Common in Vadali lake, Amravati
(18-10-64, 3-3-65, _ 18-11-68). In a
pond, Umred (30-11-64). In puddles,
Mansar (13-12-64). In Sarkari lake
(7.2), Tumsar (29-11-68). In Nave
lake (8), Sakoli (5-1-69). In a pond
(8), Jawahar Nagar (12-1-69). In
Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69).
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

E. spinulosum Delp. v. helium Scott
et Prescott

In a pond (8), Jawahar Nagar (12-

I- 69).

E. subamoenum Schmidle
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

E. sublobatum Breb.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
E. sublobatum Breb. v. obtusatum

(Gutw.) Krieger

In ponds, puddles, Mansar (13-12-

64) . In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-

65) .

E. turned West

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (9-

II- 68).

Micrasterias crux-melitensis

(Ehrenb.) Hass.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

M. foliacea Bailey
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Ramsagar lake
(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

M. mahabuleshwarensis Hobs. v.
chauliodon Scott et Prescott
Very rare. In a pond, Mansar (13-
12-64).

M. pinnatifida (Kuetz.) Ralfs
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

M. pinnatifida (Kuetz.) Ralfs v.
pseudoscitans Gronbl.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

M. radians Turn.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Sarkari lake (7.2),
Tumsar (22-11-68).

M. zeylanica Fritsch

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (28-12-
68).

M. zeylanica Fritsch v. rectangularis
Scott et Prescott .

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

Xanthidium antilopaeum (Breb.)
Kuetz. v. canadense Joshua
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

The present alga is smaller than
the type — 30-34 broad, 40-44 n

long, isthmus 20-21 n broad.

X. antilopaeum (Breb.) Kuetz. v.
hebddarum West et West

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

X. burkillii West et West v. altern-
ans Skuja

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

X. hastiferum Turn.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).
Arthrodesmus convergens Ehrenb.

In ponds, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Zygotes are present in Mansar
alga. They are spherical to ellipsoi-
dal with smooth, thick outer wall,
29-31 n in diameter, 30-34 /x long.
A. curvatus Turn.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

A. curvatus Turn. v. latus Scott et
Prescott

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Nave lake (8), Sakoli (5-1-69).
Staurastrum anatinum Cooke et
Wille v. curtum Smith

In a Gaon lake (7.2), Sakoli (5-1-
69).

S. arcuatum Nordst.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. brebissonii Arch. v. truncatum
Gronbl.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

S. brevispinum Breb. v. retusum
Smith

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

S. deject um Breb.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Abkari lake (7.5),
Bhandara (28-12-68).

S. dickiei Ralfs

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. giadiosum Turn.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

S. gracile Ralfs

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

S. hantzii Reinsch v. japonicum

Roy et Bisset

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

§. indentatum West et West f. minus
Scott et Prescott

In a pond, Umred (13-12-64).

S. iotanum Wolle v. longatus Hirano
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. iotanum Wolle v. tortum Teiling
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

S. lepiodermum Lund v. capitatum

Hirano

In ponds, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. longispinum (Bail.) Arch. v.
bidetatum (Wittr.) West

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. megacanthum Lund

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. orbiculare Ralfs

In the scum on the submerged
stones in Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-
10-68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiro-
da (2-2-69).

S. orbiculare Ralfs. v. depressum
Roy et Bisset

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

S. orbiculare Ralfs v. ralfsii West
et West

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

S. perundulatum Gronbl.

In the scum on the submerged
stones in Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-
10-68).

S. pinnatum Turn. v. subpinnatum
(Schm.) West et West f. robustum
Krieg.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

S. polymorphism Breb. v. pygmaeum
Gronbl.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

S. punctulatum Breb.

In puddles, Umred (30-11-64). In
Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).

S. quadricornutum Roy et Bisset
Rare. In Vadali lake, Amravati
(3-3-65).

S. retusum Turn. v. boreale West et
West

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
S. saltans Josh. v. javanicum Scott
et Prescott

In a pool, Umred, (30-11-64).

S. sexangulare (Bulnh.) Lund
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

S. sexangulare (Bulnh.) Lund v.
crassum Turn.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

S. tohopekaligense Wolle

In a pool, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. tohopekaligense Wolle v. insigne
West et West

In puddles, Mansar (13-12-64).

S. unguifcrum Turn.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64).

Sphaerozosma punctatum West et
West

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

S. vertebratum (Breb.) Ralfs
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64).
Spoudylosium nitens (Wall.) Arch. f.
majus Turn.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

S. planum (Wolle) West et West
In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64).

Onychonema laeve Nordst. v. latum
West et West

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Man-
sar (13-12-64). In Ramsagar lake
(7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

O. laeve Nordst. v. micracanthum
Nordst.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

465

Hyalothcca dissiliens (Smith) Breb.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
H. indica Turn.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

H. mucosa (Mert.) Ehrenb.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

H. undulatum Nordst.

Rare. In Vadali lake, Amravati
(13-12-64).

Desmidium aptogonum Breb.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
D. aptogonum Breb. v. ehrenbergii
Kuetz.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64). In Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-
11-64). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

D. pseudostreptonema West et West
Common in ponds, Umred (30-11-
64). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69).

Aplanospores are observed in ma-
terial from Ramsagar lake. They are
globose, 16 n broad, with smooth
wall.

D. quadratum Nordst.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

Streptonema trilobatum Wall.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Zygotes are observed in Ramsagar
material. Zygotes are 33-35 n broad,
50-53 n long, ellipsoid in shape and
with smooth walls.

Mougeotia banglorensis Iyengar
In paddy fields, Vadali lake, Am-
ravati (18-10-64).

Aplanospores are also present.
M. calcarca (Cleve) Wittr.

In a puddle, Amravati (18-10-64).
M. floridana Transeau
In Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-10-
68).

M. maltae Skuja

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

M. microspora Taft
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

M. reinschii Transeau

In a pond, Amravati (18-10-64).

M. sphaerocarpa Wolle

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

M. transeau Collins

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

Zygnema czurdae Randhawa

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69).

Z. gangeticum Rao

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

Z. globosum Czurda
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
Zygnemopsis minuta Randhawa
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
The present alga is provisionally
kept here as the zygospores and azy-
gospores differ from the type in hav-
ing smooth walls and horned zygos-
pores not observed.

Z. sphaerospora Randhawa

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-12-68).

Vegetative cells bigger — up to 21 fx
broad, 150 n long.

Spirogyra azygospora R. N. Singh
In Khamb lake (8), Tiroda (2-2-
69).

S. bichromatophora (Randhawa)
Transeau

In Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-10-

68).

S. biformis Jao

In a pond, Wardha (12-3-68).
Lateral conjugation only observed.
S. corrugata Transeau

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

S. diluta Wood

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
S. fennica Cedercreutz

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

Chloroplast makes four turns.

S. fuellcbornei Schmidle

In a dam, Pavnar (27-10-64).

S. smithii Transeau

In Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-
11-65).

S. weberi Kuetz.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

EUGLENOPHYCEAE

Euglena acus Ehrenb.

In bodhans, Chandrapur (1-11-65).
In a pond, Umred (30-11-66).

E. acus Ehrenb. v. hyalina Klebs
In a gutter, Khamgaon (13-10-67).
E. acus Ehrenb. v. oyei Defl.

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
E. acus Ehrenb. v. rigida Hubner
In a foul smelling pool. Chandra-
pur (1-11-65).

E. allorgei Defl.

In a bodhan, Akola (10-10-68).

E. caudata Hubner
In a bodhan, Akola (18-10-68).

E. charkowiensis Swir.

In a pool near a gutter, Chandra-
pur (1-11-65). In a bodhan, Akola
(16-10-68). In Mendhe lake (9.5),
Bhandara (19-1-69).

E. charkowiensis Swir. v. minor
Skovortz.

In Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-
11-65).

E. chortes Schiller

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-12-
68).

E. gaumeri Allorge et Lefevre
In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
E. gracilis Klebs

In a bodhan, Umred (30-11-64). In
a pool, Khamgaon (13-10-67).

E. ignobilis L. P. Johnson
In a bodhan, Akola (16-10-68).

E. limnophila Lemm.

In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64).

E. mucifera Mainx

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

E. multiformis Schiller
In a bodhan (8.4), Akola (16-10-
68).

E. oxyuris Schmarda

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
a gutter, Khamgaon (13-10-67).

E. pusilla Playfair
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

E. spirogyra Ehrenb.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

E. spirogyra Ehrenb. v. suprema
Skuja

In a puddle, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

E. tripteris (Duj.) Klebs

In a puddle, Umred (30-11-64).
Phacus acuminatus Stokes v. indica
(Pochm.) Huber-Pestalozzi

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
In a pool, Umred (30-11-64).

P. acuminatus Stokes v. variabilis
Lemm.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64).
Umred (30-11-64), Mansar (13-12-64).
P. angulatus Pochm.

In Nursery' pond (8), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

P. caudatus Hubner

In a pond, Umred (30-1 1-64).

P. circumflexus Pochm.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

P. contortus Bourr.

In a puddle, Umred (30-11-64).

P. curvicauda Swir.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64),
Wardha (27-10-64), Umred (30-11-
68).

P. sphippion Pochm.

In Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-
65).

P. longicauda (E.) Duj. v. major
Swirenko

In a pool, Umred (30-11-64).

P. longicauda (E.) Duj. v. rotunda
(Pochm.) Huber-Pestal.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64),
Chandrapur (1-11-64), Akola (16-10-
68). In Ramala lake, Chandrapur (11-
10-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar
(22-12-68).

P. mangini Lef.

In a bodhan, Akola (16-10-68).

P. minutus (Playf.) Pochm.

In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64). In
Khamb lake (9), Bhandara (28-12-
68).

P. orbicularis Hubn.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Januna lake (8.2), Khamgaon (13-10-
67). In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

467

P. pekinensis Skvortz.

In Januna lake (8.2), Khamgaon
(13-10-67).

P. platalea Drez.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64),
Umred (30-11-64), Mansar (13-12-64),
Akola (16-10-68), Bhandara (22-12-

68) . In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

P. pleuronectes (O.F.M.) Duj.

In Motha lake, Umred (30-11-64).
P. pseudonordstedtii Pochm.

In a puddle, Umred (30-11-64).

P. stokesii Lemm. f. minor Conrad
In a pond, Wardha (27-10-64).

P. swirenkoi Ekvortz.

In a pool, Wardha (27-10-64).

P. thrombus Pochm.

In a pool, Umred (30-11-64).

P. tortus (Lemm.) Skv.

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

Trachdomonas allia Drez. em. Defl.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-

69) .

T. armata (E.) Stein
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

T. armata (E.) Stein v. longispina
Playf.

In a puddle, Umred (30-11-64).

T. armata (E.) Stein v. steinii Lemm.
em. Defl.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In a streamlet, Satnavri (6-12-

64) . In a puddle, Mansar (13-12-64).
In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

T. bacillifera Playf.

In a bodhan, Chandrapur (1-11-

65) .

T. bacillifera Playf. v. minima Playf.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-12-68). In Mendhe lake (9.5),
Bhandara (19-1-69).

T. bernardinensis W. Vischer em.
Defl.

In a bodhan, Akola (16-10-68).
Tests bigger — 22 to 26 p broad,
55 to 58 /x long.

T. conica Playf.

In Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-
64).

T. cylindrica E. sec. Playf. v. decol-
lata Playf.

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
T. dubia Swir. em. Defl. v. lata
Defl.

In a puddle, Mansar (13-12-64).

T. dybowskii Drez.

In a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road
(19-1-69).

T. globularis Lemm. (Awer.) v.
boyeri (Palmer) Conr.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

T. hispida (Perty) Stein em. Defl.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64). In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-
10-64, 3-3-65). In bodhans, Chanda
(1-11-64), Umred (30-11-64), Mansar
(13-12-64), Malegaon (16-10-68). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-

68) . In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-12-68). In Mendhe lake (9.5),
Bhandara (19-1-69).

T. hispida (Perty) Stein em. Defl. f.
recta Defl.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-
12-68).

T. hispida (Perty) Stein em. Defl. v.
coronata Lemm.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

T. incert'issima Defl.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64).
In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).

T. intermedia Dangeard

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road (19-1-

69) .

T. klebsii (Klebs) Defl.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In bodhans, Akola (10-10-68). In
Khamb lake (9), Bhandara (28-12-
68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69).

T. lacustris Drez.

In a bodhan, Malegaon (11-10-68).
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

15

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

T. mangini Defl.

In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

T. mucosa Swir. v. hyalina Skv.

In a bodhan, Chandrapur (1-11-
65).

T. oblonga Lemm.

In a bodhan, Akola (16-10-68). In
a pool, Malegaon (20-10-68). In a
bodhan, Mansar (20-11-68). In
Khamb lake (9), Bhandara (28-12-
68). In a pond (8.5), Bhandara Road
(19-1-69).

T. oblonga Lemm. v. australica
Playf.

In a bodhan, Chandrapur (1-11-64).
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

T. oblonga Lemm. v. major Kamat
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

T. oblonga Lemm. v. truncata Lemm.

In a bodhan, Warora (2-11-65). In
a pond, Mansar (12-11-67).

T. obtusa Palmer

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

T. perforata Awering

In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

T. piscatoris (Fischer) Stokes

In a bodhan, Chandrapur (1-11-65.)
T. playfairi Defl.

In ponds, Umred (30-11-64).

T. pulcherrima Playf. v. minor Playf.

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

T. raciborskii Wolosz.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(19-12-68).

T. robusta Swir. em. Defl.

In Mendhe lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

T. scabra Playf.

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-65).
T. scabra Playf. v. ovata Playf.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64).
T. similis Stokes

In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

T. superba Swir. em Defl.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

T. sydneyensis Playf.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-
12-68).

T. varians Defl.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-12-
68).

T. volvocina Ehrenb.

In bodhans, Amravati (18-10-64),
Wardha (22-10-64), Umred (30-11-64),
Mansar (13-12-64), Chandrapur (1-11-
65), Gondia (5-3-67), Khamgaon (13-
10-67). In Nursery pond (8), Bhand-
ara (28-12-68). In Sarkari lake (7.2),
Tumsar (22-12-68). In Mendhe lake

(9.5) , Bhandara (19-1-69). In a pond

(8.5) , Bhandara Road (19-1-69). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).
T. volvocina Ehrenb. f. minuta
Fritsch

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
T. volvocina Ehrenb. v. derephora
Conrad

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64). In
Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-
68).

T. volzii Lemm. v. cylindrica Playf.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

T. volzii Lemm. v. pellucida Playf.

In pools, Umred (30-11-64).

T. wermelii Skv.

In Nursery pond (8). Bhandara (28-
12-68).

T. woycickii Koczwara v. bombay-
cnsis Kamat

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

T. woycickii Koczwara v. pusilla
Drez.

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
Strombomonas fluviatilis (Lemm.)
Defl.

In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

S. maxima (Skv.) Defl.

In a bodhan, Chandrapur (1-11-
64).

S. napiformis (Playf.) Defl. v. brevi-
collis (Playf.) Defl.

In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

S. ovalis (Playf.) Defl.

In a bodhan, Chandrapur (1-11-65).
Wall finely punctuate.

S. urceolata (Stokes) Defl.

In a bodhan, Amravati (3-3-65).

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

469

Lepocinclis glabra Drez. f. minor
Prescott

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
L. marssonii Lemm. em Conrad
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-

12-68).

Menoidium gracile Playf.

In a puddle, Umred (30-11-64).
Anisonema acus Duj.

In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

XANTHOPHYCEAE

Ophiocytium elongation West et
West

In a puddle, Umred (30-11-64).
Botrydium granulatum (L.) Greville
On the moist soil of a drying

puddle, Satnavri (18-10-64). On moist
soil near a pond, Gondia (5-3-67).
On the moist soil of a drying' pool,
Sakoli (15-12-68).

DINOPHYCEAE

Cystodinium iners Geitler
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

Massartia stigmatica (Linden)

Schiller

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-
69).

Gymnodinium neglectum (Schill.)
Lind.

In a puddle, Mansar (13-12-64).

G. rotundum Klebs
Planktonic in Khamb lake (9),
Bhandara (28-12-68).

Glenodinium gymnodinium Penard
Planktonic in a pond (8.2), Katol
(24-11-68).

G. quadridens (Stein.) Schiller
Planktonic in Khamb lake (8),
Tiroda (2-2-69).

Peridinium bipes Stein

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

P. cinctum (Muell.) Ehrenb.

In Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-
65).

P. palustre (Lindem.) Lef. v. racibor-
skii (Wol.) Lef.

In Abkari lake (7.2), Bhandara
(29-11-68).

P. penardiforme Lindem.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

P. pusillum (Penard) Lemm.

In a cement cistern, Amravati (18-
10-64).

CYANOPHYCEAE

Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz.

Planktonic in a pond (9.2), Tum-
sar (22-12-68). In Nursery pond (8),
Bhandara (28-12-68). In Khamb lake
(8.5), Tiroda (2-2-69).

M. flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirchn.

Planktonic in ponds, Gondia (5-3-
67), Mehkar (20-10-68), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

Aphanocapsa grevillei (Hass.)
Rabenh.

On stones in pools, Satnavri (18-
10-64). On submerged soil at the
shore of Vena dam (1-2-69).

A. testacea Naeg.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

The alga is free floating and the
cells are spherical and never ellip-
soid as in the type.

Aphanothece castagnei (Breb.)
Rabenh.

In cement cisterns, Khamgaon (13-
10-68). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

A. heterospora Rabenh.

In Ramsagar lake (7.5), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

A. microscopica Naeg.

Adhering to sides of cement cis-
terns, Amravati (18-10-64). In Ram-
ala lake, Chandrapur (1-11-64). In
Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-1-69).
In Rasmagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

A. pallida (Kuetz.) Rabenh.

In Vadali lake and on moist soil,
Amravati (18-10-64). In paddy fields,
Umred (30-11-64). On moist soil and
in ponds, Mansar (13-12-64). On
moist soil in a garden, Chandrapur
(1-11-65). On moist soil and in
cement cisterns, Khamgaon (13-10-
67). On moist soil of a drying pool,
Akola (16-10-68). In Nave lake (9.5),
Bhandara (19-1-69). In Ramsagar
lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Firm, globular to elongate, yel-
lowish mucilaginous masses, 3-8 cm
broad, were present in large numbers
in paddy fields in Umred.

In some collections, cells with
sheaths — Glocothece like cells were
present.

Gloeocapsa muralis Kuetz.

Adhering to the sides of a cement
cistern, Amravati (18-10-68).
Gloeothece geoppertiana (Hilse)
Forti

In a cement water passage, Ward-
ha (12-3-68).

G. rupestris (Lyngby.) Born.

In a pool, Khamgaon (13-10-67).
G. samoensis Wille

In a cement cistern, Amravati (18-
10-64). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiro-
da (2-2-69).

Chroococcus minor (Kuetz.) Naeg.

In cement cisterns, Amravati (18-
10-64). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiro-
da (2-2-69).

C. minutus (Kuetz.) Naeg.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In pools, puddles, Wardha (27-10-
64), Khamgaon (13-10-67).

C. minutus (Kuetz.) Naeg. v. obliter-
atus (Richt.) Hansg.

In the scum on the stones sub-
merged in Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola
(16-10-68).

C. pallid us Naeg.

In a puddle, Wardha (27-10-64).

C. spelaeus Ercegovic
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. turgidus (Kuetz.) Naeg.

In a pond, Wardha (27-10-64). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).
C. turgidus (Kuetz.) Naeg. v. maxi-
mu s Nygaard

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

C. turicensis (Naeg.) Hansg.

In cement cisterns, Amravati (18-
10-64). In a lake (8.2), Dahegaon (27-
12-64). In Januna lake (8.2), Kham-
gaon (13-10-67).

C. westii (W. West) Boye-Pet.

In a lake (8), Yeotmal (27-10-68).
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara
(19-1-69).

Merismopedia elegans A. Br.

In puddles, Wardha (27-10-64),
Mehkar (20-10-68). In Ramsagar
lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).

M. glauca (Ehrenb.) Naeg.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In cement cisterns, Amravati (18-10-
64), Wardha (27-10-64). In a pond
(8.5), Jawahar Nagar (12-1-69). In a
side pool of Vena dam (1-2-69). In
Khamb lake (8.5), Tiroda (2-2-69).
M. punctata Meyen
In a dam, Pavnar (27-10-64). In
Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-11-64).
In a pond, Wardha (10-11-65). In
Painganga river (8.2), Mehkar (20-
10-68). In Nave lake (8), Sakoli (15-
12-68).

M. tenuissima Lemm.

In cement cisterns, Amravati (18-

10-64).

Colonies usually consisting of 4-8
cells. Cells broader — up to 3 n broad.
Synechococcus cedrorum Sauv.

In cement cisterns, Amravati (18-
10-64).

S. aquatilis Sauv.

In a pool, Amravati (18-10-64).

S. crassa Woronic.

In a cement cistern, Amravati (18-
10-64). k

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

471

S. sallensis Skuja

|| In a cement cistern, Amravati (18-
10-64).

Myxosarcina bunnensis Skuja
In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (28-
12-68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiro-
j da (2-2-69).

M. spectabilis Geitler

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).
Chamaesiphon sideriphilus Starm. v.
glabra C. B. Rao
In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68).
Calcium impregnation is not pre-
sent.

Borzia trilocularis Cohn

In cement cisterns, Amravati (18-
10-64). Khamgaon (13-10-67).
Spirulina major Kuetz. ex Gomont
In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64). In
Pavnar dam (27-10-64). In a puddle
and in a gutter, Wardha (27-10-64).
In Ramala lake, in a pool and in a
bodhan, Chandrapur (1-11-64). In a
pond, Gondia (5-3-67). In a lake (11),
Lonar (24-10-68). In Zarpat stream,
Chandrapur (12-10-69). In a lake (8),
Yeotmal (24-11-68). In Khamb lake
(8.5), Tiroda (2-2-69).

S. meneghiniana Zanard

In a pond, Wardha (27-10-64). In
a lake (11), Lonar (24-10-68).

S. princeps West et West
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

S. subsalsa Oerst.

In a rock pool, Wardha (27-10-64).
S. subsalsa Oerst. v. crassior Virieux
In a lake (11), Lonar (24-10-68).
Spirals up to 4 /x broad only.
Arthrospira platensis (Nordst.) Go-
mont

In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68).
A. tenuis Bruhl et Biswas
In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
Trichomes usually much longer,
with 10 spirals.

Oscillatoria agardhii Gom.

In a pond, Gondia (5-3-67).

O. amphibia Ag. ex Gom.

In a dirty water passage, Wardha
(27-10-64). In ponds, Mansar (13-12-
64), Gondia (5-3-67), Tumsar (22-12-

68). At the shore of a lake (11), Lo-
nar (24-10-68).

O. angusta Koppe

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
O. annae van Goor

In a puddle, Wardha (27-10-64).
O. boryana Borv ex Gom.

In a lake (8),* Yeotmal (24-11-68).
O. brevis (Kuetz.) Gom.

In gutters and side pools, Akola
(16-10-68), Khamgaon (13-10-67). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-69).
O. clialybea (Mertens) Gom.

In a pond, Amravati (18-10-64). In
a pond (8), Akola (16-10-68). In a
lake (11), Lonar (24-10-68).

O. claricentrosa Gardn.

In the mucilaginous masses of
other algae in a pond, Umred (30-
11-64).

O. cortiana Menegh.

In a gutter, Wardha (27-10-64).

O. cortiana Menegh. v. minor Kamat
In a puddle, Chandrapur (1-11-65).
O. decolorata G. S. West
In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

O. formosa Bory ex Gom.

In a cement cistern, Amravati (18-
10-64).

O. geminata Menegh. ex Gom.

In a lake (8.2), Katol (8-12-68).
Trichomes narrower up to 2 n
broad.

O. jasorvensis Vouk
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

O. mougeotii Kuetz.

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In a pond and in gutters, Umred
(30-11-64). In gutters, Akola (16-10-
68), Karanja (17-10-68), Mehkar (22-

10- 68). In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-

11- 68). In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tum-
sar (22-12-68).

O. nigro-viridis Thwaites

On moist soil near a gutter, Ward-
ha (12-3-68).

O. okeni Ag. ex Gom.

In Pavnar dam (27-10-64). In a
gutter and in Januna lake (8.2),
Khamgaon (13-10-67). On the shore
of a lake (11), Lonar (24-10-68). In
a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68). In

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-12-

68).

O. ornata Kuetz. ex Gom. v. crassa
C. B. Rao

In a pond, Wardha (27-10-64). In
Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-11-64).
In a pond, Gondia (5-3-67).

O. princeps Vauch.

In a rock pool, Wardha (27-10-
64).

O. proboscoidea Gom.

In a bodhan, Satnavri (18-10-64).
In a pool, Wardha (27-10-64).

O. profunda Kirchn.

In a pond. Gondia (5-3-67). On
moist soil near Vena dam (1-2-69).
In a road side puddle, Tiroda (2-2-
69).

O. pseudogeminata G. Schmid
In a puddle, Amravati (18-10-64).
In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
O. pseudogeminata G. Schmid f.
longa Kamat

In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64). In
Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-11-64).
On moist soil near a pond and in
Kapsi lake (8.2), Akola (16-10-68). In
a lake (11), Lonar (24-10-68). In
Khamb lake (8.5), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Occasionally the trichomes are
broader — up to 2.8 /x broad.

O. quadripunctulata Bruhl et Biswas
Embedded in the mucilaginous
masses of Gloeotrichia sp. in Gaon
lake (7.2), Sakoli (5-1-69).

O. quadripunctulata Bruhl et Biswas
v. unigranulata R. N. Singh
In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
O. quadripunctulata Bruhl et Biswas
v. unigranulata R. N. Singh, f. ahnie-
dabadensis Kamat
In paddy fields, Umred (30-11-64).
On the shore of Vena dam (1-2-69).
O. raciborskii Wolosz.

In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara
(28-12-68).

Trichomes slightly broader — up to
10 (i broad.

O. rubescens D. C. ex Gomont
In gutters, Amravati (18-10-64),
Umred (30-11-64), Akola (16-10-68),
Mehkar (20-10-68), Yeotmal (24-11-

68). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda
(2-2-69).

O. schultzii Lemm. v. cylindrica

Kamat

On moist soil near a pond, Wardha
(27-10-64). In Zarpat stream, Chan-
drapur (1-11-64).

Trichomes slightly broader — up to
3.5 n broad.

O. simplicissima Gom.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

O. splendida Grev. ex Gom.

In a pool, Satnavri (18-10-64). In
Gaon lake (7.2), Sakoli (7-1-69). In
Ramsagar lake (7.2), and Belati pond
(7.5), Tiroda (2-2-69).

Belati pond alga is broader — up
to 3.6 n broad.

O. splendida Grev. ex Gom. v.
attcnuata West et West

On moist soil near Vena dam (l-
2-69).

O. subuliformis Kuetz. ex Gom.

On drying soil near a lake (11),
Lonar (24-10-68).

Trichomes broader — up to 7.5 n
broad.

O. tambi Woron.

In a bodhan, Amravati (18-10-64).
In a lake (11), Lonar (24-10-68).

Amravati alga has slightly con-
stricted trichomes while Lonar alga
has narrower trichomes (—2.9 /x
broad).

O. tenuis Ag, v. tergestina Rabenh.
In a lake (8), Yeotmal (24-11-68).

O. ulrichii Prat

Planktonic in a bodhan. Gondia
(5-3-67).

Phormidium corium (Ag.) Gom.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64). In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-
64).

P. crossbyanum Tild.

On cement flooring near a water
tap, Tiroda (2-2-69).

P. foveolarum Gom.

In Zarpat stream, Chandrapur (1-
11-64).

P. frigidum Fritsch

On the sides of cement cisterns,
Amravati (18-10-64).

ALGAE OF V1DARBH, MAHARASHTRA

473

P. jenkelianum G. Schmid

In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-64).
P. molle Gom.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (13-10-
64). In a pool Wardha (27-10-64).
P. mucicola Huber- Pest, et Naumann
Embedded in the mucilage of Mi-
crocystis colonies in Nursery pond

(8) , Bhandara (28-12-68), in a pond

(9) , Tumsar (22-12-68), in Khamb
lake (8.5), Tiroda (2-2-69).

P. stagnina C. B. Rao
On dripping rocks, Chandrapur (1-

11- 64). Near a water tap, Wardha
(2-3-68).

Lyngbya ailorgei Fremy v. granul-
ata Kamat

On stones in a streamlet. Satnavri
(18-10-64).

Filaments are narrower, 3-3.2 n
broad and the cells sometimes longer
— up to 5 n long.

L. birgei G. M. Smith
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-

12- 68).

L, confervoides Ag.

Adhering to cement drain, Wardha
(12-3-68).

L. endophytica Elenk. et Hollerb.

In mucilaginous masses of Apha-
nothece in paddy fields, Umred (30-
11-64).

L. gandhii Kamat
In a fountain reservoir, Amravati
(18-10-64).

L. hieronymusii Lemm.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

L. holsatica Lemm.

Floating masses in a pond, Ward-
ha (27-10-64).

L. lachneri (Zimm.) Geitler
In a cement cistern, Amravati (18-

10- 64). In a lake (8), Yeotmal (22-

11- 68). In Nave lake (9.5), Bhanda-
ra (19-1-69).

L. lachneri (Zimm.) Geitler v. minor
Geitler

On cement flooring near a water
tap, Tiroda (2-2-69).

L. limnetica Lemm.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

L. majuscula Harvey ex Gomont
In a streamlet, Satnavri (18-10-
64). In Pavnar dam (27-10-64).

L. martensiana Menegh. ex Gomont
In a streamlet, Chandrapur (1-11-
64).

Trichomes slightly narrower — up
to 5.8-6 n broad.

L. shackletoni West et West

On cement flooring near a water
tap and in Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tir-
oda (2-2-69).

L. spiralis Geitler

In a bodhan, Satnavri (18-10-64).
Microcoleus chthonoplastes Thuret
ex Gomont

On moist soil near Nave lake, Sa-
koli (5-1-69).

Anabaenopsis arnoldii Aptek. v.
indica Ramnathan

Planktonic in a lake (11), Lonar
(24-10-68).

Spores not observed.

A. circularis (G. S. West) Wolosz.
et Miller

Planktonic in a puddle, Mehkar
(20-10-68).

Heterocysts are conical and not
spherical as in the type. Granules
and j or gas-vacuoles are not obser-
ved.

A. raciborskii Wolosz.

Planktonic in ponds, Gondia (5-3-

67) , Mehkar (20-10-68).

Trichomes are slightly constricted

in both the collections, which agree
with the description given by Geit-
ler (1932). Desikachary (1959) des-
cribes the trichomes as not constrict-
ed though his figure (PI. 63, f. 7)
shows slight constrictions at some
cross walls.

Raphidiopsis mediterranea Skuja
Planktonic in ponds, Mansar (13-
12-64), Gondia (5-7-67), Katol (8-12-

68) .

Cylindrospermum licheniforme

Kuetz. ex Born, et Flah.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
C. majus Kuetzing ex Born, et Flah.

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

C. muscicola Kuetz. ex Born, et Flah.

In Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

C. stagnale (Kuetz.) Born, et Flah.

In Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).
In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-2-
69).

Anabaena fuellebornii Schmidle
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (23-
12-68).

A. ineaqualis (Kuetz.) Born, et Flah.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64).

A. orientalis Dixit
In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

A. sphaerica Born, et Flah.

Planktonic in a puddle, Mehkar
(20-10-68).

A. volzii Lemm.

In paddy fields, Amravati (13-10-
64). In a small pond, Wardha (27-
10-64). In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiro-
da (2-2-69).

Nodularia spumigena Mertens

In a lake (11), Lonar (24-10-68).
Nostoc microscopicum Carm. ex
Born, et Flah.

In Nursery pond (8), Bhandara (28-
12-68).

Spores not observed.

N. paludosum Kuetz. ex Born, et
Flah.

In a pond, Umred (30-11-64). In
Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara (29-11-
68).

N. rivulare Kuetz. ex Born, et Flah.

In Gaon lake (7.2), Sakoli (5-1-69).
Aulosira fertilissima Ghose v.
tenuis C. B. Rao
In Vadali lake and in paddy fields,
Amravati (18-10-64). In Kapsi lake
(8.2), Akola (16-10-68).

A. implexa Born, et Flah. v. crassa
Dixit

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-

64) . In a streamlet, Warora (30-10-

65) . In a pool, Chandrapur (1-11-
65).

Camptylonemopsis pulneyensis
Desik.

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

Filaments up to 16 /* broad; spores

are cylindric, 12-14 n broad, 16-20 /x
long, with smooth walls.

Scytonema chiastum Geitler

In paddy fields, Amravati (18-10-
64).

S. cookei W. et G. S. West
On moist soil, Amravati (18-10-
64).

S. simplex Bharadw.

In Ramsagar lake (7.2), Tiroda (2-
2-69).

Fortiea bossei (Fremy) Desik.

In a streamlet, Amravati (18-10-
64; 20-11-68).

Spores broader up to 6.5 /* broad,
the shape of the spores also different
being always rectangular, and not
rounded at the angles.

Calothrix clavatoides Ghose

Epiphytic on Hydrilla leaves in a
cement cistern, Akola (6-3-69).

C. epiphytica West et West

In Sarkari lake (7.2), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

C. karnatakcnsis Gonz. et Kam. v.
major Gonz. et Kam.

Epiphytic on aquatic plants in
Vadali lake, Amravati (3-3-65).

C. marchica Lemm.

In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhandara
(29-12-68).

C. wembaerensis Hieron et Schmidle
In Sarkari lake (7.5), Tumsar (22-
12-68).

Dichothrix orsiniana (Kuetz.) Born,
et Flah.

On dripping rocks, Amravati (18-

10- 64).

Gloeotriehia intermedia (Lemm.)
Geitler v. kanwanensis C. B. Rao
In Ramala lake, Chandrapur (1-

11- 64). In Abkari lake (7.5), Bhan-
dara (29-12-68).

G. natans Rabenh. ex Born, et Flah.
In Gaon lake (7.2), Sakoli (5-1-69).
Cells and heterocysts are slightly
broader.

G. pilgeri Schmidle
Epiphytic on aquatic plants in
ponds, Umred (30-11-64), Vadali lake,
Amravati (18-10-64), Mansar (13-12-
64), Nave lake (9.5), Bhandara (19-
1-69).

ALGAE OF VIDARBH, MAHARASHTRA

475

G. raciborskii Wolosz.

Planktonic in Gaon lake (7.2),
Sakoli (5-1-69).

G. raciborskii Wolosz. v. kashiense
C. B. Rao

In Vadali lake, Amravati (18-10-
64).

Hapaiosiphon baronii West et West
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

H. hibernicus West et West
In a pond, Mansar (13-12-64).

Ack NOWLEDGEMENTS

I take this opportunity to thank my relative Shri Surendra R. Juvale,
Bombay, for kindly making available some important reference works
and to Government of Maharashtra for the financial assistance during
1966-1968.

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(1932) : Cyanophyceae.

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A Catalogue of the Birds in
the Collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society— 18

(Eurylaimidae, Pittidae, Alaudidae)

Humayun Abdulali
[Continued from Vol. 72(1): 131]

843 specimens of 81 species and subspecies, up to No. 909 in Indian
handbook and registered No. 23957 are covered by this part.

EL Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos siamensis de Schauensee &
Ripley (Pran, south-west Siam) Black-and-Red Broadbill
1 o ? Tenasserim Town, Burma. Wing 97; bill 23; tail 77
The subspecific identification of this and the next is based on the
distribution in Peters’s check-list, Vol. 7, p. 7.

EL Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos malaccensis Salvadori (Malacca)
1 o? Malacca. Wing 96; bill 24.5; tail 86

The subspecific identification is as mentioned under the last.

864 Serilophus lunatus rubropygius (Hodgson) (Nepal) Nepal Col-
lared Broadbill 3:470

11 : 4$ $ (1 juv.) 6$ $ 1 o? juv.

1 Rajhatkhawa, Jalpaiguri dt., W. Bengal; 2 Margherita, 1 Dening. Lohit
Valley, 1 Roopchena, 1 Hungum, N. Cachar, Assam; 2 Melok R., below
Wamakan 500 ft; 1 Rasa, \Mansum, Chindwin Exp., Burma; 1 no data

(ECSB).

Wing Bill Tarsus

3 82,84,85 13,14(2) 18(2), 19

6 $ 9 81-83 av.82 14-15 17-19

(ih 9 83-88 from skull 15-17 c.21

Tail
62,64,66
62-67 av. 64
66-71)

Specimen No. 9834 marked cf shows white-tipped feathers on either
side of the neck. The two juveniles (?) lack these spots as also the grey
sheen on the lower plumage. There is a slight wash of rufous on the
upperparts, but I cannot see ‘the rufous of the rump extending further
on to mantle’ as stated by Ticehurst (JBNHS 39:55 9).

865 Psarisomus dalhousiae dalhousiae (Jameson) (Northern India,
probably near Simla) Longtailed Broadbill 3 : 472

14:5$ $ 89 $ 1 o?

1 Longview T.E., 1 Darjeeling, 1* Kurseong, W. Bengal, 1 Berrik, 2 Sing-
tarn, Teesta Valley, 1 Mar tarn, Rongni Valley, 1 Rinchinpong, Sikkim;
1 Margherita, Assam; 1* Dalu, 1* Tawmaw, 1* Nanyaseik, 1* Mansum,
Chindwin Exp., Burma, 1* no data.

[299]

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

These birds can be divided into two groups, eight with underparts
greenish, and six (2 c? cT 4 $ $ ) bluish. They show no differences in
size, but the latter* (12 January to 31 March) are from Kurseong (1),
and Chindwin (4), while the green (western ?) birds are dated between
26 November and 26 January. The eastern birds show slight traces (as
do the others) of the character on which Hume separated assimilis from
Thayetmyo, Burma, i.e. a small patch of blue on the nape after the
black. This is usually concealed by the black feathers and its visibility
is largely dependent on the make-up of the skin.

The specimens measure:

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

d d

99-102 av. 100

17-19

27-29

120(2), 125, 127

$ $

99-103 av.101

18-19

26-28

110-130 av. 119

(d 9

99-107

17-18

27-28

95-136)

The material available shows no difference in wing length between
the sexes as suggested in ind. handbook (4:250) where there is no
mention of the number measured.

866 Pitta nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Bluenaped Pitta

3:444

14 : $8 $ (1 by pi.) 6$ $ (2 by pi.)

1 Darjeeling, W. Bengal; 1 Sikkim; 2 Margherita, 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley,
1 Gusyong, 1 Heogagul, 1 Cachar, Assam; 2 Dalu, 1 Hpala, Chindwin;
1 Man, Yasu Valley, Pakokku; 1 Aka, Chin Hills, Burma, 1 no data.

In series, the females have paler underparts than the males, which
also vary among themselves. Three males obtained by the Chindwin
Expedition show dark centres to the scapulars and are slightly smaller
than the others, including an unsexed bird in male plumage (No. 9075)
from Man, Yasu Valley, Pakokku, Burma, further south.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

d d 115-124 av. 120
Chindwin

26-28

52-53

50-58 av. 53*8

dd

115,118,119

26(2), 27

50,51,52

49,50,55

9 9

118-122 av. 120

26-28

51-56 av. 53*6

50-60 av.52-5

(dQ

116-129

22-26

51-59

61-68)

867 Pitta brachyura brachyura (Linnaeus) (Ceylon) Indian Pitta

28 : 7$ $ 10$ $ 11 o?

1* Kalka, 1* Simla Hills; 2f Bombay, 2 Khandala, 1 Ratnagiri, 1* Waman-
palli, Chanda, Maharashtra; 1 Alanki, 2* Karwar, N. Kanara, If Tek-
kadi, If Peermade, Periyar, 2f Shembaganur, 2f Kodaikanal, Palnis,
2 Travancore, Kerala; 1 Anuradhapur, Ceylon; If Pt. Calimere, 1 Kur-
umbapatti, Salem, Tamil Nadu; If Vizagapatnam Dt., A.P., 1* Bagh-
owni, Tirhut, Bihar; 1* Kumaon, Naini Tal, 1* Sikkim, 2 no data.

Many years ago I had noticed some colour differences in the Pittas
available in the Bombay collection and though additional material and
opinions were obtained, it was not possible to take any definite decision.
The present re-examination reveals the same differences, and while

[300]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 18 479

unable to offer any definite results, I am placing them on record for
somebody else to follow up as and when opportunity offers.

They fall into 3 separate groups, all of which include specimens with
dark streaks on the back:

(a) 7*: 18 4$ $ 2 a?

These differ from both the other groups in having pale underparts,
greyer and less brown lateral crown streaks, and bluish green backs.
They share a shiny, pale blue rump with (c).

They include all the Himalayan specimens, the southernmost being
from Karwar (July) and Chanda (27 May) and were all taken between
20th May (Sikkim) and 16th October (Kumaon).

After the migrations and breeding seasons are determined, Koelz’s
name pulchra (Bhadwar, Kangra, Punjab) may be applicable to the
northern population.

(b) 9f : 18 4$ $ 4 o?

These share the darker underparts etc. with (c) but are separable
from both (a) and (c) by the darker blue of the rump.

The northernmost are from Bombay and Vizagapatnam dist. (both
Oct.) and there appears to be a concentration in the south-western hills.
During my earlier examination in 1955, a bird borrowed from Ceylon
was also included in this group, as is suggested by its capture, presum-
ably on migration at Pt. Calimere. This and six of the others were taken
in October, with one each in January and March.

(c) 12 (unmarked): 58 8 29 9 5 o?

Resemble group (a) in the pale blue of the rump, but otherwise
similar to (b).

The distribution overlaps that of group (b) including Ceylon, now
accepted as the type locality of nominate brachyura. Specimens were
taken in January, February (2), April (2), May, July and October (2).

The southernmost breeding record is from near Bombay, while they
are known to nest regularly in Dhulia, West Khandesh and near Mhow
in Central India, south and north of the Satpura Range, in June and
July. No breeding specimens are available to permit any attempt at
localising the separate (?) groups.

The sexes show no differences in size nor do those with the colour
differences.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

c?c?

102-107 av 105

21-23

35-38

30-37 av. 34

9 9

101-109 av.I05

20-22

35-38

30-37 av. 34

(IH C? 9

101-111

from skull 22-26

35-39

36-40)

868 Pitta moluccensis niegarhyncha Schlegel (Banka) Larger Blue-
winged Pitta 3 : 452

ind. handbook (4:254) refers to a single record from Barisal, E.
Pakistan (now Bangladesh) but in the same year (1970) Paynter, Bull.

[301]

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

B.O.C. 90: 118) said it was conspicuous in the Sunderbans in April, had
enlarged gonads, and was probably breeding.

EL Pitta mohiccensis moluecensis P.S.L. Muller (Tenasserim) Les-
ser Bluewinged Pitta 3 : 450

3 o?

1 Myingyan, Upper Burma (24 May 1902), 1 S. Irawaddy, 1 Copah, Malay
Peninsula (6 Oct. 1880).

Wing 119, 120, 123 (118-127): bill — , 22, 25*5 (24-26 contra 29-34 in
megarhyncha)', tarsus 39(2), 40 (20-24); tail 36, 39, 41 (42-45).

The measurements of the tarsus in fauna are no doubt in error, but
accepting those of the culmen, these birds would both be of the nomi-
nate race. They show very little red on the lower belly and undertail
coverts cf. PI. xiii in the birds of burma (Smythies, 1953).

869 Pitta sordida cucullata Hartlaub (Malacca) Hooded or Green-
breasted Pitta 3 : 455

1 8 Simla, NW. Himalayas.

Measurements under 870.

870 Pitta sordida abbotti Richmond (Nicobars) Nicobar Hooded

or Greenbreasted Pitta 3 : 457

3:2 8 8 1$ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

1 cf cucullata 115 (109-119) 23-5 (20-22) 37 (38-42) 37 (39-42)

2 cfcf abbotti 108, 110 22-5, 23 40,40 32, 35

1 9 abbotti 109 22 37 34

(cf 9 103-110 22 40 39)

These birds have the green upperparts suffused with olive contra
clear green in No. 869. The head is darker, the white patch on the pri-
maries smaller, and compared with the single specimen of cucullata , the
blue on the belly more prominent.

EL Pitta gurneyi Hume (South Tenasserim) Gurney’s Pitta 3 : 457

1 9 Bankachon, S. Tenasserim

Wing 98 (97-102); bill 22 (20-22); tarsus 39 (40-42); tail 43 (46-54).

EL Pitta caerulea caerulea Raffles (Sumatra) Giant Pitta 3 : 447

1 8 (by plumage) Bankachon, S. Tenasserim

Wing 153 (138-155); bill 34 (32-35); tarsus 58 (54-59); tail 51 (61-67).

871 Pitta cyanea cyanea Blyth (Arakan) Blue Pitta 3 : 448

1 8 Lower Thoungyin Forest, Burma-Siamese Border.

Wing 116 (106-116); bill 23 (22-24); tarsus 42 (43-45); tail 56 (57-62).

872 Mirafra javanica cantillans Blyth (Bengal) Singing Bush Lark

3 : 334

4:2 8 8 19 1 o?

1 Bhimasar, Nakhtrana dist., Kutch; 1 Nadiad Town environs, Gujarat;
1 Dodi, Malwa Plateau, c. 1700 ft, Bhopal State, C.I.; 1 Cawnpore (cage
bird) .

[302]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 18 481

The males (4 Sept, and 9 Dec.) from Kutch (with developed gonads)
and Gujarat and the cage bird from Cawnpore are paler and less dis-
tinctly marked than the female, both above and on the breast.

873 Mirafra assamica assamica Horsfield (Assam) Bengal Bush

6 :4$ $ 1$ lo?

2 Jagadhri, Arnbala, Punjab; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut; 1 Rajputee Saran, Bihar;
2 Kaziranga, Assam.

The grey upperparts, and the markings on the head are quite dis-
tinct from those in M. assamica affinis. The birds from the Punjab are
paler and less richly coloured than the others.

Measurements under No. 874a.

874 Mirafra assamica affinis Blyth (Southern part of the peninsula
of India) Madras Bush Lark 3 : 339

23 : 12$ $ (1 juv.) 8$ $ 3 o?

(a) 1 Kalai, Trichinopoly, 2 Pt. Calimere, 2 Chitteri Range, 1 Kurumba-
patti, 2 Harur, Tirthamalai, Salem District, Tamil Nadu; 3 Palkonda
Hills, 1 Seshachalam Hills, 2 Koduru, Cudappah, 1 Kavur Taluka, Nel-
lore District, A.P.; 1 Golapalli, Bastar.

(b) 2 Baramba, 1 Talchar, 2 Barkul, Chilka Lake, Orissa, 1 Nilgiri.

The birds in group (b) (except those collected in 1902 and badly
foxed) have dark upperparts, with little or no trace of rufous. They are
quite different from the dark grey of nominate assamica but resemble
them in their noticeably heavy bills, and represent an intermediate popu-
lation between affinis and assamica, closer to the former.

Birds from further south show more rufous on the upperparts, a
character which is more pronounced in $ No. 9187 from Trichinopoly.
Jerdon also said that specimens from the Carnatic have a redder tinge
than others from Midnapore and Ceylon. Specimens from the extreme
south and southwest hills are under ceylonensis (q.v.).

Measurements under 874a.

874a Mirafra assamica ceylonensis Whistler (Colombo, Ceylon) Cey-
lon Bush Lark

9 : $ $

1 Wadakkancheri, 3 Malakku, Kumdukadru, Trichur, Cochin; 2 Kutiani
(Kutyani), 1 Thattakad, Kerala, 1 Cassimode, south(?) Travancore (J.P.
Cook), 1 Aramboli, Cape Comorin.

I have already referred (in press) to the validity of this large-billed
race, with and without rufous underparts, occurring in Ceylon and in a
very restricted area in southernmost India.

Lark

3:336

Wing

assamica tfc? 82,84,85 (2)

Bill

13.5-14*7 av.13-8

Tail

45,46(2), 47
43
45-50)

44-48 av. 45-8

9 81
(c? 9 82-84

13-6
c. 13-14

(a) cfo71 83-87 av. 84*6

12- 2-13- 5 av. 13

[303]

affinis

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Wing

(b) d'd' 78-85 av. 82
[ 77-88

Bill

Tail

(IH

affinis (a) $ $

12*5-14 av. 13
from skull 15-18

41-46 av. 44*3
42-52)

(IH

(b) $ 9 75-82 av. 78*7
[ 75-82

12*5-15 av. 13
13-17

13*1-14*7 av. 14

39-44 av. 41
39-45)

42-48 av. 45
43

40-45)

ceylonensis cfc? 81-88 av. 84
microptera d1 76

13

12-13

(<?<? 67-77

EL Mirafra assamica microptera Hume (Thayetmyo) Burmese Bush

1 S Paukkaung, Prome District, Burma.

The single specimen is small but washed rufous above, resembling
affinis from around Madras and agreeing with Hume’s original descrip-
tion of microptera , contra three others from Mandalay (U.S. Nat. Mus.
Nos. 44982/4) which are also small but greyer above and purer white
below.

Measurements under 874a.

875/6 Mirafra erythroptera sindiana Ticehurst (Karachi, Sind) Sind
Redwinged Bush Lark 3 : 342

16 : 14 8 $ 2$ $ (1 juv.)

4 Ambala, 1 Chandigarh. Punjab; 3 Delhi; 2 Bulandshar, 3 Meerut, 3 Cawn-
pore, U.P.

Koelz’s furva from Sihor, Kathiawar, is synonymised with sindiana
in ind. handbook (5:7) but the lack of topotypes of both races only
permits a recording that specimens from the Punjab and Delhi have
wider pale margins to the feathers of the back, and are in series paler
than those from further south. Those from Uttar Pradesh are old and
badly prepared and are perhaps best left together.

The others which are placed under nominate erythroptera show dif-
ferences of colour, but are in series darker.

No. 18228 from Ambala, marked “juvenile” is darker above. A
juvenile from Cawnpore (No. 9152) has the head streaks broken into
spots, and the rufous on the primaries extends much further towards
the tips, than in adults.

The measurements are under 877.

877 Mirafra erythroptera erythroptera Blyth (Northern Deccan)
Red winged Bush Lark 3 : 341

21 : 17 8 8 29 $ 2o?

2 Bhuj, 2 Kharirohar, 1 Chadva, 1 Kutch; 2 Vaghjipur, 1 Deesa, Palanpur,
1 Dalkhania, Amreli, Gujarat; 2 Narwer Fort, 1 Bhind, 1 Bhadarwar,
Gwalior, 1 Dodi, Malwa Plateau, 1 Sanchi, Bhopal; 1 Jabalpur; 1 Poona,
1 Kannad, Aurangabad, 2 Mukher, Nanded District, Maharashtra.

Lark

3:340

[304]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 1 8 483

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

sindiana cfo71 72-83 av. 80

12-13

21-24

45-53 av. 50-5

1 $ 70

-

20

44

(ih d1 9 73-84

from skull 13-15

21-23

46-56)

erythroptera cFcF 75-82 av. 80

12-14

21-24

46-53 av. 50

(ih c? $ 75-84

from skull 13-15

21-23

47-55)

In sindiana the birds from Delhi and westwards have their wings
average 81 mm contra 77 *5 in the eastern birds.

The preponderance of males in both groups is noticeable and inex-
plicable.

As already indicated under 875, these birds show differences in
colour. The southernmost is from Poona and it is unfortunate that the
only specimens available from Point Calimere in Tamil Nadu where
several erythroptera are said to have been handled by the Ringing Camps
( JBNHS 55:458) are M. assamica.

EL Lullula arborea pallida Zarudny (Hills of Transcaspia) Wood
Lark

1 $ : Amara, Iraq.

Wing 100; bill 12*7; tail 52.

The subspecific identification is based on the locality.

878 Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli) (Gingee, S. Arcot) Ashycrowned
or Blackbellied Finch Lark 3 : 353

67:43^5 (2 pull., 2 juv.) 19$$ 5 o?

1 Rawalpindi; 1 Thanessa, Karnal District; 1 Bhong, Indus River, 1 Baha-
walpur, Punjab; 6 Delhi; 2 Meerut; 2 Bhinmal, 1 Pali, Jodhpur; 3 Jaithari,
Bhopal; 1 Chadva, Bhuj, Kutch; 1 Radhanpur, 2 Patan, Mehsana district,
1 Pariaji, Kaira district, Gujarat; 1 Deolali, 1 Nasik, 1 Shil, Thana; 7
Santa Cruz, 1 Pali Hill, Bandra, 1 Bombay, 3 Panchgani, 2 Satara; 1 Bargi,
1 Karwar, 1 Shirgunji, S. Kunta, 1 Kanara; 1 Talewadi, Belgaum; 1 Wad-
akkancheri, 1 Trivandrum, 1 Trichinopoly, 1 S. Arcot, 1 Madras; 7 Cum-
bum Valley; 1 Koduru, S. Cuddapah; 4 Godavery Delta; 1 Nayagar State,
Orissa; 2 Purulia, Manbhum, 1 Madhubani, 1 Baghowni, Tirhut, Bihar.

ind. handbook accepts no subspecies from over the wide range of
this species, but the specimens / series from different areas show differ-
ences, which if supported by additional material would probably justify
separation. Among the males, birds from Satara, Karwar and Kerala,
are darkest above, while others from Bhong, Bahawalpur, Bhopal and
Delhi, are the palest, several of the latter being marked siccata by Whist-
ler. A single bird from Talewadi, Belgaum, has the upperparts brown
and the upper surface washed with rufous, a character on which other
subspecies have been described from the same area. When at the Yala
Sanctuary in Ceylon (July 1967), I noted that they “appeared different
from Indian birds”.

The females show other differences. The two from Delhi are out-
standingly palest,

[305]

16

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

c? c?

73-79 av.75

10-11

16-18

37-45 av. 41-5

(IH

74-80

from skull 11-13

15-17

37-44)

$ $

72-76 av. 74.5

10-11

15-18

36-42 av. 39-5

(IH

72-79

11-13

15-17

37-44)

879 Eremopterix nigriceps affinis (Blyth) (Karachi) Black-crowned
Finch Lark 3: 355

9:655 3$ $

4 Karachi, 1 10 m off Karachi (?); 3 Phalodi, Jodhpur State; 1 Kuar Bet,
Kutch.

The two males and two females from Karachi, all collected by C.B.
Ticehurst in 1918 have their upperparts paler than in the others. Shiv-
rajkumar ( JBNHS 66:625) refers to flocks and individuals seen in dif-
ferent parts of Gujarat and suggests migratory movements.

Wing Bill

<?c? 79-85 av. 81.5 10-11

$ $ 74,75,78 10(3)

(ih d71 $ 78-83 from skull c.12

Tarsus Tail

17-19 48-52 av. 50

17,17,18 45,47(2)

16-17 46-51)

EL Ammomanes dunni ereinodites Meinertzhagen (Sheikh Othman,
Aden Protectorate, Arabia)

4:2$$ 2o? Siyahad, Arabia (St. John Philby, March 1940).

Wing 83, 88, 95(2); bill 12*5, 13*2, 13-5(2); tail 49, 51, 53 56,

No. 9394, wing 95, was identified at the Smithsonian Institution by
Mr. Bond, who informs me that accepting Siyahad as at 25°38'N.,
47°05'E., these records extend the accepted range of the species into
eastern Arabia.

Ammomanes deserti

Most of the extra-limital part of the collection has been gone over
by Ticehurst (?) and trinominally named, but it is not possible to link
the identifications with any paper nor to confirm the groupings, parti-
cularly of iranicus and phoenicuroides, and I am not disturbing the
identifications (except for three specimens of orientalis from Meshed,
North Persia) and am only referring to the differences.

EL Ammomanes deserti cheesmani Meinertzhagen (Shatt-el-Adhain,
Iraq) Desert Finch Lark
2 o? Shatt-el-Adhain, Iraq.

The two topotypes can be picked out from the others from Samara
not very far away by the greater amount of pink on the upperparts.

Wing 96, 99; bill 12(2); tarsus 21, 22; tail 65, 66.

EL Ammomanes deserti isabellinus (Temminck) (Deserts of Aqu-
aba, Arabia)

4:1^ 1$ 2 o?

2 Bait-al-Khalif, 1 Samara, Iraq; 1 mile 30, 1200' Kal Kerim(I), Persian
Gulf (C.E. Capito 14-1-25).

[306]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 18 485

These are similar to cheesmani but less pink above. They are mark-
ed fraterculus ? which is synonymised with isabellinus, in Peters’s

CHECK-LIST.

Wing 94, 96, 100, 101; bill 12(2), 13,-; tarsus 20, 22, 23,-; tail 63, 64, 68(2).

EL Ammomanes deserti iranicus Zarudny (Hurmuck, Persian Balu-
chistan)

6:4 $ $ 2$ $

2 Amirabad, 2 Kalat Yussuf, 1 Birjand; 1 Tigat 4000', eastern Persia.

These birds are in series browner and less grey than those marked
phoenicuroides.

All were collected by LaPersonne in December 1926 (2), January
(1) and March 1927 (3).

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

106,109 (3) 12-13*2 23-24 70,72,73,-

$ 9 101,102 12*5,13*5 22,23 68 (2)

Meinertzhagen (Ibis 1920:143) identified birds from Quetta as of
this subspecies.

EL Ammomanes deserti orlentalis Zarudny and Loudon (“lower

mountains of southwestern Bukhara Kushka River, sporadic in

northwestern corner of Persia; around the middle Amu Darya..).

3:2 $ $ 1 $ Meshed, North Iran.

The birds collected by LaPersonne in Pebruary 1927 are slightly
paler and sandier than iranicus and larger than isabellinus and may well
be orient alis as indicated by Vaurie in birds of pal. fauna p. 24. Palu-
dan 1959, on the birds of Afghanistan p. 141 refers to those from
North Afghanistan as orientalis but says they are even paler than chees-
mani from Salehabad and Kulmabad (?) in S.W. Iran. The topotypes
of cheesmani available for comparison (supra) are however distinctly
paler.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

cfp1 104,108 12,12 23,25 71,72

9 103 10*5 24 68

880 Ammomanes deserti phoenicuroides (Blyth) (Kashmir) Indian
Desert Pinch Lark 3 : 352

23 : 11# $ 9$ $ 3 o?

1 Gudar-i-Ghichi, 3000', 2 Aliabad, 1 2000' Bandan; 1 Bali Komh, 2 Kunik,
3500' Seistan & Kain; 3 Kaidasht Pass, 7000', Kain, 1 Ab-i-Kahugan,
44 m. s.e. of Khawash, 4700' Persian Baluchistan; 1 Lokh, 100 m. south
of Kalat, 1 Korak ( Pelar ), (180 m. s. by w. of) Kalat, Baluchistan; 1
Malkand, 1 Risalpur, N.W.F.P.; 2 Taxila, 1 Campbellpur, Punjab, 2
Manthar, Cholistan, 2 Bahawalpur Town environs, Bahawalpur.

Individuals from scattered areas, show differences in size and colour.
According to Vaurie the birds from Seistan and Persian Baluchistan
should be iranicus but they are marked phoenicuroides by Ticehurst
and agree better with them. $ No. 9374 from Gudar-i-Ghaichi; Bandan,

[307]

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 12(2)

in Seistan, is dark above and shows a heavier bill than most of the others.
Another cf No. 9373 Korak (Paler) 180 m. south by west of Kalat in
Baluchistan resembles orientalis in colour but has a small 94 mm wing.

Among the others, two from Manthar, Cholistan, Bahawalpur, col-
lected by Salim Ali on 21 and 25 February 1939 are very pale above
and approach isabellinus ! cheesmani , except that they lack the pinkish
tinge and have less rufous on the upper tail-coverts. Another (No. 9388)
from the same place (27 February) is darker, while two more from
Bahawalpur Town environs may well be included in the range of varia-
tion in others under phoenicuroides. Whistler ( JBNHS 42: 731) makes
no reference to these differences, but in the course of the report Salim
Ali draws attention to the fact that Manthar falls into a part of the Great
Indian Desert known as Rohi Cholistan, a distinct biotope separated
from Bahawalpur town “by a depression known as the Hakra, the an-
cient bed of a bygone river’. Two more specimens obtained here are
not now available, but there appears little doubt that an examination
of these differences, particularly in the field, would be of interest.

881 Ammomanes cincturus Zarudny and Hartert (Mujnabad, east-
ern Iran) Blacktailed Finch Lark 3 : 351

3:1$ 2$ $ Duzdap, 5000', Seistan, Iran (October 1926)

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

& 99

10

23

56

$ $ 94,94

-,io

21,22

53,55

($$ 97-102

111 IND. HANDBOOK

Hartert, 92,93 fauna)

(5:13) this is referred to

as a race of phoenicu ■

rus, but they appear to be very different and are perhaps better placed
in a separate species as in Peters’s checklist.

882 Ammomanes phoenicurus phoenicurus (Franklin) (Between
Calcutta and Benares) Indian Rufoustailed Finch Lark 3 : 350

36 : 22$ $ 11$ $ 3 o?

2 Bhuj, Kutch; 1 Sanchi, Bhopal; 1 Kuno, Gwalior; 1 Harisal, Berar; 1
Bodeli, Baroda, 1 Dohad, Gujarat; 2 Sinnar, Nasik, 4 Bassein, Thana, 2
Dharamtar Creek, 1 Nagotna, Kolaba, 2 Panchgani, 1 Satara, 3 Ratnagiri;
6 Cumbum Valley; 3 Jabalpore, 1 Saugar, 1 Gondia, 1 Bhanupratapur,
Kankar; 2* Orissa (* No. 18375 missing).

The material available shows differences of colour and the birds
along the western side from Kutch southwards to Kolaba District ap-
pear slightly darker both above and below. The chins in the eastern
birds appear distinctly paler. Two from Vengurla (the third is an old
and dilapidated skin) maintain the darkness and differ in having the
scapulars washed and tipped with rufous, a character absent in all the
others.

In the absence of any birds from south of the Cumbum Valley, it
is not possible to comment upon the validity of the next form testaceus.

[308]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECT ION — 18 487

9 No. 9355 from Harisal, Berar, dull brown all over, paler on the
underparts and with almost no markings on the breast, is presumably
a juvenile. The outer webs of all the primaries are bright rufous, dis-
tinguishing this from the others.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

cfcf

99-106, one 111, av. 104-5

12-5-15 av. 13-5

22-24

58-65 av. 61

(ih 100-110

from skull 15-17

21-24

57-64)

9 9

93-105 av. 99

12-5-14-5

22-24

53-60 av. 57-6

(ih 98-104

from skull 15-16

21-23

52-63)

883 Ammomanes phoenieurus testaceus Koelz (Salem, Madras)
Southern Rufoustailed Finch Lark
nil.

884 Alaenion alaudipes doriae (Salvadori) (Iran) Large Desert Lark

3 : 304

15:6$$ 799 (1 juv., 2 imm.) 2 o?

3 Shaiba, Iraq; 3 Lab-i-Baring, Hamunk, 1 Khwaja Ahmed, Seistan, Iran;

4 Karachi; 1 Khorda, Pachaw, 1 Kharirohar, 1 Nir, Great Rann, Kutch;

1 Yazman, Bahawalpur.

According to Peters (1960, 9:39) and Vaurie (1959), all these
should be of the same race but two of the three from Iraq are paler
above and have a pale rufous wash which immediately separates them
from the others. They also differ in the irregularity and almost complete
absence of the dark bar across the white of the secondaries,, a character
shared with the third from the same place, which is very worn and does
not exhibit the rufous.

The juvenile from Karachi has no spots on the breast and very pale
upperparts which are not barred with blackish brown as required in
both the fauna and ind. handbook. The two immature females (Nos.
8882 and 8887) are less heavily spotted on the breast than the adults.

d No. 8881 from Khwaja Ahmed has the largest (137 mm) wing
but is not larger than Iraqi or Indian birds in other respects, and they
are all measured together.

9 9

Wing

131-137 av.133
Oh 126-137
115,118,120,125
(ih 116-119

Bill

27-5-30

from skull 30-35
24-5,25,26,28-5
from skull c. 27

Tarsus

36

34-37

31,32 (2), 3 3
3C-32

Tail

89-98 av. 94-5
79-99)
78,89,90,92
c. 75)

EL Calandrella cinerea brachydactyla (Leisler) (Montpellier, France)
Short-toed Lark

1 o? : 1800' Siyahad, Arabia (St. John Philby, 17 March 1940)

Wing 97; bill 12, tail 60.

The specimen No. 9397 was identified by Mr. Bond.

The white outer tail feathers, the smaller bill and the brown rather
than rufous upperparts immediately separate this from Ammomanes
with which it lay unnamed for many years.

[309]

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

The original label is marked “in flock of 20/30”.

EL Calandrella cinerea hermonensis Tristram (Mt. Hermon, Leb-
anon) Short-toed Lark

1 o? Shatt-el-Adhain, R. Tigris, Mesopotamia.

No. 9067 collected by C. R. Pitman on 16 October 1917 and mark-
ed brachydactyla has the upperparts more rufous than in any other and
appears to be hermonensis.

Wing 89; bill 10; tarsus 20; tail 59.

Dzun-

3:325

885 Calandrella cinerea longipennis (Eversmann) (Sangora
garia) Yarkand Short-toed Lark
42 : 23 $ $ 14$ $ 5 o? (1* pull.)

1 Mohamedabad; 1 Robat-i-Mahi, 5 Maina, near Turbat; 1 Kidri near Kain,
Iran; 1 Rekchak Hambar, Kolwa, Baluchistan; 4 Chitral Drosh, 4 Jagadhri,
1 Ambala; 3 Manthar, Cholistan, 1 Harunabad, 2 Yazman, 1 Chachran,
1 Bhong, Bahawalpur; 1 Bhinmal, 3 Jolar, Jodhpur; 1 Santawara, Gwalior;
1 Ratlam, C.I.; 2 Bhuj, 1 Mandvi, Kutch; 1 Patan, 1 Vagjipur, Mehsana,

1 Radhanpur, 1 Cambay City environs, 1 Deesa, Palanpur; 1* Tso Mor-
ari, Tibet; 1 Taming Bashi, Pamirs.

The whole series shows considerable variation in colour, size and
shape of bill, but those from Bahawalpur, Kutch, Gujarat, etc., have
been marked longipennis either by Salim Ali or Whistler, and with the
material available, I am unable to suggest any amendment.

Some from Maina, near Turbat, paler above and with larger and
flatter bills may be artemesiana.

Three from 4000', Chitral, collected by Capt. H. S. Fulton in Octo-
ber 1902 have a pronounced rufous wash on the upper surface, but their
bills are not as heavy as in dukhunensis. Another (No. 9069) from Chit-
ral Drosh dated 2 April 1903 does not show the rufous wash. No. 9104
<3 from Taming Bashi, Pamirs, collected by A. Sheriff was named C. a.
acutirostris by Whistler.

The inner secondaries reach the tip of the wing in only 14 of the 40
adults and this is not a useful species character as suggested in ind.
handbook (5:19). In both longipennis and dukhunensis, the fourth
primary is distinctly shorter than the first three (as per fauna) and this
appears to be a more reliable index.

Measurements under 886.

Rufous

3:326

886 Calandrella cinerea dukhunensis (Sykes) (Dukhun)
Short-toed Lark

18 : 10$ $ 6$ $ 2 o?

2 Ghoti, Nasik, 2 Thana, 7 Salsette, 1 Poona; 1 Karupadanna, Cochin; 1
Godavery Delta; 1 Bhasandapur, Chilka Lake, Orissa; 1 Rajputtee Chupra,
Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market.

There is some variation in colour but they are distinguished by (1)
the heavier and darker streaking on the upperparts, each feather fringed
with rufous, (2) the fulvous wash on breast and underparts being more

[310]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 18 489

distinct than in longipennis and (3) the thicker bill.

Though both this and the last (885) are winter migrants from the
north, all the northern specimens are longipennis, and the southern ones
of this form!

cf No. 19651 from Ghoti, Nasik, in worn plumage does not show
the dark markings on the upper surface, but is identified on the basis
of another obtained on the same day and place.

The specimens measure:

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

longipennis

86-97 av. 92-3

10-12

20-23

50,55-62 av. 58.5

(ih 95-100

from skull 12-15

20-21

54-65)

dukhunensis

92-103 av. 97

10-12

20-22

52-61 av. 57

(ih 95-103

from skull 13-14

20-21

59-60)

longipennis

$ $

84-92 av. 88

10-12

19-21

49-56 av. 49*4

(ih 88-94

from skull 12-14

20-21

53-59)

dukhunensis

9 ?

86-99 av. 91

10-12 av 10.5

20-21

50-56 av.53-5

(ih 92-98

from skull 13-14

20-21

51-56)

Only three have the inner secondaries reaching the tip of the wing.

887 Calandrella acutirostris acutirostris Hume (Balakchi, upper

Karkash Valley, north of Sughet Pass, Karakoram) Karakoram or
Hume’s Short-toed Lark 3 : 327

8:44 4 4$ $

3 Chitral; 1 Darazpur, Punjab; 3 Satan wara, 1 Surwaya, Gwalior.

In series, these have darker upperparts and less pure white on the
outer webs of the two outermost tail-feathers than those under tibetana
(888) .

Measurements under 888.

888 Calandrella acutirostris tibetana Brooks (Tibet, beyond Sikkim)

Tibet Short-toed Lark 3 : 328

9:544 1$ 3 o? (1 juv.)

1 Darazpur, Punjab; 1 Debring, 1 Kashmir; 5 Tingri 14,000'; 1 Gyanka
13,500', South Tibet.

The juvenile from Tingri, South Tibet, collected by A. F. R. Wollas-
ton on 27 June 1921, has pale whitish tips to all the feathers of the up-
perparts and tail, and rufous wash over the same area, most accentuat-

ed on the

rump, and on

the edges of the wing feathers.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

acutirostris

cfc?

90,91,92,94

11,12(3)

20,21,22 (2)

58,60,61,65

(IH

89,96

-

ex Paludan)

tibetana

88-97 av. 91

•2 11(4), 12

20.21(3), 22

53-65 av. 57.8

(IH

98-100

from skull 13-15

19-22

54,58-65)

acutirostris

9 9

85,87,89,93

1 1(2), 12(2)

20,21,22(2)

55(2), 59, 61

(IH

84-90

-

ex Paludan)

tibetana

9

87

10

21

58

(IH

85-92

from skull 13-14

19-21

54-60)

[311]

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

888a Calandrella rufescens persica (Sharpe) (Niris, Iran) Persian
Short-toed Lark 3 : 332

3:2$$ 1$

2 Lab-i-Baring, Lutak, Seistan Delta, Iran.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

c? 9 96,98,94 10,11,10 20,21,21 61,61,60

EL Calandrella rufescens seebohmi (Sharpe) (Central Asia from
Yarkund and Kashgar to Mongolia)

1 o? Khotan, 4400'.

Wing 88; bill 10; tarsus 21; tail 60.

The bill is noticeably smaller than in both persica and heinei

EL Calandrella rufescens heinei (Homeyer) (Volga region) Lesser
Short-toed Lark

16 : 2$ $ 1? 13 o?

10 Shatt-al-Adhain, 1 Bait-al-Khalifa, Samarah, 1 Twin Canals, 1 Zubier,
2 Felujah, 1 Tigris, Mesopotamia.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

2 <?<?

95,96

10,10

20

61,62

1 9

94

10

20

58

13 c?9

91-100 av. 97

10-11

20-21

56-64 av. 60

No. 9125, 9127 and 9131 collected on 26th and 31st (2) Oct. 1917
have slightly paler upperparts and tend towards seistanica which are
however yet paler.

889 Calandrella raytal adamsi (Hume) (Agore Valley, Hazara) In-
dus Sand Lark 3 : 331

17 : 12$ $ 2? $ 3 o?

1 Jammu State; 1 Attock, 3 River Jhelum, 1 River Sutlej, 3 Ambala, 4
Bahawalpur, Punjab; 1 Karachi; 3 Delhi.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

adamsi c? c?

78-88 av.

83 10-13

19-21

46-52 av. 49.5

(ih

80-89

from skull 11-13

19-20

48-56)

krishnakumarsinhji c? c? 78,80,65

11(3)

19(2), 21

46(2), 53

(Vaurie c? 9

76-85

from skull 12-13

-

42-50)

adamsi 9 9

77,82

12(2)

19,21

43,46

(1H

77-82

from skull 11-13

19-20

46-50)

krishnakumarsinhji 9 9

75,77,78,79 10,11,(2),! 2

19,20,21-

43,44,45,46

The single specimen from Karachi (1903) is very rufous, a character
not shown in others equally old.

890 Calandrella raytal krishnakumarsinhji Vaurie & Dharmaku-
marsinhji (Bhavnagar) Saurashtra Sand Lark
9 (details below)

(a) 5:1$ 29 9 2 o? Bhavnagar.

(b) 4:2$$ 299 1 Kakhart, 1 Kandla, 2 Kharirohar, Kutch.

Group (b) from Kutch is intermediate between topotypes from
Bhavnagar and adamsi / raytal but the heavier markings on the upper-
parts as well as on the breast are strikingly different from the paler, less

[312]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 18 491

marked races and better placed with krishnakumarsinhji.
Measurements under 889.

891 Calandrella raytal raytal (Blyth) (Lucknow) Ganges Sand Lark

3:329

5 (details below)

(a) 2: \ $ 1 $

1 Bulandshar, 1 Cawnpore, U.P.

(b) 3 : 1 $ 1 $ 1 o?

1 Kyithe, Prome Dist.; 1 Yebauk, 1 Henzada; Lower Burma.

The two Indian specimens are in very poor condition, but the bills
are flatter and do not show the thickness and curve visible in the two

western subspecies.

The three from Burma, one marked “adult”, have their heads spot-
ted rather than streaked, and are slightly smaller.

Wing Bill

(a) <? 81, 9 76 12, -*

(b) c?80, $73, o? 75 -,13,12

(cf 9 74-83 c. 1 1-12

Tarsus Tail

19,19 52, -

19,19,19 47,43,44

19-20 41-47)

* The female has a deformed bill, the lower mandible measuring
14 mm and projecting beyond the upper which is only 9 mm.

EL Melanocorypha calandra calandra (Linnaeus) (Pyranees) Cal-
andra Lark

1 $ Shustar, Southwest Iran (February 1918)

Wing 120; bill 14-6; tail 60.

The specimen is smaller and the upperparts are darker without the
yellow /rufous wash present in psammochroa. The bill is smaller than
suggested by the length.

EL Melanocorypha calandra psainniochroa Hartert (Dur-Badour,
Khorasan, Iran) Calandra Lark
6:4$ $ 1$ 1 o?

1 Hawi Plain, 4 Samarra, 1 Twin Canal, Mesopotamia.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

cf c? 130,134,135,136 15,16(2),17 27 (2),29 (2) 65,67,68,69

9 132 18 28 60

These birds though originally correctly identified were found with
M. bimaculata. Apart from their larger size and the additional charac-
ters of more white both on the outer tail feathers and the inner second-
aries, the white supercilium is shorter and less distinct than in bimacu-
lata.

EL Melanocorypha leucoptera (Pallas) (Baraba Steppes, Siberia)
1 $ No. 8949, Peking, China, (cage bird) 17-1-1901.

Wing 112 (106-126, birds of u.s.s.r., Vol. 5); bill 17; tarsus 27, tail 55.

EL Melanocorypha bimaculata bimaculata (Menetries) (Mountains
near Talysh, Transcaucasia) Bimaculated Lark.

[313]

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

1 Tekkret Tigris, along Samarra-T ekret Railway, Iraq.

Wing 124; bill 17; tarsus 27; tail 56.

892 Melanocorypha bimaculata torquata Blyth (Afghanistan) East-
ern Calandra Lark 3 : 312

19:12$$ 5 $ $ 2 o?

5 Meshed, 1 Kidri, 1 Birjand, E. Persia; 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P. 1 Campbellpur,
Attock, 1 Jagadhri, 2 Ambala, 1 Danturi Karnal, Punjab; 2 Phaladi, Jodh-
pur; 1 Badu, Mandvi, Kutch; 2 Calcutta Market.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

cf-d?

112-122

15-18

26-28

54-58 av. 56

$ 9

114-121

16-17

26-27

50-53 av. 51-6

(ih 116-126

from skull 17-18

26-27

50-61)

cf No. 8942, one of several from Meshed, with a small bill and wing
(112), shows a rufous wash on the upperparts and on the breast.

The 9 from eastern Persia and Jodhpur are on the underside much
whiter than all the others, and are not only a tribute to the skinning of
LaPersonne, then Assistant Curator of the Society, but also a striking
example of the colour transformations which can be brought about in
the process of skinning.

893 Melanocorypha maxima holderi Reichenow (Kloster Shinse,

Kansu) Ladakh Longbilled Calandra Lark 3 : 311

nil.

894 Melanocorypha maxima maxima Blyth (borders of Sikkim)

Sikkim Longbilled Calandra Lark 3 : 311

3:2$$ 1 o? (juv.) Tinki Deong, South Tibet.

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

Adults

142,150

22,22

29,30

75,81

Juv.

141

18

30

72

cf 9

143-154

21-24

29-30

83-93

EL Eremophila bilopha (Temminck) (Deserts of Aqaba, Arabia)
Temminck’s Horned Lark

3:2$$ 1$ Baitul Khalifa, Samarra, left bank of R. Tigris, Mesopotamia.
Wing $ $ 97, 101, $ 96; bill 11-7, 11-6; tail 60, 67, 61.

895 Eremophila alpestris albigula (Bonaparte) (Russian Alps, res-
tricted to Hissar Mountains by Meinertzhagen, 1928, Ibis : 523) Pamir-
Horned Lark 3 : 307

35 : Distinguished by the black of cheeks being linked with that on breast,
(a) 24 : 10$ $ 14$ $

1 Asadabad Pass, 4 Kapi Kelen Pass 6000', 2 Najmabad Pass, 2 Turbat-i-
Haidari 5000', 1 Turmal, 1 Meshed 4500', 1 Sehdan, 1 Amirabad, 2 Bir-
jand; 2 Mud 4300', 4 Kaidasht Pass 7000', 2 Tigab, 1 Kain, Eastern Iran.

[314]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — 18 493

Wing

7 ad. cfc? 115-122 av. 117-5
(ih 112-119 Ludlow & Kinnear;
116-124 Paludan
14 $ $ 103-111 av. 108-3
(ih 105-109; 104-116

Bill

12-1-14-2 av. 13-7

from skull 15-17)
12-4-13-9 av. 13-2
from skull 15-16)

Tail

72-80 av. 73-4

65-74 av. 68-8

The 7 immature females are included in the measurements. If sepa-
rately measured their wings, bills and tails average 2*7 mm, 0T mm and
T7 mm respectively shorter than in adults with white foreheads.

All these birds from eastern Iran are very similar and are marked
albigula by a previous worker (Ticehurst?) though the type locality is
a long way north. They are all distinguished by their short bills. Most
of the males show a fawnish tinge on the upperparts, while those lack-
ing this tinge are slightly smaller and no doubt immature. The imma-
ture females also show slight differences in the colour of the upperparts
and the absence of white on the forehead is presumably a sign of im-
maturity. $ No. 8913 collected at Kaidasht, Kain, on 7th December
has a yellowish forehead but this may be due to staining.

(b) 2: \ $ 1$ Elburz Mts. near Tehran, Iran.

Wing $ 119, $ 104; bill 15-5, 12-2,; tail 69, 66.

Vaurie (1951: 490) quotes Stresemann (1929 Jour. f. Orn. 76:361)
that albigula is the race in the Elburz mountains. I can see no trace of
yellow in either bird, either on the forehead or on the underparts, but
the single d has a bill appreciably larger than in those under (a) and
the white band on the forehead is also narrower. The $ has very indis-
tinct white on the forehead, contra pure white in adult (a). It may be
worth mentioning that Trott ( JBNHS 46:6 95) notes both albigula
(Feb.-March) and Gould’s penicillata (July) from the neighbourhood
of Tehran.

(c) 3:2$$ 1$ all Gilgit

Wing Bill Tail

<?<? 121(2), 9 109 12-7, 12-9, 12.4 71,80,66

The tucked-in necks and poor condition of the specimen makes it
difficult to determine whether the black of the cheeks and breast are
confluent but a white collar is suggested. The bills are also smaller than
in those under (a). All three specimens show differences in colour,
d No. 8931 a very old skin but without date or collector’s name is very
pale and may be a migrant pallida q.v. No. 21483 $ (obtained by Bid-
dulph in February 1879) has gray, and not white cheeks. They are left
in this group in accordance with the fact that birds from Gilgit have
been so identified.

(d) 6:5^^ 1 $ 3 Chitral 1400'; 3 Chitral Ghairat

Wing Bill Tail

cfc? 117-122 av. 119-2 14-2-16-7 72-80 av. 75

9 117 13-3 75

Three each were obtained by Fulton (July) and Perreau (Feb.),

[315]

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

and while the black cheek-stripe appears connected with the black on
the breast in all the specimens, the bills are much longer than in albigula
and show a tendency towards longirostris. They are no doubt resident
in the area and do not agree with any description available to me. They
were marked diluta by ? but are quite different from topotypes of this
subspecies from Kashgar (see below).

896 Eremophiia alpestris longirostris (Moore) (‘Neighbourhood of
Agra’ corrected to Kulu and restricted to Rohtang Pass) Longbilled
Horned Lark 3 : 309

14 : details below:

(a) 11 : 54 $ 4$ $ 2o? (juv.)

1 Sassirla Pass, 15000' Karakoram; 3 Debring, Ladakh, 1 Rungdum Valley
12000', 1 Doha Gugma 15000', 1 Futi Runi 15000', Lahul; 1 Lasar 13000',
1 Kioto, Spiti; 2 Kashmir.

No. 20568 from Sassirla Pass, Karakoram, 15,000 ft is very pale and
the bill is not as long as in the others, representing no doubt an inter-
mediate population. Vaurie lists specimens from Debring, Ladakh, as
intermediate with elwesi. d No. 18280 from this place (the other two
are juvenile) has the smallest wing and bill in the measurements below*.

(b) 3:2$$ 1$ Deosai Plateau 13500' Kashmir (all Sept.)

All three are in fresh plumage and have their upperparts paler and
almost unmarked, making them very different from those under (a).
The latter are however all in worn plumage and it is not possible to
comment on the validity of deosai Meinertzhagen, which is now gene-
rally synonymised with longirostris.

Wing

Bill

Tail

(a)

124*-I30 av. 127-6 14-8*-17-5 av. 16-3

79-84 av. 81

(b)

127, mltg.

15-7, 16-4

77,84

(1H

125-131

from skull 17-20

85-92)

$ 9

(a)

121,121, 123

15-7, 16-5(2)

76,79(2)

(b)

114

15-5

72

(IH

115-124

from skull 18-20

76-85)

In

both

(a) and (b)

the bills (except in the single

pale bird from

Sassirla Pass) are very distinctly larger than in the elwesi , argalea and
albigula , (excluding those from Chitral).

897 Eremophiia alpestris elwesi (Blanford) (Kongra Lama Pass,
Sikkim) Sikkim or Elwes’s Horned Lark 3 : 310

5:2$$ (1* by pi. & imm.) 2? $ 1 o? (juv.)

1 Shushol, 1 Sasar Pass 15-16000' Ladakh; 2 T so Morari, Tibet; 1 Chun-
thong, Sikkim.

The adult d from Sikkim has a distinct black band at the base of
the bill while No. 18284* immature d (by plumage) from Tso Morari
shows traces of black both on the crown and the forehead suggesting
that it is of this race, and I am for the moment leaving them together.
Ticehurst ( JBNHS 32 : 352) refers to elwesi extending as far west as
Tso Morari.

[316]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION- -\8 495

Wing

Bill

C?(?

116*, 120

12-4*, 13

(FH

114-123

from skull 13-15

9 9

110,112

12-5,14.2

(IH

109-112

from skull 13-15

Tail

75*, 79 *imm.
76-89)

72,75

73-87)

The large 14*2 mm bill of $ 18285 from Sasar Pass, Ladakh is an
indication of the trend towards longirostris.

EL Eremophila alpestris diluta Sharpe (Central Asia, Kashgar)

3:3 $ $ 2 Kashgar, 1 Yelpaktesh ( Chinese Turkestan) .

These birds collected in January and June have their upperparts
much paler than in others. Though synonymised with albigula they are
very different in colour from the large series under 895 (a) above, and
probably represents a valid subspecies.

Wing Bill Tail

120,120, - 11.9,14,14 75,76,81

EL Eremophila alpestris argalea (Oberholser) (Sughet Pass, Kuen
Lun Mountains)

7:4#$ (1* by plumage) 2$ $ 1 o? (pull.)

1 Chasha, 1 Khamba Dzong, 4 Tingri, 15000' Tibet, 1* n. of Suget Pass.

Karakoram Range.

Six of these were collected by A. F. R. Wollaston in July 1921 on
the way to the first assault on Everest. Though marked elwesi (also
Hingston JBNHS 32: 325) the 3 adult males are immediately separable
by the fine white streak ( contra wider white band in elwesi ) across the
forehead. Though very distinctive, its range of distribution appears en-
circled by elwesi, as at present acceptesd(?).

Wing Bill Tail

c?c ? 117, 119(2) 12-4-13-8 70,74,81

9 9 111(2) 11-8,12 70(2)

The pullet has a yellowish wash on the chin.

No. 8930 from north of Suget Pass was collected by Stoliczka on
the Forsyth Expedition in October 1873; the feathers of the forehead
having fallen off, the extent of the white band cannot be determined,
but it is very pale above and shows much yellowish on the white parts,
both of which may be due to the age of the specimen. It is in very poor
condition and no measurements are possible.

EL Galerida cristata cristata Linnaeus (Vienna) Crested Lark

2# # : 1 Dinnyes, W. Hungary; 1* Kunfeherto, S. Hungary.

Wing 110, 112*; bill 16-2, 17-6*; tarsus 23*5, 25*; tail 62*, 64.

Vaurie (1959) includes tenuirostris C. L. Brehm (Sarepta, Lower
Volga) with the nominate race, but No. 23428* from S. Hungary is so
marked, and has a more slender bill than the other.

EL Galerida cristata subsp.

4:2## 19 lo?3 Muscat, 1 R. Tanhat, Arabia.

[317]

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Wing 105, 106, 110, 112; bill 19-1, 19*2, 20'4; tail 62, 63, 64, 65.

These specimens are very similar to subtaurica j magna (infra) but
the bills are larger in series. They were taken in March (3) and April
(11th) and may be migrants. Ripley has described thomsi from Rebel
Akhdar, Muscat, as a very dark race, but that name cannot apply here,
and they also appear to be out of the accepted range of altirostris.

EL Galerlda cristata leautungcnsis Swinhoe (Talienwan, Liautung
Peninsula, Manchuria)

1$ Peking, China. Wing 102; bill 1 6* 3; tarsus 23; tail 58.

Sp. No. 20570 is very old and in poor condition. The bill is shorter
and stouter and the upperparts slightly browner than in magna.

EL Galerida cristata subtaurica (Kollibay) (Eregli, Taurus)

10 : 6$ £ 1$ 3 o?

1* Kazimain, Baghdad, 1 Felujah, R. Euphrates, 1* Nahr-Umar, 1 Basra
dist.; 1 Shustar, S. Persia, 1* Mishan, S. W. Persia, 1* Hassanabad, 1 Mes-
hed, 1 Mohmiabad, near Kain, Iran; 1* Panjgur, Baluchistan.

Subtaurica and magna can both be separated from Indian birds by
their longer wings and tails and heavier bills, but there is considerable
variation in colour and overlap in size, and the two forms are barely
distinguishable. Five of them (marked*) have however been identified
as weigoldi (= subtaurica ) by Meinertzhagen (?) and the others have
been included only because they appear indentical. Three others mark-
ed weigoldi have been listed under magna (a) for they agree more
closely with those tinged with rufous.

The upperparts are slightly darker but this character is not satis-
factory for in more than one instance, one of two birds taken at the
same place (and once on the same day) is subtaurica and the other
magna (Basra dist., no dates and Mishan, S. W. Persia, 21st Sept.).

Subtaurica does not appear to have been recorded in Baluchistan.

Wing

Bill

Tail

108-112 (110-5)

17-3-19-8(18-1)

60-65 (62-5)

- 9

111

18-4

64

o?

108,112.116

18-8,19(2)

-,61,68

898 Galerida cristata magna Hume (Yarkand) Yarkand Crested
Lark 3 : 345

53 : details below.

As indicated above, it is barely possible to separate magna from
those under subtaurica and they are again divisible into three groups:
(a) 15 : 9 £ £ 1$ 6 o? Large and rufous above.

1* Baitul Khalifa, Samarra, 1* Sheik Saad, 2 41 m. n.e. of Kut, right
bank of Tigris, 1* Basra dist,, Mesopotamia; 1 Mishan, S.W. Persia, 1
Shustar; 1 nr. Meshed; 1 Gurid, 1 Kain, 1 Chah-i-Mirza Khan, 1 Lab-
Baring, Seistan; 1 Duzdap, Iran; 2 Kashgar, China.

Three* skins included here were marked weigoldi by Meinertzha-
gen (?).

[318]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION — IB 497

d* No. 9282 from Kashgar (Bailey, 20th June 1918) has the longest
wing (118) and the bill (19) and tail (69) are also among the largest.
The others all taken between 21st Sept, and 4th February may well be
migrants.

(b) 28 : 12$ $ 10$ $ 6 o? Similar to (a) but not rufous.

1 Felujah, R. Euphrates, 1 Sheik Saad, Mesopotamia; 1 Meshed, 2 Rabat-i-
Mahi, Khorasan, 3 Turbat, nr. Meshed, 1 Amirabad, 1 Birjand; 2 Naugab,
near Kain, 3 Kain, 1 Kidri, nr. Kain, 2 Afzalabad, 3 Duzdap, 1 Bunjar,
3 Chah-i-Mirza Khan, Seistan Delta; 2 Farghana-Baghdad, Uzbekistan,
U.S.S.R.; 1 Bunji, Gilgit.

The two unsexed birds from Farghana, Uzbekistan, obtained in
June, have their upperparts greyer than in the others. They measure:
Wing 111, 113; bill 15.7, 18.8; tail 64, 69.

(c) 10 : 82 $ 2$ $

1 Kain-i-Daud, 15 m. n.w. of Dizak, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Chaman, 1
Quetta, 1 Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Wana, N.W.F.P.; 3 Campbellpur, Punjab;
1 Delhi; 1 Chini, Larkana, Sind.

Nos. 9233 Persian Baluchistan (29th July) and 18348, Chaman
(August) were presumably on their breeding grounds. The others from
northern India, all obtained in winter, may be migrants. They differ from
those under chendoola in their slightly larger wings and bills; in some
the bills are not as stout as in magna and they are separated on the basis
of their longer tails — an apparently consistent character of magna and
others.

Wing

c? &

Bill

Tail

(a)

106-114, one 118 (111*2)

16*3-19*5 (18*3)

62-69 (65)

(b)

104-115 (111)

16*3-20(17*7)

62 69 (64*6)

(c)

102-107 (105*3)

16*1-17*9 (17*3)

59-64 (60*7)

(ru

109-116

$ $

from skull 20-22)

(a)

102,105

17,17*2

61-62

(b)

100-112,

16*1-17*5,

57-63,

one 117 (105*4)

one 19*1 (16*7)

one 69 (61*2)

(c)

102,103

16*3, 17*8

61-62

Oh

106-109

from skull 20-22)

The three from Campbellpur have a narrower band of spots across
the breast and the same applies to No. 18342 from the same place which
I have placed under chendoola for its shorter tail.

No. 9237 is an exceptionally large female (Rabat-i-Mahi, Khorasan,
20th Jan. Wing 117, bill 19T, tail 69). Is it possible that the largest
birds are magna while all the others, including some under suhtaurica
represent an intermediate population, which is also migratory?

899 Galerida cristata chendoola Franklin (Between Calcutta and
Benares) Indian Crested Lark 3 : 343

36 : details below:

(a) 27 : 10$ $ (juv.) 13$$ 4o?(l juv.)

[319]

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

1 Jammu, Kashmir; 1 Campbellpur, 1 Lahore, 1 Murakpur, near Ambala,
Punjab; 1 Bhong, 1 Harunabad, Bahawalpur; 2 Delhi; 1 Tilwara, Jhunni
R., Jodhpur; 4 Meerut, 2 Kanpur, 1 Fatehpur, U.P.; 2 Bhagowni, Tirhut,
1 Rajputtee, Saran, 1 Hanowshi, Samastipur. Bihar, 1 Radhanpur, 1 Jam-
nagar, 1 Dwarka, Okhamandal, 1 Khari Rohar, 2 Kharaghoda, 1 Mandvi,
Gujarat.

Some of the specimens from Gujarat are grey on the upperparts,
approaching the colour of the nominate race and quite equal to that of
the single lynesi available. Fresh material is required to permit the adjust-
ments which appear necessary.

(b) 9:4$$ 3$ $ 2 o?

1* Kalo Karim, 1 Shiraz, 1 Charbar, Iran; 1 Geh, 1 Gusht, Dizak, Per-
sian Baluchistan; 2 Chitral Drosh, 1 Kilia Drosh, 1 Wana, N.W.F.P.

While the small difference in size would not warrant a subspecific
separation from chendoola, these specimens are much paler on their
upperparts and it is not possible to decide if this difference is natural
or due to fading. No. 9216 <$ from Kalo Karim, Fars, obtained by
Capito was recorded as magna, but the small 102 mm wing and 56 mm
tail, together with the other similar specimens, leave little doubt that
either chendoola or another small subspecies is resident through southern
Baluchistan and Iran, as far west as Shiraz (July). As in northern India,
the position is confused by larger winter migrants visiting the same
areas, and the fact that the majority of specimens has been collected
in the cold weather. Though unable to offer any very definite results,
I have the impression that the individual variation in size is not so ran-
dom as suggested by earlier workers and that sufficient material and
study would fit them into more compact groups.

Wing

Bill

Tail

(a)

97-101 (99.2)

16.2-17*9 (17*2)

54-57 (55)

(IH

98-105

from skull 19-23

54-63)

(a) $ $

93-101 (96-3)

15*7-17*5 (16*7)

51-56 (54)

OH

92-98

—

51-55)

(b) <?q

97-104 (101.1)

15-17-16*2)

53-58, one 61 (57)

S 9273 from Chitral Drosh obtained on

14th April has a 61 mm

tail, but all the others have them under 60 mm including $ 9274 (56
mm) obtained at the same place on the same day.

Group (c) under magna (898) is separated by the longer tail but
may perhaps represent this population. Some of the more recent skins,
particularly from Gujarat have the grey of the underparts approaching
that of the nominate race, and more distinctive than in the single lynesi
available.

900 Galerida cristata lynesi Whistler (Gilgit) Gilgit Crested Lark

1 $ 4900' Gilgit, Kashmere. 12th June 1928.

Wing 96; bill 16-4; tail 55.

This specimen is not distinguished from Gujarat under chendoola
(a).

[320]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 18 499

901 Galerida malabarica (Scopoli) Malabar Crested Lark 3 : 348

29:153 3 0 juv.) 11$$ 3 o? (1* juv., 1* chick)

6 Salsette, Bombay; 1* Bhiwandi, 1 Belapur Road, 2 Murbad Road, Kalyan,
Thana; 1 Panvel, 1* Kihim, 1 Nagotna, Kolaba; 1 Walwan, Poona; 1
Panchgani, Satara; 2* Rajapur, 1 Ratnagiri, 1 Bhatkal, 1 Gotegole, 1
Manki, 1 Karwar, 1 North Kanara; 2 Talewadi, Belgaum, 2 Mercara,
Coorg; 1 Honametti, Mysore; 1 Kethi, 6700', Nilgiris.

Wing

tfcf 89-102 (96)
(ih 98-105
$ $ 90-98 (93-5)

(ih 91-94

Bill

13- 6-16 (14-8)
from skull 16-18

14- 14-6 (14.7)
from skull 16-17

Tail

46-55 (51-2)
54-63)
47-55 (50)
46-52)

In the present series, the northernmost birds from Bombay and sur-
rounding areas (which are the freshest) can be distinguished from others
from North Kanara and southwards by the purer white of the under-
parts, particularly the lower belly; but it is not possible to determine to
what extent this difference is natural or due to foxing /staining. Sp. No.
23886, Bhiwandi, Thana, which had a soft skull has the breast-spots on
a background which is darker than the chin and belly, and which forms
a distinct patch across the breast. Similar bands are visible in other
specimens and may be an indication of immaturity. The material avail-
able does not support Koelz’s propinqua (1939) from Londa, N. Kanara
which was said to have the breasts paler and less prominently marked
than those from the south.

902 Galerida deva (Sykes) (Dukhun) Sykes’s Crested Lark 3 : 347
26:1733 (2* juv.) 7$ $ (1* juv.) 2o?

1 Mandvi, 1 Padhar, 2 Chaduva, Bhuj, 1 Kutch; 1 Dalkhania, 1 Amreli, 1
Kodinar, S. Kathiawar, 1 Sait, Kaira, 2 Dohad; 2* Devlali, 2 Dindori, 3
Nasik, 1 Aurangabad, 1 Khangaon, Poona; 1* Ratlam, 1 Sardarpur,
Gwalior, 1 Dodi, Malwa Plateau, Bhopal, 1* Mandu, Dhar State, C.I.;

1 Cawnpore, 1 Agra (cage bird).

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Tail

83-91 (85.3)

12-14

20-21

48-52 (50-6)

(IH

84-92

from skull 13-15

20-21

46-54)

$ $

78-83 (80-8)

11-13

20-21

45.49 (47)

(IH

76-86

from skull 13-15

20-21

43-50)

Some have more rufous underparts than others but this is probably
due to foxing. A few have their breasts more heavily marked.

903 Alauda arvensis dulcivax Brooks (Himalayas and plains of
northwestern Punjab amended to Djarkent, Russian Turkestan) West
Siberian Skylark 3:315

11 : 43 3 7$ $

1 Sheik Saad, 1 Amara, Mesopotamia; 1 Majas, Persian Baluchistan; 1
Wana, Waziristan; 2 Rawalpindi, 1 Karnal, 4 Ambala, Punjab.

In series, these are slightly paler and more rufous than the other
skylarks, but all are old specimens and the amount of overlap makes it

[321]

17

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

impossible to separate dulcivox, cantarella and intermedia (?). They
were however examined by Ticehurst and the grouping is on the basis
of his identifications on the labels.

Wing

Bill

Tail

dulcivox

115,116,118,121

12,12-6,13,13.6

65,69,70 (2)

(IH

114-120

from skull 15-16

66-76)

cantarella

115,116,122

12-9,13-5,-

66,68,72

(IH

115

from skull 15

70)

intermedia (?)

109,113,114,118

11.7,11-9,12-1,12-8

65 (3), 66

pekinensis

101,109

11,11-7

60,63

nominate arvensis

117

13-1

69

2 9

dulcivox

104-112 (107*5)

11-3, 12-3 (11-9)

60-66 (63)

(IH

104-120

from skull 14-16

61-70)

cantarella

106,107,115

12,12 8 (2)

74

(IH

108

from skull 14

67)

intermedia (?)

108,109,119

11.8,12 3(2)

64 (2),73

pekinensis

107,114

10-7,11.1

62,65

nominate arvensis

111,112

11.2 (2)

60 (2)

903a Alauda arvensis cantarella Bonaparte (Central Italy) Cauca-
sian Skylark

14 : 3$ $ 3$ $ 8 o?

4 Hawi plains, Samarra, 1 Sheikh Saad, 2 Shatt-el-Adhain, 2 Feluja, 1 Mosul
1 Kazimain; 2 Bhong, Indus Riverain, Bahawalpur, Punjab, 1 $ no data.

These are slightly darker than dulcivox, but see remarks and mea-
surements under 903.

c? No. 8964 from Mosul with a 122 mm wing and heavy bill is very
rufous.

EL Alauda arvensis intermedia (?)

7:4$$ 39? 1 Gorid 7000', Kain, 5 Amirabad, 1 Birjand, Eastern Persia.

These specimens have their upperparts slightly paler than in cant-
arella and the breasts also appear more clearly spotted than the others.
But all were obtained by LaPersonne and the differences may well be
due to the high standard of his skinning to which I have referred. The
subspecific name, scribbled in pencil, on the label does not bear the
author’s name and with the transfer of the type locality of the subspecies
intermedia to Shanghai it is difficult to guess what subspecies was meant.
It is significant that Ticehurst does not refer to intermedia in the Birds
of Mesopotomia but in a subsequent note (1926, JBNHS 31:96) while
referring to some fresh specimens he apparently synonymises intermedia
with dulcivox, while Vaurie (1959:56) indicates that the name has been
used by authors “other than Swinhoe, for Zaleshi’s kiborti.” The pre-
sent specimens were all obtained in December- January and one label is
marked “in large flocks”.

EL Alauda arvensis arvensis Linnaeus (Sweden) Skylark

3:1$ 22 2 St. Catherine’s Lighthouse, U.K.

The specimens show a rufous wash on the upperparts, more pro-
1322]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 18 501

nounced than in the others, except pekinensis (q.v.).

Measurements under 903.

EL Alauda arvensis pekinensis Swinhoe (Pekin, now Peiping)
Chinese Skylark

5 : 23 3 2$ $ lo?

4 Peking, 1 Foochow, China.

All are over 70 years old and the resemblance to nominate arvensis
may be due to foxing. They have noticeably smaller bills.

Measurements under 903.

904 Alauda gulgula inconspicua Severtzov (Turkestan) Turkestan
Small Skylark

23 3 :

1 (No. 21413) Karahalpak Village Ferghana, Tuya-Kurgan region ; 1 (No.
8985) 10,000 ft Chitral.

The Turkestan specimen dated 13th June 1937 has small, fine streaks
on the breast and the upperparts are very faintly marked. Though the
latter character may be included in the variations among Indian birds,
the bill and tail are noticeably larger, and I am prompted to leave nor-
thern Indian resident birds as punjaubi (q.v.). The second is included
here for its wing and tail are larger than in punjaubi , and having been
collected on 2nd July was no doubt resident in the neighbourhood.

Measurements under 907.

904a Alauda gulgula punjaubi Whistler (Ferozepur, Sutlej River)
Punjab Skylark

17 : details below:

Except for a statement by an unnamed reviewer of Salim Ali’s
birds of travancore and cochin (Ibis 1937, p. 189) I can find no
authority for synonymising punjaubi with inconspicua as has been done
in INDIAN handbook (5:44).

The inconspicua (No. 21213) from almost the type locality has a
larger bill than any of the specimens from northern India, and the tail
(61 mm) is also larger than in most. With this material, punjaubi ap-
pears to be distinct and I am listing them separately. The eastern birds
from the United Provinces are old and faded, and though in all pro-
bability identical, I am listing them separately under the same name.

(a) Fresh western birds: 8:233 49$ 2?

1 Jagadhri, Ambala, 1 Karnal, 2 Daulatpur, 1 Chacharan, Bahawalpur, 1
Mandvi, Kutch; 1 Satanwara, Gwalior; 1 Sarsava, near Saharanpur, U.P.

Nos. 9056 cf from Mandvi, Kutch, and 9055 $ Gwalior are in worn
plumage, with the upperparts showing a pattern different from that of
the others. The former (8th March) is from the range of the newly-des-
cribed dharmakumarsinhjii and is no doubt a migrant into the area.

(b) Eastern and faded (?): 9:7 3 3 2 9$

3 Meerut, 6 Kanpur, U.P.

[323]

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Both groups, (a) and (b) are slightly larger than nominate gulgula
and have the underparts white rather than huffish.

Measurements under 907.

905 Alauda gulgula lhamarum R. & A. Meinertzhagen (Ladak =

guttata Brooks) Kashmir Skylark 3 : 318

9:4$$ (1 by size) 4$ $ 1 o?

1 Srinagar, 1 Chasm Sharif, 1 Sooknas, Kishtwar, 1 Cashmir 7000', 1 Kash-
mere; 1 Fagu, Keonthal State, 2 Simla Hills, 1 Darazpur, Ambala.

Distinguished from punjaubi by the more promient rufous on the
breast which is marked with heavy spotting. The chin is also irregularly
and faintly spotted, a character missing in the neighbouring subspecies,
but specifically said to be absent in lhamarum by Dementiev et al. (1970
para 535). There is some variation in the colour of the upperparts and
all the specimens are not identical. The birds from Simla and Darazpur
were collected in November /December and bear notes suggesting that
they are migrants to the area, but with the data available, there is no al-
ternative but to leave them all together. It may be mentioned that Stuart
Baker (fauna 5:663) has drawn attention to the type being a carbo-
lized specimen in immature plumage.

Measurements under 907.

906 Alauda gulgula inopinata Bianchi (Tibet) Tibetan Small Sky-

2$ $ Tingri, S. Tibet (July 1921, A.F.R. Wollaston).

Breast well streaked but on white background. The wings (101 and
105) are smaller than indicated in Vaurie “averaging about 109’’.

Measurements under 907.

907 Alauda gulgula gulgula Franklin (The Ganges between Calcutta
and Benares) Indian Small Skylark 3 : 319

17 : \3$ $ 3$ 9 1 o?

1 Jabalpore, M.P.; 1 Rajapur, Ratnagiri; 2 Karwar, N. Kanara; 8 Godavari
Delta; 1 Chilka Lake, Orissa; 1 Manjhaul, Monghyr, Bihar; 2 Dibrugarh.
Assam; 1 Shurdaung, Prome, Burma.

When describing punjaubi ( JBNHS 38:767) Whistler changed the
type locality of gulgula from between Calcutta and Benares “to the
Ganges between Calcutta and Benares”. As Vaurie (1951) has already
pointed out, this is no improvement for in the same place he stated that
punjaubi extended as far east as Dinapur, which is on the Ganges bet-
ween Calcutta and Benares!

lark

3:316

[324]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECT ION — 18 503

Wing

Bill

Tail

c?<?

iticonspicua

97,102

13-6,14

60,61

punjaubi (a)

93,97

13-9,14

54,55

punjaubi (b)

95-100 (98)

11-8-13-8(12-8)

50-56 (54-6)

(IH

90-101

from skull 16-17)

lhamarum (4)

96-103 (100)

12-6-13-7 (13-1)

55-62 (58-7)

(IH

98-108

from skull 13-16)

inopinata

101,105

12-6, -

59,61

(IH

102-108

from skull 15-16

60-68)

gulgula

86-95 (90)

13-2-14-9 (14-2)

46-52 (49-6)

(IH

87-93

from skull 14-16

49-56)

australis

90,92,94,96

12-5,13-3,13*7,14-2

48,50,51,53

(IH

90-102

from skull 14-17

49-56)

dharmakumarsinhjii

91,92,93,95

12-2,15,15.4,-

47,51,52,56

9 9

punjaubi (a)

87-92

13-13-3

49-53

punjaubi (b)

89,99

13-6,13-6

47,53

(IH

90-101

from skull 16-17)

lhamarum (4)

92-98 (94*5)

11-8-13 (12-4)

53-59 (55)

(IH

93-97

from skull 14-15)

gulgula

85,85,88

13,13-1,13-6

46,48,50

(IH

82-88

from skull 13-15

49-51)

australis

84,87,95,96

12-6,14(2), 14-4

46,47.50,52

(IH

82-88

from skull 13-15

49-51)

907a Alauda gulgula dharmakumarsinhjii Abdulali (Bhavnagar)
Longclawed Skylark

7:4$ $ 1$ 2 o? (Type and paratypes)

1 Mandvi, Kutch, 1 Saiat, Kaira district, 5 Bhavnagar. Gujarat.

This has been separated on the basis of the long hind claw and other
differences ( JBNHS 72 ( 2): 448.

Measurements under 907.

908 Alauda gulgula australis Brooks (Ootacamund, Nilgiris) Nilgiri
Skylark 3 : 320

9:5 $ $ 49 $

2 Avalanche, Nilgiris, 1* Wadakancheri 400' Cochin, 1 Camp Deramalai,
Panthalam Hills, 1 Santhanpara, Cardamom Hills, 1 Perumalmalai, 1 Peer-
made, 1 Munnar, 1* Travancore.

The two marked (*) are very similar to gulgula and may indicate a
connection at the base of ghats, restricting australis to the hills.

c? 2908 from Ratnagiri, south of Bombay, is dark above and would
have been included in this subspecies were it not for two pale (and old)
specimens from Karwar which have probably faded. This requires fur-
ther examination.

Alauda gulgula subsp. ?

4 : details below.

(a) 29 9 Nos. 20206 and 20641 from Kalat, and Sultanabad, 64 m south
of Kalat, Baluchistan.

[325]

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Wing 92, 92; bill 12*4, 12*4; tail 52, mltg.

Both have the juvenile characters of a rufous wash all over and
rounded pale-margined feathers on the head and I cannot improve up-
on Ticehurst who left them subspecifically undetermined.

(b) 2 o? Mt. Victoria, 7000 ft, Pakokku Hill Tracts, Central Burma.

Wing 94, 95; bill 12 5, 13; tail 49, 51.

These birds were collected on 9th and 16th May 1906 by K. C. Mac-
donald, and the latter is marked as shot off nest with 3 set eggs. ‘In no-
tes on some birds recorded from Burma’, Garthwaite and Ticehurst
( JBNHS 59:558) refer to two larks by Col. Rippon on Mt. Victoria
which were first named arvensis. This name was scratched out and chan-
ged to japonicus by Oates, and they thought that these specimens had
served to create the erroneous records of Anthus japonicus and Alauda
japonicus, and decided that they were really A. gulgula weigoldi Har-
tert (Hamkow, Hupeh, Yangtze Valley) which was found in Szechwan,
S. E. Tibet and N. Yunnan, being more rusty and darker than A. g. coe-
livox (Southeastern China to Central Annam).

The skins show a lot of foxing but they are too dark to be nominate
gulgula and the measurements, particularly of the tail, do not agree with
those of any of the northern races.

909 Alauda gulgula vemayi Mayr (Changyinhku, Burma-Yunnan
border) Yunnan Skylark

I have also examined 15 skins from Bhutan which are not yet re-
gistered, obtained in recent years by Salim Ali. They fall into two dis-
tinct groups:

(a) 9:6$$ 19 2o? Gyitsa 10,000 ft. and Bumthang, Central Bhutan.

(b) 6:4$$ 29 9 Eastern Bhutan

The western birds have fewer but longer streaks on the breast and
there is considerable difference in the intensity of rufous on the breast.
They show very distinct pale edges to most of the feathers of the upper
surface presenting a very different appearance. Their bills are also much
shorter. In both, the streaks at the sides of the upper breast, have coal-
esced into black bloches, a character mentioned in ind. handbook for
lhamarum. The specimens which I have grouped under lhamarum,
mostly from Kashmir, do not show this character and I am afraid that
with the descriptions available, I am unable to decide if either of them
is vemayi.

Wing Bill Tail

(a) c? 9 96-107 av. 103 11-8-12-7 av. 12-2 59-67 av. 6M

(b) & 9 102-105 av. 104 12*4-13*7 av. 13 59-64 av. 61*2

After these notes were completed, the Bhutan birds were sent to
Dr. B. Biswas who has identified group (a) as inopinata and (b) as
vernayi. The former differ from the two specimens from Tingri, South
Tibet, named inopinata by me above, in having a shorter and more

[326]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— 1 8 505

conical bill, a longer but slender hind claw (6 <$ 15*5-18*8 av. 17*4)

and more rufous above. The last may be due to the Tingri birds being
in worn plumage but the other characters appear consistent.

There appears to be little doubt that the geographic variations in
this Skylark are not yet fully understood, and more material and work
is necessary. The key to the species in ind. handbook (5:41) refers to the
5th primary of arvensis falling short of tip of wing by more than 5 mm,
and by less than 5 mm in gulgula. In the specimens handled, all arvensis
show a large gap between the 5th primary and tip of wing and while
this is an excellent character for separating the two species, the gap in
most gulgula is over 5 and nearer 10 mm and the latter figure would
serve as a more reliable index.

{to be continued)

[327]

Field Guide to the Amphibians
of Western India

Part 3
J. C. Daniel

Curator , Bombay Natural History Society
( With two plates )

[Continued from Vol. 60(3): 702]

This part of the Field Guide has been long overdue but owing to other
preoccupations, I was not able to compile my notes earlier. The first
two sections namely Introduction and Families Caecilidae & Bufonidae
as part 1, and Family Microhylidae as part 2 appeared in Vol. 60 ,
pp. 415-438 and 690-702, (1963) of this Journal. This section describes
a part of the Family Ranidae. The next and concluding section will
describe the remaining ranid species and the tree frogs of the Family
Rhacophoridae. The assistance given by Miss S. Isaac, Research Assist-
ant at the Society is gratefully acknowledged.

Family Ranidae: Frogs

The family Ranidae includes the “true frogs” and is after the family
Bufonidae the most widely distributed of amphibian families, occurring
in all the zoogeographical regions of the world except the Australian.
Though the distribution of the family extends nearly to the arctic
circle, the majority of the species are tropical in distribution. Aquatic
and semiterrestrial forms predominate; a few are semi-arboreal. The
skin is moist and frogs require a humid environment. The species of
the family can be distinguished from all other Indian amphibia, except
the tree frogs of the Family Rhacophoridae, by the presence of teeth
on the upper jaw and the bifid tip of the tongue. One genus of Rani-
dae, the Ooeidozyga , is an exception in having the tongue entire and
not bifid. This genus has not been reported from western India. The
Rhacophorid tree frogs differ from the ranid frogs in having an addi-
tional cartilagenous phalange between the penultimate phalanges of
their toes ( see fig. 13 of Pt. 1 of this series, Vol. 60: 426).

Four genera of the family Ranidae occur in western India. They
can be distinguished by the following key.

[38]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

507

Key to the Genera in Western India of the Family Ranidae

1

1

2

2

3

3

Pupil horizontal or roundish-subtriangular

Pupil vertical

Vomerine teeth present ( see fig. 9 in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 423)

Vomerine teeth absent

Skin wrinkled, toes webbed

Skin smooth, toes free

2

3

Rana

.... Micrixalus
Nyctibatrachus
N annobatrachus

Nyctibatrachus and N annobatrachus are endemic to the Western
Ghats. The genus Nyctibatrachus occurs as far north as Matheran near
Bombay. N annobatrachus is rare and is so far known only from the
Tirunelveli Hills in Tamil Nadu.

The majority of the species of the family are of the genus Rana.
Four subgenera of the genus Rana occur in western India. These can
be distinguished by the following key.

Genus Rana Linn. 1766

Key to the subgenera in western India of the Genus Rana

1 Discs of toe tips if present without groove 2

1 Discs of toe tips with a crescentic or horse-shoe shaped circum-marginal

groove (see fig. 14 in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 426) 3

2 Outer metatarsals separated by web up to base or at least in the distal half

(see fig. 12a in Pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 425) Rana

2 Outer metatarsals united completely or feebly separated at the distal end

(see fig. 12b, in Pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 425). Inner metatarsal tubercle enlarged
usually shovel shaped or crescentic ' Tomopterna

3 Tongue with a long pinted papilla (see fig. 7b in Pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 423)
Disco deles

3 Tongue without a papilla; outer metatarsals usually separated

by web to the base Hylorana

The following species of the four subgenera have been recorded
from western India.

Subgenus Rana
Rana (Rana) hexadactyla
Rana (Rana) cyanophlyctis
Rana (Rana) tigerina
Rana (Rana) crassa
Rana (Rana) verrucosa
Rana (Rana) limnocharis
Rana (Rana) brevipalmata
Rana (Rana) malabarica
Subgenus Tomopterna
Rana ( T omopterna ) rufescens
Rana (Tomopterna) breviceps

Rana ( T omopterna ) dobsonii
Subgenus Discodeles
Rana (Discodeles) beddomii
Rana (Discodeles) leithii
Rana (Discodeles) semipalmata
Rana (Discodeles) leptodactyla
Rana (Discodeles) diplosticta
Rana (Discodeles) phrynoderma
Sugenus Hylorana
Rana (Hylorana) curtipes
Rana (Hylorana) aurantiaca
Rana (Hylorana) temporalis

Subgenus Rana

Aquatic and semi-terrestrial species Many are widely distributed
and occur different habitats. All commercially exploited species of

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Indian amphibia belong to this subgenus. The species occurring in
western India can be separated by the following key.

Key to the species of Rana {Rand) occurring in western India

1 Toes completely webbed {see fig. 12a in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 425) 2

1 Toes incompletely webbed 5

2 Skin of back with longitudinal folds {see fig. 4 in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 422) 3

2 Skin of back smooth or with tubercles and warts 4

3 Inner metatarsal tubercle strongly compressed, crescentic {see fig. 12f in pt. 1,

Vol. 60, p. 425); Heels do not overlap when legs are folded at right angles
to the body {see fig. lib in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 424) crassa

3 Inner metatarsal tubercle comparatively smaller, blunt; heels overlap when

the legs are folded at right angles to the body tigerina

4 Size large; skin of back smooth, 2 rows of porous warts on flanks {see fig. 5

in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 422); snout fiat, obtusely pointed hexadactyla

4 Size smaller up to 60 mm; skin warty; a single row of porous warts on
flanks; snout rounded; inner metatarsal tubercle fingerlike . . . cyanophlyctis

5 A distinct dorso-lateral glandular fold from above tympanum to vent {see

fig. 2 in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 422); back between the glandular folds, bright
orange or yellowish red or red crimson malabarica

5 Dorso-lateral glandular fold absent; no distinctive colour pattern 6

6 Toes 3 /4th webbed, 2 phalanges of 4th toe free; outer metatarsals separated

by web nearly to base. Tibiotarsal articulation reaches nostril or tip of snout
{see fig. 10, in pt. 1, Vol. 60, p. 424) verrucosa

6 Toes 1 / 2 webbed, 3 phalanges of 4th toe free; outer metatarsals united in

the basal half; Tibiotarsal articulation reaches nostril limnocharis

6 Toes feebly webbed, web not reaching 2nd phalange of toes; outer meta-
tarsals separated by web nearly to base. Tibiotarsal articulation reaches tip
of snout or beyond brevipalmata

Rana hexadactyla Lesson 1834; Indian Pond Frog

Diagnosis. Size large. Females reach 130 mm in snout to vent length.
The flattish snout with indistinct canthus rostralis, the absence of longi-
tudinal folds on the back and the web of the toes reaching the tip of
toes distinguishes it from Rana tigerina and Rana crassa of equivalent
size. Tympanum distinct, equal to or slightly less than diameter of eye.
First finger longer than or equal to second. Toes fully webbed. A strong
dermal fringe on the outer toes. Outer metatarsals separated nearly
up to base by web. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaches tympanum or eye
when the leg is held along the body. A small but prominent inner meta-
tarsal tubercle.

Skin smooth above, warty on the flanks, anal area, and throat. Pus-
tular on thighs. Two curved series of closely arranged porous warts
from behind the shoulder to the groin and from the axilla to the groin
distinct during the breeding season. A U-shaped line of warts above
the anus and occasionally extending up the flanks. A glandular fold
from behind the eye to the shoulder.

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AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

509

Colour. Bright grass green or olive green above, with or without a pale
yellow vertebral line from snout to vent. A black streak along the eye to
the shoulder fold. Behind the thighs patterned in black and white or yel-
low. Ventrally and on flanks white or yellowish white. Throat occasion-
ally stippled with brown.

The juvenile has bars or spots of dark green and black on the back.
Thighs with horizontal bars of black and white which may extend up
to the abdomen. The largest specimen with this distinctive coloration
in the BNHS collection measures 52 mm from snout to vent.

Distribution. South and east India up to Calcutta, along the east coast.
In the Peninsula its northern limits are not definite. McCann (1934,
1940)4&1 2 records this species from Bombay. The specimens are not in the
BNHS collections. While it is likely that the species occurs in the Bom-
bay area, it has not been since collected in and around Bombay. There
is a record from Punjab. Along the west coast, the BNHS collection
has specimens from as far north as Goa.

Breeding. The male has external vocal sacs and acquires nuptial pads
on the outer aspect of the first and second fingers at breeding time.
Call unknown.

The season commences with the monsoon and perhaps even during
the premonsoon showers spawning might happen as suggested by juven-
iles in the BNHS collection obtained from Palghat, Kerala from March
to June. In areas which receive both the southwest and northeast mon-
soons, two broods occur. At Trivandrum, Kerala, Ferguson (1904) 3 4
records the breeding season as lasting from July to September, while
I have collected gravid females in October and just metamorphosed
juveniles in January from the same area. The breeding habits are not
fully known. Ferguson (op. cit.) states that the eggs are laid in paddy
fields. Juveniles were collected by me from decaying vegetation in a
drying pond. Gravid females contain 2,000+ eggs of less than a milli-
metre. Bhaduri (1944) 4 describes the tadpoles collected in the environs
of Calcutta as olive green above with darker blotches and whitish be-
low, the anterior portion being transparent. Teeth rows in mouth disc
five but usually two are lost. Metamorphosed young with a rudiment
of the tail range from 17 to 27 mm in snout to vent length but within

1 McCann, C. (1934): Occurrence of the Si-toed Frog ( Rana hexadactyla
Lesson) in the Bombay Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37: 742.

2 (1940): A reptile and amphibian miscellany, ibid. 42: 57.

3 Ferguson, H. S. (1904): A list of Travancore batrachians. ibid. 75:499-
509.

4 Bhaduri, J. L. (1944): Further locality records of Rana hexadactyla Les-
son in Bengal with brief notes on its tadpoles, ibid. 44:484.

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510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

this size range specimens with completely absorbed tail have also been
collected.

Habits. The preferred habitat of this frog, perhaps the most aquatic
of Indian amphibia, is ponds with dense aquatic vegetation where, while
resting on the surface, its colour merges with the green of the plants. I
have also seen the frog resting among brown drying weeds where its
colour stood out in startling contrast! The frog keeps clear of open
water. The preference for vegetation is probably related to the protect-
ion it may receive from aerial and aquatic predators. A wild caught spe-
cimen contained dragonfly larvae and snails. In captivity they take in-
sects and smaller frogs. The species is common in the ponds and weed
grown streches of water along the east coast of the peninsula in Tamil
Nadu. It is probably more widespread than its recorded distribution
suggests and is possibly often confused with the Indian Bull Frog Rana
tigerina. It is reported to be eaten in the Madras area(Annandale in
Boulenger 1920) 5 and would form a part of the commercial catches
from Tamil Nadu and other areas in the south.

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider 1799: Skipper Frog

Diagnosis. Medium sized frogs. Large females rarely exceeding 60 mm
in snout to vent length. Male much smaller. Distinguished from Rana
hexadactyla by its smaller size, colour, and by the following characters:
Snout rounded, first and second fingers more or less equal in length.
Tibio-tarsal articulation reaches up to either between the nostril and
eye or the eye or the tympanum when held against the side of the body.
Toe tips swollen and rounded. A single line of porous warts on flanks,
from behind the shoulder to the groin. Inner metatarsal tubercle finger-
like.

Skin dorsally warty. A strong fold from behind the eye to the shoul-
der. An U-shaped line of warts above the anus as in Rana hexadactyla.
Ventrally smooth.

Colour. Grey, olive, brown or blackish above with darker spots or
marblings dorsally. A dark-edged white band on the back of the thighs.
Ventrally white, often spotted, vermiculated or marbled with black.
The black on the belly is commoner and more widespread in the larger
females.

Distribution. Throughout the Indian Peninsula from the Himalayas
southwards, Iran, South Arabia, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Thailand.

• ' • . k

5Annadale, N. In Boulengen (1920): Monograph of the South Asian,
Papuan, Melanasian and Australian frogs of the Genus Rana. Rec. Indian Mus.
20: 1-223.

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AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

511

Breeding. While calling the vocal sacs of the males project through slits
on the floor of the mouth. The inflated sacs are bluish white in colour
hence the name cyanophlyctis for the species. The call is distinctive and
easily recognised. McCann (1932) 6 compares it to the low pitched rattle
of castnets. The call, though more often heard during the rainy season,
is heard at other times of the year also and I believe is the only frog
call heard near permanent water throughout the year.

The eggs are laid in a frothy mass in standing water though I have
collected tadpoles from a fairly large stream, these were possibly a
secondary introduction. Tadpoles brown in colour with darker blotches
on the tail. Mouth disc with three rows of teeth, one on the upper and
two on the lower lip. Beak heavy, black. A black palatine plate inside
the mouth. Tadpoles vary considerably in size. McCann’s (op. cit.)
largest specimen with fully developed hind limbs measured 44 mm,
whereas I have collected specimens in the same developmental stage
measuring 74 mm in length. Tadpoles from Arabia are larger exceed-
ing 100 mm in length (Anderson 1895). 7 The tadpoles are larvivorous
(McCann, op. cit.). Juveniles at metamorphosis measure 17 to 19 mm
and resemble the adult in colour and pattern.

Habits. The commonest and most easily seen of Indian frogs, inhabit-
ing all biotopes of the country. It prefers still waters where it can float
placidly on the surface. Most ponds, rain puddles and other stretches
of water usually have one or two floating on the surface and several
squatting along the edges. The ability of this species to skip over the
surface of the water like a ricocheting stone was first remarked upon
by Emperor Babar in the 16th century. In association with this
habit this frog, unlike other species, does not let the hind legs dangle
but has them parallel to the surface of the water permitting the quick
flurry of strokes necessary for the skipping get away. After skipping
for some distance the animal may remain on the surface, or make a
short dive and return to the surface or dive and scramble into the mud
at the bottom depending on the extent of its alarm. The distance cover-
ed in the skipping alarm flight depends on whether the frog had taken
off from land or water. The skipper is both diurnal and nocturnal and
during the rainy season wanders considerably on land at night. Where
permanent water is available it is seen throughout the year. In other
areas it aestivates. Annandale (in Boulenger 1920) records seeing them
at Quetta (Pakistan) floating sluggishly on the surface of a well whose
sides were frozen. It is fairly tolerant of brackish water as well as water

6 McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 32: 152-180.

7 Anderson, J. (1895): Reptiles and Batrachians from Aden. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London, p. 600.

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512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

polluted by industrial effluents. The food consists of insects and small
vertebrates.

Rana tigerina (Daud.): Indian Bull Frog

Diagnosis. Size large; adult females occasionally exceeding 160 mm in
snout to vent length. Males smaller. Snout obtusely pointed, projecting
beyond the mouth. Tympanum distinct, equal to or slightly smaller than
the diameter of the eye. First finger longer than second. Toes fully web-
bed but the web does not reach the tip of the third toe. Fifth toe with
an outer fringe of web. Outer metatarsals separated by web nearly to
the base. An obtuse inner metatarsal tubercle. Tibio-tarsal articulation
reaches the eye or between the eye and the nostril. Heels overlap when
folded at right angles to the body.

Skin smooth or granulate above with distinct longitudinal glandular
folds. A fold from behind the eye to the shoulder. Ventral skin, smooth.

Colour. Olive green or brown above with darker markings. A light
coloured vertebral streak from snout to vent often present. Limbs bar-
red or spotted.

The juvenile is dark green above with dark brown markings and
a black line along the side of the head.

Secondary Sex Characters : Male with external vocal sacs which are
bright blue during breeding season. Forelimbs thick. The inner side
of the first finger with a horny pad, velvety in texture, and greyish
brown in colour. Males at breeding congregations in the Bombay area
are bright yellow. This colour which is evident at breeding congrega-
tions changes to a sober brown if the animal is removed elsewhere.

Distribution. Throughout the Indian Subregion; Sri Lanka; Burma to
Indo-China; South China; Formosa.

Breeding. As in the majority of Indian amphibia, the season coincides
with the arrival of the monsoon rains. A detailed account of the breed-
ing habits of the species in the Bombay area has been given by McCann
(1932) and is summarised below. The first heavy showers of the mon-
soon bring frogs out of their aestivation retreats. The males in their
lemon yellow livery congregate in rain water pools and ditches. Croak-
ing loudly they alertly await the females which are fought over, the
nearest male usually succeeds in holding on to the female and fending
off competitors by kicking strongly with the hind legs. The spawn is
laid in rain water pools and other transistory water. The eggs which
float when laid, later sink to the bottom where they hatch. The tad-
pole is omnivorous and is usually a bottom feeder, only occasionally
coming to the surface. According to McCann they are larvivorous.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2 )
Daniel : Amphibians

Plate I

Above: Rana tigerina; Below: Rana cyanophlyctis.
(Photos-. R. Whitaker)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2)
Daniel: Amphibians

Plate II

Above: Rana breviceps; Middle: Rana malabarica ( Photos : R. Whitaker );
Below: Rana limnocharis {Photo: S. R. Nayak) Male, Calling at night.

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

513

Habits. The largest of the Indian amphibia, the Bull Frog is widely
distributed from the fringes of the deserts to c 2000 m elevation in the
hills. Though not as aquatic as Rana hexadactyla, every spread of per-
manent or semi-permanent water has its complement of members of
this species hiding in the grass or hollows at the very edge of the water,
ready to dive in at the least sign of danger. Usually they blend so well
with their habitat that it is difficult to locate them. In the non-breeding
season they are silent but at the beginning of the rainy season their
call, a deep toned, oong awang can be heard throughout the night, each
new shower being welcomed with a fresh uproar. Another sound heard
only when the frog is caught by a predator is an almost human scream.
The frog sometimes gives out a chukle-like kut kut kut when caught
by hand.

In the absence of permanent water in areas where there is a definite
and prolonged dry season, the frog aestivates, singly or several together.
In sandy areas they follow the falling water table; instances are on re-
cord of specimens being collected at depths of 6 to 9 metres. It is, how-
ever, a hardy species able to withstand considerable dessication.

The diet is catholic and anything in movement which can be swal-
lowed is swallowed, the hands being used to thrust in the unwieldy
sections of the prey. In addition to the normal diet of insects which
varies with seasonal abundance of the prey species and is not selective,
the Bull Frog is reported to have taken mice, shrews, birds up to the
size of the Pitta ( Pitta brachyura ), snakes upto a metre in length. Spiny
tailed Lizard ( Uromastyx ), toads, other frogs including smaller sized
frogs of its own kind, land crabs etc. It is in turn fed on by waterfowl
aquatic animals from fishes to crocodiles and various land animals.
There is now heavy commercial exploitation of this species, the legs
being exported. The rate of exploitation with selective collection of the
larger forms is a serious drain on the breeding population and will
affect the status of the species as well as its commercial importance
unless reasonable safeguards are legislated. One of the adverse effects
of removal of the frog now noticed in agricultural areas, is the increase
in the number of land crabs and the consequent damage to wet land
crops.

Rana crassa Jerdon 1853: Jerdon’s Bull Frog

Diagnosis. Very closely resembles Rana tigerina but can be distinguish-
ed by its shorter leg; the tibio-tarsal articulation reaches only to the
tympanum or the eye. The heels do not overlap when the legs are fold-
ed at right angles to the body. The inner metatarsal tubercle is distinct-
ive being crescentic and nearly one to one and a half times the length
of the inner toe.

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514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Colour. Grey, brown, or green with darker markings. White below,
occasionally with black spots on the throat.

Breeding. This species has been confused with tigerina and information
on its larval stages are not reliable. The breeding habits need to be
studied particularly with regard to the characters responsible for re-
productive isolation from the closely allied Rana tigerina.

Distribution. Peninsular India and the Gangetic Plain. In the west coast
up to Malabar. In the east up to Calcutta. Sri Lanka.

Habits. Apart from the fact that it is an excellent burrower unlike
tigerina no separate records are available of its habits from those of
tigerina, with which species it has been confused till recently. The young
like those of Rana tigerina are seen in temporary rain water pools. I
have collected adults near tanks in Tamil Nadu. The ecology and be-
haviour of the sympatric Rana crassa and Rana tigerina are excellent
problems for investigation.

Rana verrucosa Gunther 1875

Diagnosis. Medium sized frogs (up to 61 mm in snout to vent length).
Snout obtuse, tympanum distinct nearly the size of the eye. First finger
longer than second. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaches nostril or tip of
snout; heels strongly overlap when folded at right angles to the body.
Toes fully webbed except the fourth which has two phalanges free. A
dermal fringe to the fifth toe. Outer meta-tarsals separated nearly to
the base. Two meta-tarsal tubercles, the inner larger. A short tarsal
fold.

The skin of the back is extremely warty hence the name verrucosa.
A fold from eye to shoulder. Ventrally smooth.

Colour. Dark grey or brown above with darker markings. A light ver-
tebral streak if present interrupted by the markings on the back. Limbs
and lips barred. Sides of the thigh patterned hi black and yellow. Ven-
trally white.

Secondary sexual characters. Male with internal vocal sacs. Pads on
the inner aspects of the first finger well developed and base of thighs
granular in the male.

Breeding. Call not recorded. Breeding habits unknown. The tadpoles
collected from a forest pool in Kerala in September has been describ-
ed by Annandale (1915). 8 The mouth disc has five row's of teeth, a
marginal row followed by an interrupted row in the upper and three

8 Annandale, N. A. (1915): Some undescribed tadpoles from the hills of
southern India. Rec. Indian Mus. 15 : 17-23.

[46]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

515

unbroken rows in the lower lip. A gravid female was collected in south
Kerala in November suggesting that there may be two breeding seasons
in some areas.

Distribution. Hill forests of Kerala and Tamil Nadu up to 2000 metres.

Habits. Little known. I have collected this species from the side small
fast flowing hill streams overhung with vegetation in the hill forests
of south Kerala. Ferguson (op. cit.) reported them from similar situ-
ations. Annandale (op. cit.) records that “It is very abundant in the
Travancore Hills” and that the species avoids small springs and pools
and is usually found at the edge of streams and reservoirs. The color-
ation is to a certain extent cryptic.

Rana limnocharis Boie in Wiegmann, 1835: Indian Cricket Frog

Diagnosis. Small sized frogs, the majority of specimens seen hardly ex-
ceeding 35 mm in snout to vent length. Maximum size recorded, cf
5 1 mm, $ 64 mm. Breeding commences at a much smaller size, 20 mm
cf and 23 mm $ . Distinguished from other ranids by the smaller size
and the brief webbing of the toes, usually half webbed with three phal-
anges of the fourth toe free. The tibio-tarsal articulation reaches the
nostril when the leg is held along the body. Outer metatarsals united
in the basal half or third. An inner and an outer metatarsal tubercles
present. First finger longer than the second.

Skin warty above often with longitudinal glandular folds, short and
interrupted. A strong fold from eye to above shoulder. Smooth below.

Male with a median subgular external vocal sac. The vocal sac
area becomes black in the breeding season. A strong pad appears on
the inner aspect of the first finger of the breeding male.

Colour. Usually grey or brown with darker markings. Lips and legs
often with darker bars. A vertebral band of varying width often pre-
sent. Ventrally white.

Distribution. East Asia from Pakistan to Japan. Apart from the typical
form, three races have been named from India, namely nilagrica from
the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu; syhadrensis from the western ghats
near Bombay; and andamanensis from the Andaman group. The races
are not readily distinguishable.

Breeding. Specimens in a ready to breed condition have been collected
from March to August and October to January. The breeding season
coincides with the monsoon rains and in areas like Trivandrum which
receive both monsoons there are two distinct breeding seasons. How-
ever the occurrence of frogs in breeding condition in March and again
in October-December at Mahableshwar in Satara Dt., Maharashtra,

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18

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

which receives only the SW Monsoon cannot be easily explained. The
species apparently does not have a fixed breeding season if conditions
suitable for breeding are continuously available.

I have located and collected males calling from under the soil dur-
ing the breeding season. McCann (1932) compares the call to the loud
clatter of castanets and according to Minton (1966) 9 the call is “a series
of loud staccato notes often delivered in bursts suggesting telegraphy”.
I would compare the call to that of the cricket.

Rana brevipalmata Peters 1871

Diagnosis. Medium sized frogs (snout to vent length 47 mm) closely
resembling Rana limnocharis but can be separated by the longer hind
limbs and shorter web between the toes. Snout pointed, tympanum dis-
tinct, first finger longer than second, hind limbs long the tibiotarsal
articulation reaching the tip of the snout or beyond; heels strongly over-
lapping when the legs are folded at right angles to the body. Toes
slender, feebly webbed, web not reaching to second phalange of toe.
Outer metatarsals separated nearly to the base by web. Inner meta-
tarsal tubercle prominent, half or more the length of the inner toe. A
small outer metatarsal tubercle. Skin warty above, smooth below.

Colour. Greyish above with darker markings. White below.

Distribution. Malabar (Kerala); Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu).

Breeding. Male with a pair of vocal sacs and a strong pad on the side
of the first finger. Breeding habits and tadpole unknown.

Habits. Unknown.

Rana malabarica (Bibr.) 1838: Fungoid Frog

Diagnosis. Medium sized frogs, the largest in the BNHS collection has
a snout to vent length of 81 mm. Adults easily recognised by their dis-
tinctive coloration. Snout obtuse, projecting slightly beyond the mouth.
Tympanum very distinct, slightly less or equal to the diameter of the
eye. Tips of fingers and toes swollen. First finger longer than second.
Tibio-tarsal articulation reaches the tympanum or the eye when the leg
is held along the body. Heels overlap feebly when the legs are folded
at right angles to the body. Toes feebly webbed, two or three phalanges
of the fourth toe free. Subarticular tubercles on fingers and toes and
inner and outer meta-tarsal tubercles large and prominent.

Skin smooth or granular above with a distinct dorso-lateral glan-

9 Minton jr., Sherman, A. (1966): A contribution to the herpetology of
West Pakistan. Bull. American Mus. nat. Hist. 134:55.

[48]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA 517

dular fold from above the tympanum to the groin. A shorter fold ter-
minating in a large gland below the tympanum or is continued as a line
of glands along the flanks. Ventrally granulate on belly and the under-
side of the thighs.

Colour. Back bright orange red, yellowish red, or crimson, from the
tip of the snout to vent, distinctly separated from the black of the
flanks along the canthus rostralis, upper eyelid, and the dorso-lateral
fold. Upper lip white and the colour may extend along the line of glands
on one sides. Ventrally white, uniform or spotted or marbled with
black. Throat and chest often wholly brownish black or black. Legs
brown or black barred or marbled with yellowish white. The barring
in some of the young specimens (19 mm snout to vent length) resemble
stripes.

Juvenile collected in May were greyish or yellowish white above
instead of red (snout to vent length 14 mm).

Distribution. The Western Ghats and the lowlands west of the Ghats
from Kasara Ghat in Nasik Dist., Maharashtra to Edanad, Chenganur
Dist., Kerala. It is possible that the range extends further south but I
have not seen it in the Trivandrum area nor has Ferguson (op. cit.)
included it in his list of Travancore batrachia. The species is known
from the Nilgiris and has been reported from Jagdalpur, Bastar, M.P.
(J. C. Daniel & Selukar 1964). 10 It is possible that it may occur in suit-
able biotopes in other areas of the Eastern Ghats and perhaps in other
areas of Peninsular India.

Breeding. Male with feebly developed external vocal sacs and a vel-
vety pad on the inner aspect of the first finger at the breeding season
and a glandular area on the anterior portion of the arm.

The breeding season commences with the onset of the monsoon and
the northward extension of the rains along the range of the species.
Females collected in Edanad, Kerala in March had enlarged ovaries
with granular developing ova while the ovaries of specimens collected
at Kanheri Caves, Bombay in the same month were dormant. In May
females from Talewadi, N. Kanara were spent and just metamorphosed
young were noticed. Females from the Bombay area collected in May
and early June were gravid. McCann (1940) records a female with
eggs in July and Chari (1962) 11 collected tadpoles of different stages

10 Daniel, J. C. & Selukar, T. G. (1964): Occurrence of the fungoid frog
Rana malabarica (Bibr.) at Jagdalpur, Bastar District, M.P. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 60:743-744.

11 Chari, V. K. (1962): A description of the hitherto undescribed tadpoles
of, and some field notes on the Fungoid Frog, Rana malabarica Bibron. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:71-76.

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518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

in August and the first week of September which supports McCann’s
observation that the species is a late breeder in the Bombay area. How-
ever it is possible that the species has an extended breeding season. The
difference in size between the sexes is not very apparent but the largest
specimen collected was a female.

The species breeds in still water, preferring shallow pools holding
weeds or grass in forest or open country. The call which is given out
by the male with sitting at the edge of such pools has been sylabilised
by Abdulali (in Chari, op. cit.) as wack, wack, wack. My own obser-
vations support a treble version of this syllabilisation. However, Mc-
Cann (1940) compares the call to the noise made by a tin rattle.

Chari (op. cit.) has shown that Boulenger’s (op. cit.) description
of the tadpole was based on misidentification. The tadpole according
to Chari is straw yellow in colour and has the head and body blotched
with brownish black and tail speckled with black. Mouth disc has one
row of teeth on the upper lip and two, the inner interrupted, on the
lower lip. Occasionally a short third row. Largest tadpole was 48 mm
in total length. Metamorphosis was completed in two months and
18 days after collection of tadpoles. The period is perhaps less in
nature.

Habits. This species prefers forested land though it has been recorded
in open country particularly in the breeding season. McCann (1936)
notes that it is semi-arboreal and may often be seen at considerable
heights on trees. When on trees the red coloration of the back is said
to resemble red bark fungus and the obliterative pattern of the rest of
the body breaks the outline of the body merging the animal into the
background; hence the trivial name “Fungoid Frog”. McCann (1964)
records that a powerful fungoid odour was given out under excitement
by a specimen he caught at Tansa Lake near Bombay in May. Abdulali
(op. cit.) records the odour of a specimen he collected in the same area
as resembling burnt rubber. The frog is not as agile as other species
and is easily caught and perhaps the coloration is apsomatic. I have
seen them mainly at night though McCann (1932) states that they are
diurnal. Later (1940) he noted that several specimens that lived in his
house were nocturnal. In summer months a large number may gather
in moist areas. Such congregations have been observed in the moist
cisterns of Kanheri Caves at Bombay and P. B. Shekar (Per. Communi-
cation) who collected the species at Edanad in Kerala reports that he
saw over 30 frogs inside a well in March sitting on the sides above the
water. As noted by Abdulali (op. cit.) the species does not breed in
such areas but in rain water pools. A land frog it is reluctant to enter
water and avoids doing so except for breeding.

[50]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

519

Subgenus Tomopterna : Burrowing Frogs

The species of this subgenus are usually seen only during the breed-
ing season when they surface to breed. In appearance they resemble
the burrowing microhylids but have a much larger head. The inner
metatarsal tubercle is much enlarged, crescentic in shape and in most
species exceeds the inner toe in length. It is the main burrowing tool.
The food is ants and other subterranean insects. Three species occur
in Western India.

Key to the species of Rana ( Tomopterna ) in western India
1 An outer metatarsal tubercle present; Tibiotarsal articulation reaches tym-

panum or posterior border of eye rufescens

1 Outer metatarsal tubercle absent; tibiotarsal articulation does not reach be-
yond shoulder 2

2 Snout shorter than eye in length; toes 1/4 to 1/2 webbed breviceps

2 Snout as long as eye; web toes rudimentary dobsoni

Rana rufescens (Jerdon) 1854: Rufescent Burrowing Frog

Diagnosis. Medium sized frogs, the largest specimen in the BNHS col-
lection has a snout to vent length of 43 mm. Head broader than long
with rounded snout and distinct tympanum about half or slightly over
half the diameter of the eye. First finger much longer than the second,
third equal to or slightly longer than the first. Tibio-tarsal articulation
reaches tympanum or posterior border of the eye. Heels slightly over-
lapping when legs are folded at right angles to the body. Toes feebly
webbed. One phalange of 1st and 2nd toes free; 2 phalanges of 3rd and
5th toes and 3 phalanges of 4th toe free. Sub-articular tubercles of
fingers and toes prominent. Inner meta-tarsal tubercle large, nearly one-
third the length of the inner toe and is compressed and crescentic in
shape. A small outer meta-tarsal tubercle.

In the field it can be easily confused with Rana limnocharis but can
be distinguished by the size and shape of the meta-tarsal tubercle and
the much more rounded snout.

Skin with numerous warts above and two glandular ridges forming
an inverted open V between the shoulders. A glandular fold from the
eye to the shoulder. Ventrally smooth except on the back of the thighs
where it is granular.

Colour. Brown above with darker spots and marblings. Occasionally
a crossbar between eyes. Lips and limbs barred. Most specimens have
patches of varying shades of red on them and in some almost the whole
dorsal surface may be brick red.

Distribution. Salsette Island, Bombay, southwards along the Western
Ghats to Malabar.

[51]

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Breeding. The male has external vocal sacs appearing as blackish folds
on the sides of the throat in the breeding season. A strong pad on the
first finger. Call not recorded. Females collected in June at Kanheri
Caves, Salsette Island, Bombay and at Gersoppa, North Kanara were
gravid. Gravid and spent females have been collected in the Koyna
area in July. Abdulali (1962) 12 records a pair in copula in June at Kan-
heri Caves. The tadpole has not been described so far.

Habits. Little known. It is an uncommon frog. A burrower, it is mainly
seen during the early monsoon months, when juveniles and adults have
been collected near water and in grass. Adults have been seen at other
times of the year in forests under logs and stones.

Rana breviceps Schneider 1799: Indian Burrowing Frog

Diagnosis. Medium sized frogs. Adults in the BNHS collection average
56 mm (range 43 to 65 mm) females and 48 mm (range 41 to 56 mm)
males in snout to vent length. Snout short, less than the diameter of eye
in length, rounded. Tympanum distinct, approximately three-fifth the
diameter of the eye. First finger considerably longer than second, equal
to or a little shorter than the third. Tibio-tarsal articulation reaches the
shoulder. Heels do not meet when the legs are folded at right angles
to the body. Web on toes does not reach the last phalange of the first
to third and the fifth toes. Two phalanges of the 4th free. Outer meta-
tarsals bound together. Sub-articular tubercles prominent. Inner meta-
tarsal tubercle, large, compressed, crescentic and more than the inner
toe in length. No outer tubercle.

A small circular tubercle occurs on the tarso-metatarsal joint in
some specimens from south India. The presence of this tubercle was
first noticed in specimens collected at Trivandrum in Kerala (Bhaduri
& Kirpalani 1954) 13 and the occurrence of this tubercle was recorded
in specimens from Sri Lanka and India south of c. 17°. Specimens from
the range of the species north of 17° latitude lack the tubercle. How-
ever specimens without tubercle also occur south of latitude 17°. While
collecting at Trivandrum the specimens studied by Bhaduri & Kripalani,
I was struck by their remarkable resemblance to species of the Micro-
hylid genus Uperodon rather than the Rana breviceps. I was familar
with in the Bombay area. The colour too was markedly different being
greyish with darker markings instead of the uniform brown of the back
in specimens from the Bombay area. It is possible that the southern

12 Abdulali, H. (1962): An account of a trip to the Barapede Cave, Tale-
wadi, Belgaum District, Karnataka State, with some notes on Reptiles and Am-
phibians. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 228-237.

13 Bhaduri, J. L. & Kirpalani, Mira, (1954): Notes on the frog Rana
breviceps Schneider. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52:6 20-623.

[52]

AMPHIBIANS OF WESTERN INDIA

521

form with the tarsal tubercle may be a sibling species but more infor-
mation «is needed on the ecology and behaviour of the frog for a con-
clusion.

Skin smooth or finely granular on the back and coarsely granular
on the belly and underside of the thighs. Throat and chest smooth.
Occasionally glandular folds and warts on the back. A glandular fold
from behind the eye to the shoulder.

Colour. Uniform light or dark brown or grey above, occasionally spot-
ted or marbled with yellow or white. Ventrally white. Throat sometimes
brownish. Lips barred. Thighs ventrally marbled with yellow or white.
A yellow vertebral streak often present. A black canthal (snout) streak
often present, particularly in juveniles. Lip white in some specimens
from Bombay.

Distribution. Throughout the Indian Peninsula from the Himalayas to
the Cape, Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka.

Breeding. Males with vocal sacs forming folds on the sides of the
throat. Some specimens with an additional fold across the throat in
front of the shoulder. Throat black in breeding males. The throat and
chest of breeding males granular and present a finely speckled appear-
ance from the presence of pustules.

The call is a soft awang which can be heard at a good distance. The
breeding season commences with the onset of the monsoon. There is
no particularly preferred site for the spawning. I have collected tadpoles
in cisterns, rain water pools, pools in quarries, in small hill streams and
in shallow and fairly deep water with and without weeds. Females with
gravid and spent ovaries have been collected in June and July suggest-
ing that individuals mature at different times. Tadpoles at various sta-
ges of development have been collected from the beginning of June to
end of July in the Kanheri Caves area of Salsette Island, Bombay, and
in May at Talewadi, Karnataka. At Trivandrum, tadpoles were collect-
ed in October. Apparently there are two breeding seasons at Trivan-
drum coinciding with the two monsoons. The tadpole is a bottom feeder
and the time of development is 18 to 20 days (C. R. N. Rao 191 5). 14

The juvenile measures 8 to 10 mm at metamorphosis. Juveniles have
been collected in June and July in the Bombay area and at Surat Dangs.
I found the juveniles to be very numerous around rock quarry pools at
Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu, in January. These were pale brown with dar-
ker spots and resembled young Rana crassa found in the same area but
could be separated by the shorter webbing of the toes.

11 Rao, C. R. N. (1915) : Notes on some south Indian Batrachia. Rec. Indian
Mus. 77:31-38.

[53]

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Habits. A burrowing species, there is little information on their habits.
They are seen only during the early monsoon months when they surface
to breed. The juveniles are commonly seen for a short period after they
metamorphose hopping around the pools from which they emerged.

Rana dobsonii Boulenger 1882: Dobson’s Burrrowing Frog

Described on the basis of two females collected at Mangalore,
south Kanara, measuring 55 mm and 57 mm in snout to vent length.
The species differs from Rana breviceps only in the snout being equal
to the eye in length and the web the toes being rudimentary. I have
not seen this species.

{to be continued)

[54]

Miscellaneous Notes

1. NOTES ON THE STATUS OF THE NOSELEAF BAT,
HIPPOSIDEROS SPEORIS PULCHELLUS ANDERSEN
(MAMMALIA: CHIROPTER A : RHINOLOPHIDAE)

While preparing a catalogue of Chiroptera in the collections of the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, specimens of Hipposideros spe-
oris speoris (Schneider) and H. speoris pulchellus Andersen presented
some difficulty in separation. An attempt is made in this paper to settle
the problem. Notes on geographical distribution of the species are also
included.

material: 1$, Baroda, Gujarat: 19 3, 13$, Coorg, Kanara, Bellary (Vijaya-
nagar) , Gadag, Belgaum and Deccan, Karnataka : 6$ , 4 $ , Trivandrum, Kerala :
23, 6$, 1 (unsexed), Salem, Nagercoil and Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu: 2$,
1$: Cuddapah and Palkonda Hills, Andhra Pradesh: 10 3, 2$, 5 (unsexed):
Sri Lanka.

Table

Measurements (in mm) of Hipposideros speoris (Schneider) from the
DISTRIBUTIONAL RANGE OF H.S. Speoris AND H.S. pulchellus

Mysore

(Bellary)

Peninsular India
(excluding Bellary)

Ceylon

EXTERNAL:

73, 6$

233, 15$

103 2$

Length of forearm:

47-52

49-54

50-54

(50.1) *

(51.4)

(52.1)

Length of tibia :

20-23

19.5-25

19-24

(21.8)

(21.7)

(21)

Length of foot including

8-9

7-10

7. 5-9.5

Claws :

(8.7)

(8.4)

(8.8)

SKULL:

23, 4$

123, 5$

43, 2$

Total length :

18-19

18.1-19.2

18-19

(18.3)

(18.4)

(18.6)

Zygomatic width:

10.3-11.5

10.3-11.7

10.6-11.4

(10.8)

(10.9)

(11.1)

Cranial width:

8. 5-8.8

8-9.7

8. 2-8. 9

(8.7)

(8.4)

(8.5)

Length of upper tooth

7-7.4

6.8-7. 3

7-7.5

row (c — m3) :

(7.1)

(7.1)

(7.3)

Length of lower tooth row 7.5-8.2

7.2-8

7.5-8.3

(Ci— m3) :

(7.7)

(7.8)

(7.9)

Length of mandible :

12.6-13.5

12.5-13.5

12.8-13.5

(13)

(13.1)

(13.2)

* Average measurements given in parentheses.

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Andersen (1917) separated pulchellus (Bellary population) from
speoris only on average measurements: skull length 18-19.8 mm (18.8)
vs. 19-20.3 mm (19.7) and forearm 45.8-51 mm (49.5) v.?. 49.8-54 mm
(52). From a study of the material of the species from the range of
the two ‘subspecies’, I find that there is no difference in their external
or cranial measurements (Table), as mentioned by Anderson (1918). I
would therefore, treat H. speoris pulchellus Andersen as a synonym of
H. speoris speoris (Schneider).

The species has hitherto been known to range from Peninsular India,
Sri Lanka east to Java, Sumatra and Timor. Brosset (1962) mentioned
its absence in Gujarat but one specimen examined by me from Baroda
(Gujarat) belongs to this species.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of
India for providing facilities for this work.

Desert Regional Station, Y. P. SINHA

Zoological Survey of India,

Jodhpur (Rajasthan),

July 10, 1973.

References

Andersen, K. (1918): Diagnosis Brosset, A. (1962): The bats of

of new bats of the families Rhinolo- Central and Western India. II. J.
phidae and Megadermatidae. Ann. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:583-624.
Mag. nat. Hist. (9) 2:374-384.

2. A NOTE ON ECOLOGY OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR
(PRESBYTIS GEEI KHAJURIA)

Introduction

A survey of Manas Sanctuary was undertaken to investigate the distri-
bution of the fauna and to ascertain the present position of the Golden
Langur (Presbytis geei Khajuria) in the Sanctuary area. The period of
survey was from 8th to 18th January 1974. The area within and around
the sanctuary were covered by Jeep, on foot, by boat and on elephant
back. This report also includes findings of 4 surveys in Garo Hills area
pertaining to Presbytis geei .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

525

Distribution

Gee (1961) gave the distribution of the species as the areas east of
'River Sankosh and west of River Manas in north west Assam. Further,
he presumed (1961, 1964) from reports of sportsman and animal de-
alers that Golden Langur is present in small numbers in Garo Hill dis-
trict of Meghalaya and foot hill areas of Khasi Hills although he him-
self could not spot a single one in these areas. Initiated by a report to
the Bombay Natural History Society and a request from the Society to
undertake a survey in Garo Hill a serious search was started by Eastern
Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India and in February 1970 a
party headed by Dr. G. M. Yazdani (10 Feb. -28 Feb. 1971) surveyed
certain areas of Garo Hills (Tikrikillah, Tura, Baghmara, Rongdong,
Dudhnai) but could not spot a single P. geei. A second survey was
undertaken in 1971, led by Dr. R. S. Pillai (7th April- 16 April 1971)
in those areas (Dudhnai, Damra, Darugiri) where Golden Langur was
reported but the result was negative. Later in April 1973 and November
1973 two more extensive surveys were made, headed by one of the
authors (S. Biswas) in Garo Hill district including areas e.g., Dhudhnai,
Dainadubi, Bangshi, Wageasi, Rongjeng, Songsok, Rongrengiri (4 April-
24 April 1973) and Bajengdoba, Anogiri, Rongram, Songsok and
Damra (3 Nov. -24 Nov. 1973) but no Golden Langur could be observ-
de. It may further be added that the junior author (S. Biswas) had also
surveyed Goalpara district of Assam adjoining Garo Hills but failed
to notice any Golden Langur in the area.

The present survey confirms Gee’s (op. cit.) observation that Gold-
en Langurs are not found on east bank of Manas, as a survey in the
areas extending from Mathonguri via Falaguri to Kahitama did not re-
veal any Golden Langur. It also supports earlier observation of its occ-
urrence in west bank of Manas in Bhutan Forest areas as on 4 different
dates troops of Golden Langur were observed only in a part (10 sq
km) of this evergreen forest.

Study area

The present survey included an area of 50 km on each side of river
Manas from Mathonguri to Kahit and 10 km on the west bank of
Manas in the forested hills of Bhutan. The Golden Langur, as already
staled, was seen only in the Bhutan side; this area has steep hills cover-
ed by evergreen forest with a gentle slope near Manas river. The forest
in study area in the foothill has tall trees such as Lagerstroemia parvi-
flora Roxb. [Assamese: Sida], Salmalia malabarica DC. (Schat &
Eudl.) [Assamese: Simul], Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. [Assamese: SisooJ,

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Amoora wallichi King [Assamese: Amaril], Trewia nudiflora Linn.
[Assamese: Bhelkor], Ficus and Terminalia spp. besides some shrubby
undergrowth.

In the area two troops of Golden Langurs observed, no solitary male
was seen. The home range of the troops during the survey appeared
to be 3 x 2 km each with an overlapping region.

Troop organisation

Both troops had only one adult male but more than one adult female
and adolescent animals of various age groups. In troop 1 only one
female with infant was seen whereas in troop No. 2, two females with
infants were observed. Troop 1 consisted of 9 members including one
adult male, one adult female, 2 subadults and 1 infant and troop 2 con-
sisted of 6 members 1 adult male, 1 subadult male, 2 adult females, 2
infants.

Feeding behaviour

Gee (1961) listed nine trees on which the Golden Langurs were
seen feeding (Buds, leaves, flowers and fruits); in the present study the
langurs were observed feeding on flowers of Salmalia malabarica, (and
this appears to be the most preferred food), and fruits of Amoora
wallichi and Trewia nudiflora the last two food plants were not includ-
ed in Gee’s (op. cit.) list. The langurs pick up flowers of Salmalia in
quick succession and throw the petals down after eating the calyx;
while eating fruits of Amoora and Trewia they were never seen to eat
the whole and often after eating a part throw the rest to the ground.
Tall branches of trees were always selected for eating and movement
from tree to trees or branches was always swift and together. The feed-
ing time varied from 8.30-9.30 a.m., 11.30 a.m. to 1 p.m., 1.30-2.00 p.m.
and it appeared that feeding usually coincided with bright sunshine as
on the second and third day mentioned earlier, the sky was overcast till
noon.

Movement

Golden langurs appear to prefer tall trees for movement and during
the present survey they were never seen below 8 m. They never seem-
ed to be bothered by our observation and even looked down at us from
tall trees. They are fascile in their movement from one tree to other
or from a higher to lower branch, always seen to leap straight and
hardly missing the next target. When disturbed, the troop moves very

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

527

fast from one tree to the next and continues moving till they reach a
suitable tree with foliage cover.

Resting, agression, vocal communication

The resting langurs usually groom each other. The infant sticks
close to the breast of mother and the adult male usually sits on a higher
branch looking around.

Only on one day (15-1-1974) was an adult male seen chasing
a subadult male on two different occasions and hitting him, when the
subadult and the females, screeched. The loud joyous sounding whoops
so often made by the common langur [Presbytis entellus (Dufresne)],
was never heard.

Mating activity was not observed during the present study.

Relationship with other animals

The Common langur [P. entellus (Dufresne)] and the Capped
langur (P. pileatus Blyth) present otherwise in Manas Sanctuary area
were never seen in association with the Golden Langur.

The only animal which was observed to share food from the same
tree with the golden langur was the Malayan giant squirrel Ratuja bicol-
or Sparrmann, and the langur did not seem to object to the presence
of these animals.

Colour

The colour of different members of the troops vary considerably.
The young as also the females appear to be silvery white to light gold-
en whereas the adult male always showed rich golden colour in most
part of its fur. Gee (op. cit.) stated that cream or white colour was
seen in warm weather and the rich golden to chestnut colour was res-
tricted to colder months but our observations reveal colour differentia-
tion in age and sex groups.

Discussion

During the present study it became obvious that the west bank of
Manas in Bhutan forest region has become much less dense than dur-
ing Gee’s earlier observation period and consequently when the golden

528* JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

langurs come to the fringe areas of forest near the elephant track III,
they can be more easily observed. Due to complete protection these
animals appear to have become accustomed to human beings.

The infants seen with the troops seemed to be 1 -2 months old and as
such the young must have been born during November. As reported
by the Divisional Forest Officer in charge of Gauhati Zoo, the langur
in captivity does not seem to have any particular mating period but
the two babies born in captivity were during July and August.

The existence of Golden Langurs in Garo hill district is still to be
proved. Gee’s (op. cit.) personal attempt as well as four extensive sur-
veys made from this station did not yield a single evidence so far. The
definite area of distribution remains between Sankosh and Manas, in
a strip of country along the Bhutan border.

The migration of these langurs to the high hills during summer has
yet to be investigated but the Divisional Forest Officer of Bhutan forests
informed the senior author that he has seen Golden Langurs upto
1600 m on Bhutan Hills on west bank of Manas, during summer
months.

Besides the two troops seen during the present study, it is reported
that two other troops exist on the Bhutan side of Manas within an area
of 15-20 sq km and future studies may well provide data from 4 troops
in the study area. The elephant track in the Bhutan forest offers ex-
cellent opportunity to track these animals.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Mr. Barua, Chief Conservator of forests, Mr.
M. M. Islam, C.F. (Development) and the officers and personnel of
Assam Forest Department in Manas Sanctuary area and D.F.O., Bhutan
Forests and his staff for their kind collaboration during the present sur-
vey. We express our thanks to the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta for permission to undertake the present survey.

Eastern Regional Station, A. K. GHOSH

Zoological Survey of India, S. BISWAS

Shillong 3,

April 16, 1974.

References

Gee, E. P. (1961): The distribu-
tion and feeding habits of Golden
Langur, Presbytis geei (Khajuria,

1956). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc< 58
(1) : 1-12.

Gee, E. P. (1964). The wild life of
India. Collins. London, p. 192.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

529

3. A NOTE ON THE BREEDING HABITS OF FOUR-HORNED
ANTELOPE (TETRACERUS QU ADRICORNIS) IN CAPTIVITY

Specimens of the Fourhorned Antelope or Chowsingha have been re-
ceived from different parts of Orissa and exhibited at Nandankanan
Biological Park, Orissa from time to time. Some notes on the breeding
habits of this species observed in this Park are presented here.

So far eleven young have been produced in six births including five
twins with an average of 1.83 young per litter. Out of these, 4 were
males and 7 were females. The sex ratio of males to females was 1 : 1.75.
The six births were distributed as follows: January, 3; March, 2; and
April, 1.

The weight and size at birth of seven young bom during 1973 and
1974 were as follows: Weight — from 0.75 to 1.2 kg with an average
of 1.04 kg; length from tip to tip — from 42 to 45 cm an average of 43.5
cm and the shoulder height — from 24.5 to 27 cm with an average of
25.2 cm. The one young which weighed 0.75 kg and measured 42 cm
at birth died on 13 th day.

One female born here on 15-iv-1972 has given birth to a single
young for the first time on 12-i-1974 at the age of 1 year, 8 months and
29 days or say 1 year and 9 months. This remained with an adult male
throughout this period. Another female received in this Park on 13-v-
1971 at an estimated age of about one month gave birth to twin young
for the first time on 19-1-1973 at an estimated age of about 1 year and
9 months. This had remained with an adult male from the estimated
age of about six months. Taking the gestation period as 8 to 8^ months
(Prater 1971) the age of sexual maturity of these two females can be
said to be about one year to one year and one month.

One female gave birth thrice during the period from April, 1972 to
January, 1974 i.e. 15-iv-1972, 29-iii-1973 and 9-i-1974. So the inter-
parturition interval observed twice in this animal was 347 days and 285
days respectively.

The breeding season is in the hot weather and rains and young are
born from October to February (Prater loc. cit.). Asdell (1964) states
that in the London Zoo three births had taken place in February and
others in May and June and twins were produced in three of the five
births. According to Walker et al. (1964) mating takes place during
the rainy season and the young, one to three in number, are born in
January or February.

At birth a fawn of fourhorned antelope weighed 2\ pounds, me-
asured 15 inches in length and the shoulder height was 10 inches (Shull
1958). The average weight of four young of this species was 1.081 kg,
the average length was 46.3 cm and the average shoulder height was
27 cm at birth (Acharjyo & Misra 1972).

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Ack N OWLEDGE M EN TS

We are grateful to Shri S. Jee, I.F.S., Chief Conservator of Forests,
Orissa and Shri S. N. Das, I.F.S., Conservator of Forests, Development
Circle, Cuttack for the facilities provided.

Veterinary Asst. Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P.O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack.

Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA

Old Secretariate Building,

Cuttack 1 (Orissa),

March 16, 1974.

References

Acharjyo, L. N. & Misra, R.
(1972) : Cheetal — Journal of Wild

Life Preservation Society of India,
Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 64-67.

Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of
Mammalian Reproduction, Second
Edition, Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, New York, p. 581.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book
of Indian Animals, Third (Revised)

Edition, Bombay Natural History So-
ciety, Bombay pp. 271-272.

Shull, E. M. (1958): Notes on the
Fourhorned Antelope Tetracerus qua -
dricornis (Blainville). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. Vol. 55, No. 2, pp. 339-
340.

Walker, Ernest P. (1964): Mam-
mals of the World, Vol. II, The Johns
Hopkins Press, Baltimore, p. 1422.

4. OBSERVATIONS ON CONFLICT AMONG MALES OF
BLACK RAT RATTUS RATTUS FRUGIVORUS

Incidence of mortality in conflict among males of black rat Rattus
rattus L. is supposedly very low (Barnett 1958). Evidence presented
herein, however, suggests that in sub-species Rattus rattus frugivorus
deaths in such interactions may not be unusual in some situations.

Observations

(1) In aggressive rodents caught together males often fight until
one is killed by the time traps are collected (Spillett 1968). The same
was observed twice in a total of 132 trappings with multiple-catch won-
der traps. An apparently senile male with grey hairs and pathological
testis (weight 218 gm) was killed in the trap by a younger male (wt.
192 gm) while on another occasion a healthy male (wt. 146 gm) was
found to have died in a fight with one of its own age (wt. 152 gm). This

Colony Weight of resident Weight of interloper Mortality in Final weight of Wounding

alpha gm gm days interloper

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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* Housed in cages. All others in pen.

532 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(2)

reflects that such mortality among males is not unusual in natural en-
vironment.

(2) High rate of mortality was recorded for males released in bi-
sexual colonies maintained in pens (9 x 5 x 4'). Mature males of good
condition were killed by the resident males sooner than weaker ones
which wasted away over a period of several days (Table 1). One resi-
dent male killed all the six females introduced into its pen. Its behavi-
our was consequently adjudged as atypical. It was also killed on being
released in another colony.

Agnostic interactions in pens were not quantitatively evaluated but
there was apparently much jumping and chasing before the interloper
was caught by the residents. To escape pursuit the rats often waded
into drinking water kept in a tray. Recovered later, when dead, they
were often found wet with swollen feet. Body injuries otherwise were
superficial except in case of two young males (wts. 70 & 117 gm) whose
testes and viscera were pulled out.

(3) 12 interlopers were released in as many bisexual colonies hous-
ed in cages (32 x 18 x 18")- Only two males died after six days while
the rest survived the period of observation extending to three weeks.
Threatened by resident males, the interlopers invariably hung to the
side or roof of the cage. When chased they ran and jumped frantically
disturbing the nest box, water tray and also the females in the process.
This seemed to ‘displace’ the aggressive drive of the resident males.
The interlopers were thus not pursued with vigour and the survivors
accordingly did not show any serious injury. The fur coat was, however,
generally thin.

(4) Likewise only a few interlopers were killed in all-male colonies.
Their introduction invariably triggered a general fight in the colony
which was surmised as the absence of social stability in it. It was clear
thus that the interlopers were released before any one male and esta-
blished its social ascendancy.

(5) A number of males were introduced into cages housing a lone
male. None of the interloper was killed in the following eight days. But
the condition of some of them had apparently deteriorated. Had the
period of observation been extended some deaths might have been re-
corded. This, however, could not be done.

Individual weights of all the interlopers were compared to that re-
corded later at the time of autopsy. Maximum decrease in weight (10
to 20%) was shown by the rats which appeared to have wasted away
after release. The loss of weight in case of other rats killed as also of
the survivors was only marginal.

Discussion

The slender and lightly built black rats climb well. Simulated labo-

■

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

533

ratory facilities for studying their agnostic behaviour needs to be spa-
cious with even surfaces to ensure perpetual contact between the com-
batants. This was possible in the pens but not quite so in the cages. This
may have created the difference in mortality recorded for the same situ-
ations in the two set ups.

Resident males attacked the interlopers in all situations to defend
their territory against strange males. The intensity of attack on them
was particularly heightened by the presence of females. Thus the in-
cidence of male mortality recorded in bisexual colonies housed in pens
equalled that reported for more aggressive species as Rattus norvegicus
(Barnett 1958; et al. 1968). Otherwise it was comparatively insignificant.

The interlopers which lost weight rapidly and died slowly in pens
and cages can be classified as the ‘omega’ males (Barnett 1958). Ac-
cordingly others able to maintain their weights in cages or killed with
marginal loss of it in pens were the ‘beta’ males. Thus males of this
species are also stratified in three social ranks — dominant alphas (resi-
dents) and the sub-ordinate betas and omegas. The distinctions bet-
ween them, however, may not be very sharp like that noted among
males of brown rat Rattus norvegicus (Barnett 1958).

Death of the residents following successive fights with interlopers
shows that the general capacity of the males of this species to tolerate
stress of agnostic interactions is very limited. Implied in this are some
general facts about the aggressive behaviour of this species e.g. (1) it
is less aggressive, (2) any one male fails to dominate several others,
as in all-male colony and (3) that it restricts the size of social units.
Only a few males thus may succeed in co-existing and the number of
females associating with them would obviously depend on their ability
to cover them. In any case then the total number of rats in the colony
would be limited.

Apparently the behaviour of the species requires analysis in detail.
This is being attempted in my laboratory.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Prof. S. M. Alam, Head, Zoology Department,
AMU, for facilities and encouragement.

Zoology Department, JAMIL AHMED KHAN

Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh,

April 4, 1973.

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

References

Barnett, S. A. (1958) : Analysis of
social behaviour in wild rats. Proc.
Zool. Soc., London 750:107-152.

Barnett, S. A., Evans, C. S. &
Stoddart, R. C. (1968): Influence of
females on conflict among wild rats.
J. Zool. 75-7:391-396.

5. NOTE ON A COLLECTION OF RATS FROM
GOREGAON-MALAD IN BOMBAY

It has been noticed that the species frequency in the rat population
from the City of Bombay has changed (Deoras 1966). During a survey
of the rats in Bombay it was observed (Joshi 1961) that Rattus rattus
predominated in former suburbs like Dadar. As urbanisation increased
the field rat was found to predominate even in the heart of Bombay,
when it was only 2 per cent in the total collection in 1910 (Deoras
1966). During the studies in the eastern suburbs of Bombay it was no-
ticed that the house rat still predominated in the fields of Bhandup
(Joshi 1966). But the ex-ratio of both Rattus rattus and Bandicota
bengalensis in the collection was different than that erstwhile found in
the heart of Bombay or its suburbs like Dadar (Prasad 1967). The
area around Bhandup is becoming heavily industrialised even though
there are fields surrounded by a rural type of housing. The western
suburbs of Bombay have fields, hills and forest vegetation and it has
not yet been heavily industrialised. The frequency of different species
in the rat population and the sex-ratio had not been seen for the western
suburbs. The present studies were started with this idea, in December
1972 and this note gives an idea of the frequency of species in the rat
population in Goregaon-Malad as compared with the collections from
the heart of Bombay, and other suburbs (Table 2).

Table 3 gives the percentage of species of rats collected in this
area, wherein Rattus rattus is 69 per cent and Bandicota 13.9 per cent.
In both species the females predominate; a phenomenon similar to that
seen in the heart of Bombay as well as the erstwhile suburbs. Both
figures are just the opposite of what was seen in 1967 at Bhandup.
Table 1, gives the percentage of Rattus rattus and B. bengalensis
collected in the entire Bombay, in the suburbs only and their sex-ratio
in the heart of Bombay, and erstwhile suburbs as compared to what
was available at Bhandup.

The second point of interest is that at Goregaon-Malad Rattus rattus
continuously dominates for all the six months as opposed to B. benga-
lensis in the entire Bombay. However the R. rattus predominance is
common to both the suburbs i.e. Bhandup and Goregaon-Malad.

Thirdly R. norvegicus is not seen the suburbs and the various spe-

1

Comparative account of the percentage of R. rattus and B. bengalensis collected in entire Bombay,

SUBURBS ONLY, GOREGAON-MALAD, BHANDUP ONLY; AND THEIR SEX RATIO FOR THE WARDS AS WELL AS LAST

TWO AREAS, 1973.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

535

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M. F. M. F. M. F. M. F. Laggada nagarum 45.3

36.5 57.5 38.83 51.35 69.0 30.0 75.0 24.6 B‘ Sigantia 6.3

Golunda gujerati 1.6

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Table 2

Comparative percentage of collection of rats from the entire Bombay
and the Western Suburbs of Goregaon and Malad

R.

rattus

B. bengalensis

Entire

Goregaon

Entire

Goregaon

Bombay

and Malad

Bombay

and Malad

December, ’72

23.6

68

44.5

—

January, ’73

25.4

69.3

43.9

12.7

February, ’73

23.6

69.3

46.2

14.5

March, ’73

21.7

69.4

48.8

16.7

April, ’73

19.5

71.05

50

14.11

May, ’73

19.3

71.7

47.9

14.57

June, ’73

20.4

70

48.1

10.77

Table 3

Details of

DIFFERENCES in

the R. rattus, B.

bengalensis

COLLECTIONS AT

Goregaon and Malad

(A) Total all rats collected:

16,623

Rattus rattus sp. in this collection:

8,777

Percentage of R. rattus in the collection:

69.5%

Rattus rattus rufescens Grey:

8,657

Males

2,791

32%

Females

57%

Immature

11.2%

R. rattus wroughtoni Hinton:

141

Males

58%

Females

83%

Rattus rattus ( rufescens ) Grey:

With white patches on the pectoral region:

6

Males

50%

Females

50%

(B) Total Bandicota Collected:

Nos. 1,479

Percentage of B. bengalensis

73.86%

Males

38.83%

Females

51.35%

Percentage of B. indica

26.13%

Males

35.93%

Females

52.44%

Total B. indica collected

Nos. 384

Percentage of B. indica malabarica

collected in the total of B. indica

17.00%

Males

36.60%

Females

63.39%

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

537

cies of rats (Table 1) found at Bhandup are not represented at Gore-
gaon-Malad.

The studies are being continued and the detailed results would be
soon published.

We are extremely thankful to the University Grants Commission for
the grant to the Senior Author; to Bombay Municipal Corporation for
permitting the collections; and to the Principal, S.S. & L.S. Patkar Col-
lege for giving facilities to continue the work at Goregaon.

Biology Department, P. J. DEORAS

S.S. & L.S. Patkar College, MANORAMA MITTAL

Goregaon (West), M. S. PRADHAN

Bombay 400 062,

December 6, 1974.

6. THE INDIAN MOORHEN ( GALLINULA CHLOROPUS )
BREEDING IN KERALA

Salim Ali says in the birds of kerala that the breeding of the Indian
Moorhen has not been recorded in Kerala. M. C. A. Jackson, too, does
not seem to have found it breeding. In April 1974 two Zoologists and
I watched Moorhens with chicks at Munnar, the High Ranges, Kerala
State.

On 7-iv-1974 Sri S. Satheesh Chandran Nair, Research Scholar in
Zoology, Kerala University, and I were watching birds near the Rama-
swami Iyer Head Works of the Kerala Electricity Board. At 17.30 hrs,
in the stagnant waters of the stream above the spillway, we found an
Indian Moorhen with two tiny, jet black chicks. While the parent swam
about near the thick growth of reeds on the Park-side bank, the young
ones walked about on the floating mat of dead and broken reeds at the
edge of the reed-bed. The young could swim, though they did so only
when they had to cross a gap in the mat of reeds. Half an hour later
in a different part of the pool we came across the same or another pair
of Moorhens with two chicks of the same age and colour as the first.

On the 14th we were again at the same spot at 1745 with Sri V. S.
Vijayan, Research Scholar working under Dr. Salim Ali, and we saw
a single pair of Moorhens only. They had two chicks with them, but
these were more than double the size of those seen a week earlier. More-
over these had the throat and the underparts whitish. The fact that no
other pair of Moorhens could be found on the 14th makes me wonder
whether there were, after all, only this one pair in the area. If that sus-

i

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

picion is correct, the rate of growth of juvenile Moorhens is quite re-
markable.

University College, IC. K. NEELAKANTAN

Trivandrum,

May 28, 1974.

7. UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF PSITTACULA KRAMERI

BOREALIS

Over the past two months I have noticed what I believe to be rather
unusual behaviour by the Common Green Parakeet.

We are quite accustomed to seeing these birds in large flocks feed-
ing on the various varieties of ficus. We have a large Ficus bengalensis
on our own compound which, when in fruit, is full of parakeets.

This year they have taken to feeding on Acacia auriculiformis strip-
ping first the young shoots, and then the mature phyllodes and bark,
leaving the tree completely denuded, and all terminal branches absolu-
tely bare of bark.

We have a number of these trees in the campus and the surprising
thing is that instead of large flocks, and they come in their hundreds,
descending haphazardly and feeding indiscriminately, these birds be-
have in an entirely systematic manner and appear to be almost con-
trolled.

From early morning the flocks descend upon a single tree and re-
main feeding there, in their customary wasteful fashion, until about
0800 ist, when they leave en masse. If disturbed they rise and circle
to return to the same tree when the cause of their alarm has disappear-
ed.

In two or three days, dependent upon size, the tree will have been
stripped to its bare frame and then only do the flocks move on to the
next tree, which in many cases may be as little as ten yards away.

In this systematic manner these birds have now denuded a dozen
trees, which I am pollarding in an attempt to save them.

I should be interested to learn if this behaviour pattern has been
reported elsewhere.

Tea Research Association, J. TESSIER-YANDELL

Tocklai Experimental Station,

Jorhat 8,

July 25, 1974.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

539

8. NOMENCLATURE OF THE ASIAN PALM SWIFT
{With a plate)

Brooke (1972) has given reasons for separating the African Palm Swift
Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein) from the Asian, which he designated
by the name Cypsiurus batasiensis. Although aware that the original
spelling of the species-name was balasiensis, Brooke (op. cit., p. 219)
considered that “sound nomenclature is best served” by retaining this
emendation, which was originally proposed by Baker (1927, p. 336).

The name balasiensis was first published by J. E. Gray in Griffith
& Pidgeon (1829, p. 60), as the following brief entry:

Balasian Swift. Lath. Cyp. Balasiensis

Dull brown, with the outer toe versatile. India.

The indicated authority for the English name is John Latham, who
described the bird in greater detail under the title ‘Balassian Swift’
(Latham 1823, pp. 329-330). Because of its general interest and rele-
vance to the argument that follows, Latham’s entry is reproduced in
facsimile {see plate).

The first named of Latham’s two sources is certainly Francis Buch-
anan (who adopted the name Hamilton in later life), a medical officer
in the service of the East India Company from 1794-1815 (Stephen &
Lee 1908). Dr Buchanan (Hamilton) was a naturalist of wide interests.
His published works included reports of travels in parts of India and
Nepal, and a treatise on the fish of the Brahmaputra. It is apparent that
he also wrote an unpublished manuscript on Indian birds. Such a manu-
script was undoubtedly available to Horsfield & Moore, in whose cata-
logue (1854, p. 108), Dr. F. (B.) Hamilton is cited as the source of
the vernacular names for the Palm Swift {‘Putta-Deuli, Hind., Batassia,
Beng., and Ababil, of the Mussulmans’), and also as the author of
‘MS. I, p. 82’, quoted as follows:

This bird inhabits Bengal at all seasons, and is a nocturnal bird, appearing
at sunset and going to rest at sunrise. It builds its nest in the fronds of the
TAL {Borassus flabelliformes Linn.). The Bengalese name signifies a bird
resembling wind, and is bestowed on account of its swift flight.

The similarity between the phraseology of this passage and the sen-
tences in Latham’s (1823) account is sufficiently marked to establish
that the author was indeed the same man, and to suggest very strongly
that the compilers in both cases had before them the same document.

‘There can be little doubt that the common source consulted by
these authors was an untitled manuscript describing animals and birds
at Barrackpore, now in the India Office Library, registered no. MSS
Eur. D. 541. The second volume of this work (reg. no. MSS Eur. D.
94) forms part of the Buchanan-Hamilton Collections, and it is reason-

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(2)

able to assume that the Doctor was the author of both. Pages 82-83 of
the first volume are devoted to the palm swift. Since this description
is evidently an important primary source, it is transcribed in full be-
low:

Hirundo Apus Batassia B

Abavir of the Musulmans.

Batassia of the Bengalese.

Putta deuli of Hindustan proper.

The Bengalese name signifies a Bird resembling wind, and is bestowed on
this species, on account of its swift flying. It inhabits Bengal at all seasons,
and is a nocturnal bird, appearing at sun set, and going to rest at sun rise.
It builds in the folds of the leaves of the Tal, or Borassus flabelliformis Linn. :
The length from the point of the bill to the end of the tail is four inches and
six tenths. The wings, when shut, are two tenths of an inch longer than the
tail; and, when opened, extend ten inches. The tail is two inches and three
quarters in length. The toes reach very little beyond its root. The bill is very
short, and much depressed, sharp, and rather incurved at the point. The nos-
trils are oblong, and naked. The feathers of the frontlet are reversed. The
irides are brown. The crown, neck, and back are brownish. All the under parts,
sides, rump, upper tail coverts, and the wing coverts next the body are ash-
coloured. The wing coverts most remote from the body, and the under wing
coverts are dusky. The wings are very much acuminated, the secondary quills
being very short. The quills are sharp pointed, black on the upper side, and
dusky beneath. The tail is much bifurcated, and consists of ten acuminated
feathers, dusky above, and tsh coloured beneath. The legs above are feather-
ed to the toes, and behind are naked. The toes are black and four in number,
two turned to one side, and two to another. The claws are as long as the toes,
and are much hooked.

The history of these has been discussed in detail by Dawson (1946).
On the General’s death, his collection passed to the British Museum,
and the illustrations of biological interest, sorted into systematic order,
mounted and bound, are now divided between the Botanical and Zoo-
logical libraries of the British Museum (Natural History). The pictures
numbered 114-116 in Volume VI (catalogue no. 10979) show adult
and juvenile palm swifts, and a nest, attached to a palm frond, contain-
ing three young. These drawings are the originals (copied carefully,
but appearing as mirror images in the publication) of the representa-
tions grouped in Plate 35 of Gray & Hardwicke’s Illustrations of In-
dian zoology’, part 2, where they are named ‘Balassian Swift Cypselus
palmarum n.’. In the original drawings, the adult male is localised and
dated ‘Cawnpore June 1800’.

Griffith & Pidgeon’s translation of Cuvier, in which Gray’s name
balasiensis appeared, is dated 1829 on the title page. The plates are
also individually inscribed with the dates on which each was made. The
latest plates are dated October 1829, showing that the completed book
must have appeared at the very end of that year. Part 2 of the ‘illus-
trations of Indian zoology, containing the name Cypselus palmarum ,

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 72(2)
Medway: Asian Palm Swift

Plate

66.— BA LASS! AN SWIFT.

LENGTH between four and five inches, breadth ten. Bill short,
incurved at the point, and much depressed; nostrils oblong, dusky ;
irides brown ; plumage above ash-coloured, not unlike that of the
Sand Martin; beneath paler; quills sharp-pointed, black above,
dusky beneath; the wings much acuminated, the second quills being
very short, and for the most part dusky ; tail much bifurcated, con-
sisting of ten feathers, in colour like the quills; in length two inches
and three quarters ; the latter, when closed, are a trifle longer than
the tail ; legs feathered before to the toes, which are four in number,
two turned on one side, and two on the other, claws long, and the
toes much hooked, and reach very little beyond the root of the tail.

Inhabits India: is the Abavir of the Mussulmans; Balassia of
the Bengalese; and Putta deuli of Hindustan Proper. The Ben-
galese name signifies a bird resembling wind, and is bestowed on
this species, on account of its swift flight. Found at Bengal at all
seasons ; is a nocturnal bird, appearing at sun-set, and going to rest
at sun-rise. It builds in the folds of the leaves of the Tol, or Borassns
flabelliformis of Linnaeus.— Dr. Buchanan.

This is figured in General Hardwicke’s drawings, dated Cawn-
pore, June, 1800; length five inches. — A male.

Facsimile of Latham’s description (from Latham J. a general history of

birds 7, 1823).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

541

was published in March 1830 (Kinnear 1925). Gray thus published,
within a few months, two names for the same species, both based (in
the one case directly, and in the other case indirectly through reference
to Latham’s work) on the same set of drawings of specimens from
Cawnpore (i.e., Kanpur) made in 1800.

T. C. Jerdon (1840), following Gray (1830), referred to the species
as the Balassian Swift Cypselus palmar um. Shortly thereafter, the pri-
ority of balasiensis was recognised. G. R. Gray (youngest brother of
J. E. Gray) in 1844 (p. 54) gave Cypselus balasiensis as the valid
name, with Cypselus palmarum as a synonym. Blyth (1849, p. 86) also
used the name Cypselus balasiensis for this swift, listing C. palmarum
in synonymy.

The first emendation of the spelling was introduced by Horsefield
& Moore (1854, p. 108) who called this bird Cypselus batassiensis,
adding a footnote: Balassiensis, Auct. corrigend. The ‘corrected’ name
batassiensis was subsequently in general use in ornithological literature
for several decades; see, for instance, Jerdon (1862), Sclater (1865),
Blyth (1866), Holdsworth (1872) Blanford (1895).

A second modification was proposed by Baker (1927, p. 336), who
evidently made only superficial research of the problem, writing:

The name of this little swift was first written balasiensis but the name is
derived from the Bengali name batassia and is obviously a misprint and the
amended name batasiensis must be accepted.

Gray, in using the Bengali name, may be inferred to have applied it to the
Bengali bird and the type-locality can therefore be restricted to Calcutta, thus
leaving the name palmarum free for the paler Western form depicted in Hard-
wicke’s Illustr. of Ind. Zool.

Peters (1940, p. 256) reverted to Gray’s original spelling, listing the
Indian population of palm swift as Cypsiurus parvus balasiensis. Des-
pite this lead from a careful taxonomist. Baker’s emendation has con-
tinued to be used in various combinations by most authors including
recently, Ripley (1961) and Ali & Ripley (1970).

Conclusion

J. E. Gray’s original description, although brief, satisfies provisions
(a), (b), (c) and (g) of Article 11, and Article 12 of the International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Moreover, the consistency of English
and Latin names is evidence that Gray’s spelling of balasiensis was deli-
berate, and not a copyist’s or printer’s error. By Article 32 (a) (ii),
this spelling is therefore to be retained. Emendation is not justified be-
cause Gray chose to use a single ‘s’, nor because his indicated source
(Latham 1823) apparently misread or wrongly or carelessly transcrib-
ed the Bengali name according to Buchanan.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

The name palmarum, published a little later, was recognised by
contemporaries to be a synonym. As shown above, the documentary
evidence does not support Baker’s (1927) argument for selecting Cal-
cutta as the type locality, and it is probale that his restriction should
be corrected (International Code: Recommendation 72E). Fortunately
Whistler & Kinnear (1935) and Brooke (1972) have in independent
contributions rejected the separation of eastern and western races on
morphological grounds, and consequently the problem of subspecific
nomenclature does not arise. Following Brooke’s (1972) definition of
the species, and taking distributions from Ali & Ripley (1970), the
palm swift occurring through most of India is evidently correctly known
as Cypsiurus balasiensis balasiensis, and the South-east Asian race which
apparently reaches Assam is C. balasiensis infumatus.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

I am grateful to Mrs A. Datta of the Library, British Museum (Nat-
ural History), and to Dr R. J. Bingle of the India Office Library and
Records, for their assistance in tracking down Buchanan-Hamilton’s
manuscript. All other sources were consulted in the libraries of the
British Museum (Natural History) or the Zoological Society of Lon-
don, and it is a pleasure to acknowledge the kind cooperation of staff
of both institutes.

Great Glemham House, LORD MEDWAY

Saxmundham, Suffolk,

United Kingdom,

May 11, 1973.

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1970):
Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan 4. Bombay.

Baker, E. C. S. (1927): The fauna
of British India. Birds 3. London.

Blyth, E. (1849): Catalogue of

birds in the Museum Asiatic Society.
Calcutta.

(1866) : The ornithology

of India. A commentary on Dr.
Jerdon’s ‘Birds of India’ (part). Ibis 2
(2) : 336-376.

Brooke, R. K. (1972) : Geographi-
cal variation in palm swifts Cypsiurus

spp. (Aves: Apodidae). Durban Mus.
Novit. 9:217-231.

Dawson, W. R. (1946): On the
history of Gray and Hardwicke's Illus-
trations of Indian zoology, and some
bibliographical notes on General
Hardwicke. /. Soc. Bibl. nat. Hist. 2:
55-69.

Gray, G. R. (1844): Genera of

birds 1. London.

Gray, J. E. (1830) : Illustrations of
Indian zoology; chiefly selected from
the collection of Major General Hard-
wicke, F.R.S. (2). London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

543

Griffith, E. & Pidgeon, E. (1829) :
The class Aves arranged by the Baron
Cuvier with specific descriptions. The
additional species inserted in the text
of Cuvier by John Edward Gray 2.
London.

Holdsworth, E. W. H. (1872):
Catalogue of birds found in Ceylon.
Proc. zool. Soc., Lond. 7572:404-483.

Horsfield, T. & Moore, F. (1854):
A catalogue of the birds in the Mu-
seum of the Hon. East-India Com-
pany 1. London.

Jerdon, T. C. (1840): Catalogue
of the birds of the Peninsula of In-
dia (part). Madras J. Lit. Sci. 77:207-
239.

(1862): The birds of

India, being a natural history of all
the birds known to inhabit continental
India 1. Calcutta.

Kinnear, N. B. (1925): The dates
of publication of the birds in Gray

and Hardwicke’s Illustrations of In-
dian zoology, with a short account
of General Hardwicke. Ibis 1925 :
484-490.

Latham, J. (1823): A general his-
tory of birds 7. Winchester.

Peters, J. L. (1940) : Check-list of
birds of the world 4. Cambridge.

Ripley, S. D. (1961): A synopsis
of the birds of India and Pakistan.
Bombay.

Sclater, P. L. (1865) : Notes on
the genera and species of Cypselidae.
Proc. zool. Soc., Lond. 1865 (39) :
593-617.

Stephen, L. & Lee, S. (eds.)
(1908) : Dictionary of national biog-
raphy. London.

Whistler, H. & Kinnear, N. B.
(1935) : The Vernay scientific survey
of the Eastern Ghats (11): J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 26-40.

9. THE BLUECHEEKED BEE-EATER MEROPS SUPERCI-
LIOSUS, ITS STATUS IN KUTCH AND SAURASHTRA

The Durbar Saheb of Jasdan and myself had the pleasure of visiting
the Flamingo City in the Great Rann of Kutch and some of the Bets
beyond towards the border of Sind. We saw a party of about six of
these large bee-eaters at Nir on 9th June. On the 11th on our return
from the Flamingo City we rested during the heat of the day at Nir be-
fore going on to the Bets and after imbibing several glasses of lime juice
we strolled around the water course. All the time we heard the bee-
eaters calling as they sailed around. Following the winding nullah we
came across a ten foot high embankment riddled with bee-eater holes,
all large and fresh. There were some eighty such holes and by their size
we surmised them to belong to M. superciliosus and their appearance
suggested that they had been in recent habitation. The presence of the
birds in the area confirmed our surmise. Later we again saw these fine
bee-eaters on Kuar Bet. They were in magnificently fresh plumage.
Salim Ali, in both his birds of kutch and the ‘Birds of Gujarat’ (J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52:2 & 3) mentions it as an autumn passage
migrant. It may be noted that in the handbook of birds of India and
Pakistan Volume 4, Ali & Ripley mention Dharmakumarsinhji’s re-
port of the species regularly breeding on the Bhavnagar coast, where
incidently it is a regular breeding bird and I myself have seen them

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

around the aerodrome in August. I might mention here that one of my
earliest memories of this fine bird is as a boy when I watched at close
range three pairs excavating nest holes near Jasdan. This year I have
heard them over Rajkot in late May and they have been heard at Jas-
dan and so they must have been breeding in the area, or possibly pas-
sing onto their breeding location near Bhavnagar.

14, Jayant Society, LAVKUMAR J. KHACHER

Rajkot 360 004,

June 16, 1974.

10. A DAY AT A NEST OF THE GREAT BLACK
WOODPECKER ( DRYOCOPUS JAVENSIS)

(With two plates)

On a five-day visit to the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary during the second
week of January, 1974, I concentrated on a search for the Great Black
Woodpecker which had so far eluded me. On the second day I ran in-
to Mr Robert Horwich, an American researcher on primate behaviour,
who said that he had seen a Black Woodpecker almost at that very
spot earlier in the morning. Still, in spite of spending three more days
at Thekkady I had to leave without so much as a glimpse of the Black
Woodpecker.

About a fortnight later Mr Nanu Nair, Wild Life Preservation Of-
ficer, Thekkady, informed me that Mr Horwich had found an occupied
nest of the Black Woodpecker close to the Picnic Spot. So, at 17.45 hrs
on the 2nd of February I was back at the place where Mr Horwich
and I had first met on 12-i-1974. There Mr Nanu Nair pointed out a
giant tree, quite dead and devoid of all bark, just 20 feet away. At a
height of c. 20 m and very near the top was the woodpecker’s nest,
with the female peeping out. It was on the southern side of the tree, just
below a large, shallow, irregular cavity. We were to discover the next
day that almost all day the sun fell directly on the nest.

The tree stood in the midst of a good stand of medium sized de-
ciduous trees and dense, thorny underground on a narrow strip of land
between the road and an arm of the lake. Hardly a stone’s throw from
the road, it was exposed to all the noises of busy traffic, loud talk and
other evidences of flourishing tourism.

That evening we were able to watch the nest for 55 minutes only
(1745 to 1840 hrs). At 1805 hrs the male came and alighted on a tree
trunk c. 10 m ESE of the nest. While hopping up he uttered a few very
low quack notes. The moment the male alighted on the nest tree, the
female flew out with a smooth glide, quite noiselessly. The male enter-
ed the nest at 1807 hrs after thrusting his bill smartly 3 or 4 times into

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

545

the cavity. Almost all the time between 1807 and 1840 hrs he was look-
ing out of the nest. A minute after he had got in, a pair of Hill Mynas
(Gracula religiosa) alighted on the horizontal branch below the nest
and went on calling. They then flew to a tree close by, and one of them
was seen flying into some hollow on the northern side of the wood-
peckers’ tree. The mynas never approached the woodpeckers’' nest and
the woodpecker seemd to ignore them. Mr Horwich, however, said that
on some days he had seen Hill Mynas going to the woodpeckers’ nest
and being chased away by the woodpecker.

On 3-ii- 1974 I watched the nest for a total of 8 hours and 15 minu-
tes (0750 to 1300, 1500 to 1700, and 1740 to 1845 hrs). Mr Horwich
who had kindly agreed to take photographs for me was with me all
forenoon and again during the last session (with Mr Nanu Nair as
well). The photogrphs were taken with a Nikkormat camera and a 400
mm telephoto lens.

A brief account of what I saw during the day follows:

0750 to 0915: Nest appeared to be unoccupied, but in fact the
female was in.

0915 — 7 to 8 dull taps (low dok-dok-dok) from the east, repeated
3 times. Two minutes later the male came from the east and alighted
on the trunk of a tree east of the nest tree. At 0921 he flew to the nest
tree alighting 6 feet below the hole and began hopping up. The mo-
ment he had alighted on the nest tree, the female thrust her head out,
uttered a number of ‘chyank’s’ in quick succession and at 0923 flew
off to the east. The male entered and remained till 1235 hrs.

At 1220 came a series of dull taps from inside the nest, 5 to 8 taps
at a time, repeated thrice. This was followed by a rapid series of dull
du-du-du-du notes (drumming?).

At 1230 hrs the female alighted on the trunk of a teak NW of the
nest tree and began hopping up quite silently. She then uttered a num-
ber of low quacks to which the male replied with feebler notes. She flew
to the nest tree at 1235, alighting just below the nest. The male flew
off at once and his place was taken by the female.

The nest was not watched between 1300 and 1500 hrs. At 1500 hrs
the female was in the nest, peeping out. Ten minutes later she withdrew
her head. At 1520 she began looking around and withdrew into the hole
only at 1534. The male came from the south at 1550 to a tree SSE of
the nest. Simultaneously the female peeped out. To a few low chyup
notes of the male the female responded with a few dull taps on the wall
of the nest. The male flew to the nest tree and the female flew off at
once. He went into the nest and turned a somersault so that his head
appeared where his ‘forked’ tail had been a moment ago.

At 1608 a flock of 4 or 5 Hills Mynas fiew past the woodpecker
tree, landed on another 11m away and went on uttering an amazing

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

variety of calls. The woodpecker did not react to all this, but he seem-
ed to look around nervously when some Bluewinged Parakeets flew
past with their harsh calls, when a dog barked and again when some-
one banged lustily on a wooden picnic table.

The male woodpecker began to produce a series of dull taps from
within and then peeped out, looking in all directions. He repeated this
a number of times during the next two minutes, each series of taps be-
ing louder and more rapid than the preceding. Between 1635 and 1638
he not only played a tattoo on the inner wall, but seemed to throw
something out with smart flicks of the bill after a spell of tapping. At
1638 the hammering became louder though the rate was lower. The
last series of taps, a rapid chug-chug-chug-chug was at 1639, after which
for 20 minutes, he was inactive.

From 1700 to 1740 hrs we were away and on our return found
the male looking out and a Hill Myna calling loudly from the branch
below the nest. At 1743 the myna left. The female woodpecker arrived
at 1753, flying from the south straight to the nest tree. As she began
hopping up, the male beat a tattoo of dull taps from within and then
flew off to the south. The female entered the nest and remained hidden
within till 1802 hrs when a pair of Hill Mynas alighted on the branch
below the nest. Even then the female woodpecker did not peep out.
Five minutes later one of the mynas flew to the top of the tree from
where it uttered various screeches, whistles and croaks. At 1813, be-
fore we knew what was happening, the female woodpecker had come
out and was chasing the mynas. She pursued them from tree to tree
without uttering any call notes and, quite as suddenly as she had come
out, went into her nest leaving the mynas on two different trees. The
mynas went on calling loudly.

At 1814 hrs a loud but dull drumming came from the east. The
mynas returned to the branch below the nest and were very noisy. A
couple of Southern Tree Pies had appeared meanwhile and were con-
tributing their mite to the clamour.

At 1822 hrs the woodpecker shot out of the nest and again drove
the mynas away. After chasing them around for a minute, she returned
and went straight into the nest. One of the mynas flew at 1825 into
the hollow on the nest tree into which a myna had gone the previous
day. The other myna went on calling from a tree close to the nest. At
1828 the appearance of the female woodpecker’s head at the nest en-
trance coincided with a loud drumming from the east. The second myna
also disappeared into the hollow behind the nest at 1830. Just then
the male woodpecker alighted on a tree SE of the nest (these wood-
peckers did not seem to have a definite ‘route’ to the nest) and male
and female held a duet of low chiank-chiank-chiank notes. Uttering the
same low sounds, the male flew to the nest tree at 1837, his arrival

. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2) Plate I

I lakantan : Nest of the Black Woodpecker

The nest tree.
(Photo: Robert Horwich )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2) Plate II

Neelakantan : Nest of the Black Woodpecker

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

547

coinciding with the female’s departure to the south. The male dipped
his head five times into the nest, entered, reversed, and began peeping
out. By 1845 it was dark. I left the spot at 1900 hrs and left Thekkady
early the next morning wondering whether I could afford to go again
to see the young being fed.

General remarks

1. The male presumably spent the night in the nest on both days.
Though no evidence could be adduced, the fact that the birds never
left the nest unoccupied and remained within for periods of roughly
3 hours at a time during the day suggested that there were eggs in the
nest. If the presumption is correct, we may conclude that both male and
female incubate the eggs. ( See Salim Ali & Ripley: handbook of the
BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Vol. 4, p. 209).

2. The handbook (same page) says, “Very sensitive to disturbance
by humans, soon forsaking localities where lumbering is in progress
or the forest has been felled.” This pair, at any rate, seem to have gone
out of their way to select a spot where human activity and noises were
no less than at a lumbering camp. Did the atttractions of the dead tree
outweigh the drawbacks of the place where it stood?

3. On the 2 days when we observed them the birds were remarkably
unobtrusive. They never uttered any loud calls and their wings too
did not produce the rattling sound often heard when the goldenbacked
woodpeckers fly. The movements of these large woodpeckers were so
quick and quiet that only chance could have betrayed their presence.
In coming and going they preferred to fly quite a distance through the
thickest part of the wood before crossing open ground. That the brood-
ing sessions were often 3 hours long also helped to prevent their being
noticed in the neighbourhood of the nest.

4. Between 1745 on 2-ii- 1974 and 1900 on 3-ii- 1974 the change-over
at the nest was observed six times. It was not accompanied by any ela-
borate display. Towards the close of a brooding session, the bird in
the nest tapped on the nest wall. This could have been a sign of im-
patience or a summons to the mate (though whether the tapping could
have been heard by the mate unless it were close by is very doubtful).

Postscript

A few days after my return to Trivandrum I heard from Mr Nanu
Nair that Mr Horwich feared that the woodpeckers had deserted.
Curiously enough it looked as though the mynas did not take over the
cavity. Why then did the mynas come to the nest tree, and why did the
woodpecker resent their visits? It is not improbable that the mynas
were using the hollow on the northern side of the tree to roost in and

20

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

that their visits were only at roosting time. Their noise could have got
on the nerves of the female woodpecker and made her try to shoo
them off. If the mynas had been planning to usurp the nest, they should
have paid some visits earlier in the day as well. Also, they would cer-
tainly have taken possession of the cavity as soon as the woodpeckers
had left.

The photographs illustrating this note were taken by Mr Robert
Horwich at my request. I am grately obliged to him for sparing the
time taken up by the photography as well as for his company. To Mr
K. Nanu Nair, Wild Life Preservation Officer, Thekkady, my idebted-
ness is even greater, for without his enthusiastic co-operation I would
not have heard of this nest or watched it in such comfort and style. I
am also grateful to Mr D. Vaidyanath, Photographer, Trivandrum
Museum, for processing the negatives and printing the photos.

University College, K. K. NEELAKANTAN

Trivandrum,

May 6, 1974.

11. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LANIUS EXCUBIT OR
AUCHERI BONAPARTE IN PUNJAB

Stuart Baker (fauna 2: 288) said that Lanius excubitor aucheri Bona-
parte extended in winter into the plains of the Punjab and NW. Fron-
tier Province, but Ali & Ripley (1972, ind. handbook 5:82) restrict
it as a winter visitor to N. Baluchistan and central and coastal Makran.

In 1941, in ‘The Birds of Bahawalpur (Punjab)’ (/. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 42:717) Salim Ali referred to a $ grey shrike collected in
Bahawalpur town environs on 29 January 1939 and named it Lanius
excubitor lahtora (Sykes). Upon re-examination I make this aucheri,
which identification is confirmed by Mr Bond at Smithsonian Institute.

75, Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay 400 003,

July 31, 1974.

12. CHANGE OF IRIS COLOUR DURING THE POST-FLEDG-
ING PERIOD IN THE COMMON BABBLER (TURBO IDES

CAUDATUS)

Introduction

During the course of ringing operations in an area of mixed Prosopis/
Acacia woodland and Zizyphus scrub adjacent to New Delhi notes
were kept on the colour of the iris and the state of moult among Com-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

549

mon Babblers. During the period between fledging, and the completion
of the post- juvenile moult Common Babblers were found to undergo
two changes of iris colour, and at close range these enable birds to be
aged in the field up until four or five months old.

Methods

About 200 Common Babblers were trapped between August-Novem-
ber 1971, and between July-November 1972, of which 70 were birds in
their first year which had not yet completed their post-juvenal moult.
Juvenile birds could be identified by the blunt, rounded tips to their
primaries, particularly the 10th, as mentioned by Naik & Andrews
(1966) for the Jungle Babbler (Turdoides striatus).

The state of moult was recorded for each bird according to the
system used by Newton (1966), where each new or growing primary
feather is assigned a rank score from 0 (feather missing) to 5 (growth
complete). Secondary moult was scored in the same way, and the
state of moult in the retrices, wing coverts, and body tracts was noted
in general terms. The colour of the iris was also noted.

During 1972 a number of nestlings were ringed, and six of these
were retrapped during the post-juvenal moult. A total of 13 birds in
the two seasons, were trapped two or more times during the course of
their post-juvenal moult, and from these the mean rate of post-juvenal
moult was calculated in points /day. This rate was then used to calculate
a date of commencement for the post-juvenal moult of the six birds
ringed as nestlings, and hence find the mean length of time between
fledging and the onset of post-juvenal moult.

Results

The course of post-juvenal moult is fairly similar to that of the
adult moult, which in turn resembles that of the adult Jungle Babbler
described by Naik & Andrews (1966). In contrast to the adult moult,
however, the moult of the greater coverts usually begins before the
onset of the primary moult, and the moult of the retrices lags behind
that of the primaries so that birds are found with a complete set of
adult primaries, but most, or in some cases all, of the juvenal retrices.
Because of the abrasion the juvenal retrices tend to become hard to
identify after a few months and do not provide much help in ageing.

The mean rate of the post-juvenal moult in points/day was found
to be 0.95 (n = 13, 95% confidence limits 0.61-1.29), giving a mean
length of primary moult of 105 days (95% confidence limits 77-164
days) .

Using the six individuals for which the date of fledging was known,
and the mean rate of primary moult, the periods between fledging and

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

the commencement of the primary moult were calculated as 30.5, 31.5,
36.5, 39.5, 47, and 47 days (mean = 38.7 days). Thus the mean dura-
tion of the period between fledging, and the completion of the primary
moult is about 144 days.

The colour of the iris in the adult Turdoides caudatus was found
to be invariably a dark, warm brown, sometimes with a narrow white
marginal rim. No birds in juvenal plumage, or in post-junvenal moult,
showed exactly this colour of iris. Table 1 shows the different catego-
ries into which irides could be classified, and the number of birds at
each stage of post- juvenal moult recorded in each class.

Table 1

Relationship of iris colour to primary score during post- juvenal moult

Iris colour

Number of individuals trapped in

each

moult score category

0 1-19 20-39 40-59 60-79 80-99

100

1.

Dark grey with olive tinge

(nestlings and birds with

juvenal remiges not fully grown)

2.

Dark grey

4 (all moulting greater coverts)

3.

Pale hazel brown

3 12 9 12 7 4

1

4.

Dark brown at centre,
grading to hazel at margin

1 2 1

1

5.

Dark brown with traces of

hazel

at the margin

2

7

The majority of birds trapped during the course of the post-juvenal
primary moult (88%) showed a pale hazel iris. The coincidence of
the hazel iris with the duration of the post-juvenal moult suggests that
the changes in iris colour might be linked to the same hormones that
initiate and control the course of the moult.

A few birds reared late in the season do not commence the post-
juvenal moult until the following spring, but in these birds the juvenal
iris colour is lost, and the iris changes to hazel, although the exact tim-
ing of this change was not observed. One bird, reared in early October,
was still in juvenal plumage the following February, and had a hazel
iris at 120 days old. Another, reared in September, showed arrested
moult at P3 when trapped in February and had a hazel iris at 150
days old.

The occurrence of the transitional stages between hazel and the
adult colour in only 14 out of the 59 birds trapped in post-juvenal
moult suggests that this change probably takes less than a month. The
transition from the juvenal colour to hazel must be even more rapid,
since transitional individuals were seen at all.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

551

In the field a bird which has not yet started the post-juvenal moult
can be easily recognised by the yellow, fleshy gape. This usually dis-
appears soon after the onset of the post-juvenal moult, and during this
period the hazel iris provides a useful guide to the age of the bird at
close range, since it is much paler than the adult iris.

Discussion

Among the Indian species of the genus, the Common Babbler is
the only one to have a dark iris when adult. In the Jungle Babbler
( T . striatus), the Rufous Babbler ( T . subrufus), the Whiteheaded
Babbler ( T . affinis), Ceylon Rufous Babbler ( T . rujescens). Spiny
Babbler ( T . nipalensis), and the Slenderbilled Babbler (T. longirostris )
the adult iris is white, and in the Large Grey Babbler ( T . malcolmi)
and the Striated Babbler ( T . earlei), bright yellow (Ali, Salim & S. D.
Ripley 1971). The colour of the nestling and early juvenal iris is very
dark grey throughout the genus. It would seem likely that the dark
adult iris of the Common Babbler has been evolved lately, and that the
pale hazel iris which appears during the post-juvenal moult represents
a recapitulation of the former adult colour.

In the Arabian Babbler (T. squamiceps) the female iris colour is
similar to that of adult Common Babbler, but the adult male iris is off-
white, and similar in colour to that of the Common Babbler during
post-juvenal moult. The colour of the nestling and early juvenal iris
is the same as that of the rest of the genus.

The Arabian Babbler is extremely similar to the Common Babbler
in general morphology, differing from it mainly in its larger size. Since
the western races of the Common Babbler are larger than the eastern
ones, it seems possible that the Arabian Babbler may represent the
speciation of the western end of a former cline, running from penin-
sular India to the Near East.

In bill colour, adult male Arabian Babblers resemble first year birds
of both sexes, whereas the bill changes colour in adult females, and in
this respect the adult male character may be considered neotonous
(A. Zahavi, pers. comm.). If this is the case then it seems likely that
sexual dimorphism in the Arabian Babbler must have evolved through
retention of the juvenal iris colour in the male.

Edward Grey Institute, A. J. GASTON

Dept, of Zoology,

South Parks Road,

Oxford, England,

April 5, 1974.

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

References

Naik, R. M. & Andrews, M. I. Newton, I. (1966) : The Moult of
(1966): Pterylosis, Age Determination, the Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula. Ibis
and Moult in the Jungle Babbler. 705:41-67.

Pavo 4(1 & 2) : 22-47.

13. OCCURRENCE OF THE PURPLE COCHOA COCHOA
PURPUREA HODGSON, NEAR MUSSOORIE, U.P.

During a recent collection trip to Mussoorie, we obtained a speimen of
a male Purple Cochoa (C ochoa purpurea Elodgson) at Dhanaulty,
c. 2318 m, approximately 21 km east of Mussoorie on 9th July 1974.
According to Blanford & Oates (1890, fauna of British India 2)
and Salim Ali & Ripley (1973, handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan 8) the western-most limit of this species is Almora/Naihital,
but Baker (1924, fauna of British India 2) includes Simla within its
range (approximately 114 km northwest of Mussoorie).

This specimen was one of a pair seen along with Greywinged Black-
birds [Turdus boulboul (Latham)], in dense undergrowth at the edge
of a vast clearing on a hillside slope. Though a considerable area around
the spot is cleared to bring under potato cultivation, the thick vegeta-
tion along the ravines on the lower slopes might provide this bird enough
cover to breed in this area. This rare and shy bird skulks in dense pat-
ches and is seldom seen. Ripley (1950, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49:
386) presumably saw it in Bhimphedi, Nepal, where later Biswas (1961,
ibid. 55:665) collected a single male. Smythies (1950, ibid. 40:5 15)
mentions of a record of this species at Sheopuri, Nepal. The present
specimen is the second in the Society’s collection, the first was obtained
by Dr. Salim Ali at Gedu, c. 2000 m central Bhutan on 15th October
1968.

Bombay Natural History Society, S. A. HUSSAIN

Hornbill House,

Bombay 400 023.

Dept. Systematics and Ecology, ROBERT C. WALTNER

University of Kansas,

Lawrence, Kansas 66044, U.S.A.,

September 29, 1974.

14. SOME SYSTEMATIC NOTES ON THE YELLOW- BREASTED
TIT ( PARUS FLAVIPECTUS)

1. On the Azure Tit in Chitral

In July, 1902, H. T. Fulton collected five Azure Tits “in the dense
scrub of stunted willow, juniper and birch” in a river bed at an altitude

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

553

of about 3000 m at Shost in Chitral. Though his note (1904, antea 16)
suggests that the tits were rather numerous then there is no later record
of an Azure Tit in Chitral or elsewhere in Pakistan or India. Possibly,
Fulton merely had met with an occasional wandering flock from the
Pamirs or Afghanistan but more probably the tit bred (or still breeds)
in the montane forests of Chitral.

Fulton who compared the birds with European P. caeruleus but not
with P. ( cyanus ) flavi pectus from neighbouring Turkestan concluded
they were P. cyanus tianschanicus Menzbier. At that time, the distri-
bution of the azure tit forms was only rather poorly known. Actually,
the western limit of tianschanicus runs from the mountains west of Lake
Issyk-kul (Kirghiz Range) through Naryn, western Kashgaria and the
Tashkurgan Range to the Khalastan but more probably farther west
through the Sarykol Range to Hunza where the white-breasted form
(tianschanicus) has been found near Misgar in October (Ludlow &
Kinnear 1933). Yellow-breasted tits ( flavipectus ) occur in the Pamirs
eastward to about 73°E (Ivanov 1969).

Thus, one might infer that the Chitral birds belong to flavipectus
rather than to tianschanicus . Stuart Baker (1922), Hellmayr (1929),
Hartert & Steinbacher (1933), however, followed Fulton in considering
them to be the latter form. This is doubted by Vaurie (1957, 1959) on
the basis of Snow’s notes who had compared three of the Chitral tits
in the British Museum and found they were “far too much yellow” to
be typical tianschanicus. Contrary to this statement. Snow later (1967,
in the Check-List) includes Chitral in the range of tianschanicus*.
Vaurie (1957) concedes that hybrids may occur but thinks it “probable
that the population of Chitral is flavipectus ” — if there is one at all.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali sent me one of the two Chitral birds in the
collection of the Bombay Natural History Society for examination.
Through the courtesy of the authorities of the British Museum (by
sending three of Fulton’s skins), the Zoological Museum of the Mos-
cow University, the Zoological Institutes in Leningrad and Halle I was
able to compare four specimens from Chitral and a good number of
tianschanicus and flavipectus.

A series of 15 young flavipectus (including carruthersi; mostly from
Ferghana and Tadzhikistan) differs very clearly from 13 young tians-
chanicus (from northern Mongolia, eastern Tian Shan in Chinese Tur-
kestan and southern Kazakhstan) in the tinge of the greyish upper
parts: it is distinctly, sometimes even strikingly yellow in flavipectus,
and pale bluish (fresh skins) or brown, sometimes with a faint pinkish
wash (older, foxed skins) in tianschanicus. The Chitral birds share the
yellow tinge above and below of flavipectus and, hence, belong to this

♦There, page 117, line 17: for “Altai” read “Alai”.

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

form (if they are closer to flavipectus s. str. than to carruthersi is dis-
cussed below). They differ, however, from either subspecies by being
somewhat paler above. The Bombay specimen is less pale and differs
in having a brownish rather than greenish tint on the back. This is
clearly the effect of foxing; the nuchal band in some young carruthersi
show some brown, too, and many young tianschanicus have a brownish
wash above, most distinct in a bird collected in 1876.

The yellow of the under parts is rather pale about as in one juve-
nile tianschanicus from the eastern Tian Shan and paler than in nearly
all flavipectus and carruthersi before me. In just one bird (Brit. Mus.
1904.12.5.14) it is as deep as in average carruthersi. This might be one
of the birds believed by Fulton to be young (while he thought those
with less bright yellow under parts were full-grown individuals). The
material is too poor to allow a judgement if the coloration of the Chi-
tral birds is due to individual variation, distinctness of a local (isolated)
population or intergradation though the latter is not very probable. The
problem has been discussed by Vaurie (1957), and there is no further
evidence. It should be stated here that the birds collected by Fulton
are clearly not P. cyanus tianschanicus.

How the breeding range of the Yellow-breasted Tit is shared among
the two subspecies is still unclear. Voyinstvenski (1954), Portenko
(1954) and all authors dealing with the birds of Middle Asia ignore
the geographic variability within this form. Vaurie (1959) includes
the populations of the Alai mountains, the (western) Pamirs and (cen-
tral) Tadzhikistan in flavipectus whereas Stepanyan (1972) says they
belong to carruthersi, grading into flavipectus in “the eastern parts of
the Alai Range (specimens from Gulcha)”. I did not see any material
from these regions. The birds from Chitral are not helpful in this issue
since they match carruthersi in showing less yellow above and below
while they are closer to flavipectus in the tail pattern (5 rectrices with
white spots).

The taxonomic rank of flavipectus (and berezowskii) will not be
discussed here. Recently, Stepanyan (1972) has reappraised the evid-
ence and considers flavipectus to be a distinct species.

2. Description of the young

The juvenile plumage of carruthersi has not yet been described.
Voyinstvenski (1954) and Portenko (1954) merge this subspecies in
flavipectus and (like Menzbier 1895) do not even describe thd young
of the latter, a full description of which evidently has never been pub-
lished. Hartert (1905) said they are duller on the upper parts than
young tianschanicus (which he does not describe, to be sure), with a
more or less perceptible greenish wash and light sulphur-yellow below.
Vaurie (1959) oversimplifies this by saying the young were “deeply

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

555

tinged with yellow throughout the entire plumage”. This plumage may
be described as follows:

Juvenile flavipectus. — (Upper parts) fore-head and stripe around
crown pale yellow to yellowish white; crown and hind-neck dull
grey, the crown often lighter, with a faint bluish tinge; rest of upper
parts including upper tail coverts yellowish olive-grey; (sides of
head) dark grey line through lores and behind eye, cheeks and ear-
coverts like under parts pale to rather bright lemon-yellow; tail, pri-
maries, secondaries, primary-coverts as adult; greater coverts dull
grey with broad yellowish-white tips and some bluish on the outer
webs; median and lesser coverts slate-grey.

Juvenile carruthersi. — Differs from the preceding in being somewhat
less vividly tinged yellow on the average (in the specimens examin-
ed by me, almost throughout and independent of wear) on the back
and less brightly yellow on the under parts, throughout distinctly
paler than the breast of the adult. In tail pattern, same difference
as in adults.

Hartert & Steinbacher (1933) claim that the juvenile P. cyanus
tianschanicus “has a yellowish breast and, therefore, apparently has
sometimes been taken for flavipectus” . Vaurie (1959) found tiansch -
anicus only “occasionally very faintly tinged with yellow below”. Nei-
ther is fully correct. Of the 13 juvenile tianschanicus before me one
shows pale though very distinct yellow colour throughout the under
parts, two a slight (ochraceous-) yellowish tinge, one patchy pale yellow
over most of the under side, and five a very faint yellowish wash, all
these being from northern Mongolia (see Piechocki & Bolod 1972) and
Chinese Turkestan; three from Kazakhstan and one from the Mongo-
lian Altai are practically white beneath. Hellmayr (1929) mentions two
or three young tits from Chinese Turkestan (Tekes valley) with a
“slight suggestion of a pale yellowish prepectoral band” and two simi-
lar birds, collected by N. Zarudny in June, 1899, in the adjacent re-
gion of Jarkent (now Panfilov).

On the upper parts, young tinanschanicus are less blue on the back
than the adult and much darker grey on the crown. They have a sooty
grey nuchal band and grey lesser wing coverts; these parts are ultra-
marine in the adult.

3. Some remarks about the moult

There are very few data on the moult of the Azure and Yellow-
breasted Tits. According to Voyinstvenski (1954), Portenko (1954)
and Ivanov (1969) the adults have a complete postnuptial moult July
to September; juvenile birds moult at the same time but are said (by
Voyinstvenski) to renew only the body plumage. This latter is open
to doubt since the four Chitral birds exhibit on growing primary each.

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 72(2)

though in one wing only (nos. 5, 5 or 6 as numbered from the carpal
joint), all grown to about three quarters. Possibly, the juvenile moult
includes the renewal of some distal primaries (see Stresemann 1966,
p. 425).

Among the young Yellow-breasted Tits I found some in body moult.
Apparently, the flank feathers are the first to be replaced (in one bird
as early as June 14, while one from July 22 shows no sign of moult).
This is followed by the cheeks and the lower back and rump. About at
the same time, the ultramarine lesser wing coverts appear (4 speci-
mens obtained between July 29 and August 7). A bird collected August
18 near Lake Iskander-kul shows that the feathers of the pectoral band
are moulted prior to those of belly and lower breast centre. In this

bird the greater (secondary) coverts
is still greenish grey.

University of Berlin,

Berlin,

September 24, 1973.

Refer

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1922): Fauna
of British India, Birds 7:81. London.

Fulton, H. T. (1904) : Notes on
the Birds of Chitral. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 76:44-64.

Hartert, E. (1905): Die Vogel der
palaarktischen Fauna 7 : 354. Berlin.

& Steinbacher, F. (1933) :

ditto, Erganzungsband : 183. Berlin.

Hellmayr, C. E. (1929): Birds of
the James Simpson — Roosevelts Asi-
atic Expedition. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.
Publ. 263, Zool. Ser. 17/3: (86-87).

Ivanov, A. I. (1969) : The Birds of
the Pamiro-Alai. Leningrad. (In Rus-
sian) .

Ludlow, F. & Kinnear, N. B.
(1933) : A Contribution to the Orni-
thology of Chinese Turkestan, pt. II.
Ibis (13) 3:440-473.

Menzbier, M. A. (1895) : The Birds
of Russia. Vol. 2. Moscow. (In Rus-
sian).

Piechocki, R. & Bolod, A. (1972):
Beitrage zur Avifauna der Mongolei,
Teil II. Passeriformes. Mitt. Zool.
Mus. Berlin 45:41-175.

Portenko, L. A. (1954) : The Birds

are growing while the back centre
G. MAUERSBERGER

iNCES

of the USSR. Vol. 3. Moscow and
Leningrad.

Snow, D. W. (1967): Family Pari-
dae in R. A. Paynter (ed.) : Check-
List of Birds of the World. Vol. XII.
Cambridge.

Stepanyan, L. S. (1972): On the
Systematic Position of the Yellow-
breasted Tit [Par us flavipectus Sev-
ertzov (Paridae, Aves)]. Nauchn.
dokl. biol. nauki 2:11-16. (In Rus-
sian) .

Stresemann, E. & V. (1966): Die
Mauser der Vogel. 7. Orn. 107 :
Suppl.

Vaurie, C. (1957): Systematic

Notes on Palearctic Birds. No. 26.
Paridae: the Parus caeruleus Complex.
Amer. Mus. Novit. 1833.

(1959): The birds of

the Palearctic Fauna. Order Passeri-
formes. London.

Voyinstvenski, M. A. (1954):
[Family Paridae in] G. P. Dementyev
& N. A. Gladkov (ed.) : The Birds
of the Soviet Union. Vol. 5. Moscow
(In Russian).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

557

15. OCCURRENCE OF REDTHROATED PIPIT AHTHVS
CERV1NUS (PALLAS) IN BHAVNAGAR

On 8 April 1973 I saw a pair of redthroated pipit Anthus cervinus
(Pallas) feeding beside Gaurishankar Lake in Bhavnagar, Gujarat.
The presence of cinnamon colour on throat and breast make the identi-
fication unmistakable and separates it from the closely related Anthus
roseatus. There was no pinkish or vinous tinge. One of the birds had
a brighter throat and upper breast. Subsequently, I saw more of this
species.

So far this species has been known from Gujarat only through a
single record from Baroda (Salim Ali, 1955, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
52\111) and hence the present record is of interest.

Dil Bahar, R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

Bhavnagar,

April 9, 1974.

16. REFLECTED GLOW FROM THE EYES OF THE GHARIAL

Abdulali ( 1957) 1 reported that the eyes of the Gharial ( Gavialis gan-
geticus) do not reflect torch-light as do the eyes of the marsh crocodile
( Crocodylus palustris). Oliver (Abdulali 1957) states that the eyes of
the Gharial do reflect light, but not in the same fashion as other cro-
codilians as the “colour is a much fainter glow”, and that “there was
only a small area in which light could be reflected”.

Recently, with the help of Mr. Romulus Whitaker, I examined six
Gharial in the collection of the Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens,
Mysore, Karnataka. These included five young adults of unknown sex,
and a female of one metre. During the course of the examination torch-
light was shone at the eyes of the Gharial, at night, and the reflected
glow was found to be of the same colour and brightness as that of other
crocodilians. However it was observed that the area capable of reflect-
ing light was much larger than in other crocodilians owing to the pro-
truding nature of the eyes.

It was found that to perceive the reflected glow that the torch had
to be held at eye level, and that the eyes would not reflect light from a
distance of less than four metres. This has also been observed for other
species of crocodilians.

1 Abdulali, Humayun (1957): Reflected Glow from the Eyes of the Gha-
rial [Gavialus gangeticus (G melin)]. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54(3) : 769-770.

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Research Associate, CHARLES A. ROSS

Madras Snake Park and
Conservation Centre,

Guindy Deer Sanctuary,

Madras 22, Tamil Nadu,

July 19, 1974.

17. SOME NOTES ON GHARIAL [GAVIALIS GANGETICUS
(GMELIN)] IN CAPTIVITY
( With a plate)

In view of the very limited information available regarding the food
and habits of the Gharial [Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)] the follow-
ing notes on captive specimens in Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa,
may be of interest.

Since 1963, sixteen baby gharials have been received, 1 in March,
2 each in June, July and October, and 3 each in August, September
and November. All were accidentally captured in fishing nets in the
river during floods.

At present three gharials (lc? 2.56 metres; 29 9 2.45 and 2.48
metres) and two crocodiles [C. palustris Lesson (one 3 metre and
the other 2 metre)] are kept together in an artificial cement tank of
water with irregular sides, of an area of about 750 square feet and a
depth of about 3J feet. The shore is sandy in places and covered with
laterite stones in others. The water is changed two or three times every
month.

About 20 kgs of live fish, mostly Channa gachua (Ham.), Channa
marulius (Ham.), Channa punctatus (Bloch), Channa striatus (Bloch),
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch), Clarias batrachus (Linn.) Notopterus
notopterus (Pallas), are dropped into the pond once a week, usually
in the evening. The replenishment is guided by the number left and
determined at the time of clearing the tank. The surviving fish suggest
that Heteropneustes fossilis and Anabas testudineus are least favoured.
Generally dead fish are ignored.

Once the bigger crocodile jumped out of water and caught a mon-
key sitting on a branch overhanging the tank.

The gharial catches a swimming fish across the middle, raises its
entire snout above the surface of the water and then with 2 or 3 snaps
turns the fish, bringing it deeper into the mouth and gulps its head first.
These jerks of floating gharial often synchronise with a similar move-
ment of the tail outside the water. Fish fingerlings were fed to the ghar-
ials when first received and the size increased in proportion with the
growth of the gharials.

A baby gharial weighing about 600 gm and measuring about 70 cm

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2)
Acharjyo, Biswas & Misra: Gharials

Plate

A. Two gharials are just coming out of water. The black bars on the body are

clearly visible.

B. Same gharials are returning to water after staying sometime on the land. The

black bars on the body have almost disappeared.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

559

was released into the tank on 15th August 1970 and immediately swal-
lowed by one of the crocodiles. Though care had to be taken with the
young animals, grown-up gharials and crocodiles lived peacefully to-
gether in the same tank. Three turtles [Lissemys punctata granosa
(Schoepff)] also lived in the same tank for several years being unharm-
ed by the gharials or crocodiles and helped to clean the tank of dead
fish and other material.

If not disturbed by visitors, the saurians in winter spent most of the
day basking in the sun on the sand. They were also seen out of water
sometimes on winter nights.

During summer, they left the tank for some time early in the morn-
ing and late in the evening and during the hottest part of the day re-
mained submerged in water.

At times a sort of hissing sound was produced in the process of
exhalation.

The specimens have become very tame and can be approached and
examined at close quarters.

At 8 a.m. on 31st January 1974, the larger of the two females was
resting on the border of the cemented tank with the front portion of
the body outside the water. During one hour of observation, the male
approached this female three times. He first rubbed his snout and body
on her body. On the second occasion he placed his snout over her body,
rested for some time and then went away. The third time he placed
himself over the body of the female with his snout reaching over her
head. It was also observed that the male often followed this female in
water, while the other rested quietly on the sand. This was presumably
sex play and may well be the commencement of the season for Prashad
(1914) found matured eggs in the oviduct in March, and local evidence
indicates that they lay in April, May and June.

On the same day (31st January 1974), we approached one of the
female gharials lying outside the water. Until we were two metres away,
there was no response, but it then opened its eyes for a moment and
then closed them again probably because it did not suspect any danger.
A female resting at the angle of the tank suddenly jumped into the
water on hearing a bus passing at a distance of about 6 metres.

Coloration : The general colour of a fully-grown gharial when out
of water is olive of various shades, the head and snout being darker.
Numerous indistinct black spots are scattered over the body. When it
is swimming in the water, the black spots expand or disperse and form
8 or 9 distinct wide black bands across the dorsal surface of the body
(PL, A). When in water, these bands appear more prominent due to
the refractive index of the water but gradually disappear when it comes
out of the water to the sun (PL, B). This is due to the contraction of
black pigment in the melanophores. The colour of the ventral side also

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

varies from greenish-olive to yellow-white and this change of colour
may be influenced by temperature and sunlight.

When cleaning the tank, a number of teeth of both gharials and
crocodiles were found, mostly of the former. Empty spaces in the jaws
and growing teeth of varying sizes were observed in the open mouths
of the gharials at close quarters. It would appear that the teeth are
periodically shed and regrown, one or two at a time. Its teeth are also
longer, narrower and more pointed at the tip than those of the crocodile.
Those of the crocodile can be easily distinguished by their stoutness,
shortness, and the greater number of striations thereon.

Nandankanan Biological Park, L. N. ACHARJYO

P.O. Barang, Cuttack.

Zoological Survey of India, S. BISWAS

Indian Museum,

Calcutta 700 013.

Wildlife Conservation Officer, R. MISRA

Orissa, Old Secretariate Bldgs.,

Cuttack 1,

August 12, 1974.

18. HEMIPENAL STRUCTURE IN ELAPHE RADIATA
SCHLEGEL WITH A DIAGNOSTIC KEY BASED ON
HEMIPENIS

The structure of the hemipenis is poorly known in most of the Indian
species of snakes and the available information is from M. A. Smith,
(1935, Fauna. Brit. India, Vol. Ill); who has himself pointed out
‘ . . . descriptions considerably vary in pattern and need revision’ (op.
cit. p. 11). Structure as a systematic tool has been first utilised by Cope,
E. D. (1893) whose classification was later modified by Dunn, F. R.
(1928) but most comprehensive account of the structure is of Dowling,
H. G. & Savage, J. M. (1960). An attempt has been made in this paper
to prepare a diagnostic key on the basis of Smith (op. cit.) and
certain observations on lepidosis variation in relation to the , structure.

Hemipenis in Elaphe radiata Schlegel

Hemipenis extends to 24th caudal plate and the spinose area is
nearly Jth of the organ. Spines are of three types: (i) distal spines,
3-4 mm long, pointed with shallow canialiculate depressions and arran-
ged 5-7 each in 9-10 quite distinct horizontal rows; (ii) medial spines,
5-7 mm long with blunt somewhat curved and each having a fairly
marked spatulate canal (larger ones around the sulcus); (iii) proximal

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

561

spines, 2-3 mm long, pointed and arranged 5-7 each in horizontal rows.

Above description based on the specimens from north India show
variation from the description of Smith (op. cit.) in that the hemipenal
structure extends to 24th caudal plate and not up to 10th plate.

Diagnostic Key

Hemipenis extending upto :

1. Upto 8th caudal plate

Spines short pointed and throughout

Proximals few large ones E. porphyracea

2. Upto 9th caudal plate

Spines pointed hard and not throughout
Proximals all large

i) a loreal E. prasina

ii) no loreal E. frenata

3. Upto 10th caudal plate (upto 24th plate)

Var. I Calyses deeply scalloped

Spinose area extensive, rows horizontal

Proximals short pointed E. radiata

Var. II Other characters same upto 24th caudal plate E. radiata

Calyses calyculate at tip spinose area
extensive, rows longitudial

Proximals few large ones E. leonardi

4. Upto 13th caudal plate

Calyses small pointed

spinose area relatively small (at distal J )

rows longitudinal with abrupt transition E. hodgsoni

5. Upto 14th caudal plate

i) Cups deeply scalloped spinose area half,

calyses calyculate distal spines few, proximals in

2 small rows (with papilla like process) E. mandarina

ii) No cups

spinose area more than half, calyses

small uniform, proximals few large E. flavolineata

Spinose area half or less (other characters same) E. Helena

6. Upto 17th caudal plate

Calyses deeply scalloped

spines blunt, proximals short stout E. cantoris

7. Upto 21st caudal plate

Calyses not scalloped but large thick,
spinose area short, spines few very large

Proximals short more in numbers E. oxycephala

8. Upto 27th caudal plate

Other characters same as in S. No. 5 E. taenura

9. Upto 28th caudal plate

Calyses small and scalloped,

spinose area wide, spines uniform E. mollendorffi

The significance of the structure in diagnosis appears quite clear.
Of the 14 species distributed over India, Burma, Sri Lanka, Pakistan,

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Indo-Chinese and Malayan regions, the closest resemblance is between
E. prasina and E. frenata in the orientation of the hemipenal structure.
This may be due to closer affinity as also nearly overlapping distribu-
tion. There also appears a relation in distribution and length of the
structure. Himalayan species ( E . prophyracea, E. prasina , E. frenata,
E. radiata, E. flavolineata and E. cantoris) comprise one group having
structure from 8 to 17 (24 in a var.) caudal scutes. In the group of spe-
cies distributed in western Himalayas, the hemipenal length is upto 13
to 14 caudal scute; while in species of eastern Himalayas the length of
the structure is shorter — with the exception of E. radiata which has a
overlapping distribution (Bhatnagar 1969). Within Chinese species the
aspect deserves further study as neither clear descriptions nor good
material is available for study. Within Burmese and Malayan species
we find that shorter penis length character repeats but there is a upward
trend. However, only a large series of specimens can elucidate the
character correctly. Similar situation appears to be within Indo-Chinese
species and deserves study in large series.

Himalayan species show a close range of maxillary teeth numbers;
number of costals with exception amongst E. hodgsoni and E. cantoris;
ventral scute count variation is 190-236; caudal scute variation from
52-145 and labial count variation appears negligible.

It thus appears that systematic studies on Indian Ophidians deserve
a closer study particularly in light of hemipenis character and correla-
tion with lepidosis with distribution. The aspect appears so far neglect-
ed.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India; Officer
in Charge, North. Reg. Stn., Z.S.I., Dehra Dun and Mr. Robert Wal-
tner, Kansas University, U.S.A.; for help.

30 South Patel Nagar, R. K. BHATNAGAR

New Delhi 110 008,

July 16, 1973.

References

Bhatnagar, R. K. (1969): Exten-
sion of range of Copperhead Snake
Elaphe radiata Schlegel (Ophidia:
Colubridae) to Doon Valley & Doon
Siwaliks. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
66 ( 2): 383.

Cope, E. D. (1893): Prodromous

of a new system of the non-venomous
snake. American Nat. 27 (317) :477-
483.

Dunn, E. R. (1928): A tentative
key and arrangement of the Ameri-
can genera of Colubridae. Bull. Anti -
venin Inst. America 2:( 1): 18-24.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

563

Dowling, H. G. & Savage, Jav M.
(1960) : A guide to the Snake hemi-
pensis : a survey of basic structure
and systematic characteristics. Zoolo-
gica, Zoological Society, New York

45 { 1) : 17-27.

Smith, M. A. (1945): Elaphe radi-
ata Schlegel in Faun. Brit. India, Rep-
tilia & Amph., Vol. Ill, pp. 146-148.
Taylor & Francis, London.

19. ECHIS IN TAMIL NADU

In a 2 m x 2 m x 1J m concrete sided pit we had been housing about
30 Echis carinatus with pond, rocks, cacti and grass. When dry, the
smooth pit walls are the barriers that we know from experience will
safely contain “all” snakes under a certain length. When the walls are
wet from rain however, we were surprised to see that Echis are able to
slowly edge their way up the sheer wall. It seems that the suction creat-
ed by their numerous ventral scales allows smaller and thinner (light)
Echis to climb the II metre wall in about 1 hour. This not to suggest
that Echis habitually climbs smooth walls (i.e. houses etc.) as they will
certainly follow the easiest route of travel.

Though Echis is essentially a ground viper and is collected in its
northern range in India under rocks etc., in the south they seem to
spend a large part of their time up in thorn bushes, cacti, century
plants, in palmyra bark and even casurina trees and thatch roofts. This
climbing trend is especially obvious during the rains when we find 80
per cent above ground in bushes and 20 per cent in and under stones,
grass tufts, and very rarely in holes.

Echis are common in almost any part of Tamil Nadu that is dry
and rocky and/or sandy. They are found in no forests except scrub
jungle areas. The average length of Echis carinatus in the south is un-
der 250 mm and is lighter in colour, more yellowish than the northern
race or sub-species. Though bites are common (we treated 14 cases in
the 3 months of July, August, September in a small rural area south of
Madras in 1970) fatalities are very rare due to the snakes small size
and effectiveness of antivenom serum.

Madras Snake Park, R. WHITAKER

Guindy Deer Park,

Madras 22,

August 1973.

20. ON THE FISHES OF THE GENUS CTENOPS
McClelland <i845>

During a study of the fishes of north Bihar (India) a well preserved
specimen of Ctenops nobilis McClelland, from the collections of Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, was noted. On comparison with the identified

21

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 12(2)

material in Z.S.I. it revealed some distinct differences but as a solitary
specimen it is not possible to give it a separate specific or subspecific
status at present. A thorough examination of the material of the genus
was done in this connection, and a detailed description of the species
is given as the description given by McClelland (1845) is very brief.

McClelland (1845) proposed the genus Ctenops for an elegant ana-
bantid fish from the rivers of Sikkim passing on northern frontiers of
Bengal and described under it a species C. nobilis. Day (1877) synon-
mised Ctenops of McClelland with genus Osphronemus (Commerson)
Lacepede (1801), changed the spelling of Osphronemus to Osphro-
menus. Day (1877), and Regan (1909) considered Trichopsis (Kner)
Contestrini (1860), as a junior homonym of Ctenops McClelland,
(1845) and other authors put T. vittatus under genus Ctenops.

However, Myers (Herre & Myers 1937) pronounced that the C. no-
bilis and C. vittatus have generic differences and proposed to retain
genus Trichopsis (Kner) Contestrini for the latter. This taxonomic
change has also been adopted by Smith (1945) and Forselius (1959)
who thought it more appropriate to describe the Indian genus Ctenops
as monospecific.

In the classification of the Teleostean fishes, Regan (1909) and
Weber & deBeufort (1922) placed anabantoidei as a suborder of the
order Labyrinthici. Berg (1940) and Greenwood et al. (1966) considered
the association of these two groups as unnatural and their resemblance
as due to convergence and transferred Anabantoidei as a Suborder of
order Perciformes.

Genus Ctenops McClelland

1845. Ctenops McClelland, Calcutta J. nat. Hist. 5, p. 281. (Type
Species: C. nobilis McClelland).

Description

Body oblong, compressed. Head acute. Snout equal or longer than
the diameter of the eyes; lower margin of the enlarged lacrimal and
the angle and lower margin of preopercle denticulated; premaxillaries
and dentire with bands of small teeth; no teeth on the vomer and pala-
tine; peripheral teeth enlarged; upper jaw portrusible; dorsal with 4-7
spines and 6-8 rays and inserted almost above the middle of soft anal;
anal with 4-5 spines and 23 to 28 rays; median fins scaly at the base;
ventrals inserted a little in advance of the pectorals, each with a strong
spine and 5 rays, the first ray produced into a filament; scales arranged
in regular rows. Those on body ctenoid while the one on head may or
may not be ctenoid. Lateral line vestigial. The swim bladder extends
into caudal region of the body.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES M

Distribution : Confined to Assam, Bengal and Bihar.

Ctenops nobilis McClelland

1845. Ctenops nobilis McClelland, Calcutta J. nat. Hist., 5, p. 281, pi. 21, fig. 1.

(Type Loc. — Rivers of Sikkim passing on N. Frontiers of Bengal)

1849. Trichopodus nobilis Cantor, /. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 18, p. 211.

1869. Osphromenus nobilis Day, Proc. zool. Soc., London, p. 519.

1877. Osphromenus nobilis Day, Fishes of India, p. 372, pi. LXXVIII, fig. 5.
1909. Ctenops nobilis Regan, Proc. zool. Soc., London, II, p. 111.

1922. Ctenops nobilis Weber & deBeufort, Fish. Indo-Aust. Archpel. 4,
p. 1352.

1937. Ctenops nobilis, Shaw & Shebbeare, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 3, p. 113,
fig. 118.

MATERIAL

a) Z.S.I. Regn. No. Cat. 333, Purnea, Bihar, Dr. Jerdon, one example 53 mm.
Standard Length.

b) Z.S.I. Regn. No. Cat. 334, Dacca, Mus. Collector, One example 57 mm.
S.L.

c> Z.S.I. Regn. No. 1565, Assam, Purchased from Dr. F. Day (original of PI.
LXXVIII, fig. 5 of Fishes of India), one example, 60 mm. S.L.

d) Z.S.I. Regn. No. 13343-45. Jessore Jheel, E. Pakistan, J. Wood Masson &
Alcock, 3 exs. 41-66 mm. S.L.

e) Z.S.I. Regn. No. 7866-67. Dibrugarh, Dr. S. W. Kemp, 2 exs., 42-56 mm. in
S.L.

f) Z.S.I. Regn. No. F 11425/1, Siliguri, N. Bengal, Messrs C. E. Shaw & E. O.
Shebbeare, One exam., 60 mm. S.L.

B, VI, D. 4-6 /6-8, P. 13, V. 1/5, A. 4-5/23-28, C. 16, LI. 28-34. Ltr. 6/12.

A small elegant anabantid with body laterally flattened. Dorsal pro-
file rises immediately behind the nape to the origin of the dorsal after
which it descends down to the base. Ventral profile- likewise des-
cends sharply from the mandibular edge to the origin of the anal
fin after which it ascends gradually up to the base of the caudal.
Head length 2.62 to 3.0 in the standard length. Eyes prominent lateral.
Diameter of eyes 3.2 to 3.8 times the length of the head. Snout longer
than diameter of eye. Snout dorsally convex and anteriorly flat and
blunt. Diameter of eye 0.75 to 0.98 times snout length. Interorbital
space almost flat and width more than length of snout. Nostrils paired,
separated by a flat internarial membrane, nearer to eye than tip of the
snout; gape wide. Lower jaw elongated to form a somewhat pipe shap-
ed mouth. Lower jaw longer than upper; upper jaw portrusible.

Day (1877) and Weber & deBeufort (1922) stated that the end of
intermaxillaries (premaxillaries) extends opposite to front border of the
orbit. The intermaxillaries (premaxilla) do not extend to opposite the
front border of the orbit in any of the examples studied here. The pre-
maxillaries form the upper jaw and are broadened medially and narrow
distally. The broad medial ends are produced backward into a rod like
bony process; the two processes of either side lie opposed to each other

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

and conjointly form a medio-posterior process of the upper jaw and
help in the protrusion and retraction of the upper jaw. These proces-
ses lie beneath the nasals. The underside of the premaxillaries bears
a wide band of villiform teeth which are enlarged on the periphery.
Maxillaries are toothless. Distal ends of the premaxillaries and the max-
illaries lie close to each other, that of maxillary being on the outerside.
The distal tip of maxillary is flattened.

The whole of maxillary and the distal part of the premaxillaries lie
in a groove formed below the enlarged lachrymal (Preorbital of Day
1877, Regan 1909, and Weber & deBeufort 1922). The outer border of
the lachrymal is toothed. The toothed band on the mandibles is of a
similar nature as that of the upper jaw and has a series of enlarged
peripheral teeth. The groove below the lachrymal extends on underside
of the mandibles but the two sides do not meet below the mandibles.
The lower lip is enlarged on the lateral side where it covers the retract-
ed parts of the maxillaries.

Dorsal short, its origin lies about nearly the middle of the soft por-
tion of the anal. Length of the base of the dorsal lies 4.4 to 6 times in
the St. length whereas that of the anal base is 1.7 to 2.1 times.

Length of pectoral equal to half that of head or in some examples
even somewhat less. Pelvics inserted a little in advance of the pectorals.
Spine of the ventral strong and the outermost ray prolonged to varying
lengths in all the examples studied here. Length of pelvic spine lies 2.0-
2.48 times in length of head.

Except the naked part of the upper lip and the ventral side of the
lower jaw, the whole body is covered by scales. The scaly sheath ex-
tends onto the basal part of the median fin. The lateral line is but
slightly visible and irregularly pierces the scales. The scales of the body
are more or less rectangular with the posterior margin convex and beset
with ctene. The scales on the head may be smooth edged or minutely
ctenoid. There are 28-34 scales along the lateral line while six above it
and 12 below.

Coloration :

Colour in spirit brownish. A white band extends from behind the
posterior border of orbit and runs uninterrupted below the lateral line
upto opposite end of spiny portion of anal fin and thereafter to the
base of the caudal in the form of white patches. Another interrupted
white band originates from the area between the bases of the pectoral
and pelvic fins and extends upto the middle of the soft portion of the
anal. A third similar band extends upto the middle of the soft portion
of the anal. At the upper part of the base of caudal there is a light
edged dark brown ocellus. The ventral side of the head and abdomen
are banded alternatively brown and white.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

567

Ctenops sp.

The solitary specimen collected from Bettiah, Bihar, resembles
C. nobilis in general but shows a few important differences as shown
in the table below. It has been compared with specimens of similar
length from Dibrugarh (Assam), Jessore Jheel (Bangladesh) and the
differences are constant. The main differences being in the depth of
body, the height of head at occiput and the length of the pelvic spine.

Ctenops sp.

Ctenops nobilis McClelland.

The depth of the body is less than
the length of the head. (Being 1-2
times).

The depth of body either equal or
more than the length of head. (Being
0.88-1 times).

The depth of body 3.4 times in
standard length.

The depth of body is 3 or less
3 times in standard length.

than

The height of body at caudal base
lies 1.8 times in height of body.

The height of body at caudal base
lies 2-2.6 times in the height of body.

The height of head at occiput is
1.1 times of the depth of body.

The height of head at occiput is 1.3
to 1.9 times in depth of body.

The length of pelvic spine goes
1.87 in length of head.

The length of pelvic spine goes
2.78 times in head length.

2.0-

Snout is not longer than eye.

The snout is longer than eye.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I am grateful to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending Zoologist,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for his constructive criticism and
valuable help.

Thanks are also due to the Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta for facilities provided.

Zoological Survey of India, K. P. SINGH

Northern Regional Station,

13, Subhas Road,

Dehra Dun, (U.P.),

September 11, 1971.

References

Berg, L. S. (1940) : Classification
of fishes, both recent and fossil. Trav.
Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci., U.S.S.R., 5(2):
87-517.

Day, F. (1877) : The fishes of In-
dia, pp. 371-372.

Forselius, S. (1957): Studies of
Anabatid fishes. I. Zool. Bidr., 32: 93-
302.

Greenwood, P. H., Rosen, D. E.
Weitzman, S. H. & Myers, G. S.
(1966) : Phyletic Studies of Teleostean

568 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

fishes with a provisional classification
of Living forms. Bull. Amer. Mus.
nat. Hist., 131(4) : 341-455.

Herre, A. W. C. T. & Myers,
G. S. (1937) : A contribution to the
ichthyology of the Malay Peninsula.
Bull. Raffles Mus., 73:5-75, pis. 1-7.

McClelland, J. (1845) Description
of four-species of fishes from Rivers
at foot of Boutan Mountain. Calcutta
J. nat. Hist., 5:274-282.

Regan, C. T. (1909) : The Asiatic

fishes of the family Anabantidae. Proc.
zool. Soc., London, 2:767-787.

(1909) : The classifica-
tion of Teleostean fishes. Ann. Mag.
nat. Hist., 8(3) : 75-86.

Smith, H. M. (1945): The fresh-
water fishes of Siam or Thailand.
Bull. U.S. nat. Mus., 188:1-622.

Weber, M. & de Beufort, L. F.
(1922) : The fishes of the Indo- Aust-
ralian Archipelago, 4:350-352.

21. AN INTERESTING CASE OF FISH SPAWNING IN AN
OVERCROWDED NURSERY POND

Dubey & Tuli (1961) were the first to record the spawning of Indian
major carps in standing water without any flow in two wet bundhs,
namely Nagda and Bilaoli reservoirs, of Madhya Pradesh on sandy-
clay and stony embankments respectively. Alikunhi et al. (1964) re-
corded major carps spawning in Neorapahari Tallaiya, an ordinary
0.08 ha pond with rocky embankments and sandy-silt bottom, near
Nowgong (M.P.). The breeders were stocked in this pond from a near-
by tank for induced breeding experiments about 10 days after the accu-
mulation of fresh rain water. They also reported the spawning of catla,
rohu and mrigal, soon after fresh rain water had collected, in two typi-
cal nursery-cum-rearing ponds (0.08 ha) at Jagatsagar (Nowgong,
M.P.) with sandy substratum. There was no flow of water in any of
these ponds. A similar case of spawning in a nursery pond, with stand-
ing water, at the Experiment Station, Adhartal Lake, Jabalpur, is re-
ported here.

The 0.04 ha nursery pond (25 x 16 x 1.5 m) has been in use for fry
rearing for over ten years in connection with the fisheries development
programme in the Adhartal Lake (16 ha). This nursery normally dried
up during summers but after the 1968 fry rearing season was over, some
500 rohu and 200 mrigal fingerlings, left behind in the nursery, con-
tinued to be reared in the pond, with the idea of raising a stock of
breeders in the nursery itself. The nursery was filled with lake water
at least thrice between February and June each year for the continued
rearing of this stock. Between October 1969 and June 1971, the pond
was stocked with common carp , (Cyprinus carpio var. communis; 110
mm/25 gm), grass carp ( Ctenopharyngodon idella, 82 mm/8gm), sil-
ver carp ( Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, 118 mm/ 11 gm), prawns (Ma-
crobrachium malcolmsonii, 55 mm) and mahseer (Tor tor, 100 mm)
fingerlings. Wild spawning of common carp was recorded in the pond

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569

in November, February-March and July- August each year on margi-
nally growing para grass ( Brachiaria mutica). Common carp also
spawned when water was taken to fill this nursery from Adhartal Lake
even in April-May when the air temperatures were as high as 35°-38°C

Besides the fingerlings listed above, 25 catla (6-15 Kg), 6 rohu (2-
4 Kg) and 6 mrigal (1-2 Kg) were further stocked in the nursery bet-
ween October 1971 and June 1972 with a view to using them as bree-
ders for hypophysation. These large-sized catla and rohu, however, did
not mature nor was there any reduction in their mesenterial fat (Tri-
pathi 1972).

The water of the pond was throughout highly turbid and the plank-
ton density extremely poor (traces/50 1). The pH of the pond water
varied from 7.5 to 8.2. The pond bottom had about 200-300 mm of
loose muck. It often emitted a foul smell and bubbles of gas appeared
on the water surface, especially on cloudy days.

During the 1972 monsoon season, mrigal and rohu breeders from
this pond were used for hypophysation; the entire induced breeding
work was done in the main lake. However, a dry spell from 10th July
to 7th August affected the condition of mrigal breeders but rohu bree-
ders continued to respond well to hypophysation even after 7th August
1972. There were heavy rains on 14th/ 15th August 1972 with 125 mm
rainfall. The water level in the nursery, which stood at 442 mm in July,
went up to 919 mm on the 15th August. Though there were sporadic
rains between 16th and 29th August 1972, the water level in the pond
had fallen to 634 mm. Heavy rains were again recorded on 29th August
afternoon and it continued raining the whole night (29th /30th Aug.).
It was the season’s maximum record of rainfall on one day, the details
of rainfall and temperature on 29th, 30th and 31st August are given

below:

;>

F:-'::h:cw ~ :

Temperature (°C)

Rainfall (mm)

Date

Maximum

Minimum

29-viii-72

23.3

23.3

78.7

30-viii-72

23.0

21.4

304.8

3 l-viii-72

24.2

21.4

19.3

The water level

in the pond went up from 634 to

1164 mm on the

30th August. The dilution on the two occasions (15th and 30th Aug.,
1972) could be said to be twice each time.

Despite a heavy downpour from about 2 p.m. onwards on 29th
August, rohu breeders from this pond were collected and injected at
5.30 p.m. and about 2.97 lakhs eggs obtained on 30th August morn-
ing. Since it was very windy and fixing the hapas in the lake was dif-
ficult, breeders were not injected on 30th August evening. On 31st
August, when rohu breeders were again collected for hypophysation it
was found that they had already bred in the nursery. Though actual

570 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

breeding in the pond was not observed it is surmised that it took place
in the early hours of 30th morning. A number of hauls were made and
several breeders examined. The males were found to be oozing thin
milt and the females gave out loose eggs on slight pressure on the ab-
domen as is commonly observed in case of spent breeders. Several
hauls were then made with a plankton net but not a single egg or hat-
chling was obtained. Since common carp, of all sizes, predominated
in the pond, it is possible that they had completely destroyed the eggs
while those that survived had probably hatched out by the time the
search was made and being few in number could not be collected by
the plankton net. The season’s fish breeding programme thus came to
an abrupt halt.

Hauls made subsequently after a month on October 6, 1972, for the
presence of small fry, if any, confirmed that spawning had taken place
in the nursery. Six fry (35-40 mm) were collected in two hauls with a
fine-meshed drag-net. Since large-sized catla and rohu were also pre-
sent in the pond, further hauls with this drag-net were not made.

An analysis of the soil and water conditions of the pond after spawn-
ing (31st August ’72) is given below:

Soil

Sand 63.75%, Silt 8.75%, Clay 27.50% Tex class Scl (Sandy-clay-
loam) .

Water

pH 7.9, K 6 (ppm), Na 18 (ppm), P 0.10 (ppm), Condivivity 200
(micromhos /cm). Total sol. salts 128 (ppm). Titrable alkalinity 2.3
(me/1).

Analysing the factors influencing the spawning of carps, Hora
(1945) observed heavy monsoon floods to be the primary factor act-
ing as a triggering mechanism for spawning. However, other workers
have laid emphasis on topographical (David 1959), chemical (Mook-
erjee 1945; Saha et al. 1957) and physical (Khan 1945 and David
1959) conditions. Within the ranges encountered, it has been seen that
pH, DO, free C02, total alkalinity and turbidity have not noticeable
effect on spawning. Dasen (1945) considered monsoon floods from the
hills as an indispensable factor as it has, besides, special physical and
chemical, certain electromagnetic, properties apart from a peculiar
smell or fragrance. Recently, Lake (1967), based on a series of experi-
ments, has postulated that fish are stimulated by some factor resulting
from inundation of dry ground or from water entering a pond or river
after flowing over dry ground. In the present case, the question of fish
getting stimulated by water entering the pond after flowing over dry
ground cannot be considered as the bundhs and side slopes of the nur-
sery could not be taken as “dry ground” towards the end of the mon-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

571

soon season. It being a typical nursery there was no catchment area too.
Rainwater had already entered the nursery on several occasions during
the current season as also during the 1970 and 1971 monsoon season
but with no effect.

Swingle (1953) has reported that spawning of fish is inhibited due
to the presence of a hormone like excretion or secretion from fish that
acts as a repressive factor. Though common carp spawned naturally in
this pond during July- August, November and February-March, its
breeding was noted on several occasions whenever the nursery was re-
filled with water from the main lake. It is possible that the dilution re-
quired to nullify the inhibiting effect of the factor for common carp is
different than that for catla, rohu or mrigal. Swingle (1953) has fur-
ther observed that “the repressive factor may be specific for a particular
species or may affect other species”. As already noted above, common
carp bred profusely in this pond after a heavy shower on 16th August
1972 but perhaps this dilution was not enough for rohu. Rohu itself,
however, bred on 30th August when the repressive factor specific for
it was considerably diluted. It may be mentioned that spawning of any
of the Indian major carps has never taken place in this nursery ever be-
fore and this is the first time that rohu have spawned in this pond.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. D. P. Motiramani, Director of Research
Services, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, for his
keen interest and encouragement. We are also grateful to Dr. C. V.
Kulkarni for kindly going through the manuscript and suggesting vari-
ous improvements.

Experiment Station, S. D. TRIPATHI

Directorate of Research Services, R. K. SHARAF

J. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,

Jabalpur 4,

March 22, 1973.

References

Alikunhi, K. H. et al. (1964):
Observations on the breeding of carps
in bundhs near Nowgong, Madhya
Pradesh, during July- August, 1964.
Bull. cent. Inst. Fish Educ., Bombay
(D: 32.

Dasen, S. (1945): Symposium on
the factors influencing the spawning
of carps. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India
77(3) : 325.

David, A. (1959) : Observations on
some spawning grounds of the Gan-

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

getic major carps with a note on carp
seed resources in India. Indian J. Fish.
6(2): 327-341.

Dubey, G. P. & Tuli, R. P. (1961) :
Observations on the breeding of ma-
jor carps in Madhya Pradesh. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(1) : 81-91.

Hora, S. L. (1945): Analysis of
factors influencing spawning of carps.
Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 7/(3): 303-
312.

Khan, H. (1945): Observations on
the spawning behaviour of carp in the
Punjab, ibid. 77(3) : 315-320.

Lake, J. S. (1967): Rearing experi-
ments with five species of Australian
freshwater fishes. I. Inducement to
spawning. Aust. J. mar. Freshwat. Res.
18(2) : 137-153.

Mookerjee, H. K. (1945): Factors
influencing the spawning grounds of
principal carp of India. Proc. nat. Inst.
Sci. India 77(3) : 324-327.

Saha, K. C. et al. (1957): Studies
on the factors influencing spawning
of Indian major carps in bundh fish-
eries. Indian J. Fish. 4(2) : 284-294.

Swingle, H. S. (1953): A repres-
sive factor controlling reproduction in
fishes. Proc. Eighth Pac. Sci. Congr.
(3) A: 865-871.

Tripath i, S. D. (1972) : Hypophy-
sation of Indian major carps at the
Experiment Station, Adhartal Lake,
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh. In Silver
Jubilee Symposium on “Aquaculture
as an industry”. Symp. No. 3, Novem-
ber 25-28, 1972, Barrackpore (Abs) :

p. 10.

22. INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN TROUT IN LONAVALA

WATERS

(With a photograph)

In 1926 Mr. F. V. Evans, a Vice Patron of the Bombay Natural Hist-
ory Society reproduced in the Society’s Journal (Vol. 31, p. 828) a letter
published in 1831-32 in the Oriental Sporting Magazine, recording oc-
currence of a remarkable fish known as Indian trout, in great abund-
ance, near Neemuch in the present Madhya Pradesh where officers of
the army stationed at that place enjoyed the enviable treat of catching
dozens of Indian trout in a couple of hours on artificial fly in the Cham-
bal and Banas rivers. The letter also quotes a record of “the enormous
number of 51 dozen of fine trout” caught in a day’s fishing by three
anglers. On another occasion 19 dozen per head were landed by two
anglers. Being impressed by this attractive record and taking into con-
sideration the altitude of Neemuch and Lonavala, Evans suggested in-
troduction of this excellent game fish into Lonavala waters. Sir Regi-
nald Spence, Hon. Secretary of the Society in 1932 and Mr. Prater,
the then Curator, in their booklet the game fishes of Bombay presi-
dency (1932) followed Evans in their recommendation of introducing
the fish in Lonavala and stated “its introduction into some of the pere-
nnial streams of the Deccan would be a great acquisition”. However,
they regretted that no quotations were forthcoming for the supply of
fingerlings of this fish for this purpose.

The recommendation of Evans, Spence and Prater went unattend-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

573

ed for years because of the emphasis placed on the culture of rapidly
growing food fishes in India in recent years. However, I had noted with
interest the significance of transplantation of this outstanding game fish.
Hence, when opportunity arose, efforts were made during the past two
years to locate the source of fingerlings and arrange their collection.
Fortunately, with the cooperation of Dr. G. P. Dubey, the Director of
Fisheries, M.P. and Shri S. N. Chatterjee, Deputy Director, Gandhi
Sagar Dam, 150 fingerlings were collected from a stream Gambhirnala,
near the town of Jawad, about 30 km from Neemuch in Mandasor Dist.
of M.P. The Gambhirnala meets Banas river and the latter joins Cham-
bal near Sawai Madhopur in Rajasthan. (Incidentally, this Banas is
different from the Banas which joins Sabarmati in Gujarat). About 115
of these fingerlings were brought to Bombay by train on November 11,
1974 and released into Tata Electric Company’s fish farm and 65 grown
up individuals released into Walwhan lake at Lonavala as an addition
to the existing sport fish fauna of the lake.

A pair of Raimas bola Indian trout (juveniles).

The Indian trout, Raimas bola formerly, Barilis bola (Ham.) though
it has no taxonomic relationship with the real trout of the salmon family,
is commonly honoured with that suffix, largely because of the close
similarity in the shape of body and coloration. Another happy analogue
that attracts is its remarkable ability to take fly or fly spoon as avidly as
the true trout, thus claiming a reputation as a splendid game fish. It also
matches the trout in elegance and agility. To perpetually highlight these
fine qualities the anglers preferred to call it the “Indian trout”.

Day (1878) reported occurrence of Indian trout in Bengal, Orissa,
Assam and N.W. Province and Burma but its distribution in Madhya
Pradesh in the tributaries of the Chambal and in the lakes and streams
of Rajasthan was not recorded till its mention by Evans (1926). ‘Bola’

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

the specific name of the fish is derived from its Bengali local name;
Hindi and Oria equivalents being Buggarah and Buggnah. In Assam ,
it is called Korang or even ‘ Rajahmas . Recent enquiries indicate that
fishermen at Jawad and also at Rampura on the Gandhi Sagar reser-
voir call the fish ‘ gallar . Day (op. cit.) reports capture of this fish in
Assam weighing 5 lbs. This weight is on the high side but McDonald
(1948) confirms having caught fish up to 3 lbs in Burma. Some of the
adult specimens caught in the shallow streams near Jawad on Novem-
ber 9, 1974 measured about 30 cm and weighed 600 gms, though the
fisherman of Rampura affirm that the fish attains a weight of 1 kg in
the adjoining Gandhi Sagar reservoir constructed in 1962 (265 sq. miles)
across the main Chambal river.

The present account places on record introduction of this fish into
Lonavala waters of the Peninsular India where it did not occur in the
past and fulfills one of the Society’s recommendations. Practical signi-
ficance of this introduction is to make available to the local anglers and
tourists a most popular sporting fish. Many eminent anglers had wish-
ed to have the real trout into the Deccan waters but were disappointed
to know that the real trout lived only in cold water like those in Kash-
mir and Ootacamund and would not thrive in the warm waters occur-
ring elsewhere. But this ‘gallar’ (Indian trout) though it has all the
necessary attributes of the real trout, does not suffer from the disability
of requiring cold water for thriving healthily. The fish thus fulfills the
need of the fly fishing sportsmen. However, since it is a riverine fish it
is to be seen whether it would thrive in the lacustrine conditions of
lakes.

It has, as will be evident from the illustration, an elegant, stream-
lined body, tapering at both ends. These features are clearly indicative
of fast and active movement and in the field, it was seen actively dart-
ing and chasing small live fish. These lightning-like movements may
sometimes excel even those of the celebrated Mahseer. Further it has
undoubtedly been found to be a piscivorous fish as a number of fish
specimens were seen in its stomach which has only a short double coil-
ed gut, typical of a carnivorous habit. In this respect it has to be seen
whether it would be a welcome addition into the piscicultural sphere,
though no doubt, its propensity would be limited because of its small
size. However, in large lakes it would certainly serve as an effective
control of weed fish. Being a popular sport fish as well as good eating, its
practical value in large lakes is fairly high. These factors have to be
weighed carefully before spreading it into other habitats. Nevertheless,
in the controlled conditions obtaining in the Walwhan lake, its intro-
duction would be of considerable importance to anglers. It is further
observed that the Indian trout which was, at one time, so abundant
in the streams near Neemuch is now available only in small numbers^

Miscellaneous notes

575

a well grown three pounder being almost scarce. Inquiries reveal that
it is met with very rarely in the commercial catches or in the markets
in Bengal or Orissa. Even in the collections specially made in the Rajas-
than waters, its occurrence is sporadic. Thus, these preliminary observa-
tions tend to point out that this one-time abundant game fish is now con-
siderably reduced in its population largely due to apathy and ignorance
about its value as a sporting stock. Serious efforts are, therefore, neces-
sary to locate populations of Indian trout and to collect detailed in-
formation about its life history and possibilities of survival before it is
too late to avoid its becoming extinct. Fishery Biologists in addition
to their concern for food fishes should pay particular attention to this
fine game fish.

B/4, Shardashram, C. V. KULKARNI

Bhavani Shankar Road,

Dadar, Bombay 400 028,

January 7, 1974.

References

Day, F. (1878) : Fishes of India.
London.

Evans, F. (1926) : Fishing in Lona-
vala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31:
828-830.

McDonald^ A. S. J. (1948): Cir-
cumventing the Mahseer and other

sporting Fish in India and Burma.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bom-
bay.

Spence, R. & Prater, S. H. (1932) :
Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan
and the neighbouring Districts of the
Bombay Presidency. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 36: 29-66.

23. SOME INTERESTING METHODS OF FISHING FOR THE
GIANT FRESHWATER PRAWN IN KERALA

{With two text-figures )

The giant freshwater prawn {Macrobrachium rosenbergii) known local-
ly as Konchu, is in high demand and fetches handsome prices. Attract-
ed by the high returns, people have been fishing for the species from
every possible location in the backwaters, rivers and channels in cen-
tral Kerala, adopting various ingenious methods.

Since some of the methods can be adopted with advantage in other
parts of the country for catching the same or related species of prawns,
a fairly detailed account is given.

Excepting the mode of fishing while the paddy fields are drained
for cultivation or that adopted for catching the prawns hiding among
submerged mangrove vegetation, in all other cases baits either dropped
loose or suspended from floats are invariably used.

576 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

1. “Kctfz Kuthi Veechu ’ (Cast net fishing with marking poles and
baits) : This is the commonest method used in the Kuttanad area in
Kerala. The gear used is a cast net1 and baits dropped loose in water
marking their position with long poles or Koti. The pole is usually the
mid rachis of coconut leaves pointed at the base to facilitate fixing in
mud and with a few leaflets at the free end to make it visible at night
from a canoe, with a hurricane lamp fixed at its front end. Sometimes
bamboo poles with a sheaf of leaves tied to the tops are also used as
‘Koti’. The poles are four to five metres in length. A dug-out canoe,
two men (one for rowing and the other for operating the cast net) and
a cast net constitute a fishing unit (Fig. 1). About 12 to 15 marking

Fig. 1. Cast net fishing with marking poles and baits.

poles are used at a time and they are stacked inside the canoe or hung
with sling ropes along the sides if the canoe is small. Raw tapioca
( Manihot utilissima) or coconut oil-cake is used as bait. The latter is
dropped as small pieces whereas the former is made into a coarse pow-
der with the help of a grater made by perforating a tin plate with clo-
sely set nail holes. The paste made from the grated tapioca is rolled into
small balls by hand. Like coconut oil-cake this has the advantage of
spreading slowly when dropped to the bottom. The marking poles are
planted in a row about 10 to 15 m apart after selecting a suitable stretch

1 The measurements of cast net in common use are: mesh size - 1", radius
of the net 14-15' and a circumferance of about 60-65'.

Miscellaneous notes 577

of the river or backwater with depths varying from 3 to 4 m and with-
out any strong currents or eddies. The bait is dropped loose on one side
of the pole at a convenient distance so as to allow sufficient space for
operating the net. Baits are always put on the same side of all the poles
in the row so that the canoe can be directed straight along one side
while fishing. After allowing sometime for the prawns to approach the
baits the net is cast above the baits. When the catch is quite good from
an area, baits are dropped again and the net operated at the same spot
without removing the poles from their original position. Sometimes
fishing is done even without dropping the baits a second time. This
type of fishing is carried out usually during the small hours of the
morning when the prawns come out for feeding. Some fixed points along
the shore or permanent structures in the water such as electric poles,
pillars of jetties etc., are also used as land-marks for dropping baits..
Tapioca has been found more effective than coconut oil-cake in attract-
ing prawns. One night’s catch may be anything between 1 and 12 kg.

2. Fishing with baits and floats : This type of fishing is practised
in deeper areas where the depth may be 6 to 8 m. Solid baits (boiled
pieces of tapioca or coconut kernal) are tied to one end of a rope or
string and a float or Ponthu (usually cut pieces of banana stem) to the
other. A stone of suitable size is tied to the bait as a sinker to keep the
bait a little above the bottom and to anchor it at a spot. A number of
such baited sets are dropped at intervals of 7 to 10 m in a row. The
floats in this case serve also as markers. But where there is a surface cur-
rent the float will be drifting to one side and the net is cast taking in-
to account the direction of the current and the position of the bait in
relation to the float. In still and shallow waters the net is cast right over
the float. This type of fishing is done during the day time.

3. Fishing with “ Ottal Another type of gear used is “Ottal”.2
This is a contrivance made of fine bamboo strips lashed together in the
form of a truncated cone open at both ends. This is the same as Thapa
(Plunge basket) described by Chauhan (1946) and as Poluha or Polo
(cover basket) by Job & Pantulu (1953). These are used in shallow
areas especially in the flooded paddy fields where the depth may not
exceed 1 m. Here again solid baits, usually boiled tapioca or coconut
kernal are used. The flesh of greshwater apple snail, Pila globosa is also
commonly used. These are tied to small floats made of cut pieces of
the stalk of banana leaf. A small stone is tied for anchoring and keep-
ing the bait a little above the bottom (Fig. 2 inset). The fisherman

2 The measurements of Ottal commonly used in this area are : Upper open-
ing diameter — 18 cm, lower diameter — 75 cm, slanting side length — 95 cm. The
bamboo strips are also closely bound together so that the gaps between them
may not exceed a few mm.

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

carries the Ottal and the floated baits in a canoe and drops the baits
at regular intervals (Fig. 2). The float wobbles up and down when

Fig. 2. Fishing with ‘Ottal’.

a prawn nibbles at the bait and when the prawn gets at the bait with
its pincers one end of the float remains dipped. Since this type of fish-
ing is carried out during day time, movement of the float can be seen
from a distance and the fisherman quietly approaches it in his canoe
and plunges the Ottal over it. Prawns are taken out with hands or
even with the legs where the depth is more.

4. “ Vativala ’* and "‘Vattavala’ : Vativala is a drag net with a

rectangular mouth across which sticks are attached transversely to keep
it open and the net is operated by two men holding to the side sticks
which are stouter than the others. This net is operated in shallow areas.
Vattavala is a pouch net with a semi-circular mouth fitted with a bam-
boo frame of similar shape and is operated by two men in shallows,
especially among submerged mangrove vegetation. The net is set near
the vegetation and the water disturbed in such a way that the prawns
hiding among the plants while trying to escape will get caught in the
net. These vegetation are also encircled by the drag net Vativala and
all the hiding prawns caught by disturbing the plants. Vattavala is also
used for catching fishes and prawns from paddy field when the water
is pumped out in preparation for cultivation.

Though these prawns are caught occasionally in stake nets and
Chinese dip nets during their sojourn in the backwaters they do not

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

519

form a major item in their catches at any time.

M. rosenbergii is also taken by hook and line in some areas of
Vembanad lake between Vaikom and Cochin especially during their
breeding season. It is also common practice to catch them from their
hide-outs inside the crevices of stones and bunds by means of long
metallic hook or pin. The prawns are impaled and taken out.

Evolving new baits by mixing some flavour or fish meal with the
baits to attract the prawns easily and also studies on the relative effi-
ciency of the various types of baits are lines of work worth considering
in view of the great economic importance of the fishery.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director for his kind interest
and encouragement. To Dr. V. Gopalakrishnan, Senior Fishery Scientist
I am deeply indebted for going through the manuscript and suggesting
valuable improvements. I am thankful to Shri K. Gopinathan for draw-
ing the figures.

Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, K. RAMAN
Pulicat Lake Unit,

19- A, Patel Road,

Madras 11,

April 13, 1973;

bon-: 7 o ‘ m O .. " ■ ' . / iff.-

References

■ ■ ■

ChAuhan, B. S. (1945): Fish and rosenbergii (de Man). Bull. Cent. Res.
fisheries of Patna State, Orissa. Reef. Inst. Univ. Trivandrum Ser. C. 5(1) :
Indian Mus. 45 (II & III): 267-282. 93-102.

Gopinath, K. (1953): Some inter-
esting methods of fishing in the back-
waters of Travancore. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 57 :466-471.

Job, T. J. & Pantulu, V. R. (1953) :
Fish trapping in India. J. Asiatic Soc.
/9(2): 175-196.

John, M. C. (1957) : Bionomics

and life history of Macrobrachium

Ramamurthy, S. & Muthu, M. S.
(1969): Prawn fishing methods. Bull.
Cent. Mar. Fish. Res. Inst. 74:235-
258.

Raman, K. (1967) : Observations

on the fishery and biology of the giant
freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii de Man. Proc. Symp. Crust-
acea, Mar. Biol. Ass. India, Part II:
649-669.

22

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

24. FOULING ORGANISMS ON FIBREGLASS COATED HULL
OF A BOAT IN AN ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT

( With two text-figures)

Fouling organisms collected from the fibreglass coated hull of the
research vessel mlv tarini which was used in an estuarine en-
vironment for 9 months from May 1970 to February 1971, re
vealed the nature and extent of settlement and the abundance of
fouling fauna in the estuarine environment.

Introduction

This study deals with the settling of fouling organisms on the submerg-
ed portion of the fibreglass coated wooden hull of the research vessel
MLV tarini of the National Institute of Oceanography, at Panjim, Goa.

While the 15 m boat was in dry dock at Bombay, about 21 sq m
area of its wooden hull was coated with fibreglass sheathing up to about
15 cm above the water line. The submerged portion of the hull formed
about 18 sq m of the area. After making the boat sea worthy and equip-
ped for oceanographic work, it was launched in early May 1970 and
was brought to Panjim immediately for use in oceanographic studies
in estuarine and nearshore waters of Goa region. The boat moved little
during the peak southwest monsoon period from June to September,
when it was anchored along-side a cement concrete jetty on the Man-
dovi estuary. From September to February the boat was extensively
used in the estuarine and near shore waters of Goa. During the period
a heavy settlement of fouling organisms was noted on the hull of the
boat which necessitated scrapping in dry dock. This offered a chance
to study the settlement of fouling communities on the fibreglass coated
hull of the vessel which was used in an estuarine environment for nine
months.

Methods

Random samples in duplicate, each representing a unit area of 1 sq
m were scrapped from the bow, stern, starboard and port sides. Wet
weight and volume of each sample was recorded. The constituents were
sorted, identified as far as possible up to species, and were weighed
separately to estimate their percentage composition.

Observations and Comments

Experimental reports on the settling of fouling organisms on vari-
ous wooden materials as well as those with different protective coat-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

581

ings are numerous from different environments in situ (Kuriyan 1952;
Nagbhushanam 1960; Nair 1961; Nair 1965; Balasubramaniyan et al.
1968; Karande 1969 and Balasubramanyan 1971). However, nothing
is known about fouling organisms in the estuarine and nearshore waters
around Goa.

The average weight of settlement per square metre was highest on
the starboard side (600.80 gm/sq m) of the submerged portion of the
hull, whereas the portside of the hull harboured second highest weight
of settlement (439.70 gm/sq m). The stern side and bow side indicated
average weight of settlement as 251.50 gm/sq m and 189.40 gm/sq m
respectively.

An approximation of values of average settlement per sq m on dif-
ferent sides of the hull gives an average total settlement of about 1983
Kg of fouling organisms on 18 sq m submerged area of mlv tarini in
nine months from May 1970 to February 1971.

All the major fouling organisms namely cirripedes, molluscs, anne-
lids, bryozoans, coelenterates as well as their associates were encounter-
ed in the samples collected from the hull.

Among the fouling organisms, the barnacles (cirripedia) were most
abundant (Fig. 2B) and their percentage of composition all over the
hull, was consistently high and varied from 53.63 per cent to 66.59 per
cent per sq. m (Fig. 1). The settlement was so intense that the barna-

A CIRRIPEDIA
B MOLLUSCS
C ANNELIDS
D BRYOZOANS
F COELENTERATES

Starboard Port Stern Bow

Fig. 1. Diagrams showing the percentage composition of various fouling organ-
isms on different sides of the hull of mlv tarini.

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

cles were observed to have grown in 3 tiers or more, with the basal
layer of dead shells. Another interesting feature was, the observed, pre-
ference of site by bigger barnacles,- B. tintinnabulum tintinnabulum
which were congregated on the stern side whereas they were totally
absent on other sides of the hull.

The molluscs, by their percentage ranging between 13. 79 per cent
and 26.57 per cent per sq m were second highest in composition on all
the sides of the hull. The occurrence of shell settlement was highest on
starboard side compared to that on portside. (Fig. 1). The starboard
side being always exposed, offers an easily accessible surface for settle-,
ment than the sheltered portside. Oysters and mussels were the main
molluscan foulers (Fig. 2C).

The oysters were observed to settle on barnacle shells and not directly
on the surface of the hull. Mussels occupied the major portion of the
submerged surface, mainly because of their entangling byssus apparatus
which, in turn harbours associates such as amphipods, isopods and
crabs. Few specimens of Scapharca and Martesia, were also observed.

Annelids and Bryozoans formed a minor component of the foul-
ing fauna and were found in consistently low percentage ranging

Fig. 2. A. General1 view of the fouling on the hull of mlv tarini; B. Close up
view of the starboard side hull of mlv tarini showing settlement of barnacles,;
hydrozoans and bivalves; C. Close up view of the portside hull of mlv tarini;
showing brancles, crab, hydrozoans and annelids; D. Close up view of the bow
side of the hull of mlv tarini showing early settlement of cirripeds along with

branacles and annelids.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 583

between 0.86%-4.06% and 0.99%- 1.86%, respectively. Sessile forms
dominating among the annelid-bryozoan component.

Coelenterates, especially hydrozoans appear to be a major fouling
element in Goa waters as their settlement was dense and rich at places
(Fig. 2D).

Of special interest is the selectivity of the hydrozoan settlement
largely on the bow and stern sides as indicated by markedly high per-
centage of their occurrence in these area, (77% per sq m at stem
and 16.1% per sq m at bow) compared to that on the side flanks
(Fig. 1 ) . Maximum turbulence at the stern area due to propeller action
and the action of the current due to cutting of water at the bow area
appear to be conducive factors for such predominent settlement on
specific sites.

Hydrozoans are reported (Karande 1969) to cause considerable
damage to the protective coating on the hull of the boats. However,
the fibreglass coating on the hull of mlv tarini did not show any ap-
parent deterioration whatsoever.

Miscellaneous components consisting of animal associates, viz.
amphipods, isopods, decapods and algal matter were found scattered
along with ample silt and debris on all sides of the hull, and formed
13 per cent to 23 per cent per sq m of the average settlement. The
highest concentration of miscellaneous constituents was recorded on the
portside. The high percentage of miscellaneous constituents were pro-
bably the result of heavy precipitation in the waters of estuarine en-
vironment in Goa region (Dehadrai 1970). Passive settlement of silt
and detritus which is characteristic of estuarine environment may not
be considered among the fouling organisms, but it is of consequence
as it thus enlarge the burden by constituting a sizeable part of the total
settlement on the hull of the boat.

List of fouling Species

' ' - a

CIRRIPEDIA 11 . Spirobis sp.

1 . Balanus amphitrite communis

2. B. a. variegatus

3? B. tintinnabulum tintinnabulum

MOLLUSCS

4. Osfrea madrasensis

5 . Mytilus viridis

6 . Modiolus trailli

7. Martesia sp.

8 . Scapharca sp.

ANNELIDS

9. Hydroides sp.

10 Sabcllid sp.

COELENTERATES

12. Anemonia indicus

13. Cribrinopsis robertii

14. Actinia sp.

15. Scrtularia sp.

16. Pennaria sp.

BRYOZOANS

17. Membransopora sp.

18. Acanthodesia sp.

19. Electra sp.

20. Bugula sp.

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

ISOPODS

DECAPODS

21 . Ligia exotica

AM PH IPODS

22. Gammarus sp.

23. Dotilla myctiroides

24 . Uca sp.

ALGAE

25. Entermorpha sp.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. N. K. Panikkar, Director, National Institute
of Oceanography and Project Leader, Arabian Sea Islands Project
(INSA) for encouragement and interest in the work. Thanks are also
due to Dr. S. N. Dwivedi of National Institute of Oceanography, for
help.

National Institute of PADMAKAR V. DEHADRAI

Oceanography, Panjim. ARUN H. PARULEKAR

Arabian Sea Islands Project, ARVIND G. UNTAWALE

Panjim,

November 24, 1971.

References

Balasubramanyan, R. (1971): Ex-
periments with fibreglass sheathing as
a protection against marine woodbor-
ing organisms. Fish. Tech. Vol. VIII,
No. 7:60-65.

, Ravindran, K.,

Nair, N. Unnikrishnan & Pillai,
A. G. Gopalkrishna (1968): Protec-
tion against borers, foulers and cor-
rosion through the use of aluminium
alloy sheathing in a marine environ-
ment. 2nd International Congress on
Marine Corrosion and Fouling.
Athens: 1-7.

Dehadrai, Padmakar V. (1970):
Changes in the environmental features
of the Zuari and Mandovi estuaries
in relation to tides. Proc. Indian Acad.
Sci. 72(2) B : 68-79.

Karande, A. A. (1969): Field and

laboratory investigations on some ma-
rine fouling and boring organisms in
Bombay Harbour. Bull. Natn. Inst.
Sci. India 38( 1) :61 2-622.

Kuriyan, G. K. (1952): Notes on
the attachment of marine sedentary
organisms on different surfaces. /.
Zool. Soc. India 4:157-171.

Nagbhushanam, R. (1960): Resist-
ance of Indian Timbers to attack of
marine borers. Tim. Dryers' a. Pres.
Assoc. India 6(1).

Nair, N. Balakrisiinan (1961):
Some aspects of marine borer pro-
blem in India. /. Sci. Industr. Res. 20
A (10) :555-610.

Nair, N. Unnikrishnan (1965):
Marine fouling in Indian waters. J.
Sci. Industr. Res. 24(9) : 483-488.

25. THE GENUS DELIAS HUBN. FROM THE PLAINS

OF ASSAM

I was interested to read Messrs Varshney & Nandi’s note [69 ( 3): 667-
668] regarding the absence of the genus Delias from the plains of In-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585

dia. In Assam the genus is quite definitely not confined to the hills. In
the plains of Sibsagar Dt. Delias aglaia (L.) and descombesi leucantha
(Fruh) were two of our very common butterflies. They were succession
brooded, the larvae feeding, as usual, on Loranthus spp. The following
species were also taken in the plains from time to time:

agostina (Hew.) Occasional, Sibsagar Dt. and Margherita. Two only
from Naga Hills.

hyparete hierte (Hub.) Sibsagar Dt. Not seen in Naga Hills.
thysbe pyramus (Wall). Sibsagar Dt. Not seen in Naga Hills.

As none of these was common in the neighbouring Naga Hills it
would be unsafe to conclude without definite evidence of breeding
habits that they were merely wanderers from the hills. The common
Naga Hills spp. were belladonna lugens (Jord.) and berinda berinda
(M.). These two I never saw in the plains.

t i: . . i -v, . r

The Old Rectory, T. NORMAN

WlNTERBORNE HOUGHTON,

Blandford,

Dorset,

January 17, 1974.

26. DANAID BUTTERFLIES ATTRACTED TO HELIOTRO -
PIUM 1NDICUM (BORAGINACEAE), AN ALKALOID
CONTAINING PLANT

( With a plate)

While on a survey to locate Bonnet macaque troops around Tulsi lake,
6n 22nd May, 1974, in company with Mr. P. Kannan, Curator for Ani-
mals, Borivli National Park, Maharashtra State, I observed a number
of Danaid butterflies ( Danaus limniace and Euploea core) clustered
on a Heliotropium indicum plant which was in flower. At first I assum-
ed that the butterflies were feeding on the flowers, but closer inspection
revealed that all of them were clinging to, and feeding on, a dead and
decaying inflorescence drooping from the plant.

On a subsequent occasion, on 4th September, 1974, I noticed 5
Danaus limniace hovering around, and intermittently settling upon,
some newly flowering branches of a Heliotropium indicum growing on
the bank of the pond near the offices of the Borivli National Park. I
decided to find out whether they could be attracted away from this site
to another H. indicum plant growing about 8 feet away. I crushed an
inflorescence bearing few flowers of this latter plant, sufficient to extract
the plant juice without distorting its rigidity, and waited. In a few
minutes all the 5 specimens of D. limniace transferred their attention

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

to this plant and within seconds of arrival settled and avidly fed on
the bruised portion of the plant. While I prepared to take a colour pho^
tograph of this group two more members of the same species joined
them, making a total of seven. When I passed by the same path about
an hour later a few D. limniace (perhaps new arrivals?) and 1 D. chry-
sippus were feeding on it. {

A few days later, on 8th September, 1974, accompanied by my wife,
I observed the same phenomenon on the road verges near the Aarey
Milk Colony. Four specimens of D. limniace and four of D. chrysippus
Were feeding on some dead and withered branches of a H. indicum
plant. I took a black-and-white photograph of this assemblage and ob-
served that inspite of the disturbance we had caused in the area the
butterflies repeatedly settled on the same branches to feed, so strongly
did they seem to be attracted to this plant. We succeeded in capturing
3 specimens of the D. limniace (2 males and 1 female) and 1 specimen
of D. chry sippus (1 male), determined their sex by examining for pre-
sence or absence of abdominal brushes (“hair-pencils”) and hind wing
pouches, and then released them.

The observations on the apparently unusual feeding, behaviour re-
corded here resemble similar behavioural traits reported in Australian
butterflies of the family Danaidae. Edgar, Culvenor and Robinson
(1973) have reported from Queensland the attraction of Danaus chry-
sippus petilea (Stoll) to Heliotropium amplexicaule which is known
to contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids. (Bull, Culvenor & Dick 1968).
It has also been reported that Australian adult male danaid butterflies
are strongly attracted to, and sometimes feed on, dead and withering
plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Edgar, Culvenor & Robin-
son 1973). Furthermore, Edgar and Culvenor (1974) have pointed
out the remarkable fact that danaid butterflies require pyrrolizidine
alkaloids, which they possibly obtain from some of their food plants,
and that these alkaloids may undergo metabolic alteration into com-
pounds which are found in the hair-pencils of the abdominal brushes
of male butterflies. Their suggestion is based on chemical investigations
on extracts of hair-pencils of two species of Australian danaids. D. ham -
atus (Macleay) and Euploea tulliolus lulliolus (Fabricius) both of
which contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids in their hair-pencils. It is perti-
nent too that the male courtship pheromone found in the hair-pencils
of the American danaid, D. gilippus herenice, has been identified as a
pyrrolizidine compound (Pliske & Eisner 1969). A neotropical danaid,
Ly corea ceres ceres, is also reported to contain a pyrrolizidine com-
pound in its hair-pencils (Meinwald, Meinwald, Wheeler, -Eisner &
Brower 1966). x:=a3?vx:r-";;

Many species of Heliotropium found in, India contain pyrrolizidine
alkaloids, as also plants belonging to the genus Crotalaria (Legumin*

Amladi: Danaid Butterflies

Danaid butterflies feeding on withering Heliotropium indicum inflorescences.

(Photo: Author )

~ v MISCELLANEOUS NOTES * ^ ” S87

osae) , Smecio (Compositae) , etc. (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk .1962;
Chopra, Chopra & Varma 1969; Chopra, Badhwar & Gosh 1965) . Helio-
tropium indicum is reported to contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids, the
major component being made up of Indicine (Mattocks et al. 1961;
Mattocks 1967). It seems reasonable to suppose that acquisition of
these alkaloids from food sources by danaid butterflies from vastly
differing habitats and widely separated biogeographic areas may be a
universal phenomenon. Thus it seems likely that the feeding behaviour
of danaids, specifically attracted to Heliotropium indicum, described
in this report is related to their requirement of pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
Further studies on the inter-relations between such alkaloid-bearing
plants and Indian butterflies belonging to the family Danaidae are in
progress, ^ • - ■■ - . r-'d-

Associate Professor, S. R. AMlADI

Department of Pharmacology,

Seth G. S. Medical College,

Parel, Bombay 400 012,

October 14, 1974.

References

Bull, L. B., Culvenor, C. C. J. & dicine: The Major Alkaloid of tielid-
Dick, A. J. (1968) : The Pyrrolizidine tropium indicum L. J. Chem. Soc. Part
Alkaloids. North-Holi and, Amsterdam. IV : 5400.

^3Ch,opra>. R. N., Badhwar, R. L. & Mattocks, A. R. (1967) : .Minor

Ghosh., S., ( 1965) : Poisonous Plants Alkaloids of Heliotropium indicum L.
of India. Vol, II. Poisonous Plants J. Chem. Soc. C.'Org. 329.
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, Meinwald, J., Meinwald, Y. C.,

Mdia, 9 ■; isibq Wheeler, J. W., FiSner, T. & BRO-

: Chopra, R. N.,o Chopra, I. C. & wer, L. P. (1966) : Major Compo-

Varma, B. S. (1969) : Supplement to nents in the Exocrine Secretions of a
Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. Male Butterfly (Lycorea) . Science
Publications and" Information Direct- 151:5 83.

orate. New Delhi, India. Pliske, T. E. & Eisner, T. (1969) :

E6gar, J. A. & Culvenor, cC. C. J. Sex pheromone of the Queen Butter-
< 1 974); j Pyrrolizidine ester: valkalo id fly: Biology. Science 164: 1170.
in danaid, butterflies. , Nature 248:614. , Watt, J. M, & B reyertBrandwj jk,

. — — — — ; — — & Maria G. (1962) : The Medicinal and

koBiNSON, G. S. (1973) : /. Aust. ent. Poisonous Plants of Southern and
Soc 72:144. Eastern Africa. E. and S. Livingstone,

Mattocks, A. R. et al. (1961) : In- Edinburgh and London.

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

27. NEW RECORD OF ARMY WORM PSEUDOLETIA
SEPARATA WALKER (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE)

AS A PEST OF RAGI IN INDIA

During May-December, 1972, observations on pest of ragi ( Eleusine
coracana L.) in some ragi fields of the Main Research Station, Uni-
versity of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal revealed moderate infestation
by a lepidopterous pest feeding on the foliage and the earheads. The
pest was later indentified as Pseudoletia separata Walker.

The army worm is well known to infest a variety of food plants of
cereal and millet groups. Ghosh (1924) reported it on sorghum, maize,
paddy, wheat, oats and other millets. In addition to the above, pulse
and vegetable crops were also found to be infested (Lefroy 1909;
Fletcher 1914, and Ramchandra Rao 1924). Bindra & Rathore (1965)
recorded it as a very destructive and sporadic pest of sorghum, maize,
wheat and sugarcane. It was reported to cause severe damage to high
yielding varieties of rice at the ripening stage of the crop by feeding on
leaves and earheads (Kalode et al. 1972). In Mysore it is known to be
a severe pest of sorghum and maize.

The present report of the damage by army worms to ragi crop from
Mysore, therefore, is a new record of the pest on this host from India.

A brief account of the nature of injury by caterpillars to leaves and
earheads, is given below. f

The caterpillars, in the pre-earhead period, were found damaging
the leaves during night making irregular cuts. The young caterpillars,
in the laboratory rearings, were found to escape the leaves causing white
membranous patches. The caterpillars hid below the loose soil around
the base of the plant or in leaf sheath during day time. Their presence
could be made out by the presence of faecal pellets strewn round the
base of the plant or inside leaf sheath. About 47 per cent to 53 per cent
of plants were infested. The number of larvae per clump varied from
one to eight. The observations, continued till the harvest of the crop,
revealed that the pest persisted and attacked the earhead in its various
stages of development. They fed on the milky and later developed
grains after dusk and concealed themselves by coiling at the base
during daytime. The earhead thus damaged always had the faecal
pellets and often with the caterpillars. The latter pupated in soil
at the base of the plant or rarely inside leafsheath and in the earhead.

Further observations on its incidence and biology on ragi crop are
in progress.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Dr. G. P. Channa Basavanna, Professor of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

589

Entomology for facilities, guidance
script.

Department of Entomology,
Agricultural College,
University of Agril. Sciences,
Hebbal, Bangalore 560 024,

May 3, 1973.

Refer

Bindra, O. S. & Rathore, Y. S.
(1965): Chemical control of army

worm ( Pseudoletia unipuncta How)
on Sorghum vulgar e at Jabalpur. In-
dian J. Ent. 27(2): 223-224.

Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some

south Indian insects and other ani-
mals of importance. Govt. Press
Madras, p. 564.

Ghosh, C. C. (1924): A note on
the occurrence of Cirphis unipuncta
(Haw.) in the role of army worm.
Rept. Proc. 5th Ent. Meeting, Pusa.
pp. 90-91.

and for reading through the manu-

R. BALASUBRAMANIAN
K. V. SESHUREDDY
R. GOVINDAN
M. A. DEVIAH

ENCES

Kalode, M. B., Prakasa Rao, P. S.
& Varma, A. (1972) : Toxicity of
some modern insecticides to paddy
cut worm, Pseudoletia separata Wal-
ker. Indian J. Ent. 54(1): 84-85.

Lefroy, H. M. (1909) : Indian in-
sect life. Thacker, Sphink and Co.,
Calcutta, p. 796.

Ramchandra Rao, Y. (1924): No-
tes on pests investigated in Madras
during the year 1921-22. Rep. Proc.
5th Ent. Meeting, Pusa: 110-112.

28. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY AND HABITS OF
SYCANUS AFFINIS REUT. (HEMIPTERA: REDUVIIDAE)
AND ITS STATUS AS A PREDATOR

Sycanus affinis Reut. is a commonly occurring predator in Orissa and
is found in fairly large numbers in coconut groves located in and
around Bhubaneswar. The nymphs and adults of this species attack a
large number of surface feeding lepidopterous larvae. So far nothing
is known about the biology of this predator. However, Hoffman (1934)1
has studied the life history of a closely related species, Sycanus croceo-
vittatus Dohrn. An attempt was, therefore, made to investigate its life
history and habits in order to assess its potentiality as an affective pre-
dator.

Laboratory cultures of S. affinis were maintained in insect cages.
Ten pairs of one day old adult males and females were kept in each
cage and these were supplied with full-grown larvae of Corcyra cepka-
lonica S. The egg masses laid in cages were removed and kept in petri-

1 Hoffman, W. E. (1934): The life-history and economic status of Sycanus
croceovittatus Dohm. (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). Lengran Sci. J. 75(3) : 503-
515.

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

dishes haying a lining of filter paper. The date of egg laying was record-
ed. Ten nymphs, just after hatching, were transferred to a glass rearing
jar of 15 xTO cm size. The open end of the jar was covered with muslin
cloth and held in position by rubber bands. Observations on the life
history, feeding habits, host preference, preying potentialities of the
different nymphal and adult stages were recorded. Five sets of such
experiments were carried out in the laboratory. Three extra nymphs
were reared in each set to serve as substitutes, the records of which
were used in the event of unnatural death of any of the original ten
nymphs. The laboratory temperature under which the biology of the
predator.. was . .studied varied between 23.4 and 32.8°C

Freshly emerged adult took 7 days to commence copulation. The
egg mass contained a single layer of eggs arranged neatly in hexagonal
shape. The female took about 3 minutes to lay each egg. The eggs were
glued to the bottom with a sticky thread produced by the mother which
soon dried up. An egg mass contained 24 to 152 eggs with an average
of ;1 00 eggs per cluster. The pre-oviposition period was 3 days and ovi-
position period varied from 6 to 37 days. The interval between two egg
laying ranged from 5 to 10 days. The females were very prolific. A
single female could produce a maximum of 807 eggs in confinement
(Table l).:7 V : ; " T T"' r

r".r " ■ i * ns'? 'tu &r. ‘mt.% ■ ■ - ■

The egg is brown, elongate, slightly bent in the middle, measures
2 mm in length, broad at the base (0.6 mm) and narrow at the top
(0.4 mm). The anterior end has a white cap-like operculum. A black
transverse line is present on the border between the operculum and the
chorion. The chorion is smooth excepting the area lying beneath the
black border line which contains a large number of punctuations. The
incubation period- varied from 14 to 24 days with .. 17.4 days on Ahp
average (Table 2). The per cent hatch ranged from 94.8 to 99.3. During
eelpsion the fully developed embryo pushed open the operculum. The
nymphs took 30 to 40 minutes to extricate themselves from the chorion.
Just after hatching, the nymphs sat upon the egg mass for about 10
minutes, stretched their legs, moved to the vicinity and remained con-
gregated for some time. . .

There, were five nymphal instars. Freshly moulted nymphs appeared
light red. Their body coloration slowly changed from deep pink To
black. The. total body length from the clypeal end to the tip of the ab-
domen of the, first, second, third, fourth and fifth instar nymphs was
Tjfnjp, ,5 mm,v7 mm, 11 mm and 18 mm respectively. The maximum
body width of the nymphs was recorded at the third abdominal tergite.
In all the nymphal instars there were three cone-shaped raised structures
in the second, third and fourth abdominal tergites on the mid-dorsal
line. Excepting the first nymphal instar, the rest of the instars contain;
ed four continuous, longitudinal white streaks, two lateral and two sufc

{£) • : V/'- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES VAO& ,:iKn- v; q i 591

ventral, on the abdominal sternites.

The development period of the different nymphal instars and the
total duration of life cycle are presented in Table 2. The table shows
that the duration of the fifth nymphal instar is the longest (44.5 days)
in April-May (Temp. Min. 28.8°C, Max. 35.5°C, Average 31.4°C and
69% R.H.) and the shortest (17.7 days) in June (Temp. Min. 28.8°C,
Max. 35.5°C, Average 32.3°C and 75% R.H.). Egg masses laid during
the first fortnight of December completed the life cycle in 152.4 days
whereas those laid in the first fortnight of March needed only 81.7
days for completing development. The preimaginal mortality was most-
ly observed among the fifth instar nymphs. Under conditions of crowd-
ing and food scarcity cannibalism was observed mainly during the time
of moulting.

The adult is dark in colour. The labium is three segmented, the
apical segment is the smallest and contains a few sensory hairs at the
tip. The mandibulary and maxillary stylets are strong. The former con-
tains backward projecting barbs. The triangular scutellum contains in
the centre a rosethorn-shaped spine projecting anteriorly. In the heme-
lytron, basal region of the corium and clavus of the coreaceous area
are black whereas the apical halves contain a light yellow patch. The
abdomen is boat-shaped containing 7 tergites and 6 sternites in the male
while there are 8 tergites and 6 sternites in female. The total length of
the female is 24 mm and that of the male 23 mm. In the female the
tip of the abdomen is pointed whereas in male it is blunt. There is a
preponderance of males, the male and female ratio being 5.5:4: 5.

The adults are very lpng-lived and hardy. They could withstand
extremes of temperature ranging from 15 °C to 40°C. Under average
laboratory temperature of 30.0°C the males lived longer (85.1 days)
than the females (69.3 days). At 15.0°C the males lived for 16 days and
females for 14 days whereas both males arid females succumbed in
two days at a constant temperature of 40 °C. Adults lived without food
for a period of 28.1 to 33.2 days in summer. Different nymphal instars
lived for 8.6 to 41.2 days without food (Table 3) but the fourth nym-
phal instars survived for (he maximum period.

The nymphs and adults are general predators. They were found to
predate on a large numbef of larvae namely those of Nephantis seri-
nopa M., Sesamia inferens W., Prodenia litura F., Amsacta albistriga
W., Acherontia styx WV* Cirphis albistigma M., Papilio demoleus L.
and Anomis sabulifera G. Besides, nymphs of grasshoppers and cock-
roaches, white ants and aphids were also attacked. Larvae which were
surface feeders were preferred most by nymphs and adults of the re-
duviid, those of the larvae which remained concealed e.g., in leaf gal-
leries, leaf webbings, leaf case etc. were attacked by the adults only.
Likewise, naked pupae and pupae in cocoons, were attacked by the

592 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

595

adults. When the attack was made on the pupae in cocoons, the adult
pierced its stylets from a distance as otherwise the claws often got en-
tangled in the webbings of the cocoons. Larvae and pupae remaining
in stems and fruits were not attacked. The females were more virulent
than the males with regard to the attack of the host. More than one
nymph and adult may attack simultaneously a single host. The nymphs
were observed sucking the body content of the host for 3 to 4 hours
at a stretch. And adult female could overpower a larva of sphinx moth
which was 37.2 times as heavy as the predator itself.

From a study to ascertain the maximum number of larvae eaten per
day per individual, it was observed that the first four nymphal instars
utilized less than one full grown larva of C. cephalonica. Once their
appetite was satisfied, the nymphs did not attack the larvae even though
the latter were in close proximity. However, the fifth instar nymphs and
the adults sucked up the larvae at the rate of 1 and 5 respectively per
day.

We express our sincere thanks to the Director, Commonwealth
Institute of Entomology, London for identifying the insect.

Orissa,

November 22, 1972.

29. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF HOMOEOCERUS TAPRO-
BANENS1S DIST. (HEMIPTERA: COREIDAE) FROM POONA
WITH A NOTE ON THE SCUTELLAR LEVIGATE LINE

Distant (1902)1 while describing the species Homoeocerus taprobanensis
had observed the presence of a central levigate line on head, pronotum
and scutellum with the remark that it was obsolete on head. While
studying some specimens from Poona I observed that the central levi-
gate line to be well marked and continuous from head to the apex of
scutellum in eight specimens, but in four others it was faint and slightly
interrupted in the middle, in the region of scutellum. Homoeocerus
taprobanensis was originally described from Sri Lanka and there is no
further report available regarding its distribution.

1 Distant, W. L. (1902): The Fauna of British India, Rhynchota 7:365-366.

Acknowledgement

Department of Entomology,

Orissa University of Agriculture
and Technology, Bhubaneswar 3,

J. M. SATPATHY
N. C. PATNAIK
A. P. SAMALO

23

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Other characters : Lateral margins of pronotum pale levigate, con-
vexium piceous with ochraceous spots, membrane piceous, sternum
punctate.

Locality : Agricultural college, Poona, 8-ii-62. S. N. Chaubey, 12 exs.

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. B. K. Tikader, Dy. Director, Western Regional Station,
Poona, for facilities offered.

Western Regional Station, K. RAMACHANDRA RAO

Zoological Survey of India,

Poona 5,

December 26, 1972.

30. A PREDACIOUS PENTATOMID BUG, CANTHECONIDEA

FURCELL AT A (WOLFF) ATTACKING LATOIA LEPIDA
(CRAMER) ON MANGO NEAR BANGALORE

(With three plates)

Our indigenous insect predators of crop pests have not received as
much attention as have the parasites and very little information is avail-
able on them (Narayanan et al. 1967). Except for the more important
predatory groups like the Coccinellidae for example, which have been
fairly well studied, other equally useful groups — among whom may be
mentioned the Mantodea, Reduviidae, Pentatomidae (Asopinae),
Neuroptera, Carabidae, Asilidae, Syrphidae (Syrphinae), Chamaemyi-
idae and particularly the very abundant Spiders (Arachnida: Araneae)
— have been overlooked in India.

During the course of my field surveys connected with studies on the
Coccinellidae and Syrphidae, I came across a serious infestation of the
slug caterpillar Latoia (= Parasa) lepida (Cramer) [Lepidoptera : Lima-
codidae] on some mango trees on a farm near Bangalore. On closer
observation, several groups of the nymphs of Cantheconidea 1 furcellata
(Wolff) [Hemiptera: Pentatomidae: Asopinae] were noticed on the
cocoon-covered trunks (see plate I). The red and black coloured
nymphs in all stages of development and the brownish adult bugs were
observed attacking all instars of the host larvae including recently pup-
ated ones.

The bug approached its prey stealthily, with rostrum extended, the

1The generic name is sometimes misspelled Cantheconidia by authors.

Mango tree trunk covered by cocoons of Latoia lepida (Cramer).
{Photo: Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2)

Ghorpade : Pentatomid Bug

Plate I

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2) Plate II

Ghorpade: Pentatomid Bug

Caterpillar of Latoia lepida (Cramer) being attacked by adult (left) and nymph
(right) of Cantheconidea furcellata (Wolff).

{Photo: Author)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

597

tip of which was thrust into the body of the slug caterpillar at any acces-
sible point (see plate II). The injected toxin quickly immobilised the
caterpillar which, on being attacked, had swayed its anterior end vigor-
ously from side to side as an apparent defensive reaction. The completely
sucked caterpillar turned almost black in colour and consisted of noth-
ing more than the outer integument stuck flat to the substrate on ac-
count of the internal contents of the caterpillar having turned into a
black, sticky substance as a result of the action of the toxin. Several
such skins were noted attached to all parts of the trees (see plate III)
and lying on the ground below them. The immature bugs are peculiarly
gregarious in nature, especially in the earlier instars and even if a single
individual actually initiates the attack, one or more others join it not
much later. Each group of 2-4 bugs took about 20-60 minutes to fully
suck dry a single caterpillar and my observations indicate that from
2-6 larvae were destroyed by one such group in a single day. From
laboratory studies. Pant (1960) observed that nymphs consumed 7-8
larvae of Earias spp. each during their development (through 5 instars)
and adult bugs fed upon 4-8 larvae each day. Gadd (1943) however,
reported that one nymph of Cantheconidea robusta (Distant) destroy-
ed 28 larvae of another limacodid on tea, Natada nararia Moore, in the
course of its nymphal life and that a single adult bug killed 101 larvae
in six weeks.

This is the first record of C. furcellata as a predator of Latoia lepida
and only the second report of any predator of this limacodid. Rama-
krishna Ayyar (1929) mentioned the association of a pyralid cater-
pillar, Euzophera (= Phycita) dentilinella (Hampson), with the larvae
and pupae of L. lepida and thought it was predacious on the slug cater-
pillar. Radha & Rangarajan (1970) later recorded this pyralid as pre-
dacious on a lymantriid Lymantria serva Fabricius defoliating Ficus
bengalensis Linnaeus near Coimbatore. They also mention that this
pyralid predator was collected as early as 1914 on L. lepida. Thompson
& Simmonds (1964) did not list any predators of L . lepida in their
catalogue.

Cantheconidea furcellata however, is polyphagous and a large num-
ber of hosts, mainly lepidopterous larvae, are recorded by the following
workers: Thompson & Simmonds (1965), Cherian & Brahmachari
(1941), David & Basheer (1961), and Pant (1960). One very old host
record in Distant (1902), overlooked by all these workers, gives Hy-
blaea puera Cramer and Antheria pa phi a Linnaeus (Tassar Silkworm)
as two other prey species. The stink bug itself has very few recorded
natural enemies, only one egg-parasite Microphanurus seychellensis
Kieffer (Hymenoptera : Proctotrupoidea) being reported (Cherian &
Brahmachari 1941). The total life cycle of the bug from egg to adult
took 18-21 days (Cherian & Brahmachari 1941) and the adult longevity

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

was 15-20 days. In C. robust a the longevity was 51 days (Gadd 1943).
Pant (1960) however, gives only 8-9 days as longevity of adult C. fur-
cellata but De Jong (1931) records 28 days for the same species at
Java. Present observations indicate that the life cycle varies from 15-18
days (from first instar nymph to adult, eggs not having been found or
laid) and the maximum longevity of adult 12 days, in the laboratory.

C. furcellata has a wide distribution throughout the Oriental region,
being recorded from India, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Sumatra, Java,
Formosa and also Japan (Distant 1902). Although this species is cap-
able of exercising fairly good natural control, it seems to be dependent
on the presence of a sizeable host density to be really effective as ob-
served in the case under report and by David & Basheer (1961). This
being so, considerable damage is already done by the host insect con-
cerned to the crop and as in coccinellids and, admittedly, in most pre-
datory groups, the value of the predator is considerably reduced. How-
ever, since the bug is capable of producing favourable results, further
studies on its potentialities in checking several lepidopterous pests and
on possible means of its mass production would repay study.

ACKN OWLEDGE M E NT

I am grateful to Dr. G. P. Channa Basavanna, Entomologist, Uni-
versity of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, for facilities and a critical
appraisal of the manuscript.

Department of Entomology, KUMAR D. GHORPADE

University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore 560 024,

December 21, 1972.

References

CHERIAN. M. C. & B RAH MACH ARI,
K. (1941): Notes on three predatory
Hemipterons from south India. In-
dian J. Ent. 5:115-119.

David, B. V. & Basheer, M. (1961) :
Mass occurrence of the predatory
Stink Bug, Cantheconidia ( Canthe -
cona ) furcellata (Wolff) on Amsacta
albistriga Walk, in south India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55:817-819.

*De Jong, J. K. (1931): Canthe-
conidea furcellata as a natural enemy
of caterpillars in Tea plantations.
Arch. Theecultuur Ned.-Ind. 1931,
no. 1, pp. 17-24. {{Rev. appl. Ent.
(A) 79:517].

Distant, W. L. (1902): The Fauna
of British India, Rhynchota. Volume
1 (Heteroptera) . Taylor and Francis,
London, pp. xxxviii + 438.

* References not seen in original.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2) Plate III

Ghorpade : Pentatomid Bug

Completely sucked caterpillar of Latoia lepida (Cramer) stuck to mango tree

branch.

{Photo: Author )

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

599

*Gadd, C. H. (1943): Report of the
Entomologist for 1942. Bull. Tea Res.
Inst. Ceylon no. 24, pp. 32-36. [Rev.
appl. Ent. (A) 52:249].

Narayanan, E. S., Rao, V. P. &
Subba Rao, B. R. (1967): Advances
made in Insect Parasitology and Bio-
logical Control of pests in India — A
Review in Agricultural Entomology
Reviews. I.C.A.R., New Delhi, pp. 205-
246.

*Pant, C. P. (1960) : Some aspects
of the Bionomics of Earias spp. at
Kanpur. Agra Univ. J. Res. ( Sci .) 9
( 1 ) : 31-40. [Rev. appl. Ent. (A) 50:
36].

Radha, N. V. & Rangarajan, A. V.
(1970) : Occurrence of a Lymantriid
pest, Lymantria serva F. on Ficus ben -

galensis L. and Record of a Pyralid
predator, Euzophera dentilinella H.
Sci. & Cult. 36: 232-233.

Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1929) :
Notes on some Indian Lepidoptera
with abnormal habits. /. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 33:6 69-675.

Thompson, W. R. & Simmonds,
F. J. (1964): A Catalogue of the

Parasites and Predators of Insect Pests.
Section 3. Predator Host Catalogue.
Reprint edition. Commonwealth Agri-
cultural Bureaux, England, p. 204.

&

(1965): op. cit. Section 4. Host Pre-
dator Catalogue. Reprint edition.
Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux,
England, p. 198.

31. ON THE MODE OF PREYING OF A GIANT WATER BUG
(■ BELOSTOMA INDICUM LE PELETIER & SERVILLE, 1775)
ON A FROG {RAN A TIGERINA DAUDIN, 1903)

The giant water bug’s (Insecta: Hemiptera: Belostomatidae) habit of
feeding on other fresh water fauna is well known. It is a menace to
fishery owing to its predacious habit. Dimmock (1886) found some
species of giant water bug that were destroying the young fishes in the
state fish hatcheries of Massachusetts. No information, however, is avail-
able in the literature as to the exact mode by which it kills its large
vertebrate preys like frogs, toads, salamanders and so on. Green (1901),
who studied the biology of these bugs in aquaria, mentioned that large
insects and other organisms falling on water constitute the main food
of these bugs; and that, they also feed on frogs when they are able to
catch them. Rankin (1935) used damaged tadpoles and pieces of young
frogs to feed the nymphs of Lethocerus americanus in the culture he
made for studying the life history of the species. It is, therefore, worth-
while to record here an observation on the exact mode of preying by
one of such giant water bugs, namely Belostoma indicum on a frog,
Rana tigerina in its natural habitat.

On August 23, 1972, I observed, while on a faunistic survey,
near Kushnapur village ( c . 4 km N.E. of Ghatgaon), Keonjhar district,
Orissa, a tug-of-war between a nymph of B. indicum and a subadult
R. tigerina in a temporary water pool, located in a paddy field. The
bug had mounted on to the back of the frog and had tightly grabbed
its gular region by the fore pair of legs, which are short and raptorial.

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

The frog often moved deep into water but immediately came up to the
surface being unable to get rid of its predator. Such movements of the
frog continued for 3-4 minutes. The bug, however, struck firmly to the
back of the frog and tightened its grip further and further. Ultimately,
the frog did not show any sign of movement and floated on the surface
of the water while the bug still clung to its back. With the help of a
water net both were brought ashore and even during this process the
bug did not leave its prey. It was then forcibly removed from the frog,
which had by then succumbed. The frog was examined thoroughly and
no mark of injury in the form of puncture or otherwise was detected
on its body. Even after rigorous squeezing no trace of blood could be
detected on any region of body. In all probability the frog was strangled
to death by the tight grip of the fore legs of the bug around its gular
region.

Distant (1906) mentioned: “Its proboscis is capable of producing
a very painful puncture”, of which he himself had the experience from
the South African giant water bug, B. niloticum. On the contrary,
B. indicum (at least at its nymphal stage) appears not to rely on its
proboscis for killing its prey and instead uses its fore pair of raptorial
legs for strangling its large vertebrate prey to death.

Zoological Survey of India, S. K. MITRA

8, Lindsay Street,

Calcutta 16,

December 6, 1972.

References

Dimmock, G. (1886): Belostoma-
tidae and some other fish-destroying
bugs. Annual Report of the Fish and
Game Commissioners of Mass. 1886.

Distant, W. L. (1906): The fauna
of British India, Rhynchota. 3: 37.

Green, E. E. (1901) : Biologic notes
on some Ceylonese Rhynchota. Ento-
mologist. 34:113-116.

Rankin, K. L. (1935): Life history
of Lethocerus americanus (Leidy)
(Hemiptera : Belostomatidae) . Kansas
Univ. Sci. Bull. 22:479-491.

32. DEATH OF CERTAIN INSECTS ON SHRUB B1DENS

PILOSA

From a survey of literature it appears that not much information is
available on insect ecology and associated plants. Recent studies on
various groups of life forms including birds (Weed dispersal etc. — Bom-
bay Natural History Society’s Seminar on Economic Ornithology) have
thrown light on various related factors deserving attention.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

601

During field studies in Dehra Dun a fatal (to insects) relation bet-
ween a shrub of the family compositae — Bidens pilosa Linn, with butter-
flies, dragonflies and damselflies was observed. The distribution of
this shrub is throughout India. It was observed that at the time of seed
dehisence the seed spikes project around the dried flower. At the tip
of each seed spike are 1-2 mm V-shaped spines having backwardly
directed micro spines. Any winged insect sitting on these is unable to
fly off as the recurved spines hook on to its body or wings resulting
in the death of the insect thereon. In Dehra Dun region this has been
observed along the river Badal in Sahasdhara Hills and in Siwalik
forests where often quite a few insects are seen dead on this shrub. How-
ever, there is no carnivorous relationship between the plant and the
insects.

Incidentally it may be pointed out that it is this plant whose spikes
are often found stuck on clothing during trek in the forests.

Ack nowledgem en ts

Grateful acknowledgements are due to Dr. R. K. Arora, Systematic
Botanists, Plant Introduction Division, IARI, New Delhi for plant
identification; Dr. Asket Singh, O/C North. Reg. Sta., Z.S.I. Dehra
Dun, for facilities.

30-South Patel Nagar, R. K. BHATNAGAR

Dehra Dun, (U.P.),

February 20, 1974.

33. NOMENCLATURAL NOTE ON MIMUSOPS ELENGI LINN.

In view of the taxonomic studies carried out by Lam (1925, 1927, 1932)
and Van Royen (1952) on the genus Mimusops Linn., it has become
necessary to put forward this note for the benefit of Indian botanists.

Van Royen (1952) considers Mimusops elengi Linn, an extremely
variable species thereby leaving no room for distinguishing varieties or
forms of Lam. But in the western parts of the Archipelago the leaves
are larger up to 18 cm long and towards the east these decrease in size
to 6 cm length, ending in the smaller leaves of Mimusops parvifolia
R. Br.

The synonymy, in detail, is as follows:

Mimusops elengi Linn. Sp. PI. 349, 1753; Lam in Bull. Jard. Bot. Bzg,
ser. 3, 7:234, 1925; ser. 3, 8:479-480, 1927; and in Nova Guinea
14, 4:568, 1932; Van Royen in Blumea 6(3):594, 1952.

M. parvifolia R. Br. Prodr. 531, 1810; Lam in Bull. Jard. Bot. Bzg,
ser. 3, 7:235, 1925.

602 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

M. elengi Linn. var. typica ( elengi ), var. parvifolia (R. Br.) Lam,
var. brevifolia Lam and M. elengi Linn. var. typica (elengi),
forma longepedunculata (Blume in Burck) Lam in Bull. Jard.
Bot. Bzg, ser. 3, 7:235-238, 1925.

General Education Centre, G. M. OZA

Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda,

Baroda 2, -
March 25, 1974.

34. NOCTURNAL POLLINATION IN ANTIRRHINUM MAJUS
LINNAEUS BY XYLOCOPA RUFESCENS FABRICIUS

Introduction

In many regions of the World there exist a class of plants which blos-
som at night. This ‘Nocturnal pollination system’ has evolved in dif-
ferent plants of unrelated as well as related families. The study of the
evolutionary aspect of night pollination has received very little atten-
tion so far. One of the most interesting aspects of night pollination is
the role played by insects and other pollinators and the way these have
become adapted along with the evolution of the plants. In this commu-
nication, some observations on the pollinating mechanism of the Snap-
dragon ( Antirrhinum majus L.) is presented.

The plants are cultivated at a height of 4400 ft (c. 1340 m) in the
Biligirirangan Hills, near buildings. It was possible to study the polli-
nator and its plant for several hours at night. Such careful and prolong-
ed observations have excluded all other possible methods of pollination.

Description

The plant, commonly called ‘snout flower’ or ‘snap dragon’ (anti =
like, rhin = snout) belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae. It is usually
cultivated in gardens. The flowers are mildly fragrant and have an un-
common structure. They are borne on long spikes. The corolla tube is
rather large and saccate at the base. There are two prominent and curi-
ously shaped lips. On pressing these lips gently between the thumb and
the forefinger, they open wide apart due to an intricate mechanism
and reveal the variegated throat. The upper lip is erect and the lower
lip spreading. The middle lobe is smaller than the side lobes with a large
bearded palate. The flowers are of various shades of pink, rose, apri-
cot, orange, crimson, carmine, yellow, white and many gradients of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

603

colours varying from white to shades of light pink salmon, pale maroon
and many other attractive combinations of hues in one flower, have
been evolved due to intensive floriculture.

Its pollinator, Xylocopa rufescens Fabr. (commonly called the ‘car-
penter bee’; Xylocopa = wood cutter) belongs to the family Xyloco-
pidae of the order Hymenoptera. Xylocopa are the giants of the bee
world and are solitary bees. They have a heavy and stout black colour-
ed body without the pollen baskets on the hind legs. Mouth parts are
of ‘chewing and lapping’ type. Tongue long and slender. These bees
bore energetically into dead branches and trunks of trees, and enter
buildings where they bore into posts and rafters. They are nuisance
not only on account of the damage done to rafters and beams, but also
on account of wood dust and other refuse dropped out. They are usual-
ly present in forest rest houses and wooden bungalows. This species
is strictly a nocturnal Indian carpenter bee. Tunnels are more or less
cylindrical, an inch to 1.5 inches in diameter, up to 8 inches long, with
short side branches. In this, a series of cells are constructed and each
cell contains an egg along with bee bread and pollen (Tsing-Chao Ma
1938; Beeson 1938).

Pollination mechanism

The female carpenter bee starts its activity at about 7 p.m. in the
evening. The bee appears to locate Antirrhinum at night purely by sight
alone. It was found to visit white flowers more frequently than variegat-
ed ones, as possibly the white flowers are more easily seen during night.
The shape of the flower fits neatly to the landing posture of the insect
body. The insect with a high humming noise alights on the lower lip
which goes down due to the weight thus applied and the insect inserts
its head into the saccate tube. Xylocopa being chiefly a pollen collect-
ing bee, assumes a pendent position under the anthers and by vibrating
its wings slightly shakes out of the anthers the dry pollen grain on to
the back of its body. When the insect happens to visit another flower,
the stigma of that flower comes in contact with the back of the bee and
is thus pollinated.

Discussion

‘Failure’ on the part of some species of flowering plants to compete
with the innumerable day bloomers is believed to be the chief cause
for the origin of nocturnal pollinating system in angiosperms. Presum-
ably, the evolution of successful night bloomers should have been from

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

a stock of late day and dusk bloomers. From the latter would have
evolved a line of night bloomers eventually through failure to with-
stand intense competition from the vast array of strictly day bloomers.
A similar and a parallel changeover in the pollinating activity must
have taken place among certain species of pollinators as is indicative
in the Antirrhinum-Xylocopa type, where the co-adapted system is very
clear. The nocturnal pollinating system in its infancy must have consist-
ed of only a few species of night bloomers and their pollinators. But,
now the pollinating system has reached a high density and has develop-
ed advanced stages of specialization.

Ack nowledgem en ts

We express our gratitude to Dr. B. A. Razi, Professor of Botany,
Mysore University, Mysore for his kind suggestions and to Sri. D.
Ganesh, Curator, Dept, of Botany, Mysore for help in photography.

Dept, of Botany, V. BHASKAR

University of Mysore, K. GOPINATH

Manasagangotri,

Mysore, 570 006,

February 6, 1974.

References

Beeson, C. F. C. (1938) : Carpenter species of the genus Xylocopa. Rec.
Bees. Indian Forester 64:735-737. Indian Mus, 40: 265-329.

Tsing-chao Ma (1938) : The Indian

35. NEOTYPE OF FARSETIA MACRANTHA BLATT. &
HALLB. (CRUCIFERAE)

(With four text-figures)

Farsetia macrantha which Blatter & Hallberg (1918) described as a new
species from the Indian Desert, has been put in the synonymy of Far-
setia jacquemontii Hook. f. & Thoms, by Jafri (1957), although he, in
his own words “could not examine any material of F. macrantha Blatt.
& Hallb., but from the measurements given in the specific description
(F. macrantha) it fits easily within the limits of the same group” (i.e.,
F. jacquemontii sub sp. jacquemontii). While a detailed study, whether
F. macrantha is conspecific with F. jacquemontii, is under progress, a
search has been made for the type of Farsetia macrantha.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

605

Farsetia macrantha Biatt. & Hallb. Figs. 1. a flowering branch; 2. a petal; 3. a
siliqua; 4. a winged seed (based on Bhandari 507).

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

Blatter & Hallberg (loc. cit.) quoted 3 numbers of their new species
i.e.. Blatter 5785, 7300 & 7305, of which only the last two were avail-
able for comparison and study in 1954 when the author first visited
Blatter Herbarium where the entire collection of Blatter, including the
‘types’ have been preserved. Santapau (1959) while designating the
lectotypes of species of Blatter & Hallberg from the Indian Desert,
could not designate any lectotype of F. macrantha, since all the original
material has, presumably been, lost or destroyed. None of these sheets
could be traced when the author visited Blatter Herbarium again in
1960 and 1963.

This species has been described by Blatter and Hallberg from Bar-
mer rocks. Despite extensive survey of the entire Indian Desert, F. mac -
rantha has been observed only at one place i.e. behind Mataji’s Temple,
Barmer, on rocks — the type locality from where F. macrantha was first
described by Blatter and Hallberg and where the species grows in ab-
undance. This species has subsequently been collected from the same
locality (Rolla & Kanodia 1962). To the best of my knowledge none
of the material of this species has yet been designated as ‘type’. I, there-
fore, designate Bhandari 507 a ‘standard specimen’ or “neotype”, ex-
emplifying the true application of the name F. macrantha Blatt. &
Hallb. and to ascertain with certainty the sense in which the same must
be used. The specimen comes from the type locality and is in complete
agreement with the original diagnosis. For easy identification of the
species, line drawings of it have also been given (Figs. 1-4).

Department of Botany, M. M. BHANDARI

University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur,

February 2, 1974.

References

Blatter, E. J. & Hallberg, F.
(1918): The Flora of the Indian De-
sert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26:
220.

Jafri, S. M. H. (1957): The genus
Farsetia in Pakistan, India and Afgh-
anistan. Notes Roy. Bot. Garden
Edinb. 22: 210.

Rolla, S. R. & Kanodia, K. C.

(1962-1963): Studies of the vegeta-
tion and Flora of Jodhpur division,
Rajasthan State. Ann. Arid Zone. 1 :
24.

Santapau, H. (1959): Lectotypes
of the species and varieties described
by Blatter and Hallberg in their ‘Flora
of the Indian Desert’. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 56:276-281.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

607

36. CUSCUTA REFLEXA ROXB.— A RIVAL TO DENDRO-
PHTHOE FALCATA (L.F.) ETTINGSH IN HOME GARDENS

Among the phanerogamic parasites, Dendrophthoe falcata Ettingsh has
received considerable attention. Cuscuta belonging to N.O. Convolvu-
laceae is not so well known. The number of species of the genus Cuscuta
has been reported as 7 (Hooker 1885), 5 (Gamble 1956 reprint) and
8 (Shareefuddin Khan 1951). Data on parasitism has been provided
by Narayan 1956; Chavan & Sabnis 1960, and some contributions re-
garding its host range have also been made.

During 1971, 1972 due to unknown factors Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
suddenly started spreading in the Deccan from Hyderabad to Bangalore
showing itself as yellowish green, leafless, tendril like growth having a
coverage and spread. This alarmed orchard and garden owners. Fre-
quently Cuscuta reflexa has been confused with Cassytha Linn, species
belonging to N.O. Lauraceae which is also a complete flowering para-
site. The two species however can be easily differentiated from each
other. The stem tendrils of Cassytha are smaller in diameter, dark green
to rusty orange, not easily breakable (fibrous), and overall, the para-
site is not as much conspicuous as Cuscuta. Cuscuta reflexa, on the
other hand, is light yellowish (or greenish yellow) to orange, more
succulent and easily breakable, very conspicuous and may completely
cover the host plant. Frequently the vines turn self parasitic on other
branches of the parasite Cuscuta or on the same branch itself. As re-
gards the flowers and fruits, the flowers of Cassytha are yellow to cream
coloured, the fruit is glabrous, upto the size of a pea enclosed in a suc-
culent perianth tube, and crowned by its limb, with a mono-carpellary
ovary. The flowers of Cuscuta reflexa are v/hite in cymose or pani-
culate clusters, shortly pedicilate, capsules globose to conical, apiculate,
seeds 1-2. It also appears that Cassytha is more common on wild plants
than on garden plants.

Several attempts at citing the host range of Cuscuta reflexa have
been made by earlier workers and Kaushik (1970) has mentioned that
there are 90 different hosts of this parasite belonging to Angiosperms,
Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes. In addition, he added 14 new hosts
to the host range. When compared to the host range of Dendrophthoe
falcata which is nearly 330, this figure appears very small indeed. Pro-
bably clear distinction between Cassytha and Cuscuta and more elabor-
ate search of hosts might bring in many more unknown hosts.

During 1971 and 1972 when the appearance of C. reflexa became
so prolific in the cities of Hyderabad and Bangalore we came across
several hosts, among which, as far as is known to us, the following 18
are new host records. Out of these, 13 are plants which are usually
grown and maintained in home gardens and one is cultivated for oil

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

extraction ( Ricinus communis).

Table

No.

Host species

Natural order

Degree of
infestation

1.

Aristolochia bractata Retz.

Aristolochiaceae

Light

2.

Argyreia speciosa Sw.

Convolvulaceae

Light

3.

Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.

Nyctaginaceae

Very heavy

4.

Casurina equisetifolia L.

Casurinaceae

Very heavy

5.

Citrus decumana L.

Rutaceae

Medium

6.

Citrus medica L. var. acida

Rutaceae

Medium

7.

Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br.

Asclepiadaceae

Medium

8.

Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.

Ebenaceae

Medium

9.

Duranta plumieri Jacq.

Verbenaceae

Heavy

10.

Ervatamia divaricata (L.)
Burkill (Syn. Taberina-
montana coronaria R. Br.)

Apocynaceae

Medium

11.

Grewia subinaequalis DC.

Teliaceae

Medium

12.

Jasminum grandiflorum L.

Oleaceae

Very heavy

13.

Leptadinia reticulata W.A.

Asclepiadaceae

Very heavy

14.

Millingtonia hortensis Linn.

Bignoniaceae

Very heavy

15.

Ormocarpum sennoides DC.

Leguminosae

Heavy

16.

Ricinus communis L.

Euphorbiaceae

Medium

17.

Thevetia neriifolia Juss.

Apocynaceae

Very heavy

18.

Zizyphus oenoplia Thuill

Rhamnaceae

Light

Regional Research Station, (IARI), V. RAVINDRA NATH
Rajendra Nagar, S. INDIRA

Hyderabad 500 030,

References

Chavan, A. R. & Sabnis, S. D.
(1960) : On Cuscuta chinensis Lamk.
— Preliminary observation on parasi-
tism. Sci. & Cult. 25: 544.

Gamble, J. S. (1956): Flora of

Madras Presidency. Vol. II, p. 654.

Hooker, J. D. (1885): Flora of
British India IV, p. 225.

Kaushik, J. P. (1970): On Cuscuta

rcflexa Roxb. in Gwalior, M.P. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3) :663-
665.

Narayan, H. S. (1956): Diffused
type of parasitism in Cuscuta hyalina.
Sci. & Cult. 27:447-450.

Shareefuddin Khan, M. (1951):
Forest flora of Hyderabad, p. 281,
Govt. Press, Hyderabad.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

609

37. NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR INDIA FROM
KASHMIR— II

{With two text-figures)

Based upon the occasional collections made during 1968-1973 through-
out the Kashmir valley, I reported Phacelia tanacetifolia Benth. and
Sideritis montana Linn, as two new records for India (See /. Bombay
nat Hist. Soc. 69: 229, 1972). This paper adds two new composites for
India namely: (1) Aster pilosus Willd. var. demotus Blake recorded
as “escape from cultivation, chakrah 7000 ft on 29-ix-1936” on a speci-
men deposited at KEW and (2) Chrysanthemum parthenium (Linn.)
Bernh. of which one specimen collected by Falconer (1864) from
Kashmir is deposited at Kew.

The fresh specimens of these plants have been deposited at Royal
Botanical Gardens, Kew, and Blatter Herbarium, Bombay.

Aster pilosus Willd. var. demotus Blake in Rhodora 32:139, 1930.

A. ericoides Auct. (non Linn. Sp. pi. 875, 1753). [Fig. 1].

Annual herbs: Stem suberect to decumbent, upto 75 cm branched,
leafy, slightly angled towards the base, downy greyish or tomentose
towards the apices. Leaves simple, linear, filiform, upto 3.7 cm long,
tips acute; crowded towards the apices; alternate, light green, some-
what downy or tomentose. Flower heads white with purplish tinge,
generally solitary on a short leafy branch, panicled. Involucral bracts
2-3 seriate; outer ones a bit smaller up to 5 mm long; inner ones up to
7 mm long, obovate to linear, margins membranous, slightly downy
and persistent. Flowers heterogamous; ray florets 2-4 seriate, ligule up
to 1 cm, entire or bifid near the apex, female, fertile, style half as long
as the ligule with 2 small diverging arms near the apex; disc florets
purplish, tf/p/ja-seriate, corolla tube 4-5 fid, stamens 5, anthers with
obtuse bases coming out of the tube at maturity, style similar to that of
ray florets. Receptacle small, simple and naked. Achenes elongated upto
1 mm, whitish, tapering towards the base, finely hirsute; pappus white,
almost 3 times the length of achenes.

Distribution: A native of America and introduced into Kashmir.
Specimens examined: Kaul RRL 19727 (21-X-1970) Badgam Orchards,
Rare. Kaul RRL 19801 (31-X-1970) Gulmarg Forests.
Chrysanthemum parthenium (Linn.) Bernh. Syst. Verz. Erf. 145, 1800;
Aitch. in J. Linn. Soc. 18 : 69, 1880; Kitamura in FI. Afghanistan
402, 1960; Polunin in FIs. Europe 443, 1969. Pyrethrum parthenium
(Linn.) Smith in FI. Britannica 2 : 900, 1800. [Fig. 2].

Perennial branched herbs with a somewhat creeping root stock.
Stem woody below erect up to 60 cm, branched, light green, ribbed,
finely tomentose towards the apex. Leaves pinnate up to 8 cm long.

610 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

with 3-7 oval leaflets, each further divided into narrow, oval, toothed
or lobed segments, strongly aromatic; lower cauline leaves stalked, stalk
slender, as long or shorter than the leaf; upper ones pinnatifid to pin-
natisect, sessile to subsessile, glabrous or minutely pubescent. Flower
heads long, stalked, forming subcorymbose compound heads. Involucral
bracts ovate, 1-2 seriate, downy with membranous margins. Ray florets

Fig. 1. Aster pilosus Willd. var. demotus Blake (A flowering shoot), a. an in-
volucral bract; b. a disc floret; c. a ray floret; d. an achene.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

611

in a single outer row, ligules white, 3-5 fid, female, fertile or even sterile.
Disc florets many, yellowish, compact in the centre; corolla tube 3-5
fid, stamens with linear anthers, style truncate. Achenes whitish, some-
what cuneate, tapering towards the base, glabrous or minutely hispi-
dulous. Receptacle naked.

Fig. 2. Chrysanthemum parthenium (Linn.) Bernh. (A flowering shoot), a. an
involucral bract; b. a ligule; c. a disc floret; d. an achene.

24

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATIJRAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

distribution: Europe, Transcaucasia, Caucasus, Asia minor, Afgha-
nistan.

Specimens examined : Kaul RRL 19706 (15-X-1970) Majid Bagh, Sri-
nagar.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E NTS

I wish to thank Director, Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu
& Kashmir for providing necessary facilities and Director, Royal Bot-
anic Gardens, Kew for identification and comments. Prof. P. V. Bole
of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay was kind enough to go through the
manuscript.

Regional Research Laboratory, M. K. KAUL

Srinagar 190 005, Kashmir,

December 1, 1973.

38. SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM RAJASTHAN

A perusal of up-to-date literature on the vegetation of Rajasthan re-
veals that north-east, north-west, and western parts of the state have
been intensively explored so far. South-eastern plateau of Rajasthan,
which extends over Kotah, Bundi and Jhalawarh districts, has not been
given due consideration; the notable contributions from this plateau
are those of Jain & Kotwal (1960), Gupta (1965, 1966), Singh (1970)
and Maheshwari & Singh (1972).

During botanical exploration of south-eastern plateau of Rajasthan,
I noted that about 21 species, belonging to 19 genera and 9 families,
have not been recorded earlier from any locality in Rajasthan. These
species are enumerated below and each specific name is accompanied
by its field number, frequency and abundance in the area, habitat with
exact locality of occurrence and flowering and fruiting times. In the
present paper 17 new records for “The Flora of Upper Gangetic Plain”
have also been mentioned for the first time from this area and few
species have been reported for the second time from Rajasthan. Earlier
these species have been known from Mt. Abu, the highest peak of
Aravallis.

The herbarium specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of Na-
tional Botanic Gardens, Lucknow (LWG).

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala eiioptera DC. var. vahliana (DC.) Chodat (90504). Rare;
occurs in dry, rocky wastelands near Kotah. This variety differs

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

613

from nominate species in the characters of pubescence and hair-
iness. FI. 8c Fr.: August-October.

Elatinaceae

Bergia capensis Linn. (83733). Abundant on sandy and marshy banks
of streams near Jhalawarh. FI. 8c Fr.: August-November.

Rhamnaceae

Ventilago dentieulata Willd. (74408). Occasional; found on the hill-
slopes in deciduous forests at Kotah-Dam. FI. 8c Fr.: December-
April.

Caesalpiniaceae

Hardwickia binata Roxb. (91020). Rare; few plants found in the teak
forests near Atru village. FI. 8c Fr.: December- July.

Umbelliferae

Ammi majus Linn. (74009). Rare; found in patches in wet and shady
places in the evergreen forests of Sitabari (Kelwara). FI. 8c Fr.:
March-April.

SOLANACEAE

Physalis minima Linn. var. indica Cl. (90376). Rare; found in gardens
and fields near Chhabra village. FI. 8c Fr.: September- January.

Plantaginaceae

Plantago pumila Willd. (90850). Rare; weed of cultivated fields near
Baran. FI. 8c Fr.: January-March.

Euphorbiaceae

Chrozophora parvifolia Klotz. ex Schfth. (83831, 90953). Common in
drying ponds and ditches, particularly near Darah and Chhabra
villages. Plants grow in association with Gnaphalium pulvinatum
Del. FI. 8c Fr.: April-July.

Gramineae

Arthraxon hispidus (Thumb). Makino f. muriculatus Hook. (74608).
Rare; found in dry habitats on the hills near Darah. FI. 8c Fr.:
August-October.

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(2)

Brachiaria eruciformis (J. E. Smith) Griseb. (74498, 83770). Common
in dry habitats near Hindoli and Jhalarapatan. Plant is distinguish-
ed by its raceme and leaf-blades which are at right angle of leaf-
sheaths. FI. & Fr .: October-May.

B. reptans (Linn.) Gard. & Hubb. (83655). Common on wet or marshy
banks of ponds and rivers and as a weed of cultivation near Mano-
harthana. FI. & Fr. : July-November.

B. sctsgera (Retz.) Hubb. (74834). Common on the hills at low eleva-
vation in wet and shady habitats near Darah. FI. & Fr.: August-
November.

Dimeria connivens Hack. (83741). Occasional; found in grasslands and
in the forests near Jhalawarh. Sometimes confused for Dichan-
thium Will, or Bothriochloa O. Ktze. FI. & Fr.: August-Novem-
ber.

Dichanthium aristatum (Poir.) Hubb. (90131). Rare; found in dry
wastelands near Kotah. FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Eragrostis papposa (Duf.) Steud. (83633). Occasional; found in dry
sandy or rocky grounds near Nenwa village. Branches, branchlets
and glumes are tinged with purple. FI. & Fr,: June- August.

Ischaemum pilosum (Klein ex Willd.) Wight (83729). Common; found
in waste, sandy or rocky grounds near Jhalawarh and Kotah-Dam.
The rhizomes are extensive and the plant can be used in soil con-
servation. FI. & Fr.: August-December.

Oropetium villosulum Stapf ex Bor (83617). Rare; found in dry habi-
tats, chiefly in rock crevices near Darah. FI. & Fr. : August-October.

Pennisetum polystachyon (Linn.) Schult. (74456, 83778, 90153). Native
of tropics of old world. Common in dry wastelands, particularly
near Manoharthana, Atru and Kotah-Dam. FI. & Fr.: Major part
of the year.

Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumach.) Stapf (74481 74827). Occasional,
abundant near ponds and ditches near Kotah-Dam, Manoharthana
and Darah. Very close to S. glauca Beauv. which has, however,
keeled upper lemmas. FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Sorghum purpureo-sericeum (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Aschers. (83684).
Occasional; grows in dry habitats, chiefly at the foot of hills near
Eklera. FI. &Fr.: August-October.

Besides these. Cassia phyllodinea R. Br. (Caesalpiniaceae), a

native of S. Australia, has been collected from the Central Arid Zone

Research Institute, Jodhpur ( Maheshwari 14116 LWG.). Glossostigha

spathulatum (Hook, ex Wight) Arn. ex Benth. (83753; locality: Atru

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

615

village) and Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. (90997; locality: Kotah)

growing in the present area have not been reported from any part of
Rajasthan except Mount Abu. This indicates close affinity of the flora
of area with Mt. Abu, the highest peak of Aravallis.

Duthie (1903-29) included the present area in his “Flora of Upper
Gangetic Plain”, but has not recorded the occurrence of plants from
these districts. A perusal of literature on the vegetation of Gangetic
Plain reveals that following 17 species have not been previously report-
ed in the flora of Upper Gengetic Plain from this area; these species
are: Ammi majus Linn., Plantago pumila Willd., Eragrostis papposa
(Duf.) Steud., Sporobolus tenuissimus (Schrank.) Ktze., Oropetium
villosulum Stapf, Pennisetum polystachyon (Linn.) Schult., Brachiaria
erucijormis (Smith) Griseb., B. setigera (Retz.) Hubb., Sorghum pur -
pureo-sericeum (Hochst.) Aschers., lschaemum pilosum (Klein ex
Willd.) Wight, Dichanthium aristatum Poir., Arthraxon hispidus
(Thunb.) Makino, Vernonia albicans (Wall.) DC. (74614; locality:
Kotah), Argyreia sericea Dalz. (74664; locality: Kotah Dam), Nico-
tiana alata Link & Otto (74010; locality: Bundi), Fleurya interrupta
(Linn.) Gaud. (90522; locality: Kotah) and Cassia phyllodinea R. Br.
which has been very recently introduced in this country.

Department of Botany, VIJENDRA SINGH

J. V. College,

Baraut, Meerut, (U.P.),

December 1, 1973.

References

Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. (1918-
1921): The Flora of Indian Desert
(Jodhpur and Jaisalmer). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 26:218-246, 526-551,

811-818, 968-987; 27:40-47, 270-279,
506-519.

Gupta, R. S. (1965): A Contribu-
tion to the Flora of Rajasthan, lnd.
For. 97:428-439.

(1965) : Vegetation of

Kotah and Neighbourhood. Trop. Eco.
6:63-71.

(1966): A study of

Hydrophytes and Marshland Plants of
Kotah and Environs (India). Trop.
Eco. 7: 153-163.

Jain, S. K. & Kotwal, N. N.
(1960) : On the Vegetation of Shaha-
bad in Rajasthan, lnd. For. 86: 602-
608.

Maheshwari, J. K. & Singh, V.
(1972): Soliva anthemifolia (Juss.)
R. Br. ex Less. (Compositae) : An

adventive species in Rajasthan. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(2 ) :452-
453.

Puri, G. S. et al. (1964) : Flora of
Rajasthan. Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 19:
1-154.

Singh, V. (1970) : Occurrence of
Ceratopteris thalictroides (Linn.)
Brongn. in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 67 ( 2): 354-355.

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(2)

39. DESMIDS OF MARATHWADA, MAHARASHTRA

The algae of Marathwada division of the Maharashtra State have not
been studied so far. I collected 327 vials of algae from Aurangabad,
Pali, Bhir, Osmanabad, Parbhani and Nanded from Marathwada re-
gion during October 1969. The rainfall for the different places of collec-
tions varies from 50 to 150 cm. The pH of the water of the collection
spots was determined by using B.D.H. Universal indicator and is men-
tioned in the bracket immediately after the collection spots in the habi-
tats. Camera lucida diagrams of all these algae have been drawn.

In this note, sixty-one desmids belonging to the genera Gonatozygon,
Pleurotaenium, Closterium, Cosmarium, Euastrum and Staurastrum are
recorded for the first time. Closterium leibleinii Kuetz., Cosmarium for-
mosulum Hoff., C. laeve Rabenh., Euastrum spinulosum Delp. and
Staurastrum gracile Ralfs are the common taxa in this region.

Gonatozygon monotaenium de Bary
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

The cells are sometimes bent.
Pleurotaenium trabecula (Ehrenb.)
Naeg. v. rectum (Delp.) W. et G. S.
West

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. Com-
mon in a pond (8.8), Osmanabad.
In a puddle (8.4), Nanded.
Closterium incurvum Breb.

Rare. In Harsool lake (8.5), Aur-
angabad.

C. kolhapurense Kamat v. minus
Kamat

In side pools, Khadkali stream
(8.7), Pali.

C. leibleinii Kuetz.

In a side pool, Khadkali stream
(8.7), Pali. In Bindusara stream (8.7),
Bhir. In Harsool lake (8.5), Auran-
gabad. In a pool (8.4), Nanded.

C. littorale Gay

In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
C. parvulum Naeg.

In a pond (8.8), Osmanabad. In
Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad. In
Kundlika stream (8.3), Jalna. In a
streamlet (8.2), Parbhani.

C. subulatus (Kuetz.) Breb.

In a pond (8.8), Osmanabad.

C. tumidulum Gay
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In Kund-
lika stream (8.3), Jalna. In Bhoga-
vati stream (8.4), and in a pond (8.8),

Osmanabad. In a puddle (8.2), Par-
bhani.

C. venus Kuetz.

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In a

dirty water pool (8.4), and in Har-
sool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.

Cosmarium abbreviatum Racib.

In a ditch (8.6), and in Bhogavati
stream (8.4), Jalna.

C. abbreviatum Racib. f. pygmaea
Messik.

In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
C. angulosum Breb.

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In a

pond (8.8), Osmanabad.

C. angulosum Breb. v. concinnum
(Rabenh.) W. et G. S. West
In Bindusara dam (8.7), Bhir.

C. auriculatum Reins ch
Common in Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.
C. connatum Breb.

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. contractum Kirchner v. minutum
W. et G. S. West

Common in Harsool lake (8.5),
Aurangabad.

C. formosulum Hoff.

Common. In Moti talao (8.5) and
in Kundlika stream (8.3), Jalna. In
Bhogavati stream (8.4), Osmanabad.
In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
In Bindusara stream (8.7), Bhir. In
a pool (8.4), Nanded.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

617

C. garrolense Roy et Bisset

In Moti talao (8.5), and in Kund-
lika stream (8.3), Jalna. In a pond
(8.8), Osmanabad. In Harsool lake
(8.5), Aurangabad. In a pool (8.4),
Nanded.

C. geometricum W. et G. S. West
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. hammeri Reinsch

In Khadkali stream (8.7), Bhir.
C. hammeri Reinsch v. protuberance
W. et G. S. West

Common in Harsool lake (8.5),
Aurangabad.

C. hammeri Reinsch v. subbinale
Nordst.

Rare in Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.
Common in a pond (8.8), Osmanabad.
C. immpressulum Eflv. v. alps col urn
Schmidle

In a cement cistern (8.6), Auran-
gabad.

C. incertum Schmidle f. consociatum
Croadale

Common in Harsool lake (8.5),
Aurangabad. In Moti talao (8.5),
Jalna.

C. laeve Rabenh.

Very common in streams, pools,
puddles, ponds (8. 3-8. 8), Jalna, Bhir,
Pali, Aurangabad, Nanded, Parbh-
ani, Osmanabad.

C. laeve Rabenh. v. depressum
Croasdale

In Bindusara dam (8.7), Pali.

The cells are 10-10.5 n long, 10 n
broad and isthmus 3-3.2 /x broad.

C. laeve Rabenh. v. pseudooctan-
gulare Fritsch et Rich
In Khadkali stream (8.7), Pali.

C. latereprotractum Playfair
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. majae Strom
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. margaritatum (Lund) Roy et Bis-
set

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In a
pond (8.8), Osmanabad.

C. meneghinii Breb.

In Kundlika stream (8.3), Jalna.
C. moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs v.
limneticum W. et G. S. West
In a puddle (8.5), Aurangabad.

C. muelleri Schmidle

In Kundalika stream (8.3), and in
Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In a pond
(8.8), Osmanabad. In a puddle (8.4),
In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
In a puddle (8.2), Parbhani.

C. nitidulum de Not
In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
C. obtusatum Schmidle

In Bindusara stream (8.7), Bhir.
C. orthostichum Lund

In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
C. pardalis Cohn
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In a
pond (8.8), Osmanabad.

C. portianum Archer

Rare in Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. pseudobroomei Wolle
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. pseudoexiguum Racib. v. retusum
Hirano

Rare in Harsool lake (8.5), Auran-
gabad.

C. quinarium Lund
In Kundlika stream (8.3), Jalna.
C. regnellii Wille
Common in Harsool lake (8.5),
Aurangabad.

C. regnellii Wille f. minima Eichl.
et Gutw.

In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
C. regnellii Wille v. kerguelense
Krieger et Gerloff
Common in Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.
In a pond (8.8), Osmanabad. In Har-
sool lake (8.5), Aurangabad. In a
puddle (8.4), Nanded.

C. sexangulare Lund

In a pond (8.8), Osmanabad.

The present alga is slightly bigger
up to 45 fi long.

C. speciosum Lund v. simplex
Nordst.

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In Bho-
gavati stream (8.4), Osmanabad.

C. spinuliferum W. et G. S. West
In a pond (8.8), Osmanabad.

C. subglobosum Nordst.

(= Actinotaenium subglobosum
(Nordst.) Teiling)

Very common in Bhogavati stream
(8.4), Osmanabad.

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(2)

C. subtumidum Nordst.

Rare in a pond (8.8), Osmanabad.
In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. submamillatum W. et G. S. West
In Harsool lake (8.5), Aurangabad.
C. subspeciosum Nordst.

Very common in cement cistern

(8.5) , Aurangabad.

The zygospores are globose (32-
34 n in diameter) with short blunt
projections.

C. subspeciosum Lund. v. validius
Nordst.

In a side pool of Khadkali stream
(8.7), Pali.

C. transiens Gay
Common in Bindusara stream

(8.6) , Bhir.

C. triplicatum Wolle

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna.

C. undulatum Corda ex Ralfs v.
minutum Witt rock

Botany Department,

Institute of Science,

Nagpur,

July 28, 1973.

Common in Harsool lake (8.5),
Aurangabad.

Euastrum spinulosum Delp.

Common. In Moti talao (8.5), and
in Kundlika stream (8.3), Jalna. In
Bindusara stream (8.7), and Bindu-
sara dam (8.7), Pali and Bhir. In
puddles (S.4-8.6), Aurangabad, Nan-
ded and Parbhani.

Staurastrum gracile Ralfs

In Moti talao (8.5), Jalna. In Har-
sool lake (8.5), Aurangabad. In pud-
dles (8.4-8.6), Parbhani, Nanded and
Aurangabad.

S. iotanum Wolle v. tortum Teiling
In Kundlika stream (8.3), Jalna.
S. muticum Breb.

Common in a ditch (8.5), Jalna.

S. punctulatum Breb. v. ellipticum

Lewin

In a pond (8.8), Osmanabad.

N. D. KAMAT1

40. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF URTICA URENS LINN.

IN INDIA

While making plant collections from Patiala district (Punjab), I noticed
on 24-iii-1971 some small plants growing by the wayside in Baradari
Gardens, Patiala. The mild sting caused by the plant while uprooting
it gave a hint of the identity of the family (Urticaceae) to which the
plant belongs. The genus was identified as Urtica. Some plants were
again collected on 21-iii-1973 from the lawns of the same locality. The
species was identified as Urtica urens Linn, at Central National Her-
barium, Howrah. To the best of my knowledge the plant has not been
reported earlier from India and is a new record for this country. The
plant makes its appearance in the lawns and waste places in Baradari
Gardens, Patiala during spring. Specimens collected (M. Sharma 2283
and M. Sharma 3543) have been deposited in the Herbarium of Pun-
jabi University, Patiala.

1 Present address: Associate Professor of Botany, Institute of Science, Kile
Ark, Aurangabad 431 001.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

619

IJrtica urens Linn. Sp. PI. 984, 1753; Bentham, Handbook of the
British Flora 464, 1858; Hooker, The Student’s Flora of the British
Islands 350, 1878; Boissier, Flora Orientalis 4; 1146, 1879; Moss, The
Cambridge British Flora 2: 100, t. 108, 1914; Butcher, A New Illus-
trated British Flora (Pt. 1) 945, 1961; Clapham, Tutin & Warburg,
Flora of The British Isles 561, 1962.

Erect, little-to much-branched annual; stems about 10-60 cm long,
glabrous except for the stinging hairs. Leaves opposite, stipulate, long
petioled, petiole about 1. 5-2.0 cm long; lamina ovate-oblong or elliptic-
ovate, rounded or truncate at the base, about 3. 0-4.5 cm long and about
half as broad, deeply and often irregularly serrate, teeth few, terminal
oblong, acute. Inflorescence branched from the base, branches usually
in pairs and shorter than petioles, ascending or spreading; male and
female flowers intermixed in small, loose, almost sessile clusters on the
branches; the female more numerous than the male. Male: Perianth
4-partite, lobes concave, imbricate in bud; stamens 4; anthers reniform.
Female: Perianth 4-partite, segments unequal, flat. Stigma subsessile,
penicillate. Fruit compressed and embraced by the persistent perianth.

Specimens collected by me differ from the normal description in
being unbranched. This is probably due to the dry and unfavourable
conditions in which the plants were growing.

In flora of British India 5:548, 1888, J. D. Hooker has described
3 species of Urtica. All are perennial and occur on hills above 1,500 m.
Out of these U. dioica Linn, is dioecious. U. parviflora Roxb. is a much
taller plant, 90-150 cm in height with larger 5-10 cm x 2*5-6 cm leaves.
Moreover, flower clusters are on the branches of loosely spreading
panicles. The third species, U. hyperborea Jacq. is much likely to be
confused with U. urens Linn, due to the similar size of the branches
and leaves, and short crowded cymes. But the former is an alpine plant
reported from Tibet occurring at the altitude of 4 to 5000 m and can
be easily separated from the latter by its low, tufted branches woody
below and pubescent between the stinging hairs, and subsessile leaves
which are glandular-puberulous beneath.

Common Name : Small stinging Nettle (Britain).

distribution : Europe, N. Africa, Siberia, W. Asia. Introduced in
N. America. The plant is a native of Britain.

Flowers and Fruits : March- April.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Prof. S. S, Bir for providing facilities. Thanks are
also due to U.G.C. for providing travel grant to visit Calcutta and to
Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium, Howrah for providing
herbarium facilities.

25

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(2)

Department of Botany, M. SHARMA

Punjabi University,

Patiala, (Punjab),

August 7, 1973.

41. SOME NOTEWORTHY PLANT SPECIES FROM
GORAKHPUR

During our study of the flora of Gorakhpur district, we came across a
number of species which are new to the area. Of these, the following
ten species are new records for the flora of Upper Gangetic Plain.

Cleome rutidosperma DC. Prodr. 1 : 241, 1824
= C. ciliata Schum. & Thonn. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. Nat. Mat.
Afh. 4:68, 1829, ex Char.

Crotalaria pusilla Heyne ex Roth, Nov. Sp. PL: 335, 1821; FI. Brit.
India 2 : 70; Bot. Bihar & Orissa: 231.

Dentella serpyllifolia Wall, ex Airy shaw in Kew Bull.: 289, 1932.
1 D. repens (Linn.) Forst. in FI. Brit. India 3:42, 1880, pro- parte.

Dysophylla stellata Benth. in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 1:30, 1829; FI. Brit.
India 4:640; Cook, FI. Bombay 2:540.

Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit. in Ann. Mus. Par. 7:472, t. 29. f. 2,
1806: FI. Brit. India 4:630; Bot. Bihar & Orissa 4:736.

= Ballota sauveolens Linn. Syst.: 1100, 1759.

Bulbostylis capillar is (Linn.) Clarke in FI. Brit. India. 6:652: Bot..
Bihar & Orissa 5:924.

= Scirpus capillaris Linn. Mant.: 312, 1771.

Cyperus cyperoides (Linn.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 3 (2): 333, 1898.-
= Scirpus cyperoides Linn. Mant.: 181, 1771.

= Mariscus sieberianus Nees ex Clarke in FI. Brit. India 6:622, 1893;.
Bot. Bihar & Orissa 5:909.

Cyperus thomsoni Boeck. in Linnaea 46:295, 1870; FI. Brit. India
6:608; Bot. Bihar and Orissa 5:899.

Eleocharis congesta D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep.: 41, 1825; FI. Brit.
India 6:630; Bot. Bihar and Orissa 5:913.

Rhynchospora hookeri Boeck. in Linnaea 37: 621, 1873; FI. Brit..
India 6:671; Bot. Bihar and Orissa 5:930.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

621

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Professor K. S. Bhargava, Head of the Depart-
ment of Botany, University of Gorakhpur for providing necessary faci-
lities for the present study.

Dept, of Botany, M. O. SIDDIQUI

Patna University,

Patna 800 005.

Dept, of Botany, S. N. DIXIT

University of Gorakhpur,

UP.,

August 26, 1970.

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V", . ; :r; . \

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...

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Keibul Lamjao Sanctuary and the Browantlered Deer — 1972 with

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The Mountain Hawk-Eagle. By S. M. Osman . . . . . . 256

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Notes on South Indian Hepaticae — 1. By Ram Udar and

S. C. Srivastava . . . . . . . . 401

The Terrestrial Mammals of Bahrain. By Michael Gallagher and

David L. Harrison . . . . . . . . 407

.

Food-habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24 Parganas District,

West Bengal, India — V. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee . . . . 422

On a new subspecies of the Skylark Alauda gulgula Franklin in

Gujarat, India. By Humayun Abdulali .. .. 448

Algae of Vidarbh, Maharashtra. By N. D. Kamat .. .. .. 450

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural

History Society— 18. By Humayun Abdulali . . 477

Field Guide to the Amphibians of Western India — Part 3.

By J. C. Daniel . . . . . . . . . . 506

Miscellaneous Notes . . . . . . 523

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Journal of the

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VOLUME 72 No. 3— DECEMBER 1975

Date of Publication: 13-8-1976

CONTENTS

PAGE

A year of Bandipur. By H. C. Sharatchandra and Madhav Gadgil.

{With twelve figures and two plates) . . . . . . 623

Notes on the morphology and ecology of the Lesser Whistling Teal

( Dendrocygna javanica). By Eric G. Bolen and M. Kent Rylander 648

Studies on Palms: fruits, seeds and their germination in Livistona
chinensis R. Br. By T. S. Mahabale and K. M. Kulkarni.

{With a plate and 26 text-figures) . . . . . . 655

The taxonomy of Moschus (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) , with parti-
cular reference to the Indian Region. By Colin P. Groves.

{With a plate) . . . . . . . . 662

Heterostyly and breeding mechanism of Nymphoides cristatum

(Roxb.). O. Kuntze. By R. Vasudevan Nair. {With two text-figures) 677

Notes on some aspects of the biology of Pafaemon styliferus Milne-
Edwards from the Godavari estuarine system. By M. Subrahman-
yam. {With five text-figures) . . . . . . . . 683

Contribution to the umbellifers of Kashmir. By M. K. Kaul.

{With twelve text-figures) . . . . . . . . 692

Communal roosting habits of Indian Birds. By Madhav Gadgil and

Salim Ali. {With two text-figures) . . . . . . 716

Contribution to the ferns of Annapurna-Dhaulagiri Range, Central

Nepal. By V. D. Vartak .. .. .. ..728

Systematic studies on fishes belonging to the Genus Coilia Gray,

1831. By B. V. Seshagiri Rao . . . . . . 732

A contribution to the knowledge of Oriental Bruch idae.

By T. G. Vazirani . . . . . . . . . . 740

Grasses of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. By S. K. Jain, D. K.

Banerjee and D. C. Pal . . . . . . . . . . 758

New Descriptions:

Reptilia from Bhutan with description of a new species of Calotes Rafi-

nesque. By S. Biswas . . . . . . . . 774

A new species of Coreidae (Heteroptera) from Bombay, India. By Mohan

Dhotre. {With two plates) . . . . . . . . 778

A new nasute termite from South India (Isoptera: Termitidae: Nasuti-

termitinae). By M. L. Thakur. {With two plates) .. .. 781

Description of a new species of Branchinella Sayce from Sambhar Lake,

India (Crustacea-Branchiopoda-Anostraca) . By I. C. Baid. {With
five text-figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . 786

A new species of spider of the genus Ctenus (Family: Ctenidae) from

Meghalaya, India. By B. K. Tikader. {With five text-figures) . . 791

A new species of spider of the genus Lutica (Family: Zodariidae) from

India. By B. K. Tikader and M. S. Malhotra. {With five text-figures) 794

PAGE

A new species of spider of the genus Plator Simon (Family: Platoridae)
from India. By B. K. Tikader and U. A. Gajbe. (With four text-
figures) . . . . • • • • • • • • 797

A new record of the family Amaurobiidae (Arachnida: Araneae) from

India. By B. H. Patel and H. K. Patel. (With a text-figure) . . 800

Two new species of the genus Hartertia Seurat, 1915 (Nematoda: Spiru-
ridae) from Rajasthan, India. By P. D. Gupta and N. C. Nandi.

(With five text-figures) . . . . . . • • 804

A new medusa (Coelenterata : Hydrozoa) the genus Aglauropsis from
Bombay Seas. By Jacob Thomas and B. F. Chhapgar. (With two
plates) . . . . . . • • • • • • 809

A new species of Poaceae (= Gramineae), from Karnataka.

By M. R. Almeida. (With a plate) .. .. .. ..813

Ealaliopsis duthiei (Poaceae) — a new species from India. By P. R. Sur.

(With a text-figure) . . . . . . . . • • 815

A Synopsis of the genus Hymenandra A. DC. (Myrsinaceae) and a new
species from Burma. By M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri. (With a text-
figure) .. .. .. .. .. ..818

New taxa of the genus Dipcadi Medik. (Liliaceae). By D. B. Deb and

Syamali Dasgupta. (With two plates) . . . . . . 822

A new species of Ardisia (Myrsinaceae) from north-east India.

By M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri. (With a plate) . . . . 825

A new variety of Arundinella setosa Trin. from India. By G. V. Subba

Rao and G. R. Kumari. (With a plate) . . . . . . 827

Reviews :

1. Parched Earth. (G.S.R.) .. .. .. ..829

2. A Dictionary of the Flowering plants in India. (P.V.B.) . . 831

3. The Insect Societies. (R.R.) .. .. .. .. 832

4. Sarpa Parichaya. (S.R.G.) . . . . . . . . 833

5. Defences of Animals. (S.A.H.) .. .. .. 834

6. Abies and Picea. (P.V.B.) .. .. .. .. 834

7. The wild Ferns of Madras City and its immediate neighbourhood.

(M.A.) . . . . . . 834

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Record of the Bat Scotophilus temmincki Horsfield (Vesperti-
lionidae) from Rajasthan. By Y. P. Sinha (p. 837); 2. Maternal behaviour of a
desert Gerbil. By K. D. Muthana (p. 837); 3. Nesting behaviour of Mus mus-
culus bactrianus Blyth in the Laboratory. (With a text-figure). By G. S. Mann
and O. S. Bindra (p. 838); 4. A note on inter-parturition interval of some cap-
tive wild mammals. By L. N. Acharjyo and R. Misra (p. 841).

Birds: 5. Occurrence of the Brahminy Duck (Tadorna ferruginea) in Coimba-
tore District. By B. Subbiah Pillai (p. 845); 6. On the occurrence of the Red-
necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) on inland waters in Bangalore. By Satish
S. Menon (p. 846); 7. Crow-Pheasant and Finch-Larks. By A. J. T. Johnsingh

L

(p. 847); 8. A note on the Swiftlets ( Collocalia ) found in Burma. By B. E.
Smythies (p. 847); 9. Notes on the Egg teeth of the House Swift. By Charles
T. Collins and Ramesh M. Naik (p. 851); 10. On the validity of Riparia riparia
indica Ticehurst and extension of range of Riparia riparia ijirpae (Lonnberg).
By Humayun Abdulali (p. 853); 11. On the validity of Lanius schach kathia-
warensis Koelz. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 854); 12. Further note on the pair
formation of the Common Myna, Acridotheres tristis. By S. Sengupta (p. 856) ;
13. Occurrence of Bank Myna Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham) in Visakha-
patnam (A.P.). By K. J. N. G. Sankar (p. 857); 14. Curious behaviour of a
Loten’s Sunbird {Nectarinia lotenia ). By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 858); 15. Wes-
ternmost record of the Scarlet Finch Haematospiza sipahi. By Lavkumar J.
Khacher (p. 859).

Reptiles: 16. Observations on a young Chequered Keelback Snake ( Xeno -
chrophis piscator ). By Thomas Gay (p. 860); 17. A Snake-Toad incident. By
S. Biswas and L. N. Acharjyo (p. 862); 18. Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus palustris
in the Gir. ( With a photograph). By Ann Joseph, Eklavya Chauhan, Kushal
Khanna and R. Whitaker (p. 862).

Fishes: 19. Further additions to the Fish Fauna of the Chilka lake. By S. K.
Mohanty and P. V. Rao (p. 863) ; 20. New records of Prawns from lake Pulicat
with notes on their distribution. By M. Subrahmanyam (p. 866).

Insects: 21. Behaviour during ecdysis and the mode of eclosion from egg in
Lobelia ( Propeanura ) corallina (Imms, 1912) (Collembola: Neanuridae). By
S. K. Mitra (p. 868); 22. Butterflies of New Delhi (Papilionoidea). By D. G.
Sevastopulo (p. 870) ; 23. Hairy caterpillars of Banana in Mysore State. By B. N.
Viswanath and B. L. Visweswara Gowda (p. 871); 24. Occurrence of Green
striped borer, Maliarpha separatella Ragonot on sorghum in the Punjab. By G. S.
Sandhu and Ramesh Chander (p. 872); 25. A note on the behaviour of the
Dammer Bee, Melipona iridipennis D. By A. Abdul Kareem, M. S. Venugopal,
S. Sadakathulla and T. R. Subramaniam (p. 873).

Worm : 26. Ecological notes on the Indian Freshwater Microturbellaria : Mesos-
toma sp. By J. Antony Basil and R. Selvarathinam Fernando (p. 875).

Botany: 27. Occurrence of Ophioglossum fibrosum Schum. at Junagadh in
Saurashtra. By H. P. Gandhi, I. H. Kachhi and M. P. Buch (p. 878); 28. The
Status of genus Phaulanthus Ridley (Melastomataceae) . By M. P. Nayar
(p. 878); 29. Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels var. axillare comb. nov. By Ten-
jarla C. S. Sastry and K. Kashyapa (p. 882); 30. Some notes on the distribu-
tion, nature of hosts and symptoms of a flowering parasite, Macrosolen cochin-
chinensis (Lour.) Van Tiegh. in West Bengal. By Pabitrananda Ganguly and
Dulal Pal (p. 883); 31. Notes on some interesting Cyperaceae of Gujarat. By
M. H. Parabia and G. L. Shah (p. 886).

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the

year 1974-75 . . . . . . . . . . 889

Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society 897
Minutes of the Annual General Meeting ..913

ERRATA

Volume 72(3) December 1975

Systematic studies on fishes belonging to the Genus Coilia Gray, 1831
On page 737, para 4, heading

for Colia reynaldi Valenciennes, 1848 read Coilsa reynaidi
Valenciennes, 1848

Miscellaneous Note 8. A note on the Swifts ( Collocalia ) found in Burma

On page 848 para 3 heading

for Hmalayan Swiftlet read Himalayan Swiftlet

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1975 DECEMBER Vol. 72 No. 3

A year of Bandipur1

H. C. Sharatchandra and Madhav Gadgil
Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012

(With twelve figures, and two plates)

This is a preliminary report of a year’s ecological observations at
the Bandipur National Park (11° 39'N, 76° 37'E) in Karnataka.
Bandipur is a dry deciduous forest dominated by Anogeissus lati-
folia and Tectona grandis. The study area of 23 sq km supported
a population of 800 chital ( Axis axis), 90 elephants ( Elephas maxi-
mus), 20 sambar ( Cervus unicolor), 40 wild dogs ( Cuon alpinus),
over 10 panthers ( Panthera pardus) and 10 or fewer tigers ( Pan -
thera tigris) and a small number of gaur (Bos gaums), barking
deer (Muntiacus muntjak), wild pig (Sus scrofa), and sloth bear
(Melursus ursinus).

The main rutting season of chital is from May to August, the
majority of fawns being dropped between December and February.
The death rate of chital is estimated at 92 per cent for the first
year and 25 per cent per year thereafter. The fertility rate is esti-
mated at one fawn per adult female per year. Chital form large
herds of more than hundred individuals during the monsoon, but
these break up into smaller herds of five or six during the dry
season. Changes in the herd size of elephants follow a similar
pattern. The hunting behaviour of wild dog, which is the major
predator of chital is described.

1 Accepted August 1975.

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(3)

Introduction

This is a preliminary report of a year’s ecological observations at
Bandipur. The Bandipur National Park (Ho40'-H°55' N and 76°7'-
76° 52' E), covering an area of 689.5 sq km lies at the heart of an ex-
tensive forest at the confluence of Western Ghats and Nilgiris. Geologi-
cally this area is a part of the archaean crystalline rock formation of
the southern part of peninsular India. The terrain is gently undulating
with hills rising upto 1500 metres from a basal plateau at an altitude
of 1000 metres. The Nilgiri range of hills begins just south of Bandi-
pur, and rises steeply to a height of over 2000 metres within a distance
of 25 kilometres.

The National Park of Bandipur is part of a continuous forested
tract which includes the wild life sanctuaries of Nagerhole, Wynaad and
Mudumalai and the reserved forests of Moyar, Hasanur and the Bili-
girirangan Temple Hills. The annual precipitation in this tract varies
from 3000 to 1000 mm and the forest types consequently range from
moist evergreen to dry deciduous. The precipitation at Bandipur itself
is only around 1000 mm and the vegetation is largely dry deciduous.
This entire forest is very rich in wild life, with elephants, gaur, sambar,
chital, barking deer, four-horned antelope, sloth bear, wild pig, grey
langur, wild dog, panther and tiger occurring almost throughout the
tract. All of these species occur in Bandipur National Park as well, the
elephants and chital being particularly abundant.

The present account is based on a year’s field work at the Bandipur
National Park from May 1, 1974 to April 31, 1975. One of us (HCS)
has spent the entire period in field in Bandipur except for a few occas-
ional absences of less than a week. The only exception to this was in
June 1974, when a period of three weeks was spent outside Bandipur
National Park in visiting the adjacent forests. The second investigator
(MG) has spent an average of eight days a month at Bandipur through-
out the year. Early morning and late afternoon hours are regularly
spent in field observations, totalling three to four hours each day. The
work is mostly carried out on foot and the area of intensive obser-
vation is therefore restricted to a few square kilometres around Bandi-
pur Lodge. The total study area is c. 23 sq km out of the 689.5 sq km
area of the park and most of this area is visited twice a week an hour
or two at a time in the sanctuary vehicle (fig. 1). Some observations
have also been made from elephant back.

Habitat

There is no accurate record of the climate of Bandipur. The bio-
climate of the Park has been classified as of the tropical moderate type

A YEAR OF BAND1PUR

625

Fig. 1. Map of the area around Bandipur lodge in which most of the field work was conducted. The vegetation profiles.
^Jonrommatiraiiv mnresent the heieht. form and the extent of tree and shrub growth.

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

(Gaussen, Legris & Viat 1969). The mean annual temperature is less
than 24°C and the annual precipitation about 1000 mm, with a range
of variation between 750 and 1250 mm. There are heavy pre-monsoon
showers in April and May, followed by moderate rains up to Septem-
ber, and another series of heavy showers in October and November.

The vegetation in the study area of 23 sq km belongs to two broad
types. The northern half has trees of medium height (10 to 15 metres)
with an open canopy and considerable undergrowth (see fig. 2). The
major tree species of this locality include Anogeissus latifoJia, Termi-
nalia tomentosa, Phyllanthus emblica, Butea monosperma, Tectona
grandis, Terminalia bellerica, Xeromphis spinosa and Lagerstroemia
parviflora. The extensive undergrowth is made up of Lantana camara,
Dendrocalamus strictus, Gevotia spp., Toddalia asiatica, Argeria cune-
ata, Asparagus racemosus and Cryptolepis buchnani. The grasses mostly
belong to the genera Heteropogon and Themeda.

There is a sharp north-south gradient of rainfall within the study
area, the precipitation increasing as one approaches the steep climb of
Nilgiris towards the south. The southern half of the forest therefore
enjoys more rainfall and is more moist. The trees are taller, between
15 to 25 metres in height; the canopy cover is more complete, and the
undergrowth much reduced. The major tree species include Anogeissus
lati folia, Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia lati folia and
Albizzia odoratissima. There are several major streams in this area, and
the stream banks are frequented by Mangifera indica and Bambusa
arundinacea. The shrubby growth is also largely restricted to the stream
banks and includes Lantana camara, Dechaschistia crotonifolia and

Argeria cuneata.

In addition to these two major vegetation types merging into each
other, there is an extensive open grassy meadow of two square kilo-
metres with scattered scrub and trees near the Tavarekatte area. This
has undoubtedly been created in the past through human interference.
The species composition is no different for this area except that there
are a few patches of the exotic weed Eupatorium in the clearing.

The annual cycle of plant growth starts at Bandipur in March and
April with pre-monsoon showers, with the grasses coming up and a
number of trees sprouting leaves. The grasses dry up after the first flush
of growth during the dry spells that follow the first rains. By early May
there is enough precipitation for a vigorous growth of grasses and a
full production of leaves. This phase of growth continues until October
when the grasses begin to seed. With this and the onset of dry season
in late November, the availability of herbaceous matter for grazing
declines drastically. The trees flower in the dry season, beginning with

A YEAR OF BANDIPUR

627

3 ©

SH3A3W Nl AH9I3H

Fig. 2. The vertical profile, the horizontal projection and the form of the trees
in a sample area of 100 x 20 metres in the northern part of the study area.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Butea monosperma in November. Several important fruits consumed
by the herbivorous animals such as Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia
bellerica and T. chebula are produced in the dry season. The forest
fires, mostly set deliberately begin in January and burn grass over very
extensive areas. With these forest fires begins a period of acute food
shortage for the herbivores. This is temporarily alleviated by the sprout-
ing of grass with the first showers in March. The dry spells in March-
April however bring in serious food scarcity once again. This finally
ends only with the persistent good showers in late April and by early
May there is plenty of good grass for grazing.

Chital

Habitat preference :

The chital or spotted deer ( Axis axis) is by far the most conspicu-
ous mammal of Bandipur. Hundreds of them may be seen right within
the lodge grounds throughout the night. The habitat of these animals
is characteristically the ecotone between the forest and the open grass-
land. They take much less to the thicker forest with a closed canopy.
They also stick to the plains and tend to avoid hilly terrain. Associat-
ed with this preference for open grassy glades in forest is their marked
preference for grass over browse for feeding, and a tendency to rely
on social warning mechanisms rather than camouflage for predator
avoidance.

The most extensive grassy patches at Bandipur occur in the region
from Tavarekatte to the lodge and the largest concentrations of chital
occur in an area of a radius of 2 km in this part of the park. This
concentration seems to be made up of four sub-populations, namely
(i) two populations around Tavarekatte (ii) one to the southeast of
Bolagudda and (iii) one around Ministergutti. The second largest popu-
lation is also associated with extensive grassy patches near Sollikatte.
Two smaller populations occur to the north of Kekkanahalla, and around
Kolakmallikatte where the grassy areas are limited in extent (see Table
1). Chital is a very sedentary animal and the deer from each of these
areas restrict their movements to a circle of a radius of 1.5 to 2 kilo-
metres.

Table 1 gives our estimate of the total population of chital over the
study area of 23 sq km as 800, or a density of 36 individuals per sq km.
Following Eisenberg & Lockhart’s (1972) estimate of 45 kg as the aver-
age weight of a chital, this gives a biomass of 1620 kg per sq km. The
chital are however non-uniformly distributed over the total study area,
and the Bolagudda area of 2 sq km harbours a population 170, or at

A YEAR OF BAND1PUR

629

a density of 85 individuals or 3825 kg per sq km. These estimates may
be compared to 135 kg per sq km for Kanha in Madhya Pradesh,
263 kg per sq km for Wilpattu in Sri Lanka, and 3960 kg per sq km

Table 1

Estimate of sizes of chital

POPULATIONS

AT BANDIPUR

Locality

Population size

Near Bolagudda

170

Tavarekatte I

150

Tavarekatte II

70

Sollikatte

200

Kolakmallikatte

60

Kekkanahalla

100

Ministergutti

80

Total :

830

for Corbett in Uttar Pradesh (De & Spillett 1966, Eisenberg & Lock-
hart 1972, Schaller 1967).

Daily activity cycle :

The daily activity cycle of chital follows the pattern described by
Schaller (1967) for the Kanha population with periods of feeding and
social activity in the early mornings and late evenings. This population
however has the remarkable habit of congregation of daytime feeding
herds into much larger night-time aggregations. These aggregations
grow from 1700 hours onwards as the deer herds scattered over five or
six sq km for grazing move towards their favourite night-time resting
spots where they may form compact concentrations of a hundred or
more individuals. They split into smaller and smaller grazing herds in
the morning from 0600 hours onwards. The night-time resting spots
are open grassy areas. Earlier in the study period, the largest of such
open areas was provided by the lodge grounds and over 200 deer used
to congregate there at night. Considerable clearing of grasses and shrubs
was carried out later in the study period for the provision of view lines
along the game roads, and as many deer have started spending the night
in these clearings, the number of deer coming to the lodge has sharply
declined. Regardless of the number coming to the lodge, however, the
proportion of males in the night-time aggregations there has been con-
sistently lower than the proportion in the day-time grazing herds (see
fig. 3). It then appears that the males have a tendency to remain closer
to the grazing grounds.

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

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Fig. 3. The female to male ratio in the night aggregations and the day-time herds
of chital in various months of the year.

A YEAR OF BANDIPUR

631

Seasonal cycle :

Feeding

Grasses constitute the preferred food of chital which graze on them
even when the grasses are completely dry. They particularly relish the
fresh shoots of grasses, and also readily browse on fresh shoots of bam-
boo, Lantana, Phyllanthus and so on. This is supplemented by occasional
browsing on a number of other species such as Acacia arabica, Termi-
nalia tomentosa, Xeromphis spinosa, Butca monosperma, Lager stro-
emia parviflora, Barleria retusa, Vitex altissima, Cordia myxa. It is not-
able that the chital browse on the highly laticiferous, and to man, pois-
onous leaves of Calotropis gigantea. These leaves are rich in calcium,
and this may be the reason for chital selecting them.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Juf Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

MONTHS

Fig. 4. The number of pushings per hour of observation in the various months
of the year for the chital.

As discussed above, the months from May to October provide good
grazing on grass and on fresh shoots of various plants. Chital do not
have to move much while grazing in this season, and there is little crow-
ding. They graze in large herds, and it appears that their food
requirements are rather quickly satisfied, leaving ample time for
other social activities. The months from November onwards are diffi-
cult with the grasses seeded and drying, and fresh growth of shrubs
and trees over. This is however the season of fruiting, and deer feed
heavily on fallen fruit. As the season progresses, the food scarcity be-
comes very acute, especially after the forest fires in January. In this
season, particularly from January to March, the deer have to spend a
great deal of time looking for food. They move a lot from one bit to
another while feeding, and there is much jostling around for food
(fig. 4). This jostling is not restricted to males but involves females and
fawns as well. They graze in small herds, and seem to spend so much
time in feeding that they have little time or energy left for other social
activities,

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Antler growth

Males of chital grow and shed a set of antlers every year. The cycle
probably begins at the age of one year, with the first set of antlers, the
spike horns, being less than 25 cm in length. From the second year on-
wards, they grow a proper set.

MONTHS

HARD ANTLER
VELVET
SHED ANTLER

Fig. 5. The proportion of chital males in different stages of antler development
for the various months of the year.

Males in all stages of antler development are seen at Bandipur
throughout the year. There is nevertheless a distinct seasonality
in the development of antlers. As fig. 5 shows, the months of Septem-
ber to November are the months of shedding of antlers, December to
February or March are the months of growth of new antlers, and April
to August are the months of loss of velvet and a preponderance of hard
antlers.

Reproduction :

Males in the hard antler stage are sexually the most active; 90 per
cent of all sexual activity is confined to this stage. We would there-
fore expect the season of marked sexual activity to coincide with
the season of the preponderance of males in hard antlers from April
to August. As fig. 6 shows, this is in fact the case, and the rutting season
of the deer does fall in these months. The gestation period of chital
has been variously estimated to range between six to eight and half
months. The expected peak of conception from May to July must then
result in a peak of fawning between December and February.

Female chital leave the herd around the time of parturition, and
keep the fawns hidden in bushes for the first two or three Tnonths of
their life. The females periodically visit the fawns at this stage to nurse

A YEAR OF BANDIPUR

633

them, and then leave again to graze on their own. Fawns really join the
herds only after two or three months; and hence the proportion of
fawns to females in a herd would be at its height only two to three

MONTHS

Fig. 6. The number of sexual activities and aggressive interactions amongst the
chital males per hour for the various months of the year.

months after their birth. As fig. 7 shows, this peak occurs in the month
of April, and must correspond to a peak of births in January-February.

All these data pooled together provide definitive evidence for a
seasonality in reproduction of chital. These seasonal trends correspond
closely with the trends noted by Schaller (1967) for Kanha and by
Graf & Nichols (1966) for Hawaii, and contradict the statement of
Krishnan (1972). The seasonality of reproduction must have evolved
to fit in with the seasonal changes in the various environmental para-
meters such as food supply, predation pressure etc. The three critical
stages in the life cycle of a mammal are: conception and early foetal
development, parturition and nursing of the very young fawn, and
weaning and beginning of the independent feeding by the young. These
stages centre on the months of July, January and April for the chital
of Bandipur. Early foetal development then takes place under good food
supply, early nursing under great food scarcity, and weaning of the
young just as the tender shoots of grass appear in abundance. This
would obviously be optimal if the first and the third stages are the most
critical. A final resolution of this issue obviously requires much more
investigation.

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Predation :

Chital are preyed upon by wild dog, panther, tiger and domestic
dog. We have noticed chital hair in the droppings of all four predators.
Judging from the quantity of droppings seen, the wild dog is the most
significant predator of chital. It preys on all age classes and both sexes
of the deer.

Jon FeS> MorAprMoyJun Jul Aug Sop Oct Nov Dec
MONTHS

Fig. 7. The ratio of fawns to females in chital for the various months of the year.

Chital respond to the presence of the wild dogs by signalling alarm
by raising their tails and then by bunching together. These tight herds
start moving slowly away while keeping the wild dogs constantly in
view. The chital do not break into a run until the final charge of the
wild dogs. When caught, the victim gives out a long drawn wailing call.
Even at this point, the chital do not move more than a few hundred
metres from the site of the kill. They may then graze apparently totally
unconcerned while the wild dogs are feeding on the kill.

Stags with good heads of antlers also fall victim to wild dogs and
do not appear to resist in any way. When in a herd, they are the first
to run and get into the middle of a herd safely surrounded by females
and fawns on all side. One male with hard antlers about 80 cm in
length died of drowning in the Tavarekatte pond while trying to escape

A YEAR OF BANDIPUR

635

wild dogs with one of its eyes injured and with a wound in its hind
quarters.

Sex and age composition :

The chital population shows a sex ratio biased in favour of females
for most of the months (see fig. 8). In some cases the bias is extreme
and is likely to be due to a misclassification of immature males or of
adult males in shed antler state as females. Such misclassification is
especially likely in large moving herds. In addition, the bias in favour
of females may also result from a higher mortality rate amongst the
males.

There are two sources of information on the age structure of the
chital population. Juveniles less than nine month old are distinguishable
as such on the basis of size, although there is room for error. Males
growing antlers for the first time at the age of one year grow a distinct
type of antlers known as ‘spike’ antlers. The proportion of the spike
males in the population is a reliable estimate of the frequency of the
age class of one year. At its highest the fawn to female ratio is a little
over 0.5 in April. This compares favourably with the value of 0.68 for
Kanha and 0.27 for Corbett. As our estimate of the proportion of
females is probably too high, 0.5 may be taken as a minimal estimate.
This ratio reaches its lowest value of 0.1 in the month of September
(fig. 8). The proportion of spike males in the total adult male popul-
ation has the maximum value around 0.25 to 0.3.

Mortality rate

The proportion of fawns to the females drops from 0.5 in April to
0.1 in September. As there appear to be extremely few new fawns drop-
ped between April and September we may estimate the mortality over
these six months at 0.8, or at the rate of 0.26 per month. As explained
above, the fawns are probably born two or three months before April
and are mostly kept hidden in bushes. If we assume the mortality to
have been around 0.26 per month for these months also, we have the
total mortality over the first nine months as 0.91.

The proportion of one year olds in the adult male population has
been estimated at 0.25 to 0.3 from incidence of spike males. Now if we
assume the survival rate to be constant at some value p throughout the
adult life, and the population N to be stable, the proportion of one year
olds in the population is:

CO

X= O

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

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A YEAR OF BAND1PUR

63 1

^This gives the estimate of adult mortality rate at 0.25 to 0.3 per year.
Assuming this to be the rate of mortality beyond the age of nine months,
we get the mortality rate for the first year as 0.92.

Fertility rate

Chital females in captivity start breeding at an age as early as six
months and are capable of breeding at intervals of eight months after
that. The very distinct peak of fawning at Bandipur however indicates
that the females here breed roughly at the interval of one year. Most
of the nursing females are accompanied by a single fawn, and twins
appear to be extremely rare. Our computation of mortality of fawns
suggested a rate of 0.26 per month. The mortality over the first three
months may then be estimated roughly at 0.5. The ratio of 0.5 of fawns
presumed to be three months old in April to females must then derive
from an original ratio of one fawn at birth per adult female. We thus
estimate the fertility rate to be one fawn per adult female per year, or
assuming an equal sex ratio at birth 0.5 female fawns per adult female
per year.

Population growth rate

The growth rate \ of a population may be calculated by solving:

OO

1= X lxbj

O

where lx is the probability of survival to age x and bx is the number
of female offspring produced by a female of age x.

Our estimates are li = 0.08 and lx = 0.08x (OTS)*-1 for x^>l, and
bx =0.5 for x^l. We may mention 10 = 1 and b0=0 for the sake
of completeness. We then have

1-

0.08 x 0.5
0.75

0.08 x 0,5
0.75
0.79

0.75

x

X-0.75

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

The population growth rate X is thus estimated to be less than 1;
i.e. the population appears to be declining. This is of course a first esti-
mate which is subject to a number of errors. Our continuing studies
at Bandipur will hopefully enable us to verify its reliability.

Herd size and composition :

Chital is a highly social species, and the animals occur only rarely
as solitary individuals. Most of the time they occur in herds of 5-20 in-
dividuals, though herds of up to 150 animals are not uncommon. The
basic unit of the herd appears to be a female and her daughters and
perhaps granddaughters, and grandsons. Adult males are only loosely
attached to the herds made up of these matriarchal units. Adult males
also occur in bachelor herds, particularly outside the breeding season.

There are marked seasonal differences in the size and composition
of these herds (figs. 8 and 9). The herds are at their smallest in the
season of food scarcity from November to April. At this time herds
smaller than 10 including all male herds are usual, and solitary males
occur in significant numbers. The herds fragment even further at the
time of maximum food scarcity in January-February when herds smaller
than 5 animals are very common. These small herds often comprise of
females with one or two young. This picture changes radically when
the growth of grass begins with the first showers in March or April.
Animals then suddenly congregate into much larger herds. However,
if the first showers are followed by a dry spell, the grass may dry up,
and the food becomes scarce once more. This is immediately followed
by a fragmentation of the herds. Only in late April or May do the con-
ditions change more permanently with a lot of plant growth following
persistent rain. This is also the beginning of the breeding season which
lasts till August. Large herds become very frequent in the breeding
season and herds of 40-50 are commonly encountered during the day-
time. Males attach themselves to female herds and solitary males tot-
ally and bachelor herds almost vanish from the scene. The picture
changes again as the rutting season draws to an end in September. At
this time the solitary males reappear, and bachelor herds become quite
frequent. At the same time the average size of a herd decreases.

These changes in the size and composition of herds appear to be
governed by a balance between the conflicting demands of feeding
efficiency and predator avoidance, with the balance being different for
males and females. Efficiency in predator avoidance presumably in-
creases with increasing herd size. Chital inhabit open country and rely
for predator avoidance on a social warning system involving! visual
signals, warning calls and feet stamping, rather than on camouflage.
Animals in a herd are obviously less wary than solitary animals, and
seem to be less susceptible to predation. On the other hand feeding

A YEAR OF BAND1PUR

639

64 0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 72(3)

efficiency appears to decrease with increasing herd size. There is alwi/s
a fair amount of interference with each other during feeding of chid,
and a large number of animals feeding in a small area must lower ie
feeding efficiency. If these assumptions are correct, then the dema] Is
of predator avoidance should favour large herds, while those of fefi j
ing efficiency should favour small ones. The actual herd sizes must >
suit from a compromise between these conflicting demands. Whene :r
the demand for feeding efficiency becomes stronger, the comproirie
would be smaller herds, when it weakens the balance would shift )-
wards larger herds. The demand for feeding efficiency may be expecd
to increase with declining food availability. We would then expect Iji
ger herds in seasons of food abundance fragmenting into smaller he s
in seasons of food scarcity. This in fact is observed to be the case

The two sexes differ from each other in the relative importance if
feeding efficiency and predator avoidance. Chital is a polygynous sjh
cies, and as with all other polygynous species there is a fierce male-m e
competition for females. A few males at the top of the hierarchy moi -
polise mating in such species and this also appears to be the case l
chital. Since the position in the hierarchy crucially depends on physid
growth, feeding efficiency is a very significant component of gene:
fitness for the males. On the other hand, all females can and do repi-
duce and physical growth does not contribute so significantly to th r
reproductive success. The females grow to a smaller size and do rtl
have the burden of developing a fresh set of large antlers every yell
Feeding efficiency must then be much less important for the femali.

Predator avoidance on the other hand seems to be more importat
for the females. They are much more alert than the males, and me:
apt to investigate the slightest disturbance. This presumably results froli
the fact that females are accompanied by their young for much of tl:
time. Our computations of the mortality rate showed that the youifl
are highly susceptible to mortality, and this must to a large extent 1:
due to heavier predation. Predator avoidance may therefore be expec \
ed to be far more crucial to the genetic fitness of the females.

We would then expect females to have a greater tendency to pari
cipate in larger herds than males. This is in fact the case. Solitary male :
and small all male herds are much commoner than solitary females-
almost never seen — or small female herds. The males seem to attae
themselves to females chiefly for the purposes of breeding and solitai i
males or small all male herds are rare only during the breeding -seasoi
Females are almost always accompanied by fawns and this very muc
restricts their movements and that must impair the feeding efficienc -
to some extent. This is probably the reason for the tendency of the mal<
to leave the females to form, all male herds during the non-breedin
season.

■■th

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)
Sharatchandra & Gadgil: Bandipur

Plate I

Above : In the month of May 1974, towards the Base of Bolagudda
from an Elephant back. Below : In the month of October 1974, inside
the forest (about 9 km from the lodge).

( Photos : Sharatchandra )

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)
Sharatchandra & Gadgil: Bandipur

Plate II

Above : Chital; very close to lodge (July 1974). Below : Elephants; near
Yerekatte a pond which does not dry up in summer (September 1974).

{Photos: Sharatchandra)

A YEAR OF BANDIPUR

M

Chital herds seem to be fairly fluid in composition. We have however
twice observed behaviour which suggests that particular animals do
tend to stay together. In both these instances a small number of ani-
mals behaved as if they had strayed from their herd and appeared to
be searching for their missing herd. In both cases the male in the group
gave a call similar to the alarm call, but with a longer note. No other
deer responded to them. Although the deer saw several other deer, they
did not merely join the first herd encountered, but appeared to have
waited till they located their own herd.

Other behaviour patterns’.

The basic behaviour patterns of chital have been described by Graf
& Nichols (1966), Schaller (1967) and Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972),
and our observations confirm their results. The Bandipur population
however seems to exhibit a much higher incidence of homosexual
mountings both amongst males and females, and of agonistic inter-
actions during feeding, particularly amongst females. This may result
from the very high concentration of animals, particularly in the most
intensively observed Bolagudda sub-population.

Elephant

Population size:

The Indian elephant ( Elephas maximus) is the dominant mammal
of Bandipur although it is abundant only seasonally between April and
November. As figure 10 shows, the number of elephants in the study
area in the dry season from December to March remains around 40*
but increases to 300 in the wet season. The maximum density is thus
13.4 elephants or a biomass of 24254 kg per sq km, while the average
density is 3.9 elephants or a biomass of 7059 kg per sq km. This is more
than 30 times the biomass of 217.2 kg per sq km recorded for the Wih
pattu National Park in Sri Lanka. Our estimate of density is probably
too high because the elephants do wander extensively out of the study
area of 23 sq km.

While at Bandipur the elephants are concentrated around waterholes
like Tavarekatte, Ministergutti, Aralikatte and Kolakmallikatte. Their
distribution appears to be governed by the supply of bamboo, tall grass
and water. In the dry season the elephants migrate into the wetter forests
of Mudumalai and Wynaad.

Age, sex and herd composition :

Out of the total sightings of 854 elephants, 142 were adult males.

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

59 young males, 436 adult females, 74 young females and 143 calves.
This gives a ratio of 2.5 females to 1 male, and a ratio of 0.6 immatures
and calves to 1 adult female.

MONTHS

Fig. 10. The total population of elephants in the study area in the various months

of the year.

Elephant herds are composed of matriarchal units of one or more
adult females, and several immature males and females. These are un-
doubtedly family units. A herd may include several such units along
with loosely attached males. When spread out in grazing the animals
within a family unit tend to remain close together, while different units
may separate from each other. Elephants generally occur in herds of 10
or less, though herds as large as 80 may be seen. Many such herds often
come together at water-holes forming aggregations of as many as 150
animals. Males often occur solitarily, but females never do so (see figs.
11 & 12). As with chital, elephants form larger herds in seasons of food
abundance, which fragment into smaller herds in seasons of food scar-
city, and the interpretation of these changes appears to be similar to
that for chital.

The elephant herds differ from herds of chital in being more cohe-
sive, and in exhibiting co-operative behaviour to a much greater degree.
This difference is probably attributable to three factors: (i) The ele-
phants can and do actively defend the babies, while chital rely on hid-
ing them. This provides for much greater scope for co-operation
amongst elephants, (ii) An elephant baby may have several siblings
born to its mother while it is still dependent on the mother for protec-
tion, while chital mature by the time the next sibling is born, (iii) Ex-

A YEAR OF BANDIPUR

643

perience, for example, of migration routes plays an important role in
the life of elephants, while such experience is probably unimportant
for a sedentary species like chital. A mature female elephant can then
have several immature babies dependent on her to various extents ac-
companying her. At the same time, she herself may benefit from con-
tinued association with more experienced females such as her elder
sisters or mother. There is tremendous scope for the evolution of co-
operative behaviour in such a group of closely related individuals. In
elephants such co-operation seems to have developed particularly for
protection of young against predation and nursing of infants.

Female elephants are extremely alert to any source of danger, and

5 10 15 20 25 30 80

HERD SIZE

Fig. 11. The frequency distribution of herd size in elephants.

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

on the slightest disturbance come together, place the babies in between
themselves and face the source of danger. This behaviour has been well
described by Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972) and needs no elaboration
here. The phenomenon of co-operative nursing however seems to be
less well documented. Female elephants appear to continue mammary
secretion throughout their life after the birth of the first baby. Obser-
vations on tame elephants at Bandipur as well as at Mudumalai suggest

<

as in fig. 8.

A YEAR OF BANDIPUR

645

that mature females without a nursing baby allow other babies to suckle.
More remarkably, a mature tame female, Radhika, without a baby of
her own showed a swelling of her udders a week before another tame
pregnant female Ganga, gave birth to a baby at Bandipur. The swelling
of her udders was evidently a response to an impending birth in her
‘herd’. All these tame females are in fact wild caught, and are left out
in the forest for grazing every day. Their behaviour presumably closely
parallels the behaviour of the wild elephants. If this is so, co-operative
nursing must be playing a vital role in the rearing up of elephant babies
under natural conditions.

Wild dog

Population size:

Amongst the predators at Bandipur, droppings of the wild dog or
dhole ( Cuon alpinus ) are noticed in the greatest profusion, and it is
probably the major predator of chital and sambar. The actual number
of sightings of wild dogs have ranged from 61 in October to none in
June, September, November, December and April. Their distribution in
the study area appears to coincide with that of chital and sambar. Al-
though it is difficult to estimate their population, our guess based on
visual observations of packs is 40 animals for the 23 sq km area, a den-
sity of 1.75 animals or 50 kg per sq km. This is a little over 2.5 per
cent of the biomass of its major prey, chital.

Pack size and composition :

Wild dogs live in packs of 3 to 30 animals, the occasional sightings
of one or two probably being stray animals (Table 2). A lame dog was
noticed on three different occasions in the same area, once in a pack
of 30, and twice in packs of 10 dogs. This suggests that the wild dog
packs must have a certain fluidity, fragmenting and coming together
at different times.

Table 2

The number

OF SIGHTINGS OF

WILD

DOG

PACKS

Pack size

1 2 3

4

5

6

10

20

30

Number of

sightings

3 5 8

4

-

2

3

1

1

Hunting behaviour :

Wild dogs prey mostly on chital as indicated by their droppings.
Kills of chital of both sexes and all ages have been noticed. Kills of full

646 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

grown sambar also occur. Wild dogs killed a domestic water buffalo
which had been provided as a bait for a tiger on the third night of be-
ing tied. Tribals who actually witnessed the killing report that a party
of 15 adults and 15 pups feasted on the buffalo. Some droppings of wlid
dogs also showed bird feathers, probably those of the blue-winged
parakeet ( Psittacula columboides) .

Wild dogs hunt in packs of four or more, the kills being made in
early mornings or late evenings. On sighting the chital, the dogs move
towards them in a leisurely fashion in full view of the deer. Chital, in
turn, bunch and start moving away at a slow pace. The final chase when
the dogs sprint and the chital break into a run is a very brief affair pro-
bably lasting less than five minutes. A chital fawn was killed by being
bitten neatly on its jugular vein, and a stag was first attacked with bites
on the eye and anal region. The dogs consume their kill very rapidly
and leave absolutely nothing but the skull, the radioulna and the tibio-
fibula. This was the case even with the water buffalo.

Communication :

We have so far noticed four different vocalisations of the wild dog.
A dog once growled as it rushed at us on our approaching their pack
on foot. The most commonly heard call is a low metallic whistle ap-
parently used at the beginning of a hunt. The dogs were once heard to
give a sharp yapping call when in full pursuit in thick cover and in fail-
ing light. A wailing contact call was noticed to be used by dogs scat-
tered at the end of a chase. A dog actually seen giving this call stretch-
ed its forelegs fully, slightly crouched its hind quarters, and throwing
its muzzle fully up wailed thrice in succession, very much in the classic
manner of a wolf baying at the moon. This call was answered by an
identical series of wails from a nearby thicket out of which a dog rush-
ed and joined it.

Other Mammals

The other larger mammals of Bandipur include sambar ( Cervus
unicolor ), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak ), four-horned antelope
( Tetracerus quadricornis) , wild pig (Sus scrofa ), gaur (Bos gaurus),
grey langur or the hanuman monkey ( Presbytis entellus ), bonnet ma-
caque (Macaca radiata ), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), panther ( Pan -
them pardus) and of course, the tiger ( Panthera tigris). The smaller
mammals of interest include black-naped hare ( Lepus nigricollis) , mouse
deer (Tragulus meminna), giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica), porcupine
(Hystrix indica), and several species of smaller cats and mongooses.

Sambar occur in fair numbers, the study area harbouring about 20

A YEAR OF BAN DI PUR

647

individuals. They prefer thicker cover and take to hilly terrain more
readily than do chital. The numbers in a herd range from 1 to 10. They
show the interesting habit of making tunnels of about 1 to 2 m length,
1.5 m in height and 1 m in breadth in the lantana thickets in which
they spend the hotter hours of the day.

Barking deer are seen either solitarily or in twos. The four-horned
antelope are also solitary and rather rare. Wild pigs are fairly numerous
and once a sounder of over 100 pigs was noticed fleeing a forest fire.
There are six bisexual troops of 10 to 20 grey langurs in the study area.
Chital regularly associate with them when the Phyllanthus emblica is
in fruit to feed on the leaves and fruit dropped on the ground by the
monkeys. There seems to be just one troop of bonnet macaques. Only
occasional solitary bull gaur were seen in the study area till April 1975,
mostly in the region bordering Mudumalai. A larger herd of 30 to 40
moved into Bandipur in late April 1975. Panther have been sighted five
times, and the tiger only once over the entire year. The pugmarks of
both are of course noticed much more frequently. Although it is diffi-
cult to hazard a guess, we believe that there are eight to ten tigers, and
a somewhat larger number of panthers visiting the study area at least
from time to time.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the trustees of the Indian National Appeal of
the World Wildlife Fund for their financial support, to the authorities
of the Karnataka State Forest Department for the facilities given, and
to the authorities of the Indian Institute of Science for helping us in
many ways. The personal interest taken in our work by Shri Zafar
Futehally, Shri M. A. Parthasarathy, Shri D. G. Wesley, Shri K. T.
Ganapathi, Shri J. C. Daniel and Dr. V. D. Vartak and Dr. Salim Ali
has been a source of great encouragement. We have benefitted much
from discussions with our colleagues in the Institute, particularly Shri
V. K. Nair and Shri S. N. Prasad.

References

De, R. C. & Spillett, J. J. (1966):
The chital in Corbett National Park,
U.P. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63(3):
576-598.

Eisenberg, J. F. & Lockhart, M.
(1972) : An ecological Reconnaissance
of Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka.
Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
No. 101, pp. 118.

Graf, W. & Nichols, L. (1966):

The Axis deer in Hawaii. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 63(3) : 629-7 34.

Gaussen, Legris, P. & Viat
(1969) : Vegetation maps. ICAR.

Krishnan, M. (1972): An ecologi-
cal survey of larger mammals of pen-
ninsular India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 69 ( 3):469-501.

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The Deer
and the Tiger. Chicago, pp. 370.

Notes on the morphology and
ecology of the Lesser Whistling
Teal ( Dendrocygna javanica)1

Eric G. Bolen'2 and M. Kent Rylander3

Problems associated with ecological isolation have long been central to
evolutionary biology, as noted in the comprehensive review by Lack
(1971). Moreover, among the waterfowl family Anatidae, the basic
ecology of the eight species of whistling or tree ducks ( Dendrocygna
spp.) remains relatively unknown despite some studies of the New
World species. Accordingly, we earlier developed a model and analysis
that correlated morphological and ecological features for two species
of whistling ducks sympatric in North America (Rylander & Bolen
1970). Among the features analyzed was the disproportionately larger
foot size, as measured by middle toe length, for the otherwise smaller
Fulvous Whistling Duck ( D . bicolor) in comparison with the Black-
bellied Whistling Duck (D. autumnalis).

Siegfried (1973) subsequently examined a second sympatric pair of
whistling ducks in Africa, D. bicolor and the White-faced Whistling
Duck ( D . viduata), and found a similar divergence in foot size consis-
tent with his observations of their respective ecological roles (i.e. diver-
gence in the extent of their aquatic feeding habits). We later were able
to demonstrate a comparable situation for two additional species sym-
patric in Australia (Bolen & Rylander 1974). Our model was also ap-
plied to the feeding apparatus and gaits of the Australian and North
American species (Rylander & Bolen 1974a, b), including phenetic data
suggesting parallel evolution between D. autumnalis in North America
and the Plumed Whistling Duck ( D . eytoni) in Australia.

As D. bicolor and the Lesser Whistling Teal ( D . javanica ) occur
sympatrically throughout much of the Indian subcontinent, and thus
represent still another example for study, we wish now to report on the
foot morphology of the latter species, to compare these data with its
Indian congener, and to offer suggestions concerning the ecological
isolation that perhaps affected this pair of species.

1 Accepted November 1974.

2 Rob and Bessie Welder Wildlife Foundation, Sinton, Texas 78387, U.S.A.

3 Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas
79409, U.S.A.

LESSER WHISTLING TEAL DENDROCYGNA JAVANICA 649

Methods

Twenty-seven D. javanica specimens housed at the Bombay Natural
History Society were measured with vernier calipers for tarsal, middle
toe, and exposed culmen lengths. Except for one specimen from Sri
Lanka, all specimens were collected in India.

Unfortunately, published ecological data are scarce for D. javanica.
Scattered references dealing qualitatively with food habits and nesting
have necessarily been used in this report in lieu of quantitative infor-
mation. Similarly, the habits of D. bicolor are not well known in India
although approximations concerning this species’ foods and nesting
ecology may be reasonably drawn from studies elsewhere in its range.

Results

Mean linear dimensions for D. javanica appear in Table 1. These
data well reflect the size of this species as the smallest among the eight
species in the genus. Delacour (1954:44) provides the following addi-
tional size data (mm) for an unspecified number of birds:

wing: 170-204 tail: 53-55 culmen: 38-42 tarsus: 40-50

Table 1

Mean linear measurements (mm) for 27 Lesser Whistling Teal

( D . javanica) 1

Feature

Adults2 (N = 16)

Immatures3 (N =

11)

All

1 ^
B

§

1

1 ^

27)

Culmen

41.5

(39.0-45.7)

1.9

39.7

(37.1-42.6)

1.4

40.7

(37.1-45.7)

1.9

Tarsus

45.7

(42.7-48.6)

2.0

45.2

(41.3-48.2)

1.8

45.5

(41.3-49.8)

1.9

Middle toe

60.3

(55.5-63.8)

2.1

60.0

(56.5-64.1)

2.2

60.2

(55.5-64.1)

2.1

1 Data shown are mean, range, and standard deviation.

2 Includes 5 males, 6 females and 5 unsexed birds.

3 Includes 6 males, 4 females and 1 unsexed bird.

The diminutive stature of D. javanica can be further appreciated
when it is compared with Delacour’s (1954:43) measurements (mm)
of the Black-bellied or Cuban Whistling Duck ( D . arborea), the largest
of the genus:

wing: 230-270 tail: 100-105 culmen: 45-53 tarsus: 62-75
Whereas comparisons of linear data for sympatric pairs of whistling
ducks in Australia, North America, and Africa uniformly show that
one species in each pair has a disproportionately larger foot than the
second and otherwise larger member of each pair, a similar comparison
between the whistling ducks sympatric in India does not show this re-
lationship (Table 2). D. javanica is about eight to nine-tenths the size

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

of D. bicolor, including foot size as measured by middle toe length. In
other words, neither of these two species is morphologically better suit-
ed for aquatic life than the other, if we apply the criterion established
for the other pairs of whistling ducks shown in Table 2. Thus, D. java-
nica and D. bicolor are not ecologically isolated by morphological dif-
ferences related to securing food in different habitats (meadows, fields
and shallow water vs. deep water), a strategy seemingly employed else-
where among other sympatric pairs (Bolen & Rylander 1974; Siegfried
1973).

Table 2

Proportionate sizes between four sympatric pairs of whistling ducks

Feature

Africa1

North America2

Australia3

India4

D. bicolor/

D. bicolor /

D. arcuata j

D. javanica 1

D. viduata

D. autumnalis

D. eytoni

D. bicolor

Wing

0.94

0.88

0.92

0.88 (0.87)°

Culmen

0.92

0.88

5

0.87 (0.88)

Tarsus

0.97

0.89

0.88

0.82 (0.89)

Middle toe

1.15

1.03

1.18

0.90 (0.92)

1 Analyzed by Siegfried (1973) based on measurements of 10 of each species
except for middle toe where 7 bicolor and 8 viduata were examined.

2 Analyzed by Rylander & Bolen (1970) based on measurements of 21 autiun-
nalis examined by Bolen (1964) and 28 bicolor measured by Friedmann (1947).

3 Analyzed by Bolen & Rylander (1974) based on measurements of 3 arcuata
and 6 eytoni, plus wing data from birds examined by Frith (1967).

4 Data from 27 javanica shown in Table 1. First column, below, uses bicolor
measurements from Rylander and Bolen (1970); second column, in parenthesis,
uses bicolor measurements . from Siegfried (1973).

5 The bill of eytoni is remarkably short, and singularly dissimilar from any of
the other 7 species of Dendrocygna; this precluded use of culmen measure-
ments as a useful indicator of size relationships in this instance.

0 Wing size was determined from the unweighed average (187 mm) of the ex-
treme measurements (170-204 mm) listed by Ali & Ripley (1968:139) for
javanica.

We therefore suggest a second strategy leading to ecological isola-
tion, namely that D. javanica and D. bicolor, while in fact exploiting
the same habitats with similar swimming and diving capabilities, secure
vastly different foods. This strategy is rather common, accounting for
fully 48 per cent of the isolation among European waterbirds as com-
pared with 19 per cent frequency where isolation is maintained by no
contact at all or 18 per cent where habitat selection provides the ecologi-
cal barrier (Lack 1971:125, Table 18).

LESSER WHISTLING TEAL DENDROCYGNA JAVANICA 651

Intrageneric peiylogeny

In each of the geographic comparisons shown in Table 2, with the
exception of India, no species within any sympatric pair are known to
be particularly close in their phylogeny. For example, D. autumnalis
and D. bicolor were shown to be rather distantly related in a correlation
phenogram employing 35 presumably non-adaptive features (Rylander
& Bolen 1974a). However, in the present analysis, a close phylogenetic
relationship may exist between D. bicolor and D. javanica (and also
including D. arcuata). These three species perhaps form a superspecies
complex as first suggested by Ripley (1945). The similarity in their
body proportions, with particular regard to the ecological implications
of their respective toe/ tarsus ratios, is shown in Table 3. Accordingly,
one might expect a priori that D. javanica and D. bicolor, if not diverg-
ing greatly in appearance and form, may have nonetheless done so in
their food habits, thus fostering the second strategy of ecological isola-
tion previously mentioned.

Table 3

Proportions among linear dimensions for 3 closely-related species of

Dendrocygna

Ratio

D. arcuata 1

D. bicolor 2

D. javanica

Wing /tarsus

4.1

3.8 (4.1)

4.1s

Wing / toe

3.3

3.2 (3.3)

3.1

Toe / tarsus

1.3

1.2 (1.3)

1.3

1 Analyzed by Bolen and Rylander (1974).

2 First column, below, uses bicolor measurements* from Rylander and Bolen
(1970); second column, in parenthesis, used bicolor measurements from Sieg-
fried (1973).

3 Wing size was determined from the unweighed average (187 mm) of the ex-
treme measurements (170-204 mm) listed by Ali & Ripley (1968:139) for
javanica.

Comparative ecology

D. bicolor : This is one of the better-studied species of whistling
ducks, perhaps because of its extensive distribution in North and South
America, Africa, and portions of Asia. Rylander & Bolen (1970) noted
the disproportionately large foot of this species and suggested that this
feature was in keeping with its aquatic associations; the gait of
D. bicolor, also quantitatively studied, is distinctively unlike the cur-
sorial species of whistling duck (Rylander & Bolen 1974a).

652 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Inconsistences appear in the literature regarding the nesting habits
of D . bicolor. Perhaps these are due to ecological variation throughout
its vast range (even though there are no acceptable geographical races).
In any case, D. bicolor does not nest in trees or even perch on branches
in Texas, California and Louisiana but instead nests in rice fields or
dense clumps of marsh grasses (Dickey & Van Rossem 1923; Meanley
& Meanley 1959; Cottam & Glazener 1959). Yet in India, Ali & Ripley
(1968:140) described their nests as roughly built of sticks in hollow
trees or in the forks of branches or, as with D. javanica, in abandoned
nests of kites and crows.

The food of D. bicolor in India is not documented in the literature
available to us. Elsewhere, their food consists of the seeds of grasses
and sedges, and, in season, commercial rice ( Oryza sativa). Paspalum,
Echinochloa, and Fimbristylis each comprised 45 per cent or more of
the spring and fall foods examined by Meanley & Meanley (1959) in
Louisiana; no animal foods were reported. Moreover, our analysis of
this species’ bill structure indicated that food was secured by sieving
action (Rylander & Bolen 1974b), presumably in the quest of seeds.

D. javanica : This small and interesting bird seemingly possesses
traits found in one or more of the other species of Dendrocygna as well
as some uniquely its own. Ali (1969:40) and Ali & Ripley (1968:138)
note that the species perches freely in trees yet walks and dives well.
Henry (1955:411) similarly observes that it walks well on land, with a
slight waddle, but that the birds’ “true home is in the water where it
swims powerfully and dives readily— both in play and for food— des-
cending to at least 6-8 feet and remaining submerged for many seconds
on occasion.”

There are regrettably only general accounts of this species’ nesting
habitat and these, again, indicate a remarkable amplitude. For example,
Whistler (1949:523) reports nests on the ground or slightly elevated
in masses of dense herbage whereas the “ordinary nest is in a tree, either
in the deserted nests of crows and kites, or in hollows in the trunks and
branches or between the boughs.” Ali & Ripley (1968:139) also note
the foregoing and add that nests among reeds and scrub bordering a
jheel are fairly substantial pads of leaves, rushes, and grass.

The foods of D. javanica , like the sites of its nests, again sets this
species apart from what is known of other dendrocygnid food habits.
However, there has been no systematic study of a series of stomach or
crop contents from any portion of D. javanica s range. Dharmakumar-
sinhji (n.d., p. 100) reports that plant materials as well as fish and insects
are secured by upending or diving. Worms, snails, fish, and even frogs
and other animal matter are listed by Ali (1969:40) in addition to shoots
and grain. In Ceylon, Henry (1955:411) cites that whereas a vegetable
diet seems preferred, large quantities of molluscs are devoured. D. java -

LESSER WHISTLING TEAL DENDROCYGNA JAVANICA 65§

nica may graze “like a goose” yet it also eats rice and small fish, frogs,
and worms and snails (Ali & Ripley 1968:139). Baker (1908:103)
noted that large quantities of a brittle-shelled freshwater snail are ingest-
ed, an observation he undoubtedly made from birds taken during the
hunting season. Most authors remark, rather emphatically, that the flesh
of D. javanica is rank and unpalatable, seemingly from the flavour in-
duced by the heavy utilization of animal matter in the diet.

In summary, D. bicolor and D. javanica appear to have somewhat
similar nesting habits, at least in India where nests in trees or in marsh-
lands are employed. The nests of D. bicolor are “very like that of lesser
whistling teal” (Ali & Ripley 1968:140). However, in the New World,
as in Africa (Roberts 1958:52), D. bicolor seldom, if ever, perches or
nests in trees and instead nests in marshlands. Both are good divers and
swimmers. An important difference may be in the utilization of animal
foods by D. javanica whereas D. bicolor feeds exclusively on the seeds
of aquatic grasses and weeds.

Conclusion

Our examination of foot structure, as measured by middle toe
length, for the two closely-related species of whistling ducks occurring
sympatrically throughout much of India indicates that D. bicolor and
D. javanica exhibit no obvious morphological advantages, one over the
other, for aquatic locomotion (cf. Bolen & Rylander 1974). Accord-
ingly, we suggest that these species remain ecologically isolated because
of differences in food habits with one ( D . javanica) selecting large quan-
tities of animal matter and the other ( D . bicolor) utilizing seeds of
marsh plants. However, we stress the need for a quantitative account
of stomach and/or crop contents of both species in India so that the
matter may be resolved with more clarity. Thereafter a detailed anato-
mical examination of the feeding apparatus of D. javanica might further
explain the means by which ecological isolation is maintained (cf. Good-
man & Fisher 1962; Rylander & Bolen 1974b). Moreover, the intri-
guing nesting habits of both species, particularly the utilization of ab-
andoned platform nests of herons and other species requires orderly
investigation.

Ack nowledge men ts

We express our appreciation to the Bombay Natural History Society
for permission to examine their specimens. Special thanks go to Salim
Ali, Robert Grubh, S. A. Hussain and Humayun Abdulali for their

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

many accommodations to us while visiting the Bombay area in 1973.
We deeply appreciate invitation of Zafar Futehally and J. C. Daniel
to work under the auspices of the Bombay Natural History Society.

References

Ali, Salim (1969): Birds of Kerala.
Oxford Univ. Press, London.

& Ripley, S. D. (1968) :

Handbook of the birds of India and
Pakistan, Vol. 1. Oxford Univ. Press,
London.

Baker, E. C. S. (1908) : The Indian
ducks and their allies. Bombay Nat-
ural History Society, Bombay.

Bolen, E. G. (1964) : Weights and
linear measurements of black-bellied
tree ducks. Texas J. Sci. 16(2) : 257-
260.

& Rylander, M. K.

(1974): Foot adaptations in four spe-
cies of whistling duck Dendrocygna.
Wildfowl 25:11-13.

COTTAM, C. & GLAZENER, W. C.
(1959) : Late nesting of water birds in
south Texas. Trans. N. A. Wildl. Conf.
24: 382-395.

Delacour, J. (1954): The water-
fowl of the world, Vol. 1. Country
Life Ltd., London.

Dharmakumarsinhji, R. S. (n.d.) :
Birds of Saurashtra. Times of India
Press, Bombay.

Dickey, D. R. & van Rossem, A. J.
(1923): The fulvous tree duck of

Buena Vista Lake. Condor 25(2): 39-
50.

Friedmann, H. (1947): Geographic
variations of the black-bellied, ful-
vous, and white-faced tree ducks, ibid.
49(5) : 189-195.

Frith, H. J. (1967): Waterfowl in
Australia. East-West Center Press,
Honolulu.

Goodman, D. C. & Fisher, H. I.
(1962) : Functional anatomy of the
feeding apparatus in waterfowl. Sout-
hern Illinois Univ. Press, Carbondale,
Illinois.

Henry, G. M. (1955): A guide to
the birds of Ceylon. Oxford Univ.
Press, London.

Lack, D. (1971): Ecological isola-
tion in birds. Harvard Univ. Press,
Cambridge, Mass.

Meanley, B. & Meanley, A. G.
(1959) : Observations on the fulvous
tree duck in Louisiana. Wilson Bull.
77(1): 33-45.

Ripley, S. D. (1945): A revision
of the ducks. (A review). Auk 62(3):
466-467.

Rylander, M. K. & Bolen, E. G.
(1970) : Ecological and anatomical ad-
aptations of North American tree
ducks. Auk 87(1) : 72-90.

& —

(1974a) : Analysis and comparison of
gaits in whistling ducks (Dendro-
cygna). Wilson Bull. 86(3) : 237-245.

&

(1974b): Feeding adaptations in whist-
ling ducks (Dendrocygna) . Auk 91
(1): 86-94.

Siegfried, W. R. (1973): Morpho-
logy and ecology of the southern Afri-
can whistling ducks (Dendrocygna).
Auk 90(1): 198-201.

Whistler, H. (1949): Popular

handbook of Indian birds. Oliver and
Boyd, Edinburgh and London.

Studies on Palms : fruits, seeds
and their germination in
Livistona chinensis R. Br.1

T. S. Mahabale2

AND

K. M. Kulkarni3
{With a plate and 26 text-figures)

Introduction

Many palm fruits and seeds are found in the Tertiary deposits of dif-
ferent countries. Fruits are called Palmocarpon and the seeds Palmo-
spermum. Some palms like Sabal are represented by fragmentary
leaves as well as by seeds. In London Clay Flora, Reid & Chandler
(1933) found remnants of Livistona, called by them as Livistona mini-
ma. The fossil seeds are smaller than that of any live species of Livis-
tona today.

By close and careful observation of the form and size of seed itself,
form and position of hilum, raphe and chalaza, position of the embryo,
presence or absence of rumination, nature and structure of the testa,
and especially by studying the combination of these characters, it is pos-
sible to distinguish between seeds of many genera to a considerable
degree of certainty. To identify fossil fruits and seeds of palms study
of the living genera is absolutely essential (Mahabale 1950). With this
aim in view anatomy of different palm fruits such as Nypa, Hyphaene,
Sabal, Caryota, Cocos, Licuala, Rhapis, Phoenix, Ptychosperma etc. has
been investigated by us.

Anatomy of palm fruits in general is very meagrely known. Juliano
(1926) described the development of stony layer in the fruits of Cocos
nucifera. Lang (1943) has described the developmental anatomy in
P. dactylifera. Recently Mahabale (1965) described anatomy of fruits
in Cocos nucifera, Phoenix sylvestris, Licuala grandis, Caryota urens,
etc. He has also described a small palm fruit called Palmocarpon in -

3

1 Accepted June 1972.

2 Maharashtra Association for Cultivation of Science, Poona 4.

3 Botany Department, University of Poona, Poona 7.

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo\. 72(3)

signe resembling small-seeded Cocos, C. plumosa and C. coronata
(Mahabale 1950, 1965). Biradar & Mahabale (1969) have described
the anatomy of fruit in six species of Phoenix as seen in T.S. passing
through the middle part of mature fruit and seed.

Description

Morphology. — The fruits in the genus Livistona are drupes with
thin bluish-green epicarp, fleshy mesocarp and stony endocarp. In
L. chinensis the fruit is about 2x3 cm. In L. jenkinsiana it is more or
less spherical and measures about 2.5 cm in diameter. Of the three car-
pels only one grows to maturity and forms a single seeded fruit. The
calyx is persistent (Text Figs. 1-2, 9, PI. Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5). The abortive
carpels are seen at times as two small black projections on persistent
calyx on one side of the fruit.

A T.S. passing through the middle part of the fruit shows — (i) Epi-
carp consisting of (a) epidermis and (b) hypodermis, (ii) mesocarp,
(iii) stony endocarp, (iv) seed coat and (v) endosperm (Text Fig. 5).

Epicarp. — The epidermis consists of rectangular to cubical cells
with a thin layer of cuticle on them. The hypodermis is made up of 2-5
layers of compactly arranged oval cells containing chloroplasts (Text
Figs. 4, 5, PI. Fig. 7).

Mesocarp. — The mesocarp can be roughly divided into two zones.
The outer zone consisting of loosely arranged cells containing fibrovas-
cular bundles and mucilage sacs here and there. The mucilage sacs
are irregular in shape and are usually surrounded by radiating cells of
parenchyma (Text Fig. 5). Isolated as well as groups of pitted scleren-
chyma cells are scattered in this zone (Text Figs. 5-8, PI. Figs. 7, 9,
10, 11). The inner zones consist of layers of somewhat compactly ar-
ranged cells abutting on the endocarp. They are oval or tangentially
elongated. Mucilage sacs are rare. Large fibrovascular bundles, en-
sheathed by well developed fibrous cap, are found in the inner zone of
the mesocarp. They have a large patch of pholem xylem composed of
angular vessels and protoxylem (Text Fig. 5, PI. Figs. 7, 8).

Endocarp. — The endocarp is stony and is composed of 6-8 layers
of stone cells having highly sclerotic walls. The inner layers of endocarp
which are adjacent to seed coat are somewhat compactly arranged.

Seed coat. — The seed coat is formed by both the integuments and
in T.S. shows 5-8 layers of homogenous thick-walled elongated cells
(Text Fig. 5).

Endosperm. — Endosperm completely fills the seed cavity at mat-
urity. Its cells are compactly arranged and are radially elongated. They
contain numerous oil globules (PI. Fig. 12).

STUDIES ON PALMS — LIVISTONA CHINENSIS

65 1

Text Figs. 1-10. Livistona R. Br. Anatomy of fruit in L. chinensis and

L. jenkinsiand.

Fig. 1. L. chinensis. Entire fruit showing the persistent calyx-^ra x 1.2. Fig. 1-.
L. chinensis. Entire fruit showing a furrow on the ventral side x 1.2. Fig. 3.
L. chinensis. T.S. of fruit showing the pericarp — perc, seed with endosperm—^
end, and chalazal portuberance — cpr x 2. Fig. 4. L. chinensis L.S. of fruit. Epi-
carp — epc, mesocarp — mcp, endocarp — enp, endosperm — end, and embryo — emb
X 2. Fig. 5. L. chinensis. T.S. of fruit showing epicarp — epc, mesocarp — mcp,
endocarp — enp, seed coat — sc, and endosperm — end: Note the pitted sclerenchyma
cells — scl, fibrovascular bundles — fvb, and mucilage sacs — mcs in the mesocarp.
Figs. 6-8. L. chinensis. Pitted sclerenchyma cells from the mesocarp x 200. Fig.
9. L. jenkinsiana. Fruit with a furrow on the ventral side x‘1.2. Fig. 10. L. jen-
kinsiana. T.S. of fruit showing the embryo — emb and chalazal protuberance —

cpr x 2.

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Ruminations. — Chalazal ruminations of protuberances in the seed
are very prominent in both the species, Livistona chinensis and L. jen-
kinsiana. They occupy almost 1/3 the seed cavity and are supplied by
vascular traces (Text Figs. 3, 4, 10, PL Figs. 3, 6). Sometimes these
protuberances proliferate quite vigorously and reach even the embryo.
Such chalazal protuberances are seen in other species of Livistona also,
and in many members of the Sabaleae like Sabal, Licuala, etc.

Germination of seed and seedling morphology. — Seeds in the genus
Livistona are oblong, hard and stony (Text Figs. 11, 12, PI. Figs. 13-
21). They germinate quite readily. The seeds sown with fleshy meso-
carp germinate very slowly. The mesocarp probably creates some sub-
stance which retard their germination and growth. The fresh seeds of
Livistona chinensis were sown about 5 cm below the surface of well
manured soil. A few seeds were taken out each time to study different
stages in germination at stipulated intervals.

The embryo of Livistona has two seed or cotyledonary leaves one
of which is rather very small and rudimentary. As the seed germinates
its minute embryo grows and forms cotyledonary leaves which do not
expand into green assimilatory leaves, but remain partly or wholly
underground. The germination is hypogeal. In it the much modified
parts of the cotyledon corresponding to the blade, petiole and cylin-
drical sheath of a normal leaf can often be recognised (Text Figs. 22,
24, PI. Figs. '26, 27).

Apex of the larger cotyledon corresponding to the leaf blade re-
mains embedded in the endosperm or the food reserve of the seed. It
functions as a suctional organ or an haustorium. The surface layers of
the haustorium secrete enzymes which convert the endosperm into
soluble substances which pass through the cotyledon and nourish the
seedling till it is capable of independent growth (Text Figs. 13, 21-23,
PL Figs. 13-15, 24-26).

The suctorial organ goes on enlarging till it occupies the entire space
within the seed, formerly filled by endosperm. When dissected out of
seed, it resembles a small peltate leaf (Text Fig. 17). The cotyledonary
sheath elongates 6-10 cm in length. As a result the under-developed plant-
let plumule is carried well below the soil surface (Text Figs. 13, 14, PL
Figs. 14-17, 21, 22, 23, 26). Eventually the first young leaves of the
seedling grow out through a long narrow oblique depression. The first
root, the radicle, appears before the plumule. The rudiments of this
first root are present in the embryo ensheathed by cotyledonary tissues
(Text Figs. 24, 25, PL Figs. 26, 27). As it grows, it bursts through the
base of the cotyledonary sheath and appears as a prolongation of the
cotyledonary organ. The radicle persists for a limited period and is re-
placed by adventitious roots. As in all monocotyledons, it is incapable
of growth originating from the base of the developing stem. The first

STUDIES ON PALMS — LIVISTONA CHINENSIS

659

Figs. 11-13. Early stages in germination. Cotyledonary tube — c.t coming out of
the seed x 3/4. Fig. 14. Bulged cotyledonary tube indicating increase in the
size of the plumule x 3/4. Figs. 15-16. Production of the pointed protective
sheath — prs X 3/4. Fig. 17. Haustorial organ — hst dissected out at the same
stage x 3/4. Figs. 18-20. Further stages in germination till the first green leaf is
produced — grl x 3/4. Fig. 20 x N.S. : Note the ligule — lig and the protective
sheath — prs. Fig. 21. L.S. of fruit showing the position of the embryo — emb, and
the endosperm — end x ly. Figs. 22-23. L.S. of the germinating embryo x 10;
Plumule — pi coming out of the cotyledonary tube — cl, while a part of the em-

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

bryo remaining inside serving as an haustorium— hst. Figs. 24-25. L.S. of coty-
ledonary tube — ct showing the formation of protective sheath — prs x 15. Fig. 26.
L.S. of the cotyledonary tube showing the formation of the first green leaf — grl
inside the protective sheath— prs, and the radicle — r x 15.

plumular leaf consists of a protective sheath only and is without a green
blade. Its apex is rigid and pointed and very effective in penetrating
through the soil to the surface (Text Figs. 15-17, PI. Figs. 18, 19). Sub-
sequent leaves are also first enveloped by this sheath, but eventually their
green blade expands and comes above the soil surface (Text Figs. 18-20,
PI. Fig. 20). A tubular structure known as ligule is produced by the pro-
liferation of cells around the mouth of the cotyledonary sheath. Accord-
ing to Gatin’s classification (1906) the germination of this palm is of
the ‘ Remotive ligulate type (Text Figs. 16, 20, PI. Fig. 19).

Lamina of the first foliage leaf is simpler than that of adult leaf.
There are several such simple juvenile leaves with increasing complexity
until a typical foliage leaf is produced. As in most of the Sabaloid and
Borassoid palms the first foliage leaf is simple and lanceolate and is
succeded by leaves whose lamina is somewhat digitate. Later, as the
leaves become larger and larger, they get deeply segmented and adult
palmate leaf is produced (Text Figs. 24-26, PL Figs. 27, 28).

The seedling develops anchoring and absorptive root system together
with an assimilatory leafy crown. Later it becomes independent of the
seed. Its stem usually remains inconspicuous for a considerable time,
5-6 years. After the seedling stage, the stem grows first in girth and de-
velops a broad woody subterranean stock before the leafy crown is
raised up above the soil surface. The stem has no means of continuous
growth in thickness as it has no cambium. As Holttum (1955) points
out, the massive foundation is first established in order to support a
woody trunk which is several feet high. This broad base begins to de-
velop right from the seedling stage. The first few nodes at which seed-
ling leaves are inserted have no distinct internodes. The successive nodes
are increasingly wider and equally congested, so that the base of the
stem assumes the shape of an inverted cone. Most of this early growth
of stem takes place underground, and only the crown of leaves is visi-
ble above the soil surface for several years. Eventually, however, once
a sufficiently broad base is developed, the later internodes elongate, the
leafy crown is raised above the soil, and the tree trunk becomes woody.

Conclusion

All these morphological characters described here are also seen in
the seeds of Livistona minima from the Tertiary Flora of London Clay;
and hence notwithstanding the small size, their identification by Reid
& Chandler (1933) as Livistona stands confirmed.

STUDIES ON PALMS — LIVISTONA CHINENSIS

661

References

Biradar, N. V. & Mahabale, T. S.
(1969): Studies on Palms — Fruits,

Seeds and Seed germination in the
genus Phoenix L. Proc. Ind. Acad.
Sci. 70(2 ) B: 55-65.

Holttum, R. E. (1955): Growth
habit of monocotyledons — variation
on a theme. Phytomorphology 5 : 399-
413.

Juliano, J. B. (1926): Origin, de-
velopment and nature of the stony
layer of the Coconut ( Cocos nucifera
L.). Philip Jour. Sci. 30:187-200.

Lang, E. M. (1943): Developmental
anatomy of the fruit of Deglect-Noor-
date. Bot. Gaz. 704:426-436.

Mahabale, T. S. (1950) : Palaeo-
botany in India-VIT. Annual report
for 1947-48. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc. 29
( 1 ) : 31-33.

(1965): Evolu-
tionary trends in Palmae with special
reference of fossil palms. Palaeobota-
nist, 74(1-3) : 214-222.

Reid, E. M. & Chandler, M. E. J.
(1933): The London Clay Flora.

British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London.

The taxonomy of Moschus
(Mammalia, Artiodactyla), with
particular reference to the
Indian Region1

Colin P. Groves2
(With a plate)

Survey of literature and of available museum specimens shows that
the three-species concept of Moschus, proposed by Flerov, is a
valid one. Two of the species extend into the Indian region, M. sif-
anicus in the alpine zone and M. chrysogaster in the wooded lower
slopes. The differences between the two are described and a taxo-
nomic revision of the genus is proposed.

The lack of attention, in recent years, to questions of the taxonomy of
larger mammals, especially ungulates, should not be taken as an indi-
cation that all problems in this field have been solved. As this paper
intends to show, there are still many questions that are wide open, al-
though plausible cases can be made out for a new look at old “certain-
ties”.

The Musk Deer of Asia has been accepted by most standard works,
from Lydekker (1915) through Allen (1940) and Ellerman & Morri-
son-Scott (1951) to Heptner et al. (1961), as comprising a single spe-
cies, Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758. However, as early as 1928
Flerov had doubted that such a scheme adequately expressed the com-
plexity of the situation, and in spite of some cold water thrown on this
view by Allen (1940), he renewed his three-species view at a later time
(Flerov 1952). Lately, renewed collecting in China led Kao (1963) to
support Flerov’ s scheme, again with modifications.

Flerov’s first classification (1928) divided Moschus into three spe-
cies:

M. moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758. Siberia, Korea, Manchuria. 5 sub-
species recognised.

M. chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839. Northern India, Nepal, Kansu and

1 Accepted October 1974.

2 Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, SGS, Australian National
University, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600, Australia.

TAXONOMY OF MOSCHUS

663

Szechwan. 2 subspecies recognised.

M. berezovskii Flerov, 1928. Szechwan. Monotypic.

In this scheme, the first species is allopatric to the other two, which
either overlap or approach each other’s range in Szechwan — M. bere-
zovskii being confined to alpine pastures, M. chrysogaster occurring
throughout the forest zone of the west-Chinese mountain slopes, as well
as in the Indian region. His scheme was presented in greater detail in
a later paper (Flerov 1930).

In his later revision (Flerov 1952) he somewhat changed his opi-
nion, reducing the number of subspecies and rearranging the nomen-
clature. Whereas earlier he had given the type locality of Moschus
moschiferus as “Russian Altai” (from Linnaeus’s “Tataria versus
Chinam”), he now stated baldly that the species had been described
from a northern Indian specimen. The name moschiferus thereby took
precedence over chrysogaster, while the Siberian musk-deer must take
the next available name ( sibiricus ). The three species were:

M. sibiricus Pallas, 1779. Only two subspecies.

M. berezovskii Flerov, 1928.

M. moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758. Two subspecies.

In the blitz on subspecies, M. m. arcticus described by himself (1928)
had been synonymised with sibiricus as had parvipes Hollister, 1911
and turowi Zalkin, 1945, with the only valid subspecies (the nominate
raceapart)in that species being sachalinensis Flerov, 1928 from Sakhalin
island; within the species previously called M. chrysogaster but now
M. moschiferus, Flerov continued to uphold sifanicus Buchner, 1891
as a valid race.

Kao’s approach (1963) differed from Flerov’s in its more limited
scope. It would seem that Flerov had mostly specimens from Soviet
territory, with a few from China; Kao’s were all from China, and there
was no attempt to link them to forms described from outside Chinese
borders, except that the Manchurian musk-deer was referred to M. mos-
chiferus, rejecting Flerov’s revised interpretation. The three species re-
cognised were:

M. moschiferus sibiricus Pallas, 1779: Manchuria.

M. berezovskii Flerov, 1928: wooded zones from Szechwan to
Kwangsi.

M. sifanicus Buchner, 1891: alpine zone of western China.

The most remarkable change is here that the ecological relations of
berezovskii and sifanicus are reversed from the conception of Flerov.
Flerov had stated, on Buchner’s authority, that the dwarf berezovskii
lived in the alpine zones, with sifanicus in the montane woodlands of
the slopes. It is clear from Kao’s statements that Buchner had been in
error. Kao writes (translation kindly arranged by Dr Robert Hoffmann,
University of Kansas Museum of Natural History) :

664 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Habitat of sif aniens is the high plains of Tibet and Ching-hai, for the most part
2000 to 3000 or even 4000 metres above sea level .... In the west of Szechwan
in the perpendicular interlocking areas with the forest musk deer, they are cer-
tainly the most abundant musk deer type. A cross section of the said perpendi-
cular interlocking areas extends north to the grassy plains and marshland of the
pine forests of Te-lu, Szechwan, and southward to the high mountain areas of
Te-chin, Yunnan, at 3500 metres above sea level.

He says that sifanicus is called Ma-chang (horse-roebuck), and is
unanimously affirmed by hunters to live in high mountains; the small,
dark berezovskii, Lin-chang (Forest-roebuck) live in low mountains.

The specimens obtained by Kao and his colleagues proved to be
this way: big light-coloured animals in the alpine meadows, small near-
ly black ones in the forest. (It can be recalled that Engelmann (1938)
had also given this distribution, on the field evidence of Schafer, but
without naming the two contrasting forms).

Thus the two species, sifanicus and berezovskii, overlap— apparent-
ly without interbreeding — from Mu-li (28.12 N, 100.50 E) and Li-t’ang
(30.02 N, 100.18 E) in the south to Ma-erh-k’ang (not found) and
P’ing-wu (32.30 N, 104.30 E) in the north. Beyond these areas, only
one species or the other occurs: sifanicus at Te-lu (25.40 N, 103.42 E)
and Te-chin (28.28 N, 98.48 E), berezovskii at Yen-yuan (27.30 N,

101.40 E). The latter species seems to extend westward into low-lying
woodland areas: Kao records it from Kwangsi province at Ching-hsi
(23.10 N, 106.28 E), Kweichow province at Kuei-yang (26.35 N,

106.40 E) and Shensi province at Mei hsien (•= county), 34.12 N,
107.50 E. In the British Museum (Natural History) are two specimens
referable to berezovskii from Ichang (30.43 N, 111.22 E), also a low-
land locality.

The three species occurring in China may be described as follows
(using Kao’s nomenclature for the moment) :

1. M. moschiferus (extending south probably to the Hwang-ho) :
a large species; dark brown, usually spotted; two white stripes on lower
part of neck, extending to shoulder. Ear-backs dark. Individual hairs
are grey-white for two-thirds of their length, then brown-grey, with a
darker brown tip; commonly there are whitish rings near the tips,
which, when clumped, give the overall spotted effect. The fur is soft
compared to the other two species, 45-60 mm long on the withers,
65-75 mm on the rump (in the Siberian race; but in Korean skins these
lengths amount to only 34-37 mm and 45-62 mm respectively). In the
skull, the halfway point falls within the orbit or at its anterior border;
the dacrimal is at least as broad as long; the supraorbital arches do not
extend above the dorsal outline of the skull.

2. M. berezovskii. A small species, but not smaller than the Korean
race of moschiferus’, very dark, olive-brown with nearly black haunches
and buttocks; no spots; underside of throat and breast light to white.

TAXONOMY OF MOSCHUS

665

Ear-backs dark, blackish. Individual hairs are grey at the base (over
about a third of their length), with the shaft dark brown, and a reddish
yellow ring near the tip. The fur is harsh, 38-50 mm on the withers and
48-70 mm on the rump. The skull is very like that of moschiferus but
has a relatively shorter braincase.

3. M. sifanicus. Large; light in colour, sandy yellow or light
brown (Kao); no spots except for a few vague ones on dorsum; yellow
or white below. Ear-backs with broad yellow zone at tip. Individual
hairs lead grey at base, light brown on most of shaft, an orange or yel-
low ring, then a dark brown tip. Fur harsh, 31-46 mm on withers and
45-68 mm on rump. Skull differs from that of the other two in its long
face, with the skull midpoint falling forward of the anterior orbital mar-
gin; lacrimal longer than broad; supraorbital arches well-marked, ris-
ing above dorsal outline of skull.

These descriptions are taken from Flerov, as modified by Kao. As
far as the British Museum materials extend, however, they confirm the
literature findings. Specimens of M. moschiferus are fairly plentiful;
in addition to the B. M. material there is a series of adults and young
in the Zoological Museum, Berlin, from Lake Telezker (= Teletskoye),
in the Altai, while Egorov (1965) gives detailed descriptions of musk-
deer from Yakutia, with comparisons of series from Tokko River
(57.30 to 60.00 N, 120.00 E) and the Verkhoyansk range, which differ
weakly. Kao’s paper includes descriptions and measurements of speci-
mens from Heilungkiang and Kirin provinces. From all these data it is
possible to see a broad division of the species into two subspecies, ap-
parently distinct enough though not recognised by Flerov (1952):

la. M. m. moschiferus. Occupying the northern and western parts of
the range, the Altai and Sayan ranges, Yakutia north to the type loca-
lity of Flerov’s rejected race arcticus (Mt. Toulaiakh-kaia, Northeastern
Taskhaiakhtakh range, about 68.00 N, 139.00 E). To judge by the
measurements provided by Kao, specimens from I-ch’un, northern
Heilungkiang (47.41 N, 129.10 E), would be referable to this subspe-
cies though tending towards the next race in their short lacrimals and
presumably — since no colour differences are mentioned from other
Manchurian examples — in their dark colour. In this race the colour is
dark brown to light grey-brown, the hair-bases whitish; the size is large
(skull length as in Table 1, metacarpal and metatarsal lengths respect-
ively 128-148 and 172-189 mm. (Flerov 1952) ); the lacrimal is long,
often slightly longer than broad; the nasal bones form a wedge into the
frontals behind.

lb. M. m. parvipes. From the Soviet Far East (Amur-Ussuri dis-
trict) and Korea, extending into Kirin province and southern Heilung-
kiang (localities, in Kao’s paper, Shang-chin (45.13 N, 127.59 E) and
Lake Ching-po-hu (about 44 N, 129 E) ). This is decidedly smaller;

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

for skull measurements see Table 1; metacarpals 125-128, metatarsals
166-170 (Flerov 1952); lacrimal short; nasals abbreviated behind, not
wedge-shaped. The colour averages darker with the hair-bases grey;
but some specimens of similar colour can be found amongst the lighter
individuals of the nominate race (such as the type of arcticus Flerov).
It is a puzzle why Flerov (1952) no longer recognises this present race,
though it is retained by Heptner et al. (1961).

A third subspecies, not seen by me, is recognised by Flerov (1952)
and Heptner et al. (1961):

lc. M. m. sachalinensis. The description of this race recalls parvipes
very closely except in one respect; that the interorbital breadth
is less than the postorbital breadth, the opposite to the condition in both
other forms. Otherwise it seems virtually indistinguishable. It is confined
to Sakhalin island.

Musk-deer of the tibetan plateau

The two species berezovskii and sifanicus, which overlap without
interbreeding (according to Kao) in Szechwan, are poorly represented
in collections in the West. The British Museum has the following speci-
mens :

3.5.15.6. “Szechwan”. Medium to dark greyish; ears dark, nearly black, through-
out. No skull. Clearly represents berezovskii.

1.3. 2.6. Ichang (young). Pepper and salt grey, very coarse-haired; the dark bands
on the hairs nearly black; ears dark grey becoming black at tip. Skull has bere-
zovskii characters.

I. 3. 2.3. Ichang (adult). Skull only; typical berezovskii.

II. 9.8.144. Wen Chuan, Szechwan (31.29 N, 103.40 E). Young: Third molars
not yet broken through. Dark greyish, with blackish bands on the hairs; ears
dark. Skull typically berezovskii.

11.2.1.265. Tau-Chou, Kansu (perhaps T’ao Chou, now Lin t’an, 34.39 N,
103.40 E); young, similar to last in age. Light grey brown; ears with broad yel-
low tips. Skull broken, but lacrimal certainly much longer than broad. This is
obviously sifanicus; altitude “8,500 feet”.

18.10.8.1. Shigatse. Slightly darker than the last but still noticeably lighter than
the first few skins. Ear yellow near tip. Skull typically sifanicus.

Apart from these six, there is a skin from “S.E. Tibet” which is an
albino, and nothing more can be said about it; and a skull with no skin
from “N.E. Peling Mts”, probably a young berezovskii; this may be
Mt. Pai Ling in Kwangsi at 23.20 N, 105.50 E. It will be seen from Table
1 however that two Kwangsi skulls of this species — according to the
data of Kao and of Wang et al., 1962 — are extremely small, and may

TAXONOMY OF MOSCHUS

66 1

prove to represent a new subspecies: but if this surmise is correct, then
the “Peling” skull cannot belong here as it is 145 mm long, though
immature.

It is clear in any case that the two Tibetan-plateau species can be
distinguished on the basis of museum material as well. For the figures
in Table 1, specimens of sifanicus from Ta-tsien-lu in the Paris Museum
have been included, and specimens of berezovskii from Wen-chuan-
hsien in the American Museum of Natural History (kindly communi-
cated by Dr G. G. Musser).

Musk-deer of the Indian region

It has been shown above that the concept of two species of Musk-
deer of overlapping distribution, differing in ecological requirements,
is a valid one for the montane region of western China. The problem
is now to allocate the musk-deer of the Indian region : India, Ne-
pal, Sikkim and Burma (Bhutan being unrepresented in collections).
Flerov assumed throughout that it is sifanicus which is represented in
the Indian region, but as we have seen his concept of that species was
in error; moreover he is unlikely to have had more than one or two
specimens to work with (for example, he in no case gives skull measure-
ments).

The specimens in the British Museum (Natural History) amount
to the following: Skins with skulls, 2; skins alone, 5; skulls alone, 11.
In addition there is 1 skin with skull, and 5 skins alone, in the collec-
tion of the Bombay Natural History Society. (This list excludes speci-
mens without locality). Two skins without skulls from Burma — one in
London, one in Bombay — will be treated separately.

A brief description of each specimen follows:

a. London, BM (NH) : Skins and skulls.

43.1.12.93. “Nepal”; type of chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839. Medium to dark yel-
low-brown, apparently slightly faded from the “bright sepia” of Hodgson
(1839). Ears dark throughout. Skull length 152 mm; lacrimal somewhat longer
than broad; supraorbital arches not elevated; midpoint of skull within orbit.
Except for the lacrimals, and perhaps the rather larger skull, all of these feat-
ures correspond with berezovskii.

15.9.1.238. Lachung, Sikkim, 8,800'. Head-skin only; ears brown with clear light,
yellow rims. Skull length 164 mm; lacrimal much longer than broad; supraor-
bital arches somewhat elevated above dorsal outline; midpoint in front of orbit.
All these features resemble sifanicus, but the restriction of the yellow zone to
the rims of the ears is different.

b. BM (NH) : Skins only.

43.1.12.95. “Nepal”; type of leucogaster Hodgson, 1839. Less yellow than chry -

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(3)

sogaster but otherwise very like it, with dark ears. In the catalogue of Lydekker
(1915) this specimen is stated to have a skull, but it does not today.
91.10.7.175. Sikkim. Very dark brown; ears entirely dark.

91.10.7.174. Sikkim. Nearly black. Ears dark.

8.2.29.4. Rishi Nala (perhaps in region of Rishikesh?), Garhwal, 12,000'. Grey
brown; ears with light rims like the Lachung specimen.

39.833. Chamba. Brown-grey, limbs somewhat greyer; vague traces of spotting
on back. Ears with light rims.

c. BM (NH): Skulls only.

91.8.7.221. Kashmir. Length 150 mm; lacrimal somewhat longer than broad;
midpoint in orbit; arches not much elevated.

91.8.7.222. Kashmir. Incomplete; lacrimal longer than broad; arches somewhat
elevated.

30.1.2.57. Length 155 mm; lacrimal longer than broad; midpoint in orbit; arches
not elevated.

43.1.12.98. “Nepal”; type of saturatus Hodgson, 1839. Length 159 mm; lacri-
mal longer than broad; midpoint in orbit; arches not elevated. Hodgson des-
cribes the skin as “Dusk brown”; by the time Lydekker compiled his catalogue
of British Museum mammals (1915) the skin was no longer in the museum.
678a. “Nepal”. Length 151 mm; lacrimal longer than broad; midpoint in orbit;
supraorbital arches not at all elevated.

48.6.11.26. Length 149 mm; lacrimal slightly longer than broad; midpoint in
orbit; arches somewhat elevated.

6168c. Lachen, Sikkim, 8,000'. Length 148 mm; lacrimal longer than broad;
midpoint in orbit; arches not elevated.

43.1.12.97. Cachar; type of cacharensis Lydekker, 1915, nom. nud. (ex Hodgson
ms.). Length 150 mm; lacrimal somewhat longer than broad; midpoint in orbit;
arches slightly elevated.

47.325. Sikkim, 11,000'. Length 155 mm; lacrimal much longer than broad; mid-
point well in front of orbit; arches elevated.

43.1.12.94. “Nepal”. Length 163 mm; lacrimal much longer than broad; mid-
point in front of orbit; arches elevated.

26.10.8.71. Jaunsar, U.P., 8,000'. (Locality not traced). Length 161 mm; lacri-
mal much longer than broad; midpoint well in front of orbit; arches strongly
elevated.

d. Bombay Natural History Society.

17843. Konal Nullah, Kulu, 9,500'. Very dark colour; ears wholly dark. Skull
length 158 mm; lacrimal somewhat longer than broad; midpoint on or in front
of anterior rim of orbit; arches slightly elevated. The skin is clearly berezovskii
but the skull would not be typical.

17844. Nepal. Dark brown; ears dark.

17842. Gorkha, Nepal. Dark chocolate-brown; ears dark. .

17847. Garhwal. Rather dark brown. (Head missing).

(Display mounted skin). Kula valley, 9,000'. (This might be the Kula valley
in Bhutan, near Monla Karchung, or more likely a lapsus for Kulu, 31.58 N,
77.06 E). Diffuse light pepper-and-salt greyish; ears light-rimmed.

17846. “Sikkim, Tibet”. Light pepper-and-salt; light-tipped ears.

Two additional skulls should be mentioned, both from the Berlin collection,
both subadult. 13483 from “Assam”, nearly adult, has a length of 137 mm;
lacrimal longer than broad; midpoint in skull; arches not elevated. No. A. 29.00

f. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)
Groves: Taxonomy of Moschus

Plate

Map of the distribution of Moschus sifanicus and Moschus chrysogaster .
(For locality details, see overleaf)

Localities are as follows :-

M. sifanicus (triangles).
Chinghai:

1 Men-yuan

37.28 N,

101.50 E

Kukunorih

35.00 N,

101.00 E

2 Kung-ho

36.20 N,

100.46 E

Kansu :

3 Archuen

34.00 N,

102.00 E

4 T’ao Chou

34.39 N,

103.40 E

Szechwan :

Te-lu

725.40 N,

103.42 E

5 K'ang ting = Ta-tsien-lu,

30.05 N,

102.04 E

Yunnan :

6 Te-chin

28.28 N,

98.48 E

7 Tien-chih

25.00 N,

102.40 E

Tibet:

8 Shigatse

29.18 N,

88.50 E

M. chrysogaster (circles).

Shensi :

Shung-wang-heng

?

Shun te-p’eng

?

T’ai-pai-shan

?

14 Mei hsien

34.12 N,

107.50 E

Hupeh :

15 I-chang

30.43 N,

111.22 E

Kweichow :

16 Kuei-yang

26.35 N,

106.40 E

Kwangsi :

17 Ching-hsi

23.10 N,

106.28 E

Pai-ling

723.20 N,

105.50 E

Kansu :

18 Archuen

34.00 N,

102.00 E

19 Sikou

33.50 N,

104.23 E

Szechwan :

20 Wen-chuan

31.29 N,

103.40 E

Cheng Wei

?

21 Ma-erh-k’ang

31.34 N,

102.25 E

22 Yen-yuan

27.30 N,

101.40 E

Jang-t’ang

?

23 Li-t’ang

30.02 N,

100.18 E

24 P’ing-wu

32.30 N,

104.30 E

25 Ta-tsien-lu,

30.10 N,

102.10 E

India :

9 Rishi Nala = ?Rishikesh,

30.07 N, 78.19 E

10 Chamba 32.33 N, 76.10 E

11 Kula valley = ?Kulu, 31.58 N, 77.06 E

Jaunsar, U.P. ? ?

Sikkim :

12 Lachung 27.42 N, 88.48 E

Burma :

13 Adung-seingku confluence and
Dchpu L’kha; both 28.10 N, 97.30 F.

India :

26 Konal Nullah,

Kulu 7

?

27 Garhwal

30.20 N,

78.30 E

28 Cachar (Hills?)

25.30 N,

93.00 E

Sikkim :

29 Lachen

27.40 N,

88.36 E

Nepal :

30 Gorkha

28.01 N,

84.37 E

669

Taxonomy of moschus

from “Calcutta”, slightly younger (but with all teeth erupted) is 154 mm long,
with midpoint in front of orbit and arches elevated (lacrimals are missing).

This list is an interesting one; unsatisfactory in that there are so
few associated skins and skulls, but showing quite clearly the existence
of two colour types: a dark type with dark ears, indistinguishable from
the Chinese berezovskii, and a light type with yellow-rimmed ears, re-
calling sijanicus but not identical to it (ears only rimmed with yellow,
not broadly tipped; colour perhaps greyer, less yellow).

The skulls cannot be so decisively placed in two groups. Without
a doubt they are heterogeneous lot; for example, the length of fully
adult skulls varies from 148 to 164 mm, a variation which cannot be
ascribed to geographic variability as both largest and smallest skulls
are from Sikkim! The lacrimal bone is almost always longer than broad,
though the degree of excess varies. The position of the skull midpoint
is probably the easiest character to use in a division of available skulls
into two groups, as it divides the smaller ones (148-159 mm) from
the larger ones (155-164 mm), with a weak correlation with degree of
elevation of the supraorbital ridges and the degree of lacrimal elongation.
In fact, all these features would tend to be correlated anyway: a larger
skull would mean a longer face, so doubtless a longer lacrimal, and
maybe a flatter interorbital surface giving added prominence to the
supraorbital arches. That this correlation is not fundamental, however,
is shown by the Siberian species: the same size as sifanicus, it yet has
a more berezovskii-\ike skull, though perhaps less distinctive.

One concludes from the survey of specimens from the Indian region
that there are certainly two species represented, and that they corres-
pond to the two in the southern Chinese mountains. They are, as in
China, sharply distinct on the evidence of their skins, but, unlike in
China, not so distinct in their skulls. The explanation for this is evid-
ently that the “cf. berezovskii” race is larger in India than in China, so
that its other skull features would, by allometry, approach those of the
“cf. sifanicus ” form. The very large skull of the type of chrysogaster,
a berezovskii-likt type, confirms this, and the strikingly large skull of
Bombay no. 17843 extends this conclusion.

In the list, the skins are easy enough to assign to

one species or the

other; as follows:

1. cf. berezovskii.

43.1.12.93. 43.1.12.95.

91.10.7.175.

91.10.7.174.

Bombay 17843. Bombay 17844.

Bombay 17842.

Bombay 17847.

2. cf. sifanicus.

15.9.1.238. 8.2.29.4.

Bombay, display skin.

39.833.

Bombay 17846.

The skulls are plausibly divided as

follows :

1. cf. berezovskii.

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

91.8.7.221. 91.8.7.222. 30.1.2.57. 43.1.12.98.

678a. 48.6.11.26. 6168c. 43.1.12.97.

2. cf. sifanicus.

47.325. 43.1.12.94. 26.10.8.71.

Of the two Berlin specimens, 13483 is certainly of the first type, A.
29.00 equally surely of the second. The basic division, for reasons ex-
plained above, has been made on the basis of position of skull mid-
point, but the fact that in Bombay no. 17843, identifiable as type 1 on
basis of the associated skin, the midpoint lies slightly forward of the
orbital rim, dictates caution. One can however be reasonably certain
of the correct allocation of the type 2 skulls: the smallest (47.325) on
the basis of its 11,000-ft altitude (above the tree-line), the rest on the
basis of their large size. Among the type 1 skulls, uncertainty must
exist with the incomplete skull, 91.8.7.222 although its association in
series with 91.8.7.221 renders its taxonomic association with it more
likely; and the large skull, type of saturatus, must also be regarded as
not certainly belonging here.

As would be expected from the ecological differences between the
two, “ berezovskii ” has evidently been more easily obtained than “ si fa -
nicus”\ the relative proportions are as follows:

Skins alone, 8 berezovskii to 5 sifanicus
Skulls alone 8 berezovskii to 3 sifanicus
Total 17 berezovskii to 8 sifanicus, approx. 2:1

Musk-deer of burma

U Tun Yin (1967) draws attention to the presence of the Musk-
deer in Burma. He states that it is found in the snow-covered hills
round Putao, and generally keeps above 8,000 feet.

There are two specimens in collections seen by me: both skins un-
accompanied by skulls. B.M. 50.741, from the Adung-Seingku conflu-
ence at 5,000 feet, is a yellow-grey-brown; Bombay no. 17845 from
Dchpu L’kha, Putao subdivision, is less greyish, a yellow-brown all
over. These colours are quite different from any others seen by me;
however Kao’s description of sifanicus as “sandy yellow or light brown”
suggests that they may not be entirely outside the range of this form.
The hair patterns are different from those described for sifanicus : simp-
ly creamy-grey at the base, for four-fifths of the length, then yellow
at the tip.

It seems probable that these skins represent sifanicus; on present
evidence they seem to differ from this species in China, and are certainly
very different indeed from Indian and Sikkimese examples; but the

TAXONOMY OF MOSCHUS

67 i

paucity of material from China available outside the Academia Sinica
collections, dictates caution in assessing the situation.

Nomenclature

The first problem of nomenclature concerns the name Moschus mos -
chi ferns Linnaeus, 1758. The entry under this heading is as follows:

29. MOSCHUS. Cornua nulla.

Dentes Laniarii superiores solitarii exserti.
moschiferus. 1. Moschus. Syst. nat. 13.

Animal moschiferum. Ray. quadr. 127.

Capreolus moschi. Gesn. quadr. 695.

Capra moschus. Aldr. bisulc. 743. Jonst. quadr. 55, t. 39.

Moschus. Schrock. monogr. t. 44.

Habitat = Tataria versus Chinam.

Moschus substantia unctuosa ambrosiaca e folliculo

prope umbilicum.

Schrocki Historia moschi. Wien 1682. quart.

Flerov (1928), going on just the “Tataria versus Chinam” part, nomi-
nated the Russian Altai as the type locality. Such a fixation would be
acceptable could it be shown that no contrary evidence exists; even
though Flerov himself later (1952) reduced its authority by giving a
new “type locality” (northern India). It is necessary to go into Lin-
naeus’s sources to see whether any localities or detailed descriptions
are to be found there.

The first source, Ray (1693), gives quite a long description in
Latin, which is taken directly from Grew (1681). The latter is a splend-
idly discursive description of the oddities and curios at that time in the
possession of the Royal Society — among them, a stuffed Musk-deer.
The description begins, “He breeds in China, and the East Indies, . .”
and goes on to give quite a detailed description of the specimen. He
at no time, however, says what colour it actually is; and, while saying
that the ears are like a coney’s, about three inches long, and erect (iii
a stuffed specimen, mind you!), he does not describe their colour either.
(I suppose that, if this could be taken as negative evidence, it indicates
that sifanicus, with its parti-coloured ears, is not in question).

Linnaeus’s next three sources — Gesner, Aldrovandus and Johns-
tonus — are extremely unspecific and seem to confuse different animals
under the same heading: the latter two even award the Musk-deer two
horns! They are clearly unusable as far as taxonomy is concerned.

Schrockio (1682), Linnaeus’s final reference, quoted also by Ray,
is a very interesting book on musk — its source, extraction, uses and so

4

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

on. His data on the Musk-deer are all Chinese; he gives the generalis-
ed Mandarin name, Xe (usually transliterated She today) and its variant
Xehaing (probably the same as Kao’s Chang, used in Szechwan); and
quotes, among others, Marco Polo, who supplies the only thing ap-
proaching a locality — “de regione Tebeth et Caniclu” (perhaps Kansu?).
Fascinating though all this is, it really amounts to hearsay as far as the
animal itself is concerned. Which throws us back onto the description
of the stuffed musk-deer in the Royal Society.

The Royal Society’s collection was presented to the British Museum
in June, 1781; according to Thomas (1906) very few specimens in the
BM (NH) collections can now be identified as coming from this source.
The only specimen of Moschus whose source is not known is a skull,
676 k, said to be “from a skin in the old museum stores” according
to the register. This is precisely where the Royal Society specimens
would have ended up; but alas, the skull in question is female, whereas
Grew clearly describes the sharp hooked tusks of the Royal Society
specimen. I am indebted to Dr Alan Gentry of the Mammal Section,
BM (NH), for discussions and correspondence on this matter.

The only part of Grew’s description which could be diagnostic is
the section describing the individual hairs: the hair on the back and
buttock is

3 inches long . . . brown and white portions alternately from root to top.

The hair patterns of the three species of Moschus were described
above. Only the Siberian musk-deer (the one provisionally called
M. moschijerus above) has white rings on the hair: in both the other
species the rings tend to be yellowish to some degree. If, therefore,
Grew’s description is accurate, then it seems to have been a Siberian
musk-deer; also, 3 inches (77 mm) is a length approached more nearly
by the Siberian species than by the other two. Accordingly Flerov is
likely to have been right in 1928 and 1930, wrong in 1952, and his fix-
ing of the type locality in 1928 as the Russian Altai may be accepted
as being without demonstrable contradiction.

The earliest name for musk-deer from the Indian region is Hodg-
son’s Moschus chrysogaster (1839). The localities of Hodgson’s speci-
mens have been discussed in a previous paper (Groves & Mazak 1967);
the early date of Hodgson’s specimen, together with those named leuco-
gaster and saturatus at the same time, give no reason to doubt that they
could really be from some part of Nepal. It has been shown above that
all three type specimens are referable to the “cf. herezovskii ” type of
Indian musk-deer; as they antedate Flerov’s name by nearly ninety
years, they must take preference, the name chrysogaster being the first
name for the “forest musk-deer”; this name was selected from the three
by Flerov (1928) in his capacity as First Reviser, even though he used
it incorrectly. It will be seen from Table 1 that, if skulls of this species

TAXONOMY OF MOSCHUS

673

are correctly determined, then the Indian race is significantly larger and
longer-faced than the Chinese, so that the name berezovskii remains
valid at the subspecific level.

For the “horse musk-deer” (Kao), or, better, “Alpine musk-deer”,
it seems that the name sifanicus is the only one ever to have been app-
lied. The Indian race differs in coloration from the Chinese, especially
in the pattern on the ears; but until the differences can be specified
with more accuracy, and the position of the Burmese form elucidated,
it will be better not to designate the Indian race with a name beyond
simply Moschus sifanicus subsp.

Taxonomic conclusions

A list of the taxa of the genus Moschus considered valid on the
basis of the present study, follows below. Full references will be found
in Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951).

1. Moschus moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758. Siberian musk-deer.

M. m. moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758. Siberia (see Heptner et aL, 1961);
northern Heilungkiang province, China.

M. moschiferus Linnaeus, 1758. Russian Altai (Flerov, 1928).

M. sibiricus Pallas, 1779. Above Abakan (53.43 N, 91.25 E), Russian Altai.
M. altaicus Eschscholtz, 1830. Mongolian Altai.

M. m. maculatus, fasciatus and concolor Gray, 1872 (ex Milne-Edwards,
1864). Siberia.

M. m. arcticus Flerov, 1928. Mt. Toulaiakh-kaia, northeastern Taskhaiakh-
takh range, 68.00 N, 139.00 E, Siberia.

M. m. parvipes Hollister, 1911. Korea, Primorskii Krai, Kirin, southern
Heilungkiang.

M. parvipes Hollister, 1911. Mok-po (34.50 N, 126.25 E), S. Tscholla pro-
vince, Korea.

M. m. turowi Zalkin, 1945. Terney Bay (45.40 N, 136.36 E), Sikhote Alin
Reserve.

M. m. sachalinensis Flerov, 1928. Sakhalin island.

2. Moschus chrysogaster, Hodgson, 1839. Forest musk-deer.

M. c. chrysogaster Hodgson, 1839. Wooded slopes of Himalayas in In-
dia, Nepal and Sikkim (and Bhutan?).

M. chrysogaster, leucogaster and saturatus Hodgson, 1839. Nepal.

M. cacharensis Lydekker, 1915. (ex Hodgson ms.), nom. nud., Kachar.

M. c. berezovskii Flerov, 1928. Wooded slopes of southern China.

M. berezovskii Flerov, 1928. Ho-tsi-khow pass, Sikou, 33.50 N, 104.23 E,
Szechwan.

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

M. chrysogaster subsp. uncertain; ?Kwangsi.

3. Moschus sifanicus Buchner, 1891. Alpine musk-deer.

M. s. sifanicus Buchner, 1891. Alpine zone of Tibetan plateau region.
M. sifanicus Buchner, 1891. S. Kansu (Hsifan zone).

M. sifanicus subsp. (M. chrysogaster chrysogaster of Flerov, 1928;
M. mochiferus moschiferus of Flerov, 1952). India, Nepal and Sik-
kim.

M. sifanicus subsp. Burma.

Ack no wledge men ts

Grateful thanks are due to the staff of the Mammal Section BM
(NH), of the Berlin Zoological Museum, Paris Natural History Mu-
seum, and the Bombay Natural History Society; to Dr. Robert Hoff-
mann for arranging a translation of Kao’s paper; and to Dr Alan Gen-
try for useful discussions.

Skull measurements of Moschus spp.

Greatest Lacrimal Lacrimal Source

length length breadth

Mean

S.D.

n.

Moschus moschiferus

M. m. moschiferus
Teletskoye Lake

150.8

3.21

14

Tokko River

156.6

2.85

8

Verkhoyansk Ra.

153.2

2.12

3

I-ch’un

155.7

—

2

M. m. parvipes
S. Manchuria

144.8

3.34

9

Korea

145.4

—

2

Moschus chrysogaster

M. c. berezovskii
Szechwan

146.4

4.89

6

Szechwan

145.0

2.85

9

Shensi, Ichang
M. c. subsp.

141.5

—

2

Kwangsi

118.9

—

2

Moschus sifanicus
Cachar

150.0

1

Sikkim, Nepal

150.0

1.83

4

Kulu, Kashmir
Moschus sifanicus

154.3

4.04

3

M. s. sifanicus
China

161.8

4.87

9

Shigatse
M. s. subsp.

163.0

—

1

India, Nepal

160.4

3.58

5

Mean

S.D.

n.

Mean

S.D.

n.

20.4

1.55

14

19.4

1.03

14

la

2

14.6

—

2

19.5

—

2

2

3

14.4

0.96

11

18.9

1.91

11

3

4

20.5

2.72

7

19.7

1.87

7

3,5

19.4

1.32

9

21.6

2.07

9

8

17.7

0.52

3

18.9

2.01

3

lb, 3, 6

14.8

—

1

18.9

—

1

3,7

22.0

—

1

19.0

1

lb

24.8

0.50

4

18.5

0.58

4

lb

25.5

1.00

4

20.3

0.96

4

1 b, 1 c

23.4

3.16

10

18.6

1.28

10

3, Id

25.0

—

1

23.0

—

1

lb

26.2

0.84

5

19.6

1.52

5

lb

TAXONOMY OF MOSCHUS

675

Sources :

1 — author’s measurements :

a — Zoologisches Museum, Berlin
b — British Museum (Natural History), London
c — Bombay Natural History Society
d — Museum National d’Histoire Naturellc, Paris

2 — Egorov, 1965

3 — Kao, 1963

4 — Flerov, 1928

5 — Musser, pers. comm, (ex American Museum of Natural History, New York)

6 — Allen, 1939

7 — Wang ct a!., 1962

8 — Grubb, pers, comm, (ex U.S. National Museum, Washington).

References

Allen, G. M. (1940): Mammals
of China and Mongolia, Vol. 2. New
York: American Museum of Natural
History.

Egorov, O. V. (1965) : Wild ungul-
ates of Yakutia. Trans, Israel Program
for scientific translations. Jerusalem,
1967.

Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott,
T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palae-
arctic and Indian Mammals. London:
British Museum.

Engelmann, C. H. (1938): Ueber
die Grosssauger Szetschwans, Sikongs
und Osttibets, bearbeitet nach Dr
ERNST SCHAEFER’S Tagebuchern
und Trophaen von der ersten und
zweiten Brooke-Dolan Expedition.
Zeits. /. Saugetierk. 13 (Sonderheft) :
1-76.

Flerov, C. C. (1928): Preliminary
note on the diagnostic characters of
the genus Moschus Linne (Mammalia,
Cervidae). C. R. Acad. Sci. USSR,
1928A: 515-9.

(1930): On the

classification and the geographical dis-
tribution of the genus Moschus (Mam-
malia, Cervidae). Ann. Mus. Zool.,
Acad. Sci. USSR, 37:1-20.

(1952): Musk-

deer and deer. Fauna of USSR, Mam-
mals, Vol. 1, no. 2. (Trans., Israel
Programme for scientific translations,
Jerusalem, 1960).

Grew, Nehemiah (1681): Mus-

aeum regalis societatis, or a catalogue
and description of the natural and
artificial rarities belonging to the Royal
Society and preserved at Gresham
College. London: W. Rawlins, p. 386.

Groves, C. P. & Mazak, V. (1967):
On some taxonomic problems of Asi-
atic wild asses; with the description of
a new subspecies (Perissodactyla;
Equidae). Zeit. f. Sdugetierk. 32: 321-
355.

Heptner, V. G., Nasimovic, A. A.
& Bannikov, A. G. (1966): Die

Saugetiere der Sowjetunion, I : Paar-
hufer und Unpaarhufer. Translation,
Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 1961.

Hodgson, B. H. (1839): On three
new species of Musk ( Moschus ) in-
habiting the Himalayan district. J.
Asiat. Soc. Bengal 8: 203.

Kao, Yueh-ting (1963): Taxono-
mic notes on the Chinese musk-deer.
Acta Zool. Sinica 75:479-488. (In
Chinese, English summary).

Linnaeus, Carolus (1758): Sys-
tema Naturae, 10th ed.

Lydekker, R. (1915) : Catalogue of
Ungulate Mammals in the British
Museum. London: BM(NH). Vol. 4.

Ray, John (1693) : Synopsis metho-
dica Animalium Quadrupedum et
Serpentini Generis. London: S. Smith
& B. Walford, pp. 336,

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Schrockio, L. (1682): Historia

moschi. London: A. Vindelicorum,

pp. 224.

Thomas, O. (1906): Mammals, in
History of the Collections of the Bri-
tish Museum, Vol. 2. London: BM
(NH).

Yin, Tun (1967): Wild animals

or Burma. Rangoon Gazette Ltd.,
pp. 301.

Wang, Sung, Lu, Chang-kwun, Kao,
Yueh-ting & Loo, Tai-chun. (1962):
On the mammals from southwestern
Kwangsi, China. Acta zool. sinica 14:
555-568. (In Chinese, English sum-
mary) .

Heterostyly and breeding
mechanism of Nymphoides
cristatum (Roxb.) 0. Kuntze1

R. Vasudevan Nair

Government Victoria College, Palghat, Kerala
( With two text-figures)

Nymphoides Hill. ( Limnanthemum Gmel.) of Menyanthaceae is a cos-
mopolitan hydrophyte, species of which show variation in floral mor-
phology and mechanism of reproduction. Ornduff (1966) noted dimor-
phic heterostyly in many species, along with an incompatibility system.
According to him, heterostyly has evolved into dioecism in this genus.
I studied the South Indian species with regard to this aspect. The pro-
ject was financed by the University Grants Commission.

Method and Material

The study was conducted in two steps, concentrating on Nymphoides
cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze. Extensive field survey was carried out
to note range of distribution and composition of natural populations.
Experimental investigation was the second step.

Morphology was studied on fresh material collected from different
localities. For breeding experiments plants were grown in special tanks
made insect-proof with thin wire net and glass. Steel needles sterilized
with rectified spirit were used to transfer pollen in artificial pollination.
Plants were kept in insect-proof tanks before and after pollination.

Description

Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze. is a rhizomatous herb
with floating petiole-like branches and alternate leaves. Lamina is deep-
ly cordate, up to 10 cm in diameter. Flowers arise in cluster from a
vagina at the junction of branch and petiole. Flowers are long-pedicel-
late, white with yellow centre, 1-1.5 cm in dia., characterised by a me-

1 Accepted April 1973.

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

dian vertical flap of petal lobes. Stamens 5, free, epipetalous; anthers
yellow, introrse. Androecium sterile in some. Gynoecium superior
with unilocular ovary, conical style, bilobed stigma and 3-5 ovules on 2
parietal placentas. Seeds lenticular, finely echinulate.

Observations

N. cristatum is widely distributed in Kerala, thriving best in shallow
open fresh-water, forming consociations or associations with other
aquatics. In permanent waters, it is perennial. Flowering is seasonal in
the field but plants in cultivation flower throughout the year. There is
normal vegetative propagation through fragmentation.

Fig. 2. Leaves with ‘bulbils’.

HETEROSTYLY & BREEDING OF NYMPHOIDES CRISTATUM 679

Vegetative propagation through leaves, is common. As some tanks
began to dry up in hot season, branches and leaves became progres-
sively smaller. Some of the leaves were injured or broken. From the
edges of the wounds, leafy buds with their own adventitious roots
sprouted (Fig. 2). When transplanted, they grew up into normal plants.

There are no dormant buds concerned with the formation of these
bulbils and they appear anywhere on the lamina and even on broken
end of petiole. First step was formation of callus-like growth at the
broken edge. Primordia of roots and then leaves appear soon. With the
decay of lamina, the bulbils became free. This phenomenon is not
found in healthy plants under favourable conditions. Apparently, in-
crease in temperature and drought induce it. Plants facing destruction
are trying to produce as many progeny as possible. If drought is not
prolonged, the bulbils have a chance of survival.

Sexual reproduction :

N. cristatum is gyno-dioecious, having hermaphrodite and female
plants. Flowers of these two forms (Fig. 1) are alike externally, but
female has reduced, sterile stamens. Proportion of these two forms in
natural populations is variable. Due to vegetative propagation, any
one form may outnumber the other, but large well established popula-
tions always have both. Results of population counts made in different
localities are given in Table 1.

Table 1

Sex ratio in populations of N. cristatum

Locality

Total No. of plants

Bisexual

Female

Tellicherry

48

30

18

Calicut

17

12

5

Badagara

31

18

13

Alwaye

43

21

22

Palghat

11

8

3

Chittur

13

5

8

Total

163

94

69

Monomorphic populations are rarely found in restricted spots like
a small ditch. Growth of population being largely through vegetative
means, they may be monomorphic during early stage, especially female
ones.

Bisexual plants were grown in insect-proof tanks. They produced
512 flowers during the period of observation but only seven fruits were
formed. The same tanks were kept open, allowing insect visit. Out of
200 flowers formed, 192 produced seed-bearing fruits. It is clear that

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Fig. 1. Flowers: 1 A, Female; 1 B. Bisexual.

HETEROSTYLY & BREEDING OF NYMPHOIDES CRIST ATUM 681

insects are necessary for pollination. Artificial pollination of bisexual
flowers proved their self-compatibility. Female plants were grown first
in insect-proof tanks and then in open tanks in isolation, with no bi-
sexual plant in vicinity. In both cases hundreds of flowers were formed
but not a single fruit. Then female flowers were pollinated with pollen
from bisexual flowers. Out of 100 flowers, 91 produced fruits with 3-4
seeds, 4 produced 1-2 seeded fruits and 5 flowers withered. Evidently,
female plants depend upon bisexual plants for pollen, got through in-
sects.

Discussion

Floral structure shows that gyno-dioecism of N. cristatum is derived
from heterostyly which is common in the genus. According to Hilde-
brand (1867) and Darwin (1877) dimorphic heterostyly is an adapt-
ation to promote outbreeding and a step towards dioecism. It has since
been found to be associated with an incompatibility system also. In
some taxa, heterostyly has given way to inbreeding but a breakdown
to increased outbreeding is found in Rubiaceae and Menyanthaceae
(Ornduff 1966). This raises doubts about heterostyly being an adapta-
tion for outbreeding. Where there is self incompatibility, heterostyly
is unnecessary for outbreeding. Examining the pollen load on stigma
of several heterostylous taxa, Ornduff (1966) found that heteromor-
phism does not promote ‘legitimate’ pollination. The conventional ex-
planation of the mechanism of heterostyly is more a theoretical proba-
bility than a practical reality.

Heterostyly is a stage in the morphological modification leading to
dioecism which ensures outbreeding. Self incompatibility can serve the
same purpose but there is possibility of its breaking up and reversion
to self fertility. So in many taxa like Nymphoides, incompatibility sys-
tem is progressing into dioecism. Heterostyly, according to Crowe
(1964) is only “degenerate form of homomorphic incompatibility from
which it arises by loss of alleles”. Similar view is held by Vuilleumier
(1965). The two characters are governed by separate genes (Ernst 1936;
Lewis 1954) and so there is possibility of any one being strengthened
or weakened further. In N. indicum there is heterostyly as well as in-
compatibility and both forms are bisexual. In N . cristatum incompa-
tibility system is broken up while heterostyly is advanced to gyno-
dioecism. But the process is incomplete. Outbreeding is ensured only
in the long-styled flower which has its stamens reduced. Similar re-
duction also of the gynoecium in short-styled flower results in dioecism,
as in N. macrospermum Vasudevan. Thus the three species of Nympho-
ides show evolution of incompatibility system into dioecism for which
heterostyly provides the morphological basis.

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Summary and conclusion

Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze. can grow as perennial
and flower throughout the year if conditions are favourable. Besides
normal vegetative propagation by breaking up of branches, it will pro-
duce ‘bulbils’ from leaves, under dry conditions. It shov/s gyno-dioe-
cism derived from heterostyly, as a stage in the evolution of dioecism.
Heterostyly is not an adaptation to ensure outbreeding but only a mor-
phological modification to bring in dioecism.

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted utilising financial assistance given by the
University Grants Commission.

I am deeply indebted to Dr. Robert Ornduff of the University of
California who encouraged me to take up this study and gladly provi-
ded me with recent literature on the subject. I am also obliged to Prof.
K. Kesavan Nair, Govt. College, Chittur, who often brought me fresh
specimens from different localities and helped me in preparing the
photographs.

References

Crowe (1964): The evolution of
outbreeding in plants. 1. Angiosperms.
Heredity. 79:156-230.

Darwin, C. (1877) : The different
forms of flowers on plants of the same
species. Murray, London.

Ernst (1936): Heterostylie-Forsch-
ung, etc. Abst. Vererb. 77:256-230.

Hildebrand, F. (1867): Die Ges-
chlechter-Vertheilung beiden Pflanzen.
Engelmann, Leipzig.

Lewis (1954): Comparative incom-
patibility in Angiosperms and Fungi.

Adv. Genet. 6: 235-285.

Ornduff, R. (1966): The Origin
of Dioecism and Heterostyly in Nym-
phoides (Menyanthaceae). Evolution ,
20( 3):66.

(1969) : Neotropical

Nymphoides (Menyanthaceae) : Meso-
American and West-Indian Species.
Brittonia 27(4): 69.

Vuilleumier, B. S. (1965): The
Origin and Evolutionary Development
of Heterostyly in the Angiosperms.
Evolution 21.

Notes on some aspects of the
biology of Palaemon styliferus
Milne-Edwards from the
Godavari estuarine system12

M. SUBRAHMANYAM1 2 3

Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair
( With five text-figures)

Palaemon styliferus an economically important prawn of the Gaut-
ami Godavari estuary on the east coast of India, occurs in the
lower regions of the estuary almost throughout the year in con-
siderable numbers but is most common in the month of November.

The food habit of the prawn is almost similar to its counterpart
from the Hooghly estuary. The growth rate, however, is slightly
faster in the Gautami estuary. The breeding season is restricted to
a short period, generally extending from October to December.

Introduction

Only a few of the palaemonid prawns of Indian estuaries are of com-
mercial value. Palaemon styliferus Milne-Edwards, is one among them
and is widely distributed in the estuarine and brackish waters of India
(Kemp 1917; Annandale 1922; Ganapati & Subrahmanyam 1964) and
contributes to the commercial fishery in the Hooghly estuary on the
east coast (Kunju 1955) and the inshore fishery at Bombay on the
west coast (Rai 1933). It is also reported to be of some economic value
in the backwaters of Travancore-Cochin (Menon 1954).

Apart from a detailed account of the biology of Palaemon styli-
ferus given by Kunju (op. cit.) from the Hooghly estuary no subse-
quent observations seem to have been made on the biology of the spe-
cies from other estuarine systems. The species has been recorded in
the Gautami estuary, the largest of the Godavari estuarine system
(Ganapati & Subrahmanyam, op. cit), but it does not form a large scale

1 Accepted January 1973.

2 Part of thesis submitted for the degree of doctor of Philosophy, Andhra
University, Waltair (1964).

3 Present address: Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kakinada, A.P.

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Fig. 1. Distribution of Palaemon styliferus in the Gautami estuary.

BIOLOGY OF PALAEMON STYLIFERUS 685

Commercial fishery (average 0.49% in the total prawn catch). It occurs
mainly in the lower reaches of the estuary almost throughout the year
(Fig. 1). It was, however, found common in the month of November.
Usually it appears in the commercial catches in the estuary at the close
of Palaemon tenuipes fishing season (July to October or early Novem-
ber). It is the local belief that the prawn enters the estuafy in large
numbers with the change in the wind direction, from south-west to
north-east.

The present note is intended to comparing some of the observations
on the species made by Kunju (op. cit.) from the Hooghly estuary With
similar observations from the Gautami-Godavari estuary. The observa-
tions are based on the data collected during the years 1960-62 from the
Gautami estuary.

Materials and Methods

The prawn was collected mainly from the drag net catches made
in the lower regions of the estuary during the periods, July 1960 to May
1961 and November 1961 to May 1962. The drag net operations were
erratic during the intervening period and hence no data were maintain-
ed. All measurements were taken from the tip of the rostrum to the tip
of the telson and were grouped with a 5 mm length interval.

Environmental conditions

The lower tidal regions are very extensive with a net work of tidal
creeks, mangrove forests and backwaters. They are characterised by
warm sheltered waters with plenty of cover and muddy substratum.

The salinity in the lower regions of the estuary ranged between
0.0-34.3 \%0. Freshwater or slightly brackishwater conditions prevailed
during the monsoon months ( July-October) at the surface (average
salinity 6.64%c) while the bottom waters were more saline (average
salinity 19.94%0). The temperature ranged between 25.2-34.0°C.

Food and feeding habits

An analysis of the contents of 16 stomachs by the frequency of oc-
currence method showed that organic detritus and crustaceans formed
the major items of food and that the prawn appeared to be a bottom
feeder by virtue of the presence of gastropod and prawn remains and
sand particles (Table 1).

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Table 1

Gut analysis of Palacmon styliferus

Food items

Frequency of
occurrence (%)

Organic detritus

75.01

Crustaceans (unidentified)

37.51

Sand particles

25.00

Fish remains

12.50

Penaeid prawn remains ( Metapenaeus sp.)

12.50

Gastropod remains

6.25

Insect remains

6.25

Age and Growth

During the period of study the sizes of the prawns ranged between
16 and 120 mm. A few juveniles were available in July 1960 with a
mode at 40 mm. The modal progression could be followed up to the
secondary mode at 60 mm in 1960 (Fig. 2). The mode at 80 mm in

Fig. 2. Monthly size-frequency distributions of Palacmon styliferus from the

Gautami estuary, 1960.

FREQUENCY C%0

BIOLOGY OF PALAEMON STYLIFERUS

687

September 1960 shifted to 90 mm by November 1960. These progres-
sions indicate growth rates of 10 mm /month in smaller individuals and
5 mm/month in larger individuals. In November a small mode was
observed at 40 mm and the same shifted to 70 mm by March 1961
(Figs. 2-3). The average growth rate calculated from the modal pro-

Fig. 3. Monthly size-frequency distributions of Palaemon styliferus from the

Gautami estuary, 1961.

gression is only 7.5 mm/month. There was regression in April 1961.
The size distribution in November 1961 was very much similar to the
corresponding month in the previous year. Regression occurred in De-
cember and January 1962. The samples contained very few individuals
during the following months (Fig. 4). The discrepancy observed in the
growth rates during the two periods, from September to November
1960 and November to March 1961 is believed to be the result of con-
tinuous recruitment of juveniles during the latter period, resulting in
slow progression of modes.

Breeding behaviour

In Palaemon styliferus the sexes could be separated on the basis of
the presence (males) or absence (females) of appendix masculina on

$

FREQUENCY (°M

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

the second abdominal appendage. The sex-ratio between the males and
females was 1:11.4.

In palaemonid prawns, a special type of noil-pinnate setae develop
on the pleopods at the commencement of maturity and are concerned

TOTAL LENGTH (MM)

Fig. 4. Monthly size-frequency distributions of Palaemon styliferus from the
Gautami estuary, 1961-62.

with the egg-carriage in the brood-sac (Yonge 1955). They appear as
rudiments and elongate at the time of spawning. The presence of these
non-pinnate setae on the pleopods (also termed as ovigerous setae or
egg-bearing setae) indicates that the prawn is mature or maturing. In
Palaemon styliferus, prawns measuring up to 75 mm were immature,
without any trace of ovigerous setae. Rudimentary ovigerous setae were
visible in specimens measuring over 75 mm. The smallest berried female
measured 76 mm. These observations indicate that females spawn when
they attain a minimum size of about 76 mm. The size of the majority
of the mature females ranged between 76 and 95 mm. Mature indivi-
duals were available in large numbers during September-November
period (62.96-84.61%) while the berried females were common during
October-December period with a maximum in November. It thus ap-
pears that in the majority of the prawns maturation and spawning start
in September and October respectively, reaching the maximum in No-
vember. Only juveniles were available during the subsequent months.

NO OF EGGS O)

BIOLOGY OF PALAEMON STYLIFERUS

689

The majority of the berried females showed early embryonic deve-
lopment (78%) while those with eyed eggs in the brood (ready to
hatch out) were very low in the samples (22%). The latter, however,
showed fully developed ovary through the carapace indicating gonadial
activity in berried condition. A few maulted specimens showed fully
developed gonad, but the egg-bearing setae were rudimentary. Speci-
mens with fully developed ovigerous setae were never observed. These
observations reveal that the prawn may spawn more than once but a
short time pause is likely, when the prawn moults twice, after hatching
of the brood and before the next spawning, when the egg-bearing setae
elongate to carry the eggs.

Fig. 5. Fecundity in Palaemon stylifents,

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

In 19 berried prawns, ranging between 76 and 110 mm, the number
of eggs ranged between 1570 and 8640 respectively. The number of
eggs in the berry showed a linear relation with the total length of the
prawn (Fig. 5).

None of the prawns were parasitized.

Discussion

Palaemon styliferus is common in the Gautami-Godavary estuary
in the month of November when the minimum temperature was 25.2°C
and the salinity showed a rising trend after the monsoon floods. The
peak fishery for this prawn in the middle zone of Hooghly estuary also
coincided with minimum temperature (22.0°C) and increasing salinity
(Rao 1969). The species, however, does not contribute much to the
commercial fishery as in the Hooghly estuary.

The food of the prawn appears to be very much similar to its coun-
terparts in the Hooghly estuary (Kunju loc. cit.), except for the absence
of plant matter, foraminiferan shells and spicules of sponges; however,
a detailed study is necessary in view of the small number of stomachs
examined.

The growth rate, worked out from length frequency distribution, is
estimated to range between 5 mm and 10 mm /month. On this basis,
the life span of the prawn in the estuary is estimated to be about one
year. By the same method Kunju (loc. cit.) and Rajyalakshmi (1964)
calculated the growth rate to be 3-4 mm /month in the Hooghly estuary,
which is more or less the same observed in larger individuals.

The sex-ratio is predominantly female as in the Hooghly estuary
(Kunju loc. cit.). The breeding season, however, is confined to a short
period in the Gautami estuary (October-December) while it is prolong-
ed ( October-! uly) in the Hooghly estuary (Kunju loc. cit.). Although
spawning took place in the lower estuary, hatching of the brood ap-
peared to occur only in the marine areas as no early zoeae could be re-
corded from the routine plankton collections. A similar condition is re-
ported in the Hooghly estuary (Kunju loc. cit.). The prawn appears to
spawn more than once during the spawning season as observed in case
of the related species, Palaemon tenulpes, from the same estuarine sys-
tem ( Subrahmanyam 1971).

Although a restricted spawning period is discernible from a study
of the berried females in the estuary, the size-frequency distribution in-
dicates intermittent spawning. The juveniles encountered since Novem-
ber could be the progeny of the spawners of the preceding season while
those encountered during the pre-monsoon months could have resulted
from some spawning activity in the adjoining brackishwater or estuar-
ine areas.

BIOLOGY OF PALAEMON STYLIFERUS

691

The range of berried females in the Gautami estuary is much wider
than in the Hooghly estuary (68-86 mm) and the number of eggs car-
ried by them also showed corresponding wider range. Kunju (loc. cit.)
reported a number of parasitized prawns from the Hooghly estuary
while none of the prawns were infested in the Gautami estuary. The
reason for this is not known.

Acknowledgement

I wish to thank Prof. P. N. Ganapati, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.I., F.Z.S.I.,
F.A.Sc., Head of the Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Wal-
tair, under whose guidance the present work was done.

References

Annandale, N. (1922) : The mar-
ine element in the fauna of Ganges.
Bijdr. t. Dierk. {Max. Weber's Feest
Number) Amsterdam., 22:143-154.

Ganapati, P. N. & Subrahmanyam,
M. (1964)): The prawn fishery in

Gadavari estuary. J. zool, Soc. India.
76(1 & 2): 11-20.

Kemp, S. (1917) : Notes on Crus-
tacea Decapoda in the Indian Museum.
IX. Lcander styliferus Milne-Edwards
and related forms. Rec. Ind. Mus. 13
(4) : 203-231.

Kunju, M. M. (1955) : Preliminary
studies on the biology of palaemonid
prawn, Leander styliferus Milne-Ed-
wards in West Bengal, India. Proc.
Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun., sixth sess.
Symp: 404-416.

Menon, M. K. (1954): On the

paddy field prawn fishery of Travan-
core-Cochin and an experiment in
prawn culture. Ibid., Fifth meet., sec.
2:1-5.

Rai, H. S. (1933): Shell fisheries
of the Bombay Presidency. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 56:884-897.

Rajyalakshmi, T. (1964): On the
age and growth of some estuarine
prawns. Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun.
Eleventh Sess. (II) : 52-84.

Rao, R. M. (1969): Studies on the
prawn fisheries of the Hooghly estu-
arine system. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India,
B 55(1): 1-27.

Subrahmanyam, M. (1971): The

fishery and biology of the littoral
prawn, Palaemon ( Nematopalaemon )
tenuipes (Henderson) from the Goda-
vari estuarine system. Symposium on
Indian Ocean and adjacent seas — their
origin, Science and resources, Cochin
(India), January 12-18 (1971).

Yonge, C. M. (1955): Egg attach-
ment in Crangon vulgaris and other
caridea. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh.
Sect. B. 65, Pt. Ill (24) : 369-400.

Contribution to the umbellifers
of Kashmir1

i

M. K. Kaul

Regional Research Laboratory {Branch), Srinagar 190 005,
Kashmir {India)

{With twelve text-figures)

Thirty-four species of Umbellifers belonging to the twenty-five
genera are described. Keys to all the genera and species of a genus
are given. Each species is described giving its diagnostic features.

Localities of collection and distribution, local names and uses whe-
rever known are also recorded. Twelve common Umbellifers in the
region are illustrated.

Introduction

The family Umbelliferae is mainly distributed in Europe, North Africa,
West, Central and North Asia, a few are North American, tropical and
natives of Southern hemisphere. The members of the family thrive well
in Kashmir as well as in other temperate zones of Western Hima-
layas.

The family is of great economic importance and all available mem-
bers growing in Kashmir have been taken up for thorough chemical
investigation by this laboratory. Heracleum spp. and Ammi spp. have
given interesting results. This paper, describing the botanical aspects
of the family, is the outcome of two years of field work carried out by
me and is written with a view to helping those who are interested in the
Umbellifers of Kashmir. It forms a further contribution to our know-
ledge of this family which has not received much attention from earlier
workers on Kashmir flora, namely Blatter (1928), Coventry (1930)
and Rao (1960, 1961).

All the specimens examined are deposited in Herbarium of this
laboratory.

Abbreviations used in the text:

Blatt. Beau. FIs. Kash. E. Blatter, beautiful flowers of kashmir.
Coll. FI. Siml. H. Collett, flora simalensis.

DD Herbarium of Forest Res. Instt., Dehra Dun.

FBI J. D. Hooker, flora of British India.

1 Accepted July 1971.

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

693

Generic key to the Umbellifers of Kashmir

1 . Leaves undivided, narrow lanceolate
1. Leaves divided

2. Leaves not pinnately divided

3. Leaves 3-partite, segment 1-2 fid
3. Leaves 3-5 partite, segments spinuous
2. Leaves pinnately divided

4. Fruit bristly, bristles curved or straight

5. Fruit upto 6.4 mm diam; bristles small
5. Fruit upto 1.5 cm diam; bristles rough and stout
4. Fruit not bristly (rough corrugate, style
bases depressed only in Prangos )

6. Leaf segments ovate to lanceolate

7. Nodes rooting, fruit not corky

7. Nodes generally free, fruit corky
6. Leaf segments much divided

8. Fruit prolonged into a beak

8 . Fruit never beaked

9. Fruit ovoid or cylindrical not winged

10. Fruit cylindrical and scabrid

10. Fruit cylindrical but not scabrid . .

1 1 . Fruit ovoid with loose outer coat . .

11. Fruit ellipsoid, outer coat hard

12. Leaf segments filiform or obtuse

13. Fruit viscid

13. Fruit with a deep narrow longitudinal

Bupleurum

A pium
Eryngium

Torilis

Turgenia

Prangos

Oenanthe

Siam

Scandix
V icatia

Anthriscus

Chaerophyllum

Pleurospermum

Bunium

Carum

Conium

groove and not viscid

12. Leaf segments ovate or pinnatifid

14. Fruit ridges not distinct . . Pimpinella

14. Fruit ridges distinct,

villous when young . . Seseli

9. Fruit flattened, lateral ridges winged

15. Petioles of leaflets winged . . Ferula

15. Petioles of leaflets not winged

16. Dorsal and intermediate ridges
also winged, lateral wings narrow

1 7 . Calyx-teeth none . . Ligusticum

17. Calyx-teeth lanceolate .. Selinum

16. Dorsal and intermediate ridges
not winged, lateral wings broad

18. Lateral wings of 2 half
fruits free

19. Petals entire, fruit

2 cm diam. . . Angelica

19. Petals subentire, fruit

1.5 cm diam. . . Archangelica
18. Lateral wings of 2 half fruits

cohering until separation Heracleum

Bupleurum Linn.

Glabrous herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves entire, obovate to linear lan-

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

ceolate, usually sessile. Flowers yellow, pedicelled or subsessile. Fruit
slightly constricted at the commissure.

Key to the species

1. Leaves amplexicaule, deeply cordate, nerves 10-20, palmate .. jucimdum
1 . Leaves sessile, sometimes semiamplexicaule nerves 5-9, convergent

2. Leaves at least 1 cm broad, usually more

3. Fruit upto 5 cm, ridges obscure, furrows with 3 vittae .. lanceolatum
3. Fruit upto 1 cm distinctly ridged, furrows with 1-3 vittae .. candollii
2. Leaves upto 1 cm broad, usually less

4. Fruit upto 2 cm distinctly ridged, furrows with 1-6 vittae . . falcatum
4. Fruit ovate, ridged and slight winged,

furrows with 3 vittae . . longicaule

B. jucundum Kurz. in Journ. Bot. 5:240, 1867; FBI 2:675.

Stem erect, somewhat woody below. Leaves amplexicaule (mostly
upper ones), nerves prominent, convergent. Bract 1, upto 6 mm, ovate
often amplexicaule; bracteoles 3-5. Fruit 6 mm elliptic oblong with
prominent ridges, furrows with 3 -vittae.

Gurcharan 1500 (30.8.70) Dachigam Rakh.

I do not place it in var. cachemirica (of Hooker 1879) for its lower
cauline leaves are not linear oblong or linear.

The var. cachemirica has been reported by Duthie, J.F. from Gur-
aize valley and Liddar valley, Kashmir. The lower cauline leaves of
these specimens are linear-oblong. Duthie 12602 (6-9-1892) Guraize,
7000-8000 ft (DD); Duthie 13305 (28-7-1893) Liddar valley, Kashmir
(DD).

B. lanceolatum Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 4:131, 1830; FBI 2:674.

Perennial, erect, branched herbs. Leaves overlapping towards the
base, narrowly lanceolate, nerves 5-7 prominent, running parallel, con-
verging towards the apex. Bracts acute. Fruit 3-5 mm ridges not distinct.

Rattan Chand 7110 (2.9.60) Pahalgam; Kaul RRL 5543 (2.7.69)
Shopian (Rajpora orchards).

Distribution : North West Himalayas.

B. candollii Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 4:131, 1830; FBI 2:674; Coll. FI. Siml.
208, 1900; Blat. Beau. FIs. Kash. 1:143, 1928.

Perennial tufted herb. Leaves obovate, nerves 7-9 converging to-
wards the apex. Bracts 2-4 ovate; bracteoles absent. Fruit upto 1 cm
ridged.

Kapoor 2109 (15-9-51) Drang, near Ferozpur Nalla; Kaul 19629
12.8.69). Tangmarg forest, Dachigam rakh (see fig. 10).

Distribution : Temperate Himalayas, Nepal.

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

695

Fig. 10. Bupleurum candollii Wall. Flowering branch. 10a. A fruit (dorsal view)

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

B. fakatuin Linn. var. niarginata (Wall, ex DC.) Clarke in Hook, f.;
FBI 2:676, 1879.

Annual or biennial herbs. Leaves sessile, linear upto 9 cm long,
nerves 5-7 prominent. Bracts upto 5 mm linear. Flowers yellow, stalks
very short. Fruit obovate, ridged, ridges with distinct furrows.

Duthie 13061 (11-7-1893) Liddar Valley 5000-6000 ft (DD); Kapoor
(13-7-46) Gurez Valley; Sobti 4749 (June, 56) Gularg; Kaul 2001
(July, 69) Dachigam.

Distribution’. S. Europe, West and Central Asia, temperate Himalayas,
E. Asia to Japan.

B. longicaule Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 4:131, 1830; Clarke in Hook. f. FBI
2:677, 1879; Blatt. Beau. FIs. Kash. 1:142, 1928.

Stem branching from the base. Lower cauline leaves linear lanceo-
late, nerves not prominent, upper leaves ovate with acute apex. Bracts
1-3, bracteoles 5 prominent longer than the umbellule. Fruit 1.5 cm
elliptic or egg shaped.

Keshavanand 28655 (23-8-1908) Gulmarg forests (DD); Kapoor
(14-7-46) Karagbal, Gurez; Kapoor 695 (15-8-46) Kangra to Kalpani;
Sobti 4746 (1-7-56) Gulmarg; Kaul 1014 (July, 69) Uri.

Distribution : Subarctic Asia; W. Siberia, Central Asia, Tibet and West-
ern Himalayas.

Apium Linn.

Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves pinnate or 3-partite, Umbels
compound often leaf opposed. Fruit slightly longer than broad.

A. graveolens Linn. Sp. PI. 264, 1753; Clarke in Hook. f. FBI 2:679,
1879; Polunin in FIs. Europe, 285, 1969.

Leaves 3-partite, segments once or twice trifid. Flowers white.
Calyx-teeth insignificant. Fruit ridges narrow, vittae broad.

Kaul 308 (25-6-1970) Majid Bagh, Barzulla Vegetable fields.
Distribution: Kabul, West and Central Asia, Europe, N. Africa, Cau-
casus, Afghanistan, Pakistan.

Eryngium Linn.

Perennial herbs; leaves entire or lobed. Flowers in simple heads.
Fruit ellipsoidal nearly cylindric.

Key to the species

Leaves divided, segments spinous
Leaves undivided, segments not spinous

billardieri

biebersteinianum

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

697

E. billardieri Delaroche Eryng. 25, t. 2, 1808;. FBI 2:670, Blatt. Beau.
FIs. Kash. 1:141, 1928.

Stem upto 40 cm erect, branching from the base. Basal leaves long-
stalked, segments 3-fid or pinnatifid, spinous-toothed. Bracts 5-7, no
spines on margin bracteoles slightly spiny. Fruit upto 3 mm.

Fig. 3. Eryngium billardieri Delar. Flowering branch. 3a. A flower.

Dutt 7733 (27-8-62) Fal Mandi, Srinagar; Pando 8487 (July 62).
University premises, Srinagar; Kaul 5595 (16-7-69) Barzulla fields, Sri-
nagar (see fig. 3).

Distribution : Western Asia, Sind.

E. biebersteinianum Nevski ex Bobrov in FI. USSR 16:86, 1950; Kita-
mua in FI. Afghanistan, 285, 1960.

E. coeruleum Bieb. FI. Taur. Cauc. 1:200, 1808; Clarke in FBI 2:669, 1879;

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

E. planum Lindl. in Royle Illust. Bot. Himal. 232, 1835 (non Linn.).

Stem upto 55 cm erect branched. Basal leaves stalked, undivided,
crenate, not spiny. Bracts 5-6, slightly spiny; a few bracteoles some-
times spinous. Fruit upto 3 mm.

Gurcharan 1503 (20-7-70) Dachigam Rakh.

Distribution : Iran, Afghanistan.

Torilis Adans.

Annual herbs. Stem hispid or scabrid, generally rough. Leaves 2-4
pinnate. Bracts absent, bracteoles several. Fruit elliptic or oblong, con-
stricted at commissure, bristly or with tubercles.

Key to the species

1 . Stem rough, scabrid. Fruit densely bristly . . leptophylla

1 . Stem glabrous or appressedly hairy. Fruit hispid . . japonica

T. leptophylla (Linn.) Reichb. f. in leones, FI. Germ. 21, t. 2010, 1866;
Stewart in Catalogue of FI. of Pakistan 527, 1972.

Caucalis leptophylla Linn. Sp. PI. 347, 1753; FBI 2:719.

Resembling Torilis japonica (Houtt) DC., but the leaves are finely
cut, ultimate segments narrower. Peduncles carrying the umbels very
short. Fruits almost sessile, covered with straight and hooked bristles.

Kaul 167 (22-5-70) Manasbal, weed in fields.

Distribution : West Asia, South Europe, North Africa.

9

T. japonica (Houtt) DC. Prodr. 4:219, 1830; Raizada in Ind. For. 92
(5):299-300, 1968; Kanai in FI. Eastern Himalayas, 231, 1966.

Caucalis japonica Houtt., Nat. Hist. 26:42, 1777; Caucalis anthriscus sensu
Clarke in Hook, f., FBI 2:718, 1879.

Bracts absent and bracteoles 3-4 narrow, filiform. Rays 5-7 in an um-
bel. Flowers purplish or white.

Thapliyal 25597 (24-5-58); Kaul RRL 5544 (9-7-69); (see fig. 9).
Distribution : Himalayas, Burma, Indo-China, China, Formosa, Korea,
Japan and Sumatra.

Turgenia Hoffm.

Annual hispid herbs. Leaves with oblong pinnae, hairy on under-
surface. Fruit upto 1.5 mm diam. covered all over with stout, rough,
curved bristles.

T. latifolia (Linn.) Hoffm. Gen. Umbell. 59, 1814; Kitamura in FI.
Afghanistan, 291, 1960.

Caucalis latifolia Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 12, 2:1205, 1768; FBI 2:719.

UMBELLiFERS OF KASHMIR

699

Fig. 9. Torilis japonica (Houtt) DC. Flowering branch. 9a. An umbel; 9b. A

fruit.

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Bracts absent, bracteoles linear. Rays 2-4 in each Umbel. Carpels
with two lateral ridges in the form of commissures.

Kapoor 602 (15-7-46) Kashmir; Kaul 168 (22-5-70) Mansbal fields.
Distribution : Europe, N. Africa, Caucasus, Central Asia, Asia Minor,
Iran, Afghanistan.

Prangos Lindl.

Perennial herbs. Leaves 3-4 pinnate. Umbels with many bracts and
bracteoles. Flowers yellow. Fruit oblong, commissure broad.

Prangos pabularia Lindl. in Quart. J. Sci. 19:7, 1825; FBI 2:719; Rao
in Bull. Bot. Surv. of India 2 (3 & 4): 403, 1960.

Leaves pinnate with long filiform segments. Bracts linear. Fruit
roughly corrugate between ridges. Style bases depressed.

Fig. 12. Prangos pabularia Lindl. A leaf. 12a. An umbel with flowers. 12b. A

fruit,

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

70i

Duthie 13171 (24-7-1893) Liddar Valley; Kapoor 592 (13-7-46)
Kamri village; Kapoor 1644 (15-6-47) Verinag top; Kapoor 2261 (28-
6-52) Verinag top (see fig. 12). Local Name: Krungus. Roots are used
locally to cure itch (Chopra 1956).

Distribution : Afghanistan, Pakistan.

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISf. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Oenanthe Linn.

Herbs with stoloniferous creeping roots, generally growing near wet
places. Leaves 1-3 pinnate. Flowers white. Calyx-teeth small. Fruit
ellipsoid, longer than broad.

Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. Prodr. 4:138, 1830; Maheshwari in FI.
Delhi, 178, t. 95, 1963.

Sium javanicum Blume Bijdr. FI. Ned. 15:881, 1826.

O. stolonifera Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 4:138, 1830; FBI 2:696; Coll. FI. Siml. 212,
1900.

Leaves 2-3 pinnate with oval pinnae. Fruit compressed ridged with
all the ridges equal.

Kaul 85 (10-8-69), Chashma Shahi, Srinagar (see fig. 6).
Distribution : Java, China, Japan.

Siam Linn.

Leaves pinnate, pinnae toothed. Calyx teeth acute or obselete. Flo-
wers white. Fruit ovoid or oblong, laterally compressed, constricted
at the commissure.

S. latijugum Clarke in Hook, f., FBI 2:683, 1879.

Leaves pinnate compound, pinnules long narrowly lanceolate. Fruit
triangular, corky, furrows 2-3 vittae.

Local name: Jangali Gajar.

Gammie s.n. (10-7-1891) Srinagar, 5300 ft. (DD); Duthie s.n. (28-
9-1893), Gurez (DD); Kapoor 2101 (Sept. 61) Yarikha, Gulmarg; Kaul
19668 (11-9-69) Chashma Shahi, Srinagar (see fig. 8).

Distribution : Kashmir and Baltistan.

Scandix Linn.

Annual herbs. Umbels simple or compound. Calyx teeth minute or
0, fruit oblong, beaked.

S. pecten-veneris Linn. Sp. PI. 256, 1753; FBI 2:692; Polunin in
FIs. Europe 279, 1969.

Leaves compound, ultimate segments small, narrow. Bracts 0, fruit
with a long beak.

Kaul 5945 (2-7-69) Rajpora Shopian (see fig. 7); common in Sri-
nagar fields.

Distribution : Pakistan and Afghanistan to western Europe, Central
Asia.

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

703

Fig. 8. Sium latijugum Clarke. A flowering branch.

Vicatia DC.

Perennial herbs. Leaves pinnately compound, ultimate segments
Harrow. Flowers white or pink or purple red. Fruit ovoid, narrowed
at the apex, distinctly constricted at the commissure.

V. coniifolia DC. Prodr. 4:243, 1830; FBI 2:670; Coll. FI. Siml. 207,
1900; Rao in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 18(2):32, 1960; H. Hara in FI.
Eastern Himalayas, 232, 1966.

Bracteoles linear, flowers reddish when young. Fruit with distinct
ridges, small not winged.

6

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Fig. 7. Scandix pecten-veneris Linn. Flowering plant. 7a. fruit.

ICapoor 464 (27-6-46), Gulmarg 10,000 ft; Kapoor 659 (15-7-46),
Kamri; Sarin 6629 (28-8-60) Gulmarg; Kaul 1011 (15-7-69) Rawalpora
(see fig. 1).

UMBELUFERS OF KASHMIR

705

Fig. 1. Victatia coniifolia DC. (Flowering plant), la. fruit (dorsal view).

lb. an umbel.

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(5)

I:

I

Anthriscus Pers.

Herbs with somewhat hairy stem. Leaves 2-3 pinnate, ultimate seg-
ments toothed. Flowers white in compound umbels. Fruit oblong, nar-
rowed at the apex, constricted at commissure, vittae solitary in each
furrow.

A. nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng, PI. Umb. Prodr. 27, 1813; FBI 2:692;
Coll. FI. Siml. 212, 1900.

Chaerophyllum nemorosum M. Bieb. FI. Taur. Cauc. 1:232, 1808.

Leafllets broad, pinnatifid, slightly pubescent beneath. Bracts none,
bracteoles several. Fruit upto 1.7 cm long, cylindrical, narrowed to-
wards apex, scabrid, ridges obscure.

Duthie 11521 (26-6-1892) Sonamarg 8000-9000 ft (DD); Duthie
13482 (7-8-1893) Liderwat 9000-10,000 ft (DD); Keshavanand 28651
(22-5-1908) Khuihama forests, Lolab (DD).

Distribution : North Asia to East Europe.

Chaerophyllum Linn.

Annual or biennial, glabrous or hairy herbs. Leaves 2-pinnate with
pinnatifid pinnules; bracts 0, bracteoles present. Fruit narrowed up-
wards, linear, glabrous. Leaves 2-3 pinnate, ultimate segments lance-
olate and obtuse.

Key to the species

Stem and leaves very hairy . . villosum

Stem and leaves less hairy . . reflexum

Leaves 1-2 pinnate, ultimate segments

oblong, mucronate . . capnoides

C. villosum Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 4:225, 1830; FBI 2:690-91; Coll. FI.
Siml. 211, 1900; Rao in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 18(2):32, 1960.

Bracts absent, bracteoles 3-6, linear white margined. Fruit 2-5 cm
long, somewhat broader in the middle narrowed at both ends.

Duthie 11320 (1-6-1892) above Gulmarg (DD); Kapoor 1139 (26-
7-52) Naseem Bagh; Kaul 417 (12-7-69) Dachigam Rakh; Kaul 81
(27-7-69) Chashma Shahi (see fig. 5).

Distribution : Temperate Himalayas.

C. reflexum Lindl. in Royle Ulus. Bot. Himal. 232, 1835; FBI 2:691;
Coll. FI. Siml. 211, 1900; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2 (3 & 4): 403,
1960; Kanai in FI. Eastern Himalayas, 229, 1966.

Similar to C. villosum with the difference that leaves are longer
much more dissected and less hairy. One to three fruits mature in each
umbellule.

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

707

Fig. 5. Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. Flowering branch. 5a. fruit (lateral view).

Gammie s.n. (14-7-1891) Srinagar, 5300 ft (BD); Kapoor 431 (11-
6-46) Naseem Bagh; Kaul 1015 (15-8-70) Dachigam Rakh.

Distribution : North West Himalayas; Pakistan; from Dalhousie to
Kumaon; Afghanistan.

C. capnoides (Dene.). Benth. in Gen. PI. 1: 1867; Clarke in FBI 2:691,
1879.

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Butinia capnoides Dene, in Jacquem. V. Voy. dans. 1’ Independent les annees,
70, t. 80, 1828.

Bracts 0, bracteoles 4-7, oblong lanceolate; rays 4-8. Fruit 6 mm
minutely punctate, very much constricted at the commissure.

Gurcharan 1505 (25-4-70) Dachigam Rakh.

Distribution : North West Himalayas.

Pleurospermum Hoffm.

Perennial or biennial herbs. Leaves 1-4 pinnate; Umbels compound.
Flowers white or dark purple. Fruit elliptic or oblong.

P. stellatum Benth. in Gen. PI. 1:915, 1867; FBI 2:702; Blatt. Beau.
FIs. Kashmir 1:140, 1928.

Leaves pinnate compound with small linear lobes; fruits with a loose
outer coat, furrows 1-vittae, seed grooved.

Kapoor 134 (10-7-45) Bedori.

Distribution : Alpine North Western Himalayas.

Buniurn Linn.

Annual herbs. Leaves 2-3 pinnate, ultimate segments filiform. Flo-
wers white in compound umbels. Fruit oblong or ellipsoid.

B. persicum (Boiss.) B. Fedtsch in Rastit. Turkert. 612, 1915; Kitamura
in FI. Afgh. 283, 1960.

Carum persicum Boiss. in Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser. 3, 138, 1844. Carum bulbocast-
anum auct. non Koch. (1825): FBI, 2:681; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv. India
2 (3 & 4) : 402, 1960.

Bracts linear, sometimes divided; bracteoles absent. Fruit viscid,
distinctly ridged, vittae one.

Local name: Janglizera.

Kaul 19736 (30-9-1971) Barzulla orchards (see fig. 4).

Carum Linn.

Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves much divided with linear seg-
ments. Flowers white. Calyx teeth small or none. Fruit ovoid, ellipsoid
or oblong, laterally compressed, generally good smelling.

C. carvi Linn. Sp. PI. 263, 1753; Rao in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 18(2):
32, 1960.

Stem procumbent or erect. Leaves much divided, ultimate segments
lanceolate. Bracts 1-3, Fruit 2 mm elliptic oblong, almost viscid.

Sarin 6581 (27-6-60) Gulmarg.

Distribution : West and North Asia, Europe.

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

709

Fig. 4. Bunium persicum (Boiss) S. Fedtsch, 4a. fruit (dorsal view).

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Coeiuni Linn.

Fruit broadly ovoid to rounded with 5 prominent ribs; resin can-
als absent. Umbels compound, bracts and bracteoles few. Flowers
white; Calyx absent.

C« maciilatum Linn. Sp. PI. 243, 1753; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind.
2 (3 & 4): 304, 1960.

A smooth, purple spotted, hollow-stemmed, biennial, 1-2 metres
tall plant. Leaves large, glabrous, 2-3 pinnate with segments blunt.
Flowers white appearing in large showy umbels. Fruit prominently
ridged and has on its inner surface a deep, narrow longitudinal groove.
Growing in waste places and other cultivated fields throughout Sri-
nagar.

Gammie s.n. (13-7-1891), Srinagar 5300 (DD);

Kaul 5701 (12-7-70) Rainawari, Srinagar.

PiinpineMa Linn.

Biennial or perennial herbs. Leaves 1-2 pinnate. Flowers in com-
pound umbels. Calyx teeth 0, or small. Fruit laterally compressed, usu-
ally constricted at the commissure.

P. diversifoMa Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 4:122, 1830; FBI 2:688; Coll. FI.
Siml. 210, 1900.

Leaves 1 -pinnate; Bracts 0. Fruits narrow, hispidulous, ridges not
prominent.

Hukum Singh 27154 (1-9-1907) Nagam (DD); Kapoor 176 (7-8-45)
Gulmarg; Kapoor 1068 (26-6-47); Shankaracharya Hill; Kapoor 1177
(23-7-47) Banihal South Slope; Dutt 9096 (Sept. 62) Khillen Marg;
Kaul 1012 (15-6-70) Harwan (see fig. 2).

Distribution : China, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Himalayas, Japan.

Seseli Linn.

Glabrous or pubescent herbs. Leaves 2-3 pinnate or twice 3-partite;
flowers white. Calyx teeth minute or 0. Fruit oblong ovate or circular,
not laterally compressed, broadest at the commissure.

S. sibiricom Benth. in Gen. PI. 1:901, 1867; FBI 2:693.

Leaves 2-3 pinnate, fruits densely villous when young, dorsally
compressed.

Kapoor 2275 (6-8-57) Khillenmarg; Sarin 7124 (Sept. 62) Drang,
Gulmarg.

Local Name: Bhoot Keshi.

Roots yield 1% essential oil which has hypotensive action and acts
as a central nervous system sedative. (Chopra 1956).

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

711

Fig. 2. Pimpinella diversifolia DC. (Flowering branch).

712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)
Distribution : Afghanistan, Siberia and Europe.

Ferula Linn.

Perennial herbs with enormous roots smelling powerfully. Umbels
compound. Flowers yellow. Fruit orbicular or ellipsoid, much com-
pressed dorsally, lateral ridges winged.

F. jaeschkeaua Vatke. Append, in Sem. Hort. Berol. 2, 1876; Clarke
in FBI 2:708, 1879; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 2 (3 & 4): 403, 1960.

Leaves compound, young leaves pubescent, petioles slightly winged;
fruit purplish with 3 prominent ridges on each side of the commissure.

Keshavanand 27952 (14-6-1909) Lolab; Kapoor 2272 (15-8-52)
Khillenmarg; Kaul 1021 (21-7-70) Drang (se efig. 11).

Fig. 11. Ferula jaeschkeaua Vatke. A leaf. 11a. A fruiting umbel.

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

713

Distribution : Turkestan, Tianshan, Afghanistan.

Llgusticum Linn.

Perennial herbs. Leaves pinnate, pinnae minutely pubescent. Calyx
teeth absent in flowers. Fruit ovoid ellipsoid, terete or dorsally com-
pressed, furrows with at least 2 vittae.

L. thomsom C.B. Clarke in Hook. f. FBI 2:698, 1879.

Leaves pinnate, pinnae oblong or ovate sometimes lobed, tough in
texture, pedicels as well as leaves slightly pubescent. Flowers white.
Fruit small with prominent ridges, dorsal furrows with 2-3 vittae.

Kaul 1009 (August ’69) Tanmarg.

Distribution : Afghanistan.

Selinum Linn.

Perennial branched herbs. Leaves pinnate compound. Fruits ridged
or not, seed plain on inner surface.

Key to the species

Fruit with 3 prominent ridges . . tenuifolium

Fruit with no prominent ridges, glabrous . . vaginatum

S. tenuifolium (Wall, ex DC.) Clarke in Hook. f. FBI 2:700, 1879; Coll.
FI. Siml. 213, 1900; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 2 (3 & 4): 403, 1960.

Bracts linear, lobed. Bracteoles many. Flowers white in compound
umbels. Fruit longer than broad, prominently ridged.

Kapoor 1237 (20-7-46) Tangmarg.

In Kashmir the roots are powdered and used as condiments.
Distribution : Temperate Himalayas.

S. vaginatum C.B. Clarke in Hook, f., FBI 2:700, 1879; Coll. FI. Siml.
213, 1900.

Leaves 1-2 pinnate, segments ovate lanceolate. Bracts linear as long
as the umbellules. Flowers white in irregular compound umbels. Fruit
3 mm diam. ridges not prominent.

Bhadwar 3665 (12-8-35) Pahalgam; Bhadwar 5702 (16-8-44) Khill-
anmarg; Kapoor 892 (27-6-46) Pushwari, Kashmir; Kapoor 2275 (6-8-
52) Drang; Kaul 1961 (8-8-69) Drang near Ferozpur Nalla.

In Kashmir the roots are used as condiments, which are often adul-
terated with the roots of Seseli sibirica. Both plants are known locally as
Bhoot Keshi and can be easily distinguished on the basis of their hab-
itat.

Seseli sibirica grows in rock crevices and Selinum vaginatum grows
near moist situations,

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Distribution : Kashmir to Kumaon.

Angelica Linn.

Perennial herbs. Leaves long 1-3 pinnate. Umbels compound with
many rays. Calyx teeth 0, flowers white. Fruit ovoid, or ellipsoid, com-
missure broad, lateral ridges winged.

A. glauca Edgw. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20:53, 1846; FBI 2:706; Coll,
in FI. Siml. 213; 1900; Rao in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 18 (2): 33, 1960.

Leaves 3-pinnate, leaflets oblong. Fruits flattened, oblong, lateral
ridges somewhat expanded at the top into a membranous structure.

Kapoor 876 (27-7-46) Pushwari; Kapoor (26-9-51) Gulmarg; Kapoor
2273 (5-8-52) Khilanmarg; Kaul 19631 (12-8-69) Gulmarg.

Local name: Choh’ore.

Roots locally used as a condiment after powdering. It is said to have
a good cordial and stimulant value and is used in flatulence and dyspe-
psia.

Distribution : Western Himalayas.

Archangelica Hoffm.

Tall gigantic perennial herbs. Leaves 2-3 pinnate, pinnae large,
toothed. Calyx teeth 0. Petals subentire, white. Fruit ellipsoid, sub-
quadrate or oblong, commissure broad, lateral ones winged.

A. officinalis Hoffm. PI. Umb. Gen. 1:162, 1814.

Angelica archangelica Linn. Sp. PI. 250, 1753; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 2
(3 & 4) : 403, 1960.

Fruit oblong with three distinct middle ridges, lateral ones winged,
smelling powerfully.

R. L. Bhadwar 3500 (27-7-35) Gulmarg; Kapoor 542 (10-7-46)
Karghabal; Kapoor 1151 (27-7-47) Khillenmarg; Kaul 1020 (10-8-69)
Gulmarg.

Distribution : N. Europe, Asia and America.

Heracleum Linn.

Perennial herbs. Leaves compound, hairy, umbels large with many
rays. Flowers white. The lateral wings of the two halves of fruit coher-
ing until separation.

Key to the species

Leaves and stem less hairy. Fruits winged . . thomsoni

Leaves and stem pubescent or tomentose. . . candicans

Fruits winged and ridged with a distinct median vittae.

UMBELLIFERS OF KASHMIR

7iS

H. thomsoni Clarke in Hook. f. FBI 2:711, 1879.

Bracts linear upto 2 cm bracteoles many. Umbels compound, 25-
35 rays. Fruit 1 cm diam., prominently ridged, wings broad.

Kapoor 1186 (15-7-47) Banihal.

Distribution : North Himalayas.

H. candicans Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 4:135, 1830; FBI 2:714; Coll, in FI.
Siml. 215, 1900; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 2 (3 & 4): 403, 1960.

Umbels compound, 30-40 rays. Fruit 1-3 cm diam. ridges prominent
with distinct median vittae.

Kaul 5568 (9-6-69) Tangmarg forests; Kaul 19637 (12-8-69) Gul-
marg.

Local name: ‘Krandel’.

Roots and seed with strong smell. Milky juice comes out of roots
on injury.

The roots of the plants are commercially exploited for the produc-
tion of Xanthotoxin and as such the plant is economically of much
importance.

Distribution : North Himalayas.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. C. K. Atal, Director, Regional Research
Laboratory, Jammu and Kashmir for providing the necessary facilities.
Thanks are due to Prof. P. V. Bole of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay,
for some suggestions and to Dr. S. N. Sobti of this laboratory for help
in identification of certain plants. The help rendered by the authorities
of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Blatter, E. (1928): Beautiful flo- Tour in Kashmir State. Rec. Bot.
wers of Kashmir ,Vol. 1, London. Surv. Ind. 75(2) : 1-67.

Coventry, O. (1925-30): Wild Flo- " ; (1960b): Further con-

wers of Kashmir, Vols, 1-3. tribution to the Flora of Jammu and

Kashmir State. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind.
Rao, T. A. (1960a): A Botanical 2(3 & 4): 377-421.

Communal roosting habits of
Indian Birds1

Madhav Gadgil2 and Salim Ali
(With two text -figures )

Introduction

A number of bird species of diverse orders and families and with a
diversity of habits and habitats roost together for at least a part of the
year. In a few cases such social roosting may be a simple consequence
of the paucity of suitable roosting sites forcing the birds to crowd to-
gether. However, in a majority of cases of communal roosting the birds
associate together through some social attraction and do not disperse
even if alternative roosting sites are available. Some of these social
groups merely comprise feeding or migratory flocks which remain to-
gether outside the roosting time as well. Leaving aside these cases, there
are a number of bird species which voluntarily form new social groups
specifically at the time of roosting. In this paper we will restrict our
attention mainly to the latter type of communal roosting.

Although a number of accounts of Indian birds make incidental
references to the roosting habits, no systematic account of this pheno-
menon has as yet been presented. In fact, the various published ac-
counts of communal roosting are all based on examples selected to
illustrate a particular point and we are not aware of any account which
deals with the avifauna of any region as a whole (Wynne-Edwards
1962, Ward 1965, Zahavi 1971, Gadgil 1972, Ward & Zahavi 1973).
The present paper aims to provide a summary of some of the commoner
species included in Ali (1972) based primarily on our field experience.
Numerous other examples of such communal roosters could be cited
if the entire Indian avifauna as listed in Ripley (1961) were taken into
account. This summary is followed by an attempt to show that such
birds as roost communally in the sense defined above, contrast in cer-
tain ecological characteristics with those which do not do so. Finally,
we examine the implications of these characteristics from the viewpoint
of the various functions that have been attributed to the habit of com-
munal roosting.

1 Accepted March 1974.

2 Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012.

COMMUNAL ROOSTING OF BIRDS 717

Systematic Account

This account is restricted to a few of those species of Indian birds
which, seasonally or at least occasionally, form communal roosts with
a membership larger than a foraging or migratory flock. The name of
each species, preceded by R or M (Resident or Migrant) and a sequ-
ential number, is followed by the following information:

(a) Whether the habit of communal roosting is constant through-
out the year — C, or seasonal — Z.

(b) Whether, when formed, the communal roost is small in size —
S, i.e. it includes five to twenty individuals; or of medium size
— M, i.e. of several tens of individuals; or large — L, i.e. of
several hundred individuals; or enormous — E, i.e. of several
thousand individuals. Note that this refers to the number of in-
dividuals of that particular species only, and not to the overall
size of the communal roost if it is a mixed one comprising
several species.

(c) Whether the roost includes members of only one species, i.e.
if it is pure — P; or of members of other species as well, i.e. it
is a mixed roost — X.

(d) If the species associates with other species in forming a mixed
communal roost, then the sequential number of the species it
occurs with: thus 39 implies House Crow, 21 implies Rose-
ringed Parakeet, and so on. In this list of associates at a mix-
ed roost only the significant associates are noted. Thus the
Rosy Pastor is a significant associate of the Redheaded Bunting
but not vice versa .

Order pelecaniformes

Family Phalacrocoracidae Cormorants and Darter

R 1 Large Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) X; (d) 2, 3, 4, 7
R 2 Indian Shag, Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens
(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) X; (d) 1, 3, 4, 7
R 3 Little Cormorant, Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) X; (d) 1, 2, 4, 7
R 4 Darter, Anhinga rufa (Daudin)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) X; (d) 1, 2, 3, 7

Order ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae Herons, Egrets, etc.

R 5 Pond Heron, Ardeola grayii (Sykes)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) X; (d) 3, 6, 7, 39
R 6 Cattle Egret, Bubalcus ibis (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) X; (d) 3, 7, 39

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

R 7 Little Egret, Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) X; (d) 3, 5, 6, 39
R 8 Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus)

(a) C (diurnal); (b) S-M; (c) P; (d) —

Order falconiformes
Family Accipitridae Hawks, Vultures, etc.

R 9 Honey Buzzard, Pernis ptilorhynchus (Temminck)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -
R 10 Pariah Kite, Milvus migrans (Boddaert)

(a) Z; (b) S-M; (c) P; (d) —

R 11 Blackwinged Kite, Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -
R 12 Brahminy Kite, Haliastur indus (Boddaert)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -

R 13 White Scavenger Vulture, Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -
R 14 Whitebacked Vulture, Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -

Order galliformes

Family Phasianidae Pheasants, Partridges, etc.

R 15 Red Junglefowl, Gallus gallus (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -

R 16 Grey Junglefowl, Gallus sonneratii Temminck
(a) C; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -

Order gruiformes
Family Rallidae Rails, Coots, etc.

R 17 Purple Gallinule, Porphyrio porphyrio (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) P or X; (d) 46, 48 and some other reed bed
roosters.

Order columbiformes
Family Columbidae Pigeons and Doves

R 18 Blue Rock Pigeon, Columba livia Gmelin
(a) C; (b) S-L; (c) P; (d) -

R 19 Ring Dove, Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -

Order psittaciformes
Family Psittacidae Parrots

R 20 Large Indian Parakeet, Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S-L; (c) P; (d) —

R 21 Roseringed Parakeet, Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)

(a) C; (b) L-E; (c) X; (d) 36, 39

COMMUNAL ROOSTING OF BIRDS

719

Order apodiformes
Family Apodidae Swifts

R 22 Alpine Swift, Apus melba (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) M-L; (c) P; (d) —

R 23 House Swift, Apus affinis (J. E. Gray)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) P; (d) —

Order coraciiformes
Family Meropidae Bee-eaters

R 24 Chestnutheaded Bee-eater, Merops leschenaulti Vieillot
(a) C; (b) S; (c) P; (d) —

R 25 Bluecheeked Bee-eater, Merops saperciliosus Linnaeus
(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) P; (d) —

R 26 Small Green Bee-eater, Merops orientalis Latham
(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) P; (d) —

Family Bucerotidae Hornbills

R 27 Great Pied Hornbill, Buceros bicornis Linnaeus
(a) Z; (b) S-M; (c) P; (d) —

R 28 Grey Hornbill, Tockus birostris (Scopoli)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) P; (d) -

Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae Swallows

M 29 Redrumped Swallow, Hirundo daurica Linnaeus (Migratory forms)
(a) Z; (b) L-E; (c) X; (d) 30, 46
M 30 Common Swallow, Hirundo rustica Linnaeus
(a) Z; (b) L-E; (c) X; (d) 29, 46, 48
R 31 Cliff Swallow, Hirundo fluvicola Blyth
(a) Z; (b) S-M; (c) X; (d) 29, 30, 46
R 32 Wiretailed Swallow, Hirundo smithii Leach
(a) Z; (b) S; (c) X; (d) 29, 30, 31, 46

Family Sturnidae Starlings, Mynas

R 33 Brahminy Myna, Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) ± P; (d) —

M 34 Rosy Pastor, Sturnus roseus (Linnaeus)

(a) Z; (b) L-E; (c) X; (d) 21, 36, 37, 39, 49, 51
R 35 Pied Myna, Sturnus contra Linnaeus
(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) ± P; (d) —

R 36 Indian Myna, Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) M-L; (c) X; (d) 21, 39
R 37 Jungle Myna, Acridotheres fuscus (Wagler)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) X; (d) 36
R 38 Bank Myna, Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) ± P; (d) —

Family Corvidae Crows, Jays, Magpies, etc.

R 39 House Crow, Corvus splendens Vieillot

7

'720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(3)

(a) C; (b) L; (c) X; (d) 6, 21, 36, 40
R 40 Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler
(a) C; (b) M; (c) X; (d) 6, 36, 39

Family Pycnonotidae

R 41 Redwhiskered Bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) ± P; (d) —

R 42 Whitecheeked Bulbul, Pycnonotus leucogenys (Gray)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) ± P; (d) -
R 43 Redvented Bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus)

(a) Z; (b) S; (c) ± P; (d) -

Family Muscicapidae
Subfamily Timaliinae Babblers

R 44 Jungle Babbler, Turdoides striatus (Dumont)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) P; (d) —

R 45 Common Babbler, Turdoides caudatus (Dumont)

(a) C; (b) S; (c) P; (d) —

Family Motacillidae Pipits, Wagtails

M 46 Yellow Wagtail, Motaciila flava Linnaeus (several subspecies)

(a) Z; (b) L-E; (c) X; (d) 29, 30, 31, 32, 48, 58, 59
M 47 White Wagtail, Motaciila alba Linnaeus (two subspecies)

(a) Z; (b) M; (c) P or X; (d) 46
M 48 Yellowheaded Wagtail, Motaciila citreola Pallas (two subspecies)
(a) Z; (b) S-L; (c) P or X; (d) 30, 46

Family Ploceidae Weaver Birds
Subfamily Passerinae Sparrows

R 49 House Sparrow, Passer domesticus (Linnaeus) and migratory subspp.

(a) C or Z; (b) M-E; (c) P or X; (d) 34, 50, 58, 59
R 50 Yellowthroated Sparrow, Petronia xanthocollis (Burton)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) P or X; (d) 49

Subfamily Ploceinae Weaver Birds

R 51 Baya Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus /(Linnaeus),

(a) C; (b) L-E; (c) P or X; (d) 34
R 52 Blackthroated Weaver Bird, Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) L; (c) ± P; (d) —

R 53 Streak Weaver Bird, Ploceus manyar (Horsfield)

(a) C; (b) L; (c) ± P; (d) -

Subfamily Estrildinae Munias

R 54 Whitethroated Muiiia, Lonchura malabarica (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) ± P; (d) —

R 55 Whitebacked Munia, Lonchura striata (Linnaeus)

(a) C; (b) S-M; (c) ± P; (d) —

R 56 Spotted Munia, Lonchura punctulata (Linnaeus)

COMMUNAL ROOSTING OF BIRDS

721

Family Fringillidae Finches

Subfamily Carduelinae Goldfinches and allies
M 57 Rosefinch, Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas)

(a) Z; (b) S-M; (c) ± P; (d) —

.Family Emberizidae Buntings

M 58 Blackheaded Bunting, Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli
(a) Z; (b) M-L; (c) X; (d) 34, 46, 49, 59
M 59 Redheaded Bunting, Emberiza bruniceps Brandt
(a) Z; (b) M-L; (c) X; (d) 34, 46, 49, 58

Ecological correlates

This tentative set of bird species which roost communally clearly
includes species with very diverse habits. It includes birds of marshes
and j heels, open grasslands, cultivation, scrub and forests; birds which
are purely graminivorous, insectivorous as well as omnivorous, preda-
tors, and scavengers. Not only do birds of such diverse habits share in
common the habit of communal roosting, but birds with very similar
habits may differ from each other in this regard. Thus the Roseringed
and Large Indian Parakeets ( Psittacula krameri and P. eupatria) roost
communally whereas the Blossomheaded Parakeet (P. cyanocephala)
presumably does not. Nevertheless a more detailed examination of the
data reveals that there are certain general, though maybe only statistical
trends. For this purpose we contrasted the distribution of certain cha-
racteristics of the fifty-nine species listed above, with the distribution
of these characteristics amongst the non-communal roosters included
in Ali (1972). The latter list was taken as a fair representation of the
common bird fauna as a whole, though it may overemphasize plains
(v. hill) birds and species found near human habitation. A number of
characteristics namely habitat, nature of food, nature of foraging group
scrubland and cultivation is markedly greater and the proportion of
birds of more wooded habitats markedly smaller amongst the commu-
nally roosting species was found to differ suggestively from the set of
non-communal roosters in particular with respect of the nature of the
habitat and of the foraging group (see fig. 1).

The proportion of birds of aquatic habitat is not very different bet-
ween the non-communal and the communal roosters. However, the
proportion of birds of more open terrestrial habitats such as grasslands,
scrubland and cultivation is markedly greater and the proportion of
birds of more wooded habitats markedly smaller amongst the commu-
nally roosting birds. A further examination of the data shows that the
bird species forming large or enormous communal roosts such as the
Baya Weaver Bird, Rosy Pastor or Indian Myna all belong to open
habitats, while the species of the communal roosters of the more thickly
wooded habitats such as the Great Indian Hornbill and the Jungle-

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

fowl do not roost communally as a constant feature, i.e. do so only
seasonally and usually form pure, not mixed roosts.

The second clearcut difference between the communal and the non-
communal roosters is in the nature of feeding groups. It will be noted
that the proportion of solitary feeders, and even more strikingly the pro-
portion of bird species feeding in pairs, is markedly smaller and the pro-
portion of flock feeders markedly greater amongst the communal roos-
ters. Most of the species feeding in pairs are resident species and it is
very likely that these birds are pair-bonded and territorial on a year-
round basis. The incompatibility of territoriality with communal roost-
ing may be the cause of the near-absence of birds feeding in pairs
amongst the communally roosting birds.

HABITAT SIZE 0N Cr*

Fig. 1. Differences in the frequency of different attributes amongst the set of
species which roost in a non-communal fashion, and the set of species which
roost communally. The food categories represented are (i) Vegetable matter,
i.e. seeds, grains, shoots, fruit and berries; (ii) Invertebrates including insects,
molluscs etc. (iii) Omnivorous feeding habits. Although most bird species are
omnivorous in a litteral sense, only those whose diet regularly includes sub-
stantial amounts of both plant and animal food are included, (iv) Fish, (v)
Vertebrates other than fish, particularly lizards, rodents and other birds and

(vi) Carrion.

Thirty-three of the fifty-nine bird species that roost communally form
roosts restricted to a single species, i.e. pure roosts. It is notable that
these roosts are almost always of a small size. Only in the case of Blue
Rock Pigeon and the Large Indian Parakeet are large pure roosts oc-

COMMUNAL ROOSTING OF BIRDS

723

casionally formed. It is also possible that the large roosts of Black-
breasted and of Streaked Weaver Bird are also more or less pure roosts;
but this needs to be confirmed by further field observations. On the
contrary in the six cases where enormous roosts are formed, the roosts
are invariably of a mixed nature. The various associates at a mixed
roost may be of similar feeding habits as in the case of three species of
wagtails roosting together, or may be of very dissimilar feeding habits
as is the case with the association of the House Crow, the Cattle Egret
and the Roseringed Parakeet. Fig. 2 presents an analysis of the data from
this view point. It shows that a mixed roost is almost equally likely to
be made up of species of dissimilar as of similar feeding habits.

Fig. 2. Number of communal roosters with different numbers of significant as-
sociates. Thus thirty-three species form pure communal roosts; thirty-nine spe-
cies have no associate of similar feeding habits; ten species have one associate
of dissimilar feeding habits; ten species have a total of four other associates
(whether of similar or dissimilar feeding habits) and so on.

Functional significance

Recently a number of interesting suggestions have been made as to
the nature of the advantage conferred on birds participating in commu-
nal roosting. The four major hypotheses in this respect are: (a) Com-
munal roosting enables birds to conserve heat (b) Communal roosting
enables birds to assess population densities which are then adjusted to
the prevailing level of food supply through emigration and adjustment

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

of reproductive rate (c) Communal roosting serves the function of
communication of information regarding the location of food sources t
(d) Communal roosting enables birds to reduce the risk of predation.

Although it is likely that more than one of these functions may be
simultaneously served by communal roosting, the best method of test-
ing the various alternative hypotheses is to try to generate predictions
on the supposition that any one of them is the primary function. Thus
on hypothesis (a) Communal roosting will be most prevalent amongst
birds most susceptible to heat loss. On this supposition communal roost-
ing should be commoner amongst birds of higher latitudes and altitudes.
This is probably not true, though our data does not lend itself to test-
ing this. It does, however, lend itself to another test. Small birds must
be more susceptible to heat loss because of their greater surface to
volume ratio. We may therefore expect communal roosting to be com-
moner amongst the smaller birds. A comparison of the distribution of
size between the communal and non -communal roosters however re-
veals only a slight bias towards smaller birds amongst the former. Also
the ambient temperature is unlikely to produce vital changes under
Indian conditions. We may therefore tentatively reject the hypothesis
that heat conservation is the primary function of communal roosting
amongst Indian birds.

The second hypothesis, namely that communal roosts serve the
function of assessment of population density was first put forward by
Wynne-Edwards (1962) and has aroused considerable controversy. The
major objection to this hypothesis lies in its inconsistency with the prin-
ciple of natural selection. We may however ignore this and see if we
can derive any testable predictions from the hypothesis. The need for
an assessment of population density to be adjusted to the food supply
must be greatest where the populations achieve levels close to those sup-
ported by food supplies. Such species are the so called K -strategists
(MacArthur 1962, Cody 1966, Gadgil & Solbrig 1972). We may there-
fore predict that according to the Wynne-Edwardsian hypothesis, com-
munal roosting will be commoner amongst birds from less harsh, more
equable environments. A number of comparisons such as those suggest-
ed by Cody (1966) may be made to test this. Our data lends itself to
one such test. We may on the whole expect that wooded habitats pro-
vide a less harsh environment as compared to open habitats. Then, we
may expect communal roosting to be commoner amongst birds of
wooded as opposed to open habitats. Our data does not support this
hypothesis.

The phenomenon of mixed roosting also poses difficulties for this
hypothesis. If the communal roost serves the function of assessment
of population density in relation to the level of food supply, then the
assessment of the density of the population of another species could

COMMUNAL ROOSTING OF BIRDS

725

serve no useful function, unless that species also has very similar feed-
ing habits. Wynne-Edwards (1962) does in fact contend that species
of dissimilar feeding habits associate in mixed roosting only in rare
cases. However our data shows this claim to be false; in fact an asso-
ciate species is, if anything, more likely to be of dissimilar than of sim-
ilar feeding habits (fig. 2).

The third and the most novel hypothesis, namely that communal
roosts serve as centres for the exchange of information regarding the
location of food sources was first put forth by Ward (1965) (see also
Zahavi 1971, Ward & Zahavi 1973). If a species feeds on rather patchy
and temporary food sources, then the individuals of that species need
to find new food sources continually. If a flock that has discovered a
good patch of food recently tends to fly to the patch in the morning with
a characteristic flight, then other flocks at the roost which have failed to
find a good patch of food on the previous day can join in and take ad-
vantage of the patch of food found by the first flock. This is a most at-
tractive hypothesis and on its basis we expect communal roosters to be
largely flock feeders. Our data confirms this in that flock feeders are cer-
tainly much better represented amongst communal roosters as compared
to the non-communal roosters. However, communal roosters include a
number of solitary feeders as well, notably the Common Pariah Kite and
the White Scavenger Vulture. A more careful examination of the feeding
habits of these would greatly help to clarify whether these birds do com-
municate information about the location of food sources in spite of the
apparently solitary mode of feeding. Secondly, we may expect certain
kinds of food sources to be much more patchy and temporary than
others, e.g. fruit as opposed to rodents. An examination of the nature of
food categories of communal roosters shows that invertebrates includ-
ing insects and terrestrial vertebrates such as lizards and rodents are
poorly represented in the diet of communal in comparison to non-com-
munal roosters. It is certainly plausible that these food items are likely
to be more widely dispersed and less likely to be temporary as com-
pared to others such as fruit, though we need more detailed evidence
before claiming that this strengthens our belief in communication of
food locations as a function of communal roosting.

Lastly, communal roosts may serve an antipredatory function. Al-
though communal roosts are likely to be at a disadvantage by being
more conspicuous and therefore vulnerable, the advantage gained in
receiving warning of the approach of predators from other members
can be considerable and may outweigh the former disadvantage. Zahavi
(1971) mentions that it was easy for his bird ringing group to catch
by hand wagtails roosting solitarily, but very difficult to catch any
from a communal roost. We would therefore expect communal roost-
ing to be characteristic of those birds which (a) do not become much

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

more conspicuous than solitary roosters as a result of communal roost-
ing and (b) which have a well developed system of warning signals.
Condition (a) is probably fulfilled by birds of more open habitats, and
(b) by birds which feed socially as well and therefore have developed
a more elaborate warning system. Our data does show preponderance
of birds of open habitats and flock-feeders amongst the communal
roosters.

It is possible that smaller birds are more susceptible to predation
and we should have expected a higher representation of them amongst
communal roosters if avoidance of predation were a major function of
communal roosting. However, as mentioned above, such bias is not very
pronounced.

The phenomenon of mixed roosting strongly supports the notion
of avoidance of predation being an important function of communal
roosting (Gadgil 1972). There can hardly be communication of food
location amongst birds of as different feeding habits as the House Crow
and the Roseringed Parakeet. It is much more likely that both these
species roost communally for predator avoidance and pool this ad-
vantage by forming mixed roosts of greater numerical strength. How-
ever, in certain other cases such as House Sparrow and Spanish Spar-
row, the Weaver Birds and the Buntings, there may be communication
of food location amongst different species as well. The whole problem
of relations amongst different species at a mixed communal roost has
yet to receive serious attention.

In conclusion, our data suggests that communication of informa-
tion about the location of food sources and avoidance of predation are
probably the two most significant functions of communal roosting.

Summary

At least the listed fifty-nine species of common Indian birds defi-
nitely form communal roosts in groups larger than feeding or migratory
flocks without being forced to crowd together by a paucity of roosting
sites. Thirty-five of these form communal roosts constantly throughout
the year, another nine are migrants that roost communally during win-
ter in India, and the rest of the species roost in a communal fashion
only in the non-breeding season. Twenty species form small roosts of
several individuals, twenty medium sized roosts of tens of individuals,
nine large roosts with hundreds of individuals and ten enormous roosts
of thousands of individuals of the given species. Twenty-six of these
form mixed communal roosts of more than one species and birds
of similar and dissimilar feeding habits are almost equally re-
presented amongst the associates at a mixed communal roost. All of the

COMMUNAL ROOSTING OF BIRDS

727

species that form roosts of thousands of individuals have some other
species roosting in company with them. Birds of open habitats and birds
which feed in flocks are represented to a much greater extent amongst
communal roosters in comparison with the bird fauna as a whole, while
birds which feed in pairs are represented very poorly. These features
suggest that communication of information about food sources and
reduction of the risk of predation are the two important functions of
communal roosting.

References

Ali, Salim (1972): The Book of
Indian Birds. 9th ed., Bombay, pp. 162.

Cody, M. L. (1966): A general the-
ory of clutch size. Evolution 20:174-
184.

Gadgil, M. (1972) : The function
of communal roosts: relevance of mix-
ed roosts. Ibis 774:531-533.

& O. T. Solbrig (1972) :

The concept of r — and K — selection:
evidence from wildflowers and some
theoretical considerations. Amer. Nat.
106 : 14-31.

MacArthur, R. H. (1962): Some
generalized theorems of natural selec-
tion. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S. 48:
1893-1897.

Ripley, S. D. (1961): A synopsis
of the birds of India and Pakistan.
Bombay, pp. 703.

Ward, P. (1965): Feeding ecology
o: the Blackfaced Dioch. Quelea que-
lea in Nigeria. Ibis 707:173-214.

Ward P. & Zahavi A. (1973): The
importance of certain assemblages of
birds as “information for food find-
ing”. Ibis 775:517-534.

Wynne-Edwards, V. C. (1962):
Animal dispersion in relation to so-
cial behaviour. New York, pp. 653.

Zahavi, A. (1971): The function
of pre-roost gatherings and communal
roosts. Ibis 775:106-109.

Contribution to the ferns of
Annapurna-Dhaulagiri Range,
Central Nepal1

V. D. Vartak2
In troduction

The area of the holy Shrine at Muktinath dealt with in this work lies
approximately between 27° 46' to 28° 45' N. latitudes and 83° 28' to
84° O'E longitudes. The terrain represents a cross section of the Hima-
layas from south to north.

The following table shows the sectors, localities and types of vege-
tation visited during the trek to Muktinath.

Sector

Broad forest
types

Localities with
altitude

Important
peaks nearby

I.

Tarai

Trop. evergreen

Butwal (300 m)

—

II.

Siwalik Hills

Semi-evergreen
Moist deciduous
Mixed deciduous

Ramdeghat (400 m)
Putlikhet (660 m)
Walling (708 m)

—

III.

Mahabharat

Lekh

Warm temperate
Zone

Semi-evergreen

Forest

Pokhra (970 m) Machapuchare

range (7200 m)

Navdanda (1020 m) —

Chandrakot (1720 m) —

Sudame (1800 m) —

Ualeri (2020 m) —

Baglung (about 1900 m) —

Kusuma (about 1500 m) —

IV.

Greater

Broad leaved

Deorali pass (3000 m) —

Himalayas

Alpine Forests

Tatopani (1210 m)

—

Zone

Rhododendrons

Lete (2440 m)

Dhaulagiri
Range (8500 m)

V.

Inner

Himalayas

Coniferous

Forests

Tuknche (2550 m)

—

(Cold Temperate

Marpha (2618 m)

Annapurna

VI.

Zone)

Tibetan

Abies, Betula
Alpine shrubs

Jomsom (2700 m)
Kakbeni

Range (8400 m)

plateau

Caragana

Zarkot (3390 m)

Mansalu

Sub-Arctic Zone

Ephedra

Muktinath (3500 m)

(8200 m)

1 Accepted September 1971.

2 Research Officer (Botany), M.A.C.S. Post-Graduate Research Institute,
Poona 4.

FERNS OF ANNAPURNA-DHAULAGIRI RANGE

729

The luxuriant magnificence of forests along Deorali-Ghodepani re-
gion (3500 m) is perhaps one of the best preserved natural vegetation
areas in central Nepal. The Filicineae are abundant and all sorts of ferns
and lycopods could be located. My only regret is that I could not get
sufficient time for collection.

The present collection of Filicineae from the area under study is only
48 taxa of ferns confirmed and the remaining collection is still under
study.

Identified families are arranged according to Copeland’s genera
filicum (1947) and the genera and species according to their alpha-
betic order. Under each species its locality, habitat, and approximate
altitude. Herb, specimen number, the date of collection are given. Most
of the species were confirmed by G. Panigrahi and are deposited at the
Central Circle of the Botanical Survey of India, Allahabad. A second
set of all the voucher specimens has been deposited and preserved at
the M.A.C.S. Herbarium, Poona 4.

SCHIZAEACEAE

Lygodium japonleum Sw.

Hab. Open Forest near Lete,
2000 m Vartak 819 (28-5-68).
Lygodium flexuosum Sw.

Hab. Forest edge near Ramdeghat,
400 m Vartak, 395 (19-5-68).

Gleicheniaceae

Dicranopferis linearis Burm.

Hab. Road cutting near Putlikhet,
860 m Vartak 438 (21-5-68).

Pteridaceae

Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn.

Hab. Moist rocks, in wells and
damp places. Putlikhet, 660 m Var-
tak 433 (21-5-68).

Adiantum incisum Forssk.

(A. caudatum Auct. non Linn.)

Hab. Open forest and along foot
path near Ramdegad, 400 m Vartak
567 (20-5-68).

Adiantum philippense Linn.

(A. lunulatum Burm.)

Hab. In moist places. Pokhra, 970
m Vartak 461 (25-5-68).
Aleuritopteris farinosa Fee
( Cheilanthes farinosa Kaulf)

Hab. In Forest undergrowth near

Kusuma, 1200 m Vartak 1021 (4-6-

68).

Aleuritopteris albo-marginata
(Cl.) Panigrahi

( Cheilanthes albomarginata Cl.).

In forest undergrowth near Ram-
deghat, 400 m Vartak 386 (20-5-68).
Cheilanthes rufa Don

Hab. In rock crevices along foot
path near Tatopani, 1210 m Vartak
762 (27-5-68).

Dennstaedtia appendiculata (Wall.)
J. Sm.

Hab. Along stream banks between
Lete, 2440 m and Marpha, 2610 m
Vartak 879 (29-5-68).

Lindsaea cultrata Sw.

Hab. On moist vertical rocks along
forest edge near Navdanda. Vartak
1079 (3-6-68).

Onychium auratum Kaulf
( O . siliculosum C. Chr.)

Hab. Along road-cuttings near
Baglung, 1200 m Vartak 1029 (4-1-
68).

Pifyrogramma calomelanos Link.

( Gymnogramme calomelanos Kaulf )
Hab. In stream and among boul-
ders near Kusuma, 1200 m Vartak
1025 (4-6-68).

Pteridium aquilinum (Linn.) Kuhn
( Pteris aquilina Linn.)

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Hab. Open forest near Ramdeghat,
400 m Vartak 351 (19-5-68).

Pteris dactylina Hook.

Hab. Along the margin of the fo-
rests between Ghasa, 1920 m and
Lete, 2550 m Vartak 805 (29-5-68).
Pteris cretica Linn.

Hab. In the undergrowth of the
forests near Ghodepani, 3159 m Var-
tak 683 (26-5-68).

Pteris longispinula Wall.

Hab. Along foot path near Beni,
1100 m Vartak 1014 (3-6-68).

Pteris quadriaurita Retz.

Hab. In the undergrowth near
Beni, 1100 m Vartak 1015 (3-6-68).
Pteris vittata Linn.

(P. longi folia Auct. non Linn.)

Hab. In rock crevices along road
side near Ramdeghat, 400 m Vartak
457 (19-5-68).

Sphenomeris chusana (Linn.) Copel.
( Stenoloma chinensis Bedd.)

Hab. Along slopes of road-cutting
near Ghodepani, 3150 m Vartak 737
(26-5-68).

Davalliaceae

Nephroiepis cordifolia (Linn.) Baker
Hab. In rock crevices along steep
road-cuttings near Pokhra, 970 m
Vartak 476 (22-6-68).

Oleandra wallichii Presl

Hab. In forest undergrowth near
Ghodepani, 3150 m Vartak 679 (26-
5-68).

Cyatheaceae

Cyathea spinulosa Wall.

Hab. Along stream banks between
Berethati 1300 m to Sudame, 1800 m
Vartak 601 (28-6-68).

Aspidiaceae

Athyrium esculentum Retz.
Anisogonium esculentum Presl)

Hab. In water-logged soil near
Pokhra, 970 m Vartak 573 (22-5-68).
Cyclosorus parasiticus Farwell
(Nephrodium molle Desv.)

Hab. In water-logged fields and in

undergrowth between Putlikhet 860
m and Pokhra, 970 m Vartak 476
(22-5-68).

Cyrtomium caryotileum Presl

Hab. Along road-cuttings between
Ghasa, 1990 m and Lete, 2440 m
Vartak 806 (28-6-68).

Dryopteris sparsa O. Ktze.

Hab. In forest undergrowth near
Pokhra, 970 m Vartak 512 (23-5-68).
Elaphoglossum stigmatoicpis (Fee)
Moore

Hab. In undergrowth along foot-
path near Ghodepani, 3150 m Var-
tak 678 (26-5-68).

Lastrea criocarpa Dene.

(L. crenata Bedd.)

Hab. In rock crevices along stream
banks near Kusuma, 1200 m Var-
tak 1051 (4-6-68).

Polystichum aculeatum Sw. var.
rufo-barbatum Wall.

Hab. In dense undergrowth near
Sudame, 1800 m Vartak 630 (25-5-
69).

Polystichum atkinsonii Bedd.

Hab. Among moss along hill cutt-
ings, Ghodepani, 3150 m Vartak 662
(26-5-68).

Blechnaceae

Blechnum orientale Linn.

Hab. In open forests near Suda-
me on the way to Ulleri, 670 m Var-
tak 616 (25-5-68).

Woodwardia radicans Smith

Hab. Near stream banks along the
edge of the forest near Ghodepani,
3150 m Vartak 728 (26-5-68).

Aspleniaceae

Aspienium aethiopicum Bech.

(A. furcatum Thunb.)

Hab. On branches in the evergreen
forests of Ghodepani, 3150 m Var-
tak 1033 (26-5-68).

Aspienium dalhousiae Hook.

{A. alternans Wall.)

Hab. Along forest edge, Ramde-
ghat, 400 m Vartak 311 (19-5-68).

FERNS OF ANNAPURNA-DtiAVLAGlRl RANGE

731

POLYPODIACEAE

Arthromeris wallichiana Ching
Hab. In thick undergrowth near
Sudame, 1800 m Vartak 628 (25-5-
68).

Drynaria propinqua J. Sm.

Hab. On tree trunks and branches
in the evergreen forests of Ghode-
pani, 3150 m Vartak 896 (26-5-68).

Gonioplebium sub-auriculatum

Presl

Hab. On tree trunks and branches.
Putlikhet, 1 100 m Vartak 444 (3-5-68).
Loxogramme Involuta Presl

Hab. An epiphytic fern in ever-
green forests of Ghodepani, 3150 m
Vartak 677 (26-5-68).

Loxogramme scolopendrina Presl
Hab. An epiphytic fern found in
open forests. Putlikhet, 1100 m Var-
tak 437 (21-5-68).

Microsorium lucidum Copel.

Hab. In undergrowth near Ghode-
pani, 3150 m Vartak 722 (26-5-68).
Pleopeltis loriformis Moore

Hab. An epiphytic fern in ever-
green forests of Ghodepani, 3150 m
Vartak (26-5-68).

Pleopeltis nuda Hook.

(P. linearis Bedd.)

Hab. In thick moss on moist rocks
of the rapids near Chandrakot,
1720 m Vartak 592 (24-5-68).

Pyrrosia heteractis Ching

Hab. On tree trunks and horizon-
tal branches. Putlikhet, 860 m. Vartak
437 (21-5-68).

Pyrrosia mannii Ching

Hab. On tree trunks and branches
near Putlikhet, 1100 m Vartak 970
(22-5-68).

Pyrrosia nuda Ching

Hab. In fissures of exposed rocks
among Selaginella. Ramdeghat,

400 m Vartak 485 (22-5-68).

VlTTARlACEAE

Vittaria elongata Sw.

Hab. On tree branches. Kusuma,
2200 m Vartak 1037 (4-6-68).

Vittaria sikkimensis Kuhn
Hab. On tree branches near Chan-
drakot, 1720 m Vartak 581 (24-5-
68).

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to; Dr. G. Panigrahi, Regional Botanist, Botanical
Survey of India, Central Circle, Allahabad, for confirming the identi-
fication of most of the species of ferns; Dr. T. S. Mahabale for going
through the manuscript and suggesting improvements; Dr. G. B. Deo-
dikar, Director, M.A.C.S., Poona, 4 for providing all facilities for the
work; and to the Managing Committee of the Bharat Outbound Pioneer
Club, Poona for giving me opportunity to participate in the special
trek.

Systematic studies on fishes
belonging to the Genus
Coilia Gray, 183 11

B. V. Seshagiri Rao

Zoology Department, D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram ( A.P .)

There has been considerable confusion in regard to the systematics
of species of fishes of the genus Coilia commonly known as rat-
tailed anchovies. Most of the confusion is due to the fact that ade-
quate attention has not been paid to intraspecific variation in
numbers of pectoral filaments, scutes and anal fin rays; the latter
often misleading due to an artefact resulting out of caudal damage
and subsequent regeneration. It is believed that, in all, four species
occur in India.

Introduction

The fishes of the genus Coilia, commonly known as rat-tailed anchovies
are of importance in the coastal fisheries at some places on the east
coast of India. There has been considerable confusion in regard to the
systematics of species of the genus. Fowler (1941) distinguished 14
species; 10 with maxilla not reaching beyond gill opening and 4 with
maxilla reaching beyond gill opening. Most of the confusion existing
in distinguishing the species is due to the fact that adequate attention
has not been paid to intraspecific variation in number of pectoral fila-
ments, scutes and anal fin rays; the latter often misleading due to an
artefact resulting out of caudal damage and subsequent regeneration.
-The work of Whitehead (1966-1967) and Whitehead et al. (1966) has
helped to remove the confusion in regard to the identification of most
species. The key given by Whitehead (1967b) is particularly useful.
The present contribution records and describes three species, C. ram-
carati (Ham.-Buch., 1822), C. korua Dutt & Seshagiri Rao, 1972 and
C. dussumieri Val. 1848 from Indian waters.

Materials and Methods

Fishes of the genus Coilia were obtained from shore seine catches
near Gollapalem, Masulipatam (Krishna District) and Kakinada (east

Accepted April 1974.

THE GENUS COILIA

733

Godavari District) during 1966-70. In taking linear measurements total
length was measured from tip of snout to longest caudal ray; standard
length from tip of snout to mid-base of caudal fin; head length from
tip of snout to hindmost point on operculum; depth is maximum depth.

Coilia Gray, 1831

Mystus Lacepede, 1803, Hist. Nat. Poiss., 5:466 (Type: Mysfus clupeoides

Lacepede h Clupea mystus Linnaeus) (Pre-occupied by Gronow, 1763;
Kliein, 1775; Scopoli, Mil).

Coilia Gray, 1830, Illustr. hid. Zool., 1, pt. 1 : pi. 85, fig. 3 (caption only); 1831,
Zool. Misc.: 9 (Type: Coilia hamiltoni Gray = Mystus ramcarati Ham.
— Buck).

The genus Coilia includes Anchovies with their tail tapering to a
point. Lacepede (1803) based his genus Mystus on a species of Coilia,
but the name was pre-occupied elsewhere. Coilia Gray has been used
for the rat-tailed anchovies for over a century. Jordan & Seale (1926)
attempted to split the genus Coilia by creating a new genus Demicoilia
for species with truncated caudal peduncles. But this condition of trun-
cated caudal peduncle is due to its damage and subsequent regenera-
tion. Bleeker’s genus Leptonurus for species with light organs is also
inadmissible as these light organs disappear beyond recognition during
preservation in formalin as shown by Haneda (1961) and Dutt & Sesh-
agiri Rao (1974).

Whitehead et al. (1966) and Whitehead (1967) have drawn atten-
tion to the need for revision of the genus.

The following key is useful in distinguishing the species.

I Pelvic rays i 8-9 C. ramcarati (Ham.-Buck, 1822)

II Pelvic rays i 6

(A) Pectoral filaments 4-6

(i) Scutes 4-6 + 6-8. Pearly spots along flanks C. dutsumieri V al., 1848

(B) Pectoral filaments 10-14

(i) . Scutes 4-6 ± 8-9 CV reynaldi Val., 1848

(ii) Scutes 7-9 + 9-11 C. korua Dutt & Seshagiri Rao, 1972
The revised description of the species is as under:

Coilia ramcarati (Ham.-Buch., 1822)

Mystus ramcarati Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822, Fishes of Ganges: 233 (type loca-
lity: Ganges estuaries).

Coilia cantoris Bleeker, 1853, Verh. Bat. Gen. 25:148, pi. 6, fig. 2.

Coilia quadragesimalis Valenciennes, 1848, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 27:83.

Type: Neotype, a fish of 134.9 mm S.L. (147.0 mm tot. 1.), ex Ganges,
British Museum (Natural History), 1858.8.15.104 (designated
type by Gunther, 1868:403), described by Whitehead, 1967,
J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 9(1) : 31-33,

Material examined : 25 fishes, 142-219 mm S.L. (Gollapalem 11:12:
66).

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Description :

Br. St. 10-11, D I 12-14, P vi + 4-6, V i 8-9, A 90-100
g.r. 20-24 + 28-31, scutes 4-5 + 10-11.

In percentages of standard length: total length 108.2-112.2, body depth
18.0-20.2, head length 17.4-19.6; snout length 3. 1-4.0, eye diameter 3.1-
4.3, maxilla length 11.8-13.0; pectoral fin length (longest filament) 40.3-
52.5, pelvic fin length 9.1-11.8; pre-dorsal distance 24.0-27.6, pre-pel-
vic distance 22.2-28.2, pre-anal distance 39.8-43.5.

Body compressed, depth nearly equal to head length, deepest below
dorsal origin, tapering gradually from behind vent to tail. Belly some-
what rounded below pectoral origin and compressed from pelvic origin
to vent. Abdominal serrae beginning well behind pectoral origin. Snout
produced, equal to eye diameter. Lower jaw slender with a series of
conical teeth and with prominent knob at dentary symphysis. Maxilla
does not reach gill opening, extending beyond second supra-maxilla
and tapering posteriorly. A single series of fine teeth along lower edge
of maxilla. Two supra-maxillae, the anterior small and the posterior
slender anteriorly and expanding posteriorly, the anterior portion be-
ing hidden behind the maxilla, when viewed from outer side.

Pseudobranch present, exposed nearly equal to eye diameter, with
about 17-21 filaments. Gill rakers slender, twice length of correspond-
ing gill filaments and equal to eye diameter.

Scutes sharply keeled, beginning midway between pectoral and pel-
vic bases.

Dorsal fin preceded by small scute-like spine. Distance from snout
tip to dorsal origin four times in total length. Pectoral with 6 free fila-
ments, the longest reaching between 29th and 32nd anal ray; longest
branched ray not reaching pelvic base. Pelvic fin long, slightly less than
postorbital length of head, its origin before dorsal origin, twice as close
to pectoral base as to anal origin. Anal origin behind vertical from last
dorsal ray by 2 eye diameters.

Colour : Dorsal side brownish descending on flanks above, flanks
golden yellow. Unbranched dorsal rays dark, rest of fin pale yellow.
Margin of anal and caudal dark. Pelvic pale, tip usually dark.

Note :

C. ramcarati can be easily distinguished from all other species of
Coilia by high pelvic count (i 8-9, in all others i 6). Whitehead (1967)
has shown that C. quadragesimalis is in fact C. ramcarati. Earlier, Jones
& Menon (1952) pointed out that the description of C. contorts by Day
(1889) strongly suggests a juvenile C. ramcarati. This was confirmed
by Whitehead et al. (1966) after re-examination of the type material.

This species grows to a length of about 25 cm.

THE GENUS COILIA

735

Coilia korua Dutt & Seshagiri Rao, 1972

Coilia korua Dutt & Seshagiri Rao, 1972, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 69(1):
136-138, Type locality, Gollapalem, Krishna District.

Material examined :

(a) 30 fishes, 100-116 mm S.L. Kakinada (9-5-70).

(b) 19 fishes, 90-118 mm S.L. Kakinada (5-11-70).

Description :

Br. St. 10-11, D I 12, P xii-xiii + 5-7, V i 5-6, A 101-106,
g.r. 23-26 + 30-33, Scutes 7-9 + 9-11 (total 17-19).

In percentage of standard length: total length 109.1-111.6, body depth
20.0-20.9 head length 17.0-18.3; snout length 3.6-4.5, eye diameter 4.1-
4.7, maxilla length 12.5-14.2; pectoral fin length (longest filament) 40.0-
46.6, pelvic fin length 8. 1-9.1; pre-dorsal distance 26.6-29.1, pre-pelvic
distance 22.7-24.7, pre-anal distance 36.6-38.1.

Body compressed, depth slightly greater than head length, deepest
below dorsal origin, tapering gradually to tail. Belly slightly convex,
compressed and keeled from below pectoral origin to vent. Snout pro-
duced, equal to eye diameter. Lower jaw slender, with a series of small
conical teeth and with prominent knob, at dentary symphysis. Maxilla
does not reach gill opening; a series of fine teeth on premaxillae and
along lower edge of maxillae. Two supra-maxillae, the anterior (first)
delicate, nearly triangular and the posterior (second) slender anteri-
orly and expanding posteriorly, the anterior portion being hidden be-
hind the maxilla, when viewed from outer side.

Pseudobranch present, exposed, equal to eye diameter, with about
10-14 filaments. Gill rakers slender, equal to eye diameter and twice
length of corresponding gill filaments. Muscular portion of isthmus
reaching forward to hind margin of branchiostegal membrane.

Scutes sharply keeled, beginning below pectoral origin.

Dorsal fin preceded by small scute-like spine. Distance from snout
tip to dorsal origin less than four times in total length. Pectoral with
12-13 filaments, the longest reaching 23rd anal ray; longest branched
ray reaching pelvic base. Pelvic length less than postorbital length of
head; its origin before dorsal origin, nearer to pectoral base than to
anal origin, equal to dorsal anal interspace (linear). Anal origin behind
vertical from last dorsal ray by one eye diameter.

Colour : Dorsal side greenish, flanks golden yellow, abdomen and ven-
tral side pale yellow. Fins hyaline, unbranched dorsal rays usually dark.

Note :

C. korua resembles C. reynaldi, C. coomansi, C. polyfilis and C. bor-
neensis in pectoral filament number (12-14), but differs from all of
them in the number of abdominal scutes (7-9 + 9-11; total 17-19) and

8

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

anal fin rays (101-106). Fowler (1941) mentions only 11 free pectoral
rays in C. polyfilis for which there is no record besides the original des-
cription of Volz (1903) which is inadequate. The present species can
be easily identified with the help of key given by Whitehead (1967), its
place being between C. reynaldi and C. coomansi.

Coilia dossumieri Valenciennes, 1848

Coilia dussumieri Valenciennes, 1848, Hist. Nat. Poiss., 21: 81, pi. 610, (type
locality: Bombay, mahe, Pondicherry).

Leptonurus chrysostigma Bleeker, 1849, Verh. Bat. Gen. 22:14.

Demicoilia margaritifera Jordan and Seale, 1926, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 67:
363.

Type: Lectotype, a fish of 155.4 mm S.L. (173.6 mm tot. 1.), ex Bom-
bay, coll. Dussumier, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle,
Paris, 3749, (redescribed by Whitehead, 1967, Bull. Br. Mus.
Nat. Hist. (Zool.) Suppl. 2. 154-55).

Material examined :

(a) 30 fishes, 120-156 mm S.L. Gollapalem (11-12-66)

(b) 10 fishes, 125-142 mm S.L. Gollapalem (26-11-67)

(c) 12 fishes, 120-130 mm S.L. Masulipatam (8-1-68)

Description :

Br. St. 9-11, D I 10-11, P v-vi + 8-11, V i 6, A 100-112,
g.r. 17-21 + 24-26, scutes 5-6 + 7-9.

In percentages of standard length: total length 108.6-111-7, body depth
18.7-21.7, head length 17.6-19.3 snout length 3.6-4.6, eye diameter 3.7-
4.6, maxilla length 13.7-15.5; pectoral fin length (longest filament) 39.4-
47.0, pelvic fin length 5.5-6. 9; pre-dorsal distance 25.0-27.2, pre-pelvic
distance 23.9-26.6, pre-anal distance 37.3-40.6.

Body compressed, depth nearly equal to head length, deepest be-
low dorsal origin, tapering gradually to tail. Belly slightly convex, com-
pressed from below pectoral origin to vent. Snout produced, equal to
eye diameter. Lower jaw slender, with a series of small conical teeth
and with prominent knob at dentary symphysis. Maxilla reaches gill
opening, extending well beyond second supra-maxilla and tapering gra-
dually. A single series of fine teeth along lower edge of maxilla. Two
supra-maxillae, the anterior small, and the posterior slender anteriorly
and expanding posteriorly, the anterior portion being hidden behind
the maxilla, when viewed from outer side.

Pseudobranch present, exposed, small, less than eye diameter, about
9-11 short filaments. Gill rakers slender, twice length of longest gill
filament.

Scutes sharply keeled, beginning behind pectoral origin.

Dorsal fin preceded by small scute-like spine. Distance from snout

The genus coilia 73?

tip to dorsal origin more than four times in total length. Pectoral with
5-6 free filaments, the longest reaching 35th anal ray or beyond; longest
branched ray reaching pelvic base. Pelvic fin short, much less than post-
orbital length of head, its origin below dorsal origin, slightly nearer
pectoral base than anal origin. Anal origin below vertical from last
dorsal ray by 2 eye diameters.

Colour : Dorsal side brownish, flanks yellowish with silvery reflect-
ions during life, becoming deep yellow on ventral side before anal.
Posterior portion of anal and whole of caudal pigmented. A series of
20-28 pearly spots beginning slightly above base of pectoral, a second
series of 23-30 spots beginning just behind pectoral base and extending
posteriorly beyond first series. A third series of 6-10 spots beginning
just behind gill opening on either side of isthmus. About four spots on
either side of isthmus which are roughly in line with the third series.
A row of 7 spots on either side of lower jaw ventrally. A patch of brow-
nish dots on the snout.

Note :

C. dussumieri is the only species, so far known, with pearly spots
(Luminous organs) on flanks. Jordan & Seale (1926) described Demi-
coilia margaritifera as having pearly spots on flanks and with a deep
caudal peduncle. The description differs from that of C. dussumieri in
two respects, shorter anal fin and deeper caudal peduncle. This may
be the result of caudal damage and subsequent regeneration, which is
most common among these fishes. D. margaritifera should also be re-
ferred to C. dussumieri. One specimen of C. dussumieri which shows
an extreme case of caudal regeneration has been recorded.

Colia reynaldi Valenciennes, 1848

Type: Lectotype, a fish of 97.0 mm S.L., 106.0 mm tot. 1., ex Irrawady
River, Rangoon, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.

3733, redescribed by Whitehead, 1967a, Bull. Br. Mus. Nat.
Hist. (Zool.) Suppl. 2:150-152.

Whitehead (1967a) opined that C. borneensis is almost certainly a syn-
onym of C. reynaldi. This species could not be collected from Andhra
coast. C. borneensis is known to occur on Madras coast while C. reyn-
aldi occurs in the Ganges estuary.

Coilia neglecta Whitehead, 1967

Coilia neglecta Whitehead, 1967, J. Mar. biol. Ass. India, 9(1): 33-36 (type
locality: Arabian sea).

Type: Holotype, a fish of 160.8 mm S.L., (175.0 mm tot. 1.) ex Ara-

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 72(3)

bian Sea deposited in the U.S. National Museum; Paratypes,
10 fishes, 141.5-169.5 mm S.L., British Museum (Natural Hist-
ory), 1967.11.20.560-569., Whitehead, 1967, J. Mar. biol.
India, 9(1) : 33-36.

C. neglecta resembles C. dussumieri in meristic and morphometric cha-
racters. The only difference being the absence of light organs on flanks
in the former. These light organs disappear beyond recognition during
preservation (Haneda 1961; Dutt & Seshagiri Rao 1974). Since the
species was originally described basing solely on preserved material, it
is a doubtful species until some stable characters are found to distin-
guish it from C. dussumieri.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Professor S. Dutt, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Kiel.), A.U.P.
Centre, Guntur for valuable guidance. I am thankful to Professor S.
Rama Rao, M.Sc., for facilities; to Professor S. V. Subba Rao, M.Sc.,
and Mr. K. Varahala Raju, M.Sc., for encouragement and the Univer-
sity Grants Commission, New Delhi for financial assistance.

References

Day, F. (1889): The Fishes of In-
dia. W. M. Dawson and Sons, Lon-
don. 1: 630-632 (Reprinted 1958).

Dutt, S. & Seshagiri Rao, B. V.
(1972): On a new species of anchovy
belonging to the genus Coilia Gray,
1831. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 69
(1) .-136-138.

(1974) : On the identity of rat-tailed
anchovy Coilia neglecta, Whitehead,
1967. ibid. 77(2) : 316-319.

Fowler, H. W. (1941): “Contri-
butions to the biology of the Philip-
pine Archipelago and adjacent regions”
U.S. Nat Mus. Bull. 100, 75:712-723.

Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822) :
An account of the fishes of the Gan-
ges. Edinburgh.

Haneda, Y. (1961): A preliminary
report on two luminous fish from
Bombay and Hongkong, Sci. Rept.
Yokosuka City Mus. <5:45-50.

Jones, S. & Menon, P. M. G.
(1952): Observation on the develop-
ment and systematics of the fishes of
the genus Coilia Gray. J. Zool. Soc.
India 4:17-36.

Jordan & Seale (1926): Review of
the Engraulidae, with descriptions of
new or rare species. Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. 67( 11): 355-418.

Lacepede, B. G. E. (1803): Histoire
Naturelle des Poissons, 5, Paris,
pp. 803.

Volz (1903) : As cited by Fowler
(1941).

Whitehead, P. J. P. (1966): The
elopoid and clupeoid fishes of Rich-
ardson’s ‘Ichthyology of the seas of
China and Japan’ 1846, Bull. Br. Mus.
Nat. Hist.. (Zool), London, 74(2):
39-42.

(1967a): The

clupeoid fishes described by Lacepede,
Cuvier & Valenciennes, ibid., Suppl.
2:148-155.

THE GENUS COILIA

739

Whitehead, P. J. P. (1967b) : Indian
Ocean Anchovies Collected by the
Anton Brun and Te vega, 1963-64, J.
Mar. biol. Ass. India 9(1): 13-37.

(1967c): The

clupeoid fishes of Malaya, J. Mar.

biol. Ass. India 9(2) : 223-280.

, Boeseman, &

Wheeler, A. C. (1966): The types
of Bleeker’s Indo Pacific elopoid and
clupeoid fishes, Zool. Verhandel., Lei-
den, 84 : 135-145.

'

I

A contribution to the knowledge
of Oriental Bmchidae1

T. G. Vazirani2

Introduction

The systematic studies of the family Bruchidae have been rather neg-
lected in this country. The literature is scattered and the National Col-
lections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Indian Agricul-
tural Research Institute, New Delhi and the Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun, are rather poor in their respective holdings. Pic (1898-1938)
has described a large number of species from India but barring a few
species, all these are deposited either in the British Museum (Natural
History), London or Museum D’Histoire Naturelle, Paris or other
places.

Species of this family are known to do considerable damage to pul-
ses, ground nuts, tamarind seeds and pods of various leguminous plants,
in storage and in the field. Lefroy & Ghosh (1921) recorded 3 species,
as being economically important in the storage of pulses and stated
‘The pulse beetles have not yet been fully worked out. It is not known
how many species of them, there are in all, in this country’.

The present checklist reveals the presence of at least 13 cosmopoli-
tan species occurring in this country, in the total of 88 species that are
listed here.

For the convenience of identification, a key to the subfamilies and
genera has been provided.

One new name Bruchidius nilue has been proposed for Bruchus
stevensi Pic (1938) a name which is preoccupied vide Bruchus urbans
var. stevensi Pic, 1928. Twenty-three species have been assigned to
their current genera and indicated as ‘Comb. Nov.’. This assignment
is mostly based on their published descriptions, many of which are how-
ever very poor to place all of them in the current genera; such species
have been retained in original genera, till an opportunity arises to ex-

1 Accepted January 1974.

2 Present address : Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India,
Paota “B” Road, Patodi House, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

ORIENTAL BRUCHIDAE

741

amine ‘Type’ specimens or some other authentically determined ma-
terial.

It is hoped that this contribution will stimulate taxonomic studies
on this neglected though important group and encourage the use of
current scientific names. Thomas (1967, Cyclostyled) in ‘some Insect
Pests found in Ware House and Sources of Infestation’ mentions nine
species but none of them has been referred to its current scientific name.

I am thankful to the head of the Entomology Division of Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, to the Forest Entomologist,
Forest Research Institute and College, Dehra Dun, and to the Head of
Zoology Department, Punjab University for their kind help in supply-
ing me the list of species in their respective collections, I am also thank-
ful to Prof. Balachovsky, Director, Laboratoire, D’Entomologie, Mu-
seum National D’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, for kindly permitting me to
examine some of the ‘Type’ specimens in Pic’s Collections and for
photostat copies of his various papers.

Species present in the collections of various institutions have been
indicated below the distribution in the abbreviated form, I.A.R.I., F.R.I.
& P.U. for Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Forest Research In-
stitute & Punjab University respectively.

I am also thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey
of India for his kind interest and the collections present in the depart-
ment have been indicated by the abbreviation, ‘Z.S.L’ I am also thank-
ful to Dr. Ramdass Menon of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi for going through the paper and for very useful suggestions.

A. Key to the subfamilies of Bruchidae from Oriental Region

1 . Hind tibiae with two mobile spurs; scutellum triangular;

body almost rounded, scarcely longer than broad; eyes a
little protruding; head not or only slightly constricted be-
hind Subfam. (3) Amblycerinae

Hind tibiae without mobile spurs at apex; scutellum quad-
rangular or indistinct; head usually with eyes protruding

and constricted behind 2

2. Hind tibiae not or only slightly curved at base Subfam. (1) Bruchinae
Hind tibiae strongly and evenly curved, the inner apical

angle produced like a spur (hind femora strongly enlarged)

Subfam. (2) Pachymerinae

B. Key to the genera of Subfamily Bruchinae known from the

Oriental Region

'1. Pronotum transverse; sides of pronotum with a small notch
about the middle

Pronotum conically narrowed anteriorly, sides straight or
convex but without a lateral notch

( 1 ) Bruchus
2

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

!

2.

3.

4.

Hind femora without any furrow at the lower margin, with
or without a tooth at inner edge

Hind femora wholly or partly furrowed at lower margin

Basal part of pronotum distinctly emarginate, longitudinally
sulcate with two white pubescent tubercles at the middle
of posterior margin (3)

Basal part of pronotum not emarginate, without any white
pubescent tubercles

Hind femora quite narrow
Hind femora strongly thickened

3

4

Callosobruchus
(2) Briichidius 1

5. Hind femora with a pointed tooth followed by two smaller

teeth or tubercles on inner side (5) Acanthescelides

Hind femora not very strongly dentate (6) Conicobruchus

6. Hind femora sharply ridged on each side of furrow/

sulcus but without any single prominent projection on it Sulcobruchus 1

Hind femora with many teeth on the side of the furrow,

first tooth strong followed by 2-4 denticles /serrations (4) Specular ins

C. Key to the genera of subfamily Pachymerinae known from
the Oriental Region

1. Head elongate; eyes emarginate for half their length;

elytra not covering the base of pygidium (9) Caryopemon

Head short; eyes emarginate for 1th or less of its length

and prominent; elytra covering the base of pygidium 2

2. Pronotum with carinae and impressed lines complete;
eyes distinctly emarginate but not exceeding ith of their
length; tarsal joints 1 and 2 triangularly expanded (hind
femora with large tooth near base, margin before it not

serrate) (7) Pachymerus

Pronotum with carinae and impressed lines obsolete on
the sides anteriorly; eyes hardly emarginate; tarsal joints
1 and 2 may be only little expanded at apex (8) Caryedon

D. Key to the genera of subfamily Amblycerinae known from
the Oriental Region

1 . Anterior coxae quite contiguous at the tip; claws absolutely

simple or minute but not lobed at base (11) Zabrotes

Anterior coxae more or less separated; claws distinctly

(10) Spermophagus

Likely to occur in India.

ORIENTAL BRUCHIDAE

743

Family Bruchidae
Subfamily Bruchinae
Genus 1. Bruchus Linnaeus
Type species — Bruchus pisorum (Linnaeus)

1. Bruchus affinis Frolich

Bruchus affinis Frolich, 1799, Naturforsches, 28:55. Allard, 1895, Bull. Soc. ent.
Belg., 39: 225. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:13. Fletcher & Ghosh, 1921, Proc.
3rd. ent. meeting Pusa, 2:721. Hoffmann, 1945, Fn. France, 44:44. Luk
Yanovika & Ter Minasyan, 1957, Fn. USSR, Coleoptera: Bruchidae, 24
(1): 98. Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47: 144.

Bruchus flavimanus Boheman, 1833, in Schonherr, Genera et Species Curculio-
nidum, 7:59.

Bruchus obscuritaris Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 39:244
(1873).

Bruchus ruthenicus Beker, 1892, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1892:69.

Bruchus monticola Bedel, 1901, Fauna des Coleopteres du bassin de la Seine,
5: 348.

Hosts — Pisus arvense, (Peas of all kinds).

Distribution — Cosmopolitan.

I.A.R.I., F.R.I.

2. Bruchus bilineatopygus Pic

Bruchus bilneatopygus Pic, 1938, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (11)2:399, (Dehra Dun —
Holotype in Brit. Mus. and paratypes in Pic coll., Paris Mus.).

Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

3. Bruchus caerulens Champion

Bruchus caerulens Champion, 1919, Ent. Mon. Mag., 55:244.
D istri bu tion — India.

4. Bruchus diversicolor Pic

Bruchus diversicolor Pic, 1913, Echange, 1913:110 (nom. nov.). Pic, 1913,
Coleopt. Cat., 26: 24.

Bruchus versicolor Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 39: 244
(India or. — name preoccupied) .

Distribution — ?India.

5. Bruchus dolichosi Gyllenhal

Bruchus dolichosi Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Curculioni-
dum, 5:5 (Nepal). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 24.

Distribution — Nepal.

6. Bruchus dorsalis Fahrreus

Bruchus dorsalis Fahrreus, in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculioni-
dum, 7:98 (India, Bengal). Heyden, 1879, Deutsche Ent. Zeit., 23:357.
Roelofe, 1880, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 24: 30, Schilsky, 1905, Die Kafer Euro -

744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

pas, 41 no. 93. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:24.

Distribution — India, Japan, China.

7. Bruchus griseosuturalis Pic

Bruchus griseosuturalis Pic, v932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Loncl., (10)9:331,
(Coorg: Fraserpet — Brit. Mus.).

Distribution — India.

8. Bruchus incrctus Walker

Bruchus incretus Walker, 1859, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (3)5:261. (Ceylon
— Brit. Mus.).

Distribution — Sri Lanka.

9. Bruchus indigoferrac Gyllenhal

Bruchus indigoferrae Gyllenhal, 1833, in Schonherr, Genera et Species Curcul-
ionidum, 1:34 (India Orientalis). Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 226
(Belgaum). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 29.

Host — Indigofera tinctoria.

D istri bu tion — India.

F.R.I.

10. Bruchus kashmiricus Pic

Bruchus kashmiricus Pic, 1929, Echange, 45:4 (Kashmir — Paris Mus.).
Distribution — India.

11. Bruchus lineolatus Motschulsky

Bruchus lineolatus Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 46: 225
(India Or.). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 31.

Distribution — India.

12. Bruchus matheroni Pic

Bruchus matheroni Pic, 1913, Melonges exotico-entomologiques, 6: 14 (Maha-
rashtra: Bombay: Matheran).

Distribution — India.

13. Bruchus maculothorax Pic

Bruchus maculothorax Pic, 1928, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (10)7:298. (U.P.:
Gonda, Janakpur — Paris Mus.). Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J. ent.,
75:14, pi. iv, fig. 7 (genitalia).

Host — Dalbergia paniculata (seeds).

Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I.

14. Bruchus mendosus Gyllenhal

Bruchus mendosus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Curculio-
nidum, 5:72 (Bengal). Fahrreus, Ofv. Vet. Akad. Forh, 1871:449. Allard,
1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 225 (Kanara, Belgaum.). Pic, 1923, Coleopt.

ORIENTAL BRUCHIDAE

745

Cat., 26: 35. Mukerji and Chatterji, 1951, Indian J. ent., 13: 13-14, pi. iv,
figs. 3-6 (genitalia).

Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I., F.R.I.

15. Bruchus minimus Motschulsky

Bruchus minimus Motschulsky, 1858, Etudes Entomologiques, 7:97 (Burma).
Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 46:2X1 (Key to spp.).
Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 35 (Burma, India).

Distribution — Burma, India.

16. Bruchus nigripennis Allard

Bruchus nigripennis Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 226 (Himachal Pra-
desh: Chamba). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:21.

Distribution — India.

17. Bruchus nigrosinuatus Allibart

Bruchus nigrosinuatus Allibart, 1847, Rev. Zoologique, 1847:16 (India). Allard,
1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 226 (Belgaum). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:
37.

Distribution — India.

18. Bruchus pisorum (Linnaeus)

Dermestes pisorum Linnaeus, 1758, Systema naturae, ed. 10:356 (America).
Bruchus pisorum Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:41. Hoffmann, 1945, Fn.
France, 44:118. Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J. ent., 13:9, pi. ii, fig.
5 (genitalia). Luk Yanovika & Ter Minasyan, 1957, Fn. USSR. Col. Bru-
chidae, 24:93, fig. 81-82. Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47:148.
Bruchus salicis Scopoli, 1763, Entomologia Carnilica, Vindobonae, 1763:22.
Bruchus pisi Linnaeus, 1767, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1:604.

Bruchus crucifer Geoffroy, 1785, in Fourcroy, Entomologia Parisiensis Cata-
logue Insectorum, 1: 112.

Bruchus salicis var. sparsus Fabricius, 1801, Systema Eleutheratorum, 2:398.
Bruchus salicis var. intermedius Motschulsky, 1854, Etudes Entomologiques, 5:

16.

Bruchus lunaris Rey, 1893, Echange, 9:3.

Bruchus lunaris var. unifasciatus Rey, 1893, Echange, 9:3.

Hosts — Vicia spp.; Cassia fistula Linn., Pisum sativum Linn.

Distribution — Cosmopolitan.

I.A.R.I., P.U., F.R.I.

19. Bruchus ochrcatus Motschulsky

Bruchus ochreatus Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 46: 210
(India Or.). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 38.

Distribution — India.

20. Bruchus pruinius Horn

Bruchus pruinius Horn, 1873, Trans. Amer. ent. Soc., 4: 324 (Mexico). Sharp,

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

1885, Biol. Centr. Amer. Col., 5:453. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 38.
Distribution — India.

21. Bruchus schroderi Pic

Bruchus schroderi Pic, 1930, Echange., 46:6 (Germany).
Distribution — Germany, India.

F.R.I.

22. Bruchus sparsmaculatus Pic

Bruchus sparsmaculatus Pic, 1913, Echange, 1913:144.
Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

23. Bruchus trifasciatus Motschulsky

Bruchus trifasciatus Motschulsky, 1866, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 59:405
(Ceylon). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:53.

Distribution — India.

24. Bruchus walkers Pic

Bruchus walkeri Pic, 1912, Echange, 28: 92 (nom. nov.); Pic, 1913, Coleopt.
Cat., 26:51.

Bruchus figuratus Walker, 1859, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (3)5:261 (Ceylon)
nec Gyllenhal, 1839:12.

Distribution — Ceylon.

F.R.I.

Genus 2. Bruchidius Schilsky (1905)

Type species — Bruchidius quinqueguttatus (Olivier)

25. Bruchidius andrewesi (Pic)

Bruchus andrewesi Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10)9:330. (Annamalais —
Brit. Mus. & Paris Mus.).

Bruchidius andrewesi, Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J. ent., 13: 14, pi. v,
figs. 1-3 (genitalia).

Host — Acacia leucophloea
Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I.; P.U.; F.R.I.

26. Bruchidius august i Irons Schilsky

Bruchidius angustifrons Schilsky, 1905, Die Kafer Europas; 41:5 2 (Egypt).

Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47: 160-161, figs. 55, 67.

Bruchus angustifrons, Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:15.

Distribution — Egypt, India.

27. Bruchidius cinereovarius (Motschulsky) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus cinereovarius Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 46:
224 (1973) (India Or.).

ORIENTAL BRUCHIDAE

747

Distribution — ? India.

28. Bruchidius costulatus (Pic), Comb. Nov.

Bruchus costulatus Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (10)9:330 (Coorg:
Fraserpet — Brit. Mus.).

Distribution — India.

29. Bruchidius dccrctus (Walker) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus decretus Walker, 1859, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (3)3:261 (Ceylon
— Brit. Mus.). Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:227. Pic, 1913, Coleopt.
Cat., 26: 23.

Distribution — India, Ceylon.

30. Bruchidius dilataticornis (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus dilataticornis Pic, 1928, Bull. Soc. ent. Fr., 1928:315 (Nilgiri hills —
Brit. Mus.).

Distribution — India.

31. Bruchidius gardneri (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus gardneri Pic, 1938, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Lond., (11)2:400 (Dehra Dun
— Holotype in Brit. Mus. & Paratypes in Paris Mus.).

Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

32. Bruchidius kashmirensis (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus biguttatus Blanchard, 1844, Ann. Soc. ent. Fr., (Bull.). (2)2:27 nec
Olivier, 1795. (Kashmir).

Bruchus kashmirensis Pic, 1912, Echange, 28: 92 (nom. nov.). Pic, 1913, Cole-
opt. Cat., 26:\1.

Distribution — India.

33. Bruchidius latior (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus latior Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10)9:330 (Barany — Brit. Mus.).
Distribution — India.

34. Bruchidius maculipyga (Champion) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus maculipyga Champion, 1931, Ent. Mon. Mag., 55: 245. Mukerji & Chat-
terji, 1951, Indian J. ent. 73:11, pi. Ill, figs. 10-13 (genitalia).

Host — Pods of Acacia pennanta.

Distribution — India.

P.U.; F.R.I.

35. Bruchidius minutisimus (Motschulsky) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus minutisimus Motschulsky, 1858, Etudes Entomologiques, 7:98 (Agra).
Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 46: 215 (1873). Allard,
1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:227. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 35. Mathur
and Singh, 1959, Indian For. Bull. 777(4) :29.

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Host — Seeds of Desodium triquetrum.

Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I.; F.R.I.

36. Bruchidius minutus (Fabricius) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus minutus Fabricius, 1801, Syst. Eleutheratorum, 2:401. Gyllenhal, in
Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Curculionidum, 5:56. Pic, 1913, Cole-
opt. Cat., 26: 35 (Central & S. America).

Pachybruchus minutus Sharp, 1885, Biol. Centr. Amer. Col., 5:487.
Distribution — Cosmopolitan.

P.U.

37. Bruchidius nalandus (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus nalandus Pic, 1927, Mel. exot. ent., 48: 12 (Ceylon). Mathur & Singh,
1959, Indian For. Bull., 171(4) :28.

Host — Desodium pulchellum.

Distribution — Ceylon.

F.R.I.

38. Bruchidius ocularis (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus ocularis Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10)9:331 (Madras: Salem;

Jawalagiri — Paris Mus.).

Distribution — India.

39. Bruchidius pauper (Bohemann) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus pauper Bohemann, 1829, Nouv. Mem. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 7:115. Allard,
1868, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 11:99. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 40.
Distribution — Central & South Europe, Morocco, Algiers, Corsica, India.

40. Bruchidius rufiventris (Allard) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus rufiventris Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:221 (Belgaum). Pic,
1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:46.

Distribution — India.

41. Bruchidius sahlbergi Schilsky

Bruchidius sahlbergi Schilsky, 1905, Kaf. Eur., 41: nr. 94 (Egypt). Shomar,
1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47:\13, figs. 92-107.

Bruchus sahlbergi, Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:41.

Distribution — Egypt, India.

42. Bruchidius sandali (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus sandali Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10)9:331 (Coorg: Fraserpet
—Brit. Mus.).

Host — Sandalwood.

Distribution — India.

ORIENTAL BRUCHIDAE

749

43. Bruchidius nilue nom. nov.

Bruchus stevensi Pic, 1938, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (11)2:400 (Kurseong— Paris
Mus.). Name preoccupied vide Pic, 1928:315.

Distribution — India.

44. Bruchidius saundersi (Jekel)

Bruchus saundersi Jekel, 1855, Ins. Saunders, 1:6, t. 1, f. 1. Pic, 1913, Coleopt.
Cat., 26:41.

Bruchus cheveroleti Allard, 1868, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 11 :93, 108.

Bruchidius saundersi, Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47:174.

Distribution — Egypt, India.

P.U.; F.R.I.

45. Bruchidius vectabilis (Gyllenhal) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus vectabilis Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Curculio-
nidum, 5:100 (Bengal). Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:221. (Bel-
gaum). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:55. Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J.
ent., 13: 10, pi. iii, figs. 1-3, (genitalia). Mathur & Singh, 1960, Indian For.
Bull., 777(8): 34.

Host — Sesbania aculeata; Rose flowers.

Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I; F.R.I.

46. Bruchidius uberatus (Fahrreus) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus uberatus Fahrreus, 1839, in Schonherr, Genera et Species Curculioni-
dum, 5:40. (Africa: Bahr-et-Abiad). Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg.,
39:221 (Belgaum). Pic, 1913. Coleopt. Cat., 26: 53. Mukerji & Chatterji,
1951, Indian J. ent., 75:13, pi. iv, figs. 1-2. Mathur & Singh, 1959, Indian
For. Bull., 777(4) :8, 59.

Hosts — Oalbergia paniculata; Prosopis julifera; Albizzia stipulata; Albizzia
odoratissima; Arbus precatorius, Acacia modesta.

Distribution — India, Africa.

I.A.R.I.; F.R.I.

47. Bruchidius urbans stevensi (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus urbans var. stevensi Pic, 1928, Bull. Soc. ent. Fr., 1928:315. (Sikkim:
Gopaldara — Brit. Mus.).

Distribution — India.

P.U.; F.R.I.

Genus 3. Callosobruchus Pic (1902).

Type species — Callosobruchus chinensis (Linnaeus)

48. Callosobruchus albocallosus (Pic)

Bruchus ( Callosobruchus ) albocallosus Pic, 1927, Mel. Exot. ent., 48: 12 (Indes
Merdionales) . Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10)9:329.

Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

49. Callosobruchus analis (Fabricius)

Bruchus analis Fabricius, 1781, Species lnse&torum 7:75 (India Orientalis

— Brit. Mus.). Fabricius, 1787, Mantissa Insectorum 7:42. Fabricius,

1788, Systema naturae, 7(4): 1735. Olivier, 1790, Encyclopedic methodique,
5:200. Fabricius, 1792, Entomologia Systematica, 7:371. Fabricius, 1801,
Systema Eleutheratorum, 2: 398. Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Cur-
culionidum, 7:41. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 15. Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951,
Indian J. ent., 75:8, pi. ii, figs. 1-3 (genitalia).

Callobruchus analis: Southgate, Howe et Brett, 1957, Bull. ent. Res., 48:19.
Bruchus jekeli Allibart, 1847, Rev. Zoologique, 1847:15 (China). Allard, 1895,
Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:226 (Kanara).

Bruchus glaber Allibart, 1847, Rev. Zoologique, 1847:16 (China).

Host — Vigna catang, also pulses like Mung, Urd, and redgram.

Distribution — China, India.

I.A.R.I.; P.U.; F.R.I. (also under name B. glaber Allibart).

50. Callosobruchus chinensis (Linnaeus)

Curculio chinensis Linnaeus, 1758, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 7:386 (China).
Bruchus chinensis: Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculionidum, 7:101.
Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 226 (Belgaum). Feltcher & Ghosh,
1921, Proc. 3rd. ent. Meeting Pusa, 721, pi. 107, fig. 1. (Life history). Muk-
erji & Bhuya, 1937, J. Morph., 67:175.

Callosobruchus chinensis: Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J. Ent., 75:14, pi.
14. figs. 8-11. Luk Yanovika & Ter Minasyan, 1957, Fn. USSR, Coleoptera:
Bruchidae, 24(1) :67, fig. 40. Southgate, 1958, Bull. ent. Res., 49(3) : 591 .
Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. Ent. Egypte, 47: 180, figs. 132-143.

Bruchus pectinicorus Linnaeus 1767, Systema naturae, ed. 10, 7:605.

Bruchus rufus Degeer, 1775, Mem. Ins., 5:281, f. 7.

Bruchus scutellaris Fabricius, 1792, Entomologia Systematica, 7:372.

Bruchus bistriatus Fabricius, 1801, Systema Eleutheratorum, 2:402.

Bruchus barbicornis Fabricius, 1801, Systema Eleutheratorum, 2:403.

Bruchus elegans Sturm, 1826, Cat. meiner Insecten, Samlung, 1826:103.
Bruchus adustus Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 46:221 (1873)
Hosts — Various kinds of pulses, beans, peas etc.

Distribution — Cosmopolitan.

Z.S.I.; I.A.R.I.; P.U.; F.R.I.

51. Callosobruchus madurensis Pic

Bruchus ( Callosobruchus ) madurensis Pic, 1927, Mel. exot. ent., 48: 12 (India).
Distribution — India.

52. Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius)

Bruchus maculatus Fabricius, 1775, Systema Entomologie : 65 (America — Univ.
Zool. Mus., Copenhagen).

Callosobruchus maculatus, Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:33. Hoffmann, 1945, Fn.
France, 44:89. Southgate, Howe & Brett, 1957, Bull. ent. Res., 48:19. Luk
Yanovika & Ter Minasyan, 1957, Fn. USSR, Coleoptera, Bruchidae, 24(1) :
68. Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47: 182. Arora, Pajni & Singh
1968, Res. Bull. Punj. Univ., 18:501 (abnormal male).

Bruchus quadrimaculatus Fabricius, 1792, Entomologia Systematica, 7:371

OMENTAL BRUCH I DAE

75 1

(America — Univ. Zool. Mus. Copenhagen). Mukerji & Hakim Bhuya, 1937,
J. Morph., 67:175 (reproductive system).

Bruchus ornatus Bohemann, 1829, Nouv. Mem. Soc. Nat. Moscou, 7:103. Pic,
1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 39.

Bruchus vicinus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculionidum,
7:36. Pic. 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:36.

Bruchus ambiguus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1833 Genera et Species Curcilioni-
dum, 7:11, Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:14.

Bruchus ambiguus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1833 Genera et Species Curculioni-
dum, 5:8. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 50.

Hosts — Various kinds of pulses, beans etc.

Distribution — Cosmopolitan.

P.U.; F.R.I.

53. Callosobruchus nigripennis Allard

Callosobruchus nigripennis Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 226 (Chamba).

Bruchus nigripennis: Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:31.

Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

54. Callosobruchus phaseoli (Gyllenhal)

Bruchus phaseoli Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculioni-
dum, 1:31 (Brazil). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 40. Mukerji & Chatterji,
1951, Indian J. ent., 13:8, pi. i, figs. 5-8. (genitalia).

Callosobruchus phaseoli: Luk Yanovika & Ter Minasyan, 1957, Fn. USSR,
Coleoptera, Bruchidae, 24(1) :68.

Hosts — Dolichos lablab.

Distribution — Brazil, Italy, Europe, Southern U.S.S.R., India.

I.A.R.I.; F.R.I.

55. Callosobruchus theobromae (Linnaeus)

Bruchus theobromae Linnaeus, 1767, Systema naturae, ed. 12, 7:605 (India
Orientalis). Fabricius, 1775, Systema Entomologie, 65. Linnaeus, 1788,
Systema naturae, ed. Gmelin, 7(4): 1735. Fabricius, 1792, Entomologia
Systematica, 7:371. Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculionidum, 1:
41.

Bruchus theobromae: Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 226 (Belgaum). Pic,
1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:5 2. Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J. Ent., 13:6.

Hosts — Theobromae feminibus, Cajanus indicus.

Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I.; P.U.; F.R.I,

Genus 4. Specularius Bridwell (1938)

Type species-S. erithrinae Bridwell 1938

S. impressithorax Pic as modified by Decile (1951).

56. Specularius maindroni (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus ( Callosobruchus ) maindroni Pic, 1914, Mel. exot. ent., 11:6 (IndeS);

Distribution — India.

752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Genus 5. Acanthoscelides Schilsky (1905)

Type species — Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say)

57. Acanthoscelides centromaculatus (Allard)

Bruchus centromaculatus Allard, 1868, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 11: 93, 107. Pic,
1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 20.

Acanthoscelides centromaculatus: Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47: 185.
Distribution — Egypt, Mexico, Central America, Cuba, India.

F.R.I.

58. Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say)

Bruchus obtectus Say, 1831, Desc. Cure. N. America, p. 1. Mathur & Singh,
1959, Bull. Indian For., 777(3): 15.

Acanthoscelides obtectus: Luk Yanovika & Ter Minosyan, Fn. USSR., Coleop-
tera, Bruchidae, 24(1): 172.

Bruchus obsoletus Say, 1831, Desc. Cure. N. America, p. 2. Pic, 1913, Coleopt.
Cat., 26:31. Hoffmann, Fn. France, 44: 90. Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent.
Egypte, 47: 185.

Bruchus breweri Crotch, 1867, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond., 1867:389.

Distribution — Cosmopolitan.

Genus 6. Conicobruchus Decelle (1951)

Type species — Conicobruchus strangulatus (Fahrreus)

59. Conicobruchus alhopuhens (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus albopubens Pic, 1931, Melan. exot. ent., 57: 26.

Distribution — India.

P.U.

60. Conicobruchus indicus (Pic) Comb. Nov.

Bruchus indicus Pic, 1909, Echange, 25:118. (India — Paris Mus.).

Bruchus indicus var. acanthidis Pic, 1909, Echange, 25:1,18 (India — Paris Mus.).
Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I.; P.U.

Subfamily : Pachymerinae

Genus 7. P achy merus Thunberg (1805)

Type species — Pachymerus bactris (Olivier)

61. Pachymerus ceylonicus Pic

Pachymerus ceylonicus Pic, 1924, U Echange Revue Linnenne, 5:25 (Ceylon).
Distribution — Sri Lanka.

62. Pachymerus indus (Motschulsky)

Caryoborus indus Motschulsky, 1858, Etudes Entomologiques, 7:98. (India Or.).
Schaufuss, 1882, Ann. Soc. ent. Fr., (6)2:85. (Type in Mus. Ludwid Salva-
tor, Geneva).

Pachymerus indus Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat. 26:1.

ORIENTAL BRUCHIDAE

753

Distribution — India.
F.R.I.

63. Pa chyme rus lineaticollis Pic

Pachymerus lineaticollis Pic, 1906, Bull. Soc. ent. Fr., 1906:58 (Cochin-China).
Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 8.

Distribution — Indochina, India.

F.R.I.

64. Pachymerus notativentris Pic

Pachymerus notativentris Pic, 1924, Mel. exot. ent., 42: 24 (India).

Distribution — India.

Genus 8. Caryedon Schonherr (1826)

Type species — Caryedon gonagra (Fabricius)

65. Caryedon acaciae (Gyllenhal) Comb. Nov.

Pachymerus acaciae Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculio-
nidum, 1:91. Hoffmann, 1945, Fn., France, 44: 95. Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc.
ent. Egypte, 47: 189, figs. 163-176.

Distribution — India, Egypt.

P.U.

66. Caryedon gonagra (Fabricius)

Caryoborus gonagra Fabricius, 1798, Entomologia systematica, supplement,
1798:159 (India). Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 225 (Belgaum,
Thorawady) .

Bruchus gonagra: Fabricius, 1801, Sy sterna Eleutheratorum, 2:399. Gyllenhal,
in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculionidum, 7:129.

Pachymerus gonagra Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:1. Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951,
Indian J. Ent., 13:19. Mathur & Singh, 1959, Indian For. Bull., 777(4):
59. Mathur & Singh, 1960, Indian For. Bull., 777(3) : 35.

Caryedon gonagra: Bridwell, 1929, Proc. ent. Soc. Wash., 57(8): 146. Mukerji,
Menon & Chatterji, 1957, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond., (B) 26:103.

Caryedon gonagra, Southgate & Pope, 1957, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (12)76:669.

Caryedon fuscus Mukerji, Menon & Chatterji, 1957, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond.,
(B) 26: 103-106 nec Goeze.

Hosts — This is the true groundnut bruchid, its various records on Acacia spp.
& Tamarind are considered doubtful and need to be verified.

Distribution — India, Africa.

I.A.R.I.; P.U.; F.R.I.

67. Caryedon languidus Gyllenhal

Caryedon languidus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Curculi-
onidum, 5: 129 (Calcutta & Manila).

Mylabris {— Bruchus) languidus Baudi, 1886, Milabridi, 1886:107.

Caryoborus languidus: Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:225. Roonwal,
Bhashin & Singh, 1956, Indian For. Bull., 777(1) : 80.

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Host — Cassia auriculata (seeds) .

Distribution — India, Philippine Islands.

I.A.R.I.; P.U.; F.R.I.

68. Caryedon tamarind! (Decaux) Comb. Nov.

Pachymeruy tamarindi Decaux, 1894, Le Natural, 76:129 (India). Pic, 1913,
Coleopt. Cat., 26:9. Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent. Egypte, 47:191, figs. 186-
202 (Egypt, India) .

Host — Tamarindus indicus.

Distribution — India, Egypt.

Genus 9. Caryopemon Jekel (1855)

Type species — Caryopemon hieroglyphicus Jekel

69. Caryopemon lucteonotatus Pic

Caryopemon lucteonotatus Pic, 1898, Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr., 25:173 (India — Paris
Mus.). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:9.

Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I.

70. Caryopemon lhostei Pic

Caryopemon thostei Pic, 1924, Echange, 39: 30.

Distribution — Sri Lanka.

Subfamily: Amblycerinae

Genus 10. Spermophagus Schonherr (1833) in part.

71. Spermophagus abdominalis (Fabricius)

Bruchus abdominalis Fabricius, 1781, Species Insect or um .... , 7:76 (India Or.).
Fabricius, 1801, Systema Eleutheratorum, 2:400 (India). Pic, 1913, Coleopt.
Cat., 26:13.

Spermophagus abdominalis: Chevrolet, 1877, Ann. Soc. ent. Fr., Bull., (5)7:
135 (Pondicherry). Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J. ent., 73:17, pi. iv,
fig. 29. (genitalia) .

Host — Hibiscus cannabinus Linn, (seeds).

Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

72. Spermophagus aeneipennis Pic

Spermophagus aeneipennis Pic, 1917, Mel. exot. ent., 26:9 (Ceylon).
Distribution — Ceylon.

73. Spermophagus albofasciatus Gyllenhal

Spermophagus albofasciatus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species
Curculionidum, 7:110. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 58.

Distribution — India.

I.A.R.I.; P.U.

ORIENTAL BRUCH1DAE

755

74. Spcrmophagus albosparsus Gyllenhal

Spermophagus albosparsus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species
Curculionidum, 7:110 (India Or.). Pic. 1913, Coleopt. CaL, 26:58.
Distribution — India.

P.U.

75. Spermophagus bifasciatus Motschulsky

Spermophagus bifasciatus Motschulsky, 1874, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 39:
250 (1873) (Agra). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 58.

Distribution — India.

76. Spermophagus ceylonicus Pic

Spermophagus ceylonicus Pic, 1917, Mel. exot. ent., 26:9 (Ceylon).

Distribution — Sri Lanka.

77. Spermophagus convolvuli Thunberg

Spermophagus convolvuli: Thunberg, 1816, K. Vet. Ak. Hand!., 37: 44, 46

(Sudrussland). Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species Curculionidum, 7:113
(Ceylon). Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Curculionidum,
5:141. Allard, 1868, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 77:87. Schilsky, 1905, Kaf. Eur.,
16 :E. Pic, 1913, Coleopt, Cat., 26:59. Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian J.
ent., 75:18-19, pi. viii, figs. 1-3. Mathur & Singh, 1960, India For. Bull.,
777(5) :46.

Spermophagus guttulatus Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Curculionidum,
5:141.

Host — Hibiscus cannabinus (seeds).

D istribu tion — Ceylon .

I.A.R.I.; F.R.I.

78. Spermophagus ligatus Chevrolet

Spermophagus ligatus Chevrolet, 1877, Ann. Soc. ent. Fr. Bull., (5)7:134 (Nil-
giris). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:60 (N. India).

Distribution — India.

79. Spermophagus negligens andamanensis Pic

Spermophagus negligens Lombok var. andamanensis Pic, 1917, Mel. exot. ent.,
26:10 (Andaman Islands).

Distribution — India, Andaman Islands.

80. Spermophagus niger Motschulsky

Spermophagus niger Motschulsky, 1866, Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 59:405
(Ceylon). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 60.

Distribution — Ceylon.

81. Spermophagus notatipennis Pic

Spermophagus natatipennis Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10)9:332 (Madras,
N. Salem, Jawalagiri, Coorg: Fraserpet — Brit. Mus, & Paris Mus.).

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

!

Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

82. Spermophagus rufipennis Pic

Spermophagus rufipennis Pic, 1917, Mel. exot. ent., 26:9 (Cochin).

Distribution — India.

83. Spermophagus sophrac Fahrreus

Spermophagus sophrae Fahrreus, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species Cur-
culionidum, 5:136 (Chili). Blanchard, in Gay, 1851, Hist. Chile, 5:296.
Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39: 288. (Dharwar). Pic, 1913, Coleopt.
Cat., 26:62 (India; Chili).

Host — Rose Flowers.

Distribution — Chili, India.

84. Spermophagus sublineatus Bohemann

Spermophagus sublineatus Bohemann, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species
Curculionidum, 5:140 (India Or.). Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:
228 (Dharwar, Belgaum). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:62.

Hosts —Spomero coccineo; Rose flowers.

Distribution — India.

85. Spermophagus subsignatus Gyllenhal

Spermophagus subsignatus Gyllenhal, in Schonherr, 1839, Genera et Species
Curculionidum, 5:139 (India Or.). Allard, 1895, Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 39:
228 (Belgaum & Burma). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:62.

Distribution — India, Burma.

86. Spermophagus tessellatus Motschulsky

Spermophagus tessellatus Motschulsky, 1858, Etudes Entomologiques, 7:97
(Burma). Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26:62. Mukerji & Chatterji, 1951, Indian
J. ent., 75:19, pi. vii, figs. 5-6 (genitalia).

Distribution — India, Burma.

87. Spermophagus uniformis Pic

Spermophagus uniformis Pic, 1932, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (10)9:332 (Coorg:
Fraserpet — Brit. Mus. & Paris Mus.).

Distribution — India.

F.R.I.

Genus 11 Zabrotes Horn (1885)

Type Species — Zabrotes cruciger Horn

88. Zabrotes subfasciatus (Bohemann)

Spermophagus subfasciatus Bohemann, in Schonherr, 1833, Genera et Species
Curculionidum, 7:111 (Brazil). Lucas, 1858, Ann. Soc. ent. Fr., Bull.,
(3)6:28. Allard, 1868, Ann. Soc. ent. Fr., 77:87. Decaus, 1890, Et. Ins. nuis.,

ORIENTAL BRUCH1DAE

757

1890:12. Pic, 1913, Coleopt. Cat., 26: 62 (Africa, Central America). Lepes-
me, 1941, Rev. fr. Ent., 8( 4) : 200-201, fig. 1. Shomar, 1964, Bull. Soc. ent.
Egypte, 47: 195, fig. 219.

Spermophagus ( Zabrotes ) subfasciatus: Hoffmann, 1945, Fn. France, 44: 104.

Zabrotes subfasciatus: Luk Yanovica & Ter Minasyan, 1957, Fn. USSR, Cole-
optera, Bruchidae, 24(1): 199.

Spermophagus musculus Bohemann, 1833, in Schonherr, Genera et Species Cur-
culionidum, 7:112 (Brazil).

Spermophagus dorsopictum Lepesme, 1941, Rev. fr. Ent., 5(4) :200.

Distribution — Cosmopolitan.

P.U.

Grasses of Bihar, Orissa
and West Bengal

S. K. Jain,1 2 D. K. Banerjee and D. C. Pal
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta

The paper lists 489 species and varieties belonging to 155 genera
of grasses occurring in Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. The occur-
rence of the taxa in one or more of these three States is indicated.

32 taxa are reported as new distributional records for these States.

The States of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal constitute the lower or
eastern part of the Gangetic Plain. Clarke (1898) and Chatterjee (1939)
regarded the Gangetic Plain (comprising almost entire Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal, and large parts of eastern Rajasthan
and northern Madhya Pradesh) as a distinct phytogeographical region
of India.

The senior author, in collaboration with Prof. M. B. Raizada, stud-
ied the grasses of Upper Gangetic Plains (comprising Uttar Pradesh,
eastern parts of Rajasthan and northern parts of Madhya Pradesh)
over a number of years (Raizada et aL 1961; Raizada & Jain 1965,
1966). It was considered useful to extend the studies to the remaining
parts of the Gangetic Plain i.e. lower Gangetic plains in the States of
Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal.

The present work was, however, not confined only to the plains, and
in order to facilitate the revision of the family Poaceae for the floras
of these three States, the present political boundaries of these States
were taken as the area of study, this meant inclusion of the hilly regions.

Prain’s (1903) book is the only work dealing with the plants of
Bengal State as a whole. Among later works, which deal with grasses
of this state, the following may be mentioned — Banerjee (1968), Chak-
ravarty (1957), Chaudhuri (1959a, b; 1960a, b; 1965), Datta & Maiti
(1963), Datta & Majumdar (1966), Majumdar (1956), Mallick (1966),
Matthew (1966) and Paul & Bhattacharya (1959).

Hara’s work (1966) on eastern Himalayas also covers Darjeeling
hills.

For Bihar and Orissa, comparatively more recent works are avail-

1 Accepted June 1971.

2 Present address: Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle,

‘Woodlands’, Laithumkhara, Shillong.

GRASSES OF BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

759

able; namely the Botany of Bihar and Orissa by Haines (1925); and
its supplement by Mooney (1950). The southern part of Orissa was
formerly in Madras Presidency; and was covered by Fischer’s (1934)
work. A few later works, such as lists of grasses or tour reports for some
districts or smaller regions of these states are also available; such as —
Bal (1942), Banerjee & Banerjee (1968), Bharadwaja (1958), Bressers
(1951), Kanodia & Mallick (1966), Mukherjee (1956), Panigrahi (1966),
Panigrahi et al (1964), Paul (1967), Raizada (1949), Raju (1964),
Sanyal (1957), Singh & Verma (1964), Srivastava (1954, 1955, 1956a,
b, 1959) and Thothathri et al (1966).

We have made collections in these states, and have studied the vast
collections deposited in the Central National Herbarium. The collections
lodged in the herbaria of the Eden Gardens, Calcutta, Central Rice Re-
search Institute and Ravenshaw College, Cuttack have also been con-
sulted.

The following list includes all the species and varieties of grasses
reported from Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal; the list includes 155
genera, and 489 species and varieties. The arrangement of the taxa is,
in general, according to Bor (1960); namely, first the subfamily Pani-
coideae and then the subfamily Pooideae. Under the sub-families, the
tribes; under the tribes, the genera; and under the genera the species
are arranged alphabetically. The nomenclature has been verified with
the works of Bor (loc. cit.), Raizada (1959), Jain (1967b) and wealth
of India (1962, 1966, 1969).

Only current botanical names are given. Synonyms and information
on distribution, etc. can be seen in Bor’s book, for which a reference
has been given. When a species is not given in Bor’s book (e.g. all Bam-
buseae), a reference is made to Hooker’s (1896) account of Indian
grasses, or some other relevant work.

The occurrence of most of these species in this region has been veri-
fied by actual specimens collected by us in the field or studied by us in
the herbaria. The occurrence of a species in the three states is shown by
the following abbreviations:

B : Bengal
Bi: Bihar
O : Orissa

This abbreviation in small capital type indicates that actual speci-
mens for that state have been seen by us; ordinary type means that the
report from that state is based on published literature.

The jurisdiction of Prain’s (1903) flora was much wider than the
present boundaries of West Bengal, and therefore, several species in-
cluded in Prain’s book may not be found marked for Bengal (i.e. B).

Species which are largely cultivated for cereal or fodder, etc. are

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

included, and are marked C; for such species the names of the states
are omitted. Species cultivated only on experimental scale are not in-
cluded.

New records

The present study has led to the discovery of several additional spe-
cies of grasses from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, i.e. taxa not so far re-
ported from these states, and in a few cases from India as a whole, in
any published work. Such names are marked with a special sign; namely
asterisk (*) for Bengal, plus (+) for Bihar and O (O) for Orissa. The
taxa which are new records for India, are marked @. These instances
of new distributional records are based on authors’ own examination of
specimens; instances arising out of mere published information are not
included. A reference has been given, where more details about some of
these new records can be seen.

The bibliography includes only important references on floristics,
particularly on grasses, of the region.

Subfamily : P ANICOIDEAE
Tribe : Andropogoneae

Andropogon ascinodis C. B. Clarke.
Bor 90. (bi, O).

Andropogon pumilus Roxb. Bor 93.
(B, Bi, O).

Apluda muticdL Linn. Bor 93. (b, bi,

°).

Apocopis courtallumensis (Steud.)

Henr. Bor 95. (bi).

Apocopis paleacea (Trin.) Hochr.
Bor 96. (b, Bi).

Apocopis vaginata Hack. Bor 96.
(bi, O).

Arthraxon castratus (Griff.) Nara-
yan. ex Bor. Bor 99. (Bi).
Arthraxon echinatus Hochst. Bor 99.
(O).

Arthraxon hispidus (Thunb.) Mak-
ino. Bor 99. (B, bi).

Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst.
Bor 100. (b, bi).

Arthraxon nudus Hochst. Bor 101.
(B, bi, O).

Arthraxon prionodes (Steud.) Dandy.
Bor 101. (bi).

+ Arthraxon quartinianus (Rich.)
Nash. Bor 102. (bi).

Bothriochloa glabra (Roxb.) A.

Camus. Bor 107. (b, bi).
Bothriochloa intermedia (R. Br.) A.
Camus var. intermedia. Bor 108.
(b, Bi).

Bothriochloa intermedia var. punctata
(Roxb.) Keng. Bor 108. (b, bi, O).
Bothriochloa ischaemum (Linn.)

Keng. Bor 108. (B).

Bothriochloa kuntzeana (Hack.)

Henr. Bor 108. (Bi).

Bothriochloa odorata (Lisboa) A.

Camus. Bor 109. (bi).
Bothriochloa pertusa (Linn.) A.

Camus. Bor 110. (b, bi, o).
Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A.

Camus. Bor 110. (b, bi, o).
Capillipedium parviflorum (R. Br.)

Stapf. Bor 112. (B, Bi, O).
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.

Bor 115. (b, Bi, o).

Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.)

Chiov. Bor 116. (bi, O).
Chrysopogon gryllus (Linn.) Trin.
Bor 117. (B, Bi).

Chrysopogon hamiltonii (Hook, f.)

GRASSES OF BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

761

Haines. Bor 117. (bi).

Chrysopogon lancearius (Hook, f.) •

Haines. Bor 118. (b, bi, O).
Chrysopogon polyphyllus (Hack.)

Blatt. et McCann. Bor 118. (Bi).
Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. Bor
118. (bi).

* Coelorhachis khasiana (Hack.)

Stapf ex Bor. Bor 121. (b).
Coelorhachis striata (Nees ex Steud.)
A. Camus var. striata. Bor 121.

(b).

Cymbopogon caesius (Nees) Stapf.

Bor 125. (Bi, O).

+ Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.
Bor 126. (b, bi).

Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex
Steud.) Wats. Bor 127. (B, Bi).

Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex
Steud.) Wats. var. microstachys

(Hook, f.) Bor. Bor 127. (bi).
Cymbopogon gidarba (Ham. ex
Hook, f.) Haines. Bor 128. (bi, O)
Cymbopogon hookeri (Munro ex
Hack.) Stapf ex Bor. Bor 128.

(B).

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones)
Schult. Bor 128. (B, Bi, o).
Cymbopogon khasianus (Hack.)
Hack.) Stapf ex Bor. Bor 128.

(B).

Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats.

Bor 129. (b, bi, O).

Cymbopogon microtheca (Hook, f.)

A. Camus. Bor 129. (B, Bi).
Cymbopogon nardus (Linn.) Rendle.

Bor 130. (b, bi).

Cymbopogon pendulus (Nees ex
Steud.) Wats. Bor 131. (B, Bi).
Cymbopogon schoenanthus (Linn.)

Spreng. Bor 131. (b).

Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)

Stapf. Bor 133. (b, bi, o).
Dichanthium aristatum (Poir.) C.E.

Hubb. Bor 134. (b, Bi, O).
Dichanthium caricosum (Linn.) A.

Camus. Bor 134. (b, Bi, O).
Diectomis fastigiata (Sw.) Kunth.

Bor 135. (b, bi, O).

Dimeria connivens Hack. Bor 140.

(bi, O).

+ Dimeria hohenackeri Hochst. ex
Miq. Bor 142. (bi).

Dimeria lehmannii (Nees) Hack.

Bor 142. (O).

Dimeria mooneyi Raizada ex
Mooney. Bor 142. (o).

Dimeria orissae Bor. Bor 142. (o).
Dimeria ornithopoda Trin. var.

ornithopoda. Bor 142. (b, bi, O).
Dimeria ornithopoda Trin. var.

gracillima Bor. Bor 144. (bi).

+ Dimeria pubescens Hack. Bor 144.
(bi).

@ Dimeria trimenii Hook. f. Bor
144. (o).

Eremopogon foveolatus (Del.) Stapf.

Bor 148. (b, bi, O).

Erianthus longisetosus Anderss.

Bor 151. (b).

Erianthus longisetosus Anderss. var.
hookeri (Hack.) Bor. Bor 151.
(b).

Erianthus ravennae (Linn.) P.

Beauv. Bor 151. (B, Bi).
Erianthus rufipilus (Steud.) Griseb.
Bor 152. (b).

Erianthus sikkimensis Hook. f. Bor
152. (B).

Eulalia fastigiata (Nees) Haines.

Bor 155. (b, Bi).

Eulalia fimbriata (Hack.) O. Ktze.
Bor 155. (B).

Eulalia leschenaultiana (Decne.)

Ohwi. Bor 155. (b, bi, O).
Eulalia mollis (Griseb.) O. Ktze.
Bor 156. (b).

Eulalia quadrinervis (Hack.) O.

Ktze. Bor 156. (B).

Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr.

Bor 157. (b, bi, O).

Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C. E.

Hubbard. Bor 158. (b, bi, o).
Hackelochloa granularis (Linn.) O.

Ktze. Bor 159. (b, bi, o).
Hackelochloa porifera (Hack.)

Rhind. Bor 160. (B).

Hemarthria compressa (Linn, f.)

R. Br. Bor 161. (b, bi, O).
Hemarthria protensa Steud. Bor 161.
(b, bi).

Heteropogon contortus (Linn.)

P. Beauv. ex Roem. et Schult.

Bor 163. (b, bi, o).

Heteropogon melanocarpus (Ell.)
Benth. Bor 165. (Bi, O).

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

i

Hyparrhenia rufa (Nees) Stapf.

Bor 167. (B).

Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) P.

Beauv. Bor 169. (b, bi, o).
Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) P.
Beauv. var. major (Nees) Hubb.
et Vaugh. (b).

Indochloa clarkei (Hack.) Bor.

Bor 171. (bi).

lschaemum duthiei Stapf ex Bor.
Bor 178. (B, bi).

lschaemum hirtum Hack. Bor 179.
(bi).

lschaemum indicum (Houtt.)

Merrill. Bor 180. (b, bi, o).
lschaemum rugosum Salisb. Bor 184.
(b, bi, o).

lschaemum semisagittatum Roxb.

Bor 185. (B).

lschaemum timorense Kunth.

Bor 185. (B, Bi).

* lseilema anthephoroides Hack.

Bor 187. (b, Bi, O).

lseilema holei Haines. Bor 188. (Bi).
lseilema laxum Hack. Bor 188,

(b, bi, o).

lseilema prostratum (Linn.) Anderss.

Bor 188. (b, bi, o).

Lophopogon kingii Hook. f. Bor 190.
(bi).

Manisuris clarkei (Hack.) Bor apud
Santapau. Bor 191. (bi, o).
Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.)

A. Camus. Bor 193. (B, bi, O).
Microstegium nudum (Trin.)

A. Camus. Bor 194. (B).
Microstegium petiolare (Trin.) Bor.
Bor 194. (O).

* Microstegium vagans (Nees ex
Steud.) A. Camus. Bor 195. (b).

Microstegium vimineum (Trin.)

A. Camus. (B).

Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack.
Bor 196. (b).

Miscanthus nudipes (Griseb.) Hack.
Bor 196. (B).

Mnesithea laevis (Retz.) Kunth.

Bor 197. (b, bi, o).

Narenga fallax (Balansa) Bor.

Bor 198. (B, Bi).

Narenga porphyrocoma (Hance)

Bor. Bor 198. (b, bi, O).
Ophiuros exaltatus (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Bor 199. (b, Bi).

Ophiuros megaphyllus Stapf ex
Haines. Bor 199. (B, Bi).

O Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.)

Kunth. Bor 200. (b, Bi, o).
Pogonatherum paniceum (Lamk.)

Hack. Bor 202. (b, bi, o).
Pogonatherum rufo-barbatum Griff.
Bor 202 (O).

@ Polytrias amaura (Buse) O. Ktze.

Bor 202 (b). [Jain & Pal 1968].
Pseudanthistiria heteroclita (Roxb.)

Hook. f. Bor 203. (B).
Pseudopogonatherum contortum
(Brongn.) A. Camus. Bor 204.
(b, bi).

Pseudosorghum fasciculare (Roxb.)

A. Camus. Bor 205. (b, bi, o).
Rottboellia exaltata Linn. f. Bor 206.
(b, bi, o).

Saccharum arundinaceum Retz.

Bor 211. (B, bi).

Saccharum bengalense Retz. Bor 211.
(b, bi, O).

Saccharum officinarum Linn. Bor 212.
(C).

Saccharum procerum Roxb. Bor 213.

(B) .

Saccharum spontaneum Linn. Bor
214. (b, bi, o).

Schizachyrium brevifolium (Sw.)

Nees ex Buse. Bor 215. (b, bi, o).
Schizachyrium exile (Hochst.) Stapf.

Bor 216. (b, bi, O).

Sclerostachya fusca (Roxb.)

A. Camus. Bor 217. (b, Bi).
Sehima nervosum (Rottl.) Stapf.

Bor 218. (b, bi).

Sorghum cernuum Host. var. globo-
sum (Hack.) Snowden. Bor 231.

(C) .

Sorghum cernuum Host. var. yem-
ense (Koern.) Snowden. Bor 231.
(C).

Sorghum conspicuum Snowden, var.

orientate Snowden. Bor 232. (C).
Sorghum conspicuum Snowden, var.
usaramense (Busse et Pilger)
Snowden. Bor 232. (C).

Sorghum controversum (Steud.)

Snowden. 222. (b, bi).

Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers.
Bor 222. (C).

GRASSES OF BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

763

Sorghum, miliiforme (Hack.) Snow-
den var. miliiforme. Bor 239. (C).
Sorghum miliiforme (Hack.) Snow-
den var. rotundulum Snowden.
Bor 239. (C).

Sorghum nervosum Bess, ex Schult.
Bor 239. (C).

Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers.

Bor 245. (bi).

Sorghum roxburghii Stapf var.

nanum Snowden. Bor 241. (C).
Sorghum vulgar e Pers. (C).
Thaumastochloa cochinchinensis
(Lour.) C. E. Hubb. Bor 247. (bi)
Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.)

Ridley. Bor 250. (b, bi, O).
Themeda caudata (Nees) A. Camus.

Bor 250. (b, bi, O).

Themeda hookeri (Griseb.)

Tribe :

Chionachne koenigii (Spreng.)

Thw. Bor 262. (b, bi, o).

Coix aquatica Roxb. Bor 264.

(b, bi, o).

Coix gigantea Koenig ex Roxb.

Bor 264. (b, bi, O).

Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. var.

Tribe :

Acroceras munroanum (Balansa)
Henr. Bor 275. (B).

Acroceras zizanioides (H.B.K.)

Dandy. Bor 275. (B).

Alloteropsis cimicina (Linn.) Stapf.

Bor 276. (b, bi, o).

Alloteropsis semialata (R. Br.)

Hitchc. Bor 276. (bi).

Axonopus compressus (Swartz.)

P. Beauv. Bor 278. (b).

Brachiaria distachya (Linn.) Stapf.

Bor 281. (b, bi, O).

Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E. Sm.)

Griseb. Bor 283. (b, bi, O).
Brachiaria kurzii (Hook, f.)

A. Camus. Bor 283 (b, bi).

+ Brachiaria miliiformis (Presl.)

A. Chase. Bor 283. (b, bi).

O Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf.
Bor 284. (b, o).

A. Camus. Bor 251. (b).

Themeda laxa (Anderss.) A. Camus.

Bor 251. (Bi, O).

Themeda mooneyi Bor. Bor 252.

(O).

Themeda quadrivalvis (Linn.)

O. Ktze. Bor 252. (b, bi, O).
Themeda saxicola Bor. Bor 252. (O).
Themeda strigosa (Ham. ex Hook.f.)

A. Camus. Bor 252. (b, bi).
Themeda triandra Forssk. Bor 254.
(b, bi, o).

Themeda villosa (Poir.) A. Camus.

Bor 254. (b, Bi, O).

Thyrsia zea (Clarke) Stapf. Bor 255.
(b).

Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash.

Bor 258. (b, bi, o).

Vossia cuspidata (Roxb.) Griff.

Bor 259. (B).

Maydeae

lacryma-jobi. Bor 265. (b, bi, o)^

* Coix lacryma-jobi Linn. var. ma-
yuen (Romanet) Stapf. Bor 265.
(B, o).

Polytoca digitata (Linn, f.) Druce.

Bor 267. (b, Bi).

Zea mays Linn. Bor 270. (C).

Pan ice ae

Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stapf.

Bor 284. (b, bi, O).

Brachiaria remota (Retz.) Haines.
Bor 285. (B, O).

Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gard. et
C. E. Hubb. Bor 285. (b, bi, O).
Brachiaria setigera (Retz.)

C. E. Hubb. Bor 286. (b, bi).

*+ Brachiaria subquadripara (Trin.)
Hitchc. Bor 286. (b, bi)

[Banerjee 1971a]

* Brachiaria villosa (Lamk.)

A. Camus var. barbata Bor.

Bor 286. (b).

[Banerjee 1971a]

Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. Bor 287.

(B, Bi).

Cenchrus echinatus Linn. Bor 287.
(B).

Cenchrus pennisetiformis Hochst. et

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 72(3)

Steud. ex Steud. Bor 289. (Bi).
Cyrtococcam accrescens (Trin.)

Stapf. Bor 291. (b).

Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Steud.)

Stapf. Bor 291. (b, Bi, O).
Cyrtococcum patens (Linn.)

A. Camus. Bor 292. (b, Bi, O).
Cyrtococcum trigonum (Retz.)

A. Camus. Bor 292. (b).
Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr.

Bor 298. (b, bi, O).

Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr.
subsp. chrysoblephara (Fig. et. de
Not.) Henr. Bor 299. (b, bi).
Digitaria bicornis (Lamk.) Roem. et
Schult. ex Loud. Bor 299. (b, bi).
+ Digitaria biformis Willd. Bor 299.
(bi, o).

Digitaria cruciata (Nees) A. Camus.

Bor 300. (B, bi).

Digitaria fuscescens (Presl) Henr.
Bor 301. (b).

Digitaria granularis (Trin.) Henr.

Bor 301. (b, bi, O).

Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.

Bor 302. (b, bi, o).

Digitaria pentzii Stent. Bor 304. (B).
*+ Digitaria preslii (Kunth.) Henr.

Bor 304. (b, bi). [Banerjee 1968]
Digitaria sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop.

Bor 304. (b, bi, o).

Digitaria setigera Roth apud Roem.

et Schult. Bor 305. (b, bi).
Digitaria strict a Roth ex Roem. et
Schult. Bor 305. (b, bi, O).

+ Digitaria thwaitesii (Hack.) Henr.
Bor 306. (bi).

Digitaria timorensis (Kunth.) Bal.
Bor 306. (b).

Digitaria violascens Link. Bor 307.
(B).

Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link.

Bor 308. (b, bi, o).

Echinochloa crusgalli (Linn.)

P. Beauv. Bor 310. (b, bi, O).
Echinochloa crusgalli (Linn.) P.
Beauv. var. breviseta (Doell) Neilr.
Bor 310. (b).

* Echinochloa cruspavonis (H.B.K.)
Schult. Bor 310 (B).

[Banerjee 1971a]

Echinochloa frumentacea Link.

Bor 311. (B, bi, O).

Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.)

P. Beauv. Bor 311. (b, bi, o).
Eriochloa procera (Retz.)

C. E. Hubbard. Bor 312.

(b, bi, o).

Hymenachne pseudointerrupta
C. Muell. Bor 313. (b, bi, O).
Ichnanthus vicinus (F. M. Bail.)
Merr. Bor 314. (O).

* Melinis minutiflora P. Beauv.

Bor 315. (b).

Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.)

P. Beauv. Bor 317. (b, bi, o).
Oplismenus compositus (Linn.)

P. Beauv. Bor 317. (b, Bi, o).
Panicum antidotale Retz. Bor 322.
(B, bi, o).

Panicum atrosanguineum Hochst. ex
A. Rich. Bor 322. (b, Bi o).
Panicum auritum Presl ex Nees.

Bor 324. (b, Bi, O).

Panicum austroasiaticum Ohwi.

Bor 324. (b, bi, O).

Panicum brevifolium Linn. Bor 324.
(b, Bi, O).

Panicum cambogiense Balansa.

Bor 325. (B, Bi).

@ Panicum elegantissimum Hook. f.

Bor 325. (b) [Banerjee 1971b].
Panicum fascicultatum Sw. Majum-
dar 52. (B).

Panicum humidorum Buch-Ham. ex
Hook. f. Bor 326. (B).

Panicum incomtum Trin. Bor 326.
(B).

Panicum khasianum Munro ex
Hook. f. Bor 327. (B).

Panicum maximum Jacq. Bor 327.

(b, bi).

Panicum miliaceum Linn. Bor 327.
(b, bi, O).

Panicum notatum Retz. Bor 701.

(b, bi, O).

Panicum paludosum Roxb. Bor 329.
(b, bi, o).

Panicum psilopodium Trin. Bor 329.
(b, bi, O).

* Panicum psilopodium Trin. var.
coloratum Hook. f. (b)

[Pal & Banerjee 1970].

Panicum repens Linn. Bor 330.

(b, bi, o).

Panicum sarmentosum Roxb.

GRASSES OF BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

765

Bor 330. (B).

Panicum sumatranse Roth, ex
Roem. et Schult. Bor 701.

(b, bi, o).

Panicum trypheron Schult. Bor 331.
(b, bi, o).

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.)

A. Camus. Bor 333. (b, bi, o).
Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.)

Stapf. Bor 333. (o).

Paspalidium punctatum (Burm.)

A. Camus. Bor 333. (b, bi, o).
Paspalum cartilagineum J. S. Presl

ex C. B. Presl. Bor 335. (bi).
Paspalum conjugatum Berg. Bor 336.
(b).

Paspalum dilatatum Poir. Bor 338.

(B).

Paspalum distichum Linn. Bor 338.

(B, BI).

Paspalum orbiculare Forst. Bor 340.
(B).

Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn.

Bor 340. (b, bi, o).

Paspalum vaginatum Swartz.

Bor 341. (bi).

Pennisetum clandestinum Hochst.

ex Chiov. Bor 344. (B).
Pennisetum hohcnackeri Hochst. ex
Steud. Bor 344. (Bi, o).
Pennisetum hordeoides (Lamk.)

Steud. Bor 345. (bi, O).
Pennisetum orientate L. C. Rich.
Bor 345. (b, bi).

Pennisetum orientate L. C. Rich. var.

triflorum Stapf. Bor 346. (Bi).
Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin.

Bor 346. (b, bi).

Pennisetum polystachyon (Linn.)

Schult. Bor 346. (b, bi, O).
Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.

Bor 348. (B, Bi, o).

Pennisetum setosum (Swartz.)

L. C. Rich. Bor 348. (b, bi, o).
Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.)

Stapf et C. E. Hubb. Bor 350. (C).
Pseudechinolaena polystachya
(H.B.K.) Stapf. Bor 352. (B).

Pseudoraphis brunoniana Griff.

Bor 353. (B, Bi, O).

Pseudoraphis minuta (Mez) Pilger.

Bor 353. (b, Bi, o).

Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.)

Vickery. Bor 353. (b, Bi).
Pseudoraphis spinescens (R. Br.)
Vickery var. depauperata (Nees)
Bor. Bor 354. (b).

Sacciolepis indica (Linn.) A. Chase.

Bor 357. (b, bi, o).

Sacciolepis interrupta (Willd.)

Stapf. Bor 358. (b, bi, o).
Sacciolepis myosuroides (R. Br.)

A. Camus. Bor 358. (b, bi, o).
Setaria barbata (Lamk.) Kunth.

Bor 360. (b, Bi).

Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv.

Bor 360. (b, bi, o).

Setaria italica (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Bor 362. (b, bi).

Setaria pallide-fusca. (Schumach.)
Stapf et C. E. Hubb. Bor 363.

(b, bi, o).

Setaria palmifolia (Koen.) Stapf.
Bor 363. (B, bi, O).

* Setaria paniculifera (Steud.)
Fourn. ex Hemsl. Bor 363. (b).

Setaria plicata (Lamk.) T. Cooke.

Bor 364. (b, bi, O).

Setaria tomentosa (Roxb.) Kunth.

Bor 365. (b, bi, o).

Setaria verticil lata (Linn.)

P. Beauv. Bor 365. (b, bi, o).
Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Bor 365. (B).

Spinifex littoreus (Burm. f.) Merr.
Bor 366. (b, o).

* Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (Linn.)
Brongn. Bor 366. (b).

O Trachys muricata (Linn.) Pers. ex
Trin. Bor 369. (o).

Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv.

Bor 372. (B, Bi, O).

Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. var.
pubescens (Kunth.) Bor. Bor 372.
(bi).

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Subfamily: POOIDEAE
Tribe: Aeluropodeae

Aeluropus lagopoides (Linn.) Trin.
ex Thw. Bor 380. (b).

Tribe: Agrostideae
Agrostis brachiata Munro ex Hook,
f. Bor 386. (bi).

Agrostis filipes Hook. f. Bor 387.
(b).

Agrostis gigantea Roth. Bor 387. (B).
Agrostis inaequiglumis Griseb.

Bor 387. (B).

Agrostis micrantha Steud. Bor 388.

(B).

Agrostis myriantha Hook. f. Bor 388.

(B).

Agrostis nervosa Nees ex Trin.

Bor 388. (b).

Agrostis pilosula Trin. var. pilosula.
Bor 388. (B).

Agrostis pilosula Trin. var. ciliata

Tribe:

Aristida adscensionis Linn. Bor 407.
(b, bi, o).

Aristida cumingiana Trin. et Rupr.

Bor 409. (b, bi, O).

Aristida cyanantha Nees ex Steud.
Bor 409. (B).

Aristida depressa Retz. Bor 409. (B).
Aristida funiculata Trin. et Rupr.

Bor 410. (b, bi, O).

Aristida hystrix Linn. f. Bor 410.
(Bi, O).

Aristida redacta Stapf. Bor 412.

(Trin.) Bor. Bor 389. (B).
Agrostis sikkimensis Bor. Bor 390.
(B).

Agrostis triaristata (Hook, f.) Bor.
Bor 391. (B).

Agrostis zenkeri Trin. Bor 392. (B).
Calamagrostis emodensis Griseb.

Bor 395. (B).

Deyeuxia pulchella (Griseb.) Hook.

f. Bor 399. (B).

Deyeuxia scabrescens (Griseb.)

Munro ex Duthie. Bor 399. (B).
Muhlenbergia huegelii Trin. Bor 401.
(B).

Phleurn alpinum Linn. Bor 402. (B).
Polypogon fugax Nees ex Steud.

Bor 403. (B, bi).

Polypogon monospeliensis (Linn.)
Desf. Bor 403. (b, bi).

Aristideae

(b, bi).

Aristida setacea Retz. Bor 412.

(b, bi, O).

Tribe : Arundineae
Arundo donax Linn. Bor 413.

(b, bi, o).

Phrag mites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex
Steud. var. karka. Bor 416.

(b, bi, o).

Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex
Steud. var. cincta Hook. f. ,
Bor 416. (b).

Tribe : Arundinelleae

Arundinella bengalensis (Spreng.)

Druce. Bor 421. (b, bi, o).
Arundinella decempedalis (O. Ktze.)

Janowski. Bor 422. (b).
Arundinella holcoides (Kunth.)

Trin. Bor 422. (b, Bi, O).
Arundinella hookeri Munro ex Keng.
Bor 422. (b).

Arundinella intricata Hughes.

Bor 422. (B).

Arundinella nepalensis Trin.

Bor 423. (b, Bi).

Arundinella pumila (Hochst.)

Steud. Bor 423. (bi, O).
Arundinella setosa Trin. Bor 424.
(bi, O).

Arundinella villosa Arn. ex Steud.
Bor 426. (B).

Jansenella griffithiana (C. Muell.)
Bor. Bor 426. (b).

GRASSES OP BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

76 7

Tribe: Aveneae

Anthoxanthum hookeri (Griseb.)

Rendle. Bor 431. (B).
Anthoxanthum odoratum Linn.

Bor 431. (B).

Avena fatua Linn. Bor 434. (B).
A vena sativa Linn. Bor 434. (C).
Deschampsia caespitosa (Linn.)

P. Beauv. Bor 435. (B).
Helictotrichon asperum (Munro)
Bor. Bor 438. (B).
Helictotrichon virescens (Nees ex

Steud.) Henr. Bor 439. (B).
Hierochloa flexuosa Hook. f.

Bor 441. (B).

Holcus lanatus Linn. Bor 443. (B).
Holcus mollis Linn. Bor 443. (B).
Koeleria cristata (Linn.) Pers.

Bor 444. (B).

Trisetum flavescens (Linn.)

P. Beauv. Bor 448. (B).
Trisetum spicatum (Linn.) Richt.
Bor 448. (B).

Tribe: Bambuseae

Arunclinaria mating Gamble.

Bor 1940. 42. (B).

Arundinaria racemosa Munro.

Hooker 379. (B).

Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.

Hooker 395. (B, bi, o).

Bambusa balcooa Roxb. Hooker 391.
(b, Bi).

Bambusa nutans Wall. Hooker 387.
(B, Bi, O).

*0 Bambusa pallida Munro. Hooker
389. (b, o).

Bambusa tulda Roxb. Hooker 387.
(b, bi, O).

Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Hooker
391. (b, o).

Cephalostachyum capitatum Munro.

Hooker 412. (B).

* Cephalostachyum fuchsianum
Gamble. Hooker 413. (b).
Cephalostachyum latifolium Munro.

Hooker 412. (B).

Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro.

Hooker 413. (B, Bi).
Chimonobambusa griffithiana
(Munro) Nakai. Hooker 379. (B).
Chimonobambusa hookeriana

(Munro) Nakai. Hooker 382. (B).
Chimonobambusa intermedia

(Munro) Nakai. Hooker 381. (B).

Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro.

Hooker 406. (B).

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees et
Arn. Hooker 405. (B, Bi).
Dendrocalamus hookeri Munro.

Hooker 405. (B).

Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz.

Hooker 407. (B).

Dendrocalamus patellaris Gamble.

Hooker 406. (B).

Dendrocalamus sericeus Munro.

Hooker 404. (B, bi, o).
Dendrocalamus sikkimensis Gamble.

Hooker 405. (B).

Dendrocalmus strictus Nees.

Hooker 404. (b, bi, O).
Neohouzeana dullooa A. Camus.

Bor 1940. 21. (B).

Oxytenanthera nigrociliata Munro.

Hooker 401. (o).

Pseudostachyum polymorphum
Munro. Hooker 409. (B).
Semiarundinaria pantlingii

(Gamble) Nakai. Hooker 380. (B).
Thamnocalamus aristatus (Gamble)
E. G. Camus. Hooker 382. (b).
Thamnocalamus falconeri Hook. f.
Hooker 383. (B).

Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Trin.)
Munro. Hooker 382. (B).

Tribe : Brachypodeae

Brachy podium sylvaticum (Huds.)
P. Beauv. Bor 450. (B).

10

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Tribe: Bromeae

Bromus mollis Linn. Bor 455. (B).
Bromus ramosus Huds. Bor 456. (B).
Bromus tectorum Linn. Bor 456. (B).
Bromus unioloicles H.B.K. Bor 456.

(B).

Tribe : Centotheceae

Centotheca lappacea (Linn.) Desv.

Bor 457. (b, Bi, O).

Tribe : Chlorideae

Bromus himalaicus Stapf apud
Hook. f. Bor 454. (b).

Bromus japonicus Thunb. Bor 455.
(B).

Chloris barbata Sw. Bor 465.

(b, Bi, o).

Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca.

Bor 466. (b, Bi, o).

Chloris montana Roxb. Bor 466.

(B, BI).

Chloris roxburghiana Schult.

Bor 468. (B).

Chloris virgata Sw. Bor 468. (b, bi).
*4-0 Cynodon arcuatus J. S. Presl
ex C. B. Presl. Bor 469.

(b, bi, o) [Jain 1967a]

*+ Cynodon barberi Rang, et Tad. f.
barberi. Bor 469. (b, bi)

[Jain 1967a]

*+0 Cynodon barberi Rang, et Tad.
f. longifolius Jain.

(b, bi, o). [Jain 1967a]

Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.

Bor 469. (b, bi, o).

Gymnopogon delicatulus

(C. B. Clarke) Bor. Bor 472.

(bi, O).

Melanocenchris jacquemontii

Jaub. et Spach. Bor 473. (bi, O).
Microchloa indica (Linn, f)

P. Beauv. Bor 473. (b, bi, o).
Oropetium thomaeum (Linn, f) Trin.
Bor 474. (B, bi).

Oropetium villosulum Stapf ex Bor.
Bor 474. (O).

Schoenefeldia gracilis Kunth.

Bor 474. (B, bi).

Tribe: Danthonieae

Danthonia cachemyriana Jaub. et Bor 478. (B).

Spach. Bor 478. (B). Eriachne pallescens R. Br.

Danthonia jacquemontii Bor. Bor 479. (B).

Tribe: Eragrosteae

+ Acrachne racemosa (Heyne) Ohwi.

Bor 487. (B, bi).

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.)

P. Beauv. Bor 489. (b, bi, o).
Dactyloctenium sindicum Boiss.

Bor 489. (Bi).

Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.)

Stapf. Bor 491. (b, bi, o).

Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.

Bor 491. (B, bi).

Diplachne fusca (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Bor 492. (b, Bi).

Eleusine coracana (Linn.) Gaertn.

Bor 492. (B, Bi, o).

Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn.

Bor 493. (b, Bi, o).

Elytrophorus spicatus (Willd.)

A. Camus. Bor 493. (b, bi, o).
Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor.

Bor 494. (B, bi, O).
Eragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf)
Bor. Bor 494. (b, bi, O).
Eragrostiella leioptera (Stapf) Bor.
Bor 495. (b, O).

Eragrostiella nardoides (Trin.) Bor.
Bor 495. (bi).

GRASSES OF BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

769

Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo-
Lutati. Bor 503. (b, bi, O).
Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.) R. Br.

Bor 506. (Bi).

Eragrostis ciliata (Roxb.) Nees.

Bor 506. (bi, o).

Eragrostis coarctata Stapf.

Bor 507. (b, bi, o).

Eragrostis diarrhena (Schult.)

Steud. Bor 507. (b, bi, o).
Eragrostis diplachnoides Steud.

Bor 508. (b, bi, o).

Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud.

Bor 508. (b, bi, o).

Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin.

Bor 509. (b, bi, O).

Eragrostis nigra Nees. ex Steud.

Bor 511. (B).

Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex
Steud. Bor 511. (b, bi, o).
Eragrostis pilosa (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Bor 512. (b, Bi, O).

Eragrostis poaeoides P. Beauv.

Bor 512. (B, Bi).

* Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees.
Bor 513. (b, o).

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv.
ex Roem. et Schult. var. tenella.
Bor 514. (b, bi, o).

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv.
ex Roem. et Schult. var. insularis

Tribe :

Dactylis glomerata Linn. Bor 530.
(B).

Festuca cumminsii Stapf. Bor 538.
(B).

Festuca leptopogon Stapf. Bor 538.
(B).

Festuca ovina Linn. Bor 539. (B).
Festuca polycolea Stapf. Bor 540.
(B).

Festuca rubra Linn. Bor 540. (B).
Festuca undata Stapf. Bor 542. (B).
Festuca valesiaca Schleich. ex Gaud.
Bor 542. (B).

Lolium multiflorum Lam. Bor 545.
(B).

Lolium perenne Linn. Bor 545.

C. E. Hubb. Bor 514. (B).
Eragrostis tenuifolia (A. Rich.)
Hochst. ex Steud. Bor 514.

(B, bi, O).

Eragrostis tremula Hochst, ex Steud.

Bor 514. (b, bi, o).

Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees
ex Steud. Bor 515. (b, bi, o).
Eragrostis viscosa Trin. Bor 515.

(B, BI).

Eragrostis zeylanica Nees et Mey.

Bor 515. (B, bi).

Leptochloa chinensis (Linn.) Nees.

Bor 516. (b, bi, O).

Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi.

Bor 517. (b, bi, o).

Myriostachya wightiana (Nees ex
Steud.) Hook. f. var. wightiana.
Bor 518. (B).

Neyraudia reynaudiana (Kunth)
Keng ex Hitchc. Bor 518. (b, Bi).
Tripogon bromoides Roem. et
Schult. Bor 521. (Bi, O).
Tripogon capillatus Jaub. et Spach.

Bor 521. (bi, O).

Tripogon filiformis Nees ex Steud.

Bor 521. (B).

Tripogon jacquemontii Stapf.

Bor 522. (Bi, O).

Tripogon roxburghianus (Steud.)
Bhide. Bor 524. (O).

Festuceae

(B, Bi).

Lolium temulentum Linn. Bor 546.
(Bi).

Poa alpina Linn. Bor 555. (B).
Poa annua Linn. Bor 555. (B).

Poa khasiana Stapf. Bor 557. (B).
Poa ludens Stewart. Bor 558. (B).
Poa nemoralis Linn. Bor 558. (B).
Poa pagophila Bor. Bor 558. (B).
Poa pratensis Linn. Bor 559. (B).
Poa sikkimensis Bor. Bor 560. (B).
Poa stewartiana Bor. Bor 561. (B).
Poa supina Schrad. Bor 561. (B).
Poa tibetica Munro ex Stapf.

Bor 561. (B).

Poa trivialis Linn. Bor 561. (B).

Tribe : Garnotieae

Garnotia stricta Brongn. Bor 569.
(b, bi, O).

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 72(3)

Tribe: Glycerieae

Glyceria tonglensis C. B. Clarke.
Bor 571. (b).

Tribe :

Coelachne simpliciuscula (Wight et
Arn.) Munro ex Benth. Bor 576.
(b, bi, O).

Isachne albens Trin. Bor 579.

(b, Bi, O).

Isachne dispar Trin. Bor 580. (Bi, O).
Isachne elegans Dalzell ex Hook. f.
Bor 580. (Bi, O).

ISACHNEAE

Isachne globosa (Thunb.) O. Ktze.
Bor 580. (B, bi).

Isachne himalaica Hook. f. Bor 581.
(B).

Isachne miliacea Roth. Bor 582.

(b, BI).

Isachne sikkimensis Bor. Bor 582.

Tribe: Oryzeae

Hygroryza aristata (Petz.) Nees ex
Wight et Arn. Bor 597. (b, bi).
Leersia hexandra Swartz. Bor 599.

(b, Bi, o).

Oryza coarctata Roxb. Bor 604. (b).
Oryza jeyporensis Govinda. et
Krishna. Bor 606. (O).

Tribe:

Perot is hordeiformis Nees apud
Hook, et Arn. Bor 611. (b).

Tribe :

Phalaris arundinacea Linn. Bor 615.
(B).

Tribe :

Oryza meyeriana (Zoll. et Mor. ex
Steud.) Baill. Bor 604. (b, bi, O).
Oryza minuta J. S. Presl ex
C. B. Presl. Bor 605. (B, bi).
Oryza rufipogon Griff. Bor 605. (b).
Oryza sativa Linn. Bor 605.

(b, Bi, o).

Perotideae

Perotis indica (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Bor 611. (b, bi, o).

Phalarideae

Phalaris minor Retz. Bor 616.

Sporoboleae

Crypsis schoenoides (Linn.) Lamk.
Bor 622. (bi).

Sporobolus coromandelianus (Retz.)

Kunth. Bor 627. (B, Bi).
Sporobolus diander (Retz.) Beauv.

Bor 629. (b, bi, o).

Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton.
Bor 630. (b, bi).

Sporobolus piliferus (Trin.) Kunth.

Bor 632. (B, Bi, O).

Sporobolus tetragonus Br. Bor 633.

(BI).

Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth.

Bor 633. (b, Bi, O).

Sporobolus virginicus (Linn.) Kunth.
Bor 634. (b).

Sporobolus wallichii Munro ex
Trin. Bor 634. (bi).

Tribe :

Oryzopsis aequiglumis Duthie.

Bor 639. (B).

Stipa mongholica Turcz. ex Trin.

Bor 645. (B).

Stipeae

Stipa purpurea Griseb. Bor 645. (B).
Stipa roylei (Nees) Mez. Bor 646.
(B).

GRASSES OF BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

111

Tribe: Thysanolaeneae

Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.)
O. Ktze. Bor 650. (b, bi, o).

Tribe:

Agropyron canaliculatum Nevski.

Bor 659. (B).

Agropyron semicostatum Nees ex
Steud. Bor 665. (B).

Agropyron thoroldianum Oliver.

Bor 667. (B).

Tribe :

Tragus biflorus Schult. Bor 682.

(b, Bi, O).

Triticeae

Elymus dasystachys Trin. Bor 669.

(B) .

Elymus nutans Griseb. Bor 670. (B).
Hordeum vulgare Linn. Bor 677. (C).
Triticum aestivum Linn. Bor 679.

(C) .

ZOYSIEAE

Zoysia matrella (Linn.) Merr.

Bor 684. (b, o).

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

We are grateful to the Director and Joint Director, Botanical Sur-
vey of India for facilities in these studies. Our thanks are due to the
Curators of the various herbaria mentioned in the text for allowing the
use of their collections. The officers and staff of the Forest Department,
and Social Welfare Department have greatly helped us in field work.

References

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(1971b) : Panicum

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Banerjee, S. P. & Banerjee, R. N.
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(1960): Grasses of Bur-
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Bressers, J. (1951) : The Botany
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Chaudhuri, A. B. (1959a): Gras-
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(1959b): A note

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(1960a): Principal

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(1960b): Common

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(1965): Grasses

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Paddy field weeds of Midnapur Dist.
Indian Agriculturist 7:147-165.

Datta, S. C. & Majumdar, N. C.
(1966) : Flora of Calcutta and vicinity.
Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 20: 16-120.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1934): Gram-
ineae in Gamble’s Flora of the Presi-
dency of Madras, Pt. 10. London.

Haines, H. H. (1925): The Botany
of Bihar and Orissa. 2. London.

Hara, Hiroshi (1966): The flora
of eastern Himalayas. Univ. of Tokyo,
Japan.

Hooker, J. D. (1896): Flora of

British India. 7. London.

Jain, S. K. (1967a) : The genus

Cynodon Rich, ex Pers. in India. Bull,
bot. Surv. India 9:134-151.

(1967b): Vanaspati Kosh.

Delhi.

Jain, S. K. & Banerjee, D. K.
(1967) : Notes on Indian grasses. VI.
The identity and distribution of certain
species. Sc. Cult. 55:117-119.

Jain, S. K. & Pal, D. C. (1968) :
First record of the genus Polytrias
Hackel (Poaceae) in India, ibid. 34:
361-362.

Kanodia, K. C. & Mallick, K. C.
(1966) : New plant records and critical
notes on some plants from S. Bihar.
lnd. For. 92: 707-708.

Majumdar, R. B. (1956): Studies
on the grasses of 24-Parganas. Bull.

bot. Soc. Bengal 79:1-114.

Mallick, K. C. (1966): A contri-
bution to flora of Purulia Dist., West
Bengal. Bull. bot. Surv. India 5:45-59.

Matthew, K. M. (1966): A preli-
minary list of plants from Kurseong.
ibid. 5:158-168.

Mooney, H. F. (1950) : Supplement
to the Botany of Bihar and Orissa.
Ranchi.

Mukherjee, S. K. (1956) : Some
new records of plants from the Par-
asnath hills. J. lnd. bot. Soc. 35: 245-
247.

Pal, D.C. & Banerjee, D.K. (1970) :
Instances of malformed spikelets in
Panicum Linn. (Poaceae) in India.
Ind. For. 96: 937.

Panigrahi, G. (1966): A botanical
tour in the Rajmahal hills of Bihar.
Bull. bot. Surv. India 5:1-15.

Panigrahi, G., Chowdhury, S.,
Raju, D. C. S. & Deka, G. K. (1964) :
A contribution to the botany of Ori-
ssa. ibid. 6: 237-266.

Paul, A. K. & Bhattacharya, R. K.
(1959) : Paddy field weed flora of the
State Agricultural farm, Chinsurah,
West Bengal. J. lnd. bot. Soc. 55:249-
253.

Paul, S. R. (1967) : Studies on the
grasses of Bhagalpur district (Bihar).
Ind. For. 93: 169-179.

Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants.
2. Calcutta.

Raizada, M. B. (1949) : Some in-
teresting plants from Orissa. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 667-680.

(1959): Name chan-
ges in common Indian grasses. Ind.
For. 55:473-509.

Raizada, M. B., Bharadwaja, R. C.
& Jain, S. K. (1961) : Grasses of the
Upper Gangetic Plain. Panicoideae
Pt. I. (Maydeae & Andropogoneae) .
Indian For. Rec. (New Series). Bot.

4 (1957) : 171-277.

Raizada, M. B. & Jain, S. K. (1965) :
Grasses of the Upper Gangetic Plain
— Panicoideae. Pt. II (Paniceae). ibid.

5 (1964): 151-226.

(1966):

Grasses of the Upper Gangetic Plain

GRASSES OF BIHAR, ORISSA AND WEST BENGAL

773

— Pooideae. Ind. For. 92:637-642.

Raju, D. C. S. (1964): Botanical

observations in the Balimela Project
area, Orissa. Bull. bot. Surv. India. 6:
287-294.

Sanyal, A. (1957): Additional notes
on the botany of Bihar and Orissa by
H. H. Haines and its supplement by
Dr. H. F. Mooney. Ind. For. 83: 230-
235.

Singh, J. S. & Verma, D. M.
(1964): A contribution to the Forest-
botany of the Angul division in Orissa
State. /. Sci. Res. Banaras Hindu Univ.
14: 223-232.

Srivastava, J. G. (1954) : Some re-
cently introduced or newly recorded
plants from Patna District. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 52:6 59-660.

(1955): A bota-
nical tour to Parasnath hills, Bihar.
J. Ind. bot. Soc. 34: 196.

(1956a): The

vegetation of Patna district (Bihar),
ibid. 35 : 391-401.

(1956b) : On the

recent introductions in the flora of
Purnea (Bihar), ibid. 55:308-322.

(1959): Recent

trends in the flora of the Bihar State,
ibid. 38: 186-194.

Thothathri, K., Shetty, B. V. &
Hazra, P. K. (1966): A contribution
to the flora of Udaipur forests in
Champaram district, North Bihar. Bull,
bot. Surv. India 8: 133-141.

Wealth of India (1962): Wealth
of India — Raw materials. Pt. 6., 1962;
7, 1966; 8, 1969. New Delhi.

New Descriptions

Reptilia from Bhutan with
description of a new species
of Calotes Rafinesque1

S. Biswas

Zoological Survey of India , Calcutta

There is little information on the Reptilian fauna of Bhutan because
that country seldom, if ever, permitted Zoological Collection to be
made there. Recently, however, this policy was changed and the Zoolo-
gical Survey of India was allowed to undertake faunistic survey in
Bhutan, While collecting bird. Dr. B. Biswas obtained five examples
of reptiles during 1966 and 1967. The collection though small, is in
teresting indeed, inasmuch as it had a new species of the genus Calotes.

Family: Agamidae

Japalura variegata Gray

1853. Japalura variegata Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) xii, p. 388.

Material : 1 ex., Batase (c. 1500 m), Central Bhutan, 19 Nov. 1967.

Remarks: The nuchal crest low, two folds of skin run by the sides
of nuchal and dorsal crest; a strong oblique fold in front of the shoulder
extending nearer throat. White stripes along the sides of neck narrow
and faint; upper lip white marked with brown specks; light and dark
faint annuli on tail; lower part of body white with brown bloches, pro-
minent on thigh and legs. Series of chevron shaped stripes on the back
corresponding the enlarged scales absent.

Measurement: Snout to vent 33 mm, tail 83 mm.

Calotes versicolor (Daudin)

1802. Agama versicolor Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept. iii, p. 395, pi. xlix.

Material : 1 ex. Samdrup Jongkhar (c. 300 m), East Bhutan; 14 May, 1966.

Measurement: Length — snout to vent 93 mm, tail 243 mm.

1 Accepted May 1973.

REPTILES FROM BHUTAN

775

Calotes fohutanensis sp. nov.

Material : Holotype: Zoological Survey of India, Reg. No. 22480; Janjur-
mane (c. 1525 m), Central Bhutan; collected by B. Biswas; 7 Dec., 1967; De-
posited in Zoological Survey of India.

Description : Length of head just less than one and half of its
breadth; snout a little longer than the orbit; fore-head little concave;
cheeks slightly swollen, upper optic region more convex and parietal
region more or less straight when compared with Calotes versicolor.
Upper head-scales unequal, not keeled but feebly rugosed; two well
separated spines on each side of the back of the head above tympanum;
canthus rostralis prominent and sharp; superciliary edge less sharp than
C. versicolor and eye bulges out of the edge; breadth between two an-
terior eye corners more than the eye corner to the end of the snout,
thus length of snout being short gives the appearance of snub-nosed
or short snouted; 12 upper and 11 lower labials; diameter or tympa-
num less than half of the orbit; body compressed; dorsal scales keeled,
roundly pointed backwards and upwards, almost equal to or slightly
larger than the ventral scales which are strongly keeled and mucronate,
50 scales round the middle of body; no gular pouch but the throat in-
flatable, with some smaller and narrower scales in the middle than that
of its surrounding; no fold or groove in front of the shoulder; nuchal
and dorsal crests composed of angularly pointed scales (not lanciform
or falciform) and decreasing gradually from behind neck towards pos-
terior part of body; a row of scales composed of eight erect scales on
sides of neck; limbs moderate, third and fourth fingers nearly equal,
fourth toe longer than third.

Coloration in spirit : White above with black, transverse, wavy or
variegated patches on the back and sides of body, dorsally these black
patches together give the appearance of wavy lines. Four lines or stripes
from sides of head on or below neck, 1st from sides of temporal region
meet on the neck like V, 2nd from above tympanum on neck, 3rd from
just below eye through tympanum on the side of neck, 4th from upper
jaw to the arm. From lower jaw four lines run on the throat and chin.
Ventral side white with longitudinal faint blackish lines, but one line
along the middle of ventral side up to base of tail more prominent,
then continues under the tail being interrupted at regular intervals.

Remarks'. In respect of certain characters such as the scales on the
sides of body pointing backward and upward and the size of the head,
this species may be placed in the Calotes versicolor group of species.
It appears close to C. versicolor (Daudin) in having no fold or pit in
front of the shoulder and in the presence of two separated spines above
the tympanum. Another species of the versicolor group, C. maria Gray
differs from C. bhutanensis in having no spine above tympanum and

776 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

possessing two parallel rows of compressed scales above tympanum.
The new species differs from C. versicolor and other species of the
group in having a row of erect scales on the sides of the neck, short
snout, less swollen cheecks, convex optic region and the characteristic
coloration.

A comparative table of measurements of body parts of C. bhutanen-
sis and 7 specimens of C. versicolor from Darjeeling district in Eastern
Himalaya is given here (Table 1). Further, a key differentiating the new
species from other two related species is given below:

Table 1

Measurements
of C.

bhutanensis

Measurements of 7
C. versicolor speci-
mens from the E.
Himalaya

Holotype

15640, 15219, 15222,

Reg. Nos.

22480

17794, 4585, 21038
(2 exs.)

Length of body (tip of the snout to

61

50-87

vent

(av. 67.7)

Length of tail (vent to tip)

135

115-235
(av. 179.8)

Head length (tip of the snout to

14.6

12-25

tympanum)

(av. 18.6)

Head breadth of temporal region

10

9-16

(av. 11.5)

Diameters of eye

4

3-5
(av. 4)

Diameters of tympanum

2

2-4

(av. 2.7)

Length of fore limb

31

25-45
(av. 34)

Length of hind limb

47

42-74
(av. 57.8)

Snout to arm

25

16-42
(av. 30.4)

Axilla to groin

30

24-52
(av. 37.4)

Distance between two anterior cor-

7.6

5.5-10

ners of eyes

(av. 7.4)

Distance between tip of snout to

5.2

5-10

anterior corner of eye

(av. 7)

Body length : tail

Ant. corners of eyes : distance bet-

Less

More

ween anterior eye corner to snout

Longer

Almost equal

Head length: head breadth

Less

More

REPTILES FROM BHUTAN

111

Key for the idetification of Calotes bhutancnsis and its allied species:

II. Scales on the sides of the body pointing backward and upward.

(a) Two separated spines above the tympanum.

1 . No erect scale row by the side of the neck, snout long, colour

brown C. versicolor

2. One erect scale row by the sides of the neck, short snout, black

variegated patches on the body C. bhutanensis

(b) No spine above tympanum, two parallel rows of compressed scales

above tympanum, colour green C. maria

Family Colubridae
Amphiesma stolatus (Linnaeus)

1758. Coluber stolatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. 10th ed., p. 219.

Material : 1 ex., Samdrup Jongkhar (300 m), East Bhutan; 15 May, 1966.

Remarks : Body deep brownish, black cross bars intersected by two
dorsolateral whitish stripes, at their point of intersection white dots pro-
minent, in posterior part of body these stripes more prominent and
cross bars gradually fade being confined as specks of black. Three bars
from eye to upper jaw, one in front eye another obliquely behind and
3rd from lower edge of eye to the jaw.

Measurement and count : Length snout to vent 702 mm, tail 122
mm; ventral -152, subcaudal - 56.

Family Elapidae
Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor)

1836. Hamadryas hannah Cantor, Asiat. Research, xix, p. 187, pis. 10-11.

Material : 1 ex., Rongtong (c. 2042 m), Manas Valley, East Bhutan; 2 April
1966.

Remarks'. The colour scheme of the present specimen generally
conforms to that of the adult specimens, but some additional observa-
tions on it may be mentioned here:

44 yellowish bars edged with black present on the body, anterior
body scales brown with black restricted to the upper and anterior bor-
der of the scales; on the posterior part of the body and tail black pre-
dominates and gives a general blackish body colour.

Measurement and count : Length snout to vent 25 cm, tail 41 cm;
ventral - 234, subcaudal - 90.

A new species of Coreidae
(Heteroptera) from Bombay,

India1

Mohan Dhotre
(With two plates)

Introduction

The family Coreidae (Heteroptera), includes a most remarkable group
of insects that have a dry leaf-like appearance and have their prono-
tum and abdomen expanded and foliacious with spinose margins.

Three species, 2Craspedum indicum West. (= Tongorma indicum )
collector Boys, locality India; C. camphelli Dist. (- T . campbelli) and
C. butleri Dist. (= T. butleri) from Chikkaballapura, Karnataka, are
known from India. One species C. burmanicum Dist. (- T. burmani-
cum), has been described from Burma (Upper Burma, Mandalay). ’

In April 1974, a specimen of Tongorma was obtained from the
forest of the Borivli National Park which differs significantly from all
other species so far described and is treated here as new.

Tongorma griphus sp. nov.

Type ? , B.N.H.S. Collection Reg. No. Tys. 281

Collected at Borivli National Park, Bombay City, Maharashtra,

in April 1974.

Collector'. B.N.H.S. field party.

DESCRIPTION

Based on a single female specimen obtained.

1 Accepted March 1975.

2 According to Dr. W. R. Dolling (personal communication), “The genus
Craspedum Amyot and Serviile (type-species Phyllomorpha Latreille) is pre-
occupied by Craspedum Rambur (type-species laciniatum Villers). Kirkaldy
(1900) in Entomologist 33: 242 proposed Tongorma (type-species Phyllom-
orpha) as a replacement name for Amyot and Serville’s genus. All three of
Distant’s species and indicum (Westwood) belong therefore to Tongorma
Kirkaldy along with the African species.”

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) Plate I

Dhotre: New species of Coreidae

Tongorma griphus sp. nov.
Dorsal view.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sqc. 72(3)
Dhotre: New species of Coreidae

Plate

Tongorma griphus sp. nov.
Ventral view.

NEW SPECIES OF COREIDAE

779

Head

Antennae. Only basal two joints remain. Basal joint longer than
the second and covered with thick long curved spines. Antennae situat-
ed at the level of eyes.

Dorsal, and especially anterior side of the head, covered with long
spines. Head as long as basal antennal segment. Ocellii two in number.

Rostrum with first joint extending considerably behind the eyes;
second joint longer that the third. Apex of the rostrum reaching and
slightly extending behind the posterior coxae. Eyes reddish.

Thorax. Pronotum well expanded, ampliated laterally with anterior
and posterior angles. Anterior angle reaching base of the antenna. Pos-
terior margin sinuate. Entire margin and anterior-dorsal and posterior-
dorsal surfaces covered with long spines. Small spines are intermingled
with long marginal ones. Pronotum slightly darker than abdomen.

Abdomen. Abdomen rounded with six abdominal segmental lobes.
Fourth and fifth lobes well expanded, laterally ampliated, producing
angles. Fourth lobe partially upturned. Posterior margin of the sixth
lobe truncated. First lobe smallest, rounded. Margin of all lobes with
long spines, small spines intermingled with long ones. Spines of first
and second lobes black in colour.

A column of very small spines on either side of the central line of
abdomen. Abdominal spiracles black. Abdomen with areas of black
dots. Veins of the expanded pronotum and abdominal lobes are very
distinct forming a network.

Legs : Femur, with long curved spines; tarsi three jointed. Tibae
and tarsi ochraceous.

Wings : Transparent.

Colour : Fulvescent, with areas of black dots.

Length : 7.5 mm.

Habits : The specimen was obtained from among dried vegetation
in a tropical moist deciduous forest. The form of the insect was singu-
larly effective as camouflauge and the insect would not have been no-
ticed if it had not moved. The resemblance to the dried leaves amongst
which it was found was most striking. No information is available on
the habits of Oriental species. According to Pesson (1959) the female
of an European species attaches her eggs to the back of the male who
carries them until they hatch.

Discussion :

Distant (1902), listed, in the Fauna of British India, the species
Craspedum indicum West. (= Tongorma indicum) with six abdominal
lobes. Subsequently, he (1908; 1918) described three more species of
Craspedum (= Tongorma) all having four abdominal lobes. Accord-

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

ing to Dr. W. R. Dolling (personal communication). Distant in his
description of the three species overlooked, the first lobe and failed to
observe that the last two lobes are separate. Dr. Dolling has examined
Distant’s types and all have six lobes.

Although, the species Tongorma griphus closely reseipbles Tong-
orma indicum (West), it can be distinguished from the latter by the
veins on the expanded pronotum and abdominal segmental lobes which
are very distinct and can be traced up to their tips. The new species
does stand somewhat apart from all other species of the genus (includ-
ing indicum) in having the disc of the pronotum sharply demarcated
from the lobes.

Tongorma griphus sp. nov. is distinguished from all other Indian
species by:

(a) a sharply demarcated pronotal disc.

(b) more angulate pronotal and abdominal lobes.

(c) distinct veins on the pronotal and abdominal lobes.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply indebted to Dr. W. R. Dolling, British Museum, for
critically examining the manuscript and for his comments and permis-
sion to quote therefrom.

I am grateful to Mr. Ronald Crombie, U.S. National Museum for
the xerox copy of Amyot and Serville’s description of genus Craspedum
and to Miss Ira Reuben for the translation from French of the generic
description.

I am grateful to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, for having given me every facility and advice.

References

Amyot, C. J. B. & Serville, Audi-
net (1843): Histoire Naturelle Des
Insectes. Hemipteres.

Distant, W. L. (1902): The Fauna
of British India, Rhynchota, Volume
I.

of British India, Rhynchota, Vol. IV.

(1918): The Fauna

of British India, Rhynchota, Vol. VII.

Pesson, Paul (1959): The World
of Insects. (English translation).
George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. Lon-
don.

(1908): The Fauna

A new nasute termite from South
India (Isoptera: Termitidae:
Nasutitermitinae)1

M. L. Thakur

Forest Entomology Branch,

Forest Research Institute & Colleges, Dehra Dun
{With two plates)

While examining the unidentified termite collections from Tamil Nadu,
I came across a vial, containing several soldiers and workers of a new
species, which also proved to be a new genus {vide infra under
affinities).

Alstonitermes2 gen. nov.

Type-species: Alstonitermes flavescens sp. nov.

(a) Diagnostic characters :

1 — imago: Unknown.

2. soldier:

General: Head-capsule flavescent; rostrum pale reddish brown, dar-
ker basally.

Head: Head-capsule ampulaceous; distinctly wider than long (with-
out rostrum); not constricted behind the antennae; sparsely pilose with
small hairs and two long hairs one on either side on middle of head-
capsule; rostrum short, conical, with a few hairs at the tip. Antennae:
With 13-segments. Mandibles: Vestigial; outer margins without spinous
processes. Postmentum: Club shaped; strongly convex laterally.

Thorax: Pronotum: Small, saddle shaped and sparsely hairy. Meso-
notum: Narrower than pronotum. Metanotum: Broader than prono-
tum. Legs: Unusually elongated, femora slender; tibial spurs 2:2:2;
tarsi 4-segmented.

Abdomen: Subglobular. Cerci 2-segmented.

3. worker:

General: Head-capsule dark rusty brown, frons paler; antennae

1 Accepted April 1975.

2 Named after the host, genus Alstonia.

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

pale yellow, becoming yellowish distally; legs and abdomen whitish
yellow.

Head : Head-capsule subsquarish; wider than long; epicranial sut-
ure indistinct. Fontanelle Plate : Small, oval and submedially placed.
Antennae : With 14-segments. Clypeus : Postclypeus swollen; length
less than half its width. Anteclypeus trapezoid, translucent. Mandibles:
Left mandible with an apical, two marginal teeth and a basal projection;
apical subequal to 1st marginal tooth; angle between the apical and the
1st marginal very acute (c. 50°); 1st marginal large and subtriangular;
2nd marginal small, triangular and widely separated from the 1st by a
large wide sinuate border; basal projection large and broadly rounded.
Right mandible also with an apical, two marginal teeth and a molar
plate; apical acute, subequal to 1st marginal; 1st marginal triangular,
with subequal anterior and posterior borders; 2nd marginal small, sub-
triangular; angle between the 1st and 2nd marginals deeply acute; its
posterior border straight and twice its anterior border; molar plate with
inner edge weakly concave, bifurcated.

Thorax : Pronotum: Saddle shaped; anterior lobe strongly upturn-
ed; anterior margin weakly to deeply notched in the middle. Mesono-
tum : and Metanotum : Broader than pronotum. Legs: Long, slender;
tibial spurs 2:2:2; tarsi 4-segmented.

Abdomen: Subglobular. Cerci 2-segmented.

(b) Affinities:

The study of worker mandibles of this new genus leaves no doubt
about its phylogenetic placement in the paracornitermes branch of the
sub-family Nasutitermitinae, in which the imago-worker mandibles are
characterised by (i) the posterior margin of the 1st marginal tooth of
left mandible being undulating; (ii) the apical tooth being not much
enlarged, without atrophy, degeneration or ultimate disappearance of
any marginal tooth and (iii) the left mandibular index being generally
low.

In these characters, it comes close to genus Emersonitermes Mathur
et Sen-Sarma, however it differs from it as follows:

Soldier: (i) Head-capsule ampule shaped, distinctly broader than
long (vs. pear shaped, distinctly longer than broad), (ii) Antennae 13-
segmented (vs. 14-segmented). (iii) Rostrum short and conical (vs.
long and awl shaped; rostrum — head index 0.52-0.60 vs. 0.86-0.89).

Worker: (i) Left mandibular index is distinctly lower (0.50 vs.
0.57). (ii) The angle between the 1st and 2nd marginals of right man-
dible distinctly acute (vs. obtuse in Emersonitermes): 2nd marginal
more prominent and triangular; its posterior border straight, (iii) An-
tennae 14-segmented (vs. 13 -segmented) and (iv) postclypeus less than
half its width (vs. half its width).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)
Thakur: Alstonitermes gen. nov.

Plate I

Alstonitermes flavescens sp. nov.

Caste : Soldier, (a) Head, Dorsal view; ( b ) Head, side view; (c) Left mandible;

( d ) Right mandible; (e) Left antenna; (/) Postmentum.
acl. — anteclypeus; ant. — antenna; Ir. — labrum; It. — left; md. — mandibles; pmt. —

postmentum; rt. — right.

0.5 mm.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)

Plate II

PLATE 2

Alstonitermes flavescens sp. nov.

Caste: Worker, (a) Head, dorsal view; ( b ) Head, side view; (c) Left mandi-
ble; ( d ) Right mandible; (e) Right antenna; (/) Pronotum, dorsal view.
acl- — anteclypeus; ant. — antenna; ap. — apical tooth of mandible; ft. — fontanelle;
lr. — labrum; It. — left; md. — mandibles; ml-m2. — lst-2nd marginal tooth of
dible; m.pl. — molar plate; pci. — pcstclypeus; rt. — right.

man

NEW NASVTE TERMITE FROM SOUTH INDIA

783

Alstonitermes flavescens sp. nov.

(a) Material:

One vial (M 15/ ll-xii-70), with several soldiers and workers from
Kareeyan Shola forest. Top Slip, South Coimbatore Forest Division,
Tamil Nadu, coll. M. L. Thakur, 1 l.xii. 1970. Ex. Alstonia scholaris.

(b) Description :

1 — imago: Unknown.

2. soldier: (Plate 1; Table 1).

General: Head-capsule creamy yellow, with a large elliptical whitish
yellow portion near the posterior end of head-capsule; frons and anter-
ior margin of pronotum dark rusty brown; rostrum reddish brown,
slightly paler apically but darker basally; antennae yellowish brown,
paler than rostrum but darker than head-capsule; rest of the body-
parts whitish yellow; tibia darker than femora. Head-capsule and pro-
notum with scattered short hairs, body thickly pilose with long and
short hairs.

Head'. Head-capsule ampule shaped, distinctly wider than long
(without rostrum); greatly swollen in the posterior half, gradually slop-
ing infront; sides bulged out, not constricted behind the antennae; pos-
terior margin depressed, almost straight in the middle. Rostrum'. Short,
conical, broader at base; with long hairs at tip. Fontanelle : Fontanelle
gland and fontanelle tube indistinct. Antennae : Not markedly elongat-
ed; 13-segmented, pilose, pilosity increasing distally; segment 2 shorter
than 3 but longer than 4; 3 almost twice as long as 4; 4th shortest; 5
longer than 6; 6-12 club shaped, distal segments becoming shorter; last
ovate, subequal to penultimate. Clypeus: Postclypeus not clearly de-
marcated. Anteclypeus sugtrapezoid and whitish. Labrum : Dome shap-
ed; broader than long, apilose. Mandibles : Vestigial, no spinous pro-
cesses on outer margins; molar area brownish, substraight.

Thorax : Pronotum: Saddle shaped, much narrower than head-
width (head — pronotum width index 0.38-0.46); anterior lobe weakly
upturned; anterior margin semicircular, with an imperceptable median
depression; posterior margin substraight. Mesonotum: Narrower than
pronotum; posterior margin substraight. Metanotum: Broader than
pronotum; posterior margin weakly convex. Legs: Unusually long;
tibial spurs 2:2:2; tarsi 4-segmented.

Abdomen: Subglobular, densely covered with short hairs. Cerci 2-
segmented; length c. 0.08 mm.

3. worker: (Plate 2; Table 2).

General: Head-capsule dark rusty brown, frons paler; labrum brow-
nish; postclypeus and antennae pale yellow, becoming yellowish dist-
ally; legs and abdomen whitish yellow. Head-capsule sparsely, body
densely hairy. Total body-length c . 4.00-4.50 mm.

11

784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Table J

Body-measurements (in mm) and indices of 10 soldiers of Alstonitermes

flavescens sp. nov.

Body-parts

Range

Mean

Holotype

J

I -General
Total body-length c.

4.00-4.50

4.30

4.40

2.

II -Head

Head-length with rostrum

1.75-1.88

1.83

1.88

3.

Head-length without rostrum

1.15-1.20

1.17

1.20

4.

Length of rostrum

0.60-0.70

0.67

0.68

5.

Maximum width of head

1.20-1.25

1.23

1.25

6.

Height of head

0.75-0.85

0.79

0.80

7.

Head-index I. (width/ length of head)

1.01-1.08

1.04

1.04

8.

Head-index II. (height/width of head)

0.60-0.68

0.64

0.64

9.

Head-index III. (height /length of head)

0.63-0.70

0.68

0.66

10.

Rostrum-head index

0.52-0.60

0.57

0.57

11.

III -Thorax
Length of pronotum

0.20-0.25

0.24

0.25

12.

Maximum width of pronotum

0.48-0.55

0.54

0.48

13.

Fronotum-head width index

0.38-0.46

0.43

0.38

14.

Pronotum index

0.37-0.52

0.43

0.52

Head : Head-capsule subsquarish, broader than long; sides sub-
parallel, weakly converging posteriorly to roundish posterior margin;
frons weakly sloping infront; epicranial suture indistinct. Fontanelle
Plate : Small, oval and submedially placed. Antennae : With 14-seg-
ments; segment 2 longer than 3; 3 longer than 4; 4 shortest; 5 shorter
than 6; rest progressively increasing in length; last ovate, smaller than
penultimate. Clypeus: Posiclypeus swollen; length less than half its
width. Anteclypeus trapezoid, whitish and apilose. Labrum : Shoval
shaped; broader than long. Mandibles'. As in the genus.

Thorax : Pronotum : Saddle shaped; anterior lobe strongly upturn-
ed; anterior margin convex, with weak to deep median notch; posterior
margin substraight. Mesonotum : Broader than pronotum; posterior
margin with a median emargination. Metanotum : Broader than prono-
tum; posterior margin weakly convex. Legs : Long, slender; tibial spurs
2:2:2; tarsi 4-segmented.

Abdomen : Subglobular. Cerci 2-segmented; length c. 0.08 mm.

(c) type-specimens:

All the type-specimens from a single source as under “ Material ”
are deposited as follows:

Entomological Collection, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun
(If H India): 1

NEW NASVTE TERMITE FROM SOUTH INDIA

785

Table 2

Body-measurements (in mm) of 5 workers of Alstonitermes flavescens

SP. NOV.

Body-parts

Range

Mean

I -General

1.

Total body-length c.

4.00-4.50

4.25

II -Head

2.

Head-length to tip of labrum

1.25-1.55

1.39

3.

Head-length to lateral base of mandibles

0.85-1.20

0.98

4.

Maximum width of head

1.05-1.28

1.16

5.

Height of head

0.50-0.65

0.59

III -Thorax

6.

Length of pronotum

0.20-0.35

0.28

7.

Maximum width of pronotum

0.48-0.65

0.54

Holotype : One soldier, from Kareeyan Shola, Top Slip, South
Coimbatore Forest Division, Tamil Nadu, coll. M. L. Thakur, ll.xii.
1970.

Morphotype : One worker, from the holotype lot and with the same
data.

Paratypes and Paramorphotypes : Twenty-four soldiers and thirty
eight workers.

2. National Zoological Collection, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta.

One paratype soldier and two paramorphotype workers.

(d) type-locality:

India: Tamil Nadu : Kareeyan Shola Forest, Top Slip, South Coim-
batore Forest Division (76.40 E; 10.50 N).

Description of a new species of
Branchinella Sayce from
Sambhar Lake, India (Crustacea-
Branchiopoda-Anostraca)1

I. C. Baid2

Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Mosul,

Mosul, Iraq
{With five-text-figures )

Branchinella sambhariana n. sp. (Anostraca) from Sambhar lake,

India has been described. It differs from other species of this lake
in having a conspicuous outgrowth with a pointed tip, in having
4-7 branches of a frontal appendage which is smaller than the
second antenna, and in lacking a secondary branch on the lobe or
protuberance of apical joints.

• !

The present paper records and describes a new species of the genus
Branchinella found in the Sambhar lake in Rajasthan.

Branchinella sambhariana sp. nov.3

(Figs. 1, 2)

Male: Generally resembles Br. kugenumaensis Ishikawa, Br. ornata,
and Br. biswasi. The body is broad and thick. The cercopods are of
the same length as the last abdominal segment and telson. 1st Ant. are
longer than the basal segments of II Ant. II Ant. have short and thick
basal segments which are fused with the basal part of the frontal ap-
pendages. The inner distal margin of the basal segment of II Ant. gives
rise to a conspicuous serrated outgrowth with a pointed tip. The apical
segments are longitudinally striated and are without branches. The
frontal appendages are smaller than II Ant. Each appendage has 4-7
branches which have a rich armature of spines. The apex of each branch
is tipped with two spines (Figs. 1, 2).

II max. resemble those of generic type.

1 Accepted October 1973.

2 Present address : Dept, of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of
Benghazi, Benghazi, Libya.

3 Name after the locality, Sambhar lake.

BRANCHINELLA SAMBHARIANA SP. NOV.

787

Fig. 1. Second antenna with frontal appendages of Br. sambhariana (BJ-Basal

Segment; DJ — Distal Segment; FA — Frontal Appendage; L — Conspicuous out-
growth) .

Fig. 2. Frontal appendages of Br. sambhariana showing armature of spines of

branches.

Fig. 3. Male genital organs of Br. sambhariana showing protruded penes with a
pair of short median spines.

Fig. 4. Toracic appendage of Br. sambhariana showing praeepipodite sparsely

serrated.

Fig. 5. Ovisac of female Br. sambhariana.

788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

!

Legs have appearance characteristic of the genus. The exopodites
are quite long with their tips always reaching beyond the endopodite.
The praeepipodites are sparsely serrated and are without any notch
(Fig. 4).

Penes have no triangular laminae and are retractable under the sur-
face of the body. Their basal parts which have a pair of short spines
near the base, are usually protruded (Fig. 3).

Female: The shape of the trunk, abdomen and cercopods as in the
male. 1st Ant. as long as head. It is linguate and beset with a fair num-
ber of sensory hairs. Ovisac is short, reaching only slightly over 4th abdo-
minal segment and bifurcating into two small lobes at its distal end
(Fig. 5).

Size :

Male 12 to 22 mm in length.

Female 13 to 26 mm in length.

Types : Holotype (1 $ lcf ) in the Department of Zoology, University
of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India.

Paratypes (many specimens of both sexes) in the Department
of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India and 2 $ $
2cf c? in British Museum (Natural History), London.
Type-Locality : Sambhar lake, Gudha, Jaipur District, Rajasthan, In-
dia, collected by the author on 16th, September, 1957 and on
29th, September 1964.

Remarks :

Br. sambhariana resembles Br. ornata and Br. biswasi of this lake
and Br. kugenumaensis Ishikawa reported from East Asia (Ishikawa
1894; Ueno 1926; Hsu 1933; Shen 1933) and from India (Linder
1941). The position of this species in the key of identification (Linder
1941) is as follows:

IA Basal joints of II Ant. with a distal outgrowth set with branches or both.

a. Frontal appendages twice bifid ondogue

aa. Frontal appendages with three secondary branches on each primary

branch kugenumaensis, chaudenui

IAA Basal joints of II Ant. with a distal serrated outgrowth with a pointed tip

and without any branch or spine sambhariana

Branchinella sambhariana differs from other Branchinella species
of this lake in having a conspicuous outgrowth with a pointed tip.
4-7 branches of a frontal appendage which is smaller than the second
antenna and in lacking a secondary branch on the lobe or protuberance
of a apical joints (Table ).

B RANCHI NELLA SAMBHARIANA SP. NOV. 789

Table

Comparison of three species of the genus Branchinclla found in the

Sambhar lake

Br. ornata Br. biswasi Br. sambhariana

II Ant.

1 . Basal segments are
united at the base.

v

2. Finger shaped out-
growth at the base
of the apical segment.

Frontal appendage

1. Longer than II Ant.

2. 5-6 branches with
small finger like ven-
tral chitinous forma-
tions.

Thoracic appendage

1 . Endites 3-5 of the
appendages have 2,
2, 1 anterior setae
respectively except
the first pair which
has respectively 4, 5,
and 1 anterior setae.

2. Praeepipodites with
distinct notch about
midway along its
border.

Penis

1. It has a triangular
outgrowth or lamina
with spines on the
distal part.

1 . Basal segments are
united at the base.

2. Finger shaped out-
growth at the base
of the apical seg-
ment.

1 . Longer than II Ant.

2. 4-8 branches irregu-
larly arranged on
each side with scat-
tered spicules more
profuse towards the
apex.

1 . Endites 3-5 of all
appendages have 2,
2, 1 anterior setae
respectively.

2. Praeepipodites non-
serrated without any
notch.

1 . It has a triangular
lamina with a small
wart-shaped armature
of spines.

1 . Basal segments are
fused at the base
with the basal part
of the frontal ap-
pendages.

2 . Conspicuous serrated
outgrowth with a
pointed tip projects
from the inner distal
margin of the basal
segment.

1. Smaller than II Ant.

2. 4-7 branches which
have a rich armature
of spines. The apex
of each appendage is
tipped with two
spines.

1 . Endites 3-5 of all ap-
pendages have 2, 2,

1 anterior setae res-
pectively.

2. Praeepipodites spar-
sely serrated without
any notch.

1 . Basal part usually
protruded; with a
pair of short spines
near the base.

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

The genus Branchinella has worldwide distribution and its various
species are found in fresh as well as in salt water lakes. Nineteen species
of Branchinella are confined to Australia, one to the eastern and south-
ern parts of Asia (Br. kugenumaensis) , two to India ( Br . hiswasi, and
Br. sambhariana ), two to Africa (Br. chaudenui, and Br. ondongue)
and one to Europe and Africa north of Sahara (Br. spinosa).

I wish to record my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. J. P. Harding,
British Museum (Natural History), London and to Dr. F. Linder,
Uppsala for examining the material and for their critical comments.

References

Hsu, F. (1933): The Anostraca of
Nanking and its vicinity. Contr. Biol.
Lab. Sc. Soc. China. 9: 9-15.

Linder, F. (1941): Contributions to
the morphology and the taxonomy of
the Branchiopoda- Anostraca. Zool.
Bidrag. Uppsala 20: 101-302.

Shen, C. J. (1933) : On two spe-
cies of Chinese Branchiopoda of the
family Chirocephalidae. Bull, of the
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4:1-18.

Ueno, M. (1926): The fresh water
Branchiopod of Japan. 7. Mem. Coll.
Sci. Imp. Univ., B, 2:5-45.

A new species of spider of the
genus Ctenus (Family: Ctenidae)
from Meghalaya, India1

B. K. Tikader

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Poona 411005
{With five text-figures)

The spiders of the family Ctenidae were not known from India before
1973. Recently Tikader reported this genus for the first time from Anda-
man Islands. While examining the spider collection from Meghalaya,
India I came across a new species of the genus Ctenus which is describ-
ed here. This family and the genus are being recorded here for the
second time from the Indian sub-continent.

The type specimen will in due course be deposited in the National
Zoological Collection, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Ctenus meghalayaensis sp. nov.

General : Cephalothorax and legs light reddish-brown, abdomen
brown. Total length 20.00 mm. Carapace 10.80 mm long, 9.00 mm
wide; abdomen 9.00 mm long, 7.00 mm wide.

Cephalothorax : Longer than wide, high and behind with a very steep
thoracic declivity as in text-figure 2, clothed with pubescence and few
spine-like hairs. Middle of cephalothorax provided with a fovea and a
longitudinal, broad light pale band, extending from ocular area to base
of cephalothorax. Eyes in three rows, the anterior lateral eyes being situ-
ated in front of the posterior median and posterior lateral eyes but
slightly closer to the posterior laterals than to the posterior medians as
in text-figures 1, 3. Anterior lateral eyes smaller than the anterior me-
dians. Sternum nearly oval, pointed behind, deep brown, clothed with
black hairs. Labium longer than wide, and head of maxillae provided
with prominent scopulae. Chelicera with three teeth as in text-figure 5.
Legs robust and strong, clothed with hairs and spines; tarsus provided
with two claws and prominent claw tuft. Metatarsi and tarsi of I and II
provided with five and three pairs of ventral spines respectively. Legs
formula 1423.

1 Accepted April 1975,

792

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Figs. 1-5. Ctenus meghalayaensis sp. nov.

1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 2. Lateral view of cephalothorax, legs
omitted; 3. Front view of head, showing arrangement of eyes; 4. Epigyne; 5.
Inner view of left chelicera of female.

Abdomen : Longer than wide, wider behind, clothed with fine hairs.
Ventral side more deep brown than the dorsal side. Epigyne as in text-
figure 4.

Type-specimen : One female in spirit.

Type-locality : Barapani Road side, Shillong, Meghalaya, India.
Coll. A. K. Ghosh, 17-viii- 1973.

This species resembles Ctenus kapuri Tikader from Andaman but
differs as follows: (i) Ventral side of abdomen uniform deep brown
in colour but in C. kapuri ventral side of abdomen deep brown in colour
and ornamented with conspicuous rows of white dots, (ii) Inner mar-

CTENUS MEGHALAYAENSIS SP. NOV.

793

gin of furrow of chelicera with three teeth but in C. kapuri inner mar-
gin of furrow of chelicera with five teeth, (iii) Epigyne also structurally
different.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Dr. A. K. Ghosh, Zoologist, Eastern Regional
Station, Zoological Survey of India, Shillong, Meghalaya, for kindly
sending the spider collection for stpdy.

References

Comstock, J. H. (1965): The Spi- Tikader, B. K. (1973): A new spe-
der Book, New York, p. 568. cies of rare spider of the genus Ctenus

(Family: Ctenidae) from Andaman

Simon, E. (1897): Histoire Natu- Islands, India. Curr. Sci. 42( 24):862-
relle des Araigns, Paris, 2:891. 863.

A new species of spider of
the genus Lutica (Family
Zodariidae) from India1

B. K. Tikader and M. S. Malhotra
Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Poona 411005

{With five text-figures)

The spiders of the family Zodariidae are little known from India.
Simon (1905, 1906) and Gravely (1921) have described some species
of the family from India. Recently Tikader & Patel (1975) described
some new species of the genera Storena and Lutica from India. This is
the second species of Lutica described from the Indian sub-continent.

The type specimen will in due course be deposited in the National
Zoological Collection, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Lutica deccanensis sp. nov.

General : Cephalothorax and legs with brownish red tint and abdo-
men uniform brownish red in colour. Total length 3.10 mm, Cephalo-
thorax 1.20 mm long, 0.80 mm wide; abdomen 2.00 mm long, 1.50
mm wide.

Cephalothorax : Longer than wide narrowing in front, cephalic re-
gion slightly high with rounded margin and provided with light brown
patch in the centre as in text-figure 1. Eyes pearly white except anterior
medians. Anterior row slightly recurved and anterior median eyes con-
spicuously larger than others and encircled by deep brown patch. Post-
erior row strongly procurved and posterior medians away from each
other and more nearer to adjacent laterals. Both lateral eyes contiguous
and nearly of same size. Legs long and moderately strong, clothed with
fine hairs and some clavate hairs. Legs formula 4132. Sternum heart
shaped, pointed behind, clothed with fine hairs. Labium and maxillae
as in text-figure 3. Male nearly of same colour as female but slightly
smaller in size. Male palp as in text-figure 5.

Abdomen : Longer than wide, nearly globular and wider be-
hind the middle; slightly over-lapping on cephalothorax in front.
Dorsal side uniform deep brownish red in colour, clothed with fine

1 Accepted October 1974.

mm

LUTICA DECCANENSIS SP. NOV.

795

Figs. 1-5. Lutica deccanensis sp. nov.

1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 2. Epigyne; 3. Labium and maxillae;
4. Spinnerets; 5. Male palp.

0*5 mm.

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

hairs and pubescence. Ventral side uniform pale coloured. The fore
pairs of spinnerets are conspicuously long and other two pairs not de-
veloped properly as in text-figure 4. Epigyne as in text-figure 2.

Holotype one female, allotype one male in spirit.

Type-locality : Vetal Hill, Gokhale Nagar, Poona, Maharashtra,
India. Coll. M. S. Malhotra, 21-vii-1974.

This species resembles Lutica bengalensis Tikader & Patel but is
separated as follows: (i) Dorsal side of abdomen uniform brownish
red in colour but in L. bengalensis dorsal side of abdomen uniform
deep brown in colour, (ii) Epigyne and male palp also structurally
different.

References

Gravely, F. H. (1921): The spi-
ders and scorpions of Barkuda Island.
Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 400-421.

Simon, E. (1905): Voyage de M.
Maurice Maindron dans l’lnde Meri-
dional, Arachnides. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.
74 : 160-180.

(1906): ibid. 75:279-305.

Tikader, B. K. & Patel, B. H.
(1975): Studies on some rare spiders
of the family Zodariidae from India.
Bull. Arach. Soc., London 5(5): 137-
139.

A new species of spider of the
genus Plator Simon (Family:
Platoridae) from India1

B. K. Tikader and U. A. Gajbe

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Poona 411005
{With four text-figures)

The spiders of the family Platoridae are little known from India. The
first species of the genus Plator Simon was described from India by
Simon (1897) and a second species was described by Tikader (1969).
Subsequently two more species were recently described by Tikader &
Gajbe (1973, 1975).

While examining the spider collection from High Altitude Zoology
Field Station, Zoological Survey of India, Solan, H.P., India, we came
across a new species of spider of the genus Plator, which is described
here. It is the fifth species of the genus Plator from India.

The type specimen will in due course be deposited in the National
Zoological Collection, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Plator solanensis sp. nov.

General : Cephalothorax and legs reddish brown, abdomen dirty
chalk white. Total length 9.00 mm. Carapace 3.10 mm long, 4.80 mm
wide; abdomen 5.80 mm long, 5.60 mm wide.

Cephalothorax ; Very flat, leaf -like, much wider than long, cephalic
region narrow and slightly high, clothed with black short spines. Eyes
eight, in two rows, posterior row recurved but anterior row very little
recurved. Posterior lateral eyes larger and black but posterior medians
smaller and pearly white, bases of eyes encircled by black patch except
posterior medians. Labium longer than wide as in text-figure 2. Sternum
wider than long, slightly narrow in front, clothed with fine hairs. Legs
long and strong, clothed with hairs and spines. Legs I shorter than the
rest, II longest, anterior two legs armed with conspicuous erect spini-
form bristles as in text-figure 4. Tarsus without scopulae or ungual
tufts.

Abdomen’. Very flat, leaf-like, nearly round or oval and slightly

1 Accepted April 1975.

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Figs. 1-4. Viator solanensis sp. nov.

1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 2. Maxillae and labium; 3. Epigyne; 4.

First leg of female.

longer than wide; clothed with fine hairs. Dorsally provided with irregu-
lar small markings as in text-figure 1. Ventral side slightly lighter than
dorsal and clothed with fine hairs. Epigyne as in text-figure 3.

Holotype female, paratype one female in spirit.

Type-locality : Kasauli, Dist. Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India. Coll.
H. P. Agrawal, 22-xii-1972, paratype : Tikkar Sarahan, Dist. Sirmour,
Himachal Pradesh, India. Coll. H. P. Agrawal, 27-ix-1973.

This species appears to be related to Plat or himalayensis Tikader
& Gajbe, but it is separated as follows: (i) Anterior row of eyes very
slightly recurved but in Plator himalayensis anterior row of eyes stra-
ight. (ii) Posterior median eyes without stalk like structure but in
Plator himalayensis posterior median eyes with stalk like structure, (iii)
Abdomen very slightly longer than wide with white markings but in
Plator himalayensis abdomen wider than long with irregular minute
markings of muscular corrugation and three transverse muscular dep-
ressions. (iv) Epigyne also structurally different.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Dr. Arun Kumar, Zoologist, Zoological Survey
of India, High Altitude Zoology Field Station, Solan, for supplying the
spider collection for our study.

PLATOR SOLANENSIS SP. NOV.

799

References

Simon, E. (1897) : Materiaux pour
servir a la faune drachnologique de
FAsie Meridionale. V. (1) Arachnides
recueillis a Dehra-Dun (N.W. Prov.)
et dans le Dekka par M.A. Smythies.
Mem. Soc. Zool. France, 10, 256.

Tikader, B. K. (1969): Studies on

some rare spiders of the families Sel-
enopidae and Platoridae from India.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 69(5) :252.

, & Gajbe, U. A. (1973) :

A new species of spider of genus
Plator Simon (Family - Platoridae)
from India. C-urr. Sci., 42 ( 23) : 829.

A new record of the family
Amaurobiidae (Arachnida :
Araneae) from India1

B. H. Patel2 and H. K. Patel3
{With a text-figure)

Occurrence of the spider belonging to the family Amaurobiidae
with a new species of genus Amaurobius Koch is recorded for the
first time from India and described in this paper.

Introduction

In the course of a study of the taxonomy of spiders from different parts
of Gujarat during the years 1967-1971 one of us (BHP) came across a
spider belonging to the family Amaurobiidae.

In this paper we have recorded and described a new species of the
genus Amaurobius Koch of the family Amaurobiidae. We have includ-
ed herein the characters of the family and the genus also for easy
identification of the Indian forms, as the family and genus are new re-
cords for India.

The type specimen will in due course be deposited in the National
Collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Family Amaurobiidae

Characters : Six or eight eyes; eyes if eight, in two transverse rows,
all eyes pale in colour. Chelicerae robust, geniculate at the base anter-
iorly, bearing scopula. Labium notched basally. Legs moderately to
heavily spined, rarely lacking spines. Trichobothria in one or two rows
on tibiae, absent on femora. Thoracic groove longitudinal, when present.
Cribellum and calamistrum present, usually cribellum divided into two

1 Accepted November 1972.

2 Department of Biology, V. P. Mahavidyalaya, Vallabh Vidyanagar (W.
Rly.), Gujarat (India).

8 Department of Entomology, Institute of Agriculture, Anand (W. Rly.),
Gujarat (India) .

AMAUROBIUS NATHABHAII SP. NOV.

801

parts, calamistrum reduced or absent in males of some species. Male
with median apophysis in palpal organ. Tarsi possess three claws, with-
out claw tufts or scopulae.

Spiders of average size which resemble in a striking way, members
of the family Agelenidae. They differ from the Agelenidae in having a
cribellum and a calamistrum. They are distinguished from Dictynidae
in having all eyes pale in colour, in the structure of genital organ and
the legs with strong spines; in dictynids, only in few cases are the true
spines present.

The spiders of this family construct irregular webs consisting of a
frame work of plane threads supporting an irregular net-work of the
hackled band. Some times the supporting threads radiate from the open-
ing of a retreat with a certain degree of symmetry, giving the web a
somewhat regular appearance. Due to the coarser nature of the structure
of hackled band, A is easily seen in the webs of Amaurobius then in
the webs of other genera.

Genus Amaurobius Koch
Amaurobius Koch, 1837. Ueb. Ar. Syst., 1:15.

Ciniflo: Blackwall, 1841. Trans. Linn. Soc. London ( Zool. ), 75:607.
Amauribius: Thorell, 1869. Niva. Acta R. Soc. Scient: Upsal., 3: 124.
Amaurobius: Simon, 1892. Hist. Nat. des Araignees, 7:237 .

Walmus: Chamberlin, 1947. Ann. Ent. Soc. Am., 40: 10.

Amaurobius: Locket & Millidge, 1953. British Spiders, 2:17.

Amaurobius: Leech, 1972. Ent. Soc. Canada, Memoir 54:70.

Characters : Cephalic region broad and rounded infront. Eyes not
very different in size, all pale in colour; anterior row straight or very
slightly procurved, posterior row straight or recurved. Sternum not
prolonged between the posterior coxae. Labium notched at the base,
longer than broad, reaching beyond the mid-point of maxillae. Cheli-
cerae strongly convex at the base, geniculate and robust; fang groove
with three or four retromarginal and two or three promarginal teeth,
promargin also with scopula. Cribellum divided into two parts. Femora
with well developed dorsal spines. Epigyne various, from large median
and small lateral lobs to small median and large lateral lobs. Male with
three tibial processes. Embulus short, curved and ends at the most dis-
tal part of alveolus.

Amaurobius nathabhaii sp. nov. (Fig. 1, a-c;

General: Body brown to light-brown. Total length 6.00 mm. Cara-
pace 2.72 mm long, 2.36 mm wide; abdomen 3.80 mm long, 3.00 mm
wide.

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Fig. 1. Amaurobius nathabhaii sp. nov.
a. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; b. Epigyne; c. Sternum, labium and

maxillae.

Cephalothorax : Brown, slightly longer than wide, cephalic region
broad and high anteriorly, separated by a groove, thorax with a fovea.
Ocular quad longer than wide, narrower in front. Eyes pale in colour;
eyes of posterior row larger than the eyes of anterior row; anterior
row very slightly procurved as seen from the front, posterior row
strongly recurved; anterior median eyes slightly larger than the anterior
laterals and little nearer to the laterals than to each other, posterior
laterals slightly larger than the posterior medians. Clypeus very narrow.
Chelicerae reddish-brown, convex at the base and with scopulae at the
anterior end, fang groove provided with three retromarginal and two
promarginal teeth. Sternum heart-shaped, clothed with hairs, pointed
behind, not projecting between the posterior coxae. Labium longer

AMAUROBIUS NATHABHAII SP. NOV.

803

than broad, notched at the base and reaching beyond the mid-point of
maxillae. Sternum, labium and maxillae as in Fig. 1, c. Legs long, brown,
with dark brown bands and covered with hairs and thick spines.

Abdomen : Light-brown with yellow patches in the background on
the dorsal side, oblong, broader posteriorly, overlapping the posterior
region of cephalothorax in front. Ventral side lighter in colour. A mid-
dorsal brown wedge-shaped stripe, starts from the anterior end of abdo-
men and extends upto one half length posteriorly as in Fig. 1, a. Dor-
sum covered with fine hairs. Epigyne as in Fig. 1, b.

Holotype : One female in spirit.

Type-locality : Vallabh Vidyanagar, c 6 kilometres west of Anand,
Dist. Kaira, 10-ix-1967. Coll. B. H. Patel.

Distribution : Known from the type-locality only.

This species resembles to Amaurobius koreanus Paik, but differs
as follows: (i) Anterior row of eyes very slightly procurved, posterior
row strongly recurved and anterior laterals smallest but in A. koreanus
anterior row of eyes procurved, posterior row nearly straight and anter-
ior laterals largest, (ii) Chelicerae reddish-brown, with three retromar-
ginal and two promarginal teeth but in A. koreanus chelicerae reddish-
black, with four retromarginal and five promarginal teeth, (iii) Legs
handed with dark-brown bands but in A. koreanus no such bands on
legs, (iv) Abdomen oblong, broader posteriorly, light-brown with irre-
gular yellowish patches in the background and a mid-dorsal wedge-
shaped stripe on dorsal side but in A. koreanus abdomen oval, brown-
ish-black in background, a pair of pale longitudinal stripes on dorsal
side and dorsum with yellowish-brown chevrons, (v) Structure of epi-
gyne also differs.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Deputy Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Poona 5, for the
confirmation of the specimen and valuable suggestions. We are also
thankful to the Chairman, Dr. H. M. Patel (I.C.S. Retd.) and Secre-
tary Shri C. D. Desai of Charutar Vidyamandal and Ex-Principal Shri
J. G. Chohan, Vithalbhai Patel Mahavidyalaya, Vallabh Vidyanagar
for the inspiration and facilities provided to carry out the work

Two new species of the genus
Hartertia Seurat, 1915
(Nematoda : Spiruridae) from
Rajasthan, India1

P. D. Gupta and N. C. Nandi

Western Regional Station , Zoological Survey of India, Poona 411005
{With five text-figures)

During August and October, 1970 two specimen^ of the Great Indian
Bustard were examined for helminths and two species of the genus
Hartertia Seurat, 1915 collected from the birds are described below.

Hartertia nigriceps sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-3)

Material : 6 c? d and 9 9 9.

Diagnosis'. Long, cylindrical body. Cuticle transversely striated.
Mouth with two large distinctly trilobed lips, inner surface of which
provided with a number of teeth. A short vestibule present. Oesophagus
divided into smaller muscular anterior part and larger glandular post-
erior part. Cervical alae covering almost the whole length of the oeso-
phagus. Caudal alae in males usually irregularly folded, provided with
4 pairs of preanal and 1 pair of postanal pedunculated papillae. In
addition the tail tip provided with three pairs of sessile papillae. Spi-
cules unequal. In females the tail is conical and vulva is situated in
anterior third of the body.

Male: 33-4 12 in length and .792-.954 in diameter. Lips .108-. 117 x
.126-. 135, provided with one papilla subterminally. Cervical alae 3.420-
4.140 x .117-. 162. Oesophagus having two parts, the anterior, shorter
and muscular part measuring .432-.450 and the posterior, larger and
glandular part measuring 4.320-4.356. Nerve ring .468-.504 from the
anterior end. Spicules greatly unequal, smaller .756-.810 x .027-.036 and
larger 1.566-3.780 x .024-.030. Tail .504-.540. Caudal alae .810-.900 x

1 Accepted March 1975.

2 All measurements in millimetres.

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS HARTERTIA

805

Figs. 1-3. Hartertia nigriceps sp. nov.

Male 1. Anterior part; 2. Anterior extremity magnified; 3. Posterior part.

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

.144-.216, provided with four pairs of preanal and one pair of postanal
pedunculated papillae measuring .108-. 126 in height. In addition to tail
tip provided with three pairs of sessile papillae. Caudal alae sometimes
reaching the tail tip.

Female: 54-60 in length and 1.080-1.206 in diameter. Lips .108-. 129
long. Vestibule .072-.090. Anterior part of oesophagus .450-.504 and
posterior part 4.932-4.950. Nerve ring .486-. 540 from anterior end.
Cervical alae 5.040-5.310 x .216. Tail straight, conical with pointed
tip and measuring .288-.414. Vulva in anterior third of body length.
Ova .036-.045 x .018-.021.

In the presence of cervical alae Hartcrtia nigriceps closely resembles
H. natalensis Monnig, 1931 and H. rotundata (Linstow 1883) Seurat,
1915. H. nigriceps can be differentiated from H. natalensis by smaller
size of male, cervical alae, oesophagus, spicules, number of postanal
caudal papillae and possession of three pairs of sessile caudal papillae,
whereas H. natalensis has five pairs of sessile papillae. H. nigriceps
differs from H. rotundata in possesing comparatively larger cervical
alae, vulva in the anterior third of body, smaller eggs and three pairs
of sessile caudal papillae. In H. rotunda cervical alae are about 1 / 5th
of the body length, vulva posterior to anterior third of body and five
pairs of sessile caudal papillae.

Host: Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigriceps.

Location : Intestine.

Type-locality: Pokaran (Jaisalmer district), Rajasthan.

Hartertia rajasthanensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 4 & 5)

Material : 24 cf cf and 42 $ 9 .

Diagnosis: Long, cylindrical body. Cuticle transversely striated.
Mouth with two lateral trilobed lips, each lobe further subdivided into
two parts. Two lateral cephalic papillae situated near the base of the
lip. A linear row of fine cervical papillae. Vestibule very short, 0.043-
0.072. Oesophagus consisting of two parts, an anterior shorter and mus-
cular part and the posterior longer and glandular part. Nerve ring situ-
ated close to the junction of glandular and muscular parts of the oeso-
phagus, .343 from the anterior extremity. No cephalic alae.

Male: 23-26 in length and .540-.720 in diameter. Ratio of tail to
body length 1:72. Lips measuring .031 x .055. Anterior muscular part
of oesophagus .261 -.4 10 long. Posterior glandular part 4.090-4.450. Tail
strongly coiled ventrally. Cervical papillae reaching posteriorly .099-
.126 from anterior extremity of the worm. Caudal alae supported by 4

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS HARTERTIA

807

pairs of preanal and 2 pairs of postanal pedunculated papillae. The
first pair of preanal papillae .144-. 180 from anus. The last postanal
papillae .144-. 162 behind anus. A pair of greatly unequal spicules, the
larger 2.790 x .027 and the smaller .614 -.666 x .033. Extruded spicules
.295-.306. Cloacal aperture .306-. 360 from posterior extremity. Tail
bluntly rounded and provided with a pair of caudal alae 1.206 x .196.

Female: 30.5-31.5 in length and .720-.738 in diameter. Ratio of tail
to total length of body 1: 150. Vulva near middle of body length. Didel-
phous opposed uterus, its anterior arm reaching a little in front of post-
erior end of oesophagus. Thick shelled embryonated ova .041 -.051 x
.029- .031.

4 S

Figs. 4-5. Hartertia rajasthanensis sp. nov.

Male. 4. Anterior end; 5. Posterior end.

In the great dissimilarity in the size of spicules Hartertia rajastha-
nensis closely resembles H. obesa Seurat, 1915, from which it can be
distinguished by the possession of vulva at the middle of body length
as against anterior third in H. obesa, smaller size of ova, smaller size
of females and smaller tail 1:72 in male and 1:150 in female as against
1:31 and 1:27 respectively in H. obesa. In all the species ratio of tail
to body length is larger in females but in H. rajasthanensis tail in fe-
males is shorter compared to body length.

This is the first report of the occurrence of the genus Hartertia from
India.

Host : Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigrieeps (Vigors).

Location : Intestine.

Type-locality : Pokaran (Jaisalmer District), Rajasthan.

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Type specimens to be duly deposited in the National Zoological
Collections in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta for the facilities during the work, to Shri H. C. Gupta, Divisional
Forest Officer, Jodhpur and Shri Y. D. Singh, Zoo Supervisor, Jodhpur
for providing the opportunity of collecting the parasites. Thanks are
due to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Poona for his kind interest in the work.

References

Linstow, O.von. (1883): Nemat-
oden, Trematoden und Acanthocepha-
len, gesammelt von Prof. Fedtschenko
in Turkestan. Arch. f. Naturg. 49:214-
314.

Monnig, H. O. (1931) : Two new
species of the nematode genus Har-

tertia. 17th Rep. Dir. Vet. Serv. Dept.
Agric. Union S. Africa 7:273-276.

Seurat, L. G. (1915) : Nematodes
parasites. Expedition de M. M. Walter
Rothschild, E. Hartert et C. Hilgert
dans le Sud Algerien (Mars & Mai,
1914). Novit. Zool. 22(1) : 1-25.

A new medusa (Coelenterata :
Hydrozoa) the genus Aglauropsis
from Bombay Seas1

Jacob Thomas

Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station, Bombay

AND

B. F. Chhapgar

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Bombay
{With two plates)

The genus Aglauropsis of F. Muller (1865), was based on a medusa
found off the coast of Brazil. But the description of the type-species,
A. agassizii, is so vague and imperfect that it just defines the generic
characters. Browne (1902) described Aglauropsis conanti from the
Falkland Islands. Kramp (1955) described a new species, Aglauropsis
jarli, for a medusa from the west coast of Africa.

While collecting plankton from Bombay harbour, we came across
nine specimens of an Aglauropsis, which, on closer examination, turn-
ed out to belong to a new species.

i

Aglauropsis vannuccii sp. nov.

Umbrella bowl shaped, with an inverted margin; a little wider
than high. Diameter of umbrella, in the holotype, 8 mm; height 6 mm.
Margin of the umbrella, although thick, looks quite thin when compared
to the moderately thick jelly. Apical projection absent. Stomach small
and hangs within the umbrella and has small, marginally thickened,
folded lips; the hanging part measures 1.7 mm. Velum broad. Peduncle
absent. Four radial canals united around the margin by a narrow ring
canal. Radial canals simple, unbranched, and of intermediate width.
In some specimens one quadrant {i.e., the distance between one radial
canal and the next) is wider than the adjacent quadrant, but two oppo-
site quadrants are always of the same width.

Gonads four in number and are borne on the radial canals. Gonads
commence a little away from the stomach, and run along three-quarters
the length of the radial canals. Gonads smooth, sac-like, with the distal

1 Accepted November 1974,

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

end thick and pendant. Each gonad is of the same thickness as the
width of the radial canals, and measures about 3.5 mm. About 0.8 mm
of the gonad is completely free at its lower end, this lower part
being broader than the upper part. At the middle of the lower part a
diffuse black patch is present. There are, in the holotype and in the other
adult specimens, 28 hollow marginal tentacles. Tentacles similar and
with several rings of nematocyst clusters. They are very long with glo-
bular bulbs devoid of ocelli. Bulbs occur inside the margin, and the
tentacles commence above these bulbs, so that the tentacles appear
to protrude a little above the margin of the umbrella. Tentacles devoid
of adhesive pads and are not arranged in groups. No rudimentary ten-
tacles at the margin. Statocysts numerous and vary from 24 to 28, there
being almost always one statocyst between each pair of tentacles. Stat-
ocysts internal and are provided with an endodermal axis. Marginal
as well as lateral cirri are absent.

The medusa is colourless but the gonads and the marginal bulbs
are yellow in colour. However, the vividness of the coloration differs
in the various specimens depending on the maturity of the animal. The
number of the tentacles also increases with the size of the medusa.

Main measurements of nine specimens of the new species are given
in the accompanying Table.

Table 1

Bell

diameter

Umbrella

height

Stomach

length

Gonad

length

Length of
Gonad free
of umbrella

Tentacle &
statocyst
number

8.0*

6.0

1.7

3.5

0.8

28

5.7

4.0

1.0

2.0

0.4

28

5.5

4.0

1.0

2.0

0.4

28

5.0

3.6

0.8

1.9

0.3

28

4.0

3.5

1.0

1.5

0.3

28

3.0

2.6

0.8

1.7

0.3

24

3.0

2.6

0.8

1.7

0.3

24

3.0

2.9

0.8

1.6

0.3

24

2.9

2.3

0.6

1.2

0.2

24

Dimensions of various body parts in five adult and four immature specimens of
Aglauropsis vannuccii. All measurements are in millimetres.

* Holotype.

Discussion :

The genus Aglauropsis now includes four species, but one of these,
A. agassizii Muller, has been very vaguely and imperfectly described.
The present species has all the characters of the genus, but does not
agree fully with any of the earlier described species.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)

Thomas & Chhapgar: Aglauropsis vannuccii

Plate I

Aglauropsis vannuccii , medusa.
All the tentacles are not figured.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)

Thomas & Chhapgar: Aglauropsis vanmiccii

Plate II

Aglauropsis vannuccii sp. nov.

a — gonad; b — tentacle with mematocyst rings; c — margin of umbrella; d — mouth
with lips; e — margin of umbrella showing statocyst(s) .

AGLAUROPSIS VANNUCCII SP. NOV.

811

The new species agrees with Aglauropsis jarli Kramp in having its
tentacles provided with nematocyst rings, a small stomach, and in hav-
ing smooth gonads with pendant distal ends. However, it differs from
A. jarli in the presence of four lips on the mouth, in the absence of
rudimentary tentacles, in the number of statocysts, and in the gonads
extending along nearly three-quarters of the radial canal from the sto-
mach to the ring canal.

The new species resembles Aglauropsis conanti Browne in the ab-
sence of rudimentary tentacles, and in having the mouth with four fold-
ed lips, but differs from it in the absence of spirally and closely arrang-
ed nematocysts on the tentacles, presence of a short stomach, in the
gonads being restricted to the first three-quarters of the radial canals
and being without transverse lobes, in the number of statocysts, and
in the breadth of the radial canals.

The salient differences between the three species are given below:

Aglauropsis conanti
Browne (1902)

Aglauropsis jarli
Kramp (1955)

Aglauropsis vannuccii

200 tentacles packed in
two or three rows, with
transverse band of nema-
tocysts either surround-
ing the tentacles or
slightly spirally arranged.

24 tentacles with nema-
tocyst rings.

28 tentacles with nema-
tocyst rings (in adults).

No rudimentary
tentacles.

Some of the tentacles
rudimentary.

No rudimentary
tentacles.

Stomach fairly long.

Stomach very small.

Stomach small.

Mouth with four large
folded lips.

No distinct lips on
mouth.

Mouth with four small
folded lips.

Radial canals broad.

Radial canals narrow.

Radial canals of inter-
mediate width.

Gonads extending along
nearly whole length of
radial canals.

Gonads only on distal
half of radial canals.

Gonads extending along
nearly proximal three-
quarters of radial canals.

Gonads transversely
lobed.

Smooth distal end of
the gonads pendant.

Gonads smooth, sac-like,
distal end pendant.

50 or more statocysts.

24 statocysts.

In adults, 28 statocysts
— almost one between
every two tentacles.

The new species is named Aglauropsis vannuccii, in honour of Dr.
(Mrs.) Martha Vannucci, former Curator, Indian Ocean Biological
Centre, Cochin (India).

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

The holotype, collected in Bombay harbour on 26-V-1971, and
paratype, collected from the same location on 29-V-1971, have been
deposited in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (reference nos.
P. 2716/1, and P. 2717/1 respectively).

References

Browne, E. T. (1902) : A preli- of the tropical west coast of Africa,
minary report on Hydromedusae from Atlantide Rep. 5:239-324.
the Falkland Islands. Ann. Mag. nat. Muller, Fr. (1865): Ueber die

Hist. (7) 9:272-284. Randblaschen der Hydroidquallen.

Kramp, P. L. (1955): The medusae Aren, fur mikroskop. Anat. Bd. 1.

A new species of Poaceae
(=Gramineae), from Karnataka1 2

M. R. Almeida

Ciba-Geigy Research Centre, Goregaon East, Bombay 400 063

{With a plate )

During my plant collection trips, to various parts of India, for our
Phytochemical studies, I have collected a number of taxonomically
interesting plants. One of them, a new grass, is described here and is
dedicated to my mother, Megdelin.

CapilSipedium magdaleni sp. nov.

Species est similis Capillipedio filiculmi (Hook, f.) Stapf, sed differt
ab eo habitu perenni et glabris nodis. Differet ab omnibus aliis specie-
bus Capillipedii longioribus aristis.

Holotypus, M. R. Almeida — 2566, lectus ad Agumbe in Karnataka
septentrionali mense Novembri anni 1972 et positus in BLAT, Bombay;
Isotypus sub eodem numero positus in Horto Kewensi (K) in Anglia.
Paratypus, M. R. Almeida — 2941, lectus ad Agumbe in Karnataka die
3 Novembris anni 1973 et positus in BLAT.

CapilMpedium magdaleni sp. nov.

An erect or sub-erect perennial grass, occurring on sides of a water-
fall, sufrutescent, below, interlaced, copiously geniculately branched,
F 20 cm tall, sometimes proliferous. Internodes up to 3 cm long. More
than half of the internode is always covered by a leaf-sheath. Nodes
glabrous. Leaf-sheath ± 3 cm long, mostly adpressed to the internodes
except in case of some basal sheaths which are divaricate, ending in a
ciliate, bilobed, membranaceous ligule. Leaves up to 4 cm long and
± 3 cm broad, linearlanceolate, slightly acuminate. Inflorescence in a
terminal panicle, with 1-4 joints, 1-2 cm long (excluding the length of
the awns). Rachis capillary, glabrous. Spikelets in pairs; one sessile
and other pedicellate, dull-brown in colour. Sessile spikelets — 2 cm
long, linear-lanceolate, with a prominent callus near the base, contain-
ing a pistillate flower; outer glume ± 2 mm long linear-lanceolate,

1 Accepted March 1975.

2 Contribution No. 400 from CIBA-GEIGY Research Centre.

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 72(3)

acute, 5 -nerved, slightly villous on the back, keeled along the margins;
inner glume ±1.5 mm long, linear-lanceolate, acute at the apex, 3-ner-
ved, glabrous; outer lemma sometimes ± 1 mm long, linear-acuminate,
hyaline, unnerved or sometimes represented by awn, ± 2 cm long, with
a dilated base; inner lemma is represented by an awn which is ± 6 cm
long, without a dilated base; palea absent; lodicules 2, small, spathulate,
hyaline. Ovary ± 2 mm long, with 2 plumose stigmas which are
± 1 mm long. Pedicelled spikelets ± 3 mm long, lanceolate, without a
callus, containing staminate flowers. Pedicels ± 1 mm long with a me-
dian transluscent groove; outer glume ± 3 mm long, lanceolate, acute
at the apex, keeled along the margins, 7-9 nerved, glabrous; inner glu-
me ± 2.5 mm long, lanceolate, slightly acuminate, keeled and ciliate
along the margins, hairy on the back on upper half; upper lemma ± 2
mm long, ovate-lanceolate, hyaline; lower lemma and paleas are absent,
stamens 3; anthers ±1.5 mm long.

Holotype : M. R. Almeida — 2566, is collected from Agumbe, in Kar-
nataka, in November, 1972 and is deposited in BLAT, Bombay. Iso-
type is the duplicate of the same collection and is deposited in Kew
Herbarium (K).

Paratypes : M. R. Almeida — 2941 collected from same place on No-
vember 3, 1973 are deposited at BLAT.

This grass is seen at only one spot growing on the sides of a water-
fall on rocky substratum. It differs from other species of Capillipedium
in having compartively longer awns and is very closely allied to Capil-
lipedium filiculme (Hook, f.) Stapf, from which it could be distinguish-
ed by the following characters:

C. filiculme (Hook, f.)

Stapf

C. magdaleni

1. Annual grass

1.

Perennial grass

2. Plants 61-91 cm tall

2.

Plants less than 61 cm tall

3. Nodes bearded

3

Nodes glabrous

4. Leaves 6-10 cm long

4.

Leaves ± 4 cm long

5. Spikelets pale-green or

white

5.

Spikelets dull-brown

6. Awn 1-2 cm long

6.

Awn 5-7 cm long

Ack nowledge m e n ts

I wish to express my gratitude, for the facilities and for some use-
ful discussions, to Prof. P. V. Bole and for Latin Diagnosis, to Rev.
Fr. Conrad Mascarenhas.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) Plate

Almeida: Capillipedium magdaleni

Capillipedium magdaleni sp. nov.

1. Branch with inflorescences; 2. Leaf-sheath showing ligule; 3. Pair of spikelets;
4. Outer glume of sessile spikelets; 5. Inner glume of sessile spikelet; 6. Outer
lemma of sessile spikelet; 7. Inner lemma of sessile spikelet; 8. Gynaecium of
sessile spikelet; 9. Outer glume of pedicelled spikelet; 10. Inner glume of pedi-
celled spikelet; 11. Outer lemma of pedicelled spikelet; 12. Androecium of pedi-
celled spikelet.

Eulaliopsis duthiei (Poaceae)-
a new species from India1

P. R. Sur2

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Botanic Garden,

Howrah 3
{With a text-figure)

The genus Eulaliopsis Honda (Poaceae) was till recently known to be
represented in India by one species E. binata (Retz.) C. E. Hubbard
and another species E. sykesii Bor in kew Bull. 1957, 412 (1958), was
known from Nepal. One more species has been found, collected by
J. F. Duthie (No. 14 date ll-vi-1883) from Ganga Valley (Tehri-Garh-
wal) and is named and described here.

Eulaliopsis duthiei sp. nov.

A E. binata (Retz.) Hubbard praecipue differt culmis simplicibus,
foliis Parvioribus, 7-14 cm longis, spiculis sessilibus majoribusque, su-
periors lemmatis arista longiore, 6-8 mm, flosculo inferiore sterili.

Herba perennis. Culmi simplices, caespitosi, basi lanati, 30-33 cm
longi, 1 mm diam., erecti, non-ramosi, glabri, 4-5 nodi. Folia 4-15 cm
longa, 1-1.5 mm lata, angustata in acumina subpungentia, concava,
basi obtusa, fimbriata, vaginis glabris, ligula pilorum brevium. Racemi
2, terminales, graciles; spicula sessilis 4-4.5 mm longa, callus pilosus;
inferior gluma involucralis 3.5 mm x 1 mm, elliptica-oblonga, chart-
acea, 2-3-dentata, 5 nerva, infra ciliata pilis longis; superior gluma in-
volucralis 4.5 mm x 1.3 mm, membranacea, ovatolanceolata, 2-dentata,
3-5 nerve, arista brevissima subterminali 0.7 mm longa. Inferior gluma
floralis cassa, 3 mm x 1.5 mm, oblongo-obtusa, irregulariter 2-dentata,
hyalina, nervo solitario ad medium, Palea nulla; superior gluma floralis
hermaphrodita, 3.5 mm x 1 mm, linearis, hyalina, 2-dentata, aristata,
arista 6-8 mm longa, Palea 1.5 mm longa, apice dense ciliata; stamina
2 anthera 2. 5 mm longa, filamentum brevissimum; ovarium oblongum,
styli longi, stigmata- 2.

Eulaliopsis duthiei sp. nov.

This species differs from Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) Hubbard in the

1 Accepted September 1974.

2 Present address : Botanical Survey of India, Industrial Section, Indian
Museum, 1, Sudder Street, Calcutta 700 013.

13

816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

simple culms, shorter leaves; shorter sessile spikelet; shorter awn of up-
per glume; shorter awn of upper lemma and sterile lower floret.

Herb — Perennial. Culms : simple; tufted; woolly at the base, 30-33 ?
cm x 1 mm erect, unbranched, glabrous; 4-5 noded. Leaves: 4-15 cm x
1-1.5 mm; tapering into a sub-pungent acumen; concave; base obtuse;
fimbriate; sheath glabrous, ligule of short hairs. Racemes : 2; terminal;
slender. Sessile spikelet; 4-4.5 mm long, callus hairy. Lower involucral
glume : 3.5 mm x 1 mm; elliptic oblong; chartaceous; 2-3 toothed; 5-
nerved; lower part of the glume ciliate with long hairs. Upper involu-

A. Habit; B. spikelets; C. lower involucral glume; D. upper involucral glume;
E. lower floral glume; F. upper floral glume; G. Andro-gynoecium with palea.

EULALIOPSIS DUTHIEI SP. NOV.

81 1

cral glume : 4.5 mm x 1.3 mm; membranous ovate lanceolate 2-dentate;
3-5 nerved; awn very short, subterminal, 0.7 mm long, lower floral
glume : empty; 3 mm x 1.5 mm; oblong; obtuse; irregularly — 2-dentate;
hyaline; one nerve at the middle. Palea — 0. Upper floral glume: Her-
maphrodite: 3.5 mm x 1 mm; linear; hyaline; 2-dentate; awned. Awn:
6-8 mm long. Palea: 1.5 mm long; densely ciliate at the top. Stamens:
2. Anther 2.5 mm long; filament very short. Oyary: oblong. Style: long.
Stigmas 2.

Holotype: India, Uttar Pradesh, Ganga Valley (Tehri-Garhwal)
ll-vi-1883, J. F. Duthie-14 (deposited in the Central Na-
tional Herbarium, Calcutta).

Key to the species of Eulaliopsis

1 . Culms branched, leaves 30-60 cm x 6.5-7. 5 mm; sessile spikelet 3.5 mm long;
awn of upper glume 1-1.5 mm long; awn of the upper lemma 3-4.5 mm long.

binata

1 . Culms simple; leaves up to 20 cm x 2 mm; spikelet longer; awn of upper
lemma longer.

2. Leaves 15-20 cm x 2 mm; sessile spikelets 5 mm long, awn of upper

glume 8-8.5 mm long; awn of upper lemma 18-20 mm long sykesii

2. Leaves 7-14 cm x 1.5 mm; sessile spikelets 4-4.5 mm long; awn of upper
glume 0.7 mm long; awn of upper lemma 6-8 mm long duthiei

Ack nowledge m e n ts

I am grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India for facilities;
to Deputy Director and Keeper, Central National Herbarium, and Dr.
S. K. Jain, Deputy Director, B.S.I., Eastern Circle for their kind encour-
agement; to Dr. R. B. Mazumder, Systematic Botanist for his valuable
suggestions and to Dr. N. C. Muzumder for latin diagnosis of the spe-
cies.

A synopsis of the genus Hymen-
andra A. DC. (Myrsinaceae) and
a new species from Burma1

M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri

Central National Herbarium, Botanic Garden P.O., Howrah 3
(With a text -figure)

A new species Hymenandra narayanaswamii from Burma is des-
cribed and illustrated. The genus consists of three species: (i)

H. wallichii A. DC. occurring in North East India and Sylhet in
Bangladesh, (ii) H. narayanaswamii sp. nov. occurring in Tavoy,
in peninsular Burma and (iii) H. iteophylla (Ridl.) Furtado occur-
ring in Johore, Malaya, The genus is reviewed and a key to the spe-
cies so far known is presented.

A De Candolle (Trans. Linn. Soc. 27:126, 1834) proposed the genus
Hymenandra based on Ardisia hymenandra Wall, typified by Wall. Cat.
No. 2266 and collected from Sylhet (now in Bangladesh). The genus
Hymenandra is characterised by pentamerous flowers, sympetalous
corolla, connivent stamens to form a tube, and anthers with long pro-
duced apex. This genus differs from Ardisia in having stamens which
connate into a tube, whereas in Ardisia the stamens are free. This
feature of connate stamens is seen in the following genera of the family
Myrsinaceae (i) Conandrium Mez occurring in New Guinea (ii) Onco-
stemon Juss, occurring in Madagascar (iii) Amblyanthus A. DC. occur-
ring in India. But the genus Hymenandra differs from the above men-
tioned genera in several combination of characters, like pluriseriate or
uniseriate ovules, filiform or thick styles, anthers with long produced
apex or hardly produced apex and united or free filaments.

So far two species were known under the genus, (i) Hymenandra
wallichi A. DC. occurring in Khasi hills, Assam, and Naga hills (India)
and Sylhet (Bangladesh) and (ii) Hymenandra iteophylla (Ridl.) Fur-
tado occurring in Malaya. Hymenandra narayanaswamii is the new
species described here on the basis of specimen P. T. Russell 2105, col-
lected from Tavoy, Burma. This species is named in honour of Late
V. Narayanaswami of Botanical Survey of India, for his contribution

1 Accepted September 1974.

THE GENUS HYMEN AN DRA

819

to Indian taxonomy and who had clearly indicated in the herbarium
label that it could probably be a new species of Ardisia.

Key to the species of Hymenandra
I. Nerves of leaves conspicuous:

II. Leaf obovate-lanceolate or oblanceolate, 28-30 cm x 7-9.5 cm, base
attenuate, apex rotundate, margin dentate, leaf fleshy; petiole subsessile
or short, ± 5 mm long; calyx lobes ovate; apex of anther gradually

attenuated wallichii

II. Leaf oblong or oblong elliptic, 8-28 cm x 3-11 cm, base cuneate apex
acute, margin entire, leaf membranous; petiole 10-12 mm long; calyx lobes
triangular-lanceolate; apex of anther abruptly attenuated

narayanaswamii

I. Nerves of leaves inconspicuous iteophylla

Enumeration

Hymenandra wallichii A. DC. in Ann. Sc. Nat. 2, ser. 16:83, t. 5,
1841; C.B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3:532, 1882; Kanj & Das,
FI. Assam 3:186, 1939. — Ardisia hymenandra Wall, in Roxb. FI. Ind.
ed. Carey 2:282, 1824.

Type : Wallich 2266 (Holotype K, isotype CAF).

Distribution : North East India and Bangladesh.

India: Assam: Herb. Griffith 3596 (CAF); Meghalaya, Khasi hills, alt.
1000 m, June 1876, sine collector No. 312 (CAL); Nagaland, Naga
hills. May 1899, Dr. Train s collector 100021 (CAL).

Bangladesh: Sylhet, Wallich 2266.

-

.

Hymenandra narayanaswamii sp. nov.

Affinis H. wallichii A. DC., sed foliis oblongis vel oblong-ellipticis,
ad basin cunneatis, apice acutis, margine integeris, membranceis, petiolis
10-12 mm longis, calycis lobis triangularis-lanceolatis apicibus anther-
orum abrupte longe attenuatis differt.

Frutex lignosus, subteretis, glaber. Folia magna, oblonga vel oblon-
go-elliptica, 8-28 cm longa, 3-11 cm lata, basi cuneata, apice acuta,
margine integra, pellucido-punctata, glabra, membranacea, nervis prin-
cipalibus prominentibus, nervis lateralibus 30 paribus, distinctis, tenu-
ibus; petiolus 1-1.2 cm longus, canaliculatus. Inflorescentiae axillares,
4-7 cm longae, subcorymbose paniculate, foliis minoribus instructae,
dense puberulae, glanduloso-punctatae; ramulis 1.5-2 cm longis flores
umbellatos gerentibus. Flores pentameri; pedicellus 4-8 mm longus.
Calyx 5-partitus; lobis triangulari-lanceolatis, dense puberulis, glandu-

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

loso-punctatisque. Petala 5, basi breviter connata, lanceolata, 7-8 mm
longa 1.5-2 mm lata, apice longe acuminata, glandulosa-punctata, dex-
trorsum tegentia. Stamina 5, basi corollae affixa, tubulose coalita; fila-
mentis brevissimis, 0.5 mm longis, liberis; antherae lineari lanceolatae,
6-7 mm longae, conniventae, apice longe attenuatae. Ovarium subglo-
bosum, glanduloso-punctatum; stylus filiformis, 8-10 mm longus, stig-
mate inconspicuo.

Typus : Burma, Tavoy, P. T. Russell 2105 (CAL).

Hymenandra narayanaswamii sp. nov.

Shrub woody, subterete, glabrous. Leaves large, oblong or oblongo-
elliptic, 8-28 cm x 3-11 cm, base cuneate, apex acute, margin entire,
pellucid punctate, glabrous, membraneous, main nerve prominent.

A. Habit; B. Flower; C. Calyx; D. Petals with stamen; E. Stamens united into
a tube; F. Stamen; G. Gynoecium.

THE GENUS HYMENANDRA

821

lateral nerves in ± 30 pairs, distinct and slender; petiole 1-1.2 cm long,
canaliculate. Inflorescence axillary, 4-7 cm long, subcorymbose panicu-
late, smaller than leaf, densely puberulous and glandulose dotted; bran-
chlets end in umbellate clusters. Flowers 5-merous; pedicel 4-8 mm
long. Calyx 5 lobed; lobes triangular-lanceolatis, densely puberulous
and glandulose punctate. Petals 5, shortly united at the base, lanceolata,
7-8 mm x 1.5-2 mm, apex long acuminate, glandulose punctate, over-
lapping to the right. Stamens 5, attached to the base of the corolla, unit-
ed to form a tube; filament very short, 0.5 mm long, free, anther linear
lanceolate 6-7 mm long, connivent by the side of anthers, apex long
attenuate. Ovary subglobose, glandulose-punctate; style filiform, 8-10
mm long, stigma inconspicuous.

Distribution : Burma.

Burma: Tavoy, P. T. Russell 2105 (Holotype CAL).

This species is allied to Hymenandra wallichii A. DC. but differs
in having oblong or oblong-elliptic leaves with cuneate base, acute apex,
entire margin, and membranous texture, triangular lanceolate calyx
lobes and abruptly attenuated apex of anther; whereas in H. wallichii,
the leaves are obovato-lanceolate or oblanceolate with attenuated base,
rotundate apex, dentate margin and fleshy texture, ovate calyx lobes
and gradually attenuated apex of anther.

Hymenandra iteophylla (Ridl.) Furtado in Gard. Bull. Singapore
17:306, 1958 — Ardisia iteophylla Ridl. in Journ. Bot. 62:298, 1924;
Ridley FI. Malay Pen. 5: Suppl. 318, 1924.

Distribution : malaya: Johore, Gunong Besidong, Holttum s.n. (Type
K, not seen).

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N T

We wish to thank Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium for
all facilities.

I

)

!

New taxa of the genus Dipcadi
Medik. (Liliaceae)1

D. B. Deb and Syamali Dasgupta
Industrial Section, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta
( With two plates)

In the course of a taxonomic study of the genus Dipcadi Medik. (Lili-
aceae) for the revised Flora of India under the auspices of Botanical
Survey of India, we discovered some novelties, two of which are describ-
ed below.

Dipcadi maharashtrensis sp. nov. (Plate 1)

Accedit ad D. ursulae Blatt. a qua differt foliis scapo brevioribus,
racemis laxis, bracteis subulatis, acuminatis, coriaceis, pedicellis brevi-
oribus, ovariis late oblongibus.

This species near to Dipcadi ursulae Blatter but differs in having
leaves shorter than the scape, loose raceme, subulate, acuminate, coria-
ceous bracts, shorter pedicels and broadly oblong ovary.

Herbs bulbous, scapigerous; bulbs globose, small, about 2.5 cm x
2.5 cm, tunicate, rooting profusely from the base. Leaves radical, about
6, shorter than the scape, 25-30 cm x .5-.7 cm, linear, broadest at the
middle, plicate, entire, acute, coriaceous, glabrous; veins parallel, 8-14
in number. Scape long, about 36 cm long, about .4 cm across at the base,
narrowing upwards to .1 cm across at the apex, slender, terete, glabrous,
naked. Raceme about 13 cm long, loose, bearing about 12 flowers;
bracts persistent, much longer than the pedicels, 1-2 x .3-.35 cm, entire,
subulate, coriaceous. Flowers bisexual, regular, distantly placed; pedi-
cels stout, 2-3 mm long. Perianth 1.1- 1.3 cm long, petaloid, biseriate,
of 3 segments each, outer ones longer, united upto 1/3 from the base,
campanulate, inner ones united upto 2/3 from the base, tubular; peri-
anth lobes 2-2.5 mm broad; obovate-lanceolate, obtuse, tuberculate at
the subapex; nerves 5, convergent towards the apex. Androecium of 6
stamens, adnate to the perianth; filaments flat, adnate to the inner peri-
anth tube, remaining free for about 1 mm above; anthers 2 celled,
oblong, 2.5-2.7 x .6-. 7 mm, dorsifixed, introrse, dehiscing longitudinally.
Gynoecium of 3 carpels, syncarpous; ovary superior, stalked, broadly

1 Accepted September 1974.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) Plate 1

Deb & Dasgupta: New taxa of Dipcadi

Dipcadi maharashtrensis sp. nov.

A. Sketch of the holotype; B. Parts of a flower.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) Plate 2

Deb & Dasgupta: New taxa of Dipcadi

A

Dipcadi ursulae Blatt. var. longiracemosae var. nov.
A. Sketch of the holotype; B. Parts of a flower.

NEW TAX A OF THE GENUS DIPCADI

823

oblong, 3.5-4 x 2.5-3 mm, glabrous, trilocular, with numerous ovules in
axile placentas; style stout, 4-5 mm long, about .7 mm across; stigma
globose, obscurely trilobed; stalks short, .5-. 7 mm long, .7-1 mm across.
Fruit not seen.

The bulb was collected from Panchgani, Maharashtra by B. Ruk-
mini Bai (B.R. 433) on 5-ix-1955 and cultivated in St. Xavier’s College,
Bombay, where it flowered in September.

Type : The holotype B. Rukmini Bai 433 collected from Panchgani,
Maharashtra, on 5-ix-1955, is preserved in the Blatter Herbarium
(BLAT), St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.

Dipcadi ursulae Blatt. var. longiracemosae var. nov. (Plate 2).

Accedit ad D. ursulae Blatt. var. ursulae a qua differt scapo long-
iore, fioribus pluribus, ovariis sessilibus.

Allied to D. ursulae Blatt. var. ursulae differing in having longer
scape with more flowers in the raceme and sessile ovary.

Herbs scapigerous, bulbous; bulbs ovoid, small, about 3 cm in diam.
tunicate, rooting from the base. Leaves radical, 30-40 cm x .5-1.5 cm,
linear, glabrous, entire, acute; veins parallel, 12-20. ScapQ one or two,
arising from the bulb, 30-45 cm long, .4-1.2 cm across, terete, smooth
naked. Raceme 10-15 cm long, dense in early stage, loose when matured,
22-30 flowered; bracts persistent, 1-1.3 x .3-.4 cm, deltoid, long acumi-
nate, scarious, plicate, entire, much longer than the pedicel. Flowers
bisexual, regular, white; pedicels 4-7 mm long. Perianth .9-1.1 cm long,
petaloid, biseriate, of 3 segments each; outer ones longer, united up to
1/3 from the base, campanulate, lobes obovate-lanceolate, recurved at
the middle, obtuse, tuberculate at the subapex; inner ones shorter, unit-
ed upto 2/3 from the base, tubular, lobes obovate-lanceolate, obtuse,
recurved at the tip, hooded; nerves 5-7, prominent, convergent towards
the apex. Androecium of 6 stamens; filaments linear, adnate to the inner
perianth tube, remaining free for 2-3 mm above; anthers 2 celled, linear-
oblong, 3-3.5 mm x about .7 mm, dorsifixed, introrse, dehiscing longi-
tudinally. Gynoecium of 3 carpels, syncarpous; ovary sessile, superior,
narrowly obovate-oblong, trisulcate, 4.5 mm x about 1 mm, glabrous,
trilocular, with numerous ovules in axile placentas; style 4.5-4. 7 mm
long, stout, broadening above; stigma trilobed. Capsule not seen.

Flowering time : August.

Maharashtra: Rozi, 29-viii-52, P. V. Bole 851; Junagadh, Girnar
hill, 25-viii- 1958, P. V. Bole 743. Common.

Type : The holotype P. V. Bole 743 collected from Girnar hill,
Junagadh, on 25th August, 1958, is preserved in the Blatter Herbarium
(BLAT), St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. P. V. Bole 851 collected from
Rozi on 29-viii-52, is designated as the paratype (BLAT).

824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Ack NOWLEDGE M E N T

We are grateful to Prof. P. V. Bole of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay
for placing at our disposal all the specimens of the tribe Scilleae extant
in the. Blatter Herbarium.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3)
Nayar & Giri: Ardisia meghalayensis

i

Pi

Ardisia meghalayensis sp. nov.

A. Habit (natural size); B. Flower bud; C. Calyx lobes; D. Two petals and a
stamen; E. (I, II, III, IV, V)— Petals; F. Stamen— dorsal view; G. Stamen-
Ventral view; H. Gynoecium.

A new species of Ardisia
(Myrsinaceae) from
north-east India1

M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri

Central National Herbarium, Botanic Garden P.O., Howrah 3
{With a plate)

A new species, Ardisia meghalayensis from Jaintia hills, Megha-
laya, India is described and illustrated.

Ardisia meghalayensis sp .nov.

Affinis A. blumei A.DC. sed foliis ad nodis 4-6 confertis, minori-
bus, 6-8 cm longis, 2. 5-3. 5 cm latis, infiorescentiis subcorymbosis, pedi-
cellis longioribus differt.

Frutex. Ramuli subteretes, juniores ferrugineis, dense pilosi. Folia
petiolis 8-10 mm longis stipitata, ovato-lanceolata, 6-8 cm x 2.5. 3.5 cm,
basi cuneata, apice acuta vel acuminata, margina dentato-crenata, char-
tacea, supra junioris pubescentia, subtus ad nervos adpresse hirsuta,
dense glanduloso-punctata, costis supra immersis, subtus prominenti-
bus. Inflorescentiae laterales, subcorymbosae, 3-5 cm longae, dense
pilosi-hirsutae, foliis breviores; flores hirsuto-pilosi; pedicellis ± 1.5 cm
longis, bracteati; bracteae lineares 5-7 mm longae, pubescentes. Sepala
5-partita basi ad 1/3 connata, lanceolata, 5-7 mm x 1.1.5 mm, acumi-
nata, ciliata, glanduloso-punctata. Pet ala 5, subsymmetrica, imbricata,
basi breviter coalita, ovato-elliptica, 5-6 mm x 4-4.5 mm, glanduloso
punctata. Stamina 5, petalis paullo breviora, antheris 3-3.5 mm x 1-1.5
mm, acutis filamentis 0. 5-0.8 mm longis. Ovarium subglobosum, glab-
rum; stylus 3-4 mm longus, stigmate inconspicuo.

Typus : Meghalaya, jaintia hills J/M No. 903 (CNH Acc. No. 279310)
(CAL).

1 Shrub, Branches subterete, ferruginous and densely pilose when
young. Leaves petiolate, petiole 8-10 mm long, ovate-lanceolate, 6-8 cm
x 2.5-3. 5 cm, basi cuneate, apex acute or acuminate, margin dentate-
crenate, chartaceous, upper surface when young pubescent, undersur-
face along the nerves hairy, densely glandulose punctate, nerves on the

1 Accepted March 1975.

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

upper surface immersed, and nerves on the undersurface prominent.
Inflorescence lateral, subcorymbose, 3-5 cm long, densely pilose hirsute,
shorter than the leaves; flowers hirsute and pilose; pedicel — 1.5 cm
long, bracteate; Bracts linear 5-7 mm long, pubescent. Sepal 5 lobed
unite'd 1/3 at the base, lanceolate, 5-7 mm x 1-1.5 mm, acuminate,
ciliate glandulose-punctate. Petal 5, subsymmetrical, imbricate, united
shortly at the base, ovato-elliptic, 5-6 mm x 4-4.5 mm, glandulose punc-
tate. Stamens 5, shorter than petals, anther 3-3.5 x 1-1.5 mm, acute,
filament 0. 5-0.8 long. Ovary subglobose, glabrous; style 3-4 mm long,
stigma inconspicuous.

Distribution : India: Meghalaya, Jaintia hills, Pangle woods, alt. 1333-
1666 m. May 1878, J/M No. 903 (CMH Acc. No. 279310) (CAL).

Ardisia meghalayensis differs from A. blumei A. DC. in having
smaller leaves (6-8 cm x 2.5-3.5 cm), subcorymbose, inflorescence and
longer pedicel. (1.5 cm long). The presence of 4 to 6 leaves at the nodes
is very characteristic in A. meghalayensis whereas in A. blumei, the
leaves are larger (13 cm x 3.5 cm), the inflorescence is paniculate and
pedicels are shorter ± 4 mm long.

Acknowledgement

We wish to thank the Deputy Director, Central
for all facilities.

National Herbarium

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) Plate

Subba Rao & Kumari: Arundinella setosa var. nilagiriana

Arundinella setosa Trin. var. nilagiriana var. nov.

1. Plant; 2. Part of leaf and sheath with ligule; 3. Spikelet; 4. Lower glume;
5. Upper glume; 6. $ spikelet; 7. $ spikelet.

A new variety of Arundinella
setosa Trin. from India1

G. V. Subba Rao and G. R. Kijmari
Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore
{With a plate)

Arundinella setosa Trin. var. nilagiriana var. nov.

Accedit ad Arundinella setosam Trin. var. lanigeram Fischer a quo
tamen differt glumis hirsutis.

Holotypus Subbarao et Kurnari 19795 A et isotypi Subbarao et
Kumari 19795 B— F a G. V. Subbarao et G. R. Kumari die ll-ix-1970,
paratypi vero Subbarao 40477A-J a G. V. Subbarao die 25-iii-1972
propinquus Koilbetta (alt. s.n. 1850 m) ad Ebanad in dist. Nilgiri, in
Tamil Nadu, lecti sunt. Typus {Subbarao et Kumari 19795 A) in herb-
ario Centrali nationali, ad Calcuttam (CAL), isotypi {Subbarao et
Kumari 19795 B-F) et paratypi autem {Subbarao 40477 A-J) in her-
bario regionis australis Bot. Surv. India ad Coimbatore (MH) positi
sunt.

Arundinella setosa Trin var. nilagiriana var. nov. (Poaceae

Arundinelleae)

A perennial grass with whitish woolly base, culms up to 30 cm,
slender, terete, smooth, almost glabrous, ± striate, erect; nodes glab-
rous. Leaf blades narrow, linear, tapering to a point, striate, 7.5-9 x
0.2-0.4 cm, hirsute on both sides with tubercle based hairs, ciliate on
margins with similar hairs; sheaths clasping the culms, striate, hirsute
as leaf blades; ligule very thin, membranous, hairy with long white silky
hairs. Inflorescence an erect panicle, 8-12 cm long; axis terete, striate,
scabrid, branches 3-6 cm, alternate, distant; pedicels often in pairs, one
long-one short, dilated below the spikelet, scaberulous and always with
long bristles near the tip. Spikelets 5-7 mm long, gaping. Lower glume
5-6.5 mm long, dark purple in colour, ovate-acuminate, shortly aristate,
firm, 3 -nerved, nerves anastomosing at the tip, bristly with tubercle
based colourless hairs; upper glume 5.5-7 mm long, light yellow, mem-
branous, ovate-cuminate, the upper one third forming a narrow beak
clasping the awn, 5 nerved, nerves anastomosing at the tip, pubescent.

1 Accepted March 1975.

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Lower floret S \ lemma 3-4 mm long, membranous, rounded on the back,
oblong-obtuse, keeled, scaberulous without in the upper half; palea
elliptic-obtuse, a little shorter narrower and thinner than the lemma,
rather flat; stamens 3; anthers 1.5 mm long. Upper floret usually $ ,
rarely 8 ; lemma 2-2.5 mm long with a hairy callous, shining, scabrid
without, lanceolate with a stout twisted awn at the apex in between two
colourless scabrid setae; palea almost of the same size and texture; awn
up to 7-8 mm long, geniculate, scabrid; column 3 mm long, chestnut
brown; stamens 3; anthers 2 mm long; ovary smooth, 1 mm long; styles
2-2.5 mm long; stigmas plumose, 1.5 mm long. Caryopsis not seen.

This taxon is allied to Arundinella setosa Trin. var. lanifera Fisch.
but differs from it in having hirsute glumes.

The holotype Subbarao et Kumari 19795 A and isotypes Subbarao
et Kumari 19795 B-F and paratypes Subbarao 40477 A-J were collected
respectively by G. V. Subbarao and G. R. Kumari on ll-ix-1970 and
by G. V. Subbarao on 25-iii- 1972 near Koilbetta (1850 m alt.) at
Ebanad in Nilgiri District, Tamil Nadu. The type ( Subbarao et Kumari
19795 A) has been deposited in the Central National Herbarium, Cal-
cutta (CAL), the isotypes ( Subbarao et Kumari 19795 B-F) and para-
types ( Subbarao 40477 A-J) have been deposited in the Regional Her-
barium, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore (MH).

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to late Dr. N. L. Bor, Kew Herbarium for kindly
scrutinising the specimen and giving his valuable opinion and to the
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for his help. We are also thank-
ful to the Forest Department, Tamil Nadu and the Director, Botanical
Survey of India for facilities provided: to Rev. Fr. Dr. K. M. Matthew,
S.J., for the latin diagnosis; to Dr. S. K. Jain and Dr. R. B. Majumdar
of Botanical Survey of India for scrutinising the specimen and giving
their valuable opinion.

Reviews

1. PARCHED EARTH. The Maharashtra Drought 1970-73. By
V. Subramanian. pp. 640 (23 x 15 cm). Bombay, 1975. Orient Long-
man Limited. Price Rs. 75.00.

Parched Earth is a 623 page tome in praise of the achievements of
the Government of Maharashtra, the Central Government and the offi-
cials of both in dealing with the unprecedented drought in Maharashtra
between 1970-1973. The book is garnished with such hyperbole as “The
Maharashtra drought between 1970 and 1973 was a period of unprece-
dented agony as also unparalleled ecstasy” — “Cattle were famished and
the old and the decrepit among them perished uncomplainingly” —
“Students of schools and colleges unable to pay their tuition and ex-
amination fees on account of the penury of their parents or their guar-
dians stood in imminent danger of the ruination of their careers”.
“Maharashtra’s administration rose to new heights of responsibility,
performance and compassion. Bureaucracy by its alertness and efforts
wiped away the stigma of ages attached to it.” Such extravaganza de-
tracts from the vast array of statistics.

Land was bunded, irrigation and percolation tanks were constructed
canal excavation was undertaken, roads were built and dole provided
to the aged and those unable to work.

It is rather dismaying to see that out of a total expenditure of 252.87
crores only 10.06 lakhs were spent on afforestation including soil and
moisture conservation operations, to which the author devotes only two
and a half pages. The author writes (p. 149) — “Afforestation occupies
a comparatively minor place in the relief programme because the avail-
ability of land under forest is very low — . . . . The area under forest in
the districts of Bhir and Osmanabad is less than 5 per cent of the total
area of these districts and therefore no major scheme of afforestation
could be initiated in these districts.” Had this logic been followed else-
where, Israel would still be a desert and Gujarat, with less than 9 per
cent of forest in the state, would not have embarked on an ambitious
programme of reforestation as they rightly have.

One of the effects of the drought, the author says, was to create for
a while, a classless, casteless society and a spirit of cooperation. Land-
less labourers began to be aware of their rights as a result of the atten-
tion of urban trade union leaders. Medical interns went out into the vil-
lages and attended on the people and prevented the rural population
from being decimated (sic) Boys who had passed their S.S.C. willingly
and cheerfully worked as manual labourers.

830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

The author quotes Newsweek that thousands died of starvation in
the Sahel countries of N. Africa as a result of drought and remarks
“Not a single man, woman or child (in Maharashtra) died of starvation
during the entire period of the drought” — and “there was not a single
case of epidemic or death by water poisoning.”

If all that the author says is true then Maharashtra is not only cap-
able of solving all her problems but also provides an example for the
whole of India. One wonders with some trepidation whether a period
of continuous drought is necessary to bring out the best in Indians.

There is an interesting example of intermediate technology referring
to the use of bullock-drawn rollers for the compaction of percolation
tank beds in place of diesel driven rollers. The author says on p. 201
“....Percolation tanks should not be constructed in regions having
less than 15" of rainfall, as they would have little chance of filling up.”
This statement is debatable (like the one on reforestation referred to
earlier) as percolation tanks have been successful in rain-shadow areas
of Maharashtra like Naigaon, Poona District. In Saurashtra, which re-
ceives little rain normally, the foresight of the people in having excavat-
ed tanks has enabled them store a lot of water during the recent torren-
tial rains there and this will meet their requirements for a couple of
years if not more.

The following public organisations helped the Maharashtra Govern-
ment in drought relief work.

Catholic Relief Services — covered 8894 projects, 346 426 workers
employed. 28,000 tonnes wheat costing 27.4 crores and 1,340 tonnes
of oil costing 5.19 crores were supplied. Front for Rapid Economic
Advancement of India (FREA) supplied technical manpower to sur-
vey, design, supervise works in Paloda, Taluk of Bhir District, cooper-
ated with CARITAS (India) in the programme of distribution of milk.
OXFAM (UK registered) assisted on a nutritional programme — pro-
vided to Maharashtra a large percentage of its total worldwide contri-
bution. Tata Relief Committee helped with irrigation, drinking water,
planting fruit trees and in association with CASA supplied food both
for people and cattle. Youth Against Famine Campaign — This was
launched jointly by the Government of India and several voluntary
agencies to get 100,000 young men and women from schools and Uni-
versities to participate. 100 camps were organised and the campaign
was conducted by a special committee of the NSS in Maharashtra State
(8,000 students and 2,000 non-student participants). Dnyana Prabo-
dhinee — an educational institution, SARRAM (Society for Assistance,
Rehabilation, Relief & Aid Maharashtra), Shri Sadguri Seva Sanch
were other organisations which also assisted.

Appendices include tables showing areas under principal crops, agri-
cultural production, release of Central Government monetary assistance.

REVIEWS

831

daily labour attendance on relief work, workwise expenditure, statewise
comparison of kilometres of road per 100 sq km of area. (Punjab and
Kerala, incidentally, head the list with close to 150 km; Maharashtra
has 26.8 km and Meghalaya has the lowest, 22. However, if km/ 100,000
population is considered, Meghalaya heads the list with 1,028 km fol-
lowed by Punjab which has 557. Maharashtra has 164 and the lowest
on the list is Haryana with 130). There are several pages of tables show-
ing the number of scarcity relief works, average daily labour attendance
as well as expenditure incurred during 1970-71, 71-72, 72-73, and 73-
74. These are given districtwise for the 25 districts in Maharashtra.
Separate tables are similarly provided stating physical achievements.
There are monthly price indices for urban and rural areas, statements
showing retail prices of essential commodities in rural, scarcity and
other areas of the State during the period June 1972 to October 1973
and finally, rainfall charts.

The author has not been punctilious in following the metric system
throughout which is now statutory in India. On p. 212 there is a mixture
of millimetres, feet and inches “58 mm dia bore holes drilled to depths
of 50 to 60 feet — 4" to 8" dia bore holes etc.”

The book is too voluminous and at Rs. 75 is not likely to attract
buyers. Busy administrators will not be able to do more than skim
through it. It would have been better if the material had been condensed
into a brochure with the purpose of circulating it as a case study for ad-
ministrators as well as providing publicity for the Government.

G.S.R.

2. A DICTIONARY OF THE FLOWERING PLANTS IN INDIA.
By H. Santapau and A. N. Henry. Assisted by Bela Roy and Partha
Basu. pp. viii + 198 (24.5 x 16 cm). New Delhi, 1973. Publication and
Information Directorate. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Price Rs. 22.00, £3.50, $9.00.

This is a publication designed for use by educated laymen in India and
as a preliminary ready reference for those interested in Indian flora and
the country’s plant resources.

The Dictionary gives 2890 Generic names of Indian plants. Under
each genus, the information given includes its habit, total number of
species found in the world and in India. One or two well known species
of each genus have been named. Local or regional vernacular names
are given in many cases along with reported uses, if any. Some of the
generic valid names vary from those published in Indian floras, however
the synonyms are listed under the valid name as well as separately, at
appropriate places with cross reference to the new name accepted in the
Dictionary. Abbreviations used in the dictionary are listed and refer-

14

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

ences provided. The scheme of distribution of the genera is explained
in the preface.

This valuable publication from the staff of Botanical Survey of
India should find a place in any botanical and general library in India,
as a ready reference handbook.

P.V.B.

3. THE INSECT SOCIETIES. By Edward O. Wilson, pp. x + 548
(25.5 x 20.5 cm). With numerous black and white figures and line draw-
ings. Third Printing. Massachussetts, 1974. The Belknap Press of the
Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Price $ 7.95.

This book represents the first synthesis and summarisation of recent
knowledge about these fascinating insects since W. M. Wheeler wrote
his classic “The Social Insect” in 1928. A glance at the bibliography
will give an idea of the magnitude of the task, for the problems asso-
ciated with the understanding of insect societies have attracted many
research workers and various lines of enquiry.

The author gives us a comparative account of the life histories of
the wasps, bees, ants and termites, their symbionts and parasites, their
methods of communication and caste determination, subjects about
which so much is known and so much yet remains to be determined.

The questions to be answered are many. Why, for instance, has so-
cial behaviour evolved so many times in the Order Hymenoptera and
only once among other insect orders? Pre-social behaviour such as com-
munal nesting and quite advanced parental care is fairly common
among species of bugs, beetles, crickets and spiders. There are even
species like western tent caterpillar ( Malacosoma pluviale), which show
division of labour in feeding aggregations.

How can the complex problems of recognition and communication
in a community be solved by the insect brain with its limitations of size?
Are social insects more intelligent than solitary ones? This is difficult
to answer, since almost all experiments work has been done on social
insects. Strong differences in maze running abilities have been found
between different castes of ants, and even between individuals belonging
to the same caste. However, Dr. Wilson believes that among the Hy-
menoptera at least, solitary wasps are capable of behaviour as complex
as that of social species.

Wheeler believed that an insect society should be regarded as a
“superorganism”, with its members functioning like organs rather than
as individuals. However, modern workers find it more useful to study
them as social animals which are organised very differently from social
vertebrates. The evolution of insect societies shows special features,
since the selection pressures which produced the sterile castes have to

REVIEWS

833

operate through the reproductive castes. The mature insect colony can
be expected to contain the ratio of different castes that can achieve the
maximum rate of production of reproductive castes. The study of why
these ratio vary between species and in different environmental condi-
tions is an interesting new field.

Anyone interested in social insects, or planning any research on
them, will, for many years to come, have to refer to this authoritative
book.

R.R.

4. SARPA PARICHAYA. By Ramesh Kankonkar. pp. 116 (21 x
13.5 cm). With twenty text-figures and eight plates. Bombay, 1974.
Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. Price Rs. 17.00.

The book is aimed at imparting knowledge on the Science of Ophiology
to the lay, non-technical public in the State. In the past there have been
from time to time translations of articles and works of eminent ophio-
logists in Marathi literature but in view of the fact that fresh knowledge
has been added over years by various workers in the field, publication
of a volume as the one under review, collating all the accumulated
knowledge is welcome. One other task the book has set upon is an at-
tempt to remove many time-old fallacies which have crept in the folk-
lore over the ages, and to present snakes to the laymen in their true
perspective. We have very little knowledge of the habits of snakes in the
wild. Yet there are several stories about their extraordinary and at times
supernatural behaviour. It is wise to decide to believe nothing one hears
about snakes, and only half of what one sees oneself, guarding carefully
against the possibility of one’s visual impressions being influenced by
one’s expectations and preconceived notions.

The author has achieved much by extracting information from all
the literature at his disposal, and his personal experience, and presenting
it in the book in a most simple and clear manner. The text is free from
technical jargon attendant to scientific works and transliterations and
should be of help and interest to the most uninitiated in the subject.

In all 40 species are treated in the book, but considering that there
are around 52 species in Maharashtra, one wishes that the author had
enlarged the scope of this book to cover all the ophidian species met
with in the state at least.

Text figures and plates are clear and informative. The bibliography
at the end of the book is a useful item.

Somaiya Publications deserve to be congratulated in adding one more
publication by way of this book to the existing Marathi literature.

S.R.G.

834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

5. DEFENCES OF ANIMALS. By David Boston, pp. 60 (18.5 x
12.5 cm), with 24 illustrations. London, 1972. The Inner London Edu-
cation Authority. Price 25 p.

This small handbook is primarily meant as a guide to the exhibits in
London’s Horniman Museum. The book is however written in a manner
that makes it useful as an aid to teachers for nature study in schools.

Survival in nature is the main function of all animals. Many ways
have been evolved by animals through natural selection to protect them-
selves from adverse environmental conditions. The defences are basi-
cally of two types, internal defence mainly dependent on the physiology
of the animal or plant where a series of antidotes are produced in the
case of infection, injury etc. The obvious external defence is the skin
and its modifications. The book describes various defensive measures
and each function is neatly categorised with suitable examples of exhi-
bits and photographs. The mode of defences are divided according to
their functions, such as surface protection, actions, mimicry, weapons
and coloration. Each action and modification is briefly described by
citing living or extinct examples from the animal Kingdom.

This book creates an awareness of the wonderful intricacies of nature
at work, to protect its denizens and underlines the gravity of man’s
responsibility in maintaining proper balance.

S.A.H.

6. ABIES AND PICEA. By K. A. Chowdhury. pp. viii + 46 (24 x
16 cm), with 41 text-figures. New Delhi, 1974. Publications & Informa-
tions Directorate. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Price ?

This publication forms No. 9 in the series of Botanical monographs
published by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New
Delhi, 12 (India). It embodies the morphological studies of the two
genera. Six Indian species of the two genera ( Abies pindrow, A. spec -
tabilis, A. densa and A. delavayi and Picea smithiana and P. spinulosa)
are described in detail. Morphology and anatomy of root, shoot, leaf,
cones, embryology and seed, and cytological studies are reported. The
diseases and economic uses are also given. It includes extensive list of
literature cited.

The publication maintains the excellent standard of the series. It will
be useful to students of gymnospermous plants.

P.V.B.

7. THE WILD FERNS OF MADRAS CITY AND ITS IMME-
DIATE NEIGHBOURHOOD. By M. S. Chandrasekhar. Vol. VIII,
No. 1. New Series, pp. 70 (29 x 25 cm), with 25 plates. Madras, 1972.

REVIEWS

835

Bulletin Government Museum, Madras (Natural History Section).
Price Rs. 7.10.

This is a welcome addition to the knowledge of local ferns of Madras
City and certainly would serve local interests.

The text contains elaborate descriptions of 19 species of ferns, includ-
ing detailed diagnosis of the higher taxa starting from “Plant Kingdom”.
Out of 19 species described author has collected 16 himself, mostly from
Kabakum village (762 m altitude). One was seen in the herbarium of a
local college and two more are taken from earlier published reports.

This publication contains two original contributions from the author

(1) the artificial Key for identification of 19 species of ferns. (2) their
Tamil names. In addition, the author has presented Pichi-Senmoli’s
Classification of Pteridophyta which is confined to the 19 species under
reference and therefore limited in its use. The 25 plates in the volume
are in no way better than Beddome’s ferns of Southern India.

Considerable changes appear to be necessary in the nomenclature
of the species in view of the information available in monographs and
other critical studies e.g.:

(1) Ophioglossum reticulatum L. has been noted as synonymous
with O. nudicaule L.f. Almost every monographer of this genus has
treated them as two distinct species.

(2) Lygodium microphyllum R. Br. is noted as synonymous with
L. scandens (L.) Sw. Holtum has shown it to be a distinct species (See
Flora Malasiana 2(1) :47, 1963).

(3) Adiantum caudatum L. appears with four synonyms: A. hirsu-
tum Bory. A. ciliatum Bl., A. incisum Forsk. and A. capillus Webb.
According to Ghatak, the plant appears to be Adiantum ciliatum Bl.
and all the species cited in the synonymy are distinct taxa. (See, Bull.
Bot. Surv. India, 5(1): 71-77, 1963).

(4) Schizolepton Fee. is shown to be a synonymous with Lindsay a
Dry. ex J. Sm. (Lindsayaceae). Actually it belongs to the family Gymno-
grammaceae and probably allied to Taenitis Willd. (See Amer. Fern
Jour. 50:109-113, 1960).

(5) Diellia Brack, is also shown synonymous with Lindsay a Dry. It
is placed in the family Apleniaceae by Wagner. (See Univer. Calif. Publ.
Bot. 26:1-212, 1952).

(6) Pleopeltis Humb. et Bonpl. is shown to have the following syn-
onyms :

1 . Microsorium Link. (See, Bir and Trikha, Bull. Bot. Surv. India,
10(2): 133-148, 1968).

2. Tectaria Cav. (A genus belonging to family Aspidiaceae).

3. Marginaria Bory. (Genus synonymous with Poly podium L.).

4. Microgramma Presl. (another valid genus).

836 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Considering its price it is certainly worth acquiring by plant lovers of
Madras and other parts of India.

M. A.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. RECORD OF THE BAT SCOTOPHILUS TEMMINCKl

HORSFIELD (VESPERTILIONIDAE) FROM RAJASTHAN

The bat, Scotophilus temmincki Horsfield, although wide spread in
India has hitherto not been recorded from Rajasthan. Recently I ob-
tained a female from eastern Rajasthan (P.W.D. Rest House, Bharat-
pur on 17-X-1973, at night between 8 and 10 p.m. in a mist net). Colour
of fur: rufous brown above, dirty white below. Measurements (in mm)
as follows:

Head and body, 66; ear, 15; tragus, 7; tail, 42; tibia, 19; foot includ-
ing claws, 10; fore arm, 50.

Skull: Total length, 18.2; zygomatic width, 12.5; cranial width, 9;
maxillary width (m3-ra3), 8.3; canine width (c^c1 *), 6; length of upper
tooth row (c-m3), 6.5; length of lower tooth row ( c-m3 ), 7.2; mandi-
bular length, 13.5.

According to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, p. 178-9) 1 S. tem-
mincki is an oriental species with five subspecies of which S. t. wrough-
toni alone occurs in India.

Desert Regional Station, Y. P. SINHA

Zoological Survey of India,

Paota, Jodhpur,

January 24, 1974.

2. MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR OF A DESERT GERBIL

One fine evening, early in July 1974, at about 6 p.m., my son watering
our kitchen garden at our house in the Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur campus, was alarmed by a peculiar noise caused by
movements of some small animals fighting in the dried leaves of the
Lantana hedge. A snake emerged out of the hedge and started climbing
it. Surprisingly, the snake was being chased by a Desert Gerbil. We
1 observed the rodent quickly biting the tail of the snake which was later
identified as Coluber sp. I hit the snake with a stick and as it struggled,
a newborn Gerbil dropped from the mouth of the snake. The mother

1 Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palae-

artic and Indian Mammals, British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London.

838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Gerbil which was watching nearby quickly dashed in and picked up its
offspring by the ‘neck grip’ and retired with it into a nearby burrow.

On examination of the dead snake, it was found that about 15 cm
of its tail had been badly ‘mauled’ by the Gerbil.

The whole incident reflects a strong maternal bond in the Desert
Gerbil for its young even at the risk of its own life.

Central Arid Zone Research K. D. MUTHANA

Institute, Jodhpur,

October 4, 1974.

3. NESTING BEHAVIOUR OF MUS MUSCULUS BACTRIANUS
BLYTH IN THE LABORATORY

{With a text-figure )

Information on nesting behaviour of Mus muse ulus bactrianus Blyth is
meagre and therefore the present study was undertaken. Seven pairs of
mice were kept for 5 to 6 months in cages before the start of the experi-
ments, to acclimatize them to laboratory conditions and to one another.
They were provided with 2 nest-boxes one in each half of the cage. Rice
straw was provided at weekly intervals for building nests. The straw
used for nest-building, either inside or outside the nest-box, was removed
daily and weighed after clearing the nest-boxes and counting the nests.
The nesting behaviour was studied from January to May and during
the reproductive cycles.

1. Nesting behaviour in different months :

(i) Nesting efficiency : The nesting pairs of the mouse used variable
amounts of rice-straw for nest-building and the number of nests also
varied from month to month, the variation being highly significant. The
mean amount of nesting material used per day by one pair (n = 7) de-
creased from 4.536 g in February to 28 mg in May (Table 1). Similarly,
the mean number of nests built per day per pair decreased from 1.05
in February to 0.05 in May (Table 2).

Thus it is clear that as the season warmed up, the frequency as well
as the efficiency for nest-building decreased considerably. Denenberg
et al. ( 1969) 1 reported that when male and female rats were exposed
to cool .ambient temperatures, dowel-shredding for nest-building in-
creased markedly, whereas the exposing of the females to a warm en-
vironment stopped the dowel-shredding behaviour.

(ii) Nesting site : There were only 2 options for the mice to build

1 Denenberg, V. H., Taylor, R. E. & Zarrow, M. X. (1969) : Maternal be-
haviour in the rat. An investigation and quantification of nest building. Beha-
viour, 34:1-16.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

839

the nest, namely inside the nest-box or outside it. The mean (n = 7)
amount of rice-straw used per pair per day over a 5-month period was
1.455 gm in case of nests built inside the nest-box against 0.805 gm
when the nests were built outside it (Table 1). Further, the mean num-
ber of nests built per day per pair in the nesting boxes was 0.45 against
only 0.23 outside it (Table 2).

Amount of nesting material used by Mus musculus bactrianus Blyth for

BUILDING NESTS

Location of the nest Nesting material* (g /day /pair) used in

Average /

Jan.

Feb.

March

April May

day (g)

1. Inside the

nest-box

1.907

3.242

1.080

1.023 0.019

1.455

2 . Outside the

nest-box

1.389

1.294

0.806

0.528 0.009

0.805

Total

3.296

4.536

1.886

1.551 0.028

2.260

Main-treatments (months)
Sub-treatments (Location of
Interaction (Main-treatment

the nest)

X Sub -treatment)

C. D.

p = 0.05 p =

0.05

0.18

0.43

: 0.01

1.11

0.25

0.57

* Mean of 7 pairs.

Frequency

OF NEST

Table 2

building by Mus musculus bactrianus

Blyth

Location of the

nest

Number*

of nests /day /pair

Average /day

Jan.

Feb.

March

;; • ' ' •. -

April

Ma>

r (no.)

1 . Inside the

nest-box

0.55

0.72

0.59

0.36

0.04

0.45

2. Outside the

nest-box

0.33

0.33

0.31

0.18

0.01

0.23

Total

0.88

1.05

0.90

0.54

0.05

0.68

c.

D.

P

= 0.05

p = 0.01

Main- treatments

(months)

0.09

0.13

Sub-treatments (Location

of the nest)

0.09

0.12

* Mean of 7 pairs.

840 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Thus both the number of nests and the weight of the material used
in making them show that the mouse prefers to build the nest inside a
sheltered area. In winter, they preferred to build nests inside the nest-
boxes, whereas in the summer there was no site preference.

2. Nesting efficiency during reproductive cycles :

The amount (mean of 7 parturitions) of rice-straw used was 2.717
gm (n = 29), 6.136 gm (n = 10) and 2.171 gm (n = 11) per day during
pre-parturition, parturition and post-parturition respectively. The nest-
ing efficiency was highest (p = 0.01) at or just before parturition. Be-
fore it, the nesting efficiency increased abruptly, whereas afterwards it
declined slowly (Fig. 1). Denenberg et al. (1969) reported that in rats.

Fig. 1. Amount of rice-straw utilized daily by Mus musculus bactrianus Blyth.

(mean of 7 parturition).

pregnant females showed a marked increase in dowel-shredding at or
just before the time of parturition, and it fell slowly after parturition.
He further mentions that males and non-pregnant females did not show
such a pattern over an equivalent period. The nest-building behaviour
has survival value for the young.

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana,

June 12, 1975.

G. S. MANN
O. S. BINDRA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

841

4. A NOTE ON INTER-PARTURITION INTERVAL OF SOME
CAPTIVE WILD MAMMALS

A sound knowledge of all aspects of reproduction including inter-par-
turition interval of mammals is necessary for their successful breeding
in captivity. It is also necessary for the successful planning of breeding
programmes in Zoological Parks. Available literature revealed that there
are not many reports on this subject. In this communication an attempt
is made to present some information on inter-parturition interval ob-
served among five species of wild mammals at Nandankanan Biological
Park, Orissa during the period from 29-xii-1960 to 31-X-1973.

Observations and discussion

AFRICAN LION {Pant her a leo )

The details of inter-parturition interval observed in two females of
this species are given in Table 1.

Table 1

Name of
the lioness

Date of last
parturition

Date of sub-
sequent par-
turition

Inter-parturition

interval

Period of separa-
tion of the female
from the male
from the date of
last parturition
mentioned in
col. 3

“Chandra-

26.iii.1967

17. vi. 1969

2 years, 2 months

About 18 weeks

kanti”

(1st parturition)

and 21 days

99

17.vi.1969

9xi.l970

1 year, 4 months

About 6 months

and 22 days

9 p

9,xi. 1970

3,iv.l971

4 months and

1 day

24 days

3.iv. 197 1

30.x. 1972

1 year, 6 months

About months

(5th parturition)

and 26 days

“Vijayanti”

8.ii. 1 970

19.vii. 1970

5 months and

About 1 month

(1st parturition)

10 days

»

19.vii.1970

20.X.1971

1 year and 3

About 16 weeks

months

»*

20.x. 1971

17. ix. 1973

1 year, 10 mon-

About 5 months

(4th parturition)

ths and 27 days

From this table it can be seen that the inter-parturition interval ob-
served in seven cases among two lionesses varies from 4 months and 24
days to 2 years, 2 months and 21 days with an average of 1 year, 3
months and 23 days. One female gave birth to five litters in a period
of 5 years and 8 months whereas another female gave birth to 4 litters
in a period of 3 years and 8 months. The minimum intervals of 4 months
and 24 days (144 days) and 5 months and 10 days (160 days) were

842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

possible as the females lost their cubs and were allowed to remain with
the males within about one day and one month respectively from the
date of last parturition.

Young are produced at intervals of at least 18 months to 2 years
(Prater 1971). Asdell (1964) states that two litters may be born in a
year. Most cats have one or two litters a year, the larger species some-
times breed only every two or three years (Walker el al. 1964).

tiger ( Panthera tigris)

The details of inter-parturition interval observed in two females of
this species are given in Table 2.

Table 2

Name of
the tigress

Date of last Date of sub-
parturition sequent par-

turition

Inter-parturition

interval

Period of separa-
tion of the female
from the male
from the date of
last parturition
mentioned
in col. 3

‘Sikha’

30.xii. 1 966 31.vii.1967

(1st parturition)

7 months

About 1 month

55

3 l.vii 1967 10 iv.1971

3 year, 8 months
and 9 days

About 1\ months
(The female was
kept separately
from the male fre-
quently as they
fought)

5 5

1 0. iv. 1 97 1 14 xii. 1972

(4th parturition)

1 year, 8 months
and 3 days

About 9 months

‘Rani’

7.xi.l971 2.iv 1972

(1st parturition)

4 months and
25 days

25 days

>9

2iv.l972 22. vi. 1973

(3rd parturition)

1 year, 2 months
and 19 days

About 9 months

From this it can be seen that the inter-parturition interval observed
in five cases among two tigresses varies from 4 months and 25 days to
3 years, 8 months and 9 days with an average of 1 year, 6 months and
5 days. One female could produce 4 litters in about 6 years whereas
another could produce 3 litters in 1 year and 8 months. The minimum
intervals of 7 months and 4 months and 25 days (164 days) could be
possible as the females lost their cubs and were allowed to remain with
the males within about 1 month and 25 days respectively from the date
of last parturition.

Most cats have one or two litters a year, the larger species some-
times breed only every two or three years (Walker et al. loc. cit.). In the
wild the interval between two successive cubbings is about three years
(Chaturvedi 1970). One tigress of New York Zoological Park produced
11 litters during the period from 1948 to 1959 and that park was in
the practice of weaning the tiger cubs when they were between 3J and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

843

4 months old (Crandall 1965). According to Schaller (1972) in Zoos,
where the cubs are usually removed from the mother at birth, one litter
per year is common. At London Zoo a tigress had 8 pregnancies bet-
ween 1961 and 1964 including 3 births recorded to this female during
1962 (Schaller loc. cit.). Schaller further states that a free living tigress
that loses her cubs in some mishap is able to have a new litter within
about 5 months.

leopard ( Panthera pardus)

The details of inter-parturition interval observed in three females
of this species are given in Table 3.

Table 3

Name of the
leopardess

Date of last
parturition

Date of sub-
sequent par-
turition

Interparturition

interval

Period of separa-
tion of the female
from the male
from the date of
last parturition
mentioned in
col. 3

‘Sundari’

9.iv. 1967
(1st parturition;

1. xii, 1968

>

1 year, 7 months
and 21 days

About 8 months

n

1 .xii. 1 968

4,vi.l969

6 months and
2 days

4 days

4.vi.l969

31.V.1970

1 1 months and
26 days

About 14 weeks

”

31.V.1970

3.viii. 1971

1 year, 2 months
and 2 days

About 14 weeks

99

3.viii. 1 97 1

20. i. 1973
(6th parturition)

1 year, 5 months
and 16 days

About 8 months

*Rupa’

12. vi. 1969
(1st parturition)

2.xi. 1970

1 year, 4 months
and 20 days

About 3 months

*9

2.xi.l970

22,iv.l972

1 year, 5 months
and 19 days

About 13 weeks

22.iv.1972

2.viii, 1973
(4th parturition)

1 year, 3 months
and 10 days

About 5 months

‘Spotty’

20.i. 1 97 1
(1st parturition)

18. vi. 1972

i

1 year, 4 months
and 28 days

About 6 months

9 9

18. vi. 1972

23.vii.1973
(3rd parturition)

1 year, 1 month
and 4 days

About 6 months

From this table it can be seen that the inter-parturition interval ob-
served in ten cases among three female leopards varies from 6 months
and 2 days to 1 year, 7 months and 21 days with an average of 1 year,
2 months and 27 days. One female produced 6 litters in a period of 5
years and 10 months; a second female produced 4 litters in a period of
4 years, and 2 months whereas a third female produced 3 litters in a
period of 2 years and 7 months. The minimum interval of 6 months
and 2 days (184 days) was possible as the female was allowed to remain
with the male within 5 days from the date of last birth.

A panther produced 3 litters in 3\ years in captivity (Prater loc.

844 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

cit.). Walker et al. (loc. cit.) state that most cats have one or two litters
a year, the larger species sometimes breed only every two or three
years.

nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus)

The details of inter-parturition interval observed in three female
nilgais are given in Table 4.

Table 4

Particulars of
famale Nilgai

Date of last
parturition

Date of subse-
quent parturition

Inter-parturi- Remarks
tion interval

Nilgai

“A”

99

99

99

99

99

Nilgai

“B”

Nilgai

“C”

5.ii.l966
(1st parturition)
1 1 . ii. 1 967
13.iii.l968
16,iii. 1969
30. i. 1970
26,xi.l971

3 1 .xii. 1 970
(1st parturition)
l.iv. 1971
(1st parturition)

1 1 .ii. 1967

13,iii.l968
16.iii. 1 969
30 i. 1 970
26.xi.1971
l.ix.l 973
(7th parturition)
12.ii 1972
(2nd parturition)
16.ii.1972
(2nd parturition)

370 days The females re-
mained with the
395 days adult males al-
367 days ong with there

319 days young through-
664 days out the period
644 days of observation.

407 days

320 days

The inter-parturition interval observed in eight cases among the
three females varies from 319 days to 664 days with an average of 436
days. One female produced 7 litters in a period of 7 years and 8 months.

The nilgai breeds immediately after dropping the calves (Asdell loc.
cit.).

blackbuck ( Antilope cervicapra )

The details of inter-parturition interval observed in six cases among
three females of this species are given in Table 5.

Table 5

Particulars of
doe

Date of last
parturition

Date of subsequent
parturition

Inter-partu- Remarks
rition inter-
val

Blackbuck

“A”

Blackbuck

“B”

99

99

Blackbuck

20. 11. 1972

22.11.1972

9.ix.l972
25 iii 1973
25.viii.1972

6.ix.l972

9.ix,1972

25.iii.1973
9.x. 1973
8.iii. 1973

J 98 days The does and
young remained
199 days with adult males
throughout the

196 days period of obser-

197 days vation.

194 days

c

»

8. iii. 1973

23.ix.1973

198 days

From this table it can be seen that inter-parturition interval obser-
ved in this species varies from 194 days to 199 days with an average of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

845

197 days.

In England the blackbuck breeds twice a year (Asdell loc. cit. ) .
One fawn per year appears to be the rule among blackbuck (Schaller
loc. cit.). According to Taibel (1937) one captive doe gave birth to 6
single fawns between June, 1931 and May, 1935 and another to 5 fawns
between October, 1933 and February, 1937, less than a year elapsing
between some births.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

We are grateful to Shri D. N. Choudhury, I.F.S., Chief Conservator
of Forests, Orissa, Cuttack and Shri S. N. Das, I.F.S. Conservator of
Forests, Development Circle, Cuttack for the facilities provided.

Veterinary Asst. Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P.O. Barang,

Distt. Cuttack.

Wild Life Conservation Officer, R. MISRA

Old Secretariat Buildings,

CUTTACK-1,

December 17, 1973.

References

Asdell, S. A. (1964): Patterns of
Mammalian Reproduction, Second
Edition, Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, New York, pp. 491-617.

Chaturvedi, M. D. (1970): The
Felines, National Book Trust, India,
New Delhi, pp. 27.

Crandall, Lee S. (1965): The

Management of Wild Mammals in
Captivity. The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago and London, pp. 359-
677.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of

Indian Animals, Third (Revised) Edi-
tion, Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay, pp. 65-273.

Schaller, George B. (1972) : The
Deer and The Tiger. The University
of Chicago Press, Chicago and Lon-
don, pp. 149-233.

Taibel, A. (1937) : Cited by Schal-
ler, George B. (1972).

Walker, Ernest P. et al. (1964) :
Mammals of the World, Volume II.
The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore,
pp. 1268-1457.

5. OCCURRENCE OF THE BRAHMINY DUCK (T ADORN A
FERRUGINEA ) IN COIMBATORE DISTRICT

A Brahminy Duck was shot by my son on 10-xi-1974 in the Big Tank
at Udumalpet about 45 miles south of Coimbatore Town, from a small
flock of eight ducks which were found in shallow water near the edge
of the Tank.

846 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

This is the first authentic instance, of Brahminy Duck being sighted
and shot in Coimbatore District. The duck weighed 3 lbs. It had no
black ring round the neck.

About the edible qualities of this duck, opinions differ, true to the
maxim “One man’s meat is another man’s poison.” As the first bird
seen and collected here and to ascertain the fact whether it is fit or unfit
for the table, it was plucked and cooked (though I advised skinning).
It was extremely fishy and uneatable. The bird had fed on green algae,
its beak, mouth, throat and gullet were all full of green algae, emitting
a bad odour. On 17-xi-1974 another duck was shot from the same Tank.
This was also without the black necklace and weighed only lbs. It
was skinned and cooked and was fair and quite eatable.

On 22-xi-1974 two more ducks weighing 1 Kg. each, were shot.
These also had no black ring round the neck. One of these was skinned,
cleaned and hung up for a night and then cooked the next morning. It
was very good with no fishy odour at all.

18, Perumal Koil Street, B. SUBBIAH PILLAI

Fort,

Coimbatore 641 001,

December 18, 1974.

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE REDNECKED PHALA-
ROPE ( PHALAROPUS LOBATUS) ON INLAND WATERS IN

BANGALORE

On 30th October 1973, during a session of wader photography from
a hide, I noticed a phalarope in the company of wagtails, sandpipers,
plovers and stints, feeding on marshy ground adjoining a nearby farm.

The bird was extremely wary and did not approach the hide as
closely as did the other birds. It was identified as the Rednecked Phala-
rope Phalaropus lobatus by its fine, blackish bill, dark striped mantle,
and the black legs. The white wing-bar noticeable in flights was not
seen due to the lack of all-round vision from my hide.

The bird, though it did not seem averse to feeding on the mud-bank
with the other birds, seemed to prefer to feed in a small whirpool of
water caused by a waste-outlet pipe discharging into one of the small
pools. The bird was unusually wary in relation with my past experience
of the bird in Scandinavia, and did not come closer than thirty feet from
my camera, permitting only a distant ‘record’ photograph.

The bird was again seen the following day, and four days later on
4th November, though never again after that date. During flight, the
bird showed a wing pattern similar to that of a Little Stint, a dark
upperpart with a noticeable wing bar.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

847

All observations were made through a 500 mm telephoto lens, and
a 10 x 50 field glasses.

163, Domlur Layout, SATISH S. MENON

Bangalore 560 007,

June 22, 1974.

7. CROW-PHEASANT AND FINCH-LARKS

Last summer, while observing partridges with their broods I happened
to see a crow-pheasant sitting on the ground and ducking its head to
escape the insistent aerial attacks of a female finch-lark. The crow-
pheasant had something in its bill and finch-lark was trying to rout the
intruder.

When I moved towards them, the crow-pheasant flew away with its
morsel followed by the finch-lark in hot pursuit.

Nearing the spot. I saw a fresh nest on the ground, with a dead,
partially plucked male finch-lark lying in it. It had a gaping wound on
its head through which the brain was bulging out. By its side there was a
lifeless nestling.

A. J. College, A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

SlVAKASI,

August 2, 1974.

8. A NOTE ON THE SWIFTLETS ( COLLOCALIA ) FOUND IN

BURMA

The systematics of this group have for a long time been confused, be-
cause morphological differences between species are unobtrusive and,
in extreme cases, may even be undetectable. The review by Lord Med-
way (“Field characters as a guide to the specific relations of swiftlets”.
Proc. Linn. Soc. London 111, 2:151-172. 1966) and earlier papers by
the same author have cleared up most of the problems in the group. The
account given in the birds of Burma 2nd edition (1953) is now out
of date, and needs to be revised as indicated below.

Two characters of the living bird, not normally available to the
museum worker, have proved of great taxonomic value.

The first is the ability to orientate acoustically by means of echo-
location. When in flight in darkness or poor light those species possess-
ing the faculty utter a penetrating rattle-like call, composed of an irre-
gular succession of brief clicks, invariably audible to man. C. esculenta
does not utter this call, but all the other Burmese species probably do.

15

848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(3)

though this still has to be positively recorded for most of the subspecies
involved.

The second character is the type of nest built. Swiftlets characteristic-
ally build a ‘bracket-shaped’ nest, in the form of a hanging half-cup in
which extraneous nest material is held together by a more or less copi-
ous application of ‘nest-cement’ produced by the bird’s own salivary
glands. Three main types of nest are built: the ‘vegetable’ or ‘mossy’
nest, the ‘white’ nest, and the ‘black’ nest: and these are described in
more detail below. In different parts of south-east Asia all three types
may be commercially exploited as a source of raw material of ‘bird’s
nest soup’, the chief constituent of which is the edible nest-cement; but
it is the ‘white’ nest, requiring minimal cleaning and preparation before
being cooked, that is by far the most valuable. In Burma this is made
only by the species fuciphaga in the Mergui Archipelago.

Hmalayan Swiftlet

Collocalia brevirostris (McClelland), Assam
Subspecies: brevirostris (McClelland), Assam

rogersi Deignan, Thailand

identification A large swiftlet, wing 123-142 mm. Tarsus lightly
feathered or unfeathered. Tail markedly forked: the difference in
length between the long outer feathers and the short central ones gene-
rally exceeds 15 per cent of the length of the former. In the nominate
race the rump is brownish-grey, clearly differentiated from the blackish-
brown of the rump and mantle. The rattle call is probably uttered, but
so far positively recorded only for the Javan subspecies.

nest and eggs Livesey found the subspecies rogersi breeding in great
numbers in the Shan States in deep fissures in the ground, generally in
the dip between hilltops at about 4,000 feet. Two eggs were taken on
23rd April. The nest has not been described from Burma, but in the
Himalayas and Sumatra is of the vegetable type.

status and distribution Himalayas, Burma, Thailand, Indochina,
south-central and western China; also resident in Java and Sumatra,
but only a winter visitor in Malaya. A bird of the higher hills, normally
breeding from 4,000 feet upwards. Large flocks have been seen at Gang-
fang in the Ngawchang valley from November to March, usually at
dusk, and breeding in the locality is suspected; also seen in the Adung
valley at 8,000 feet in February and March. In four successive years
large numbers appeared over Myitkyina in mid-February during spells
of cold weather with heavy rain. Odd birds have been seen in July and
August.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

849

It is possible that at least some of these birds belonged to the sub-
species innominata Hume, believed to breed in China and migrate south-
wards and westwards in winter, reaching the Andamans (whence the
type specimen came) as a straggler; but it is very difficult to distinguish
from subspecies brevirostris even in the hand (vide Salim and Ripley,
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, Vol. 4, p. 28), and
there is no definite record from Burma to date.

Black- nest Swiftlet

Collocalia maxima Hume, Tenasserim (= lowi)

Subspecies maxima Hume, Tenasserim

identification A large swiftlet, wing 122-136 mm; tarsus heavily
feathered with a distinct row of at least 6 or 7 small feathers on the
outer side and a second row of at least 4 small feathers on the inner
side; tail more or less square, difference in length between the long
outer pair of feathers and the short central pair normally does not ex-
ceed 12 per cent of the length of the former. Rump colour variable.
Rattle-call proved for several supspecies and probably uttered by all.
nest and eggs The nest is of the ‘black’ type, bracket-shaped, incor-
porating feathers from all parts of the plumage of the swiftlets, and
held together by a firm translucent nest-cement without the inclusion
of any vegetable materials. For breeding in the Mergui Archipelago
see under next species.

status and distribution Eastern Himalayas to the Philippines and
south to Sumatra, Java and Borneo. Sympatric with brevirostris except
in Borneo where the latter is absent.

Edible-nest Swiftlet

Collocalia fuciphaga (Thunberg), Java
Subspecies: germani Oustalet, Pulau Condore
inexpectata Hume, Andaman Is.

local name Burmese: zi-we-so

identification A medium-sized swiftlet, wing 110-125 mm, rump
paler than back and tail and marked with dark shaft stripes. In the
plumage of the back there are always white tips to at least some of the
concealed downy barbs at the bases of the feathers. Rattle-call proved
for germani.

nests and eggs The nest is of the ‘white’ type, constructed almost
exclusively of concentric laminae of firm nest-cement; in most nests
a few small swiftlet feathers are found adhering to and partially incor-
porated in the cup. In the Mergui Archipelago the collection of nests

850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

is controlled by the Forest Department under licence. Hopwood (in
THE BIRDS OF THE MALAY PENINSULA Vol. IV, pp. 115-116) describes
nesting in the Mali Islands off the coast of Tenasserim. The nest meas-
ures 2-3 inches across and 1 inch deep, and appears to be made of
silvery-white gelatine, though second nests usually contain more feat-
hers than first nests. C. maxima (he calls it C. innominata ) nests in the
same caves and is the earlier breeder of the two, plastering its nests
at random anywhere above high-water mark from February, a few eggs
being laid in the first week of March; whereas germani always goes to
the top of the cave and does not lay until well on in April. The nest-
collectors take the nests of both species. The eggs are 2 in number.

status and distribution Widespread in S.E. Asia, extending to the
Marianas (but not in the Indian Ocean, e.g. Mauritius, where the spe-
cies is francica) . It has been obtained on islands off the coast west of
Bassein, and is common on the Tenasserim coast and in the Mergui
Archipelago; the subspecies inexpectata has been obtained once in
Tenasserim.

White-bellied Swiftlet

Collocalia esculenta Linnaeus, Amboina
Subspecies; elachyptera Oberholser, Bentinck Is.

identification Characterized by small size (wing not exceeding 107
mm) and by generally blackish upper-parts strongly glossed with blue
or green, and much white on the abdomen. None of the subspecies is
known to utter the rattle-call.

nests and eggs Not described from Burma. Normally the self-support-
ing bracket-shaped nest is of the ‘vegetable’ type, in which a firm trans-
lucent nest-cement is applied in the form of a network of fine threads
to bind together the material of the nest cup, and is copious at the hinge.
The vegetable materials of which the nest cup is constructed may be
very diverse.

Status and Distribution From the Mergui Archipelago through
Malaysia to New Caledonia.

C/o. Westminister Bank Ltd., B. E. SMYTHIES

40, Queen’s Road,

Clifton, Bristol, U.K.,

November 29, 1974.

Note by U Tun Yin, dated 9 May 1974

Launglon Co-operative Society in 1971-72, 350 viss (572040.0 gm), of edible
nests were collected by U Tun Yin. All these were taken over by Trade Cor-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

851

poration, No. 2 (Water Products). The nests are classified into four categories,
the price fixed for each being as follows :-

No. 1 — Kyats 800.00 per viss.

No. 2 — Kyats 700.00 per viss.

No. 3 — Kyats 550.00 per viss.

No. 4 — Kyats 350.00 per viss.

Nests collected prior to 1971-72 under licence were as follows :-

1966- 67 — 526 viss = 859694.4 gm

1967- 68 — 338 viss 1 552427.2 gm

1968- 69 — 328 viss = 536083.2 gm

1969- 70 — 289 viss = 472341.6 gm

1970- 71 — 432 viss = 706060.8 gm

1 viss = 1634.4 gm

1 kyat = c. Rs. 1.35 (Indian currency as on 1974).

9. NOTES ON THE EGG TEETH OF THE HOUSE SWIFT

The egg tooth of birds is an integumentally derived tooth-like protu-
berance or horny tubercle usually found near the distal end of the up-
per mandible at the time of hatching. It is generally believed to function
“in cutting through shell membranes and shell at hatching” (Clark
1961). A variety of supplementary tooth-like structures have been noted
on the lower mandible; a single egg tooth restricted to the lower man-
dible has been reported for several families of birds.. In some groups
of birds the egg tooth is decidedly deciduous and is quickly lost, while
in others it gradually disappears without falling off. The presence, dis-
tribution and timing of egg teeth in birds have been reviewed by Clark
(1961) and Parkes & Clark (1964). Even so, only fragmentary data
exist for the order Apodiformes and this is confined to observations of
a few swifts of the family Apodidae, We present here more detailed
observations of the egg teeth of the House Swift, A pus affinis.

Observations were made of an aged series of preserved young as well
as of numerous living nestlings of a wide variety of ages examined as
part of a study of the post-hatching development of the House Swift.
All of the nest sites were in the vicinity of Baroda, Gujarat, India. Newly
hatched young House Swifts have what appears to be a typical egg tooth
near the distal end of the dorsal surface of the upper mandible. It is
whitish in colour and stands out against the mandible which becomes
appreciably darker during the first week of post-hatching development.
This egg tooth gradually becomes darker and less conspicuous until
it finally disappears by the time the nestling is 13 or 14 days old. A
second tooth-like structure is present on the lower mandible in the form
of a hardened cap to the tip. This protruding structure is noticeably

852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

paler than the adjacent portions of the lower mandible during the first
days of nestling life. This cap gradually disappears but was still obser-
vable in a 16 day old nestling.

Previously (Parkes & Clark 1964), an egg tooth had been noted
on the upper mandible of the Chimney Swift, Chaetura pelagica, and
Pygmy Swiftlet, Collocalia troglodytes, both members of the subfamily
Chaeturinae. Egg teeth on both upper and lower mandibles similar to
those noted here were recorded by Collins (1968:293) for the Short-
tailed Swift, Chaetura brachyura, and also for the Chestnutcollared
Swift, Cypseloides rutilus, a representative of the subfamily Cypseloi-
dinae. The only previous indication of egg teeth in the remaining sub-
family Apodinae, of which the House Swift is a member, is the tooth-
like rudiments noted in the study of the embryonic development of the
Alpine Swift, A pus melba (Burckhardt 1954). The rate of disappearance
of the egg teeth in C. brachyura and C. rutilus was similar to that noted
here for A pus affinis in that they were usually not observable after
the age of 14 days (Collins 1968:293). It now seems clear that the pre-
sence of a typical appearing egg tooth on the upper mandible and a
hardened cap to the tip of the lower mandible is widespread in the Apo-
didae and probably is typical of all species of the family. These struc-
tures are clearly not deciduous and take about two weeks to disappear,
at least in the small to medium sized swifts. Observations on some of
the larger species in the family might be interesting in this respect. At
present no data on the teeth have been presented for the Crested Swifts
(Hemiprocnidae) or the Hummingbirds (Trochillidae). Such informa-
tion on these two remaining families of the order would be interesting,
particularly in the light of the recent revival of interest in the degree of
relationship of these families (Burton 1971).

This study, part of a wider study of the biology and ecology of the
House Swift, has been supported by a Fulbright Research Scholarship
(to C.T.C.) and a research grant awarded (to R.M.N.) by the M. S.
University of Baroda.

Department of Zoology, CHARLES T. COLLINS1

Faculty of Science, RAMESH M. NAIK

M. S. University of Baroda,

Baroda 309 002,

October 23, 1974.

1 Permanent address: Department of Biology, California State University,
Long Beach, California 90840, U.S.A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

853

References

Burckiiardt, D. (1954): Beitrag

zur embryonalen Pterylose einiger nest-
hocker. Rev. Suisse de Zool. 6: 551-
631.

Burton, P. J. K. (1971): Some ob-
servations on the splenius capitis mus-
cle of birds. Ibis 113: 19-28.

Clark, G. A., jr. (1961): The oc-

currence and timing of egg teeth in
birds. Wilson Bull. 75:268-278.

Collins, C. T. (1968): The com-
parative biology of two species of
swifts in Trinidad, West Indies. Bull.
Florida State Mus. 11: 257-320.

Parkes, K. C. & Clark, G. A., jr.
(1964) : Additional records of avian
egg teeth. Wilson Bull. 76: 147-153.

10. ON THE VALIDITY OF RIP ARIA RIP ARIA 1ND1CA TiCE-
HURST AND EXTENSION OF RANGE OF RIP ARIA RIP ARIA
1JIMAE (LONNBERG)

In 1916, Ticehurst (Ibis: 70) separated Collared Sand Martins Ripa-
ria riparia (Linnaeus) resident in the Punjab as indica, distinguishing
them from diluta (Sharpe & Wyatt, type locality Tashkent) by their
smaller size, shallower fork in tail and less distinct (sometimes absent)
band across the breast. In the fauna, Stuart Baker accepted this sub-
species but under the name subsoccata Adams treating indica as a syn-
onym. There was some discussion regarding the validity of the name
subsoccata but subsequent authors have dropped the subspecies con-
sidering it as synonymous with diluta.

While cataloguing the birds of the Bombay Natural History Society
Collection, 11 specimens (\6d d 5$$:- 1 Attock, 3 Campbellpur,
2 Rawalpindi, 2 Madhopur, Gurdaspur, Punjab; 1 Okhla, Delhi; 2 Manj-
haul, Monghyr District, Bihar) could be separated from 8 others (5 d d

1 9 2 o?:- 1 Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan; 2 Chitral, NWFP, 1 Jagadhri,
Ambala, 1 Tara Devi 7000' Patiala, Punjab; 1 Khahi, Pithoro, Sind;

2 Nandur-Madhmeshwar, Nasik, Maharashtra) on the characters men-
tioned above. The former were collected between 14th December and
9th February and several of the specimens are marked as having en-
larged gonads, or even shot off eggs, leaving little doubt that they repre-
sent a distinct form resident in Northern India over which area diluta
was also found as a non-breeding visitor.

Nine more specimens (3dd 2$ $ 4o?:- 2 Rham, 14700', Tibet,
1* Nal, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, 1* c. 15 m off Bassein, 1 Mahim, Bom-
bay, 1 Thana District, Maharashtra; 2 Manjhaul, Monghyr District,
Bihar, 1 Kaziranga, Assam) are now identified as ijimae (Lonnberg)
for their darker upperparts and slightly longer tails. The identification
of two marked * has been confirmed by Mr. Gorman Bond at Smith-
sonian Institution.

854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

The 3 subspecies measure :-

Wing

Bill

Tail

diluta

tfc?

(5)

101-104 (103)

6- 1-7*2

43-47 (45*4)

(IH

(99) 102-108

c.6

48-51)

indica

cfd1

(6)

90-95 (92-8)

6*4-7*2 (6*9)

37-40 (38*4)

ijimae

cfcJ1

(3)

101,105,106

6*7,7. 2

46,47,47

(c?9

99-107

c.5-6

49-5 )

diluta

9 (1)

97

-

45

IH

102-108

c.6

46-5 )

indica

9 9

(5)

92-95

6*2-6*7

37-42 (40*2)

ijimae

9 9

(2)

102-106

7*1,-

50,53

The occurrence of diluta in the Bombay-Deccan and of ijimae in
Gujarat, around Bombay and in Bihar add to and clarify the known
distribution of both subspecies.

75, Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

Bombay 400 003,

March, 7, 1975.

11. ON THE VALIDITY OF LANIUS SCHACH KATH1A-
W AREN SIS KOELZ

Koelz (1950:7) separated Lanius schach from “Rajputana, Kathia-
war and possibly also Sind” as kathiawarensis (Type locality Juna-
gadh, Kathiawar) as “similar to L. s. erythronotus and L. s. caniceps
but grey on back paler than in either, and rufous on the back less ex-
tensive than in L. s. erythronotus but generally more than in L. s. cani-
ceps”. Biswas (1950:449) accepted it from Sind, Rajputana, and Kathia-
war, and repeated the description.

Subsequently, Salim Ali (1954:781) and Ripley (1961:262) includ-
ed it with caniceps, as has been done again in Ali & Ripley (1972:96).

As caniceps merges into erythronotus and the migrations of the
latter regularly lead to both races being together in the same area, some
individuals are difficult to identify with certainty. Together with this,
the description of kathiawarensis is perhaps not very convincing; but
an actual comparison of six specimens in the collection of the Bombay
Natural History Society [4 Kutch, 1 Bombay, and 1 Simla (?)] with
other specimens of the species in the collection (58 erythronotus, 15
caniceps ) shows a striking difference. In addition to the grey on the
back, the rufous on the rump is paler and more restricted than in both
these subspecies. On this material and for the reasons given, I would
confirm the validity of kathiawarensis.

Of the 4 specimens from Kutch (2 c? c? 29 9), three were shot off
nests in August; the fourth was obtained on 21st March. The breeding

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

855

birds are marked caniceps and the last erythronotus by Salim Ali with
the note that the identifications are by Meinetzhagen, which opinion
he (Salim Ali) confirms in the text (1954:782).

Specimen No. 4691 is marked “Simla, July 1886, Capt. Anderson”.
In the first list of members of the Society published in Vol. 1 of the
Society’s Journal (January 1886), there are several persons of this name
including a Capt. W. R. Anderson from Simla. Later on p. 12 in “Cata-
logue of Birds as yet in the Collection of the BHNS” is listed one speci-
men of Lanius erythronotus donated by Col. W. B. Thomson from
Kashmir. In the July number of the same volume is another list of
birds presented by A. T. H. Newnham but whose origin is not men-
tioned. Newnham contributed several notes from Kutch. The list in-
cludes a specimen of this species, as also other species likely to be found
in that area. Subsequent numbers of the Journal were examined but
though specimens sent in by members are mentioned in some detail,
no reference to this species from Simla and/or from Capt. Anderson
is traceable. In view of the improbability of the distinct subspecies res-
tricted to Kutch and its immediate neighbourhood, being found so far
away as Simla, I would suggest that there has been some mix-up among
the labels and this specimen may originally have been from Kutch too.

The Bombay bird, obtained by A. Brosset near Thana on 6th Feb-
ruary, 1964, is the only evidence of this race being migratory, unlike
caniceps which is sedentary and whose movements, if any, are very
restricted.

75 Abdul Rehman Street, HUMAYUN ABDULAL1

Bombay 400 003,

October 21, 1974.

References

Koelz, W. (1950): New Birds from
Asia. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1452.

Ali, Salim (1954) : Birds of Guja-
rat, Pt. 2, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
52:735-802.

& Ripley, S.D. (1972):

Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan, together with those of Ne-
pal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. Vol.
5. Bombay.

Biswas, B. (1950): On the Shrike
Lanius tephronotus (Vigors) with
remarks on the erythronotus and trico-
lor groups of Lanius schach Linn, and
their hybrids, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 49:444-455.

Ripley, S.D. (1961) : A Synopsis of
the Birds of India and Pakistan, to-
gether with those of Nepal, Sikkim,
Bhutan and Ceylon. Bombay Natural
History Society.

856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

12. FURTHER NOTE ON THE PAIR FORMATION OF THE
COMMON MYNA, ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS

The existence of life long pair bond among birds is still shrouded in
mystery. Although a number of bird species have been said to pair for
life there is little concrete evidence (Van Tyne & Berger 1959). How-
ever, Lack (1940) cited a number of example of bird species which
were suspected to pair for life. In the present paper I would like to re-
cord the preliminary findings on the multi-year pair bond among the
Common Myna as observed at Santiniketan, W. Bengal, India from 1969-
1973. The presentation of this paper was felt necessary since it gave
some new information on the duration of the pair bond in birds as
envisaged in the Common Myna and since there was little reliable data
on the subject.

In a previous paper (Sengupta 1968) I mentioned that pair forma-
tion among the Common Myna ‘takes place in the early spring and
dissolves after the young have been raised’, i.e. for a period of 4-5
months. Incidentally, its breeding period ranged from April to June and
parental bond with the young ended around the middle of August.

However, my conclusion on the pair bond was then based largely
on observations and by ringing four nesting pairs at Sinthee and Ber-
hampore, W. Bengal. In April 1970, ten nesting pairs were colour ringed
(Pair No. 1-10). They were found in pairs even after the dissociation
of the parental bond around the last week of August. They were not
defending a territory after the young had left and explored food as and
where available. Their bond continued through winter when they roost-
ed as usual on the communal roosting site among the foliage of trees
situated at the southern outskirt of the University campus. In April
1971 all the ringed pairs (1-10) established breeding territories and
nested with the old partners and successfully raised young. Being stimu-
lated by this result in June 1971 another 20 nesting pairs (P. No. 11-
30) were ringed. Regular observations were made to spot the different
ringed pairs and their behaviour noted. This showed the repetition of
the last year’s observation. During late April 1972 when territory was
established by Pair No. 1 — 30 of 1970-71, it was noted that partner of
Pair No. 2 was nesting with an unringed bird. But it was not known
whether the change of mate was necessitated by the desertion of the
partner or by its death. However, in May 1972 another 24 nesting pairs
(P. No. 31-54) were ringed. From 1972 onward regular observation
was restricted to four pairs (P. No. 4, 7, 12, 18) which fed mostly
around my residence to note the daily association of the individual pairs.
May 1973 saw the nesting of the ringed birds with their old partners
except Pair No. 16 and 20. These two pairs could not be located. Ano-
ther 10 pairs (P. No. 55-64) were ringed in June 1973. In February

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

857

1974 I made a thorough survey to locate all the ringed Myna at different
regions of Santiniketan in seven different days spending a total of 6
hours (Average) daily. This resulted in observation of the individual
ringed pairs feeding, roosting and performing other function together
during most of the time. During the nesting season of 1973 Pair No.
2, 8, 35 & 40 acquired old territories and others established new terri-
tories as usual. The return to the old territory was presumably a chance
affair.

Careful observation on the un-ringed Myna population also clearly
showed the continuance of the pair bond beyond the breeding season.
As one could find the Common Myna feeding, moving, returning to the
roost in two throughout the year.

ft was also interesting to mention that Pair No. 8 continued occupy-
ing and defending its breeding territory through the winter of 1973 and
was doing the same till the writing of this note. This pair fed mostly in
and around its territory. But none of the other ringed Mynas occupied
territory beyond the breeding season though they maintained the pair
bond throughout the year.

Therefore it could be concluded from the present investigation that
the pair bond in the Common Myna extends for several years (may be
for life) and there is possibility of other birds of this family doing the
same.

Dept, of Zoology, S. SENGUPTA

Visva-Bharati University,

Santiniketan, W. Bengal, India,

October 9, 1974.

References

Lack, D. (1940) : Pair-formation in
Birds. Condor 42: 269-286.

Sengupta, S. (1968): Studies in the
life of the Common Myna, Acrido-

theres tristis (Linn.) 1. Breeding Bio-
logy, Proc. Zool. Soc. Cal. 27:1-27.

Van Tyne, J. & Berger, J. (1959) :
Fundamentals of Ornithology. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

13. OCCURRENCE OF BANK MYNA ACRIDOTHERES
G1NG1NIANUS (LATHAM) IN VISAKHAPATNAM (A.P.)

A small group of Bank mynas were seen feeding among the Tephrosia
undergrowth near Lawsons bay colony in Visakhapatnam on 20th Feb-
ruary, 1974.

Again on 29th August, 1974, I saw them more or less in the same
area and Mr. K. S. R. Krishna Raju confirmed their identity.

858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

The synopsis (1961) mentions that it wanders as far south as
Madras and the handbook (5:181) records a report of a lone specimen
from Madras, adding that the bird might perhaps be a cage bird. In
the absence of any published date on its occurrence in Andhra this
record adds Northern Andhra to its known range of distribution.

C/o Principal, K. J. N. G. SANKAR

Sri L. Bullayya College,

A. U. Campus,

VlSAKHAPATNAM 3 (A.P.),

September 6, 1974.

14. CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF A LOTEN’S SUNBIRD
t NECTAR1NIA LOTENIA )

Early in the morning on 26 February, 1974, two or more nestlings of
the Tailor Bird ( Orthotomus sutorius ) had left their nest in a small
plant at the foot of a wall in the large open plot just north of our house
in Trivandrum, Kerala State.

At 1115 hours, my wife, who combines her bird watching with her
outdoor household jobs, noted a family of Tailor Birds on a small tama-
rind tree in our backyard and summoned me. There was one juvenile
only and the parents were hopping about around it in some excitement
and uttering an incessant chit-chit-chit-tit-tit-tit note.

Just then a male Loten’s Sunbird in eclipse plumage came and be-
gan probing the juvenile Tailor Bird’s vent with its long bill. The chick
responded by begging for food. The sunbird not only pecked at and
prodded the cloaca of the Tailor chick, but quite frequently pulled the
latter’s almost invisible stub-tail. At times the sunbird took hold of the
chick’s short primaries one at a time and tugged so hard that the chick
had a hard time of retaining its hold on the perch. Strangely enough,
the parents who were close by made no move to drive the sunbird away.
Only when the sunbird withdrew some distance from the chick would
one or the other parent Tailor fly at the sunbird.

The parents appeared to be trying to lead the chick to a more
sheltered place. Our presence could also have had something to do with
the reluctance of the parent birds to go too near their chick.

The harassed juvenile tried to escape the attentions of the sunbird
by fluttering from one twig to another, out the sunbird was most per-
sistent and as soon as the chick had settled down on a perch started
probing, prodding and pecking again!

The Tailor Bird family sought refuge in a thickly foliaged Cassia
fistula which was a few yards away from the tamarind tree. Still the
sunbird followed and began its antics again. Just then we noted an adult

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

859

Tailor Bird coaxing a second juvenile along our roof of the Cassia. Here
the sunbird was still busy with juvenile No. 1 which had by then begun
alternately to beg for food from and make sudden lunges at its tormen-
tor. The sunbird occasionally sat above juvenile No. 1 and hung head
down to poke the vent of the poor chick as though it were seeking
nectar from a pendent flower.

Meanwhile a parent had fed juvenile No. 2 a few times. The sun-
bird now transferred its attentions to juvenile No. 2 which, however,
was much more agile than No. 1 and kept jumping from twig to twig.
The parents had meanwhile fed juvenile No. 1. The sunbird suddenly
left juvenile No. 2 and returned to No. 1. The chick flew to a mango
tree close by, with the sunbird in pursuit. One of the parents made a
feeble and futile attempt to drive away the sunbird.

Unfortunately, neither my wife nor I could continue watching be-
yond 1150 hrs., but we noted that soon after we had gone in the chit-
chit-chit-tit-tit notes of the parents ceased.

What could the sunbird have been after? Did it mistake the pink
and red vent of the juvenile Tailor Bird for a flower and probe it, dis-
covering in the process that some fluid exuded from it? Was that the
reason for its persistent pursuit of the chick? Does any fluid ooze from
the chick’s vent? If so, does it increase in quantity soon after the chick
is fed?

It will be interesting to know others have observed such behaviour
on the part of a sunbird or any other bird.

University College, K. K. NEEL AK ANT AN

Trivandrum,

May 29, 1974.

15. WESTERNMOST RECORD OF THE SCARLET FINCH
HAEMATOSPIZA SIP AH I

Reading through the tenth Volume of the handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan I find that the range of the Scarlet Finch Haema-
tospiza siphahi has been given as “The Himalayas from Central Nepal....

east through Darjeeling ”. In the summer of 1957 our family had

gone on a pilgrimage to Kedarnath and Badrinath in May. I had been
walking ahead of our party and on the final climb up the valley to the
shrine of Kedarnath, I scanned a cliff at a sharp turn in the track and
my gaze was arrested by a brilliant scarlet bird perched in the morning
sunlight on a sprig. Nearby was the dull less attractive female. I was
in admirable position to take in all the characteristics and watched the
birds for about twenty minutes. Having seen the bird illustrated in
Gould’s monumental work, the birds of asia and having taken a close

860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

up colour photograph of the illustration, I immediately recognised the
living birds in my view.

Shivrajkumar who followed a little later immediately noticed the bird
which flew away. The altitude we saw the pair in May was about 8,000'.
The forests on the mountains above were mainly oak admixed with
Rhododendron. I am certain that the bird occurs vary much to the west
in suitable habitats.

It is quite apparent that in a large country like ours, the exact
ranges of birds will be extended as more and more people take to ob-
serving birds send in their information to the Society. Equally true is
the fact that many more species must be becoming rare or totally exter-
minated as the habitat is being damaged by exploitation by Man.

C/o. World Wildlife Fund-India, LAVKUMAR J. KHACHER
Hornbill House, Opp. Lion Gate,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

January 7, 1975.

16. OBSERVATIONS ON A YOUNG CHEQUERED KEELBACIC
SNAKE ( XENOCHROPH1S PI SC AT OR)

The snake was captured in a stream near Poona on 30-vi-1974. The best
efforts at measuring its length put this at about ten inches. When it was
released into another stream on 6-X-1974, the length was estimated at
fourteen inches. The body remained very slender throughout the period
of captivity. During these 98 days the snake was kept in a circular glass
fish-bowl 9\ inches in diameter and the same in depth. Three small
tiles were piled up in the centre of the bowl in such a way as to leave
a hiding-place beneath the lowest tile, and sufficient space all round for
swimming. Water was added until the surface of the topmost tile was
just clear. It was soon found necessary to cover the mouth of the bowl
with wire gauze in order to prevent escape. Small “minnows” ranging
in length from about \ inch to 2 inches were introduced into the bowl
from time to time. These were taken, sometimes at once, sometimes after
a few days, and sometimes even when dead. Feeding took place both
by day and by night. Very small fishes were usually ignored, even when
the snake must have been hungry. The preferred length was observed
to be from 1 to \\ inches. Average daily consumption seemed to be
about four fishes.

Usually the selected fish would be closely but cautiously approach-
ed and then seized by a sudden dart. Seizure would be by the head,
middle or tail. Fish were swallowed most easily from a head seizure,
but could also be swallowed, after a struggle, from the tail. Once a fish

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

861

that was presumably found too lively was lifted and swallowed out of
the water; otherwise, all were devoured under water.

So long as the snake remained motionless (as it often did with its
head and fore-part perpendicular in the manner of a stalk of water-
grass) the fishes showed not the least fear of their predator, and would
approach quite close. This lack of fear was equally shown when the
snake gently undulated its upper part like a swaying weed.

Skins were sloughed on about 17 July, 7 August, 10 September and
6 October. Dates must be approximate, since the sloughed skins were
so inconspicuous in the water that they may not have been noticed un-
til a day or so after being cast.

The snake settled down in captivity quite readily. At first it spent
nearly all the time hiding under the lowest tile, only coming out to
breathe or feed. It was at first easily scared by any movements outside
the bowl, but after a few days it grew used to these.

In the early morning it was often found resting on the top tile out
of water. At night it often climbed up to the mouth of the bowl, where it
would lie, well concealed, around the inner rim; hence the necessity of
keeping the bowl covered with wire gauze. Once, when the cover was
accidentally left off for some time, the snake escaped from the bowl and
was found lying on the shelf at a distance of one foot or so. When I
seized it by the middle, it made as if to bite, but did not actually do so;
instead, it sprayed some foul-smelling liquid — presumably, excreta —
over my hand before I could replace it in the bowl.

When coming up for air, the snake would thrust its head clear of
the water and “drink” the air by working the muscles of its throat. On
17 July, a little before the first sloughed skin was detected, it pushed
its head above water and yawned several times.

The snake was released because I could no longer spare the time
to catch a constant supply of minnows. Eventually, of course, it would
have grown too large for the bowl. For anyone with the time and re-
sources to maintain a food supply, a juvenile Water-snake can be re-
commended as an unusual and interesting pet.

It is non-poisonous and — in my own experience — non-aggressive.

Dev Kunj, THOMAS GAY

Prabhat Road,

Poona 411004,

January 10, 1975.

862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

17. A SNAKE-TOAD INCIDENT

Humayun Abdulali’s note [/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2): 463] re-
minds us that during the rainy season of 1966, a male Green Keelback
(Macropisthodon plumbicolor Cantor) was found struggling inside the
campus of the Veterinary Dispensary at Chandaka, Puri District, Orissa.
The animal was secured and found to be about 51 cm long and had
the left forelimb of a Common Toad (Bufo melanostictus) piercing the
right abdominal wall at the 66th ventral scale.

It would appear that such accidents occasionally happen and we
may also, refer to an interesting note on ‘The Biological Control of
Dung’ in the Scientific American for April 1974, p. 179, where D. F.
Waterhouse mentions a Dung Beetle ( Onthophagus cunniculatus ) which
broke through the body of a small Australian toad which had swallowed
it!

Zoological Survey of India, S. BISWAS

Calcutta 700 013.

Nandankanan Biological Park, L. N. ACHARJYO

P.O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack,

Orissa,

September 12, 1974.

18. MARSH CROCODILE CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS
IN THE GIR
(With a photograph)

The Indian marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) has been wiped out
in most of its former range. It survives now in only the most remote
and protected areas. The following information was obtained through
a three day survey of the crocodile population in Kamleshwar Lake
inside the Gir Sanctuary, Gujarat, in June, 1974.

Night counts were made on 13-vi-1974 and 16-vi-1974 by slowly
walking around the banks of the lake and shining a powerful torch from
eye level to catch the eye reflection of crocodiles. On 13-vi- 1974 a total
of 27 crocodiles were observed from midnight to 4 a.m., 15 on the banks
and 12 in the water. On 14-vi-1974 observations made during daylight
from the top Kamaleshwar Dam showed seven crocodiles. On the night
of 16-vi-1974 a total of 29 crocodiles were spotted between 6 p.m. and
midnight, 14 were on land (‘night basking’) and 15 were in the water.

Some crocodiles were approached within 3 metres but most fled
when 12 to 15 metres away. There has been no previous census or stu-
dies undertaken on the crocodiles in this lake but it appears to be an

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

863

Photo. Crocodylus palustris (adult male).

important population that deserves more attention and management
as a natural gene pool for this rapidly dwindling reptile.

Indian Youth Association ANN JOSEPH

for Conservation. EKLAVYA CHAUHAN

ICUSHAL KHANNA

Madras Snake Park Trust, R. WHITAKER

Madras 600 022,

December 3, 1974.

19. FURTHER ADDITIONS TO THE FISH FAUNA OF THE

CHILICA LAKE

A list of the fish fauna of the Chilka lake numbering 118 given by Hora
(1923). Jones & Sujansinghani (1954) considered only 112 as valid
species out of the 118 species listed by Hora as six were synonyms
of recorded species. -Koumans (1941) added one Gobiid fish from the
lake, thus bringing the number to 113. Jones & Sujansinghani (op. cit.)
presented 25 new records, raising the total number of species recorded
from the lake to 138. Later Roy & Sahoo (1957) added 14 more spe-
cies, bringing the total to 152.

We recorded the following eight additional species from the Chilka
lake while operating gill nets in the outer channel, inspecting catches

16

864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

from mass fishing (‘Kotha Bahani’) near the lake mouth and studying
fish landing composition in the Chilka lake during 1972-73.

The fish collection reported in this note was made during May-
November, 1972 and December, 1972- January, 1973. The first three
species are fresh-water in origin and others marine forms.

Family Clariidae
Oarias batrachus (Linn.)

This mud dwelling fish was found in catches from Bhusandapur-
Kaluparaghat area and along Balugan shore during the months of May
to July, and was caught in appreciable quantities from the shallow mud
flats of the lake near Kaluparaghai during June, 1972. Size range of
146 to 245 mm. Local name: Magura.

Family Cyprinidae

Labio calbasu (Ham.)

Three of the Indian major carps ( Labio rohita, Catlci catla and
Cirrhina mrigala ) were earlier recorded from the Chilka lake (Jones &
Sujansinghani, op. cit.; Roy & Sahoo, op. cit.). This major carp ( Kala -
bainshi) was found in the catches from the northern sector of the lake
in the vicinity of the river Daya during the months of June to Septem-
ber. It is probably brought in by the monsoon floods. The species is
capable of tolerating certain degree of salinity. The largest specimen
observed at Kaluparaghat was 287 mm.

Family Notopteridae
Notopterus chitala (Ham.)

Stray catches of this species were observed during the monsoon
months near Kaluparaghat and in the vicinity of the river Daya in the
northern sector of the lake. A few specimens observed in the fish land-
ings at Kaluparaghat during August, 1972 were in the size range 110-
157 mm. These juveniles were perhaps brought into the lake by the
flooded rivers. Local name: Chitala.

Family Carangidae

Caranx gallus (Linn.)

This fish was observed in the mass fishing (‘ Kotha bahani) catches
of the ‘Nolia’ fishermen in outer channel near the lake mouth during
the winter months. This marine species is probably a stray visitor from
the sea and its distribution in the outer channel extended up to Mirja-
pur according to the fishermen. It is sold in the miscellaneous group of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

865

fishes. The average size of 4 specimens collected was 127 mm. Local
name: Jhanjara.

Caranx lepfolepis (Cuv. & Val.)

A number of specimens of this species were collected from mass
fishing catches from the outer channel near Kalabanta. It does not form
a fishery in the lake and is sold under miscellaneous group of fishes. The
average size of the collected specimens was 153 mm. Local name:
Kami.

Caranx gyinnostethoides (Blkr.)

Three specimens of this species were collected from the mass fish-
ing by ‘Nolia’ fishermen near the lake mouth in the outer channel dur-
ing January, 1973. Its catch was insignificant and rare. Local name:
Kanti.

Family Leiognathidae
Equnia splendens (Russell)

This marine species was found in Khadijal catches near Arakhakuda
in the outer channel but its catch was insignificant. The specimen was
also collected from the Khadijal catch near Keshpur which was a rare
occurrence along the western shore of the lake. The specimens obser-
ved in the outer channel ranged in size from 63 to 84 mm. Local name:
Karachandi

Family Uranoscopidae
ichthyscopus Snerme (Swainson)

Five specimens of this species were caught in the gill net in the outer
channel near the lake mouth and at Arkhakuda during January, 1973.
It is a marine species and rare in the lake catches. As reported by the
local fishermen, the species is not found in the upper reaches of the
outer channel where salinity is comparatively low. The collected speci-
mens were in the size range 182-288 mm. Local name: Balighumara.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

We are grateful to Dr. P. M. Misra, Director of Fisheries, Orissa
for his kind permission to publish this note and to Shri K. C. Pati, As-
sistant Director of Fisheries for his help in this study.

Chilka Biological Station, S. K. MOHANTY

Balugaon,

Orissa,

October 30, 1973.

866 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

References

Hora, S. K. (1923): Fauna of the
Chilka Lake, Fish. Pt. V. Mem. Ind.
Mus., V (II); 757-770.

Jones, S. & Sujansinghani, K. H.
(1954) : Fish and Fisheries of the

Chilka lake with statistics of fish cat-
ches for the years 1948-50. Ind. J.

Fish., 1 (1 & 2): 256-343.

Koumans, F. P. (1941): Gobiid

fishes of India. Mem. Ind. Mus., V
(II): 737-770.

Roy, J. C. & Sahoo, N. (1957) :
Additions to the fish fauna of the
Chilka lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
54(4) : 949-95 3.

20. NEW RECORDS OF PRAWNS FROM LAKE PULICAT WITH
NOTES ON THEIR DISTRIBUTION

Lake Pulicat is a marine fauna dominated brackish water system on the
east coast of India. It is one of the chief sources of fish supply to Mad-
ras City (Moses 1923). A preliminary survey of the flora, fauna and
fisheries of the Lake Pulicat was made by Chacko et al. during the
years 1951-52. This note deals with additional records of prawns from
Lake Pulicat.

Altogether 23 species were recorded during the years 1966-68 are
listed.

Family Penaeidae

1 . Penaeus indicus M. Edw.

2. P. monodon Fabricius

3. P. semisulcatus de Haan

4. P. japonicus Bate

5. P. merguiensis de Man

6. Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius)

7. M. dobsoni (Miers)

8. M. brevicornis (M. Edw.)

9. M. affinis (M. Edw.)

10. M. burkenroadi Kubo

11. Metapenaeopsis stridulans (Alcock)

12. Parapenaeopsis nana (Alcock)

13. P. cornuta maxillipedo Alcock

Family Sergestidae

14. Acetes erythraeus Nobili

Family Palaemonidae

15. Macrobrachium rude (Heller)

16. M. scabriculum (Heller)

17. M. malcolmsoni (M. Edw.)

18. M. lamarrei (M. Edw.)

19. Periclimenes indicus Kemp

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

867

Family Alpheidae

20. Alpheus malabaricus Fabricius

21. A. paludicola Kemp

22. Ogy rides striaticauda Kemp

Family Crangonidae

23. Pontophilus hendersoni Kemp

Seven (1 to 3, 6, 7, 14, 21) of the 23 prawns and shrimps listed
above have been recorded by previous workers (Chacko et al. op. cit.).
The majority of the forms are marine in origin. The freshwater com-
ponent of the fauna is very poor (15 to 18). The dominance of marine
forms is presumably the result of its proximity to the Bay of Bengal,
absence of large rivers draining into the Lake, dry weather conditions
prevailing for about 8-9 months in a year and low rainfall.

It is of interest to note that the prawn, Parapenaeopsis cornuta maxil-
lipedo entered the lake only during the period April to August. Meta -
penaeus burkenroadi is a new record for Cochin backwater (M. J.
George 1964) but in the Lake Pulicat it occurs throughout the year
forming a minor commercial fishery.

Several immature specimens of Penaeus semisulcatus showed both
developing petasma and thelycum, a character in hermaphrodites, as
observed in Lake Chilka (Subrahmanyam 1966). Two specimens measur-
ing 117 mm and 88 mm showed fully developed petasmal folds (not
yet fused) and thelycum. The cause of the prevalence of hermaphroditic
individuals only in P. semisulcatus is not clearly understood.

The bulk of the commercial prawn catch is composed of seven spe-
cies: Penaeus monodon, P. indicus, P. semisulcatus, Metapenaeus mono -
ceros, M. dobsoni, M. affinis and M. burkenroadi, of which Penaeus
indicus is the predominant species, contributing on the average 300
tonnes (60% of the total prawn catch). Detailed investigations on the
biology of these forms have been made and will be published else-
where.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Dr. V. J. Jhingran, Director, Central Inland
Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, for encouragement.

Central Inland Fisheries M. SUBRAHMANYAM1

Research Institute,

Barrackpore,

January 4, 1974.

1 Present Address : Fisheries Training Institute, Kakinada P.O., (A.P.).

868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

References

Chacko, P. I., Abraham, J. G. &
Andal, R. (1953) : Report on a sur-
vey of the flora, fauna and fisheries
of the Pulicat lake, Madras State, In-
dia, 1951-52. Cont. Freshwater Fish.
Biol. Stat., Madras 5:1-20.

George, M. J. (1964) : On the oc-
currence of Metapenaeus burkenroadi
Kubo (Family Penaeidae, Crustacea,

Decapoda) in Indian waters. J. mar.
biol. Ass. India 6(2) : 313-314.

Moses, S. T. (1923) : A statistical
account of the fish supply of Madras.
Madras Fish. Bull. 75:131-166.

Subrahmanyam, M. (1966) : New
records of prawns from the Chilka
lake with notes on their distribution.
Sci. Cult. 52(7): 379-380.

21. BEHAVIOUR DURING ECDYSIS AND THE MODE OF
ECLOSION FROM EGG IN LOBELLA ( PROPEANURA )
COR ALLIN A (IMMS, 1912) (COLLEMBOLA:
NEANURXDAE)

There is no information avaliable in literature on the moulting beha-
viour and the mode of eclosion from eggs for any species of Lobelia.
What little is known mostly concerns other genera of Neanuridae.

Material and Method

The species is common in and around Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh
and the examples studied from various localities agree with the original
description and the redescription given by Yosii (1966), in all details,
except in the median tooth of the mandible which is little exaggerated
than what was depicted by Yosii (loc. cit.) from Ceylonese examples.

In the second week of July, 1965, an attempt was made to set up a
culture with five specimens ( 1 $ and 4 S d ) in a pair of petridish with
some semi-humified leaf-litter, brought from the locality where the spe-
cimens were collected (Sahasradhara Hills, Yamuna Forest Division,
Dehra Dun, U.P.). Moist filter papers were placed on the floor of the
rearing petridish and on the inner surface of the cover to maintain re-
quisite moisture in the culture. Pieces of bread, soaked in water, were
used as food for the species.

Biology

The species in nature is found underneath decaying leaf-litter, satu-
rated with moisture. It is bright coral-red in colour and is usually slug-
gish in habit and when disturbed shows a tendency to go deeper into
the litter. Females are conspicuously larger than the males and in any

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

869

population the males outnumber the females. They are mostly sapro-
phagous and thrive on the juices of humid litter. When any portion of
the body is touched, the insect reacts by falling on its side and twisting
its abdomen and regains its normal posture the next moment.

Pre- and Post-moulting behaviour

Collembolans undergo ecdysis often in their life. Just on the eve of
ecdysis, the individual becomes passive and rarely moves even when
disturbed. It usually rests on the ground supporting itself on its antennae
with the head depressed on the ground and the body parallel to the
ground. The colour fades. After about 6-7 hours, a movement of alter-
nate contraction and relaxation both antero-posteriorly and dorso-vent-
rally starts at the thorax and a wave of contraction and relaxation,
elevation and depression engulfs the entire body in quick succession.
At last the skin ruptures at the right side near the junction of head and
thorax and the insect emerges out of the skin by first extricating its head
and thorax from the ruptured cuticle. Later on, it frees its legs from the
skin and with the help of antennae and legs the whole insect comes out.

Post-moulting behaviour of the insect varies and can be summaris-
ed as follows: In general, all individuals after moulting contract, relax
and sometimes curl the body and sometimes lie on their back with the
legs showing no movement. The insects, start normal locomotion after
15 minutes. Just after ecdysis, they look pale and regain the deep coral-
red colour after 2-3 minutes. The species moults at an interval of 6-7
days.

OVIPOSITION AND MODE OF ECLOSION

The female, in the culture, laid two batches of eggs on the fifth day
after the establishment of the culture. The larger batch consisted of 34
eggs and the smaller one 7 eggs, some of the eggs of this batch v/ere
distinctly smaller than others. The majority of the eggs were oval in
shape and brownish-white in colour and measured from 0.12 to 0.25 mm
on their widest aspect. The surface of the eggs was smooth and glistening
and no processes could be seen even under high magnification. The eggs
gradually became dark brown in colour as the embryo developed. On
the fifth day of oviposition, eclosion of 1st instar nymphs took place
from all the seven eggs of the smaller batch. On the same day, move-
ment of the nymphs inside the eggs of the larger batch was seen through
the thin chorion of the eggs. The eggs from which eclosion was im-
minent could be marked by their deep brown coloration. Eclosion from

870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

the larger batch started also on the fifth day of oviposition and conti-
nued upto ninth day.

Mode of eclosion : The region of egg from where the eclosion of the
nymph would take place depends on the position of the egg in that
batch. Eclosion usually took place from the exposed surface and never
from the suarface which remained overlapped by other eggs. During
eclosion, a slit approached at one of the poles (free pole in case of an
overlapped egg) apparently owing to vigorous movement of the nymph
inside. As the slit widened gradually, the nymph made its appearance
first by protruding the tip of its abdomen outside. With the support of
its legs on the inner floor of the egg the nymph pushed itself out more
and more. As soon as the hind legs came out, it took their support of
the adjacent eggs to extricated itself completely. Newly emerged nymphs
were very active and fed vigorously.

Appearance of first instar nymph : Newly hatched nymphs were
white in colour with reddish suffusion and changed to pale brown with-
in half an hour after their emergence. The ocellar fields were seen to
be the darkest with granular reddish pigment but the ocelli were not
very prominent. Although the lateral bosses were perceptible, no trace
of dorsolateral bosses could be noticed. The nymphs measured c. 0.05
mm in length with the labium protruded anteriorly. On the seventh
day of the eclosion, rudiments of bosses were visible on the dorsolateral
surface of body and the ocelli became conspicuous in the form of ele-
vated domes.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India and to the
Officer-in-Charge, Northern Regional Station, Dehra Dun, for providing
necessary facilities.

Zoological Survey of India, S. K. MITRA

34, Chittaranjan Avenue,

Calcutta 700 012,

July 21, 1973.

22. BUTTERFLIES OF NEW DELHI (PAPILIONOIDEA)

I would like to make a few comments on Roger Ashton’s paper under
the above title (1972, 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69:5 02-509).

Danaus chrysippus (L.)— It is a great pity that advantage was not
taken of the capture of a female f. dorippus Klug to try to work out
the genetics of this form. On the Kenya Coast, where dorippus is the
prevalent form, it is dominant to chrysippus, and it would have been

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

871

interesting to see whether this is also the case in Delhi, where it is rare,
or whether there are two different genes producing a similar pheno-
type. The species is not difficult to breed; a female confined in a large
glass jar and supplied with a leaf or two of the food-plant [Calotropis
spp. (Asclepiadaceae)] will lay freely if the jar is illuminated by a 60
watt bulb placed close to. The larvae can suffer severely from a Tachi-
nid parasite, that lays its eggs in the tomentum on the underside of the
Calotropis leaves, and it is essential to remove the tomentum from the
leaves supplied for food.

Chilasa clytia (L.) — I do not think that it is correct to describe the
large dissimilis L. form as a mimic of D. Umniace (Cr.) and the small
examples as mimics of D. aglea (Cr.). Mere size is of little or no im-
portance in cases of mimicry, and it is far better to look on dissimilis
as a mimic of a generalised blue and black Danaus.

Hypolimnas misippus (L.) — It seems strange that ff. inaria Cr. and
alcippoides Btlr. should occur in view of the almost complete absence
of their Danaid models.

Atella phalantha (Drury) — I do not think that Barleria prionitis
(Acanthadaceae) can properly be recorded as a food-plant only on the
strength of a female laying on it, unless larvae were also reared to ma-
turity. The normal food-plants of Atella belong to the Flacourtiaceae,
Celastraceae and Salicaceae.

I have recently watched a female of Papilio demodocus Esp. fly
round and round an orange tree (Rutaceae), the food-plant, and then
lay an egg on a small plant of Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae) grow-
ing at its base, an examination revealed a second and earlier laid egg
on the same plant. Also, many years ago in Calcutta, I found eggs of
Danaus chrysippus (L.) on a cultivated Hibiscus sp. (Malvaceae), on
grasses (Gramineae) and on a strand of steel fencing wire, that were
all mixed up in a plant of Calotropis procera (Asclepiadaceae), the
proper food-plant.

P.O. Box 95026, D. G. SEVASTOPULO

Mombasa,

Kenya,

September 5, 1973.

23. HAIRY CATERPILLARS ON BANANA IN MYSORE STATE

During July and August, 1972 the caterpillars of Argina syringa Cram.,
Diacrisia obliqua Walker and Euproctis fraterna Moore were observed
feeding on banana in Hebbal and during the same period these insects
were found feeding on the same host at Nanjanagud, Channapatna and
Mandya. The young caterpillars fed gregariously on the under-surface

872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

of banana leaves leaving only the upper epidermis. As a result of this
the leaves skeletonised, dried and curled downward. In severe cases, the
leaves completely dried. The grown up caterpillars defoliated the plants,
especially of the tender leaves, and migrated from plant to plant.

In recent years, outbreaks of D. obliqua and E. fraterna have been
noted on Dolichos lablab, limabeans, mulberry, horsegram, soybean,
blackgram and Phaseolus mungo causing considerable loss round about
Bangalore.

This report is the first on banana.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our indebtedness to Dr. G. P. Channa Basavanna,
Professor of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Bangalore for going
through the manuscript and making necessary corrections.

Department of Entomology, B. N. VISWANATH

University of Agril. Sciences, B. L. VISWESWARA GOWDA
Hebbal, Bangalore 560 024,

July 17, 1973.

24. OCCURRENCE OF GREEN STRIPED BORER, MAL1ARPHA
SEPARATELLA RAGONOT ON SORGHUM IN THE PUNJAB
Mallarpha separatella Ragonot (Phycitinae, Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)
has been reported as a common pest of rice in Africa (Anonymous
1970) and is widely distributed in Ethiopean, Palaeotropic and Oriental
regions (Kapur 1967). In India M. separatella was reported by Hamp-
son (1896) as Anerastia pallidicosta from Punjab and Arunachal Pra-
desh. He also gave its distribution as Sri Lanka, Burma and China.
After this record this insect does not seem to have been reported from
anywhere in India.

During December 1971, green caterpillars were observed in the stub-
bles of sorghum 2-4 cm below soil level. On an average one larva per
stubble and as many as 12 per cent stubbles having more than one
larva with a maximum of 4 larvae only in 5 stubbles were recorded.
During September 1972 larvae were observed in the basal region of
sorghum plants (CSH-1). The larvae were again observed during No-
vember-December 1972 in the stubbles. This is the first record of sor-
ghum as a host of M. separatella. So far it has been recorded primarily
from rice plant in Africa and rarely from a wild grass weed Echino-
chloa holubii in Swaziland (Anonymous 1970).

Preliminary observations on its biology was made in the laboratory
by supplying fresh tender splitted stems of sorghum to the larvae and
changing the food as and when required. Brief description of various

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

873

stages is given below. Larvae; well developed body light green, head
light brown, exhibit sexual dimorphism. Male larvae with five violet to
reddish stripes measured 20-25 mm. Female larvae 30 mm in length,
stripes poorly defined. Crochets are complete and biordinate. Larval
period lasted for about 6-9 weeks, during winter. A thin silken cocoon
was spun for pupation. Pupae; greenish when freshly formed turned
brownish with age. Six anal conspicuous setae were borne by both
sexes of pupae: Pupation occurred in the basal stem region or in stub-
bles and lasted for 14-16 days. Maximum pupation took place at the
end of February and moth emergence continued up to middle of March.
Adults are stout (20-25 mm) with prominent dark red coloured band
on forewings, more deep in females. The female laid yellowish white
oval eggs in batches of 5-16 on the wire mesh of cage.

Since rice is attaining importance in the Punjab and the area is on
the increase, it is quite likely that M. separatella might shift to rice to
attain the status of a major pest of that crop in India like in Africa or
may prove serious on sorghum. More information is needed on its bio-
logy and seasonal abundance on sorghum.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We thank the Director, British Museum, London for insect identi-
fication and Dr. O. S. Bindra, Professor and Head of the Department
of Entomology for providing facilities to work.

Department of Entomology, G. S. SANDHU

Punjab Agricultural University RAMESH CHANDER

Ludhiana,

June 1, 1973.

References

Anonymous (1970) : Pest control
in Rice. PANS Manual No. 3. Minis-
try of Overseas Development H.M.-
M.O.D. London, pp. 270.

Hampson, G. F. (1896): The

Fauna of British India. Moths Vol.

IV: pp. 594. Taylor & Francis London.

Kapur, A. P. (1967) : Taxonomy
of the rice stem borers. In the Major
insect pests of rice plant. Proc. sym-
posium IRRI. 1964: pp. 3-43. Johns
Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland.

25. A NOTE ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE DAMMER BEE,
MELIPONA IRIDIPENNIS D.

The tiny, dark, dammer bee, Melipona iridipennis D. (Apidae: Hymen-
optera) inhabits crevices in walls, hollow trunks of trees etc. The sting

874 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

is not well developed and the combs are made of a mixture of earth
or resin and wax. Its honey is supposed to have high medicinal proper-
ties even though the honey gathered is only small in quantity.

During July 1973 an interesting behaviour was exhibited by mem-
bers of this species. Metal labels painted yellow (“Spartan”, “Chemo-
lac” and “Kangaroo” — Synthetic enamel — lemon yellow paints) and
erected in partly dried condition in the sorghum field in Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore were noticed having clusters of the
dammer bees, all actively scraping and collecting the paint. The pollen
baskets in each bee were laden with masses of yellow paints scraped
from the labels. The scraped areas showed characteristic dull depression
and in many instances the scraping was intense that the metal surfaces
below the paints were exposed. The same instinct of the bees of collect-
ing paints, being deceived by its colour, was again observed on labels
kept for drying after painting. To ascertain whether the attraction was
simply for the yellow colour, glass slides painted freshly with white,
yellow and green and another set of slides completely dry after paint-
ing with the same colours were kept near a dammer bee colony entrance
in a crevice and it was found that all colours other than wet yellow
were ignored by the insects.

It was felt that the paints so loaded in the pollen baskets might be
difficult to be dislodged and hence the possibility was more for the con-
cerned bee to fall a victim to the persistant contact action of the paint
and its solvents. There was also the danger of the dislodged paints get-
ting mixed with the wax, resin etc., used for comb construction prov-
ing lethal to the whole community. The feasibility of the same being
mixed with honey as a normal mixture with pollen for feeding the
grubs also could not be ruled out, even though the anxiety might ap-
pear as an exaggerated one now.

Therefore further observations were conducted to find out what
really happened to the bees collecting paints. Only a very few were found
dead in the vicinity of the painted boards and all of them had tinges
of paints on their limbs. On opening up of a colony within the crevices
of a wooden frame, where the paints collecting bees frequented, com-
paratively large numbers of workers were found dead and the pollen
baskets had heavy masses of paints in these cases. However, there were
no signs of mixing up of these paints with the wax inside, indicating
that the bees could not dislodge the paints gathered by them and all
of them fell victim to the paints.

This phenomenon is very significant which leads the bees to self-
destruction. To safeguard these productive insects, field labels should

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

875

be painted and dried well if yellow colour is to be used, where these
bees are known to exist.

26. ECOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE INDIAN FRESHWATER
MICROTURBELLARIA : MESO STOMA SP.

While the taxonomy and distributional ecology of the freshwater and
land planarians (Triclad turbellarians) of India have been studied in
some detail by Whitehouse (1913, 1914, 1919), Kawakatsu (1969),
Kawakatsu & Basil (1971), the freshwater microturbellarians are meag-
rely known. The purpose of this short paper is to present the results of
an ecological investigation into the occurrence of Mesostoma species
in the vicinity of Madurai in south India. The material was obtained
by us from several localities during the course of the collection of fresh-
water planarians described in a previous paper (cf. Kawakatsu & Basil
1971, pp. 41-42).

Mesostoma sp.

External Features'. A small and oval-shaped species. Live animals
c. 2 mm in length and 1 mm in width. The body shows a green colora-
tion. Pharynx is located near the anterior end of the body.

Localities 1 and II:

The animals were obtained from two temporary granite quarry
pools located in front of the buildings of Madurai University, Palkalai
Nagar Campus (about 13 km west of the city of Madurai). Both pools
have elevated boundary and are exposed to sunlight. The pools are irre-
gular in shape (Loc. I, 345 cm x 148 cm; Loc. II, 223 cm x 195 cm)
and contain muddy, greenish water due to the presence of freshwater
green algae. The first pool has a depth of c. 18 cm at its centre (aver-
age depth of 15 cm) and the second pool has a depth of c. 12 cm at its
centre (average depth 8 cm). The bottom of the pools is muddy and
without any large aquatic plants. At the time of the collection of the
animals (July 1973) the pools were almost dry. The animals were pre-
sent only at the edges of the pools.

Entomology Department,
Tamil Nadu Agrl. University,
Coimbatore 641 003,

December 15, 1973.

A. ABDUL KAREEM
M. S. VENUGOPAL
S. SADAKATHULLA
T. R. SUBRAMANIAM

Order neorhabdocoela

Suborder Typhloplanoida

Family Mesostomidae

Genus MESOSTOMA Ehrenberg 1936

Table

Results of physico-chemical analysis of water from three localities

876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

877

The data of the physico-chemical analysis of water taken from the
pools' I and II are given in the Table. The samples of water were taken
from 9.40 to 15.50 hrs at 3 hour intervals. It will be seen from the table
that the water temperature of the pools was extremely high and that of
the edge area is less than in the centre of the pools. This may be due
to constant movement of the shore water by wind action. It is highly
probable that this slightly lower temperature may be the reason for the
animals congregating at the edge of the pools.

Dead bodies of other aquatic small organisms at the edges of the
pools were found to be completely covered by the Mesostoma microtur-
bellarian. Laboratory observations showed that the specimens of Mesos-
toma species were attracted towards the flesh of aquatic organisms (such
as fish, tadpole and mosquito larvae) and have a habit of completely
surrounding the small bits of tissues and feeding on it.

Locality ///:

The third pool had comparatively more water that the two pools
described above (Localities 1 and II). This pool located near the locali-
ties I and II, is also a granite quarry pool and is similarly exposed to
sunlight. The irregular shaped pool (630 cm x 320 cm) contains clearer
water with a depth of about 39 cm at its centre and a muddy bottom.
The animals were found all over the pool.

The physico-chemical conduction of the water of this pool was ob-
served only at 10.00 hrs (Table). The water temperature of the pool
was same in all parts of the pool (30°C).

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are indebted to: Professor S. Krishnaswamy, Head of the De-
partment of Biological Sciences, Madurai University, for his constant
encouragement; Dr. R. George Michael for his valuable suggestions;
to Dr. Masaharu Kawakatsu, Professor of Biology of Fuji Women’s
College, Sapporo, Japan, for providing to them photomicrographs of
the animals; to Dr. Valelia Mack-Pira, Laboratoire de Zoologie Inver-
tebres, Faculte de Biologie, Bucaresti, Roumania, for examination of
the preserved specimens.

Dept, of Biological Sciences, J. ANTONY BASIL

Madurai University,

Madurai 625 021.

Professor of Zoology, R. SELVARATHINAM FERNANDO

St. Xavier’s College,

Palayamkottai,

Tirunelveli 2,

January 17, 1975.

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

References

Kawakatsu, M. (1969): Report of
freshwater planarian from India. An-
not. Zool. Japan, 42: 210-215.

& Basil, J. A.

(1971): Records of freshwater and
land planarians from India. Bull. Fuji
Women’s College, No. 9, Ser. II,
pp. 41-50.

Whitehouse, R. H. (1913) : Fresh-
water planaria (Zoological records of
the Abor Expedition 1911-12, Part III,
No. 22). Rec. lnd. Mus., 5:317-321.

(1914): Land

planarians (ibid.), ibid. 8: 455-464.

(1919) : Indian

land planarians. ibid. 16: 29-40.

27. OCCURRENCE OF OPHIOGLOSSUM FIBROSUM SCHUM.

AT JUNAGADH IN SAURASHTRA

A few species of Ophioglossum have been recorded by Blatter and
d’Almeida’ from Bombay Presidency.

Recently we obtained Ophioglossum fibrosum Schum. growing wild
along the foot of the Girnar hills in open areas with grass and small
herbs during 1st and 2nd week of July and lasts till September. In Octo-
ber only stray plants are available. Fertile spikes mature during August
and September. Each plant has 2-3 fertile leaves on a broadly conical
corm having many root fibres. The height of the plants from corm to
the top of the fertile segment is from 2 to 3.5 cm.

The species is recorded for the first time from Junagadh as well as
from Saurashtra. The specimen is deposited in the herbarium. No. 1250,
in Biology Dept, of Bahauddin College, Junagadh.

Biology Department, H. P. GANDHI

Bahauddin College, I. H. KACHHI

Junagadh, M. P. BUCH

October 7, 1974.

28. THE STATUS OF GENUS PHAULANTHUS RIDLEY
(MELASTOMATACEAE)

The genus Phaulanthus Ridl. is reduced to a synonym of Anerin-
cleistus Korth. Following are the new combinations: Anerincleistus
acuminatissimus (Ridl.) Nayar, Anerincleistus rudis (Ridl.) Nayar,
Anerincleistus brevidens (Craib) Nayar, Anerincleistus peduncul-
atus (Craib) Nayar.

Korthals (1840-44) established the genus Anerincleistus on the basis
Anerincleistus hirsutus from G. Malintang, Sumatra. Naudin (1851)
and Miquel (1855) accepted Korthal’s generic conception of Anerin -

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

879

cleistus and Triana (1871) effectively published J. D. Hooker’s two
species Anerincleistus helferi Hook. f. and A. griffithii Hook. f. both
from Burma. Ridley (1911) proposed the genus Phaulanihus for those
species of Anerincleistus having shortly peduncled or almost sessile
axillary cymes. The type species which Korthals assigned to the genus
Anerincleistus is not a species with many flowered panicles. In this
genus there is a gradual series from a peduncled condition through
shortly peduncled to a subsessile condition. Species with obvious ped-
uncled to a subsessile condition. Species with obvious peduncles are
A. hirsutus Korth. A. macranthus King, A. hispidissimus (Ridl.) Nayar;
shortly peduncled species are: A. kinabaluensis Nayar; species with sub-
sessile peduncles are: A. helferi Hook, f., A. griffithii Hook, f., A.
fasciculatus Nayar. In A. clemensii Nayar it is seen that the inflorescence
is either shortly pedunculate or subsessile. Hence the length of the
peduncle and the position of inflorescence have no generic value and it
is here proposed to reduce Ridley’s Phaulanthus to the synonymy of
Anerincleistus. To a great extend Ridley’s proposal for the establish-
ment of the genus Phaulanthus primarily based on the length of the
peduncle and the position of the inflorescence was due to the wrong
asignment of the following taxa to A^nerincleistus:- A. sublepidetus
King, A. beccari Cogn., A. cordatus Stapf, A. glomoratus King, A.
monticolus W. W. Smith which have long paniculate terminal inflores-
cences.

Anerincleistus Korthals in Temminck, Verhand. Nat. Gesch. Bot. 250,
t. 68 (1844).

Phaulanthus Ridl. in Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Straits Br. 57:41 (1911).

Synon. nov.

Anerincleistus acuminatissimus (Ridl.) Nayar comb. nov.

Phaulanthus acuminatissimus Ridl. in Kew Bull. 1946:33 (1946).
Distribution: Sarawak. Mt. Trekan, alt. 333 m.. Hose 640 (Type K);
Additional material: Kapit, upper Rejang river, /. & M. S. Clemons
21144 (K).

As commented by Ridley (l.c.) in his type description “this species
is chiefly conspicuous for its very long acuminate leaves. This is allied
to Anerincleistus pedunculatus (Craib) Nayar, but differs in having long
acuminate leaves and in the orientation of main nerves.

Anerincleistus helferi Hook. f. ex Triana in Trans. Linn. Soc. 28:
75 (1871); C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2:529 (1879); Cogn.
in DC., Monogr. Phan. 7:478 (1891).

Phaulanthus helferi (Hook. f. ex Triana) Ridl. in Journ. Roy Soc.
Str. Br. 57:42 (1911); Ridley, FI. Mai. Pen. 1:777 (1922). synon. nov.

17

880 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)
DISTRIBUTION I

Burma. Mergui, Heifer (Herb. E. Ind. Comp.) 2304 (Type K);
Tenasserim, alt. c. 200 m, 5 Jun. 1932, Kerr 21670 (K, BM).
Anerincleistus griffithii Hook. f. ex Triana in Trans. Linn. Soc.
28:75 (1871); C.B.C1. in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2:529 (1879); Cogn.
in DC., Monogr. Phan. 7:478 (1891).

Phaulanthus griffithii (Hook. f. ex Triana) Ridl. in Journ. Roy.
As. Soc. Str. Br. 57:42 (1911). Synon. nov.

distribution: Burma. Mergui, Griffith 2304 (Type K); Ibid., Grif-
fith s.n. (K).

This is closely allied to A. helferi but differs in having velutinous
tomentum in the branches and leaves, and shorter pedicel and smaller
calyx tube. A. griffithii is related to the bornean species nerves arise
from the base of the leaf; whereas in A. clemensii the leaf base is cune-
ate and of the five main nerves two arise 1-1.5 cm above the base of the
leaf. Besides A. clemensii has glabrous upper surface and velutinous
lower surface of the leaf; whereas A. griffithii has velutinous tomentum
on both surfaces of the leaf.

Anerincleistus curtisii Stapf in Kew Bull. 1892. 196 (1892); King
in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 69: (2) 17 (1900). (Curtis 412-Holotype
K). Phaulanthus curtisii (Stapf) Ridley, in Journ. As. Soc. Str.
Br. 57:44 (1911); Ridley, FI. Mai. Pen. 1:777 (1922). Synon. nov.
Anerincleistus scortechinii King in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 69: (2)
16 (1900). (Scortechini s.n. Lectotype K).

distribution: Malaya. Penang, sine loc. Curtis 412 (K); Perak, sine
loc. Scortechinii s.n. (K); sine loc. Scortechinii 31 (K, BM); Larut hills
alt. 1000 m, Curtis 3715 (K); Taipeng, Aug. 1909, Ridley 14680 (K,
BM).

Ridley (1911) appropriately reduced A. scortechinii to a synonym
of A. curtisii Stapf. This is an endemic species having small flowers
in axillary pedunculate cymes.

Anerincleistiis pauriflorus Ridley in Journ. As. Soc. Str. 54:41 (1910);
Ridley FI. Mai. Pen. 1:776 (1922).

distribution: Malaya. Selangor. Klang Gates, Ridley 13522 (Holo-
type K, Isotype BM); Ginting Bidai, Ridley 7323 (K); Ulu Langat,
1 Qct. 1959, Millard's collector (K.). Klang Gates., 12 Nov. 1953, Sin-
clair SFN 40137 (L); Negri Sembilan: Bukit Iangga, Ridley s.n. (K).
Anerincleistus pauciflorus Ridl. var. brevipedunculus Nayar var. nov.
A typo speciei differt pedunculis brevis 6-8 mm longis.

MISCELL AN EO US NOTES 88 1

distribution: Malaya. Selangor: Ginting Simpah, alt. 666 m, 28 Oct.
1937, Md. Nur. s.n. (Holotype K); Gaombak, 6 Nov. 1930, Symington
24331; Ibid., 2 Jul. 1929, Symington 18163 (K); Ibid., 6 Oct. 1930,
Symington 24452 (K). Borneo. Sarawak. Oxford Univ. Expedition to
Sarawak 1932: label without any data.

Aiicruicleistiis metis (Ridl.) Nayar comb. nov.

Phaulanthus rudis Ridl. in Journ. As. Soc. Str. 57:41 (1911); Rid-
ley, FI. Mai. Pen. 1:777 (1922).

distribution: Malaya. Selangor, Genting Bedai, Ridley 7306 (Holo-
type K); Ibid., Sungoi, Lalang Kajang, 9 Mar. 1930, Symington 22721
(K).

The sterile specimens of this species could be easily mistaken for
Driessenia glanduligera Stapf. But A. rudis could be easily distinguish-
able by the ventrally inappendiculate and dorsally spurred anther and
the absence of glandular hairs; whereas Driessenia glanduligera has
ventrally biappendiculate and dorsally spurred anther and glandular
hairs.

Anerincleistus brevidens (Craib) Nayar comb. nov.

Phaulanthus brevidens Craib in Kew Bull. 1930:316 (1930); Craib,
FI. Siam. Enum. 1:688 (1931). Kerr 15888 — Holotype K, Isotype
BM.

Phaulanthus nervosus Craib in Kew Bull. 1930:317 (1930); Craib
in FI. Siam. Enum. 1:688 (1931). Synon. nov. Kerr 17127 — Holo-
type, Isotype BM.

distribution: Siam. Nakawn Sritmarat, Songkla Klawng, alt. 50 m,
22 Jul. 1918, Kerr 15888 (K, BM); Puket: Takuapa, Kapong, alt. c.
100 m, Kerr 17127 (K, BM).

A. brevidens is closely allied to A. helferi but differs by the much
shorter calyx lobes and spares indumentum. According to Craib (1930)
Phaulanthus nervosus differs from P. brevidens by the presence of pro-
minent transverse nerves on the lower surface of the leaf and shorter
pedicels. On studying the types it is seen that the flowers buds in both
P. brevidens and P. nervosus have short pedicels. P. nervosus is redu-
ced to a synonym of A. brevidens.

Anerincleistus pcdunculatus (Craib) Nayar comb. nov.

Phaulanthus pedunculatus Craib in Kew Bull. 1930:317 (1930);
Craib in FI. Siam, Enum. 1:688 (1931).

distribution: Siam, Puket. Ranwng, La-un, alt. c . 20 m, 1 Jun. 1929.
Kerr 16491 (Holotype K, Isotype BM).

This differs from A. brevidens in having sparsely tomentose bran-
ches and shortly pedunculate inflorescence.

882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 72(3)

Acknowledgement

I thank Director, Botanical Survey of India for all facilities.

Central National Herbarium, M. P. NAYAR

Howrah 3 (W.B.),

September 24, 1974.

References

Craib, W. G. C. (1930): Contribu-
tion to the Flora of Siam. XXXV. Kew
Bull. 1930: 316.

Korthals, P. W. (1840-1844) :
Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Insische
Melastomataceae. Temminck Verb.
Nat. Gesch. Bot., pp. 218-255.

Miquel, F. A. W. (1855): Flora
Indiae Botavae. 7:498-580.

Naudin, C. (1851): Melastomata-

cearum quae in Musaeo Parisiensi con-
tinents Monographicae descriptionis et
secundum affinitates distribution^. Ann.
Sc. Nat. 75:306.

Ridley, H. N. (1911): A scientific
expedition to Temenogoh, upper
Perak. Journ. Roy. As. Soc. straits Br.
57: 32-49.

Triana, J. (1871): ‘Les Melasto-

macees’. Trans. Linn. Soc. 25:1-188.

29. SYZYG1UM CUMINI1 (LINN.) SKEELS VAR. AXILLARE

COMB. NOV.

Brandis (1906) mentions that a specimen (No. 105) of Bourdillon
under Eugenia jambolana Lam. is perhaps, a distinct species. Bourdillon
(1908; cf. 1937) states, ‘A somewhat similar tree (to Eugenia jambo-
lana) but with thinner leaves and smaller flowers, borne in axillary and
terminal cymes, is found in the low country evergreen forests about
Kulathurpuzha. It is called Shen nyaral. Its fruit is edible. It has not yet
been decided if it is a different species or merely a variety of E. jam-
bolana.’ Gamble (1919), while reviewing the flora of the Presidency
of Madras, named it a variety, var. axillare Gamble, under the genus
Syzygium Gaertn., since this species of Eugenia has been transferred to
the genus Syzygium. The synonyms mentioned therein are as foliows:
Syzygium jambolanum DC. syn. Eugenia jambolana Lam.; E. caryo-
phyllifolia Lam. var. axillare Gamble.

Skeels (1912), while comparing the material he had with him on
Eugenia and Syzygium, placed E. jambolana under S. cuminii with the
following synonyms:

Syzygium cumini (/) (Linn.) Skeels syn. Myrtus cumini Linn., Eugenia
jambolana Lam.

S. jambolanum, which was based upon Lamarck’s specific name,
is superfluous and illegitimate, as an earlier and validly published spe-
cific name is available. Since it is now reduced to a synonym of S. cum-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

883

inii, S. jambolanum DC. var. axillare Gamble needs a new combination,
according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Hence,
this new combination is made:

Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels (1912) U.S. Dep. Agric. Bull. Bur. PI. Industr.,
No. 248:25.

Myrtus cumini (i) Linn. (1753) Sp. Pl. 471.

Eugenia jambolana Lam. (1789) Encyclopedic methodique. Botanique.,
5:198.

E. caryophyllifolia Lam. loc. cit.

L Syzygium jambolanum (Lam.) DC. (1828) Prodromus systematic naturals
regni vegetabilis, 3: 259.

Eugenia cumini(i) (Linn.) Druce (1913) Rep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isles,
1914, 3:418.

E. cumini(i) (Linn.) Merrill (1917) Interpr. Rumph, Herb. Amboin. 394.
var. axillare (Gamble) Tenjarla et Kashyapa.

Publications & Information TENJARLA C. S. SASTRY

Directorate, K. KASHYAPA

Hillside Road, New Delhi 110 012,

September 25, 1974.

References

Brandis, D. (1906): Indian Trees.
Archibald Constable & Co. Ltd., Lon-
don. pp. 323.

Bourdillon, T. F. (1908; reprinted
1937) : The Forest Trees of Tra van-
core. Government of Travancore, In-

dia. pp. 163-64.

Gamble, J. S. (1919): Flora of the
Presidency of Madras. Adlard & Sons
Ltd., London, pp. 480-81.

Skeels (1912): U.S. Dep. Agric.
Bull., Bur. PL Industr., No. 248:25.

30. SOME NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURE OF HOSTS
AND SYMPTOMS OF A FLOWERING PARASITE, MACROSO-
LEN COCHINCHINENSIS (LOUR.) VAN TIEGH. IN
WEST BENGAL

Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) Van Tiegh. (= Loranthus cochin-
chinensls Lour.) a flowering parasite under Loranthaceae parasitizes
a large number of wild and economically important plants in different
regions of West Bengal. The slow and steady destructive nature of the
parasite causes gradual growth reduction, loss of vigour and timber
quality of the hosts. The characteristic symptoms in the hosts are the
swelling or formation of small burrs on the stems, which ultimately
cause death of the surounding tissues and later the branches. It has been

Table 1

— — — — gmagg

Distribution Economic Type of Type of

Name of the Hosts Family f „ , Importance Infection Host

884 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

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886 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

noted that the intensity of the infection to different host species as well
as their distribution in certain regions are variable. The cause for the
varied range of pathogenecity and their irregular distribution may be
due to local climatic effect on parasitism. It has been observed that the
humid zone is rich in parasites whereas dry zone has less parsities.
Similarly the industrial belt exhibits reduction of parasitic activity per-
haps due to the gases and fumes covering the area. These effects may
have bearings on the physiological processes of the germinating seeds
on the host species and thereby control the parasitic activity. It has been
also recorded that gymnosperms or monocotyledon taxon do not have
this parasitic infection.

The observations are summarised in Table 1.

Dept, of Botany, PABITRANANDA GANGULY

Asutosh College,

Calcutta 700 026.

Habra, 24 Parganas, DULAL PAL

West Bengal,

March 14, 1975.

31. NOTES ON SOME INTERESTING CYPERACEAE OF

GUJARAT

During the course of a critical study of the Cyperaceae of Gujarat, we
came across a few cyperaceous plants which are either little known or
unrecorded for Gujarat. Where the plant was recorded by Cooke (FI.
Pres. Bombay Vol. III. 1958), the name adopted by him is given in
parenthesis.

Cyperus polystachyos Rottb.

(Cy perns odoratus Linn.)

This plant is listed by Cooke (p. 372) from Gujarat on the authority
of Woodrow who collected it from Surat. Blatter ( Journ . Bombay nat.
Hist Soc. 79:162. 1909) has also reported it from Kutch. It is included
by Sabnis (Bull. bot. Surv. India 4:195. 1962) in his Cyperaceae of
Gujarat.

Since the reports of Cooke and Blatter, it has not been reported to
occur in Gujarat. One specimen ( G.L . Shah 10477) from Baroda, kept
in the Blatter Herbarium, Bombay as an unidentified Cyperus , collect-
ed in December 1954, is of this species. The present report thus con-
firms its occurrence in Gujarat but this herbarium specimen consists
of two distinct taxa, which, following Kukenthal (Pfreich. 101:367-
370. n. 328. 1936), are varieties polystachyos and laxiflorus.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

887

Key to varieties

Inflorescence globose, compact head;

spikelets 0.7- 1.0 x 0.08-0.1 cm C. polystachyos

var. polystachyos

Inflorescence lax umbel; spikelets

2.0-2. 5 x 0.15-0.2 cm C. polystachyos

var. laxiflorus

Cypems procerus Rottb.

Collected from margins of Nalsarovar in North Gujarat. Very rare.
{MHP 62, January, 1970).

Cyperns diaphamis Schrad. ex Roem. & Schult.

(C. latespicatus Cllce.).

Very rare, found among grasses. (Coteshwar, MHP 73; Hamphesh-
war YYK 2655; Sadhli YYK 2232).

Fiiiibristylis alboviridis Clke.

This is a rare species growing among grasses along with F. bisumbel-
lata Bub. and F. dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl. Its present known distribu-
tion is Lunawada ( GLS 14693), Dediapada ( VKS 1287) and Dangs
( HS 19198). All the three species mentioned above, together with
F. podocarpa, look very similar and are likely to be confused. The fol-
lowing key will be useful to separate them.

Nut prominently striate with 6-8 vertical trabeculate ribs:

Annual; glumes one-nerved, glabrous, obtuse;

nuts 0.1-0.15 cm long F. bisumbellata

Perennial; glumes 3-nerved; mucronate, hairy, at least

on margins; nuts 0.06-0.08 cm long F. dichotoma

Nut faintly striate with many vertical trabeculate ribs:

Glumes cymbiform, much convex on back;

nut 8-10 ribbed, not verrucose F. alboviridis

Glumes more or less flat; nut distantly verrucose in upper

half, 17-20 ribbed F. podocarpa

Incidentally F. podocarpa Nees is only recorded from Dangs (Shah
& Suryanarayana in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66:412-414. 1969)
for which the correct name is Fimbristylis dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl var.
pluristriata (Clke.) Napper in Kew Bull. 25(3) :437. 1971.

Acknowledgement

We are deeply obliged to Prof. P. V. Bole for kindly providing faci-
lities to work in the Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay
and loaning the specimens for critical study.

888 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Department of Botany, M. H. PARABIA

Sardar Patel University, G. L. SHAH

Vallabh Vidyanagar,

Gujarat,

October 8, 1974.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1974-75

Executive Committee

President

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.A.

V ice-Presid en ts

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.S. (Retd.)

Hon. Secretary

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.C.S. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt, of India

ex-officio

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Dr. S. R. Amladi, M.D.

Prof. P. V. Bole
Dr. P. J. Deoras
Mr. A. A. Dikshit

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Jt. Hon. Secretary)
Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. B. B. Paymaster, I.C.S. (Retd.)

Mr. G. S. Ranganathan

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.C.S. (Retd.)

890 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Advisory Committee

Mr. H. G. Acharya

Ahmedabad

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, o.b.e.

New Delhi

Dr. B. Biswas

Calcutta

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

New Delhi

Dr. Chintaman Deshmukh, i.c.s. (Retd.)

Hyderabad

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Bangalore

Mr. Shivrajkumar Khacher

Jasdan

Mr. M. Krishnan

Madras

Mr. Duleep Matthai

New Delhi

Mr. Ranjit Sinh, i.a.s.

New Delhi

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1974

Membership

The ordinary membership continues to stagnate below 800 as will
be seen from the number of ‘paid up’ members on the Society’s register
on the 1st of January. The slight fall in 1975 is from the fact that many
ordinary members of over 20 years standing compounded their mem-

bership to life membership.

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

Ordinary Members

703

780

801

770

763

The number of other classes of members

are given

below :

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

Life Members

174

181

187

198

232

Student Members

5

5

9

16

20

Honorary Members

3

3

3

4

4

Forest Department Nominees 78

80

89

90

90

Increase of membership stiil remains a vital unsolved problem and
very little diversification of the Society’s activities is possible unless sub-
stantial support is available from an increase in membership.

ACTIVITIES

Publications

Three issues of the Journal were published during the year. Vol. 70
Nos. 2 & 3 and Vol. 71 No. 1. The issues of Vol. 70 of the Journal were

A.G.M. 1974-75— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

891

for August & December 1973 and illustrate the time lag between pub-
lication dates and actual production dates which continue to frustrate
the editors.

The articles continued to cover a wide range of subjects with em-
phasis on the ecology, behaviour, and taxonomy of Indian fauna and
the taxonomy and regional lists of Indian flora.

Books'. During the year the following sales were made:

Sale

Balance Stock

BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS

1485

2228

BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS

770

2020

SNAKE CHARTS

44

930

PICTURE POSTCARDS
CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF

87

Nil

MAHARASHTRA

67

650

GLIMPSES OF NATURE IN INDIA

352 +

(Complimentary)

105

3111

We have so far not been successful in our efforts to obtain financial
assistance for re-printing our out-of-print books on Natural History,
particularly some beautiful andian trees, some beautiful Indian

CLIMBERS & SHRUBS, BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION, CIRCUMVENT-
ING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH, and INDIAN MOLLUSCS.

The 10th Volume of the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN was published during the year and was released by
the Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi. The Society sponsored this
massive and commendable effort.

The difficulties with the Press (partly due to power failure at Mad-
ras) which plagued the journal has also prevented the publication of
Mr. Krishnan’s book India’s wildlife 1959-70. We hope to publish
this excellent volume in 1975.

Centenary Publications: With the Centenary of the Society due in
1983, your committee has been considering useful commemorative pub-
lications. Two ideas are currently being considered.:

(a) An Encyclopaedia of Natural History based on concise contri-
butions on various natural history subjects by acknowledged experts
in the field.

(b) a century of natural history being a selected compilation
with subjectwise comments on current positions of articles on various
aspects of Natural History published in the Society’s journal in the first
hundred years of the Society’s existence.

Nature Calendar :

The Society’s Nature Calendar continues to be popular and a source
of income.

892 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Con servation

The Society continued to take a leading part in the conservation
movement in the country through its representatives on the State and
Central Wildlife Boards, and through its members on the International
Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the World
Wildlife Fund, and the International Council for Bird Preservation.

Member Activities

It has been possible to involve members in Bombay in local field
activities.

Borivli National Park Project : With the assistance of interested
members an attempt was made during the year to record the changes
in the vegetation, animal life, and other natural phenomena in a small
valley in the Borivli National Park close to Bombay. The programme
was primarily an exercise in training in scientific observation. The acti-
vity is being continued.

Bird Census'. A monthly roadside census of birds in the Borivli Na-
tional Park was organised with the assistance of members. The activity
received financial assistance from the Salim Ali-Loke Ornithological
Research Fund. The activity is being continued.

Nature Camp : A camp was organised by members of the staff at
the Gir Sanctuary for wildlife observation. Several members from Bom-
bay participated.

Godavari Hike : A pilot survey was made by staff and members to
the source of the Godavari to examine the feasibility of hiking along
the banks of the river to study the natural history of the river.

Nature Walks: Nature walks were organised in Borivli National
Park for bird watching and for study of the vegetation. A large number
of members participated.

Photographic Cell: Amateur nature photographers among the mem-
bers held meeting to discuss methods and see photographs taken by
members.

Research and Field Studies

Salim Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Research Fund: The Fund
continued to support with a fellowship Mr. V. S. Vijayan, who is in-
vestigating the ecological isolation of two sympatric species of bulbuls
in the Point Calimere Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu.

A fellowship was awarded to Mr. Reza Khan of Dacca University,
Bangladesh. Mr. Reza Khan will study the ecology of the Black-and-
Orange Flycatcher an endemic species of the higher elevations of the
Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

A.G.M. 1974-75— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

893

The Fund also extended support to the organisation of the monthly
bird census at Borivli National Park.

Bird Migration Study : The project was continued with financial
aid from the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. A sum-
mer camp was held at Mahableshwar and interesting recoveries of birds
ringed during earlier camps were obtained.

We are continuing to receive recovery reports from Russia of birds
ringed in India.

University Department : Mr. P. K. Panicker was awarded the M.Sc.
degree of the University of Bombay for his thesis on the “Ecology of
Hole-nesting Birds”. Mr. B. R. Grubh submitted to the University of
Bombay his thesis on the “Ecology of the Vultures of the Gir Forest”
for evaluation for the Ph.D. degree of the University.

Study of the Lion-tailed Macaque : Dr. Steven Green of the Rock-
feller University commenced his study of the species in the Kalakkad
Reserve of Tamil Nadu. Dr. Green’s research has the approval and
active assistance of the Forest Department, Tamil Nadu, and the offi-
cials of the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation, particularly Mr. J. J.
Bland, a member of the Society and Group Manager of the complex
of Tea Estates of the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation.

Frogs Study : A project for the study of frogs in agricultural ecology
with Mr. H. Abdulali as Chief Investigator was submitted to the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research.

Environmental Monitoring : Schemes for the monitoring of environ-
mental phenomena on a sustained all-year basis in an evergreen forest
at Kalakkad in south India and deciduous forest at Borivli have been
submitted to the Government of India.

Thattakkad Survey : Located in North Kerala, the area is exception-
ally valuable as an example of plains-level evergreen forest. The area
was surveyed by the Curator and Mr. V. S. Vijayan, a doctoral student
at the Society, from the viewpoint of environmental monitoring and the
establishment of a bird sanctuary.

Kinwat Survey : At the instance of the local member of the Legis-
lative Council, Maharashtra, the natural history potential of the Kinwat
Forests in Nanded District, Maharashtra, and their development were
the object of a brief survey by the Curator and Dr. S. R. Amladi and
Mr. S. R. Nayak, two knowledgeable members of the Society. The
suggestions made in their report are being implemented.

Survey of the Gharial at Corbett National Park'. The status of the
Gharial at the Park was studied by Mr. Andrew Ross of the Smith-
sonian Institution with the assistance of Mr. S. A. Hussain of the So-
ciety and Mr. Romulus Whitaker of the Madras Snake Park.

Mussoorie Survey: A collection of birds, mammals, and reptiles
from the Mussoorie area was made by Mr. S. A. Hussain of the Society

894 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

and Dr. Robert Waltner of the Kansas University Natural History Mu-
seum.

Sloth Bear Status Survey : The position of the Sloth Bear, the only
endemic species of bear, is not satisfactorily known. At the instance
and on behalf of Mr. Jaffeson of Washington, a study of the current
status of the species in India was initiated and a questionaire was cir-
culated to forest officials in the known distribution area of the species.

Study of Pollution : The possibilities of undertaking a survey of the
extent of DDT and other pollutant levels in birds and other vertebrates
is being considered in collaboration with the Bodega Bay Institute of
Pollution Ecology. Arrangements are being made in collaboration with
the Forest Departments of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to collect eggs
of fish-eating birds for this purpose.

Mahim Bird Sanctuary : The Honorary Secretary, Jt. Honorary
Secretary, the Curator and the Asst. Curator were associated in the
Committee set up for developing the area as a Sanctuary and assisted
in the listing of birds seen in the Sanctuary during the migratory season.

Reference Collection

During the year 506 specimens were received at the Society.

Mammals

49

Birds

100

Reptiles

148

Amphibians

209

Important additions are :

Birds'. Purple Thrush ( Cochoa purpurea)
Coll: S. A. Hussain
Loc: Dhanantly, Mussoorie.
Amphibians'. Rana formosa
Rana gammiei
Coll: R. C. Waltner
Loc : Mussoorie

Nature Education Scheme

With the appointment of a new Nature Education Organiser activi-
ties of the scheme became more field-activity oriented. In addition to
lectures and film shows emphasis is being given to taking children on
field outings. An article on bird behaviour by the Nature Education
Organiser is included in the Syllabus of Karnataka State.

A.G.M. 1974-75— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

895

Library

During the year 154 books were added to the Library, of which 29
were purchased, 104 donated, and 21 received as review copies for the
Journal. The total number of books and bound periodicals in the lib-
rary is over 8000 and includes many rare and out-of-print volumes on
Indian natural history. We are grateful to the donors, particularly to the
British Council, Mr. Cyrus Adenwalla, and Mr. K. M. Khareghat.

Grants and Donations

The Society acknowledges with gratitude the following grants receiv-
ed for specific purposes:

Rs. 1000/- from Dr. Dillon Ripley, towards the festschrift.

Rs. 5000/- from Dr. Hamida Saiduzzafar, for the Salim Ali-Loke
Ornithological Research Fund.

Rs. 5000/- from Dr. Salim Ali, for the Salim Ali-Loke Ornitholo-
gical Research Fund.

Rs. 33000/- from Mrs. Loke Yew, for the Salim Ali-Loke Orni-
thological Research Fund.

Rs. 2000/- from Dr. Salim Ali, for the general funds.

Rs. 6000/- from the World Wildlife Fund, towards general funds.
Rs. 600/- from Mr. S. Chaudhury, for Charles McCann Fund.

Rs. 200/- from K. M. Khareghat, for the Library.

Rs. 200/- from Mr. Paul A. Jones, towards general funds.

Patron’s Visit

Mrs. Indira Gandhi, who is a Patron of the Society, paid a visit to
the Society’s premises on 28 December 1974. She spent nearly an hour
seeing the exhibits which had been laid out for her and also visiting the
collection rooms. She was accompanied by the Governor and the Chief
Minister of Maharashtra and other dignitaries. They were shown round
by the President of the Society, Dr. Salim Ali.

Meetings

March: Br. A. Navarro, on “Recording Bird Calls”.

April: K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji on “The Gir Forest and its Lions”.

F. V. Komaret, on “Fire Ecology and Wildlife”.

J. J. Masani, on “Snake Bites and First-aid Treatment”.

July: R. Bustard, on “The Future of Indian Crocodiles”.

August: R. K. Urban, on “Ethopia and its Birds”.

Rodney Jonklass, on “An Underwater Photographic Expedi-
tion to the Andamans”.

18

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

Revenue and Accounts

The financial situation of the Society continued to be unsatisfactory.
The year’s operation showed a small surplus.

Staff

The Committee wishes to record it appreciation of the willing co-
operation of the staff in the activities of the Society.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. M. J. Dickins who looked
after the Society’s affairs in the U.K., and to the members and others
who gave help in its field projects and other activities.

A.G.M. 1974-75— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

897

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Grant Govt, of Maharashtra

(for 1974-75) 64,722.40 1,96,778.05

BALANCE SHEET FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31 DECEMBER, 1974— (continued)

900

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910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

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Bombay, 18 th August, 1975. As per our report annexed.

(Sd.) Habib & Co.,
Chartered Accountants.

912

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

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BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, HELD AT HORN-
BILL HOUSE, SHAHID BHAG^T SINGH ROAD, BOMBAY
400 023, ON THURSDAY, 17TH OCTOBER 1975, AT 6.00 P.M.
WITH MR. R. E. HAWKINS, PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETY,

IN THE CHAIR.

FORTY-THREE MEMBERS WERE PRESENT

Agenda Item 1. The Chairman asked the Honorary Secretary to pre-
sent the Annual Report of the Executive Committee. Copies of the re-
port had already been distributed and reading of the report was dis-
pensed with, with the consent of members present.

While presenting the Report the Honorary Secretary stated that the
trend of the membership is not very satisfactory, and appealed to mem-
bers to make efforts to increase the membership. He made a brief re-
ference to the unsatisfactory financial position of the Society, and stat-
ed that we are expecting financial assistance from the Department of
Science and Technology, Government of India, for printing our out-of-
print publications. The Publications Sub-Committee is considering re-
printing the book, Some Beautiful Indian Trees from this grant.

Regarding Conservation /Research activity: The Study of the Lion-
tailed Macaque by Steven Green has not so far been published, but his
report is available in the Society’s office for anyone who wishes to read
it.

The Honorary Secretary said members would be sorry to learn of
the death of Mr. M. J. Dickins, the Society’s representative in U.K.,
on 21st August 1975.

There were no questions and the report having been duly proposed
and seconded was adopted unanimously.

Agenda Item 2. The Chairman asked the Honorary Treasurer to pre-
sent the Balance Sheet and the Statement of Accounts for the year 1974.
The cyclostyled copies of these had been distributed for the members’
persual.

After presentation of the Balance Sheet, Mr. Humayun Abdulali
asked a question about the use of transparencies by the World Wild-
life Fund, free of charge, which he claimed was in contravention of the
Executive Committee’s resolution directing the Honorary Secretary not
to allow reproduction of the Society’s photographs at concessional rates.

The Honorary Secretary replied that one of our main purposes is

914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

furthering interest in natural history, and that we have always encour-
aged use of our material for educational purposes. The resolution re-
ferred to was in regard to concessional rates for commercial use, and
had no bearing on the present case.

The Chairman stated that the Publications Sub-Committee has gener-
ally considered such questions on merits of the case and no hard-and-
fast rule is laid down.

Dr. Vasa raised the question regarding the increase in membership,
and felt that such increase in fee would be avoided if our revenues were
not lost in this way. Mr. Dikshit supported Dr. Vasa’s stand.

Mr. Manchekar wanted to know the quantum of loss to the Society
by free use of transparencies in this case. The Chairman drew the atten-
tion of the meeting to an item on page 3 of the Income and Expenditure
statement for 1974 indicating an income of Rs. 6326.49 from sale of
transparency reproduction rights.

The Balance Sheet and Accounts, having been duly proposed and
seconded, were adopted.

Agenda Item 3. The Chairman announced that Dr. Salim Ali being
unwilling to accept nomination as President, he had agreed to act as
President as an interim measure.

The following Office bearers and Advisory Committee members had
been nominated by the outgoing Executive Committee.

President
Vice-President
Hon. Secretary
Hon. Treasurer

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Mr. G. V. Bedekar

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Advisory committee :

Mr. H. G. Acharya

Ahmedabad

Mr. F. C. Badhwar

New Delhi

Dr. B. Biswas

Calcutta

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

New Delhi

Dr. Chintaman Deshmukh

Hyderabad

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Bangalore

Mr, Shivrajkumar Khacher

Jasdan

Mr. M. Krishnan

Madras

Mr. Duleep Matthai

New Delhi

Mr. Ranjit Sinh

New Delhi

Apart from the gentlemen nominated by the Executive Committee,
eight other nominations had been received for the Executive, Committee,
namely:

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

915

(1)

Dr.

G. De

—

proposed

by

Mr.

R. A. Mondkar and

seconded

by

Mr.

S. M. Ketkar.

(2)

Mr.

H. K.

Divekar —

proposed

by

Dr.

R. N. Kini and

seconded

bv

Dr.

H. V. Shenoy.

(3)

Dr. B. Das Gupta —

proposed

by

Mr.

C. B. Mehta and

seconded

by

Mr.

D. J. Panday.

(4)

Mr.

Nazir

Latif —

proposed

by

Mr.

Zafar Futehally and

seconded

by

Mr.

S. R. Nayak.

(5)

Mr.

Bansi

Mehta —

proposed

by

Mr.

S. R. Nayak and

seconded

by

Mr.

C. B. Mehta.

(6)

Mr.

S. V.

Nilakanta —

proposed

by

Mr.

Zafar Futehally and

seconded

by

Mr.

S. R. Nayak.

(7)

Mr.

D. J.

Panday —

proposed

by

Dr.

Salim Ali and

seconded

by

Mr.

P. Kannan.

(8)

Dr.

R. N.

Vasa —

proposed

by

Mr.

S. J. Wadke and

seconded

by

Mr.

R. A. Mondkar.

The Chairman stated that it would therefore be necessary to hold
a postal ballot as provided for under Rules 32 and 33.

Agenda Item 4. (Other business) : The following resolution was mov-
ed by Mr. Bansi Mehta:

“Resolved that the membership of the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety be separated from the contribution to the Journal of the Bom-
bay Natural History Society and the members desirous to contribute
to the journal be charged such amount as subscription, as to meet
the expenses of the journal and the fees of members not contribut-
ing to the journal be reduced accordingly”.

The resolution was seconded by Mr. C. B. Mehta.

Mr. B. B. Paymaster read out the Society’s Rule 18, and stated that
it needs to be studied whether such a resolution is permissible. After
some discussion the Chairman said that the matter will be considered
by the Executive Committee, and Mr. Bansi Mehta withdrew the re-
solution.

Mr. Manchekar asked whether the Committee has any programme
for improving the Society’s finances apart from increasing the mem-
bership, etc.. Dr. Deoras said that a Sub-Committee has been consti-
tuted by the Executive Committee to improve the Society’s funds, and
indicated two directions in which it was working; (1) by reducing the
expenses and (2) by seeking donations from industries.

The Honorary Secretary added that the Committee was consider-
ing the possibilities of screening the films The Baobab Tree donated to
the Society by the Smithsonian Institution. He said that volunteers were
needed to make a success of such a film premiere and requested mem-

916 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 72(3)

bers to, come forward and enrol their friends for this work.

Arising out of this, Mr. Manchekar asked why the Society has not
been associated with the showing of the film King Elephant sponsored
by the World Wildlife Fund. After some discussion, in which Mr. Abdul-
ali joined, the Honorary Secretary said that the picture was first offered
to the Society, but we were unable to utilise the offer at short notice.
The World Wildlife Fund, having no volunteers to do this sort of work,
were able to take the risk of booking the whole theatre at a concessional
rate, and selling tickets at a reduced rate to their members. Tickets
were also offered to members of the Bombay Natural History Society,
many of whom took advantage of the offer.

Prof. Bole stated that for increasing the finances of the Society we
have to work together, and he supported the Honorary Secretary’s sug-
gestions.

Mr. Divekar wanted to know whether reports of the research and
field studies carried out by the Society can be made available to mem-
bers. He also suggested that the reports could be printed as booklets for
sale. He was informed that this was not practicable, as the demand was
not adequate to pay for such printing, but that the files were made
available to any interested members.

Mr. Divekar asked for information about the Salary and Provident
Fund available to the staff. The Honorary Treasurer replied that there
are two categories of staff, the Grant-in-aid staff and the Society’s staff.
As regards the salary, the Honorary Treasurer stated that salaries of
both categories have been revised in accordance with the Maharashtra
Government scale. An approach has been made to Government for
Provident Fund contribution for the Grant-in-aid staff.

Dr. Vasa referred to the letter sent by the staff to members of the
Society. The Chairman informed the meeting that an Enquiry Sub-
Committee has been formed by the Executive Committee in this regard.
Mr. Abdulali asked whether the report of the Enquiry Sub-Committee
would be made available to members, and Dr. Deoras asked whether
it would be possible to publish it in the Journal. The Chairman stated
that the matter will be considered by the Executive Committee.

Mr. Kalsia asked about the complete ban on shooting within the
State of Maharashtra and the attitude of the Society’s representative
on the State Board of Wildlife in the matter. Mr. Abdulali asked what
suggestions, if any, had been made by the Society with reference to the
amendment of the Central Government’s Wildlife Act. The Honorary
Secretary replied that he had made, personally, suggestions for amend-
ments. No amendments were forwarded from the Society, as none had
been sent to him by the members of the Executive Committee in res-
ponse to his request.

Dr. Vasa and Mr. Manchekar asked when the World Wildlife Fund

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

917

was vacating the premises of the Society. The Chairman replied that
vacation has been agreed upon but no date yet been fixed.

The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chair.

In the postal ballot held on November 1975 the following were elect-
ed to the Executive Committee:

Executive Committee

Dr. S. R. Amladi

Prof. P. V. Bole

Dr. B. Dasgupta

Mr. H. K. Divekar

Mr. Lavkumar J. Khacher

Mr. Nazir Latif

Mr. Bansi Mehta

Mr. Kisan Mehta

Mr. S. V. Niiakanta

Mr. D. J. Panday

ERRATA

Volume 72(2): August 1975

Field Guide to the Amphibians of Western India — Part III

On Page 507, para 4, line 10

for “long pinted papilla” read “long pointed papilla”

On Page 510, footnote, line 1

for “In Boulengen” read “In Boulenger”

On Page 513, para 1, line 12

for “chukle-like” read “chuckle-like”

On Page 515, in line 5

for “from the side small” read “from the side of small,”

On Page 517, para 2, line 5

for “On one sides” read “on the sides”

On Page 518, para 2, line 3

for “male with sitting” read “male while sitting”
for “sylabilised” read “syllabilised”

On Page 522, in line 5

for “Burrrowing” read “Burrowing”

Miscellaneous Note No. 8 — Nomenclature of the Asian Palm Swiftj

On Page 540, in line 29

for “The history of these”

read “The history of the second of Latham’s two sources, i.e. General
Hardwicke’s drawings,”

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS
Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 3rd (revised) edition. 28 plates
in colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 40

( Price to members Rs. 35)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett.

Rs. 10

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 9th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and
many monochrome plates. ^s; 35

( Price to members Rs. 30)

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Kumayun Abdulali. Rs. 2.50

( Price to members Rs. 2)

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Rs. 5

Miscellaneous

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. 0.80

Kannada. Rs. 0.62

2. Our Birds II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0.62

3. Our Beautiful Trees (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and

Marathi. Rs. 0.62

4. Our Monsoon Plants (with 8 coloured plates) in English,

Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0.80

5. Our Animals (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,

Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1.25

Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English Rs. 7.50

{Price to members Rs. 5)

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, from
members who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Entrance Fees :

Ordinary and Life Members . . . . . . Rs. 25

Forest Department Nominees . . . . . . —

Student Members . . . . . . . . Rs. 10

Subscription :

(a) Ordinary individual Members . . . . . . Rs. 50

( b ) Ordinary Corporate Members . . . . . . Rs. 100

(c) Ordinary Members resident outside India . . . . £ 3.50

(£ 3 plus 50 p to cover extra postage on Journal)

Life Members . . . . . . Rs. 750

(Rs. 250 after 20 years)
Compound Corporate Members . . Rs. 1000

Forest Department Nominees . . . . . . Rs. 36

Student Members (without Journal) . . Rs. 10

Annual subscription to Journal . . . . Rs. 90

Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of
orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society
in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the
sum of £3*50 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The
National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London EC3P 3ED. Ac-
count No. 1101091.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December
covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following
year.

CONTENTS

A year of Bandipur. By H. C. Sharatchandra and Madhav Gadgil

Notes on the morphology and ecology of the Lesser Whistling Teal
( Dendrocygna javanica ). By Eric G. Bolen and M. Kent Rylander

Studies on Palms: fruits, seeds and their germination in Livistona
chinensis R. Br. By T. S. Mahabale and K. M. Kulkarni

The taxonomy of Moschus (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) with parti-
cular reference to the Indian Region. By Colin P. Groves

Heterostyly and breeding mechanism of Nymphoides cristatum
(Roxb.) O. Kuntze. By R. Vasudevan Nair

Notes on some aspects of the biology of P daemon sty lif eras Milne-
Edwards from the Godavari estuarine system.

By M. Subrahmanyam

Contribution to the umbellifers of Kashmir. By M. K. Kaul

Communal roosting habits of Indian Birds. By Madhav Gadgil and
S&lim Ali

Contribution to the ferns of Annapurna-Dhaulagiri Range, Central
Nepal. By V. D. Vartak

Systematic studies on fishes belonging to the Genus Coilia Gray,
1831. By B. V. Seshagiri Rao

A contribution to the knowledge of Oriental Bruch idae.

By T. G. Vazirani

Grasses of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. By S. K. Jain, D. K. Baner-
jee and D. C. Pal

New Descriptions

Reviews

Miscellaneous Notes

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the
year 1974-75

Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting

page

623

648

655

662

677

683

692

716

728

732

740

758

774

829

837

889

897

913

by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for the Bombay
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis I.T.I., Borivli, Bombay 400 092 and published
Natural History Society, Bombay 400 023.

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