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SMITHSONIA = a = 2) 8) yy, 5 WwW n Ww ve) = fy, % : = = s = |< Yi fps 3 < c y= a = a 7 GS oc = a = o al 5 = ° = 3 eS a4 ra _! 2 - Zz a Ni NVINOSHLINS S3I1uvVHNaIT LIBRARIES INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI NVINOSHLIW - rad r = EE z ip o &s °@ w = o ° SB es) NSA = se) 3 a.) = 0 i \ Ge z= Ey > = > 2 NQF a i: z i 2 p . 2 ; zZ a Z : SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION | NONINLSNI NVINOSALINS (S39 yuvdd riot BRARI ES SMITHSONIA = << & = Z = & = 2 = | gl fi 3 wy Ae g | 2 3M 2 G4 2X 8 Z E 2 Gy A 2 “yy = 2 > > . > i s > = ‘ > Ea u? . ra 77) fe 77) * zm Ni NWINOSHLINS S3JINYVYEIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NWINOSHLIV 2 S& = mM = a el as GX = = = ea a 4 a4 SSNs = bb: © GG = 2 i x = Ok) w* 3 pa wn m w im Ww” : = w = 7) é w = NI NVINOSHLINS S3iyvugia LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI_ NVINOSHLIV = 2) p ra . n =e uw = = = = = < = y 4 = — xX = Y fy, Z fg 2 WN 8 2 WN 2 YF 2 es = Es Qw Zz - ANS ay YY Jtooke = > = “SMS = = “Ss >" = w = uw) z Ww a 2 7) ; -S SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI_NVINOSHLINS —S3 'YVYdgIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIA vv — w — w = | Pe a = \ uw ar a of — o < — < ce Le c = Yi ag = o = 8 a ba] fm Cif: a. a ao 5 = 5 a. a, 2 a 2 , _ = = Ni NVINOSHLINS S31uvVUaIt LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLIV PL aes z c S = = es = ) = 2 .o = = \ 2, = a =a = r= a ede: = > & 5 Bed - > 2 ro = en ie = 20 m = m a ; os = Ya = 5 SMITHSONIAN ~ ~ NOILALILSNI NVINOSHLINS (54 [uvud ul BRARI ES SMITHSONI n os = > 5 if ye Zz a stl fw’ 2 SNY a x fe) IG re) ae JY ; DS VR =z n n es Mh n Yn y Wes w : _ oO oO 7 oO 7 “Lg Al Oo WY < Oo Zz - Zz “yy = 2% = WS = : ee eae eo NI NVINOSHLIWS $3 | uvUugIT Li BRARIES SMITHSONIAN _ INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLIY bead oo (op) a poor a wn ad —— eta pe a — bh, Cpe tit Ve ’ wa \ SAY lp Leg —s 2 wes > mS . 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Ys Wy (e) Oo re A E 2 E Ww 2Z: 5 E a 2 FA o ca 2 na UTION NOILNLILSNI_ NVINOSHLIWS saluvugit LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Nolin LIBRAR{ES SMITHSONIAN w pa = 2p) us a uw & & uw e = = = ae < x c se Cc on a ar ar am rs 0 3 ea 3 5 = 3 Zz J ies 2 - YUG17 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSNI_NVINOSHLIWS s3iuvudit LIBR 2 ff : = =~ re) = rs) om WX ) os = es) = ON = o a Gi fy “a x 2 NE = a > lf * = > 2 > » - Gy es = = . OF ~ Ww —_ -—_ rn — TUTION , NOLLALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS SSIUVUEIT_ LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION |, NOL a Z = ,,¢2 S& = < GS. = SS = z a vf fy = = z af a YS 8 : 2 Gy = 2 = 2 > = > zi = L. “hoe = > G 2 w me wn : 2 wy z= a, 2 VYdIT_ LIBRAR JES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSNI NVINOSHLINWS Sere, — ey ary S3J1NVYUSIT_ LIBR — S 5 S ae ewe. CoIoF NA ; Vol. 77, No. 1 Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati APRIL 1980 Rs: 735 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are conned to assist the editors by observ- ing the following instructions: 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. A\ll scientific names to be printed in italics should be underlined. 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identifica- tion has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collect- ed. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 5.60 cm (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. ; 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should ‘be i in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. . 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alpha- betically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus: Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2):243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s . name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958). 9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. 10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi- ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. 11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a mem- ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s. Hornbill House, : . : EpITors, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society. VOLUME 77 NO. 1 : APRIL 1980 Date of Publication: 29-11-1980 CONTENTS PAGE A NEW SPECIES, AND A NEW SUBSPECIES OF BIRD FROM TIRAP DistRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, AND COMMENTS ON THE SUBSPECIES OF Stachyris nigriceps BLYTH. By S. Dillon Ripley. (With a coloured plate) ats 1 FRESHWATER ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE AND RAICHUR OF KARNATAKA STATE, INDIA. By U. D. Bongale and S. G. Bharati. (With nine plates) BIRD NOTES FROM BALUCHISTAN PROVINCE, PAKISTAN. By T. J. Roberts 55 12 OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD AND GROWTH OF Bufo melanostictus TADPOLE. By J. H. Sabnis and Ku. S. M. Kuthe. (With a text-figure) ae 21 DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND THE CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN COAST IN INpDIA. By C. S. Gopinadha Pillai and K. K. Appukuttan. (With three plates, four text-figures and a map) et 26 A MarcH BIRD COUNT IN Poona. By Prakash Gole , 49 MAMMALS FROM NepaAL. By David H. Johnson, S. Dillon Ripley, and Kitti hone: longya. (With a text-figure) a 56 PARENTAL CARE IN THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER) AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS. By H. R. Bustard and B. C. Choudhury ee 64 EGcGs AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER FISH. By C. V. Kulkarni. (With four text-figures) 2 70 FAMILY CYPERACEAE IN KOLHAPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. By A. R. Kulkarni, S. R. Yadav and J. S. Pawar se 76 A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BomBAy NATURAL HISTORY SociETY—22. By Humayun Abdulali Pe 81 CLUTCH SIZE, INCUBATION AND HATCHING SUCCESS OF GHARIAL [Gavialis gangeticus (GMELIN) ] EGGS FROM NARAYANI RIVER, NEPAL, 1976-1978. By H. R. Bustard .. 100 New DESCRIPTIONS: Pseudoscorpions from south India—four New species of the Family Chernetidae Mange and Cheliferidae Hagen (Pseudoscorpionida, Monosphyronida). By S. Sivaraman. (With four text-figures) : 106 A New Genus of Rubiaceae from Great Nicobar Island, India. By N. P. Balakrishnan. (With a text-figure) .. 116 A New species of Lindenbergia (Scrophulariaceae) from eastern India. By J. K. Sikdar and G. G. Maiti. (With four text-figures) oe 4 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: MAMMALS: 1. Notes on the mating behaviour of Tadarida aegyptiaca (Geoffroy). By S. K. Kashyap (p. 124); 2. Field observations on the Hanuman Langur. By S. C. Makwana and S. Majumdar (p. 125); 3. A note on the breeding of the Leopard-Cat (Felis bengalensis) in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 127); 4. Do Leopards use their whiskers as wind detector? By Raza H. Tehsin (p. 128); 5. Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) in captivity. (With a photograph). By P. R. Chandran (p. 129); 6. A further note on Moschus. By Colin P. Groves (p. 130); 7. Report of the occurrence of the Metad in West Bengal. By Ajoy Kumar Mandal and Santanu Ghosh (p. 133). Birps: 8. Some observations on the Biology of the Openbill Stork, Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert), in southern Bengal. (With a plate). By Anand Mukhopadhyay (p. 133); 9. The nesting of the Coot (Fulica atra) in the village pond of Khandala. By A. Navarro (p. 137); 10. A note on the survey of the Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps). By L. H. A. Rego (p. 138); 11. On the taxonomic validity of the South Indian Black- headed Oriole, Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus Franklin (Aves: Oriolidae). (With a text-figure). By N. Majumdar (p. 139); 12. On the validity of Dendrocitta formosae sarkari Kinnear & Whistler. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 142); 13. On the occurrence of Tytler’s Leaf Warbler, Phylloscopus tytleri Brooks in Goa. By Trevor D. Price (p. 143); 14. Green Munia (Estrilda formosa) at Delhi, and other interesting records for 1978. By A. J. Gaston and J. Mackrell (p. 144); 15. A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society parts 1-17—Non-Passeriformes Errata and Addenda. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 145). REPTILES: 16. Territoriality in immature captive Saltwater Crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus Schneider). By H. R. Bustard and S. K. Kar (p. 148); 17. Status of the Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus Gmelin) in Bhutan. By H. R. Bustard (p. 150); 18. Extention of range of the narrow-mouth frog. Uperodon globulosum (Ginther) te Kamrup District, Assam. By Jnan- endra Lal Bhaduri and Subhendu Sekhar Saha (p. 151). FisHEs: 19. Occurrence of Botia lohachata Chaudhuri in Himachal Pradesh with remarks on the taxonomy of Indian species of Botia Gray (Pisces: Cobitidae). By G. M. Yazdani (p. 152); 20. The giant mahseers of Kumaun Himalayas with a recent rare record. By S. S. Pathani (p. 154). INSEcTs: 21. Male in copulation with dead female of Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus Bol. By Shamshad Ali (p. 155); 22. Maternal care in Oxyrhachis tarandus Fabr. (Membracidae: Homoptera). By Sawai Singh and Surya Kant Sharma (p. 156); 23. Parnara butterfly from Patna: A correction. By R. K. Varshney and B. Nandi (p. 157). CRUSTACEA: 24. Occurrence of Artemia salina (Crustacea: Phyllopoda) in Didwana Lake, Rajasthan. By S. C. Bhargava and M. Alam (p. 158). HIRUDINEA: 25. On a small collection of Leeches collected during the Daphabum and Subansiri expeditions, Arunachal Pradesh. By J. M. Julka and M. Chandra (p. 160). ARACHNIDA: 26. Some interesting observations on a spider Argiope arcuata Simon (Arach- nida: Araneidae). By Charan Singh (p. 161); 27. Observations on the silk chamber con- struction and brooding behaviour of Pseudoscorpions (Cl. Arachnida). (With five text- figures). By S. Sivaraman and V. A. Murthy (p. 162). BoTANY: 28. Some interesting observations in Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. ssp. tinctoria. (With a text-figure). By M. P. Nayar and R. K. Kochhar (p. 167); 29. Vernonia chinensis Less.— A new record for Andamans. By Bimalendu Mitra and Girija Sankar Giri (p. 168); 30. A new distributional record for Eupatorium adenophorum Sovreng. from Tehri Garhwal. By Shiv Kumar Dhyani (p. 169); 31. Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli (Alismataceae)— an interesting and rare addition to the flora of the presidency of Madras, from Kerala, South India. (With eleven text-figures). By J. Joseph and V. Chandrasekaran. (p. 169); 32. Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker (Liliaceae) in Maharashtra. (With five text-figures). By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy (p. 172); 33. Nomenclature of some bulbous Liliaceae of India. By M. Y. Ansari and R. Sundara Raghavan (p. 172); 34. Hitherto undescribed follicles of Marsdenia brunoniana Wt. & Arn. and its distribution. (With three text-figures). By M. Chandrabose and N. C. Nair (p. 174); 35. More records of entomo- genous fungi from preserved Dragonfly collections. By Brij Kishore Tyagi and Vijay Veer (p. 176). ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1977-78 .. 179 STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY as 185 MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING .. 199 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1980 APRIL Vol. 77 No. 1 A NEW SPECIES, AND A NEW SUBSPECIES OF BIRD FROM TIRAP DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, AND COMMENTS ON THE SUBSPECIES OF STACHYRIS NIGRICEPS BLYTH.’ S. DILLON RIPLEY? (With a coloured plate) A new species of shortwing (Turdinae) is described from five specimens collected in dense evergreen rain forest along the Noa Dihing River, eastern Arunachal Pradesh. The new form is close in appearance to Brachypteryx hyperythra, but somewhat larger, the dull female plumage (in both sexes), more streaked, and lacking the concealed white eyebrow patch found in all other species of the genus except for B. major of South India. A new subspecies of Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus), is also des- cribed from the same locality. Comments on the geographical races of Blackthroated Babbler (Stachyris) are given. (Both latter genera belong to Timaliinae). During a second survey trip to Arunachal Pradesh, my wife and I were priviledged to join Dr. Salim Ali, and colleagues from the Bombay Natural History Society, on a month’s camp along the Noa Dihing River on the border of the Namdapha wildlife reserve. By the use of mist nets we secured and ob- served many species of birds, otherwise al- most impossible to record. The extremely dense vegetation, a characteristic of mature, 1 Accepted April 1980. 2 Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560, U.S.A. unopened rainforest was penetrated only by a rough dirt track, accessible, at some seasons, by jeep. Heavy rain, beginning on March 15, greatly limited our observations. However, we were fortunate to obtain a small series of the following new species: Brachypteryx cryptica sp. nov. Enigmatic Shortwing Holotype: United States National Museum of Natural History, no. 583152, adult male from 40-mile camp (Bhimraj camp), east of Miao, Noa Dihing River road (27° 40’ N., 97° E. approx.), elevation 820 m (2650 ft.): JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 collected 23 March, 1979, by S. Dillon Rip- ley, field number 254. Diagnosis: in size and coloration nearest to Brachypteryx hyperythra, the _ little-known Rustybellied Shortwing, recorded from Sik- kim, Arunachal Pradesh (in Subansiri Dist.), Assam and Nagaland. Male plumage in the adult of Ayperythra is strongly dimorphic, dark blue upperparts, blackish lores and sides of throat, concealed white supercilium, ferrugin- ous below. The female is olive-brown above and pale ferruginous below with the center ‘of the belly whitish. In contrast males and females of cryptica differ from the female plumage of hyperythra by somewhat lighter brown upperparts, Russet rather than Olive- brown (cf. Smithe, 1975), with noticeable buff shafi-streaks on the forehead and fore- crown producing a_ streaked effect. The feathers of the nares, anterior to the eyes, are coloured creamy-buff, giving the suggestion of a dull but distinct light patch, totally unlike the uniform olive-brown tone of hyperythra. Below, this species is pale creamish amber- brown, ranging to clay brown on the throat and upper breast, in contrast to the dark cinnamon of hyperythra. The shafts of the feathers of the breast in cryptica are margin- ed at the ends with pale olive-brown, giving a streaked effect. Lower down the breast pales to buff and the abdomen is dull whitish, the flanks pale olive-brown, rather than dark as in hyperythra, and the undertail coverts warm buff rather than reddish-cinnamon. The effect produced is of a paler bird beneath, buff to whitish, rather than ferruginous to creamy. Stuart Baker (1933) writes of males of two species of Brachypteryx as not donning the slaty-blue upperparts of adult dress, and still being in breeding condition, in the eastern part of the range, namely the hills of Naga- land and the Patkoi Range in Arunachal. 2 Whether these birds are fully adult and main- tain a hen plumage throughout life is not known. Such birds could come into breeding condition in the first year, assuming dimorphic adult plumage later, in the second year? The specimens of cryptica collected shed no light on the presence of dimorphism in the species. One male has somewhat enlarged gonads (holotype). At least it can be main- tained that this species is distinct based on these specimens obtained. If the range is as given, namely the Patkoi foothills of eastern Arunachal Pradesh, it may be that the species has progressed a step further than its conge- ners, and supressed a dimorphic male plum- age? From the other Brachypteryx species, as the Key in the INDIAN HANDBOOK indicates (1973, 8: 204), cryptica differs in the creamy umber brown throat and underparts rather than white in /eucophrys, warm brown in montana, or the chestnut upperparts and vermiculated underparts in s¢ellata. It differs in size also from these species, being close only to Aypery- thra. Distribution: locality. Measurements: See Table 1. Remarks: The above measurements indi- cate that this new species is a larger bird than Ayperythra, with a longer tail, (tail-wing index of males .80 versus .07 for hyperythra), with a somewhat stouter, slightly longer bill compared to the latter species. No field ob- servations were possible with these netted birds, often collected in heavy rain. Known only from the type Pomatorhinus ferruginosus namdapha, subsp. nov. Holotype: United States National Museum of Natural History, no. 583153, adult male, from 40-mile camp (Bhimraj camp), east of TABLE 1 MEASUREMENTS OF Brachypteryx cryptica AND hyperythra BIRDS FROM TIRAP DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH Middle Bill : Tarsus Culmen Toe Width Weight Tail Wing Sex 20.75 gr. 20.75 17 17 15-16.5 16.5 28.5 30 27.5-28.5 53 66 mm. 67 62-66 62-66.5 (63.5) & (Type) B. cryptica eS 16.5 54 é (1) 2G) B. hyperythra 8 (6) 20.00 (1) 5-5.5 4-5.5 13.5-17 (15) [oad 14.5-16 (15) 15, 15.5 28.5-30 (29.2) 27.5, 28.5 43-48 (44.5) 40, 41.5 35 61, 63 Q (2) Miao, Noa Dihing River Road (27° 40’ N., 97° E. approx.), March 22, elevation 820 m. (2650 ft.), collected by S. Dillon Ripley, field number 251. Diagnosis: differs from Pomatorhinus fer- ruginosus ferruginosus of east Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and western Arunachal Pradesh in Kameng and Subansiri districts, in lacking the black cap and rusty red patch posterior to the nares at the commencement of the white supercilium, and the bright ferruginous lower throat, breast, and center of abdomen. From P. f. formosus of the Garo, North Cachar, Naga and Manipur Hills, this popu- lation differs in having the crown dark olive- brown rather than russet, and in darker olive- brown back, the post-nasal spot at the com- mencement of the white supercilium is notice- ably richer; whitish tinted with cinnamon- rufous, rather than whitish tinted with sal- mon. The lower throat, abdomen and breast is lighter than formosus, cinnamon, rather than dull dark cinnamon to pale cinnamon-rufous. Compared to P. f. stanfordi of northeastern Burma (as well as albogularis of eastern Burma and northwest Thailand) this popula- tion differs by dark olive-brown rather than tawny brown back, a richer cinnamon-rufous post-nasal spot rather than a pale whitish area, tinted at its lower margin with creamy buff, and by dark dull cinnamon to pale cinnamon- rufous rather than dark yellowish-buff under- parts. In measurements all these populations seem rather overlapping; ferruginosus 5 0; wing 85-92; tail 98-105; culmen 29-31.5 mm. namdapha 2 3, 2; wing 90-93; tail 101, 104; culmen 29-30. formosus 3,4 2, 0 wing 89-97; tail 103-112; culmen 29-31. stanfordi 2 3, 2, 0 wing 92-95; tail 99-111; culmen 29-32. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Weight; namdapha, 2 3 47, 50, 2 44 gr. There seems to be no difference in colour of the eyes, bill or legs. Remarks: On different occasions in mid- March,. individuals of this shy and elusive scimitar babbler were heard calling in the dense wet evergreen forest, but seen only with the greatest difficulty. The type specimen was in breeding condition (testes enlarged). Stachyris nigriceps Blyth The collection of additional fresh specimens of Stachyris nigriceps in eastern Arunachal Pradesh reveals that, although my descriptions of S. n. spadix (1948) and S. n. coei (1952) had a certain validity, I was unwise to distin- guish these representatives of a cline as sepa- rate in the absence of intermediate geographic specimens. Siachyris nigriceps, the Blackthroated Bab- bler (type locality, Nepal), of which I have examined many specimens, has a tendency to a black throat broadly or narrowly margined with white on the individual feathers. The ear coverts tend to be dark brown, almost black- ish brown in some cases. As one examines specimens from farther east along the Hima- layas into Arunachal Pradesh (specimen from Kameng district, 1978) east of Bhutan, the throat becomes more uniformly blackish, lack- ing the whitish streaks or feather margins, until, crossing the Dihang (the main Brahma- putra channel through the mountains), the final outpost, namely the Mishmi Hills of Lohit district, the type locality of coei is reach- ed. Here the throat is nearly black, and the ear coverts are similarly dark, blackish brown. I feel that this population reaily does represent a contiuous cline, and that, therefore, the separation of a named population, coei, is unjustified. Stachyris n. spadix (Laisung, north Cachar) was separated by myself (1948) from nigri- ceps as having a dark blackish-gray unstreak- ed throat and by having the ear coverts lighter in colour, brown, approaching burnt-umber. From S. n. coltarti (Margherita) this popula- tion was alleged to differ by having ear cov- erts brown rather than rufous-brown. The new series collected by us in Tirap district north- east of Margherita belong of course geogra- phically with coltarti, (Harington, 1913) hav- ing warm-brown to rufous ear coverts, and unstreaked throats, but they are close enough in the colour of the ear coverts to specimens from the Garo Hills on the one hand and to those from northeastern Burma and northern Thailand on the other, to render their sepa- ration from spadix superfluous. There is a con- tinuous cline towards darker ear coverts and slightly darker upper and lower parts, west to east as one examines specimens from the northern Patkoi Hills and east of Margherita, but these new specimens from Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh have reddish brown ear coverts, rather than the blackish brown ear coverts of specimens to the north, in Lohit district. Weights of this series in March are variable: co (testes slightly enlarged, mid-March at 808 m altitude) 9.5 gr. 2d (testes enlarged, March 6, at 290 m altitude) 13.5 gr. 2 (non-breeding, March 6, at 290 m alti- tude) 13.5 gr. A single wintering male (Jan. 27) from Kameng weighed 22 g, 5 g heavier than speci- mens from Nepal, listed in the HANDBOOK (1971, 6, p. 175). Presumably this difference is explained by fat deposition at that season. In my judgement then, number 1215 of the HANDBOOK (1971, 6: 174-177). Stachyris nigri- ceps coei Ripley, should be listed as a synonym of no. 1214, Stachyris nigirceps nigriceps Blyth, BIRDS FROM TIRAP DISTRICT, ARUNACHAL PRADESH the range of no. 1214 to include the Lohit dis- trict (Mishmi Hills) of Arunachal Pradesh. Number 1216 Stachyris nigriceps spadix Ripley, should be placed as a synonym of no. 1217 Stachyris nigriceps coltarti Harington, and the range of the latter should thus include Assam, Mizoram, Meghalaya south to Bangladesh hills, the Chittagong region, Burma and north- ern Thailand in the lower hills. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS In addition to the Arunachal Pradesh Gov- ernment authorities; Shri R. Haldipur, Lieut. Governor, Shri Thangam, Chief Conservator of Forests, and Shri P. P. Malhotra, Shri D. P. Borah, and Shri B. K. Barua of the Forest De- partment, we are deeply grateful to the then Minister of Agriculture and Forests, Shri Sur- jit Singh Barnala, and the present Wildlife Department chief, Shri Nalni Jayal, for their support and encouragement. These senior officers gave unstintingly of their courtesy, co- operation and willing support. Without their help, these important records could not have been obtained. I thank the authorities of the American Museum of Natural History, British Museum (Natural History), and the Bombay Natural History Society for their gracious loan of comparative material in their care. REFERENCES ALI, S., AND RIpLey, S. D. (1971 & 1973): Hand- book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 6; Vol. 8. Oxford Univ. Press, Bombay, New Delhi. HarRINGTON, H. H. (1913): Description of Sta- chyris nigriceps coltarti. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 33: 61. RipLey, S. D. (1948): A New Race of the Black- throated Babbler. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 68: 89. ——————— (1952): A New Race of Black- Throated Babbler from Assam. Postilla, Yale Pea- body Museum, No. 14: 2. SMITHE, F. B. (1975): Naturalist’s Color Guide. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York. SruarRT BAKER, E. C. (1933): The Nidification of the Birds of the Indian Empire. 2: 2. Taylor and Francis, London. FRESHWATER ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE AND RAICHUR OF KARNATAKA STATE, INDIA‘ U. D. BoNGALE? AND S. G. BHARATE (With nine plates) In continuation of the studies made on fresh water algae of Karnataka, the present paper deals with the fresh water algae from Davana- gere. The diatoms which were excluded in the earlier report on the algae of Yaragera lake, Raichur (Bharati and Bongale 1975) have also been included in this paper. Algae were collected from Bathi lake of Davanagere in February 1975 and preserved in 4% formaldehyde for further observations. Camera lucida sketches were made for the identification. CYANOPHYCEAE Gloeothece membranacea (Rabenh.) Bornet (Pl. I, Fig. 1) Desikachary P. 128. Cells with- out sheath 3.5 to 5.0 » broad, 5.0 to 8.5 » long, bluegreen, sheath unlike the type is yellow to brownish. Aphanocapsa banaresensis Bharadwaja (PI. I, Fig. 2). Desikachary p. 133, Pl. 22, Fig. 8. Cells bluegreen, granulated, 4.5 to 6.0 p» dia- meter. Differs from the type in being much smaller and also sheath not hyaline, but yel- lowish. Myxosarcina burmensis Skuja (PI. I, Fig. 3.) Desikachary p. 178, Pl. 32, figs. 20-22. Cells closely packed, bluegreen, 1.5 to 2.0 p in diameter, little smaller than the type. Colonies 1 Accepted May 1978. 2Central Silk Board, Srirampur, Mysore-8, India. 3. Department of Botany, Karnatak University, Darwar-580 003, India. 6 very small 20-25 p» in diameter. Spirulina laxissima West, G. S. (Pl. I, fig. 4.) Desikachary p. 196, PI. 36, fig. 5. Trichome bluegreen, nongranular, 2.5 to 3.0 p broad, spirals upto 10 » broad, 12 to 20 p distant from each other. Trichomes broader than the type. Oscillatoria curviceps Ag. ex Gomont (PI. I, fig. 5.) Desikachary p. 209, Pl. 38, fig. 2. Thallus bluegreen to brown, trichomes bent at the apices, not spirally coiled, 9.0 to 12.0 p broad, upto 1/3 as long as broad, cross walls very thick, end cell rounded. Little smaller than the type. O. irrigua (Kutz.) Gomont (Pl. I, fig. 6.) Desikachary p. 224, Pl. 42, figs. 7, 9. Tricho- mes 3.5 to 5.0 » broad. Cells nearly as long as broad, granulated. Much smaller than the type. ©. obscura Bruhl et Biswas (PI. I, fig. 7). Desikachary p. 207. Trichomes 4.0 to 5.0 p broad. Cells granulated, unlike the type tri- chome is not attenuated at the apex. O. princeps Vaucher ex Gomont (PI. I, fig. 8 a, b.) Desikachary p. 210, Pl. 37, figs. 1, 10, 11, 13, 14. Trichomes bluegreen, slightly attenuated and bent at the apices, cells 1/8 to 1 as long as broad, end cells flatly rounded, slightly capitate with thickened outer memb- rane 12 to 35 » broad. O. subtilissima Kutz. (Pl. I, fig. 9) Desi- kachary p. 215. Cells bluegreen, granulated, J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PraTe [ Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae ¥ ea | —— HRMS PSR R SURES ey) PARES s 0 50M 10 x100 Figs. 1-9: 1. Gloeothece membranacea (Rabenb.) Bornet; 2. Aphanocapsa_ banare- sensis Bharadwaja; 3. Myxosarcina burmensis Skuja; 4. Spirulina laxissima West, G.S.; 5. Oscillatoria curviceps Ag. ex Gomont; 6. Oscillatoria irrigua (Kutz.) Gomont; 7. Oscillatoria obscura Bruhl et Biswas; 8a, b. Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher ex Gomont; ‘8 Oscillatoria subtilissima Kitz. PLATE IT J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Bongale & Bharat Freshwater Algae i: et NOSE TELS ETAL MES SOLS CY AA SESTTE ATTAIN PAROLES DO ALPS ELITES AEBS. 10 x 100 > 2. Lyngbya hieronymusii Lemn. > Phormidium uncinatum (Ag.) Gomont 1. 1-7: 3. Microcoleus subtorulosus (Breb.) Gomont; 4. Phormidium mucosum Figs. > Gardner 5. Anabaena laxa (Rabenh.); 6. Calothrix weberi Schmidle; 7. Calothrix bharadwajae De Toni. J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae 10x 100 Figs. 1-9. 1. Oocystis borgei Snow; 2. Pediastrum duplex var. reticulatum Lagergheim; 3. Nephrocytium obesum W. et G. S. West; 4. Scenedesmus perforatus Lemmermann; 5. Coelastrum cambricum var. intermedium (Bohlin) G. S. West.; 6. Ankistrodesmus fulcatus var. radiatus (Chodat) Lemmermann; 7. Selenastrum gracile Reinsch; 8. Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun; 9. Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Moebius. Piate Lil J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLate IV Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae 50}! 10x62 10x 100 Figs. 1-9: 1. Closterium leibleinii Kitzing; 2. Closterium lunula (Muller) Nitzsch.; 3. Closterium venus (Kiitz.) Brébisson; 4. Euastrum spinulosum Delp.; 5. Penium margaritaceum (Ehrenb.) Bréb.; 6. Pleurotaenium trabecula (Ehrenbg.) Nag.; 7. Pleurotaenium chrenbergii (Bréb.) De Bary; 8. Cosmarium granatum Bréb.; 9. Cosmarium lundellii var. circulare (Reinsch) Krieg. ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE & RAICHUR 1.5 to 2.0 » broad, 3-4 times as long as broad, slightly broader than type. Phormidium mucosum Gardner (Pl. I, fig. 4) Desikachary P. 265, Pl. 43, figs. 6, 7. Sheath mucilaginous, colourless, 7.5 to 8.0 » broad. Trichomes bluegreen, cells nongranulated, more or less as long as broad, 2.0 to 3.0 yp broad. P. uncinatum (Ag.) Gomont (PI. H, fig. 1) Desikachary p. 276, Pl. 43, figs. 1, 2. Cells yellowish bluegreen, 6 to 15 » broad cross walls granulated, trichomes attenuated at the apices. End cell round or flattened conical capitate. Cells + to 4 as long as broad, larger than the type. Lyngbya hieronymusii Lemn. (PI. II, fig. 2). Desikachary p. 297; Pl. 48, fig. 4. Fila- ments 15 to 18 » broad, sheath firm, yellow- ish to colourless. Cells bluegreen granulated, sometimes at the cross walls, 11 to 12.5 p broad, } to as long as broad, longer than the type. Microcoleus subtorulosus (Breb.) Gomont (Pl. II, fig. 3) Desikachary p. 345, Pl. 56, figs. 8, 9. Many trichomes enclosed in a colourless to brownish gelatinous sheath. Cells granu- lated-sibluesreen, 2:5 to..3.5. «1 broad, 3.5 to 7.0 » long, smaller than the type. Anabaena laxa (Rabenh.) (Pi. Il, fig. 5.) Desikachary p. 413. Trichome 3.0 to 4.0 p broad, straight to slightly curved. Cells mostly barrel shaped with one or two granules, 4.5 fo 5.5 » broad, apical cell rounded little at- tenuated. Heterocyst spherical 5.0 to 6.0 u broad and upto 7.0 » long. Spore away from the heterocyst, 5.0 to 6.5 broad and upto 15 ps long. Calothrix bharadwajae De Toni, J. (PI. II, fig. 7). Desikachary p. 526, Pl. 112, fig. 3. Filaments grouped together, sheath distinct, hyaline. Trichomes constricted at the cross walls, tapering into a long hair. Cells barrel shaped 5.0 to 6.0 » broad, upto 9.0 » long. Heterocysts spherical, upto 8.5 » broad. Spo- res cylindrical 8.0 to 9.0 » broad and upto 22.0 p» long. C. weberi Schmidle (P. Il. fig. 6). Desi- kachary p. 540. Filaments unbranched, upto 9.0 » broad, ending into a long hair. Sheath hyaline, close to the trichome. Cells half to 2-3 times as long as broad, not constricted at the cross walls. Heterocysts spherical to slightly conical, 7.0 to 8.0 » broad, upto 12.0 p long. CHLOROPHYCEAE Pediastrum duplex var. reticulatum Lagerg- heim (PI. Il, fig. 2.). Philipose 124, fig. 43 g. Cells 10 to 18.0 » in diameter, Colonies 16 to 32 celled, 70 to 90 » in diameter, larger than the type. Oocystis borgei Snow (PI. III, fig. 1) Phili- pose p. 183, fig. 93. Cells 7 to 8 » broad and 8 to 10.0 » long. Colonies 4-8 celled 35 to 40 p» in diameter. Cells smaller than type. Nephrocytium obesum W. et G. S. West (PI. lll, fig. 3.) Philipose 191, fig. 106. Cells 10 to 11 » broad, 18 to 20 uw long. Colonies 30 to 35 » in diameter. Much smaller than the type. Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun (PI. LI, fig. 8). Philipose p. 205, fig. 115. Cells 5 to 10 » broad, 15 to 20 pw long. Colonies upto 95 pw in diameter. Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. radiatus (Cho- dat) Lemmermann (PI. III, fig. 6.) Philipose p: 213, .fig. 121 d< ‘Cells 2.0 to: 2.5». broad, 25 to 40 » long, shorter than the type. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Selenastrum gracile Reinsch (PI. III, fig. 7) Philipose 219, fig. 128. Cells 2 to 3.5 » broad, 9 to 17 p» long, smaller than the type. Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Moebius (Pl. III, fig. 9) Philipose p. 222, fig. 131. Cells 3 to 6.5 » broad, 6 to 11 p» in diameter. Co- lonies upto 100 » in diameter. Cells little smaller than the type. Coelastrum cambricum Archer (PI. III, fig. 5). Philipose p. 230, fig. 138. Cells 7 to 10 p in diameter and colonies upto 45 wp in dia- meter. Scenedesmus perforatus Lemmermann (PI. Ill, fig. 4). Philipose p. 280, fig. 186 a, b, g. Cells 6 to 8 » broad, 20 to 22 p» long. Per- forations 1 to 1.5 p» broad. Closterium leibleinii Kutzing (Pl. IV, fig. 1). Marie p. 65, Pl. 4, figs. 12, 13. Length 200 to 220 p, breadth 20 to 25 » in the middle, 4 to 5 » at the pole. Larger than the type. Cl. lunula (Mull.) Nitzsch. (Pl. IV, fig. 2) Marie. p. 70 Pl. 6, figs. 2-5. Length 370 to 410 p, breadth 42 to 48 » in the middle, 9 to 10.5 » at the pole. Smaller than the type. Cl. venus Kutzing (Pl. IV, fig. 3) Marie p. 70, Pl. 4, figs. 14-16. Length 50 to 55 yn, breadth 10 to 12 » in the middle, 2 to 2.5 p at the pole. Penium margaritaceum (Ehrenb.) Breb. (PI. IV, fig. 5) Marie. p. 87, Pl. 8, fig. 14. Length 150 to 162 p», breadth 20 to 23 pn. Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii (Breb.) De Bary. (Pl. IV, fig. 7) Marie p. 97, Phwlijifigs. 5, 6. Length 200 to 220 y», breadth 24 to 27 p in the middle, 15 to 17 » at the pole. P. trabecula (Ehrbg.) Nag. (Pl. IV, fig. 6) Scott and Prescott p. 18, Pl. 3, fig. 4. Length 8 390 to 430 p, breadth 21.0 to 23.0 p» in the middle, 18.0 to 19.0 » at the pole, isthmus 15.0 to 17.0 ». Smaller than the type. Euastrum spinulosum Delp. (Pl. IV, Fig. 4) Scott and Prescott p. 40, Pl. 10, fig. 4. Length 48.0 to 51.0 p, breadth 40.0 to 42.0 p», isthmus 10.0 to 11.0 ». Smaller than the type. Micrasterias foliacea Bail. (Pl. V, fig. 2.) Scott and Prescott p. 48, Pl. 20, fig. 4, Length 55.0 to 62.0 » breadth 62.0 to 68.0 p, isthmus 10.0 to 11.5 p. Little smaller than type. M. pinnatifida (Kutz.) Ralfs (Pl. V, fig. 1) Scott and Prescott p. 51, pl. 14, figs. 17, 18. Length 45.0 to 49.0 ,», breadth 54.0 to 56.0 u, and polar lobe 30.0 to 34.0 p, isthmus 9.5 to 10.0 pn. Cosmarium contractum Kirchn. (Pl. V, fig. 8) Scott and Prescott, p. 56, pl. 27, fig. 4. Length 24.5 to 27.0 p, breadth 17.5 to 18.5 » isthmus 4.5 to 5.0 ». Smaller than the type. C. dentiferum var. alpinum Messik. (Pl. V. fig. 7). Messikommer, p. 156, pl. II, fig. 1., Length 54.0 to 58.0 p, breadth 48.0 to 51.0 pn, isthmus 23.0 to 24.5 py. C. dubium Borge (PI. V, fig. 4) Scott and Prescott, p. 58, pl. 32, fig. 3. Length 16.0 to 17.5 p, breadth 12.0 to 13.5 p, isthmus 4.5 to" 5.0. in. C. granatum Brebisson (PI. IV, fig. 8) Pres- cott 1966, p. 15, pl. III, fig. 30. Length 29.0 to 30.5 p», breadth 19.0 to 20.5 p, isthmus 4.5 to 5.5 pu. C. lundellii var. circulare (Reinsch) Krieg. (Pl. IV, fig. 9) Scott and Prescott p. 60, PI. 25, fig. 7. Length 50.0 to 54.0 p., breadth 41.0 to 43.0 p, isthmus 14.5 to 16.0 up. Cosmarium sp. (Pl. VI, fig. 5). J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE V Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae ' ' ' ’ 1 ' 1 ’ ' ry ' ’ . ' i) ‘ 1 ' ‘ ' ‘ 1 < Se e BRHF ee Lk 0 10x100 50) Figs. 1-10: 1. Micrasterias pinnatifida (Kitz.) Ralfs.; 2. Micrasterias foliacea Bail.; 3. Cosmarium retusiforme (Wille) Gutw.; 4. Cosmarium dubium Borge; 5. Cosma- rium obsoletum var. sitvense Gutw.; 6. Cosmarium moniliforme (Turp.) Ralis.; 7. Cosmarium dentiferum var. alpinum Messik.; 8. Cosmarium contractum Kirchn.; 9. Cosmarium speciosum var. simplex Nordst.; 10. Cosmarium perfissum G. S. West. J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE VI Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae ee me ww ew we b-sy al ° Co 00) CGO0°%9 oO ) C09 903 Ce oe Crew C i¢ C & mae ae ki Vax 10x 100 50 p « Figs. 1-7: 1. Cosmarium subcucumis Schmidle; 2a, b. Arthrodesmus convergens Ehrbg.; 3. Staurastrum dickie Ralfs.; 4. Cosmarium scabrum Turn.; 5. Cosmarium sp.; 6. Staurastrum sexangulare var. subglabrum West and West; 7. Staurastrum orbi- culare var. depressum Roy and Biss. PraTe VII J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae 10 x 100 Figs. 1-8: 1. Staurastrum dickie Ralfs.; 2. Staurastrum dickie Ralfs.; 3. Staurastrum tohopekaligense var. insigne West and West; 4. Spondylosium planum (Wolle) West et G. S. West; 5. Onychonema laeve var. latum West and West; 6. Onychonema laeve var. micracanthum Nordst.; 7. Desmidium aptagonum Brebisson; 8. Staurastrum leptocladum Nordst. J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Pirate Vil Bongale & Bharati: Freshwater Algae 10x 100 Figs. 1-6: 1. Spirogyra borgeana Transeau; 2. Phacus longicauda (Ehrenb.) Dujar- din.; 3. Mougeotia sp.; 4. Ocodogonium sp.; 5. Trachelomonas mamillosa Prescott; 6. Trachelomonas acanthostoma (Stokes) Deflandre. ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE & RAICHUR C. moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs. (Pl. V, fig. 6) Marie. P. 172, pl. 23, fig. 12. Length 19.0 to 22.0 », breadth 13.0 to 14.5 p. isthmus 3.0 to: 3:5: pr. C. obsoletum var. sitvense Gutw. (Pl. V, fig. 5) Scott and Prescott, p. 63, pl. 25, fig. 1i. Length 55.0 to 61.0 p, breadth 59.0 to 66.0 ph, isthmus 15.0 to 16.5 up. C. perfissum G. S. West (PI. V, fig. 10) Scott and Prescott p. 65, Pl. 26, fig. 8. Length 20.0 to 23.5 p», breadth 21.0 to 24.0 p, isthmus 4.5 to 5.0 p. Slightly narrower than the type. C. retusiforme (Wille) Gutw. (Pl. V, fig. 3). Scott and Prescott P. 68, Pl. 32, fig. 15. Length 32.0 to 34.5 », breadth 30.0 to 31.5 p, isthmus 8.0 to 8.5 p». Bigger than the type. C. speciosum var. simplex Nordst. (Pl. V, fig. 9) Marie, p. 204, pl. 30, fig. 8. Length 30.0 to 32.0 », breadth 20.0 to 22.5 p, isthmus, 6.0 to 6.5 ». Smaller than the type. C. subcucumis Schmidle (Pl. VI, fig. 1) Marie P. 161, Pl. 25, fig. 3. Length 41.0 to 45.0 p, breadth 28.0 to 33.0 yp, isthmus 7.0 to 8.5 ». Smaller than the type. C. scabrum Turn. (PI. VI, fig. 4) Scott and Prescott, p. 68, Pl. 29, fig. 3. Length 30.0 to 32.5 p», breadth 30.0 to 32.0 yp, isthmus 7.0 to 7.5 ». But much differs and is smaller than the type. Arthrodesmus convergens Ehrbg. (Pl. VI, figs. 2a, b). Scott and Prescott. P. 74, Pl. 34, figs. 7-10. Length 27.0 to 34.0 », breadth 27.0 to 44.0 p», isthmus 6.5 to 8.0 », arm length 9:0) 40,/15:5° p. Staurastrum dickie Ralfs. (Pl. VI, fig. 3, Pl. VII, fig. 1) Marie, P. 275, Pl. 44, fig. 10. Length 70.0 to 85.5 », breadth 60.0 to 76.0 py, isthmus 9.5 to 14.5 », arm length 10.0 to 11.5 ». Much larger than the type. St. dickie Ralfs. (Pl. VII, fig. 2) Marie, p. 275, pl. 44, fig. 10. Length 32.0 to 33.5 4», breadth 29.0 to 32.0 p, isthmus 6.5 to 8.0 p, arm 4.0 to 4.5 ». This form differs from the type in having conical to dome shaped semi- cells. The basal angles of the semicells are more concave than the type. In the top view, the margins are straight or slightly concave. The spines appear inside the semicell. It is possible that this may be a new variety of the type. St. orbiculare var. depressum Roy and Biss. (Pl. VI. fig. 7) Scott and Prescott p. 100, pl. 52, fig. 12. Length 23:0 to 25.5 y, breadth 22.0 to 24.5 p, isthmus 4.0 to 4.5 p. St. leptocladum Nordst. (Pl. VU, fig. 8). Marie p. 299, pl. 53, fig. 4. Length 36.0 to 38.5 1, breadth in the middle 10.0 to 10.5 yp, breadth total including the arms 85.0 to 88.0 p isthmus 9.0 to 9.5 p. St. sexangulare var. subglabrum West and West (Pl. VI, fig. 6). Scott and Prescott, p. 107, pl. 46, figs. 1 and 2. Length 35.0 to 37.5 yw, breadth total, including the arms 60.0 to 64.0 », breadth in the middle 12.0 to 13.5 p isthmus 10.0 to 11.0 p. St. tohopekaligense var. insigne West and West (PI. VII, fig. 3) Scott and Prescott, p. 113, pl. 47, figs. 12-15. Length 33.0 to 34.5 yp, breadth 26.0 to 27.5 p, isthmus 5.0 to 5.5 pn, arm length about 24.0 up. Spondylosium planum (Wolle) West et G. S. West (PI. VII, fig. 4.) Marie p. 353, pl. 61, figs. 17, 18. Length 9.00 to 12.5 yu, breadth 6.5 to 7.0 p, isthmus 5.0 p. Little narrower than the type. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Onychonema_ laeve var. latum West and West (Pl. VU, fig. 5) Scott and Prescott, p. 121, pl. 60, fig. 13. Length 14.0 to 15.5 ip, breadth 17.0 to 19.0 yp, isthmus 3.0 » arm 3.5 to 4.0 p. O. laeve var. micracanthum Nordst. (PI. VII, fig. 6). Marie p. 345, pl. 61, figs. 4-6. Length 13.0 to 14.5 », breadth 11.0 to 12.0 pn, isthmus 6.0 », arm 2.5 to 3.0 up. Desmidium aptagonum Brebisson (PI. VII, fig. 17)... Prescott 1966; |p. 42>" pli" 112 tig. 14) Length 15.0 to 17.0 » breadth 22.0 to 24.5 p» Smaller than the type. Spirogyra borgeana Transeau (Pl. VIII, fig. 1),;Prescott, 1951; p. 311, pk 77. figs. 7. 8. Cells 55.0 to 61.0. », in diameter, 65.0 to 77.0 » long. Chloroplast solitary making 2-4 turns. Zygospores ellipsoid, smooth wailed 37.0 to 43.0 w in diameter and 55.0 to 62.0 p» long. Phacus longicauda (Ehrenh.) Dujardin (PI. VIII, fig. 2). Prescott 1951. p. 400, pl. 87, fig. 1. Cells tapering gradually in to a long caudus at the posterior end, 55.0 to 61.0 p» in diameter 69.0 to 74.0 » long. caudus 35.0 to 40.0 p» long. Shorter than the type. Trachelomonas acanthostoma (Stokes) De- flandre (Pl. VII, fig. 6) Prescott 1951, p. 410, pl. 85, fig. 3. Test subglobose, 19.0 to 20.0 p in diameter, 20.0 to 21.0 » long. Collar not very low, slightly longer than the type. T. mamiMosa Prescott (Pl. VIII, fig. 5) Pres- cott 1951, p. 415, pl. 85, fig. 12. Test 46.0 to 49.0 » diameter and 36.5 to 38.0 yp long. Flagellum aperture in a mamillate swelling as in the type. But unlike the type, test is ovate, and covered throughout with promi- nent spines. Also it is larger than the type. 10 So it is possible that this might be a new variety. Mougeotia sp. (Pl. VIII, fig. 3). Oeodogonium sp. (Pl. VIII, fig. 4). BACILLARIOPHYCEAE Synedra ulna var. aequalis (Kiitz.) Hustedt (PI. IX, fig.. 15). Htistedt 1937, p. 199 sfie9691 a, d. Length 100.0 to 112.0 p», breadth 6.0 to 7.5 p. Striae 9.0 in 10.0 p. S. ulma var. biceps (Kiitz.) (PI. LX, fig. 14) Hiistedt. 1937, p. 200, fig. “6915 "es. Mengtht 300.0 to 340.0 », breadth 6.5 to 7.0 pn. Striae 9 in 10.0 up. Cymbella ventricosa Kiitz. (Pl. LX, fig. 2.) Hiistedt 1949, p. 116, pl. 9, figs. 8-11. Length 31.0 to 33.0 », breadth 9.5 to 11.0 p, Striae 10 sto; 23" an: OC: Cymbella miulleri Histedt (Pl. IX, fig. 1) Hiistedt 1949, p. 115, pl. 9, figs. 1-7. Length 89.0 to 93.5 p, breadth 20.0 to 21.5 p, striae Pine lOO Fn. Cocconeis disculus (Schumann) Cleve (PI. IX, fig. 17) Hiistedt 1937, p. 345, fig. 799. Length 24.0 to 26.5 », breadth 14 to 15.5 up. Striae 15 to 17.0 in 10.0 p». (Raichur). Surirella novilis Smith (Pl. [X, fig. 5) Smith 1853, p.. 32, pl. VU fig. 63. Length 1590 to 166.0 », breadth 38.0 to 42.0 p. Costae 3 in 10.0 p. S. splendida var. minor Meister (Pl. IX, fig. 6) Majeed 1935 p. 41, pl. VI, fig. 6. Length 116.0 to 121.0 », breadth 38.0 to 41.0 p, cos- tac 2 in 10.0 pn. Nitzschia obsoleta (Pl. [X, fig. 13). Htistedt 1949, p. 146, pl. 13, figs. 94-99. Length 45.0 to 49.5 », breadth 7.5 to 8.0 p», Striae 10 in 10.0 p». (Raichur). PLATE IX J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Freshwater Algae Bongale & Bharati: 10 x 62 Kitz.; 3. Navicula 5. Surirella novilis Smith; , Cymbella_ ventricosa 2: 1. Cymbella mulleri Hustedt; 1-17: crucicula (W. Sm.) Donkin; 4. Pinnularia major Figs. ’ 8. Stauro- Sm.; W. ) edt; ; 7. Navicula bacilloides Hiist 9. Stauroneis elata Hiistedt; 10. Acanthes exilis 6. Surirella splendida var. minor Meister. neis wislouchii Poretzky et Anisinova.; umblicata Hiistedt; 12. Nitzschia 14. Synedra ulna var. (Lagerstedt ) Cleve; 11. Caloneis clevei Kiitzing; 15. Synedra biceps (Kiitz.); (Ehr.) O. Mull; 16. Rhopalodia gibberula 13. Nitzschia obsoleta Hiistedt; ulna var. aequalis (Kiitz.) Hustedt; 17. Cocconeis disculus (Schumann) Cleve. ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE & RAICHUR Nitzschia umblicata Hiistedt (Pl. IX, fig. 12) Hiistedt. 1949, p. 129, pl. 11, fig. 65. Length 33.0 to 36.5 », breadth 10.0 to 10.5 p, Striae 10 in 10.0 p. Slightly broader than the type. Navicula bacilloides Hiistedt (PI. LX, fig. 7) Hiistedt 1961, p. 117, fig. 1250. Length 41.0 to 44.5 » breadth 15.0 to 164 p, striae 13 in 10.0 ». Larger than the type (Raichur). N. crucicula (W. Sm.) Donkin (Pl. IX, fig. 3) Hiistedt 1962, p. 318, fig. 1436, a-c. Length 81.5 to 84.0 », breadth 27.0 to 29.5 wu, striae 16.0 to 17.0 in 10.0 » (Raichur). Pinnularia major W. Sm. (PI. IX, fig. 4.) Smith 1853, p. 54, fig. 162, pl. XVIII, fig. 162. Length 130.0 to 146.0 ,, breadth 20.0 to 21.5 pw at the middle, 14.0 to 15.0 » at the pole, costae 9-10 in 10.0 » (Davanagere and Rai- chur). Stauroneis elata Histedt (PI. IX, fig. 9.) Hiistedt 1959, p. 794, fig. 1139. Length 58.0 to 61.5 », breadth 16.5 to 18.0 yp, striae 20.0 in 10.0 » (Raichur). S. wislouchii Poretzky et Anisinova (PI. IX, fig. 8) Hiistedt 1959, p. 792, fig. 1137. Length 51.0 to 54.5 p, breadth 15.0 to 16.5 py, striae 15-18 in 10.0 p, dissolving (Raichur). Caioneis clevei (Lagerstedt) Cleve (Pl. IX, fig. I?) Hustedt’ 1949, -p. 98, pl. 11; fig. 33, Length 48.0 to 51.0 p, breadth 8.5 to 9.0 pn, striae 12 in 10.0 pz. Acanthes exilis Kitzing (PI. LX, fig. 10) Hiistedt 1937, p. 378, fig. 822. Length 60.0 to 66.0 p breadth 9.0 to 10.5 py, striae 15.0 to717, an). 10:0) <5. Rhopalodia gibberula (Ehr.) O. Mull. (PI. IX, fig. 16) Majeed 1935 p. 36, pl. V, fig. 15. Length 41.0 to 45.5 », breadth 23.0 to 24.5 up, costae 9 to 10 in 10.0 », broader than the type. 16 Cyanophyceae, 48 Chorophyceae (in- cluding 33 desmids) from Davanagere and 17 Bacillariophyceae from both Davanagere and Raichur have been described. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to the U. G. C. for finan- cial assistance to one of us (U. D. Bongale) and to Prof. M. S. Chennaveeraiah, for the facilities offered. REFERENCES BHARATI, S. G. AND BONGALE, U. D. (1975): Systematic account of fresh water algae of Raichur, Karnatak State, India. Karnatak Uni. J. Sci., 20: 130-141. DesIKacuary, T. V. (1959): Cyanophyta. ICAR. Publ. New Delhi. Hustepr, F. (1937, 1949, 1959, 1961, 1962): Dr. L. Rabenhorsts Kryptogamen Flora Akademisch Vertagsgesellschaft M. b. H. Leipzig Publ. MARIE—IRENE, F. (1938): Flora Desmidiale de la Region Montreal, Laprairie, Canada Publ. MaJeeD, M. A. (1935): The Fresh Water Algae of The Punjab Part I. Bacillariophyta (Diatomeae). The Uni. of Punjab, Lahore. Publ. MESSIKOMMER, P. E. (1942): Beitrag zur Kennt- nis der Algen flora und Algenvegetation des Hoch- gebirges um Davos. Verlag Hans Haber Bern Publ. PuiLipose, M. T. (1967): Chlorococcales. ICAR New Delhi Publ. Prescott, G. W. (1951): Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area. Cranbrook Inst. of Sci. Publ. — (1966): Algae of the Panama Canal and its Tributaries-II, Conjugales. Phykos 5, (Iyengar Memorial Volume): 1-49. Scotr, A. M. AND Prescott, G. W. (1961): Indo- nesian Desmids. Hydrobiologia, 17 (1 and 2). SmitH, W. (1853): A synopsis of the British Dia- tomaceae. Jon. van Vorst, Paternoster Row. Publ. Vol. 1. ia BIRD NOTES FROM BALUCHISTAN PROVINCE, PAKISTAN* T. J. Roperts? INTRODUCTION Practically nothing has been recorded about the avifauna of this fascinating area since the second world war, when Brigadier A. F. P. Christison gave an account of the birds seen in the south-western part of the Province (1941) and subsequently described some new records for the northern part of Baluchistan (1942). In fact most of our knowledge about the breeding birds in Baluchistan is based upon earlier writers (Meinertzhagen 1914, Ticehurst 1926-27, and Williams & Williams 1929). Since the area is in the south-eastern fringe of the great Palaearctic region and is characterised by mountain steppe or cold desert, it tends to have faunal affinities with Afghanistan, and Soviet Asia rather than the rest of the Indian sub-continent. The purpose of this note is to give detailed descriptions of two places of considerable ornithological in- terest in order to reflect the present day status of one and to draw attention to the other which seems to have been missed by earlier ornithologists working in the region. Sirandah lake In Dr. Salim Ali’s HANDBOOK series (The Birds of India and Pakistan) this lake is men- tioned as the only locality within the territo- rial limits covered by these ten volumes, where the Slenderbilled Gull (Larus genei) and the 1 Accepted July 1979. 2P. O. Box 3311, Karachi-23 Pakistan. Malir City Post Office, 12 Caspian tern (Hydroprogne caspia, synonym Sterna caspia) (de Voous 1973) are known to breed. Sirandah is also recorded in the HANDBOOK as a regular breeding site for Gull- billed terns (Gelochelidon nilotica) and the Marbled Teal (Anas angustirostris). When I moved to Karachi in the autumn of 1973 I was naturally keen to visit this lake and studied all available literature. I had dif- ficulty in locating the lake until 1974, and because I could learn so little about the place I feel that my limited observations are worth recording. Perhaps some twentyfirst century ornithologist, writing about the extinct or vani- shing birds of the Middle East region will find my notes of value! General Bentham and Mr. Ludlow, two Bri- tish Government officials visited Sirandah lake around the turn of the century and submitted manuscript notes to Stuart Baker, who edited the Ornithological Journal for the region in those times, “Stray Feathers”. Dr. Claude B. Ticehurst, a Captain Surgeon in the Army was stationed in Karachi from 1917 to 1918 and mentions Sirandah in his comprehensive account of the Birds of Sind (/bis 1922-1924) but he did not apparently go there personally. Kenneth Eates of the Indian Police, a great oologist and authority on the birds of Sind, visited Sirandah in the early 1930s. I know of no other written records about this lake and imagine that it has been very seldom visit- ed by any competent ornithologists within the past 50 years. Despite the huge growth of Karachi City, BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN now a sprawling metropolis of 4.5 million people, the adjacent hinterland is still very sparsely populated being not only desert, but rocky and unsuitable for cultivation. Sirandah Lake lies 90 Km. west north west of Karachi in Las Bela District in the extreme south eastern corner of Baluchistan Province. Its approximate location is 66° 40’ East and 25° 30’ North. It is a good three Kilometres from the only road in the region which runs to the towns of Uthal and Bela. There are no vil- lages anywhere nearby and even today the lake is seldom disturbed by human visitors. It lies in a shallow basin near Sonmeani La- goon connected to the open sea 64 km. to the west, and is surrounded to the north and west by sedimentary sandstone hills. It is cut off from the sea by a spectacular series of 50 metre high barren sand hills. The area receives absolutely no rainfall from end September till early July and the monsoon influence is erra- tic, hardly bringing any rain in some years. The few dry nullahs which drain to the coast are blocked off by the above mentioned high sand dunes and hence after monsoon rains a lake tends to form in the bottom of the basin. It is always highly brackish and due to fluc- tuating water levels there are no sedges or reeds established along its barren margins. The only vegetation consists of scattered trees of Prosopis spicigera, much lopped for goat browse, and in the low lying areas stunted Tamarix troupii bushes. The ground consists of undulating sand hills upto 2 to 3 metres in height and dotted with salt-wort bushes, both Sueda fruticosa and Salsola foetida. The area is severely hot in summer with temperatures exceeding 44°C in June. When first visited by me in 1974, guided by some local fisherman, the lake was much shrunk in size and no one could recall any terns or gulls nesting there within recent years. Because of its remoteness, the lake always has 100 or 200 Greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) and a few Pelicans (both species). In winter small numbers of coot and dabbling ducks use it as a resting ground and perhaps the most interesting bird in the Common Sheld duck (7adorna tadorna) which spends the winter in fair numbers on the lake. In 1977 I counted a flock of 80. In wildfowl censuses of Pakistan conducted over 5 years by Mr. F. Koning for the I-W.R.B. during the early 1970s, at the most 3 to 5 Sheld ducks were recorded per annum _ be- tween all the major wetlands of Pakistan and apart from the Marbled Teal, this is Pakis- tan’s rarest duck. In one year on June 9th I saw many Rednecked Phalaropes (Phalaro- pus lobatus). Vhough so close to the open sea on which they spend the winter, it seemed late for migrating waders to be tarrying on this lake at the start of their migration. During other summer visits I have got the impression that a few Curlew Sandpipers (Calidris ferru- ginea), Little Stints (Calidris minuta) and Dun- lin (Calidris alpina) spend the entire summer around the lake shores. In February 1978 the lake was very shallow and had shrunk to a mere 30 hectares and I did not bother to visit it again. Indeed I believed that no terns or gulls could have nested there for many de- cades. I have never seen any Marbled Teal there. Stuart Baker, who lived and worked in North East India, referred to Caspian Terns nesting in bushes on an island in the lake. (FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA Vol. VI). There are no permanent vegetated islands in the lake and his observations about nests on bushes were so untypical of Sterna species as to imply that this was some second-hand account ema- nating rather from the reports of uneducated egg collectors. Great was my _ excitement, 13 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 therefore when in May, 1979 a+ fisherman friend from nearby Sonmeani came to report that ‘hundreds of Terns’, were nesting at Siran- dah. The Mekrani language for Tern is ‘“Khora’”’ and for Gull is ‘“‘Kinari”. May 24th was the first Friday when an opportunity al- lowed the lake to be visited. The 3 Km walk over soft sand dunes, coupled with the terrific heat made prolonged observations difficult. Added to this we discovered a temporary settlement of fishermen on the extreme south- ern corner of the lake. These men, occupying two palm thatched huts, insisted on accom- panying us and this added to the disturbance of the nesting birds. The monsoon rains of 1978 were unprecedently heavy in Las Bela district. Road bridges were swept away and many heads of livestock as well as people were drowned by flash floods pouring down normally dry sandy nullahs. The lake was transformed from my memories of February 1978. It now stretched for perhaps 6 kilo- metres in a north south axis with numerous inlets and lagoons between the sand hills and several islands. The nearest of these, located 14 kilometres from the fishing camp, revealed great activity with wheeling flocks of Slender- billed Gulls. By wading thigh deep, we could reach the island which was a long narrow sand bar, some 200 metres in length and prac- tically devoid of vegetation. In the middle and highest part of the island was a colony of some 60 pairs of Slenderbilled Gulls. Most nests contained two downy young, and only about ten still contained eggs, all with clutches of two. No nests had three eggs, or appeared to have 3 young. I thought this was due to heavy egg predation by the fisher- men as there was a basket full of gulls eggs in one of their huts collected the week be- fore. However Meinertzhagen records that 2 is the normal clutch size in Sind (BIRDS OF 14 ARABIA 1954). The nests, about 11 cm in dia- meter and as close as 0.75 metres apart, were quite substantial saucers of blackened bits of saltwort with stalks and stems and a surpris- ing number of both gull and flamingo feathers in the cup lining. The eggs are pale greenish to almost white in ground colour and much paler than any other gulls eggs I know of. I believe that the parent birds must have to wet their eggs regularly and incubate them also throughout the day, simply to prevent the developing chicks from overheating and being killed by the intense heat. The chicks had black feet and bills (unlike their parents), their body covered with almost white down with small black spots forming bars along the crown and wings. They were most attractive and when picked up did not regurgitate their food as Herring gull chicks (Larus argentatus) in Britain commonly do. Possibly this was be- cause they had not been fed by their parents since early morning, these gulls confining their foraging to morning and evening. On the far side of the island, nearer to the waters edge were six Caspian terns nests. These were hollows in the sand, devoid of any lining or decoration, and located 10 to 15 metres from each other. Unlike the wheeling flock of Slenderbills, the Caspian terns repeatedly dived over our head and uttered harsh alarm cries. All contained two eggs of a pale greyish stone colour with comparatively small spots of olive brown and violet grey under mark- ings. In body size the Caspian tern is not much bigger than L. genei but its eggs are quite remarkably bigger and more pointed at the narrow end. Between the Caspian Terns and the Slenderbill gulls nests, were two dis- junct colonies of Gullbilled Terns (Gelocheli- don) comprising about 17 nests in all—each with two eggs only and no chicks hatched. These nests were noticeably decorated with BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN bits of leaves and stems and shells and the eggs were much smaller than those of the Caspian terns or Slenderbilled Gulls. I esti- mated in the gull colony, that nest building must. have commenced from early April and egg laying from mid April. Ticehurst (Birds of Sind, op. cit.), records their nesting in June and this is repeated in other books. The terns had obviously started nesting three or four weeks after the gulls and towards the middle of May. Conversation with the fisherman was dis- turbing. Not only did they regularly collect gulls and terns eggs to eat, but also one of their number was skilled at snaring flamin- goes. Equipped with a long shaft propellor, out board motor and a rickety boat, they had been at the lake since October 1978 and dur- ing the winter had killed two adult flamingoes, bearing rings on their legs. I have not seen nor been able to recover these, but my fisher- man friend said he saw them and they were Iranian rings. Rather surprising as I would otherwise have assumed them to be Bombay Natural History Society rings from the Rann of Kutch. I arranged with another intelligent and re- liable fisherman who had accompanied me on May 24th that he should visit Sirandah Lake a second time. This was possible on June 12th and he brought back the following report. Due to evaporation the lake had become in- creasingly brackish and many fish were dying off. The fishermen had abandoned their tem- porary camp at Sirandah. Worse still, the nearby island was also deserted and hardly any Slenderbilled Gulls could even be observ- ed. On this island addled eggs remained in a ‘few nests but no chicks. All the terns nests were also deserted. The colony had deserted either as a result of excessive human egg pre- dation or more probably because of difficulty in feeding the chicks. Gulls must dip for sur- face swimming fry and monsoon conditions would make it difficult for them to catch fish from the open sea 64 kilometres distant. The chicks in hunger may have attempted to swim from the island. They were active and running around on May 24th. There are lots of foxes (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and Jackals in the area and only island nesting birds would be safe from their predation. Some 2 kilometres further north were two more islands now inhabited by terns which were not in evidence on May 24th. The largest of these islands had an unmixed colony of Caspian terns numbering atleast 150 pairs. No other species were present and Natha my fisherman friend made several interesting ob- servations. At least two nests contained 3 eggs, all the rest only 2 and most nests now had some decoration around the rim of bits of blackened Salsola leaves and stems. Also these nest were within two metres of each other. About ten per cent of the eggs were olive buff in ground colour and a few also beautifully marked with curly black lines. On the second island were about 30 Caspian terns nests and also 4 Gullbilled terns nests, two containing chicks. These were more grey than the gull chicks, with brownish red legs and fleshy pink at the base of their mandibies. A bluish darker area of naked skin through the eye and almost pure white throat and breast (a specimen preserved in formaldehyde was brought back). The downy wings were pre- dominantly black. Regarding other birds, there were many Whiskered terns (Chlidonias hybrida) hunt- ing over the lake but no sign of breeding. Also we encountered on the May 24th visit, a colony of some 15 pairs of Blackwinged Stilts (Himantopus himantopus) on the first island. They build quite a thick pad of dried 15 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 stems and leaves for a nest and some had a full clutch of four eggs. On the lake shore it- self in the recently dried out part were pairs of Snowy or Kentish Plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus), and we stumbled across one nest on May 24th. This was under the shelter of a Sueda bush and its rim was decorated with tiny shells. Hopefully the Caspian terns can hunt for fish in Sonmeani Lagoon and they will rear their chicks, as these powerful terns dive deeply and can catch fish upto 20 cms in length. Nearby Sonmeani is a very extensive lagoon averaging not more than 5 to 10 metres in depth. It is extremely rich in marine life with mangrove fringed shores, but a description of its ornithology is outside the scope of this note. Only one record seems appropriate to include. In early winter, shrimp fishing with throw nets is the most profitable occupation for the fishermen. The state of the tide is apparently critical for success and they com- monly encamp overnight with their boats along the shores of the lagoon. Large Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) are a favoured food at this time, the birds being skinned and roasted over open fires. In December 1977 a cormo- rant with a ring was shot, and though I failed to recover this ring, it apparently bore “foreign letters” on it and could have been Russian. During March I have often seen these cormorants in the distinctive breeding plum- age of Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis which sub-species has a Russian breeding population. Later in the summer I have only seen birds in non-breeding or immature plumage and I cannot find evidence of local breeding. The Indian Shag (P. fuscicollis) does breed during the monsoon in the Sonmeani mangroves. Surkhab Valley—Pishin District Located at approximately 30° 35’ N and 16 67° 20’ E, the Valley is situated in Pishin District, approximately 45 kilometres due north of Quetta City and 65 km by road. I first discovered the place in March 1974 and have been able to visit it in April, May or June each year subsequently. It is almost unique in the region as being one of the few places with a perennially flowing stream and some relatively well grown surviving tree cover which stretches for a distance of about 24 km where the valley is so restricted by surrounding hills that it does not afford op- portunity for cultivation. Two species regu- larly nest here which I have not been able to locate anywhere else in Pakistan, namely the Rufoustailed Chat (Cercotrichas galactotes) and Ménétries’s Warbler (Sylvia mystacea) and the area seems worthy of recording in this note about the birds of Baluchistan. I have searched in vain for the Rufoustailed Chat in the Chaghai District, where Christison (1941) thought it probably bred. The Valley itself is relatively flat and level with low surrounding hills of conglomerate and gravel. The Surkhab Lora, as it is called, is a shallow but fast stream flowing over gra- vel beds. The elevation is 1500 metres and average annual rainfall in Pishin town, 17 km distance, is 22 centimetres including light snow- fall which falls every winter. It is severely cold and dry from October often until late March and has a relatively restricted resident bird population, but in summer it attracts a number of breeding migrants. On the gravel and shale hills abutting the valley are scatter- ed bushes of Artemesia scoparia, Prunus jac- quemontii (the wild almond) and_ spiny clumps of Convolvulus spinosus with showy white flowers in late April. In the valley floor itself are groves of Populus species and Salix viminalis, forming trees upto 10 metres height. in the open drier areas are a number of BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN shrubs and thorny bushes; Tamarix species, Berberis gambleana and Caragana ambigua have been identified. There are also scattered brakes of the reed Arundo donax. In spring the ground is also carpeted with the hoary leaved vetchlike plant Sophora alopecuroides, which in April has creamy yellow flowers in a cluster at the tips of its stems. Clumps of the tall grass Chrysopogon aucheri also sur- vive in the shelter of bushes, and though the area is heavily grazed by goats and cattle, there is good cover for nesting warblers. My accumulated notes from five annual visits between 1974 and 1979 are summarised below, with more details covering the less well known species. 1. Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius. Breeding confirmed. 2. Kestrel Falco tinnunculus. No nearby suitable breeding cliffs, but a pair haunts the area each year. 3. See-See Ammoperdix griseogularis. Seen drinking from Surkhab in late evening and breeds in surrounding hills. 4. European or Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis. Breeding confirmed. 5. Golden or European Bee-eater Merops apiaster. Nests in the earth cliffs. Exca- vation of the nest hole is a prolonged business and observed in one year, as late as June 29th. 6. Little Brown Dove Streptopelia senegal- ensis. Very common throughout Baluchistan. 7. Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus. Seen every year and on May 2nd a pro- able egg found in a Brown Shrikes nest. See below. 8. Hoopoe Upupa epops. This species seems to nest in holes in 10. ik: . Red-rumped earth cliffs as there are no suitable tree holes for nesting sites. swallow Hirudo daurica rufula. This sub-species has a_ practically white rump but the breast is quite fulv- ous. They shun human habitation and nest upto 2700 metres elevation in the higher hills. At Surkhab they hawk in- sects along the valley and must nest nearby. Magpie Pica pica. The most conspicuous bird in the val- ley and a family party of eight on June 29th seemed to confirm breeding. I have also seen its old unoccupied nests in the valley. It is an early breeder. Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus. In the latest Palaearctic Checklist this species is Lanius isabellinus. The Russians call it Lanius cristatus, whereas in Salim Ali’s HANDBOOK it is listed as Lanius collurio (de Voous_ 1977, Ali 1972 and Dementiev ef al. 1954). However, in all three instances the sub- species is the same L. 1. phoenicuroides and this very distinctive bird is certainly the same species in all referred cases. It is Pakistan’s rarest breeding Shrike and normally prefers higher elevations than Surkhab at least in Baluchistan. In fact I only saw it in one year out of five. Its nest, about 2 metres from the ground on a horizontal fork of a Willow tree, was not very neatly made but the cup was snugly lined with rootlets and shredded grasses. On May 2nd there were three pale pinkish buff eggs thickly speckled with grey and red brown forming a zone at the blunt end. A fourth egg was more green than turquoise with quite sparse red brown speckling. I presumed this was 17 2 13% 14. 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 a Cuckoo’s egg but it was the same shape and size as the other three eggs. Demen- tiev (op. cit.) records that in Turkestan this Shrike frequently becomes host to the Cuckoo (Page 19 Vol. vi). I note that in the HANDBOOK the ground colour of their eggs are described as greenish white. In Dementiev’s account a reddish buff or pink ground colour is usual. The Brown Shrike has many similar calls to other Shrikes, particularly the loud harsh rasping near the nest. The female was larger than her mate with a less dark- ly contrasting eye stripe. The male with shining white throat and upper breast, warm buff flanks and vent, has pinkish chestnut crown and tail; grey buff back and shoulders and his dark brown flight feathers were conspicuously bordered with paler buff. The eye streak seemed quite jet black and extends from the fore crown to well behind the eye. Long tailed or Rufousbacked Shrike Lanus schach. In every other year conspicuous breed- ing pairs in the valley. Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata. This species normally breeds in the Juniper forest zone at higher elevations. I could not find its nest but at least one bird was haunting the tree groves every year and in March a pair were seen. Menetries’s Warbler Sylvia mystacea. I first encountered this species in March 1974, a new record for the subcontinent (Roberts 1975). At the time I presumed it to be a spring passage migrant since such avid egg collectors as Williams & Christison (op. cit.) had failed to record it. I have searched in vain for a nest but the Donax thickets are impenetrable. It seems to arrive earlier and start nest- 15% ing sooner than the Rufoustailed Chat. (They were plentiful on March 25th when no Rufous Chats were in evidence). I have seen a nest building male bird with a beak full of vegetable floss on May 2nd and on June 29th a family of at least three fully fledged young (with stubby tails and wisps of head down) were be- ing fed by their parents who attracted me to the spot by their agitated alarm calls. In the whole valley I estimate there may be ten to fifteen pairs and in forag- ing, at least, their territories seem to over- lap considerably. The male has a notice- able dark grey tail which is bordered with white outer tips as he dives into a bush. They feed well inside bushes and thickets rarely affording a clear view but are tame enough to allow approach to within 2 metres. Their contact call is the typically sylvine ‘tak-tak-tak.’ It is more diminu- tive than the lesser white throat and if it pauses long enough for a good view the brick red flush to its upper breast, pro- minent white malar streaks and red eye ring make it a striking and beautiful little warbler. I have recordings of its song which can continue uninterrupted for upto half-a-minute. I have only once seen it flutter into the air during the dis- play song which is mostly given from well inside a thicket. It is quite melodious in short phases and to my ear superior to the song of the Sykes’ Tree Warbler. Rufoustailed Chat or Greybacked Warb- ler Erythropygia galactotes. In habits this bird is very like the Indian Robin and the Himalayan Ruby Throat and therefore the name Chat seems much more appropriate than warbler. It feeds mostly on _ the ground running in little spurts at 16. BIRDS FROM BALUCHISTAN the end of which it raises its tail and often fans it. It only passes through Paki- stan for a period of a few days in Sep- tember on its return to its wintering grounds in North West Africa, and I was unfamiliar with the species until I learn- ed where to find it in the hills around Karachi. The males probably arrive in the extreme border regions of Baluchistan in mid April and do not start vigorous ter- ritorial singing until early May. The sweet little song is always given from the top of a bush with the bird conspicuous and lasts two to three seconds, and may be repeated for upto a minute. It soon re- sumes feeding and then flies upto another bush to sing, travelling round its territory fairly systematically. Again I have failed to find a nest but Donax thickets with last year’s dried stems encompassed by new green growth seem to be favoured and I never went to Surkhab armed with a suitable machete or billhook to cut open these thickets. However, on June 29th a pair were watched both carrying insect larvae and ants into a reed thicket and my annual observations leave no doubt that they are regular breeders. From ter- ritorial singing I estimated that there were 6 to 8 pairs in 1979. Sykes Tree Warbler Hippolais caligata rama. This bird is fairly wide-spread as a summer breeder in the lower valley of Baluchistan and they abound in the Sur- khab valley. Their song is given almost continuously throughout the day in the breeding season. It is louder and coarser than that of Ménétries’s warbler but like the latter invariably given from well in- side a bush and during pauses between foraging for insects. 7 18. 19: 20. 20; D2 23%, Pied Wheatear Oenanthe picata picata. This bird forages in the valley bottom but nests in the surrounding low milk— a hole under a rock being favoured. Pied Bush Chat Saxicola caprata. No different from its habits in the plains. Rock Pipit Anthus similis. A nest with downy young was in a grass clump, perhaps fortituously well roofed over and concealed. This was right on the valley floor in sandy substrate. Grey Wagtail Motacilla caspica. Single birds seen and possibly breeding. House Sparrow Passer domesticus parki- nii(?) Besides a small resident population in the towns, huge migrant flocks, shunning villages, sweep through in late March to early May presumably breeding further North in Afghanistan or Turkes- tan. But small colonies stay to breed in isolated valleys or higher _hill-slopes where there is some tree-cover. The birds look bigger and more richly coloured than P. domesticus indicus and the sub- species P. domesticus bactrianus, which I would have expected, is supposed to be smaller and paler than the resident Indian race. Trumpeter Bullfinch Bucanetes githagi- meus syn. Rhodopechys githaginea. This thirsty little finch is rare in Central and Northern Baluchistan, commoner in the warmer more southern latitudes. I have seen it drinking from the Surkhab stream and it may well breed locally. Striolated Bunting Emberiza striolata. Also seen drinking from the stream and may well breed locally. Birds like the Rock Nuthatch (Sitta teph- ronota), Orphean Warbler (Sylvia hor- 19 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 tense) and Desert Lark (Ammomones deserti) are typical of this elevation in Baluchistan but I have never encountered them in that particular patch of valley. I did not visit the valley late enough in the evening to identify any owls or nightjars. REFERENCES ALI, SALIM AND Ripley, S. D. (1968-72): Hand- book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I, Vol. Ill (Laridae) and Vol. V (Lanidae). Oxford University Press, Bombay. BAKER, STUART (1929): Fauna of British India. Birds Vol. VI. Francis and Taylor, London. CurRISTISON, A. F. P. (1941): Notes on the Birds of Chagai. [bis 1941: 531-556. (1942): Some additional notes on the distribution of the Avifauna of northern Balu- chistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 478-487. DEMENTIEV, G. P. AND Grapkov, N. A. ef al. (1954): Birds of the Soviet Union. Vol. VI. Moscow. Hue, FRANCOIS AND ErcHecopar, R. D., (1970): Les Oiseaux du Proche et du Moyen Orient. Bou- bee & cie, Pare. MEINERTZHAGEN, R. (1914): Birds nesting at 20 Quetta. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 362-363. (1954): Birds of Arabia. Oliver & Boyd Ltd. Edinburgh. Roserts, T. J. (1975): for Pakistan. J. Bombay nat. 201-204. TICEHURST, CLAUDE, B. (1922-1924): The Birds of Sind. /bis. Parts I to VIII. - (1926-1927): The Birds of British Baluchistan Parts I & II. Vol. 31 and Part III. Vol. 32) Yoous, DE K. H. (1973): List of Recent Holar- ctic Bird species. Ibis, Vol. 115. ——_———— (1977): ibid. Ibis, Vol. 119. WILLIAMS, C. H. AND WiLiAMs, C. E. (1929): Some notes on the Birds breeding round Quetta. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 598-613. Ornithological Records Hist. Soc. 72(1): OBSERVATIONS ON FOOD AND GROWTH OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS TADPOLE’ J. H. SABNIS AND Ku. S. M. KUTHE? (With a text-figure) Studies on the food and its effect on growth in the tadpoles of Bufo mielanostictus were undertaken to determine food preference in natural condition on the basis of prevalent of food items in guts of naturally occurring tadpoles. The faecal contents of the same tadpoles indicated as to which food items were digested. Tadpoles fed exclusively on spinach, Spirogyra, starch and detritus indicated that normal growth occurs when fed on Spinach and Spirogyra. Weight gain in the final stage of meta- morphosis in Bufo melanostictus is remarkable. To obtain a complete knowledge of the life histories and habits of each species it is neces- sary to study the relationship between the available food and larval growth rate. The food and feeding habits of the frog Rana tigrina were studied in detail recently by Wadekar (1963), Joshee (1968), Isaac and Rege (1975). While Behura, et al. (1971) studied the diet and feeding habits of the common toad Bufo melanostictus. The studies on the role of natural food on Jarval growth of tadpoles has received little attention in India except for the observations made by Kamat (1962) and Sabnis and Kol- hatkar (1977). This paper describes observations on the food and its effects on the growth of tadpoles of the toad Bufo melanostictus. MATERIALS AND METHOD The material for study was collected at Amravati (M.S.) (20° 56’ N. 77° 47’ E.) Breeding of Bufo melanostictus occurs from 1 Accepted April 1978. “Department of Zoology, Vidarbha Mahavidya- laya, Amravati 444 604, India. July to September and about 8,000 eggs are laid in long spiral strings, the diameter of the spiral strings is about 1.4 to 1.5 mm. Each egg measures about | to 1.3 mm. in diameter. To study food preference and dietary com- ponents, data were obtained from gut and faecal analysis under microscope. About 200 eggs were collected and kept in the laboratory for development. A set of twentyfive tadpoles were fed on different diets such as Starch, Spinach, Spirogyra and Detri- tus. At intervals five tadpoles were collected from experimental sets as well as from Natu- ral Pond for comparative growth studies. They were preserved in 10% formalin and_ their length and weights were recorded. Atmosphe- ric and water temperatures were also recorded. OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION The toad Bufo melanostictus is very com- mon in ponds, puddles and tanks at Amravati. Data on gut contents given in Table 1 re- veals variations in dietary components at dif- ferent growth stages. The apparent preference of food items is as follows: - Eudorina > Cosmarium > Watermites > aA JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE 1 DATA ON PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN THE GUTS OF TADPOLES OF Bufo melanostictus. (Number—25 per stage) Intestinal Contents Prehind limb stage Hind limb stage Fore & Hind limb stage Desmid 71.4 Diatom 85.7 Eudorina 100 Opalina _ Spirogyra 14.2 Ulothrix 85.7 Euglena 57.1 Seemedesmus 71.4 Cosmerium 100 Watermites 100 Navicula 71.4 Closterium —_ Pleurococcus 100 Pleurococcus > Diatom > Desmid > Clos- terium > Ulothrix > Euglena > Navicula > Spirogyra > Seemedesmus. The study of excreta revealed that they were able to digest Spirogyra and Spinach. The Diatoms, spores of Eudorina, and zoos- pores of Spirogyra remained unchanged in excreta. The Eudorina, starch granules, xylem and Phloem vessels were partially affected. The time taken for the metamorphosis varies when fed on different food items (Table 2). It appears that on certain diets they metamorphosed successfully under labo- ratory conditions. The tadpoles fed on Spiro- gyra metamorphosed in 2 months and 11 days and those fed on Spinach metamorphos- ed in 2 months and 15 days, while in nature they metamorphosed in 2 months and 6 days. The weight gain percentage by tadpoles fed on different food items and their percentage of successful metamorphosis is given in Table 3. The maximum increase in their average body weight 31.86%, was when there 22 100 100 100 100 100 85.7 = 100 57.1 14.2 85.7 28.5 ales 57.1 14.2 14.2 100 = — 28.5 85.7 = were fed on Spinach, though the gain of weight by them showed considerable variations at different growth stages. During the entire period of successful meta- morphosis of Spirogyra and Spinach fed tad- poles, the tadpoles which were fed on starch, detritus remained in prehind limb stage only. It is also interesting to note that under laboratory condition tadpoles metamorphosed successfully when fed on Spirogyra; but their average body weights at different stages were half that of Spinach fed tadpoles (Table 3). Sabnis and Kolhatkar (1978) observed that tadpoles of frog Rana cyanophlyctis fed on Spirogyra showed maximum increase in their average body weight, ic. 74 per cent. But in the present observations, tadpoles feeding on Spirogyra showed increase in average body weight, i.e. 29.36 per cent. In conclusion it may be pointed out that simple analysis of gut contents of tadpoles does not give clear idea of its food habits. Kamat (1°62) studied the gut contents of WEIGHT IN , fag FOOD & GROWTH OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS ® ® SPIROGYRA #——s SPINACH = 4 NATURAL iy 720 30 40.50 GO 70) 75 DAYS Fig. 1. Shows the comparative growth of Bufo melanostictus tadpoles fed on different diets. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ‘Do8E CON==00P €9) 1a = re = LL-OI-Cl = = = ae = = “Dole vO T+ SV €cC 1+6 LL-OI-8 ‘D.87 LZ 106 19° OI — — — — — = LL-OI-€ ST ATS FS SF SSS ESE EE EE FT IT TS poo, pasoydiounjay ‘0.67 09° FOL 8S 177 ‘Dole 66° T+ oS €6° +81 ‘OoLT VER Le here | LL-6-61 ‘Dol? 66° 7 L9 Lie tale DoLT €6° 0S €6° +9T ‘DoL7 70° 1-07 [S200 LL-6-71I “D0 €6° 07 90° IF OI "0.67 COneae Gl 6L 10 "D.67 90°16 138 LL-8-Cl "DoL? €65 6 Vie aoe ‘DoLt Sega ayh StI Ol ‘DoLt [Sie tee ee Sei LL-8-S moy Q—:sjodpeL peyseH e uMeds 33qg—LL. ANE YZ ‘a's ‘a's ‘a's ‘a's ‘a's ‘a's ‘Qo ‘duap = ww F WU Oo “way == ‘Bu = ‘Ww “D, ‘dws, = 3u = wu 1d Ul 419 AA ul yysueT Ul WYSIOAA UT BUST Ul JYSIOM =U SUT poy Ajpermmen pey yoeurds pey eid43omds waar eee eee ere eer een oe (e8e3s 10d sajodpe) ¢ Joq) (a's = NVaW SV GaSSaudxy) SAIOdaV], Smoisounjau of{ng AO HLMOYD NO YLVd Z ATV 24 FOOD & GROWTH OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS TABLE 3 SHOWS BODY WEIGHT GAIN BY TADPOLES OF Bufo melanostictus FED ON DIFFERENT DIETS AND PERCENTAGE OF SUCCESSFUL METAMORPHOSIS Average body weight gain percentage for Percentage of Food item liege Pre hind Hind limb Hind & fore Avera Metamor- ge 1 Tadpoles limb stage stage limb stage phosis Spirogyra 25 DAES 25.9% 40% 29.36% 20% Spinach 25 41.6% 9 &% 45% 31,86% a2 Starch 25 10 % — — — 0% Detritus 25 20 % — — — 0% tadpoles and algae of small ponds and came to the conclusion that tadpoles do not feed on all available algae. In 1941 Rugh states, “the anura do better on food wih green colour while Urodela do better on living moving food such as Daphnia’’. Sabnis and Kolhatkar (1978) observed in Rana cyanophlyctis decrease in body weight in the final stage of metamorphosis, i.e. after shedding of the tail. No such decrease in bodv weight was observed in the present investiga- tion. On the contrary in the tadpoles of Bufo melanostictus a progressive increase in weight was maintained throuughout the process of, ert a] metamorphosis (Fig. 1). This disparity may be either due to the comparatively bigger size of the tail in Rana cyanophlyctis or it may be due to a better tolerance of the change in feeding habit from herbivorous to insectivorous feeding in Bufo melanostictus. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We express our thanks to Dr. K. V. R. Mur- thy, Head of the Zoology Department, Vidar- bha Mahavidyalaya, Amravati for providing necessary facilities to undertake the investiga- tion. REFERENCES BEHURA, B. K., Das, P. K., MOHANTY, P. AND Guosu, G. S. (1971): On the diet and feeding habits of the common toad Bufo melanostictus Schneid. Prakruti—Utkal University Journal of Science 8(1): 79-86. Briccs, R. AND Davipson, M. (1942): Some effects of Spinach feeding on Rana pipiens tadpoles. J. Exp. Zoo. 90: 401. Isaac, S. AND REGE, M. S. (1975): Food of Rana tigrina (Daud.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72(1): 143-157. JosHEE, A. K. (1968): Food habits of the Bull frog Rana tigrina (Daud.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 65: 498. Kamat, N. D. (1962): On Intestinal contents of tadpoles and algae of small ponds. Curr. Sci. 31: 390-301. RuGH, R. (1941): Experimental Embryology Mennesota, Burgess publishing Company. SaBNIs, J. H. AND KoLHATKAR, B. L. (1977): Observations on the food preference of Rana cya- nophlyctis tadpoles. Comp. Physiol. Ecol. 2 (4): 232-233. SaBNis, J. H. AND KoLuHaTKarR, B. L. (1978): Observations on the growth of Rana cyanophlyctis tadpoles ibid. 3(2): 71-72. WabeEKAR, U. L. (1963): The diet of the Indian Bull frog (Rana tigrina Daud.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 (1): 263-268. DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND THE CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN COAST IN INDIA* C. S. GOPINADHA PILLAI AND K. K. APPUKUTTAN? (With three plates, four text-figures and a map) INTRODUCTION The report presents the results of a syneco- logical analysis of the molluscan fauna asso- ciated with the different hard and soft sub- strates in and around the fringing coral reefs of Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar around Man- dapam (Map 1) between the longitudes 79° 8’ and 79° 14’ E, and latitudes 9° 12’ and 9° 18’ N. This study forms part of a program- me of survey of the reef-associated living re- sources of the seas around India. An attempt has been made to identify and to assess the comparative dominance of the molluscan communities in the different habitats as also to delineate the physical and biological fac- tors that influence their selection of habitats. The molluscs of this area are fairly well known, thanks to the works of Hornell (1915, 1917, 1922, 1951), Gravely (1927), Satya- murthi (1952, 1956), Rao (1970), Jones (1970), Silas (1968) and many others whose contributions are listed by Nair and Rao (1974). Though about 450 species are known from this area, there appears to be little at- tempt in the past to discuss the synecological aspects of molluscan distribution but for the work of Rao and Sundaram (1972). Satya- murthi (1952, 1956) has mentioned the natu- 1 Accepted August 1978. 2Central Marine Fisheries Cochin. India. Research Institute, 26 ral habitat of many species he has described. The present collection includes only 112 spe- cies (Table 2)—-roughly one fourth of the known species, partly because we have not accounted the many dead shells found except from the raised reefs. In the recent past there has been considerable destruction to reefs due to indiscriminate quarrying of corals and this has directly caused a dwindling of the mol- luscs associated with the reefs. (Pillai 1975). MATERIALS AND METHOD Sixteen stations (Map 1) were selected, re- presenting almost all the types of specialised habitats seen in this region. The collections were made at low tide with the aid of face mask and snorkel, where depth permitted. In Palk Bay, the survey was car- ried out during August-September; in Gulf of Mannar, during January-February; when calm conditions prevailed. The unit for the survey and population analysis was a sample plot of quarter square metre marked out with the aid of a metal frame. In addition to these observations and analyses relevant portions of our earlier studies on corals (Pillai 1971a, 1972) and on boring bivalves (Appukuttan 1972) were also incorporated to make the account comprehensive. The nomenclature of the various intertidal zones used in this work is that of Lewis (1955, 1961 & 1972), and Newell (1969). MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS "SUOTIEIS BUT]DITJOO JUOIOYIP YMA UoNeZysosaAul Jo voly “[ ‘dey foe Bias renee iC ONVISI MIN S Pe) ONV 1S} ANA suo!D}s 6u1398}}09 @) of © 133 aa BE, joe 2 e | WSVAITING = iat GNVIS! IMAd 3) ONV1SI JIONIHS aA or QNVISI IVaVSNYy e Ay! : | YVNNVW JO 41ND H © : pe}i Ns oR eH ee ONV1S!I WVYVMSIWVY | “ x "coca so ee 4 eerey Reena ® WOES St 7 tL ) : £1 zl ‘ 0! & 38,64 2) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Details of stations studied: Station 1. Vedalai, Gulf of Mannar. Sandy beach with open circulation, not protected by a reef. Dominated by Wedge-clams. Station 2. About 700 m east of station 1 Sublittoral zone. Sandy bottom with seagrass bed. Depth about 0.5 m at low tide with a very high concentration of Pinna bicolor. Station 3. About 300 m further east of sta- tion 2 below the CMFR Institute Jetty in Gulf of Mannar. The groyne of the Jetty in the upper zone provides an artificial habitat and is designated as 3, whereas the lower zone, about 50 m into the sea with a depth of about 50 cm at low tide, is marked 3a. Station 3a has a rich growth of higher algae. The upper zone is typical eulittoral while lower zone is sublittoral. Station 4. About | km east of station 3 in Gulf of Mannar. The station slopes steeply from the elevated sandstones on the shore at a height of nearly 2 m to the low water mark. (Pl. 1, Figs. 1, 2) The upper part of the sand stones represents the littoral fringe zone while the lower zone is typically eulittoral. Littori- nids are the dominant molluscs. Station 5. Manacadu Point on the Palk Bay side of the Mandapam peninsula with remnants of a raised reef. Semifossilised coral boulders on the water mark which harbour many gas- tropods and is marked 5, is typically eulittoral. (Pl. 3; ‘Figg 1). he semufossilised! Ucoral boulders in the lagoon bottom at a depth of 0.5 to 0.75 m at low tide, marked station 5a, is sublittoral with a dominant assemblage of bivalves. Station 6. The landing centre at Mandapam in Palk Bay. The upper sandy beach in the eulittoral zone, marked station 6, and the lower sublittoral with algal growth and sandy bottom is 6a. (Plate 3, Fig. 2). Station 7. The blocks of sandstones under the 28 Pamban Bridge subjected to heavy current, mostly submerged with a luxuriant growth of edible algae on them. Station 8. Northwestern tip of the Rames- waram Island on Palk Bay side. A raised reef with an elevation of nearly 1.5 m. Equivalent to Littoral fringe zone. Station 9. Western side of Rameswaram Island near the Pamban bridge. Sandy eulit- toral zone. Station 10. Eastern tip of Krusadai Island in the Gulf of Mannar where the reef with a boulder zone approaches the shore. Eulittoral., with a dominance of gastropods. This is the only undisturbed reef available for investiga- tion at present here. Station 11. Sandy beach at the southern side of Krusadai Island. A lower zone in the lagoon with corals and algae is designated as lla. The beach is protected by a fringing reef. Station 12. The reef of Manauli Island in Gulf of Mannar. The reefs have mostly been removed and only a few scattered, dead, up- turned colonies of Acropora and Porites are seen, with intermittent large areas of sand. Station 13. The lagoon of Manauli Island. Bottom sandy with sea grass and other edible algae. Mostly submerged and represents the sublittoral zone. The nearshore area is with- out vegetation and gets exposed at low tide. Station 14. A mangrove growth at the north- eastern shore of Manauli Island. A mud flat, that gets exposed fully at low tide, and team- ing with Cerithidea, adjoins the mangroves. Stations 51 and 16. The reef of Palk Bay along the Mandapam Peninsula. The reef crest, outer and inner sides of the reefs were in- vestigated. The outer reef shows a preponder- ance of ramose corals while the inner (shore- ward) side is rich in massive corals (Pillai J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE 1 Pillai & Appukuttan: Molluscs 1. Beach sandstones at Station 4. 2. Closer view of the square cut blocks. J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE 2 Pillai & Appukuttan: Molluscs 1. west of Station 5. 2. Ulva reticulata. Large quantities are found washed ashore during September in Palk Bay shore habitated by several gastropods. Exposed lagoon bottom at Mandapam Palk Bay showing the unvegetated sand, MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS 197la). The reef crest is typical eulittoral and is devoid of any living corals. THE MOLLUSCAN ASSEMBLAGES IN DIFFERENT HABITATS Sandy shore (Without vegetation) The mainland coast along Mandapam and the shores of the near by sand cays in Gulf of Mannar (Stoddart and Fosberg 1972) are mostly sandy, though outcrops of sandstones are found along the mainland coast. Typical rocky shore does not exist. The beach sand is fine-grained, the grains ranging from 2 to 4 mm in size and with an admixture of corals and molluscan shells. The molluscan fraction is mostly of the shells of Cerithium, Umbo- nium, Dentalium, and Donax. The subsurface has a high percentage of black clay (at a depth of 10 cm and below) with a foul smell of hydrogen sulphide. At Mandapam (Paik Bay) the grain size increases towards the deeper layers with an unconsolidated grit of gastropod shells. The grain size as weil as the calcareous content of the beach sand varies from place to place. At station 1 the sand is 0.5 to 1.5 mm in grain size and a sample from the surface yielded 85.66% of insoluble silicon in hydrochloric acid and 14.44% solu- ble calcareous matter. However, the beach sand of the islands has a very high percentage of calcareous matter. Analysis of a sample from station 11 in Krusadai Island yielded 96.48% of soluble calcareous matter in hydro- chloric acid. The high calcareous content in Krusadai is mostly due to the presence of coral fragments. The following discussion of the molluscs of sand is based on stations 1, 6, 9 and 11. At the low water mark, Murex trapa, Bursa spinosa, Drupa margiriticola and Ceri- thium spp. are present. During December, 1973 and January, 1974 Aplysia lineolata was found in fair numbers at Vedalai. The mud flat at the northern side of the Manauli Island which gets exposed at low tides harboured plenty of Cerithidea fluviatilis, their number varying from 100 to 150 per square metre. However, along the mainland coast this gas- tropod is rare and replaced by Cerithium trailli. On the eulittoral beaches the molluscan fauna is rich, composed of Donax spp. and Atactodea glabrata with a high concentration of the individuals at the mid-beach at a depth of 20 to 25 cm. The deeper muddy substraum is unsuitable for these filter feeders. However, there is local variation in the occurrence and abundance of these two genera of burrowing bivalves. Donax spp. are comimon along the mainland coast. At Station 1 their concentra- tion was 40 to 60 individuals per square metre in January, 1974, represented mainly by D. faba and D. cuneatus. Alagarswami (1968) reported a concentration of 89 to 217 clams from the same site during December 1962 to November, 1963. He has also reported the presence of D. spinosus, D. apertus and D. incarnatus at Vedalai, however, our collections during January, 1974 yielded none of these species. On the Palk Bay side the intensity of Donax was less, only 10 to 15 individuals / sq. metre were recorded. This may be due to the more muddy nature of the subsurface sand along Palk Bay coast. At station 1, though D. faba and D. cuneatus occur, there seems to be a sort of grouping among the species, i.e. individuals of the same species in- cline to concentrate. When one sample plot yielded one species, another plot yielded only the other though both faba and cuneatus are found at the same level of the beach. Further, individuals from the same plot are more or less of the same size probably of 29 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 same age. This shows that there is very little tendency among the members to disperse. The burrowing clams of the islands are pre- dominantly Atactodea glabrata (20-30/sq. m in Krusadai). Donax faba and D. cuneatus are rare. The ecological factors that determine such a distribution of Donax along the mainland coast and Atactodea on the island are not clear. The calcareous content of the beach sands on the islands, as already mentioned, is much higher than that of the mainland coast. Further, the mainland coast is subjected to more wave action and beach circulation than the islands protected by the fringing reef. The tendency of Donax to concentrate on un- protected beaches with high circulation of water was already pointed out by Taylor (1968). He also stated that though Donax faba and Atactodea glabrata may occur in the same beach at Mahe, Seychelles, the latter species always occupies a higher and more sheltered position on the beach. In general, HEIGHT IN M Q on Fig. 1. 30 our observations also show that protected island beaches with a high calcareous content in this area form a favourable habitat for Atactodea, while fine-grained sand with very litile calcareous content, with good water cir- culation, is the more favoured habitat for Donax spp. The sandstones: Blocks of elevated sandstones are found along the Mandapam Peninsula on the Gulf of Mannar side. A small outcrop is seen near the Pamban Bridge at the Palk Bay side also. The sand cays situated in the vicinity of Man- dapam are devoid of any sandstone outcrops (Stoddart and Fosberg 1972), though Red- diah (1972) has reported its occurrence along the beaches of Appa Island, further north, in the Gulf of Mannar. The sandstones are ele- vated up to 2 m in certain places showing signs of wave-cut aberrations. Structurally, they are conglomerate of sand grains of dif- ferent sizes with molluscan shells, predomi- Zonation of various molluscs at Station 4. The thick vertical lines show the vertical range of species. 1. Littorina undulata; 2. Nodilittorina pyramidalis; 3. N. leucostica; 4. Cellana radiata; 5. Craspidochiton sp.; 6. Trochus radiatus; 7. Drupa margeriticola; 8. Nerita spp.; 9. Thias (Purpurea) rudolphi; 10. Crassostrea cucullata. MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS nantly of Cerithium. The sandstone assembl- age of molluscs discussed below is based on observations at station 4. In the absence of any rocky outcrops in this area, the typical rocky shore animals occupy the sandstones. At station 4 the mol- luscan fauna display a pattern of vertical zonation (Fig. 1). At the higher levels repre- senting the Littoral fringe zone (Lewis 1961, Morton and Challis 1969, Newell 1970, Arud- pragasam 1970) the dominant animals are the littorinids. At a height of nearly 1.75 m from the high neap tide level Littorina undulata, L. krausi and large individuals of Nodilitio- rina pyramidalis are found. The first men- tioned species is found at the highest zone and displays a lot of phenotypic variations in the colour of their shells. It has a tendency to crowd together under the overhanging cliff and in crevices. The species is not generally seen on the surface of sandstones exposed to scorching sun. L. krausi is rare here. Though Nodilittorina pyramidalis is found mixed with L. undulata its concentration is at a lower level, where they have a tendency to flock to- gether, sometimes in hundreds as we observed in January, 1974. Lower down, below the zone of N. pyramidalis, there is a heavy con- centration of Nodilittorina leucostica where there is a constant splash of water. From a sample plot we collected as many as 621 speci- mens of N. pyramidalis and from a plot below that 180 specimens of N. leucostica. However, we have not observed a zone where these two species mingle, the position of the former being always above the level of the latter. Among the four species of littorinids found here, N. pyramidalis has the widest range of vertical distribution from the upper limit of the litto- ral fringe to the upper limit of the eulittoral zone. The younger specimens occupy a lower level while the large adults migrate to the upper level of the littoral fringe. A similar pattern of vertical distribution of this species at Ceylon was recorded by Arudpragasam (1970), while Atapattu (1969) observed a similar phenomenon in JN. granularis. Size range and density of population of littorinids at station 4 during January, 1974 was analysed. In random samples of 284 spe- cimens of Littorina undulata, the height of shells ranged from 2 to 13.8 mm, the majority being in the range of 8 to 10 mm (Fig. 2b); only 10 specimens were in the range of 1 to 6 mm. 180 specimens of N. leucostica examin- ed from a sample plot ranged 1 to 11 mm, the maximum number being in the range of 8 to 9 mm (Fig. 2a). A sample plot yielded 621 specimens of N. pyramidalis ranging from 1 mm to 10 mm, the maximum being in the range.of 6 to 7 mm’ (Fig. 2°¢). Presence: of small specimens in the range of 1 to 2 mm in the natural population of littorinids suggests that breeding and recruitment of individuals to the population occur shortly before Janu- ary. On the Ceylon coast recruitment of WN. granularis to the population takes place at the tail end of Southwest monsoon, i.e. during October to November (Atapattu 1969). This seems to be true of all the members of the Littorina and Nidilittorina of this area. Below the zone of littorinids (eulittoral zone) occur the limpets Cellana radiata and a small species of Craspidochiton. The edible oyster Crassostrea cucullata is seen fully ex- posed at low tides, the habitat of which in general is within a narrow belt between tide marks (Hornell 1951). They attach firmly to the sand stones. At low water marks the car- nivorous gastropod, Thias (Purpurea) rudol- phi and T. carnifera as well as Drupa margi- riticola are seen. Cerithium trailli are also found in fair numbers. Very rarely the eulit- toral sandstones are found to have the boring 31 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 100 90 ial 80 80 70 a %e b 2 60 60 Ww = w 50 2 50 a ww 7) = nf = 3 40 w 40 a a 2 ee 30 5 30 3 C4 20 20 10: 10 12 SCN NOE OREO TNOnEIt Ta akin On GaEnS 9 0 Nn 2B 4% HEIGHT IN mm HEIGHT IN mm Nodilittorina leucostica Littorina undulata 30 wn rs Ww 24 c U WwW a Ww 4. 10 (o} 3S rs 10 1 12:13:44 «15 16 7 18 19 20 21 22 23 2% 25 26 HEIGHT IN mm Planaxis sulcatus 170 150° 70 130 60 d e 20 2 50 z cm 2190 = a 940 vn a. w e pak °o u 30: z ae 50 ° 37) 30 10 10 7) 36) SOMO" 112! cto NNIee SUMO Mn I mOMNOM2OR2Imz2i23 Tay CUO uO mam O ROMEO HEIGHT IN mm HEIGHT IN mm Cerithium traitli Noditittorina pyramidalis Fig. 2. Size range of some intertidal gastropods collected from sample plots at different stations. a. Nodilittorina leucostica from Station 4, during January, 1974. No. of specimens measured 180. b. Littorina undulata from Station 4, January, 1974, based on 284 specimens. c. Planaxis sulcatus from Station 5, September, 1973, based on 96 specimens. d. Cerithium trailli from Station 5, September, 1973, based on 271 specimens. e. Nodilittorina pyramidalis from Station 4, January, 1974, based on 621 specimens. MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS bivalve, Lithophaga (Appukuttan 1972). Raised reefs The raised reefs of Ramanathapuram in South India are already described (Foote 1889, Sewell 1935, Stoddart and Pillai 1972). Two stations, 5 and 8 were studied for their living molluscs, and were found to be mostly similar to the elevated sandstones discussed earlier. This includes both the littoral fringe and eulittoral forms. Mangroves Mangroves are characteristic of areas with variable salinities, muddy or sandy bottom and calm conditions (Cooman 1969, Macnae 1968, Macnae and Kalk 1962). The moliuscan fauna of mangroves in general includes a limit- ed number of gastropods and bivalves. There appears to be no earlier information on the mangrove fauna of this area, though Stoddart and Fosberg (1972) have recently listed the vegetation and discussed the zonation at Manauli Island (Station 14). The molluscan fauna associated with the mangroves can be broadly divided into those that actually live on the vegetation and those that live around. At station 14 the mangroves are of Avicennia marina, Bruguiera cylindrica and Rhizophora mucronata. A. marina forms a low wooded forest. According to Macnae and Kalk (1962) the animals found in the mangroves are only fortuitously associated depending on the level of water table, resistance to waterloss, demand for protection from sun, degree of consolida- tion of substratum and availability of food. The breathing roots of Avicennia at Manauli Island are inhabitated by Planaxis sulcatus often mixed with Littorina melanostoma. They are found 50 cm above the lowest water- mark. On the trunks and leaves of trees, L. scabra occupy upto one and a half metres from the ground level. Other conspicuous animals on the roots are the barnacles. The spaces among the breathing roots in the eulit- toral zone harbours Cerithidea fluviatilis in plenty. The gastropod Cassidula sp. was also collected. The only bivalve we could find in the ground was Gafrarium tumidum, a species that is found commonly in several other habi- tats. It is interesting to compare the mangrove- associated molluscs of this area with those of the East Indies and Western Indian Ocean, though the information from this part is by no means complete. Both L. melanostoma and Cassidula sp. are listed as true mangrove forms of the East Indies (Cooman 1968). Cerithidea is common to East Indies and Indian Coast, but the species listed by Cooman from the East Indies is different. Cooman (1968) lists 20 species of molluscs from the East Indies against six species we have col- lected from here. Jsognomon, Crassostrea, Modiolus and Teredo found in the mangroves of East Indies do occur in other habitats in south India, though we could not collect any of them specifically from the mangroves we investigated. L. scabra is common to southern and western Indian ocean mangroves (Tay- lor 1968) but is not known from East Indies. L. melanostoma found in southeast coast of India and eastern Indian mangroves is not listed from western Indian ocean. In this respect, our mangroves have faunal elements from both eastern and western Indian oceans. However, there is need for more intensive col- lection of the faunal elements of our man- groves. Eulittoral Boulders a. Semifossilised loose lying corals: At Manacadu Point (Station 5) the raised reef gradually dips into the sea with a lot of 33 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 semifossilised loose lying coral boulders of Favia, Favites, Platygyra, Porites, Goniastrea and Acropora having a coating of green algae. The boulders are exposed at almost every tidal change and are covered only at the spring tides. These were found to be an ideal habitat for many algal grazing gastro- pods. Planaxis sulcatus are abundant and occupy the highest position in the vertical range of distribution. They show a tendency to crowd together in small crevices and de- pressions of the boulders and those of the same size are found together. In September, 1973 there were 120 to 130 individuals per square metre and their size ranged from 10 to 25 mm. Very small animals were not seen and this suggests that their reproductive period probably coincides with that of Littorina at the tail end of the southwest monsoon. The size range of 96 specimens, all from a sample plot is presented in Fig. 2C, and it shows that the maximum number of individuals was within the range of 20 to 21 mm. Onchidium verruculatum was very common on the under- sides of the boulders inhabitated by Planaxis. At fully exposed condition, four to five indi- viduals were found crowded together in cre- vices. Lower in the vertical range there is a preponderance of Cerithium trailli. The zone of Cerithium is subjected to lesser duration of exposure than the zone of Planaxis. There is a clear-cut demarcation between the zones of Planaxis and Cerithium and we failed to observe any mingling of the two genera. It is likely that Cerithium is less tolerant to ex- posure than Planaxis. The number of indivi- duals of Cerithium trailli per square metre averaged 286 with an average total weight of 204 gm. In size they ranged from 7 to 22 mm during September, 1973; specimens of smaller size were apparently absent. The maximum number of individuals was seen in the size 34 range of 10 to 17 mm (Fig. 2d). From the analysis of the size range of individuals during September, it is clear at these gastropods also breed during the tail end of southwest mon- soon as in the case of littorinids. The smallest ones (7 to 8 mm) belonged to the latest brood. Below the zone of Cerithium, Nerita was very common, represented by at least three species, viz. N. maura, N. albicella and N. chaemelon, found in a totally exposed condi- tion. Mingled with Nervita were seen four spe- cies of Gafrarium, viz. G. pectinatum, G. dis- par, G. divaricatum and G. tumidum; how- ever, Gafrarium has a wider range of habitat selection and is often found on the sandy and vegetated lagoon bottom. Crassostrea cucul- lata is common here. b. Eulittoral granite boulders: At station 3 the groynes of the jetty form an excellent artificial habitat for many gastro- pods. At low tide, these blocks get exposed for a long time, and reveal underneath the loose boulders, several species such as Purpu- rea rudolphi, P. carnifera. Conus amadis, C. coronatus, Cyprea moneta, C. caputserpentis and Aplysia lineolata occur. On the surface of boulders Trochus radiatus and Turbo inter- costalis were seen. Bivalves were not seen, though Mytilus, recently introduced by the Institute, for mariculture experiments was thriving. c. The reef crest and reef flat: There seems to be no well demarcated reef crest or reef flat in this area since the fringing shallow reefs have not developed into a well consolidated structure. Further, whatever existed has been destroyed in many places. In an earlier paper Pillai (197la) used the term reef crest to denote the highest part of the reef in Palk Bay. This part of the reef is J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE 3 Pillai & Appukuttan: Molluscs The raised reef and eculittoral coral boulders at Station 5, teamed with Planaxis I. and Cerithium. 2. Eulittcral sandy beach at Mandapam Palk Bay, where Donax is plenty. One of the Sample plots is seen in foreground. © MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS composed of dead boulders subjected to inter- mittent exposure as in a typical reef flat. An area similar to reef flat with a boulder zone is present at Krusadai Island (Station 10) and is subjected to heavy breakers. In the Palk Bay, Trochus radiatus, Turbo intercos- talis, Astrea semicostata and Drupa margiriti- cola are seen at the top of the boulders sub- jected to prolonged exposure at low tides. On the sides of the boulders, at a lower level, Arca spp. and Jsognomon isognomon are rarely seen. Crassostrea cucullata is common. Pinctata sp. is also rarely seen. At Krusadai (Station 10) the fauna was found to be rich and varied, probably due to the undisturbed condition of the reef. Gastropods were very common and were represented by Cerithium morus, Pyrine versicolor, P. zebra, Drupa margiriticola, D. tuberculata, D. horrida, Cyprea arabica, C. moneta, Trochus radiatus, Turbo intercostalis, Thias (Purpurea) rudol- phi, Cantharidus undosus, and Nerita albicella. Among the Amphineura a species of Ischno- chiton was very common. Bivalves were poor- ly represented, but for the presence of young specimens of Crassostrea cucullata. The submerged or sublittoral habitats a. The unvegetated sand: At several spots in Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar, the bottom sand is clean and fine grained, (Pl. 2, Fig. 1) with an admixture of clay and dead shells at the subsurface, often with a foul smell. The muddy subsurface is unsuitable for burrowing bivalves and digging scarcely revealed the presence of any infauna. On the surface, Drupa margiriticola, Ceri- thium spp., Murex tarpa, and Bursa spinosa are generally seen. However, the ideal habi- tats of all these animals are elsewhere, and many bivalves are seen either lying on the surface or partly buried, like Gafrarium tumi- dum. At Manauli Island, G. tumidum is found along with Mactra cuneata, Dosinia cretacea and Mesodesma trigona. The mud flats were found to be teeming with Cerithidea fluviatilis in Manauli Island. The other gastropods rarely seen are Nassa thirstis and Polinices mamilla, the former generally harbouring a symbiotic anemone on the shell. The younger specimens of P. mamilla are purple whitish while the adults are milky white and feed on bivalves (Taylor 1968). Cardium edulae occurs in Palk Bay and their dead shells are found on the surface. Rarely Pinna bicolor is seen half buried in sand, though it is abun- dant on seagrass beds. b. Submerged dead coral shingle: At Station 5a, the lagoon bottom is strewn with loose, semifossilised coral boulders with intermittent sandy areas. The nature and com- position of the boulders are similar to those already described from Station 5. The sandy areas have many algae like Sargassum, Padi- na, Turbinaria and the calcareous alga Aim- phiroa. For details of the algae reference may be made to Rao (1972). The depth at lowest tide is about 50 cm. These boulders harbour a rich and varied fauna of molluscs, especially bivalves. Most of them are found attached to the boulders, the most common being Arca represented by at least three species, viz. A. symmetrica, A. avellana and A. complanata. The swimming bivalve Galeomma paucistriata occurs in fair numbers. It is pale yellowish white with a dark brown prolongation of the mantle in the living condition (Satyamurthi 1956). Yet another very common bivalve seen here is Scintilla, represented by two species, viz. S. hanleyi and S. timorensis. Vulsella vul- sella with its commensal sponges is fairly com- mon. J/sognomon isognomon and_ Pinctada anamoides are found in fair numbers. The 35 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 larger specimens of P. anomoides ranged from 50 to 65 mm in length. Gastropods are by no means a conspicuous element in the fauna of this habitat, though Drupa margiriticola, Ceri- thium trailli, Turbo intercostalis, Cellana ra- diata and Eumarginula obovata are re- presented. c. The sea grass fauna: At station 2, 6a & 13 the sea grass vegeta- tion is composed of Cymodocea rotunda, C. serrulata, Halodule sp. Syringodium isoetifo- lium and Thalassodendron ciliatum (Stoddart & Fosberg 1972). They are locally abundant at several places both in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Grass beds are excellent habitat for burrowing molluscs while their leaves and stems afford substratum and protection to epifaunal elements (Taylor & Lewis 1970). Among the epifauna of this area the bivalves are represented by Gafrarium tumidum and rarely Circe scripta. Cyprea histrio, C. arabi- ca, Murex virgineus and Cerithium scabridum and C. trailli the last two being found on the leaves and stems of sea grass. Yet another common gastropod, Pyrene seen on the leaves and stems is represented by three species, P. versicolor, P. vulpeula and P. flavida. How- ever, Pyrene is more abundant on various algae (vide infra). During January-February young ones of Trochus radiatus and T. stellatus were seen on the leaves, the adults of which are common inhabitants of eulittoral hard sub- stratum. Neritina oualaniensis is also found in Manauli Island. The opisthobranch Dola- bella rumphii was found in fair numbers at Station 2 during January, 1974. The molluscan fauna of the grass beds in this area is dominated by Pinna bicolor, and a variety of animals found attached on their shells. There is a very heavy concentration of Pinna at Station 2 which is near a sewage 36 outlet. A similar situation in Seychelles, where sewage disposal encouraged the settlement of Pinna was recorded by Taylor (1968). The larger specimens in Gulf of Mannar measure 30 to 35 cm in shell length and as many as 15 are found per square metre at sites of high concentration. A few species of molluscs such as Modiolus metcalfei and M. carvaihoi among the bivalves and /schnochiton among the Am- phineura and Neritina oualaniensis among the gastropods are found attached on the shells of Pinna. d. Alga associated molluscs: Stations 3a, 7, lla and 13. The sublittoral algal communities afford a very suitable habitat for both young and adult moliuscs. The common algae, searched for their molluscan macrofauna were Sargassum, Turbinaria, Padina, Ulva, Caulerpa, Gracilaria, Gelidiella and Hypnea. The molluscan assem- blage associated with each of these is briefly presented below. Ulva recticulata forms extensive green pat- ches in the lagoon bottom of Palk Bay along Mandapam during July to October and is often found washed ashore in large quantities. (Pl. 2, Fig. 2). Many gastropods are found attached to this alga, such as Catharidus inter- ruptus, Thais tissoti, Cerithium scabridum, Drupa margiriticola, and Trochus radiatus (very small ones 3 to 5 mm in diameter) and Planispira fallaciosa. Almost all the specimens collected were young ones, their adults being characteristic inhabitants of other substrata. Caulerpa racemosa is common on the reefs and other isolated hard substrata. Many nudi- branchs are reported to be associated with this alga, though our collection yielded none. The bivalve gastropod Berthelinia limax was found in fair numbers in Palk Bay. These ani- mals have a brilliant green colour, perfectly (Fig. 3) MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS Fig. 3. ny, = ae ° : Yi LLL ELLE A general representation of the molluscs associated with various algae. 1. Ischinochiton sp. x 2.5; 2. Pyrine zebra « 1.3; 3. P. versicolor x 1; 4. Drupa mar- geriticola x 1; 5. Trochus stellatus x 1; 6. Planispira fallaciosa «x 1.5; 7. Phasionella nivosa X 1; 8. Pyrine vulpecula x 1; 9. Cerithium scabridum x 1; 10. Nodilittorina pyramidalis x 1; 11. Pinctada anomoides x 0.5; 12. Berthelinia limax. matching that of the alga, and it is difficult to spot the animals in the field. There seems to be a sort of specificity in the association be- tween Berthelinia and Caulerpa and we failed to collect this mollusc from any other algae we examined. It may be noted that the first Carribbean bivalve gastropod, B. caribbea, was also recorded on Caulerpa (Edmunds 1962). Padina gymnospora is found on the reefs and in the lagoon. There is a preponderance of this at Station 3a from where we collected several samples during January, 1974. At least four species of gastropods, viz. Drupa tuber- culata, D. margiriticola, Pyrene zebra and Trochus radiatus were found on the leaves along with Ischnochiton sp. Bivalves were not represented. Padina is a less favoured habitat for molluscs when compared to other higher algae from the same locality such as Sargas- sum and Turbinaria. Turbinaria sp. grows in patches in several places and was found to be common at station 3a. The economically important small gastro- pod Pyrene zebra is common on the stems and leaves of this alga. Drupa mangiriticola and D. tuberculata also occur but in very few 37 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 numbers. Planispira fallaciosa and Phasionella nivosa occur rarely. Juveniles of Trochus radiatus were found in January with planti- grades of the bivalve Modiolus sp. Turbinaria ornata from Palk Bay yielded Pyrene versi- color a species which we could not collect from T. conoides. Two species of Sargassum, viz. S. wighti and S. myriosystem are common here. On the former Pyrene zebra and P. versicolor are very abundant. Juveniles of Trochus radiatus and plantigrades of Pinctada anamoides are also rarely seen. Sargassum growing on hard sub- strata seems to be the most ideal habitat for Pyrene in this area. Yet another common alga in almost all localities of both Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay is Gracilaria edulis. G. edulis yielded Pyrene versicolor, P. zebra, Phasionella nivosa and Drupa margiriticola, Cantharidus undosus and Astrea semicostata though none of the species is common. During December-January, juve- niles of Trochus were common. All the mol- luscs found on Gracilaria were gastropods. Two species of Hypnea, viz. H. musciformis and H. valentiae, were found to be common on the sandstone blocks under the Pamban Bridge. (Station 7). In January, it was found that all the samples contained several planti- grades of Modiolus in the size range of 2 to 5 mm. Very rarely juveniles of pearl oysters were also seen. Juveniles of Trochus, Cellana and Ischnochiton were also collected. How- ever, the commonest and most abundant mol- luscs associated with Hypnea during January was Modiolus. A notable feature of the alga-associated molluscs of this area during the December- February period was the presence of a large number of juveniles of both gastropods and bivalves. These include those of Trochus, Cel- lana, Cerithium, Cantharus and Pyrene among 38 the gastropods, and of Pinctada and Modiolus among the bivalves. There exists a constant association between the developing stages of some bivalves such as Mytilus edulis and vari- ous filamentous algae (Colman 1940; Chip- perfield 1953; Bayne 1964). It has been shown that mussels rarely settle on existing beds of adults, probably to avoid competition. The juveniles get attached and detached more than once on filamentous substrates before they finally get settled. The presence of juveniles of various molluscs on different algae indi- cates that there is no strict specificity during their primary settlement to any alga, all avail- able filamentous substrata being utilised. The presence of juveniles during the December- January period is again an indication to the breeding period of these molluscs here coin- ciding with those of littorinids. Coral-associated molluscs: Corals afford a substrate for several types of animals, providing food and shelter. Men- tion has already been made of the molluscs associated with the reef flat and dead bould- ers. In the living corals, the branching forms provide loose interspace where many animals including molluscs can live free from the at- tack of predators. Massive corals provide at- tachment surface as well as penetrable sub- stratum for boring animals (Morton and Chal- lis 1969). The reef associated animals can be broadly divided into: Hypobion—those con- cealed in the shade or under the substratum: the parabion—composed of those animals liv- ing on the lighted reaches of living corals; and epibion—constituting those living on re- cently dead corals or algae. A fourth group is cryptobion composed of burrowing forms or those which live in the burrows of other animals (Morton and Challis 1969). Taylor (197la) categorises reef-associated molluscs MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS into those that use corals as a convenient sub- strate for protection and the others that actu- ally feed on coral polyps. The structure of the living reef and the zonation of corals in this area have been al- ready discussed by Pillai (197la, 1971b) and Mergner & Scheer (1974). Though zonation on the fringing reef is indistinct, we recognise here an Acropora community to include ramose corals, a Porites community to de- signate massive corals dominated by Porites spp., and an Echinopora community to incor- porate foliaceous corals such as Echinopora and Montipora foliosa. The major components of the Acropora community are Pocillopora damicornis, Mon- tipora divaricata, Acropora formosa, A. cory- mbosa, A. hyacinthus, A. millepora, A. nobi- lis, and A. humilis. A. millepora and A. nobi- lis are more common on the Gulf of Mannar reefs while A. corymbosa is abundant on the Palk Bay side. P. damicornis is omnipresent. Most of these small-polyped ramose corals establish themselves at the outer side of the reef where water is clearer and deeper (Pil- lai 1971a). The branching corals seem to be favoured by many gastropods where they seek protec- tion in the interspaces of branches and under- sides. We could not collect any coral-eating molluscs. Pyrene versicolor, Drupa spp. and Cerithium spp. are common among the bran- ches of Acropora millepora and A. corvmbosa. Trochus spp. were found on the dead upper regions and bases of several colonies. A. mille- pora from Manauli Island yielded Spondylus layardi. A. formosa and A. nobilis with their arborescent coralla are less favoured habitats than the corymbose forms probably due to non-availability of closely placed branches that afford protection. On the dead parts of all ramose corals, Crassostrea cucullata, Arca spp., /sognomon isognomon, Pinctada and Lithophaga spp. were seen. Porites community (Fig. 4) forms the basic structure of the reefs in this area. P. solida, P. lutea. and P. somaliensis are fairly common both in the living and semifossilised condition. Among and on Porites are seen Favia favus, Favites abdita, Favia pallida, Leptastrea spp.. Cyphastrea spp., Platygyra lamellina etc. (see Pillai, 1972 for the list of corals from this area). Both gastropods and bivalves are found on the massive corals. A few gastropods such as Drupa margiriticola, Pyrene spp. and Ceri- thium spp., were found crawling on the sur- face of massive corals. D. margariticola is abundant on the Palk Bay and a large number of them get into the traps set by the local fishermen for catching reef fishes. Astrea semi- costaia and Planispira fallaciosa are also seen. Lambis lambis is found between the massive coral heads, sometimes in the sandy areas; sometimes the living molluscs afforded sub- stratum to small colonies of Porites or Side- rastrea, the corals thus getting free transport. Among the bivalves attached to the surface and undersides of massive corals were Arca spp.. Zsognomon, Pinctada and Crassostrea. However, the intensity of surface living bival- ves was more on the dead coral shingle than on the living corals. The dead, and rarely living corals, harbour a rich and varied fauna of burrowing bivalves (Appukuttan 1972). The mytilids are by far the commonest. Lithophaga is represented by at least five species, viz. L. nigra, L. gracilis, L. teres, L. stramineus and L. levigata; L. nigra being the commonest. The lithophaga make deep burrows generally double the length of their shells. Botulla cinnamonea makes shallow burrows. The venerid bivalves Venerupis macrophyllia and the petricolid, 39 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 —=—— \ N \ \\ Fig. 4. A general representation of the molluscs a associated with massive corals. 1. Venerupis macrophyllia x 0.5; 2. Lithophaga spp.; 3. Arca spp. 4. Isognonion isognomon xX 0.5; 5. Crassostrea cucullata x 0.5; 6. Pinctada anomoides x 1; 7. Jouan- netia cumingii x 0.5; 8. Pyrine spp.; 9. Drupa margeriticola x 0.5; 10. Cerithium trailli x 0.5; 11. Nodilittorina leucostica x 1; 12. Turbo intercostalis x 1; 13. Lambis lambis x 0.5. Petricola lithophaga and P. divergence, are also common in shallow burrows. Aloi- des sulculosa, Gastrochaenia, Pholadides, Jouannetia, Parapholas and Clavagella are the other common burrowing bivalves of this area [For others see Table 1, a detailed account of which has been already published by Appu- kuttan (1972)]. Though most of the burrowing forms are found in the dead parts of the corals, rarely L. gracilis was collected from the living parts of Porites solida and Favia pallida. 40 DISCUSSION Species diversity and percentage composition The percentage composition of the main molluscan groups in the collections from each habitat is presented in Table 2. The entire molluscan fauna found on the mangroves be- longs to Gastropoda. Adult gastropods were more on the eulittoral boulders than bivalves, while the submerged shingle has the maximum (85%) concentration of surface living bival- ves. The maximum number of species was MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS found in massive corals (38) of which 26 were bivalves, 18 of them being boring forras and the rest surface living. The mollusca of the littoral fringe was composed entirely of gastropods, while the eulittoral zone had 3.75% Amphineura, 68.5% gastropods and 27.75% bivalves. In the sublittoral molluscan fauna, Amphineura constitute 1.3%, gastro- poda 38.7% and bivalves 60%. Taylor (1971b) has attributed increased diversity of species in the sublittoral zone at Aldabra to tolerance of species to emersion. According to him (p. 206) this factor will account for the reduced diversity of species on higher shores. Those few species capable of inhabiting higher zones will exploit the avail- able habitat resulting in a high density of population. In essence, the organisms of the intertidal zone are predominantly physi- cally regulated communities and their major adaptations are of a physical nature, since the environment is subjected to varying physical factors. In the lower level (sublittoral) the animal communities are biologically controlled since the environment is mostly uniform. The biological inter-reaction result in a greater diversity of species (Sanders 1968). In such a situation the density of individuals of vari- ous species may not be as high as on the higher levels. Factors Influencing the Distribution of Molluscs in Different Substrates 1) Adaptation to physical conditions: Temperature tolerance and ability to with- stand desiccation is the largest single factor that restricts the distribution of many inter- tidal animals. Smith and Newell (1955) have shown that the initial settlement of periwink- les takes place on a lower level, the upper tidal levels being later colonised by adults. A similar phenomenon is shown here by Nodi- littorina pyramidalis on sandstone. Planaxis sulcatus and Cerithium trailli occupy different levels, the former always being at a higher level at Mandapam. Ability to restrict the loss of water during exposure and the thickness of shell are major adaptations for a success- ful life on intertidal areas. Among the Plana- xis and Cerithium trailli collected from the same station there was a notable variation in their fresh flesh and shell weight ratio. The ratios of flesh weight to shell weight in Plana- xis and C. trailli were 1:7.2 and 1:5.8 respec- tively as calculated from 50 specimens from random samples. This clearly indicates a higher ratio in shell weight to that of flesh in Planaxis which will probably account for its ability to occupy a higher position in the verti- cal range of zonation, than C. trailli. ii) Feeding relationship and distribution: Availability of food is a major factor that influences the distribution of animals. The concentration of Pinna bicolor among the sea- grass beds is correlated with the availability of rich food from the plant material found in the sediments around (Taylor & Lewis 1970). The preponderance of Pinna near the site of sewage disposals lends further support to the view that supply of food for these filter feeders immensely influences their abundance. The presence of Thias (Purpurea) rudolphi and Drupa margariticola also appears to be correlated with their carnivorous feeding re- lationships. Thias feeds on Cellana, Gafrarium and other gastropod found on the upper zone of the eulittoral. Polinices mamilla and other gastropod found on the eulittoral zone feed on bivalves found on the same zone. The mangrove associated Littorina scabra are able to feed on mangrove vegetation. The occur- rence of large populations of Planaxis and 4] JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 a a d d = <= syjuadsasjndpd *Q “ZE = = Y = - - - - A = = poigvip vasdky “TE = = = = = YW = = = D]WpU salUukjOog “OE u a = re a is e mf = a s SIQUip] SIQUDT “67 a a me os d a d = Z = = UNPIIQDIS “Q “8T a x. = z oT ea d se d (i z sn9sijaqo “DLT ‘i d d = = a d d o) Pe so Mpw4l “D 9T u im ee = 7 oF ¥ ria ts ES 7 WNULD WnNYyNdaD Se = = = d - = = a ‘e) = d SNJDIINS SIXDUD]_ ‘VT a ine ie d _ a 1) = Fr = = Sywlany{ vaplyitay "€T = YW m= = Y = a = = e) d syoprupikd *"N “7 = W = — = - a = = e) = DIIJSOINI] DULIOIIIPON {TZ = = = = = = = = Ps | ‘) d DJpjnpun “J “YT — = = d = = = = = = — DIQDIS "JT ‘6 = = - W = - = = — = = DUOJSOUDJaU “JT ‘SIT = = = = = = = = = WY - issnvsy DUILLONIT ‘LY = = = = = WU Y = = = = sisualupjono DUljLaN °“9T oe 3 one = a - ce i a ua ae pad “N ‘SI = = = = - = a = y = = uoajauvyo “N “tI ig ¥ im i Bi om < = a a cs oii9iqyo? ~N El = = UW = = = = = a = = DINDU DILIAN ‘TT = = = = d = = = = = = DSOAIU DIJIUOISPYd ‘I = Y W a YW = Y = = - = DIVISONIWAS DAISY ‘Ol YW d d = YW = a ae d = = SIDISOIAIJUL OGINT “6 u d a a = a = ee at na =? 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UOWOUSOS] pauouDUUlD DINIOg ‘aIeYy = Y ‘uowuog=D ‘ueseig=g “CII “TIT ‘OTT “601 “801 “LOT “90T “Sot ‘POT “€OT “COT “TOT “O0T 66 86 “L6 “96 “$6 6 £6 a) ‘16 06 68 “88 “L8 “98 “$8 “¥8 €8 ‘C8 “18 08 “6L “8L “LL ye “SL “PL EEL 44 MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS TABLE 2 THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES OF MOLLUSCS COLLECTED AT EACH HABITAT WITH THE PERCENTAGE REPRE- SENTATION OF DIFFERENT CLASSES Percentage composition Habitat Total No. of species Amphineura Gastropoda Bivalvia Raised Reef 14 8 25 67 Sandstones 14 7 719 14 Eulittoral boulders 32 6 78 16 Submerged shingle 13 nil 15 85 Unvegetated sand 22 nil 63 37 Seagrass 19 5) 52 43 Algae 21 5 85 10 Mangrove 5 nil 100 nil Reef flat 21 5 71 24 Massive corals 38 235 28.5 69 Branching corals 26 nil 43 57 Cerithium on the eulittoral boulders in Palk Bay is also associated with the presence of algae like Chaetomorpha and Euteromorpha on which these gastropods feed (Rao & Sun- daram 1972). iii) Protection: Many molluscs select a substratum free from predators and wave action. Several gastropods live among the branches of ramose corals and algae. Wieser (1952) pointed out that the principal factor controlling the nature and abundance of organisms of intertidal seaweeds is the growth form of the species of seaweed. Variations in the density of gastropod popu- lation on different algae have been discussed earlier. Boring bivalves are typical examples of marine animals on penetrable substrates like corals and wood. Some molluscs have cryptic colours for protection. Berthelinis limax on Caulerpa is a classic example in this regard. iv) Larval behaviour: The presence of juveniles of eulittoral gas- tropods on sublittoral algae may be due to a larval adaptation. The larvae or juveniles are unable to thrive or are less successful on the more exposed conditions subjected to much physical changes and hence first get settled on lower levels and later migrate to their ulti- mate ecological niches. This will also avoid competition for food from the adults. The pri- mary settlement of mytilid larvae on filament- ous substrate away from the adult beds has already been discussed. This will also help the dispersal of young ones to an extent. The oc- currence of juveniles of Trochus, Cellana and Nodilittorina on sublittoral algae may be a larval adaptation to more favoured habitats than their adults normally live on. SUMMARY The eulittoral, and littoral fringe sandstones of this area show a clear vertical range of zonation by different gastropods, correlated with the conditions of wave action, exposure, 45 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 desiccation, food. There is a preponderance of gastropods on the littoral fringe and eulittoral hard substra- tes while the submerged hard bottom supports mostly bivalves. Wherever gastropods are plenty, bivalves are of little significance, and vice versa. The molluscan fauna of the seagrass com- munity is dominated by Pinna bicolor. At the sites of waste sewage disposal, the density of population is very high. Beach-clams are represented by Donax and Atactodea. The former is very common along the mainland coast while the latter occurs on the island shores. No species of molluscs exists in large quan- tities though Cerithium, Cerithidea, Drupa, Thias and Planaxis are common in the inter- tidal zones. The commercially important ges- tropod, Pyrene spp., occurs in large numbers on reefs and higher algae. Among the bivalves Pinna, Gafrarium, Donax, Grassostrea and Arca are very common. Recently there is a settlement of pearl oysters at the bottom boulders of Palk Bay lagoon along Manda- pam. The presence of juveniles and spat of several molluscs during the onset of northeast mon- soon indicates that most of the common mol- luscs of this area breed towards the close of southwest monsoon. The young ones often choose a safer or more protected environment different from the ecological niche at which the adults ultimately settle. Quarrying of corals for industrial purposes, resulting in the destruction of the reefs in temperature and availability of 46 several places around Mandapam, has caused the dwindling of the reef associated molluscs. This was ascertained by a comparative study of the fauna of disturbed and undisturbed reef tracts. The major factors that limit the distribution and abundance of various species in different habitats are—nature of bottom, wave action, exposure, temperature, availability of suitable food, and behavioural aspects of larvae and adults. The qualitative abundance of common mol- luscs in different habitats is discussed. Numeri- cal assessment of individuals of some com- mon species was made by analysing sample plots. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr’ ED iGosilas Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute for his constant interest and encour- agement in this work. Thanks are due to Mr. C. Mukundan, Mr. M. S. Rajagopalan, Dr. K. S. Rao and Mr. V. Kunjukrisha Pillai for offering constructive criticism to- wards improvement of the manuscript at various stages of preparation. Mr. C. P. Gopi- nathan gave valuable advice on the preparation of the figures and Mr. K. L. Kesavan, artist of this institute, drew them. It was a matter of great pleasure for the authors to have the constant company of Dr. K. P. Kuriakose, and Mr. P. N. Radhakrishnan Nair during field trips and collection of data. Mr. S. Kali- muthu has identified the different algae men- tioned in the text. Miss A. Kanagam offered secretarial assistance. MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND CORAL REEFS REFERENCES ALAGARSWAMI, K. (1968): Studies on some as- pects of the Wedge-Clam, Donax faba Gmelin from Mandapam coast in the Gulf of Mannar. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India, 8(1): 56-75. APPUKUTTAN, K. K. (1972): Coral-boring Bival- ves of Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral reefs, 1969. Mar. biol. ass. India: 379-398. ARUDPRAGASAM, K. D. (1970): Zonation on two shores on the west coast of Ceylon. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India, 12(1): 1-14. ATAPATTU, D. H. (1969): Distribution, movement and behaviour of Nodilittorina granularis (Gray) on a shore at Negombo, Ceylon. Proc. Symp. Mol- lusca, 1968. Mar. biol. Ass. India, Pt. IL: 513-518. BAYNE, B. L. (1964): Primary and secondary set- tlement in Mytilis edulis (Mollusca). J. Anim. Eco- logy, 33(3): 513-526. CHIPPERFIELD, P. N. J. (1953): Observations on the breeding and settlement of Mytilus edulis (L.) in British waters. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K., 32: 449- 476. CoLMAN, J. (1940): On faunas inhabiting inter- tidal seaweeds. ibid., 24: 129-183. CooMAN, H. E. (1969): Biological aspects of mangrove mollusks in the West Indies. Malacologia, 9(1): 79-84. EpmMunps, M. (1962): Bivalved gastropods from Jamaica. Nature (Lond.), 195(4839): 402. Foote, R. B. (1889): Notes on Rameswaram Island-I. Madras Christian College Mag., July, 1888: 828-840. GRAVELY, F. H. (1927): Littoral fauna of Krusa- dai Island. Mollusca. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) new ser., I(1). HorneELi, J. (1915): The Indian varieties and races of Turbinella. Mem. Indian. Mus. Calcutta, 6: 109-122. -———————. (1917): The edible molluscs of the Madras Presidency. Madras Fish. Bull. 11: 1-51. (1922): The common molluscs of south India. ibid., 74: 97-215. (1951): Indian molluscs. Bombay Natural History Society, 1-96. Jones, S. (1970): The molluscan fishery resour- ces of India. Proc. Symp. Mollusca. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, pt. 3: 906-918. Lewis, J. R. (1955): The mode of occurrence of the universal intertidal zones in Great Britain. J. Ecology, 43: 270-290. (1961): The littoral zone on rocky shores—a biological or physical entity? Oikos, 12: 280-301. ——_—_———. (1972): The Ecology of the Rocky shores. The English University Press: 1-323. Macnag, W. (1968): A general account of the fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and forests in the Indo-West Pacific region. Adv. mar. Biol. 6: 73-270. Academic Press, London. Macnag, W. & KALK, M. (1962): The ecology of the mangrove swamps at Inhaca Island, Mocambi- que. J. Ecol., 50(1): 19-34. Morton, J. E. & CuHaLiis, D. A. (1969): The biomorphology of Solomon Islands shores with a discussion of zoning patterns and ecological termi- nology. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., ser. B, 255: 459-516. Nair, R. V. & Rao, K. S. (Ed.) (1974): The com- mercial molluscs of India. Bull. Cent. mar. Fish. Res. Inst., 25: 1-170. NEWELL, R. C. (1969): Adaptations to tempera- ture fluctuations in intertidal animals. Amer. Zool., 9: 293-307. (1970): Biology of intertidal ani- mals. 1-555. Logos Press, London. Pittal, C. S. GoPINADHA (1971a): The distribu- tion of corals on a reef at Mandapam, Palk Bay. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 11 (1 & 2): 62-72. (1971b): Composition of the coral fauna of the southeastern coast of India and the Laccadives. In Regional variation in Indian Ocean coral reefs. Symp. Zool. Soc., London, 28: 301-327. (1972): Stony corals of the seas around India. Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs. Mar. biol. ass. India: 191-216. (1975): An assessment of the effect of environment and human interference on the coral reefs of Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar along the Indian coast. Seafood Export J., 7(12): 1-13. Rao, K. SATYANARAYANA & SUNDARAM, K. S. (1972): Ecology of intertidal molluscs of Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Proc. National Acad. Science, 38: pt. B: 462-474. Rao, M. UMAMAHESWARA (1972): Coral reef flora of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs. Mar. Biol. ass. 47 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 India: 217-230. Rao, K. ViRABHADRA (1970): Pearl Oysters of the Indian region. Proc. Symp. Mollusca. Mar. biol. Ass. India, pt. 3: 1017-1028. ReEpDDIAH, K. (1972): The Appa Island and _ its fringing reef in the Gulf of Mannar. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 12(1 & 2): 57-63. SANDERS, H. L. (1868): Marine benthic diversity: a comparative study. Am. Nat., 102: 243-282. SATYAMURTHI, S. T. (1952): The mollusca of Krusadai Island (in the Gulf of Mannar). I. Amphi- neura and Gastropoda. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., (new ser.) 1(2): part 6: 1-265. (1956): The mollusca of Krusadai Island (in the Gulf of Mannar): II. Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda. ibid. /(2): part 7: 1-202. SEWELL, R. B. S. (1935): Studies on corals and coral formations in Indian waters. Mem. Asiatic. Soc., Bengal, 9: 461-540. Sitas, E. G. (1968): Cephalopoda of the west coast of India collected during the Cruises of the Research Vessel “VARUNA” with a catalogue of the species known from the Indian Ocean. Proc. Symp. Mollusca. Mar. biol. Ass. India, part 1: 277-359. SMITH, J. E. & NEWELL, G. E. (1955): The dyna- 48 mics of the zonation of the common Periwinkle [Littorina littorea (L.)] on a stony beach. J. anim. Ecol., 24(1): 35-56. StopparT, D. R. & Fosserc, F. R. (1972): South Indian Sandcays. Atoll. Res. Bull., 161: 1-16. SropparT, D. R. & Putzal, C. S. GoPINADHA (1972): Raised reefs of Mamanathapuram, South India. Trans. Inst. British Georgr., 56: 111-125. TayLor, J. D. (1968): Coral reefs and associated invertebrate communities (mainly molluscs) around Mahe Seychelles. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (B) 254: 129-206. (1971a): Reef associated molluscan assemblages in the Western Indian Ocean. In Re- gional variation in Indian Ocean coral reefs. Symp. Zool. Soc., London, 28: 501-534. (1971b): Intertidal zonation at Aldabra Atoll. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., ser. B, 260: 173-213. TayLor, J. D. & Lewis, M. S. (1970): The flora, fauna and sediments of the marine grass beds of Mahe Seychelles, J. Nat. Hist., 4: 199-220. WIESER, W. (1952): Investigations on the micro- fauna inhabiting seaweeds on rocky coasts. IV. Studies on the vertical distribution of the fauna inhabiting seaweeds below the Plymouth Laboratory. J. mar. biol. Ass. U.K., 31: 145-174. A MARCH BIRD COUNT IN POONA’ PRAKASH GOLE? How many birds are there in an Indian city? To arrive at an estimate of the bird population of the city, a group of twenty bird-watchers from Poona decided to pool their energies to make a bird-count. The city was divided into sectors and a pair or group of bird-watchers was allotted one sector to make notes and count species and individuals. All birds that could be seen and heard (and definitely identified) while moving along the streets and lanes were counted. There are cer- tain groups of trees in the city and on its river-banks which are favoured by birds for roosting. Counts of common Indian mynah, house and jungle crow, cattle and little egrets and pond herons where chiefly made at these places. It was not possible to cover the city area in one day. Sectors had to be divided into sub-sectors. Each sub-sector was visited once to avoid double counting. Of course, a certain percentage of double counting is unavoidable as birds are highly mobile. However, care was taken to avoid it, mainly by restricting the count of such mobile birds as crows and mynahs to their roosting sites only. The total effort was spread over the duration of a week —the first week of March 1979. During the week 130 bird-species were noted with a total population of more than 22,000 individuals. The count was spread over about 12,120 hectares or about 30,000 acres. The 1 Accepted June 1979. 2277 Sindh Housing Society, (M.S.). Poona-411 007, area includes the main wards of the city and the cantonment but excludes suburban areas such as Kirkee, Yerawada, Ghorpadi, Katraj, Hingne and some other small areas on the periphery. Out of the total area included in the bird-count about 60% was more or less fully covered, 24% partially covered, while over about 16% of the area observations were poor. Our coverage of garden birds was poor for obvious reasons. We could not enter pri- vate gardens and had to restrict counting to public parks and gardens only. The total of about 22,000 birds counted gives a figure of less than one bird per acre or 1.8 birds per hectare. The actual number of birds per hectare is probably greater. As already pointed out, our coverage of garden birds was poor. Even if the number of garden birds is increased by 100 p.c., we will still be erring on the safe side. Our coverage of water-birds and birds of grasslands and fields, is better, believed to be around 60 p.c. This also includes common birds like house spar- row, house and jungle crow and common mynah. A 40 p.c. increase in the number of all these birds may not probably be out of proportion. These adjustments give us a total of about 32000 birds, i.e. 1.06 birds per acre or 2.6 birds per hectare. Comparable figures for other Indian cities are not avail- able. However, for Inner London area a den- sity of 0.9 to 1.75 breeding pairs per acre, has been given by Murton (Murton R. K. MAN & BIRDS, 1971). It must be made clear that the figure in- cludes migratory birds, both local and conti- 49 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 nental. A count taken in June and July wiil probably show a lower density as most of the migratory birds will have left by then. However, these migrants spend almost eight months of the year (September to April) in our land and there is no reason why we should exclude them while estimating the bird popu- lation of a particular area. Admittedly, the count was weighted in favour of birds which are commensals of man namely house sparrow and crow, mynah and parakeet, pariah kite and blue rock pigeon. In Murton’s figures also 88 p.c. of the breed- ing birds are feral pigeons and house sparrows. Here, the common Indian mynah formed al- most a third of the total number of indivi- duals. The mynah outnumbered the crow and the sparrow by almost 2 to 1. Not all the mynahs forage within the city however. They are commuters, flying out every morning to fields and grasslands to feed and flying in to roost each evening. We were surprised to find the number of house sparrows so low (1600). Probably these drab-coloured birds failed to attract our attention. Big flocks of sparrows were seen mainly in the evening when num- bers collected and flew to roost. One roosting tree near the railway station attracted more than 500 of them. Even crows were found to be more numer- ous than the house sparrow. About 2500 of them were counted. It was not always possible to distinguish between a house and a jungle crow, as counts were made mainly in the evenings. We suspect however, that there are as many jungle crows as there are house crows. Early in the morning crows appeared to be the first to wake up and move about; while in the evening they were preceded by the com- mon mynah for roosting. They flew in to roost in flocks of 20-30 or gangs of 5-10, in a lei- surely fashion, flying at about tree-top height. 50 Sometimes they used to make a sudden stoop on to a tree on the way, the flying army arrest- ing flight suddenly and diving down to alight on the tree to the accompaniment of much noise. After a pause they continued their flight. They also perched on adjacent build- ings before settling on the roosting trees. Even after reaching these trees some took to wing, flew about, made a detour only to come back to settle on the trees. The common mynah roosts were nothing short of spectacular. At one roost more than 4000 mynahs were counted. They flew in to roost in flocks of 2-4, 7-8, 20-30 and 30-50. Most of them flew at moderate heights, though some coming into city from the west over the hills flew higher. Before reaching the trees mynahs too collected first in a con- venient sport, a hill-slope, a grassy patch on a river-bank, even a tall theatre-building. Here they made a pause of 15 to 30 minutes before flying in en masse into the trees to the accom- paniment of a deafening cackle. House and jungle crows were found to be associating with common mynahs on all the roosts; while at one roost near the river about 350 cattle and little egrets and 325 pond herons came to roost with the mynahs and crows. They however, occupied acacia trees while the latter roosted on the banyan, the peepul and the rain tree. Egrets came in flocks of 10 to 25 birds, flying along the course of the river, while pond herons came one by one. Brahminy mynahs have smaller roosts scat- tered all over the city. They do not associate with the common mynah but roost separately in groups of 5 to 50. Normally in the first fortnight of March every year, rosy pastors arrive and spend some days in the city. They also were seen to roost with the common mynah. 400 were counted at one roost alone. While the mynah roosts are mostly in the BIRD COUNT IN POONA central, southern and western parts of the city, the rose-ringed parakeet prefers chiefly the Koregaon Park area to the east. In the even- ing they were seen to fly energetically in groups of 20-40 birds to settle in large banyan and peepul trees. Smaller groups coalesced into larger ones as roosting trees drew near and they used to settle with an incessant chat- ter which normally went on with interruptions till late at night. They appear to be late-risers too, leaving the roost after sunrise when most of the other birds are up and about. More than 1000 parakeets roost there. As in other Indian cities some pariah kites and whitebacked vultures are usually to be seen quartering the skies of Poona city. Kites were found to be numerous in the Canton- ment area and in early mornings these hand- some birds were very active, diving, swooping on the ground for tit-bits and squealing. Breed- ing season of these birds was on and on a busy thoroughfare a nest with a sitting bird could easily be seen on a peepul tree about 10 metres up from the street level. Most of the vultures scavenge near the bone-crushing plant located at south-east of the city. Com- pared to whitebacked vultures, the number of neophron vultures was insignificant. Out of the 130 species counted, 35 may be called garden and woodland birds which including bulbuls, magpie and Indian robins, sunbird, barbet, warblers, flycatchers, tit, woodpecker, flowerpecker, koel, golden oriole, iora, grey hornbill, white-eye, little minivet, spotted owlet etc. 37 species belonged to grass- land, scrub and fallow-land. These included drongo, shrikes, babblers, munias, quails, bush- chats, pipits, larks, doves, bee-eater, hoopoe, Indian roller, yellow-wattled lapwing, crested bunting etc. Ten species of birds of prey were recorded. They included three eagle species, blackwinged and large Indian kite, kestrel, shikra, sparrow-hawk, redheaded merlin and marsh harrier. Poona’s river banks harbour a rich variety of bird-life; 110 species have so far been re- corded in the Mula-Mutha Bird Sanctuary area alone. During the present count 39 spe- cies of water-birds were recorded. These in- cluded dabchick, kingfishers, wagtails, coots, terns, egrets, swallows, ducks like garganey teal and pintail, and a variety of waders such as black-winged stilt, sandpipers, green and redshanks, little ringed plover, little stint, jacanas etc. Out of the 130 bird species, 90 species were resident birds and the remaining migratory. Of the latter 18 are known to breed within Indian limits, but migrate either locally from the north or from the Himalayas. These in- cluded Indian Roller, collared bushchat, black- winged stilt, black redstart, blue rock thrush, lesser whistling teal etc. Species that habitual- ly migrate over long distances numbered 22. They are winter visitors to our land and in- cluded ducks like garganey teal and pintail, wagtails, rosy pastors, desert wheatears etc. What other peculiarities of bird-life could be noted during the count? As the breeding season was approaching songsters were slowly getting into form. Though the redvented bul- bul and the magpie robin were not yet in full song, calls of iora and golden oriole could be heard. The koel was making feeble at- tempts to produce its characteristic call; the male would burst into his full song towards the end of the month. Surprisingly, a hawk- cuckoo was vocal in a park even though the weather was clear and sunny. Pair-formation was still in its initial stages. The male magpie robin chased the female desultorily and without any fervour. The Indian robin had paired already but feed- ing of the female by the male could not yet 51 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 be. observed. The rufousbacked shrike utter- ed harsh notes from a tree or a telegraph cable as if proclaiming territorial rights but his mate was nowhere nearby. The purple sunbird was not yet in full breeding plumage and the male and the female foraged sepa- rately. Cattle and little egrets and pond herons and pheasant-tailed jacanas were also not yet in breeding plumage. However, some dabchick pairs were busy constructing their floating nests near the far end of a reed-bed; while one pair of dabchick had already laid and was incubating a clutch of two eggs. On a steep bank even a smail blue kingfisher was seen excavating a nest-hole. Most of the migrants were still to be found in the city. The Indian redstart was still here though most would leave by the 10th. Blyth’s reed and greenish leaf warblers could still be heard in the trees and in the morning the bril- liant blossom of the silk cotton attracted hor- des of chattering rosy pastors who would proceed north around 15th March. The blue rock thrush still lurked in the eaves of tall buildings and on hills and among boulders on the river bank. The Indian roller on the telegraph pole, the collared bush-chat on a bush-top, a bluethroat in a reed-bed and a lesser whitethroat skulking in bushes, was still a common sight. Some of the yellow waz- tails had donned their distinctive dress and the greyheaded, the blueheaded and _ the blackheaded could be distinguished. Even some of the blackwinged stilts had put on their black caps, their restless flocks flying to and fro on the river. Most of the other waders appeared a shade brighter but still hunted singly or in flocks. Gatherings of common swallows hawked insects in the sky morning and evening though the number of redrumped swallows appeared to be surprisingly low. 52 Moreover, there was a large influx of ducks, presumably returning from the south, in the Mula-Mutha Bird Sanctuary and the Pashan reservoir. The number of garganey teals had shot up from a hundred to over 500. Some pintails and redcrested pochards could also be seen among them. At this time and at this time only, a flock of lesser whistling teals visits Pashan reservoir every year. It was dutifully there this year also. On the outskirts of the city, song of the redwinged bushlark and the Indian skylark was increasingly evident. On barren patches pairs of yellow-wattled lapwing could be seen silently creeping away from the observer. Here they will lay in the first week of April. Flocks of spotted and red munias gathered seeds quietly in grassland and along dusty tracks and baya flocks zoomed from tree to tree as if in search of a suitable nesting place. A short-toed eagle, a few blackwinged kites and an occasional tawny eagle are usually to be seen on the periphery of the city. The great army of tawny eagles that at one time patronised the garbage dump is now no lon- ger there. A large Indian kite, a booted eagle and a few marsh harriers were recorded on the river and reservoirs, while a kestrel, a shikra and a sparrowhawk were encountered in better wooded areas. Interestingly, for the last three years a pair of redheaded merlins have nested on the market-place tower in the busiest and most densely populated part of the city. Such is the glimpse in the life of birds of a busy Indian city. For us city-dwellers it was an exciting and thrilling experience to count birds and record their characteristics. As the city continues to grow it will unwittingly affect the lives of its birds, until a stage comes when its citizens may feel like having a second look at the birds living in it. BIRD COUNT IN POONA TABLE 1 LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED DURING THE BIRD-COUNT 1. Podiceps ruficollis Indian Little Grebe 2. Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant 3. Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron 4. Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret 5. Egretta intermedia Indian Smaller Egret 6. Egretta garzetta Little Egret 7. Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistiling Teal 8. Anas querquedula Garganey Teal 9. Nettapus coromandelianus Cotton Teal 10. Anas acuta Pintail 11. Elanus caeruleus Blackwinged Kite 12. Milvus migrans Common Pariah Kite 13. Milvus migrans lineatus Large Indian Kite 14. Butastur teesa White-eyed Buzzard 15. Gyps_ bengalensis White-backed Vulture 16. Neophron percnoptcrus White Scavenger Vulture 17. Circus aeruginosus Marsh Harrier 18. Circaetus gallicus Short-toed Eagle 19. Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle 20. Aquila rapax Tawny Eagle 21. Falco chicquera Red-headed Merlin 22. Falco tinnunculus Kestrel 23. Accipiter badius Shikra 24. Hieradetus pennatus Booted Hawk Eagle 25. Accipiter nisus Sparrow-hawk 26. Perdicula argoondah Rock Bush Quail 27. Amaurornis akool Brown Crake 28. Amaurornis phoenicurus Whitebreasted Waterhen 29. Gallinula chloropus Indian Moorhen 3 Fulica atra Coot 31. Porphyrio porphyrio Purple Moorhen 32. Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana 33. Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing 34. Vanellus malabaricus Yellow-wattled Lapwing 35. Charadrius dubius Little-ringed Plover 36. Tringa totanus Redshank 37. Tringa nebularia Greenshank 38. Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper 39. Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper 40. Tringa hypoleucos Common Sandpiper 41. Capella gallinago Common Snipe 42. Calidris minutus Little Stint 43. Philomachus pugnax Ruff & Reeve 44, Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt PE EE 53 TES ES TS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Scientific Name Rostratula benghalensis Chlidonias hybrida Gelochelidon nilotica Columba livia Streptopelia chinensis Streptopelia senegalensis Psittacula krameri Psittacula cyanocephala Cuculus varius Eudynamys scolopacea Centropus sinensis Athene brama Apus affinis Halcyon smyrnensis Alcedo aatthis Ceryle rudis Merops orientalis Coracias benghalensis Upupa epops Tockus birostris Megalaima haemacephala Picoides mahrattensis Eremopterix grisea Ammomanes_ phoenicurus Galerida malabarica Mirafra erythroptera Alauda gulgula Hirundo concolor Hirundo rustica Hirundo daurica Hirundo_ smithii Lanius vittatus Lanius schach Lanius excubitor Oriolus oriolus Dicrurus adsimilis Sturnus pagodarum Sturnus roseus Acridotheres tristis Acridotheres fuscus Corvus splendens Corvus imacrorhynchos Coracina melanoptcra Pericrocotus cinnamomeus Aegithina tiphia Pycnonotus jocosus Pycnonotus cafer English Name Painted Snipe Whiskered Tern Gull-billed Tern Blue Rock Pigeon Spotted Dove Little Brown Dove Roseringed Parakeet Blossom-headed Parakeet Common Hawk-cuckoo Koel Crow-pheasant Spotted Owlet House Swift White-breasted Kingfisher Common Kingfisher Lesser Pied Kingfisher Sma!!] Green Bee-eater Indian Roller Hoopoe Grey Hornbill Crimson-breasted Barbet Mahratta Woodpecker Ashy-crowned Finchlark Rufous-tailed Finchlark Malabar Crested Lark Red-winged Bushlark Eastern Skylark Dusky Crag Martin Eastern Swallow Red-rumped Swallow Wire-tailed Swallow Bay-backed Shrike Rufous-backed Shrike Grey Shrike Indian Oriole Black Drongo Brahminy Myna Rosy Pastor Common Myna Jungle Myna House Crow Jungle Crow Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike Small Minivet Common Iora Red-whiskered Bulbul Red-vented Bulbul BIRD COUNT IN POONA Scientific Name English Name j . 92. Turdoides malcolmi 93. Turdoides striatus 94. Chrysomma sinensis 95. Muscicapa parva 96. Rhipidura aureola 97. Cisticola juncidis 98. Prinia subflava 99. Prinia_ socialis 100. Orthotomus sutorius 101. Acrocephalus stentoreus 102. Acrocephalus dumetorum 103. Prinia hodgsonii 104. Phylloscopus trochiloides 105. Sylvia curruca 106. Erithacus svecicus 107. Copsychus saularis 108. Saxicola caprata 109. Saxicola torquata 110. Saxicoloides fulicata 111. Oc¢enanthe deserti 112. Monticola solitarius 113. Phoenicurus ochrurus 114. Parus major 115. Anthus similis 116. Anthus trivialis 117. Motacilla caspica 118. Motacilla flava beema 119. Motacilla citreola 120. Motacilla alba 121. Motacilla maderaspatensis 122. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos 123. Nectarinia zeylonica 124. Nectarinia asiatica 125. Zosterops palpebrosa 126. Passer domesticus 127. Ploceus philippinus 128. Lonchura malabarica 129. Lonchura punctulata 130. Estrilda amandava ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to the following bird-watchers who took part in this count; Messrs Thomas Gay, Ramesh Bidwe, Sai Pattabhiram, S. In- galhallikar, S. Dharap, Shabbir Lokhandwala, Large Grey Babbler Jungle Babbler Yellow-eyed Babbler Red-breasted Flycatcher White-browed Fantail Flycatcher Streaked Fantail Warbler Indian Wren Warbler Ashy Wren Warbler Tailor Bird Great Reed Warbler Blyth’s Reed Warbler Franklin’s Wren Warbler Greenish Leaf Warbler Lesser Whitethroat Blue-throat Magpie Robin Pied Bushchat Stone Chat indian Robin Desert Wheatear Blue Rock Thrush Black Redstart Grey Tit Brown Rock Pipit Drees iRipit Grey Wagtail Blue-headed Yellow Wagtail Yellow-headed Wagtail White Wagtail Large Pied Wagtail Tickell’s Flowerpecker Purple-rumped Sunbird Purple Sunbird White-eye House Sparrow Weaver Bird White-throated Munia Spotted Munia Red Munia Prof. Paranjpye, Lokesh Khanna and Mrs. Swati M. Lokhandwala, and Mrs. Vijay Gole. Assistance from the Department of Geography, University of Poona, is also grate- fully acknowledged. 55 MAMMALS FROM NEPAL* Davip H. JoHNSON, S. DILLON RIPLEY, AND KiTTI THONGLONGYA? (With a text-figure) In 1948-1949, S. Dillon Ripley led a field party to Nepal to collect natural history specimens for Yale University and the Smithsonian Institution. One hundred twelve specimens of mammals were obtained. Subsequent study showed that thirty-five species were represented. New records from Nepal include Tupaia glis, Vulpes bengalensis and Lepus grahami. The latter identification, based on an immature specimen, is in- cluded with reservation. INTRODUCTION S. DILLon RIPLEY In 1947 I made my first visit to Nepal at the conclusion of a six-month bird collecting reconnaissance in the subcontinent of India. Prior to that time, my Indian colleague, Dr. Salim Ali, and I made an informal pact that we would work together to prepare an up- to-date listing as well as a handbook on the bird fauna of this huge region, a project on which we would be occupied for the next twenty-seven years. In fact, we are still (in 1979) engaged in revising my SYNOPSIS of the birds of the region, published in 1961, and now being reprinted. The first two volumes of our joint ten-volume HANDBOOK (1968- 1974) are being re-edited and published anew. In 1948-1949, I revisited Nepal, encouraged by the then Government and financed with a major grant-in-aid from the National Geogra- 1 Accepted April 1979. 2David H. Johnson (retired), and S. Dillon Ripley, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institu- tion, Washington, D.C., 20560; Kitti Thonglongya (deceased). 56 phic Society, as well as support from Yale University (my then employer), and the Smithsonian Institution, whose Secretary, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, distinguished naturalist of his time, was always keen to stimulate natural history research. On this lengthy trip, 1 was joined by two graduates of the year, room- mates at Yale, whom I had come to know as a Resident Fellow in theirs and my college, Jonathan Edwards. The two young men, Richard Mack and Howard Weaver, knocked on my door one evening and said that they had heard I was off again to Nepal and could they come? I responded by saying that I need- ed some help in small mammal collecting and if they would learn from our Peabody Mu- seum assistants, perhaps they could qualify. The collection which they subsequently made, assisted in part by Edward C. Migdal- ski, my principal assistant, who had helped me on my trek in the previous season, is finally reported on herewith. The research was begun in the late 1950’s by David H. Johnson, formerly of the National Museum of Natural History’s staff, and continued in the 1960’s by the late Kitti Thonglongya, a research fellow on a visit from Thailand. The publication ful- fils a pledge which I made to the then Secre- MAMMALS FROM NEPAL tary of the National Geographic Society, Mel- vin M. Payne, that publications in natural his- tory would indeed follow from this expedi- tion! I have dedicated much subsequent cor- respondence over the years to this end, but still have to report failure in having the col- lection of fishes published as reported in my Research Report to the National Geographic Society (1975). The collection of thirty-five species and one hundred twelve specimens, while not startling in its addition to new knowledge of Nepalese mammals, seems worthy of putting on record to inform future workers of the material that is available for study in the National Museum of Natural History. I am most grateful to my _ colleagues, Messrs Mack and Weaver, for their partici- pation, as well as to the societies and institu- tions which afforded us the opportunity for our field work. It has been a recent great Bi 82 8> Bt Fig. 1. pleasure to me and to the Smithsonian Insti- tution to pick up the threads of collaboration again with the Government of Nepal in con- nection with the first scientifically-documented study of the life-history of the tiger, Panthera tigris, now being undertaken at the Royal Chitwan National Park in Nepal by a Nepa- lese-American team with support from the Smithsonian Institution and the World Wild- life Fund. Much of what I wrote earlier (1950 et seq.) about the deforestation and decline of animal life along the broad sweep of the Himalayas has come to pass. It is rewarding to note, however, that the Royal Government of Nepal has seen fit to take positive steps to protect certain areas as national parks, and to institute research on life-history studies of the larger mammals such as rhinoceros, tiger, and some species of deer. All of these studies promise well for the future economy and pre- servation of this unique part of the world. 3S BG a7 a8 30 eS el: | Collecting localities. SY) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 COLLECTING LOCALITIES The itinerary of the expedition has been outlined by Ripley (1950: 355-359), who also gives brief descriptions of some of the collect- ing localities. The places at which mammals were collected are listed below in the order that the first specimens were taken. The lati- tude and longitude are from Army Map Ser- vice 1:250,000 maps of India and Pakistan, Series U-502, published in parts from 1958 to 1963. The inclusive dates on which speci- mens of mammals were collected and a list of the kinds found at each place are also in- cluded. The serial numbers correspond to those on the accompanying map (Fig. 1). 1. Raxaul-Birganj, adjacent border towns in Bihar and Nepal, respectively, 350 feet. 27° 0’ N., 84° 57’ E. November 16-18 and December 7. Suncus caerulaeus, Sco- tophilus heathii heathii, Canis aureus in- dicus. 2. Chandragiri Pass, central Nepal, 7000- 7500 feet. 27° 417 N., 85° 107 EB. Novem-= ber 22 and December 6, Dremomys lok- riah lokriah. 3. Godaveri, central Nepal, 6000-7000 feet. 27° 34’ N., 85° 24’ E. November 27-28. Dremomys lokriah lokriah, Rattus nitidus nitidus, Mus nagarum.. 4. Katmandu, central Nepal, 4271-4500 feet. 212-427 N., #85 420’. E.= December 2-5. Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis, Vul- pes bengalensis. 5. Kauriala Ghat, United Provinces, 400 feet? 28°. 2244N2 81° (02S abecember 11-12. Lepus ruficaudatus ruficaudatus, Tatera indica indica. 6. Tikapur, western Nepal, 500 feet. 28° 30’ N., 81° 10’ E. December 13 and January 6-9. Suncus murinus tytleri, Tatera indica indica, Rattus rattus gangutrianus, Mus 58 10. 13;. booduga booduga, Mus dunni, Mus cer- vicolor cervicolor, Herpestes edwardsii nyula. . Chisapani, western Nepal, 950 feet. 28° 38’ N., 81° 17’ E. December 16-21. Sun- cus murinus tytleri, Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus. Presbytis entellus schistaceus, Rattus rattus gangutrianus, Mus booduga booduga, Mus saxicola gurkha, Canis aureus indicus, Lutra perspicillata perspi- cillata. . Rekcha, western Nepal, 5000 feet. 28° 53’ N., 81° 10’ E. December 27-31. Sun- cus murinus tytleri, Rattus rattus gangu- trianus, Rattus turkestanicus vicerex, Mus cervicolor cervicolor. Biratnagar, eastern Nepal, 250 feet. 26° 28’ N., 87° 17’ E. January 18. Mus boo- duga booduga. Dharan Bazar, eastern Nepal, 1000 feet. 26° 49’ N., 87° 17’ E. January 22. Cal- losciurus pygerythrus lokroides, Sus scrofa cristatus. . Chitre, eastern Nepal, 7500 feet. A hamlet not shown on current maps but located on the main ridge twelve miles north of Dhankuta (q.v.) January 28. Soriculus caudatus, Rattus niviventer niviventer, Mus musculus homourus. . Dur, eastern Nepal, 8500 feet. A hamlet not shown on current maps but located on the main ridge eighteen miles north of Dhankuta (q.v.). January 29. Rattus eha eha. Mangalbare, eastern Nepal, 38650-8750 feet. 27° 16’ N., 87° 30’ ExJanuanase- February 6. Soriculus caudatus, Soricuius macrurus, Lepus grahami, Petaurista mag- nificus, Rattus rattus brunneusculus, Rat- tus eha eha, Mus musculus homourus, Martes flavigula flavigula. . Chainpur, eastern Nepal, 4300 feet. 27° MAMMALS FROM NEPAL 17’ N., 87° 19’ E. February 9. Herpestes auropunctatus auropunctatus. 15. Richavas, eastern Nepal, 1150 feet. Not shown on current maps. On the east bank of the Arun Kosi just south of its conflu- ence with the Legua river. 27° 9’ N., 87° 16’ E. February 11, Mus nagarum. 16. Dhankuta, eastern Nepal, 4200 feet. 26° 59’ N., 87° 21’ E. February 14. Callosciu- rus pygerythrus lokroides. 17. Chatra, eastern Nepal, 500 feet. 26° 51’ N., 87° 10’ E. February 18-21. Tupaia glis lepcha, Callosciurus pygerythrus lok- roides, Rattus rattus brunneusculus, Para- doxurus. hermaphroditus pallasii. Order INSECTIVORA Family SorIciDAE Soriculus caudatus (Horsfield, 1851) Ten specimens: Chitre, 7500 feet, January 28, 1 (290036); Mangalbare, 8650-8750 feet, January 31-February 4, 9 (290037-45). We consider Soriculus leucops (Horsfield, 1855) with very similar characters, to be a synonym of S. caudatus. Soriculus macrurus Blanford, 1888 Two specimens: Mangalbare, 8750 feet, February 2 and 4 (290034-35). The two species of Soriculus reported upon here may be separated on the basis of tail length and colour. $. caudatus has the tail simi- lar to or approaching the head and body in length (an index ratio of 80-108 per cent in the specimens examined), and in its general aspect the dorsal coloration is a warm dark brown; whereas, macrurus has the tail consi- derably longer than the head and body (an index ratio of c. 140 per cent) and the dor- sal coloration is a cold gray hue approaching Chaetura Drab of Ridgway (1912). Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951, p. 59) recognize the dark caudatus and the very similar Jeucops as separate species and un- accountably consider the very pale and dis- tinct macrurus to be a synonym of leucops. Suncus murinus tytleri (Blyth, 1859) Ten specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, (De- cember 16-19, 3 (290047-49); Rekcha, 5000 feet, December 27-29, 6 (290050-55); Tika- pur, 500 feet, January 9, 1 (290056). The entire series of brown musk shrews from localities at different elevations in west- ern Nepal is uniformly pale in colour, show- ing affinity with the pallid shrews of the drier parts of north-western India rather than with the darker coloured races towards the east. Apparently they are similar to the eight spe- cimens from western Nepal referred to (yéleri by Lindsay (1929, p. 332). No specimens of tytleri are now available to us, but the colour ‘light rufescent sandy-brown’’ originally as- cribed to it by Blyth would seem to indicate a population even paler than that in western Nepal. Suncus caerulaeus (Kerr, 1792) One specimen; Raxaul-Birganj, 350 feet, November 18 (290046). The external and cranial dimensions of this species are less than those of adults of Sunct:s caerulaeus but exceed adults of Suncus muri- nus. (caerulaeus—one female head and body length 123; breadth of braincase 13.4, vs. murinus—four females average 112.5; 121 mm respectively.) Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951, pp. 65-66) have merged these two spe- cies but such an arrangement is untenable when specimens are compared. Family TUPAIIDAE Tupaia glis lepcha Thomas, 1922 Two specimens: Chatra, 500 feet, February 18 and 20 (290063-64). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 This is apparently the westernmost record of the occurrence of tree shrews north of the Ganges river, and it definitely establishes the presence of the group in Nepal. Order CHIROPTERA Family PTEROPODIDAE Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus Anderson, 1910° Four specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De- cember 20-21 (290057-60). Family VESPERTILIONIDAE Scotophilus heathii heathii (Horsfield, 1831) Two specimens: Raxaul-Birganj, 350 feet, November 16-17 (290061-62). No. 290061 is a skin only. Order PRIMATES Family CERCOPITHECIDAE Presbytis entellus schistaceus (Hodgson, 1840) Two specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De- cember 20, 1 (290065); Chatra, 500 feet, Feb- ruary 17, 1 (290066). Order LAGOMORPHA Family LEPoRIDAE Lepus ruficaudatus ruficaudatus I. Geoffroy, 1826 One specimen: Kauriala Ghat, U.P., 400 feet, December 11 (290067, skull only). Among the few skulls of hares from the Indian region in the National Museum of Natural History, the present one best matches specimens from Sirsa and Ladak labelled Lepus ruficaudatus rajput, differing from them only in having smaller auditory bullae. Contradic- tory opinions as to the relationship of Lepus ruficaudatus to the Oriental hares have been expressed by Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 8 Agarwal (1973) considers gangeticus to be a synonym of C. s. sphinx. 60 (1951, p. 437) and Petter (1961, pp. 36-38). These authors studied different specimens and relied on different morphological characters. The need for a comprehensive revision is evident. Lepus grahami subsp? One specimen: Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Feb- ruary 2 (290068). A woolly-coated juvenile hare from Man- gaibare is too young for positive identification. It is hoped that those who have the opportu- nity to make new collections in Nepal, or to study some of the old material will look for adult hares of whatever race the young Man- galbare specimen represents. Order RODENTIA Family ScruRIDAE Callosciurus pygerythrus lokroides (Hodgson, 1836) Five specimens: Dharan Bazar, 1000 feet, January 22, 1 (290074); Dhankuta, 4200 feet, February 14, 2 (290075-76); Chatra, 500 feet, February 18-19, 2 (290077-78). As arranged by Ellerman (1947, pp. 266- 267), all the recognizable forms of this group of squirrels are currently treated as subspecies of a single species, which takes the earliest name, pygerythrus. Under this convenient but perhaps overly simplified classification, all the populations inhabiting the base and lower slopes of the Himalayas from northern Assam to Nepal are referred to one subspecies, C. p. lokroides. For present purposes, we have fol- lowed Ellerman’s arrangement, but with some doubt as to its ultimate stability. Dremomys lokriah lokriah (Hodgson, 1836) Five specimens: Chandragiri Pass, 7500 and 7000 feet, November 22 and December 6, 4 (290069-71, 290073); Godaveri, 7000 feet, November 27, 1 (290072). MAMMALS FROM NEPAL Petaurista magnificus (Hodgson, 1836) One specimen: Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Feb- ruary 4 (290079). Family CRICETIDAE Tatera indica indica (Hardwicke, 1807) Two specimens: Kauriala Ghat, 400 feet, U.P., December i2, 1 (290080); Tikapur, 500 feet, January 7, 1 (290081). Family MurRIDAE Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis (Gray, 1833) One specimen: Katmandu, 4271 feet, De- cember 2 (290082). Rattus rattus gangutrianus Hinton, 1919 Eight specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De- cember 16-19, 3 (290084-86); Rekcha, 5000 feet, December 17-31, 4 (290087-90). An immature animal, sex not recorded on the specimen tag but noted in the field-notes as a male, from Tikapur, 500 feet, January 9, 1949 (290091). All of the specimens treated in this and the following accounts are of the white-bellied type which students of Indian house rats have generally designated as ‘“‘outdoor’’ forms. None of the dark-bellied “indoor” rats are repre- sented. The subspecies of Rattus rattus are notoriously difficult to define, and it is there- fore gratifying to find that the present Nepa- lese material divides readily into uniform western (gangutrianus) and eastern (brun- neusculus) series separated by easily recogniz- able colour differences. The simplicity of this distributional pattern is probably in part an illusion, made possible by the smallness and wide geographic separation of the series. Both Hinton (1918-1919) and Ellerman (1947) studied much larger series and found a more complex and confused taxonomic situation. Rattus rattus brunneusculus (Hodgson, 1845) Nine specimens: Mangalbare, 8750 feet, January 31-February 4, 8 (290092-99); Cha- tra, 500 feet, February 21, 1 (290100). Rattus turkestanicus vicerex (Bonhote, 1903) Two specimens: Rekcha, 5000 feet, Decem- ber 28-31, 1948, 2 (290102-290103). For use of the above name, see Schlitter and Thonglongya (1971). Rattus nitidus nitidus (Hodgson, 1845) One specimen: Godaveri, 6000 feet, Nov- ember 28 (290083). An adult female, with three pairs of pecto- ral and three pairs of inguinal mammae. Rattus eha eha (Wroughton, 1916) Twelve specimens: Dur, 8500 feet, January 29, 1 (290109); Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Janu- ary 31-February 3, 11 (290110-20). Rattus niviventer niviventer (Hodgson, 1836) Five specimens: Chitre, 7500 feet, January 28 (290104-08). Mus booduga booduga (Gray, 1837) Four specimens: Chisapani, 950 feet, De- cember 18, 1 (290127, skin only); Tikapur, 500 feet, January 7, 1 (290130); Biratnagar, 250 feet, January 18, 2 (290132-33, the first a skin only). Mus nagarum (Thomas, 1921) Four specimens: Godaveri, 6000 feet, Nov- ember 28, 1 (290126); Rekcha, 5000 feet, De- cember 28-29, 2 (290128-29); Richavas, 1150 feet, February 11, 1 (290134). Mus dunni (Wroughton, 1912) One specimen: Tikapur, 500 feet, January Or Lr (2901 31): Mus musculus homourus Hodgson, 1845 Two specimens: Chitre, 7500 feet, January 61 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 28, 1 (290124). Mangalbare, 8750 feet, Feb- ruary 6 (290125). Mus saxicola gurkha (Thomas, 1914) Three specimens: Chisapani, 900 feet, De- cember 21 (290121-23). Order CARNIVORA Family CANIDAE Canis aureus indicus Hodgson, 1833 Two specimens: Raxaul-Birganj, 350 feet, December 7, 1 (290135); Chisapani, 950 feet, December 18, 1 (290136). Vulpes bengalensis (Shaw, 1800) One specimen: Katmandu, 4500 feet, De- cember 5 (290137, skin only). This specimen is significant in that it pro- vides a first definite locality record for the Bengal fox in Nepal and eliminates any doubt as to the occurrence of the species in that country. As reviewed by Pocock (1936, pp. 49-53, and 1941, pp. 129-138), the earliest re- cords include only two specimens presumed to have been collected somewhere in Nepal. One from the collection of B. H. Hodgson became the type of Vulpes hodgsonii Gray; the other was collected by Colonel Cobb (or Cobbe) and, according to Pocock, it served as type for Canis chrysurus and Vulpes xanthura, both proposed by Gray. The specimen is a female in fresh winter pelage. It matches in almost exact detail the description by Pocock (1941, p. 131). The external measurements, as recorded by the collectors are: Length of head and body 474, tail 267, hind foot 105, ear 87. Family MUSTELIDAE Martes flavigula flavigula (Boddaert, 1784) Three specimens: Mangalbare, 8750 feet, January 30- February 3 (290138-40). 62 Lutra perspiciliata perspicillata I. Geoffroy, 1826 One specimen: Chisapani, 950 feet, Decem- ber 20 (290145). The name perspicillata is applied to this large otter for reasons discussed in detail by Pocock (1941, pages 292-303). Family VIVERRIDAE Paradoxurus hermaphroditus pallasii © Gray, 1832 One specimen: Chatra, 500 feet, February 21 (290144). On geographic grounds, this specimen might be considered intermediate between Parado- xurus h. pallasii, which has its principal range to the eastward in Sikkim, Assam, and Burma, and P. h. bondar of Bihar and the Nepal terai to the westward. It is here assigned to the race pallasii because it closely resembles the des- cription given by Pocock (1939, pp. 401-402) of other specimens in winter pelage under that name. Herpestes auropunctatus auropunctatus (Hodgson, 1836) One specimen: Chainpur, 4300 feet, Feb- ruary 9 (290141). Herpestes edwardsii nyula (Hodgson, 1836) Two specimens: Tikapur, 500 feet, Decem- ber 13 and January 6 (290142-43). Variations in colour of this species have been thoroughly discussed by Pocock (1941, pp. 2-12). Order ARTIODACTYLA Family SUIDAE Sus scrofa cristatus Wagner, 1839 One specimen: Dharan Bazar, 1000 feet, January 22 (290146). MAMMALS FROM NEPAL REFERENCES AGARWAL, V. C. (1973): Second Zoological Sur- very of India—1967: Calcutta. Aut, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1968-1974): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. 10 volumes. Oxford University Press, Bombay. ELLERMAN, J. R. (1947): A key to the Rodentia inhabiting India, Ceylon, and Burma, based on col- lections in the British Museum. J. Mammal. 28: 249-278, 357-387. ELLERMAN, J. R., & Morrison-Scort, T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam- mals 1758 to 1946. British Museum (Natural His- tory). London, pp. 810, map. HINTON, Martin, A. C. (1918-1919): Scientific Research from the Mammals Survey, xviii: Report on the House Rats of India, Burma and Ceylon. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 26: 59-88, 384-416, 716- 725, 906-918. LINDSAY, HELEN M. (1929): from the Mammal Survey, xlviii: ibid. 33: 326-340. PETTER, F. (1961): Eléments d’une révision des Lievres européens et Asiatiques du sous-genre Lepus. Zeitschrift fiir Saugetierkunde. 26 (1): 30-40. Pocock, R. I. (1936): The foxes of British India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39(1): 36-57. (1939): The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma: Mammalia, volume I: Primates and Carnivora (in part), Fami- lies Felidae and Viverridae. Taylor and Francis, London. pp. 463. — (1941): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia, Volume II. Carnivora (continued from Vol. I), sub- Scientific Results Indian Shrew. order Aeluroidea (part) and Arctoidea. Taylor and Francis, London. pp. 503. Ripcway, R. (1912): Color Standards and Color Nomenclature. Privately printed, Washington. pp. 43, pl. 53. Ripcey, S. D. (1950): Birds from Nepal. 1947- 1949. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(3): 355-417. (1950a): New Birds from Nepal and the Indian Region. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 63: 101-108. (1950b): Peerless Nepal—A Natu- ralist’s Paradise. Nat. Geog. Mag., 97(1): 1-40. (1951): Exploration in Nepal. The Minnesota Naturalist, 1(4): 7. (1952): Search for the Spiny Bab- bler: and adventure in Nepal. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, pp. 301 (Republished 1953, London, Victor Gollancz Ltd.) (1961): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. Bombay Natural His- tory Society, Bombay. pp. 703. (mew and revised edition in press, 1980). —— (1975): Zoological Expedition to 1948-1949. (Paul H. Oehser, editor). Nat. Reports, 1890-1954 Projects, pp. Nepal, Geog. Soc. Res. 271-276. (1978): A Naturalist’s Adventure in Nepal. Bibliotheca Himalayica. Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Katmandu. pp. 301. (A reprint of Search for the Spiny Babbler, 1953). ScuLitrer, D. A. & THONGLONGYA, K. (1971): Rattus turkestanicus (Satunin, 1903), the valid name for Rattus rattoides Hodgson, 1845 (Mammalia: Rodentia). Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 84(20): 171-174. 63 PARENTAL CARE IN THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER) AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS* H. R. BusTArbD? AND B. C. CHOUDHURY? Local people, who know these crocodiles’ habitat intimately, are aware that porosus opens the nest, takes hatchlings into their mouths, and assume this as an act of can- nibalism. The possible role of the mother taking threatened young in the water back into the mouth is discussed. The female in the water with her brood of approximately 25 young, close to her head is described. Three instances of human attack. two in 1978, by nest-guarding female porosus are described, and in ali the three instances, the attack was not pursued and is considered as purely defensive of the area adjacent to the nest. INTRODUCTION Detailed reviews of parental care in croco- dilians are given by Cott (1971) and Bustard (in press, a) with special reference to the Nile Crocodile (C. niloticus) and Indian crocodil- ians (Gavialis gangeticus, Crocodylus palustris and C. porosus respectively). The present paper, therefore, does not attempt to review the literature for species other than C. porosus. For accounts of parental care in general, the reader is referred to the review papers cited above. Smith (1931) wrote of the female porosus, “She is said to remain in the vicinity until the young are hatched possibly to assist them to the water when they emerge from the shell’. This has now been confirmed. C. porosus is now well-known to protect 1 Accepted January 1980. 2Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, Rajendranagar Road, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Hyderabad-500 264 (A.P.). 3 Research Scholar, Andhra Pradesh Forest De- partment, Crocodile Conservation Project, Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad. 64 its mound nest Deraniyagala (1939); Cott (1971); Bustard (in press, a); Choudhury and Bustard (1979). Nest-guarding is usually carried out from specially constructed wallows adjacent to the nest (Deraniyagala 1939; Loveridge 1946; Choudhury and Bustard 1979). It is remarkable that Neill (1971) does not believe this species constructs wallows for nest-guarding, and that Webb et al. (1977) could write, “It is not known whether C. porosus protects the nest against predators or not’’. As pointed out by both Cott and Bustard (see, for instance, Cott 1971; Bustard, in press, b) behaviour of crocodiles has been much altered by massive human hunting activity. Nest-guarding females are particularly vulner- able (Bustard 1969, in press, b; Choudhury and Bustard 1979). This has resulted in the destruction of those females which guard the nest against humans, so that this trait— at least in as far as humans are concerned— is not now frequently exhibited. However, Bustard and Kar (in press) present recent data from Orissa, (see below for other recent instances) and there is no reason to believe PARENTAL CARE IN CROCODILE that nest-guarding does not still continue against animals other than man. Cott (1971) documents several attacks directed against man by nest-guarding female C. porosus. It is note- worthy, however, that all occurred at least three decades ago, prior to the massive hunt- ing phase which commenced in the post-war years. According to our data the female crocodile does not remain at the nest throughout the incubation period but comes and goes from the river (Choudhury and Bustard 1979) along a path which may be well worn in the presence of grassy vegetation (Bustard unpub. obs.). The first quantitative study of nest- guarding, by a captive C. porosus, given by Bustard and Maharana (in press), demonsira- tes that absences from the nest, usually of short duration, are common place. Pooley (1974) and Pooley and Gans (1976) have recorded female C. nilotious col- lecting newly hatched young, storing them in her gular throat pouch, then taking them to the water for liberation. Webb ef al. (1977) record nest opening by the female and state, “Most hatchlings remained with the adult, grouped in a few square metres for up to and possibly more than two months after hatch- ing.” | C. porosus is, therefore, known to guard the nest, presumably to liberate the hatchlings and facilitate their reaching the water, and to stay with them for an extended period thereafter. MATERIALS AND METHODS The data presented here are based on dis- cussions with people who have had a lifetime’s experience with C. porosus when it was still abundant and had litile contact with hunters. Such data cannot be obtained today. It is also based on personal observations where stated. RESULTS Discussions with Australian aborigines: One of us (H.R.B.) worked closely with Australian aborigines, particularly in North Queensiand, but also in the Northern Territory and in Western Australia, in the late 1960's and early 1970’s. On several occasions he was told quite adamantly by tribal aborigines, whose very survival depends on their acute powers of observation, that they had personal- ly observed C. porosus taking the young into their mouth (they said “gobbling up the young’). This behaviour was cited as evidence of cannibalism. The informants were tribal elders, who had spent a lifetime observing nature. At the time, while I doubted that a parent would eat its own young—as was inferred by an adult with a brood of young taking them into its mouth—I was unable to explain what they had obviously seen. It was not until A.C. Pooley told me that the mother C. niloticus collects the young in the gular throat pouch to take them to the water from the nest follow- ing hatching, that I realised what the abori- gines had witnessed. They had _ witnessed females at the time of hatching, collecting the young as described by Pooley (1974), and Pooley and Gans (1976), and mistakenly de- duced that the adult crocodile, presumbaly the nother, was in the act of eating her young. I have also heard from the same informants that the adult crocodile may take the recent hatchlings into her mouth when they are in the waiter, that is some time after hatching. Again they assume that this is an act of can- nibalism. Could it be that, suddenly suprised, the female gathers up a number of her brood to take them to safety? This suggestion may not be as far fetched as it sounds as is out- lined below. 65 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Discussion with an Oriyan crocodile hunter: One of us (H.R.B.) talked to an old man, a former crocodile hunter, employed by the former Raja of Kanika in Bhitar Kanika the famous crocodile habitat in the Brahmini- Baitarani deltaic area of the Eastern Indian State of Orissa. His task was to keep a watch on people who purchased the right to shoot crocodiles from the Raja, in order to ensure they kept to the stipulated conditions. ‘This informant gave me an eye-witness account of an event which happened over thirty years ago. He remembered it clearly, being interested in crocodiles, as it was the only time he ever observed this, “T came upon a large crocodile one day when I was out in my dinghy and I noticed that there were a number of babies around its head. I paddled closer to have a good look. Before I could get very close the adult cro- codile took the babies into its mouth and swam away.” If this account is to be believed—and there is no reason to doubt it, as the old man is only reporting what he saw with his own eyes —then it is a clear account of a female re- moving hatchlings, presumably recently hatch- ed, from the scene of presumed danger, by taking them back into the gular throat pouch. Discussions with a crocodile hunter in the Andaman Islands: While carrying out field work relating to nest location and nesting ecology on North Andaman Island in 1978, one of us (B.C.C.) employed as guides, persons with at least seve- ral years experience in crocodile hunting. One of these guides ‘had migrated to India from what is now Bangladesh in the late 1940’s. He operated as professional saltwater croco- dile hunter first in Sunderbans (West Bengal), then in the Bhitar Kanika area of Orissa and later with the East Bengal refugee settlement 66 he went to the Andamans where he continued crocodile hunting. This informant, aged about 50 years, has an intimate knowledge of salt- water crocodiles having observed them in all three of their surviving Indian habitats. In a discussion of the ease with which nest-guard- ing females can be killed, he confirmed that he had been charged at by many nest-guard- ing female saltwater crocodiles. This informant has also observed nest hat- ching in nature. He informed that the mother supervises the whole operation of opening the nest and allowing the hatchlings to emerge from the egg this fits in perfectly with Pooley’s (1974) observations and those of other recent authors (see Bustard, in press a and b) for other species and then eats them up, one after the other. It would appear that this informant has observed the female col- lecting the young to take them to the water as described by Pooley (1974). He further stated that only those hatchlings which come out from the side of the nest mound away from the parent crocodile survive, and he believes that this is one reason why so few young cro- codiles are seen. Observation of C. porosus with young in Andamans: On 13 July 1978, while searching for nests along one of the (unnamed) creeks on the West coast of North Andaman, one of us (B.C.C.) saw a 2.7 m crocodile, presumably a female, with its brood of approximately 25 hatchlings. The head region of the creeks in this area show an alternation of small rapids and deep pools, the latter particularly on sharp bends. The group was located in such a deep pool below a rapid. These pools always have overhanging vegetation on the deep water side. The young, with the parent crocodile, were observed at about 4.30 p.m. on a very cloudy, drizzling day with poor visibility. The head of PARENTAL CARE IN CROCODILE the mother crocodile and the hatchling group could be discerned but conditions did not per- mit photography. All the hatchlings were within a distance of 10 m. One of the guides who had gone ahead to the other bank in the meanwhile came into view, and being disturb- ed, the mother sub-merged first, followed 1m- mediately thereafter by the hatchlings. Most of the hatchlings were very close to the mother’s head rather than to the tail. Active defence of the nest against man: Case History 1 During the 1978 nesting season in North Andaman, a case of human attack by a nest- guarding female was recorded. On 22nd June 1978 while searching for nests, in the Laxmi- pur nullah, a tributary of the Kalpang River on the East coast of North Andaman, a cro- codile was observed by one of us (B.C.C.) in the stream. A robbed crocodile nest was located very nearby. Two old ladies were fish- ing with rods on the bank of this stream. Be- fore leaving the place the old ladies were warned about the presence of a nest-guarding crocodile in the water nearby. One of the old ladies, aged about 45-50 years, had been attacked by a nest-guarding female crocodile, possibly the same one, at the same spot during 1976, yet seemed not to heed the warning. The crocodile had bitten her on the buttocks and a portion of the flesh of this region was subsequently removed when she was hospitalised. At the time of attack she was standing in water of approximately three feet depth in the bed of the river, at low tide, fishing with a cloth scoop. Four days later, on 26 June 1978 returning to that area it was learned that the same lady had been attacked by the crocodile again that morning. On enquiry it was learned that dur- ing the low tide, the ladies were again using scoop nets in the stream and while doing so one of them was attacked by the crocodile. She was rescued by the other lady but one of her hands was subsequently amputated in hospital, the crocodile having grabbed her by the left wrist. The nearby nest being located on hard ground, did not have a wallow, and presum- ably the mother crocodile was using the ad- jacent portion of the stream for nest-guarding purposes. Case History 2 During the 1978 nesting season a second case of human attack by a_ nest-guarding female was recorded in North Andaman, in a creek near Kishorinagar village on the West coast. A boy, aged about 12 years, was attack- ed by a crocodile while taking his bath, along with a group of boys. The attack was not severe, consisting only of a small injury at the shoulder region. Some days later the female was killed by the villagers by the nest which was also rob- bed. Tine female measured 2.6 m. The nest- site, checked later, had only one wallow but the permanent water in the stream was hardly 5 m away. Clearly, as in the instance cited above, the female was watching the nest part of the time from the stream. DISCUSSION In the cases of human attack recorded above by nest-guarding females, it is noteworthy that only minor damage was sustained. This is thought to reflect not the assistance of another old lady on two of the occasions or other boys on the third occasion, but the fact that these attacks were purely defensive—by the nest- guarding female against a person or persons coming too close to the nest. Food is abund- ant and few attacks on humans are recorded in the Andamans. It is likely that further in- 67 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, vestigation of the latter would indicate that many/most of them were occasioned by nest- guarding females. These data are in agyee- ment with the discussion which one of us (H.R.B.) held with A. C. Pooley in 1973 in which Pooley informed that most attacks on humans by C. niloticus investigated by him could be attributed to nest-guarding females. The present eye-witness accounts confirm the actual opening of the nests by the adult crocodile, implicitly inferred to take place by Webb ef al. (1977) but not actually observed for this species but observed in other croco- diles, (Pooley 1974). These data also provide further evidence of the mother remaining with the hatchling brood, also described by Webb et al. The accounts of the tribal aborigines and that of the Oriyan crocodile hunter also sug- gest that in the wild the adult crocodile may take the recent hatchlings back into the gular throat pouch if danger threatens. It is not suggested that parental care is able to protect all the hatchlings effectively. In the murky water inhabited by C. porosus an aqua- tic predator can approach undetected and pre- dation takes only a fraction of a second. Fur- thermore, the large number of hatchlings makes any attempt at individual attention—as could be possible, were there one or at the most two hatchlings—impossible. At least some recent hatchlings occur scattered in nature (Bustard, unpubl. obs., S. Kar pers. comm.) and these have clearly left the hatchl- ing group as noted by Webb ef al. (1977), who also present preliminary post-hatching movement data. Data available, however, shed no light on the percentage survival of young which remain with the parental group as compared to those which leave it. Quantitative data on this as- pect of parental care are required before any 68 Vol. 77 concrete assessment of the advantages of post- hatching parental care can be made. At the present time it can be merely assumed that factors which tend to keep the hatching group together, and closely associated with the head of the mother, have enhanced survival value. In management of this species it is standard practice in the Government of India Project, on the technical advice of the senior author, to collect all eggs of C. porosus, as soon as laid for safe hatchery incubation. All hatchl- ings are also captive reared to a length of 1.20 m before being ‘seeded out’ into the wild habitat. There can be no question that this technique enhances survival many-fold under conditions where a substantial level of flooded nests occur—over which the female has no control (the situation in much of Northern Australia), or where human interference with the nest (egg-robbing) is widespread as in parts of India. For instance Webb ef al. (1977) record an 80% nest loss through flooding alone, and Choudhury and Bustard (1979), a 93.4% nest loss through preda- tion (73.3% due to human agency) with only 3.3% of nests in nature hatching in 1978. It would be difficult to imagine a natural situation where hatching survival would not be enhanced by collection of freshly-laid eggs, provided, of course, that proper methods of egg handling are used by trained operatives, and a predator-proof hatchery, offering the required micro-environmental parameters of temperature and humidity, available for in- cubation. Furthermore, hazards such as killing of the nest-guarding female, whose eggs are then extremely vulnerable and the enhanced predation risk when the female is absent from the nest (Bustard 1975) are further factors favouring egg collection for hatchling incuba- tion. Similarly, a restocking station fed with PARENTAL CARE IN CROCODILE freshly hatched young should be able to in- crease the production of 1.20 m crocodiles to many times the number surviving at this size/ age in nature. Although predation is an extre- mely difficult thing to observe in nature there are many hatchling predators recorded (see, Cott 1971) and many other potential preda- tors. REFERENCES Bustarb, H. R. (1969): A future for crocodiles. Oryx 10(4): 249-255. (1975): Gharial and Crocodile Conservation Management in Orissa. Interim Re- port. Crocodile Farming Project, India. UNDP/ FAO, FO:IND/71/033. Rome, 1975. ———_———— (in press, a): Parental Care in Crocodilians with special reference to Indian Cro- codilians—a review. In Indian Crocodiles: Conser- vation and Research. Occ. Publs. No. 1. Cen. Croc. Br. Mgmt. Trg. Inst., Hyderabad, India. ——————— (in press, b): Crocodile Population Ecology and Management. Zool. Surv. Ind. Symp. on Anim. Ecol. & MAHARANA, S. (in press): The Behaviour of the Nest-guarding Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider)—a_ preJiminary quantitative study. In Indian Crocodiles: Conserva- tion and Research. Occ. Publs. No. 1. Cen. Croc. Br. Mgmt. Trg. Inst., Hyderabad, India. —————_—— & Kar, S. K. (in press): Defence of the nest against man by the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider) Brit. J. Herpetol. CuHoupuHuryY, B. C. & Bustarp, H. R. (1979): Predation on natural nests of the Saltwater Croco- dile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) on North Andaman Island with Notes on the crocodile popu- lation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 311-323. Cott, H. B. (1971): Parental care in the Croco- dilia with special reference to Crocodylus niloticus. In Crocodiles. 1. 1.U.C.N. Publs. N.S. Suppl. Pap. No. 32: 166-180. DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1939): The Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. J. Testudinates and Crocodilians. Colombo Museum, Ceylon. LoverIDGE, A. (1946): Reptiles of the Pacific World. Macmillan, New York. NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of the Ruling Reptiles. Alligators, Crocodiles and their Kin. Co- lumbia University Press, New York. PooLey, A. C. (1974): Parental Care in the Nile Crocodile—a preliminary report on behaviour of a captive female. The Lammergeyer 21: 43-45. & GANS, CarL (1976): The Nile Crocodile. Scientific American 234(4): 114-124. SMITH, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Amphibia. 1. Taylor and Fran- cis, London. Wess, G. J. W., MESSEL, H. & MAGNUSSON, W. (1977): The Nesting of Crocodylus porosus in Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Copeia, 1977(2): 238-50. 69 EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER FISH* C. V. KULKARNI? (With four text-figures) Tor tor (Ham.), normally occurring in the rivers of northern India has been intro- duced into the Walwhan lake near Lonavala (Dist. Pune, Maharashtra). It was bred artificially by stripping for the first time and its eggs and larval stages are described and compared with those of T. khudree (Sykes). Mahseers being the most important group of sport fishes of India and having been threatened with severe decline in their fishery, the National Commission on Agriculture (Fisheries Section) felt that the biological in- formation available to date was not sufficient and recommended (1976) “extensive survey and detailed ecological and biological investi- gations’. Sporadic efforts to study larval de- velopment had commenced with Nazir Ahmed (1948) in the case of the Assamese Copper Mahseer, Barbus (Lissocheilus) hexagonolepis (McClelland) (now Acrossocheilus hexagono- lepis). David (1953) described the early fry of Tor mosal mahanadicus collected from Maha- nadi river and Desai (1972 and 1973) studied the biology and early post larval stages of Tor tor (Ham.) and T. putitora (Ham.) col- lected from Narmada river and Chaturvedi (1976) investigated the spawning biology of Tor Mahseer of the Udaipur lakes and streams. Kulkarni (1971) and Tripathi (1978) dealt with artificial fertilisation of eggs, embryonic development and larval stages of T. khudree (Sykes) and 7. putitora (Ham.) respectively. However, fully matured eggs, their develop- ment and early hatchlings or larval stages of T. tor (with known parentage) have not so 1 Accepted June 1979. 2B-4, Shardashram, Bhavani Bombay-400 028. Shankar Road, 70 far been described by anybody. The present write-up is intended to fill this lacuna with the help of description of eggs and early deve- lopmental stages of T. tor grown in one of the Hydel lakes of the Tata Electric Com- panies at Lonavala, District Pune. T. tor (Ham.) has not, so far, been report- ed from any waters south of Tapi river (Tapti); but the fish being largely a herbi- vorous form (Karamchandani ef al. 1967) and being good as a sport fish, its fingerlings were brought from River Narmada near Hos- hangabad (Madhya Pradesh) in November 1973 and released into Walwhan lake at Lona- vala, where they thrived and attained a total length of 540 mm (Standard length 445 mm) and weight of 1.75 kg by July 1978. They were marked by comparatively slim body form, short head and distinctly orange-yellow caudal and other fins, as against the blue coloured caudal, slate coloured other fins and deeper body of 7. khudree. Efforts were, thereafter, made to breed, T. tor by the artificial method of stripping, as was done regularly in the case of T. khudree at that lake. On August 23, 1978 a ripe female of almost the same afore- said length was caught and stripped. It yield- ed a first batch of 6000 eggs, which were cross- fertilised with milt from a specimen of 7. khudree. The second effort. after half an hour, yielded only 400 ripe eggs and these were fer- tilised with milt 7. tor which was reared in a DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER pond in the adjoining farm. Both eggs thrived satisfactorily. Dissection of the female yielded another cluster of 10,800 unripe eggs. Collection of 17,200 eggs from a female of 540 mm only partially corroborates the estimate of fecundity made by Desai (op. cit) namely 7000 to 1,01,600 eggs from females of size range of 283 to 750 mm in three bursts of spawning. Chaturvedi (1976) estimated fecundity of 78, 340 ova for a fish of 546 mm total length. But in the present case, the first batch of 6400 ripe eggs was laid during strip- ping and the remaining ones which were un- ripe, were probably intended for the next spawning bursts as presumed by that author. Moreover, in this case possibility of extrusion and loss of some ripe and oozing eggs at the time of entanglement in the nets before the fish was handled, cannot be ruled out. Further, the size of the fish is outside the size range of 340-380 mm for first maturity; but whether it was second or third spawning, could not be - ascertained. Eggs. The diameter of the eggs immediate- ly on stripping was 2.3 mm and they absorb- ed comparatively very little water like that of the eggs of T. khudree; neverthless on fer- tilisation and absorption of water, they reach- ed a diameter was 2.8 mm. The colour of the eggs was pale lemon-yellow, and resembled the light coloured egg variety of T. khudree (Kulkarni 1971). Possibility of brown or deeper coloured variety of eggs could not, however, be ascertained as eggs of only one female were available. The eggs were heavy, demersal and full of yolk and resembled the eggs of T. khudree in all respects except a small difference in diameter, those of the latter being slightly larger (3.2 mm); Desai (op. cit.) mentioned size of ovarian eggs of 7. tor as varying from 1.0 to 2.22 mm and ‘orange coloured’. The variation in size and colour may be due to the fact that they were ‘ova- rian’, i.e. yet to pass through the final stage of maturation necessary for proper fertilisation. The perivitel line space in the fertilised eggs is slightly narrower than in 7. khudree and is much smaller than found in the case of Catla, Rohu or Mrigal. Other particulars of the em- bryonic development of the larva within the egg capsule are almost of the same nature as that of 7. khudree (vide Kulkarni op. cit.) About two hours before hatching out, the tubular heart of the embryo was seen pulsat- ing rhythmicaily; the blood capsules were also seen in the vessels but they appeared almost colourless. Auditory sacs with otoliths and fully developed eyes were visible but the latter were without much pigment except minute melanic dots on the peripheral ring. Pectoral fin buds were also discernible. The first egg hatched after 76 hours but the remaining eggs started hatching out after 79 to 85 hours; a few lagging behind even up to next day. Leav- ing aside the extremes, the average hatching period can be said to be 82 hours in water temperature of about 24° C. Newly hatched larva. The earliest hatchl- ing or the newly hatched larva is 9 mm in total length, with a long prominent yolk sac, a protruding head and a thin inconspicuous tail. The eyes have a clear outline but the pigment is not very dark. Rudiments of mouth can be seen, though the jaws are not clear. The pulsating heart is still visible through the transparent overlapping tissues but the blood corpuscles are only faintly reddish. Some of the blood vessels can be traced even posterior to the yolk sac, right up to the caudal portion. The yolk sac being large and yellow in colour is quite distinctive and measures 5.7 mm in length. It is bilobed, the anterior one being more rounded than the posterior one which is rather narrow in width and elongated as 71 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Fig. 1. seen in Fig. 1; but both lobes are almost equal in length. The dorsal finfold starts slightly anterior to the midpoint of the total length, and continues over the caudal end and ter- : i a Ae aim ee am First day hatching of T. tor (Ham.) quiescent and lying on its side at the bottom of the hatching tray. It exhibited jerky move- ments intermittently and vibrated its tail when slightly disturbed. 1,0 mm Fig. 2. Two day old hatching of 7. tor (Ham.) minates near the posterior end of the yolk sac at the expected position of the anal opening. The pectoral fin is small and seen fluttering but no finrays are discernible in it. The larva, though smaller than that of 7. khudree appears to be more developed than the latter. The myotomes and some blood ves- sels are clearly seen. The larva, however, manifests the same behaviour of remaining 72 Two day hatchling: Total length attained 10 mm (Fig. 2). Although the increase in length was nominal, the larva looked much fatter and stouter and continued to remain quiescent, lying on sides and moving vigorous- ly at intervals. The eyes have now become distinctly black with a golden ring when seen in reflected light. Large chromatophores are seen on the anterior portion of the otocyst, DEVELOPMENT OF yolk sac and at the base of the pectoral fin. A row of elongated pigment specks are lined between the dorsal portion of the body and the yolk sac. These probably mark the posi- tion of the future lateral line scales and are continued in the caudal region. Indented or broken outline of the upper internal margin TOR MAHSEER fin lobe has no fin rays. About 25 body myo- tomes and 15 post-anal myotomes were clear- ly visible in the reflected light when tissues were alive. Three day old hatchling. After three days, i.e. on the fourth day, the larva (Fig. 3) at- tained a length of only 11.5 mm. The chro- Fig. 3. of the yolk sac which is visible provides a clear indication of the yolk being absorbed within the body. In the mouth area, the lower jaws are developed and are seen twitching at intervals. Gill covers are also seen moving slowly. Anal opening and the anal tube are perceptible. The dorsal fin fold shows a small upward growth indicating the position of the dorsal fin but no trace of. fin rays either in this fin or the caudal lobe could be seen. A small vertical fin fold on the posterior part of the yolk sac also develops. Even the anal Three day old hatching of T. tor (Ham.) matophores at this stage increased all over the body and the head. They are smaller in size but larger in numbers. No finrays are yet discernible in any of the fin lobes. The yolk sac is yet quite prominent but it has changed its outer form by becoming a single continu- ous sac pointed posteriorly. The finlobe in the pelvic area, i.e. on the posterior part of the yolk sac is reduced in size. The larva which recting its position and trying to swim in nor- mal erect position of a fish but it has still 1.0 mm Fig. 4. Ten day old fry of 7. tor (Ham.) 73 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 not reached free swimming stage. Ten day old hatchling. On the eleventh day, the hatchling has emerged into a tiny fry of about 12.5 mm in total length (fig. 4). The yolk sac has been completely absorbed. Though the length has not increased appre- ciably during the last five days the develop- ment of the external structures has proceeded quite visibly. The body has thickened and the chromatophores have multiplied many fold. They are small on the head, gill cover and the dorsal side of the body all along the length, but large multiradiate chromatophores are seen on the anterior part of the body and below the lateral line. In the caudal region there is a large dark blotch at the base of the caudal fin. The dorsal fin is clearly demarcated out of the dorsal or the median fin fold, the latter having been completely absorbed up to the caudal lobe where a small vestige remains. In that fin, five rays are seen and the rest are in developing stages. The caudal fin is also de- marcated clearly, its terminal end which was rounded in the earlier stage has commenced becoming slightly bifid. Thin fin rays have appeared in the central portion but the growth in the outer fin rays (lower and upper lobes) appears to be affected. The anal fin is also marked out with its fin rays developing. A portion of the fin fold anterior to the anal opening is still persisting and in that region a pair of pelvic fins are making their appear- ance. The fry at this stage started feeding vigorously on small nauplii of Artemia and on small sifted Moina and started moving quite actively in the glass tank. However the growth during the last three days appeared to be re- tarded on account of probable attack of fungus and hence was irregular in some specimens. Desai (1973) described early stages of T. tor out of the collection of post-larvae he 74 made from the open shallow margins of River Narmada. His smallest stage in the collection which he describes as post-larva of T. tor measures 8.74 mm whereas the youngest hatchling obtained by me by artificially fertilis- ing the eggs, i.e. where the parentage is known, is 9 mm. The small difference in the total length is negligible and normal but the growth of certain external structures at that length in the case of Desai’s early stage, such as demarcation of dorsal fin, the tail becoming forked, yolk sac becoming taper- ing single lobed and appearance of rudiment- ary caudal fin rays are not understandable and are not found in the description given here of a 9 mm larva. Development of these structures indicate that his early stage may be a three day old larva, though such larva is 11.55 mm long according to the present observations. As regards myotomes, the number is common in both cases, namely about 40 in each. But his 10.7 mm fry is much more advanced than the 11.5 mm post-larva described here. these differences are hard to explain except the fact that in wild waters where natural stress and competition is high the size of young larvae is smaller than in protected waters. Fifteen day old fry. After 15 days, the fry was 13.5 mm in length; though it had not progressed noticeably in length, it continued to fatten and looked stouter than before. Even the caudal portion which was thin pre- viously had become thick and prominent with a caudal blotch on it. The chromatophores have become small and thinned out with the result that the fry looked translucent with the development of thin scales. It is olive-white in reflected light. The dorsal fin has eight fin rays, and seven on pelvic fin. The pectoral fin rays have also been developing but only 12 could be counted. The air bladder is seen developing. The vertical fin fold is completely DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER absorbed except at a small portion anterior to the anal opening. This stage can be compared favourably with that of the 12.5 mm stage of Desai (op. cit.) except that caudal blotch is wider and more prominent in the present observation. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to Tata Electric Companies for affording the necessary facilities for the conduct of the studies covered in this paper, at their Walwhan lake fish farm at Lona- vla. I am also grateful to Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth for the laboratory facilities at the Taraporewala Marine Biological Research Station and especially to Dr. Dileep Jalihal for preparation of drawings and to Shri S. N. Ogale of Tata Electric Companies for general assistance. REFERENCES ANoNYMouS (1976): National Commission on Agriculture (Fisheries). AHMED, Nazir (1948): On the spawning habits and early development of the Copper mahscer, Barbus (Lissocheilus) hexagonolepis Mclld. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 14: 21-28. CHATURVEDI, S. K. (1976): Spawning biology of Tor mahseer, Tor tor (Ham.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(1): 336-344. Davip, A. (1953): Notes on the bionomics and some early stages of the Mahanadi mahseer. Jour. Asia. Soc. Calcutta 19: 197-209. Desa, V. R. (1970): Studies on the fishery and biology of Tor tor (Ham.) from river Narmada. I. food and feeding habits; J. Inld. Fish. Soc. India 2: 101-102. (1973): ———., IT Maturity, fecun- dity and larval development; Proc. Ind. Nat. Sci. Acad. 39: 228-248. (1972): Notes on the early larval stages of Tor putitora (Ham.) J. Zool. Soc. India. 24 (1): 47-51. KARAMCHANDANI S. J., DESAI, V. R. & PISCLKAR, M. D. (1967): Biological investigation on the fish and fisheries of the Narmada river. Bull. Inld. Fish. Res. Inst. 19: 1-39. KUIKARNI, C. V. (1971): Spawning habits, eggs and early development of the Deccan Mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 510-521. TripaTut, Y. R. (1978): Artificial breeding of Tor putitora (Ham.). J. Inld. Fish. Soc. Ind. 9: 161. 75 FAMILY CYPERACEAE IN KOLHAPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS’ A. R. KULKARNI, S. R. YADAV? AND J. S. Pawar? This note is a continuation of our earlier communications on the flora of Kolhapur and its environs (Kulkarni & Mudgal 1970; Kul- karni 1971, 1974; Kulkarni & Desai 1972, 1974: Kulkarni & Kazi 1973; Thite & Kulkarni 1976 and Kulkarni & Thite 1979) and deals with family Cyperaceae which is represented by eight genera and 52 species according to a conservative estimate. The genera have been arranged in the order fol- lowed by Cooke (1908) and species within each genus are arranged alphabetically. Dia- gnostic characters of the species have been given only in those cases where their existence within Maharashtra has been regarded as doubtful or where there is confusion in the literature about their circumscription. Kyllinga Rottb., Pycreus Beauv., and Jun- cellus Clarke are treated as subgenera of genus Cyperus Linn. The genus Cyperus com- prises 24 out of 52 species reported here. The genus Fimbristylis Vahl is represented by 14 species and Rhynchospora Vahl, Scleria Berg. and Carex Linn. by one species each. Identification of all the species included in this account has been confirmed by referring to the herbarium of Western Circle, BSI, Poona and Blatter herbarium of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. Recent changes in the nomenclature of identified taxa have been followed. 1 Accepted November 1979. 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Ramnarain Ruia College, Bombay 400019. * Biology Department, Balasaheb Desai College, Patan, Maharashtra. 76 A set of specimens, on which the present account is based, is deposited in the Depart- ment of Biological Sciences, Ramnarain Ruia College, Bombay. Genus Cyperus Linn. Sub-genus Kyllinga CYPERUS BREVIFOLIUS (Rottb.) (Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.) In clayey soil along temporary water cour- ses; University campus, Kolhapur; on the way to Wadanige near Kolhapur; Panhala; June-August. C. KYLLINGA Endl. (K. monocephala Rottb.) Common in grasslands of Katyayani, Pan- hala, Malvan, Savantwadi, Amboli; June- November. C. metTcu Hochst. (K. squamulata Vahl) Along lake margin of Kagal near Kolhapur; August-October. C. TRICEPS (Rottb.) Rottb.) Fairly common in grasslands of Kolhapur, Kagal, Panhala; June-August. Sub-genus Pycreus C. ALBOMARGINATUS Mart. and Schrad. ex Nees , (Pycreus albomarginatus Nees). Along temporary ponds adjacent to sugarcane fields on Kolhapur-Panhala road; August-October. C. FLAVESCENS Linn. (P. flavescens Linn.) Plants slender, with filiform stem, leaves and bract; leaves shorter than the stem; bract single, erect; spikelet solitary; nuts with prominent glistening white transverse Hassk. Endl. (K. triceps CYPERACEAE OF KOLHAPUR ridges. In meadows of Kolhapur; August- September. C. cLoposus All. (P. globosus Alli.) Quite common in clayey mud along tem- porary water courses and lake margins. Kolhapur—Rankala, Kalamba lakes, Uni- versity campus; Kagal lake; on way to Wa- danige; Panhala, Malvan; July-November. C. MALABARICUS Clarke (P. malabaricus Clarke) Along streams, Radhanagari; August-Octo- ber. C. pumiLus Linn. (P. nitens Nees) Along marshes of Kagal lake; October. Sub-genus Juncellus C. ALOPECUROIDES Rottb. (Juncellus alope- curoides Clarke) Robust perennial herb. Common in the marshes of ponds and lakes in Kolhapur, Wadanige, Kagal; September-April. C. PYGMAEUS Rottb. (J. pygmaeus Clarke) Tufted annual with conspicuous globose heads. Rajaram, Rankala and Wadanige lakes of Kolhapur, Kagal lake; June-Octo- ber. Sub-genus Mariscus Vahl. C. CYPEROIDES (Mariscus sieberianus Nees) Common in grass-lands of Panhala, Gagan- bavada; Vengurla; July-November. Sub-genus Cyperus CYPERUS ALTERNIFOLIUS Linn. Ornamental species cultivated in gardens of Kolhapur, Panhala; September-October. C. ARENARIUS Retz. Grows in association with Ipomoea pes-cap- rae on the sandy coast of Vengurla. This sand binding sedge is also reported from Konkan by Blatter & McCann (1934) though Cooke (1908) has not reported it from Maharashtra. Stoloniferous; leaves with sheathing base and linear rather fleshy lami- August- na; stem round, green, fleshy and smooth; spikelets in globose heads subtended by 1-3 bracts one of which is erect appearing as if continuous with stem; glumes distichous, concave, membranous; keel 3 nerved, nerves pink; stamens 3; styles 3, pink; nut trigon- ous, dark-brown, smooth; October-Novem- ber. C. ARISTATUS Rottb. Along the lake margins of Kolhapur, Ran- kala, Rajaram, Kalamba and Kagal; Bila- shi; June-August. C. COMpPRESSUS Linn. Seasonal, along lake margins, road sides and in rice fields of Kolhapur, Kagal, Panhala and Wadanige; June-October. This species shows distinct ecotypic variations. Popula- tions occupying marshy habitat have robust erect plants, with branched spicate inflore- scences. While those found along road sides have creeping habit with less branched in- florescence and smaller spikelets. Road side plants flower earlier than the marsh ones. C. PANGORE! Rottb. A robust perennial sedge very common in the marshes near ponds and lakes of Kolha- pur, Kagal; August-March. There appears to be a lot of confusion about circumscription of C. corymbosus. C. tegetum, C. tegetiformis and C. pangorei. While Cooke (1908) has considered all the three former species as distinct, Blatter & McCann (1934) have merged C. tegetum and C. tegetiformis with C. corymbosus and C. pangorei is considered as synonym of C. tegetum. Fischer (1928) regards C. corymbo- sus and C. pangorei as distinct but C. tegetum is considered as synonym of C. pangorei and C. tegetiformis as synonym of C. corym- bosus. Kukenthal (1909) also treats C. pan- gorei and C. corymbosus as distinct. Our spe- cimens resemble more closely with C. pangorei Wis JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 in having lower bracts more than 12.7 cm long and longer than the inflorescence and in some-what remotely arranged scales on the spikelet than with C. corymbosus which has bracts upto 1.62 cm long and shorter than the inflorescence and the scales arranged mostly in densely imbricating fashion. A systematic study of all the four taxa involved is needed to solve this problem. C. DIFFORMIS Linn. A seasonal, common in marshy places in Kolhapur; August-October. C. DISTANS Linn. Along nala, Gagan-Bavada; September- October. C. ELUSINOIDES Kunth. In marshes of Kagal lake near Kolhapur; September-November. C. irtA Linn. var. PANICIFORMIS Clarke. A most common monsoon weed in rice fields and in other marshy situations; June-Octo- ber. C. piLosus Vahl. A perennial salt marsh sedge; rhizome sto- loniferous covered with scales; spikelets spicately arranged, rather distant on the hispidulous rachis, glumes faint brown, 3 nerved, keel not prominent, lateral sides transparent. Malvan; October. C. ROTUNDUS Linn. Prominent in clayey soil along margins of bunds, Kolhapur, Panhala, Gaganbavada, Kagal; June-October. C. STOLONIFEROUS Retz. In marshes on way to Wadanige; June-October. Fimbristylis Vahl F. COMPLANATA Link. Common in marshes of Kolhapur, Kagal lake, on way to Wadanige; July-September. F. DICHOTOMA Vahl. In association with F. complanata Vahl. but 78 in more abundance; Kolhapur, Katyayani, Wadanige, Kagal lake; July-March. F. DIGITATA Boek. In meadows at Radhanagari in monsoon; August-September. This species has also been collected recently in meadows on Rat- nagiri-Pawas road in June. F. DIPHYLLA Vahl. In marshes, often in association with F. dichotoma Vahl. Katyayani, on way to Wadanige,, Kagal lake, Radhanagari; July- March. F. FERRUGINEA Vahl. In marshes of Kolhapur and in salt mar- shes of Malwan and Ratnagiri; September- February. F. JUNCIFORMIS Kunth. In meadows of Kolhapur; June-October. F. mMILiaceA Vahl. In marshes of Kolhapur, on way to Wada- nige; July-September. F. MONOSTACHYA Hassk. In meadows; Kolhapur, Panhala; August- October. F. POLYTRICHOIES R. Br. Along the margins of lakes of Kolhapur, and in salt marshes at Malvan; August- October. F. QUINQUANGULARIS Kunth. In marshes of Kolhapur; July-September. F. SPATHACEA Roth. In salt marshes of Malvan; along nala at Savantwadi; October-December. F. TENERA Roem and Sch. Along lake margins, Rankala, Kagal-lake; August-December. F. TETRAGONA R. Br. In marshes and lake margins; Kolhapur, Kagal, Radhanagari; July-September. Cooke (1908) and Fischer (1928) have placed this species in dichostylis section of the genus. All the specimens observed by us in field CYPERACEAE OF KOLHAPUR as well as pressed ones show three stigmas. The identification of our material has been checked with reference to the sheets of this species in BSI herbarium of western circle and Blatter herbarium of St. Xavier’s College. F. wooprowil Clarke. Occasional, along margins of Kolhapur lakes; June-October. Eleocharis R. Br. E. ATROPURPUREA Kunth. In marshes of lake margins of Kolhapur, Rajaram talao, Rankala talao; July-October. E. CAPITATA R. Br. Lake margin of Kagal and salt marshes of Malvan; September to January. E. PLANTAGINEA R. Br. Very dominant sedge in lakes of Kolhapur. Rankala, Kagal lake, also in salt marshes of Malvan; August-March. Scirpus Linn. S. ARTICULATUS Linn. In salt marshes of Malvan; October. S. KYLLINGIOIDES Boeck. In meadows of Kolhapur; June-August. This species is being reported for the first time from Maharashtra. Cooke (1908) has remarked that he could not see the specimens of this species from Bombay state. Blatter & McCann (1934, 1935) have recorded it from Canara. Fischer (1928) has not included it in flora of Madras. Shah (1973) has recently described it from Saurashtra. During our re- cent visit to Ratnagiri we collected it in meadows along Ratnagiri—Pawas road. A brief description of the species based on our specimens, follows Rhizomatous herbs; rhizome short, erect and thick; stems 4 to 9 cm., solitary or tufted, trigonous and terete. Leaves radicular, lamina with marginal spinules. Inflorescence terminal, of numerous small sessile conjusted white heads, subtended by 3 spreading leaf-like bracts. Spikelets with 8-12, spirally arranged, ovate-lanceolate keeled many nerved glumes. Hypogynous bristles 0. Stamen 1, ovary ti- gonous, stigmas 3. Nut yellow, obovoid, minutely punctate. S. LITTORALIS Schrad. Along marshes of Kagal lake and in salt marshes of Malvan; August-March. S. MUCRONATUS Linn. Along Punchaganga river bank; October- May. This species has been excluded from Bombay state by Cooke (1908). Shah (1973) has reported it from Gujarat. Stems robust, sharply trigonous; leaves re- duced to sheaths, heads lateral near the apex of the stem, spikelets sessile, ovate, glumes ovate, acute, keel not prominant; hypogynous bristles 5, barbed with recurv- ed outgrowths, slightly longer than the nut; ovary trigonous, style base not swollen, stigmas 3; nut trigonous, flat on one side and angled on the other, blackish, surface with faint lines. S. sguARROSUS Linn. In hygrophytic situations during monsoon in Kolhapur, Bilashi and Ratnagiri; August- October. S. SUPINUS Linn. Common in the marshes of lakes of Kolha- pur, Kagal, in marshes of Sangli and Mal- van; July-February. Fuirena Rottb. F. GLOMERATA Lam. In salt marshes of Malvan and Vengurla; September-November. F. WALLICHIANA Kunth. In the marshes of Kagal lake; October. August- 79 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Rhynchospora Vahl. R. WIGHTIANA Steud. In meadows, Mailvan; October. Scleria Berg. S. STOCKSIANA Boek. The moist areas around ponds and lakes of Kolhapur; near Dhamapur lake, Malvan; August-October. Carex Linn. C. MERCARENSIS Hochst. As an undergrowth in forests of Gagan- bavada, Katyayani; October-February. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to the authorities of Shi- vaji University, Kolhapur, for financial aid and to Dr. P. V. Bole of St. Xavier’s College for allowing us to consult the Blatter herbar- ium. We are also thankful to Dr. V. D. Var- tak, MACS, Poona for checking the identi- fication of many of our specimens. REFERENCES BLATTER, E. AND MCCANN, C. (1934): Cypera- ceae—In the revision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part XXIII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37) (lye? 16-35, , (1934): Cyperaceae — In the re- vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part XXIV. ibid. 37 (2): 254-277. , (1934): Cyperaceae — In the re- vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part XXV. ibid. 37 (3): 532-548. , (1935): Cyperaceae — In the re- vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part XXXVI. ibid. 37 (4): 764-779. , (1935): Cyperaceae — In the re- vision of the flora of Bombay Presidency. Part XXVII. ibid. 38 (1): 6-18. Cooke, T. (1908): The flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Vol. Ili. Reprinted by Bot. Surv. India, 1958. FiscHer, C. E. C. (1928): Flora of the Presi- dency of Madras. Vol. III. Reprinted by Bot. Surv. India, 1957. KUKENTHAL, G. (1909): Cyperaceae in Engler’s Das Pflanzenreich. 38: 1-824. KULKARNI, A. R. (1971): Notes on the distri- 80 bution of Sesamum mulayanum Nair in Maharash- tra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 495-96. , (1974): Nicotiana glauca Grah. — a tree tobacco in Maharashtra. ibid. 77 (2): 340- 42. , AND Desal, M. H. (1972): Family Eriocavlaceae in Kolhapur and its environs. ibid. 69: 231-235. ,» (1974): Eriocaulon tuberiferum Kulkarni et Desai — A new species from Maha- rashtra. ibid. 7J (1): 81-84. AND Kazi, M. B. (1972): Contribu- tions to the hydrophytes of Kolhapur — I. Hydro- phytes of Kagal lake. J. Shivaji Univ. 5: (10) 73- 85. AND MupcaL, P. V. (1971): Family Commelinaceae in Kolhapur and its environs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 616-618. ———_——— anp Tuite, A. N. (1979): Addi- tions to the flora of Kolhapur district. ibid. 74 (Sup- plement): 592-609. SHAH, C. K. (1973): The distribution of genus Scirpus Linn. in Gujarat. J. Biol. Sci. 16: 29-41. TuHiTE, A. N. AND KULKARNI, A. R. (1976): Fun- gal flora of Panhala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(3): 456-468. A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY——22 Corvidae, Bombycillidae HUMAYUN ABDULALI [Continued from Vol. 75(2): 384] This part covers 646 specimens of 71 species and subspecies up to No. 1063 in INDIAN HAND- BooK. I am grateful to Miss Renée Borges and to Mr Shahid Ali for routine assistance for some time. EL Platysmurus leucopterus (Temminck) (Sumatra) Whitewinged Jay 1:58 1 0? Tavoy, S. Tenasserim. Wing 188, tail 180. EL Garrulus leucotis leucotis Hume (Kau- karyit, Tenasserim) Burmese Jay 1:61 Measurements on p. 94. ) 248 GMs 1 Hsipaw, 1 S.E. of Hsipaw, 1 Maymyo. Measurements on p. 94. EL Garrulus glandarius glandarius (Lin- naeus) (Sweden) Jay 2:1 2 1 02. 1 Godolla, 1 Matrajured, Hungary, The female has paler blue on the wings and a white chin contra almost concolorous with the underparts in the other. Measurements on p. 94. EL Garrulus glandarius haringtoni Rippon (Mt. Victoria, South Chin Hills) Rippon’s Jay. 1:65 2 86: 1 Camel’s Hump, Tiddim, 1 Mt. Victo- ria, Pakokku, Chin Hills. Both can be separated from Indian birds by the pale buff, almost white, forehead and their larger wings. Smythies, 1953, BIRDS OF * One of them bears no locality but was collected by J. C. Anderson. [373] 6 BURMA, p. 9, synonymises haringioni with G. oatesi but this is doubtless a slip, for the latter is a subspecies of G. leucotis. Measurements on p. 94. 1020 Garrulus glandarius _ bispecularis Vigors (Himalayan Mts.—Murree) West Hi- malayan Jay 1:63 LSS OO Wome eee) aay Ol 1 Dalhousie, Punjab; 2* Simla; 1 Grikund Ke- darnath, 1 Bodiar, 2 Moureakher, Gharwal, 5 Da- kuri, Kumaon, 2 Mussoorie, 1 Naini Tal, U.P. See notes under 1021. Measurements on p. 94. 1021 Garrulus glandarius interstinctus Hartert (Darjeeling) East Himalayan Jay 1:64 Mee S eat: Gekld) , Chee I o,? 1 Sipuri, 1 Godaveri, 1 Bouzini, all near Khat- mandu, Nepal; 1 Shampong, Central Bhutan, 3 Gomchu, 1 Narphong, East Bhutan; 2 Lachung, North Sikkim, 1 Etalin 8000’, Mishmi Hills. As has been noted by earlier writers, the two races are not easily separated. In series, the eastern birds are darker but the three from Nepal and one from Mishmi Hills are very reddish above. A of collected at Shampong, 6500 ft. Central Bhutan, has the darkest up- perparts and the forehead slightly paler. The birds from Bhutan and Sikkim are not yet registered. Three males collected in Garhwal (2 on the same day) with pale underparts appear to be birds of the year. Their measurements are not included but are within the range of the adults. 81 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Vaurie (1959, p. 143) when comparing this with sinensis states that the tips of the bristly feathers at the nostril are not black as in the latter. The specimens listed above show a vary- ing amount of black at the tips of feathers at the nostril, and which appears independent of locality. Measurements on p. 94. 1022 Garrulus lanceolatus Vigors (Hima- jayas—Simla-Aimora District) Blackthroated Jay 1:60 21:8 44 (1 juv.) 8 295 0? 2 Chitral, 1 Gora Gali; 1 Murree, 1 Dalhousie, 1 Dharmsala, 1 Dhami State, 3 Simla (1 collected by J. C. Anderson?); 2 Moghul Maidan, Kishtwar, Kashmir; 1 Lambathach, 1 Ghat, 1 Boliar, Garh- wal, 1 Bininag, 1 Peora, Almora, 2 Morwala, 1 Dakuri, Kumaon, U.P.; 1 no locality. Juvenile o 291 has the feathers of the chin dishevelled, with short thick streaks, and a brownish head. The black barring on the central tail fea- thers varies in distinctness but cannot be as- sociated with sex or locality. The largest unsexed No. 296 from Dharm- sala, Punjab, (Wing 160, tail 165) has the shortest tarsus (28.7). In only one other (¢ 290 from Peora, Almora) is the wing (157) shorter than the tail (159). Measurements on p. 95. EL Cyanocitta cristata subsp. 1 ¢ Little Lake, Barrie, Ontario, Canada. Wing 135; bill 26.6; tarsus 33; tail 132. EL Cyanopica cyanus interposita Hartert (Tai pai Shan, Tsinling Range, Shensi, China) Azurewinged Magpie 3 92 Peking, China. These are named trinomially on the basis of distribution in Vaurie (1959) and Peter’s CHECK-LIST (1962, 15:245) and the measure- ments in parenthesis are from La Touche A HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA 82° 2, p. 15. Wing 132, 136, 137 (135-141); bill 26, 26, 28 (24-28.5); tarsus 29, 30.5 (32-36.5), tail 172, 200, 206 (199-230). 1023 Cissa chinensis chinensis (Boddaert) (Mergui) Green Magpie 1:45 US 8s 66 5) Sa Pee OW 2 Ranibag, 1 Kumaon, U.P.; 1 Singhik, N. Sik- kim, 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 3 Longview T.E.., 1 Darjeeling; 1 Laising, 1 Hungrum, 1 Roopchena, Cachar; 1 Jamirach, Dibrugarh, 2 Margherita, 1 Rotung, Abor Hills; 1 Mishmi Hills; 1 Upper Burma. 3 No. 214 from Longview Tea Estate ob- tained on 25 January 1911 has one whisker on the left 140 mm. long. 15 specimens dated 1902-1952 are varying shades of blue both above and below. Three Nos. 203, 207 and 211 (1 0 1 o juv. 1 0?) from Mishmi Hills, Hungrum and Roopchena, going back to 1904 show a wash of green, particularly on the underparts. All wings are yellowish olive. Stevens (JBNHS 29 p. 514) refers to blue examples seen in the wild in March, April and May. Whistler’s mss. notes include a letter from CBT (Ticehurst) asking if the black subter- minal bars on the inner secondaries and ter- tials are less distinct in juveniles, or if it is a racial (Himalayan) character. Only three spe- cimens lack this barring and they are from Laising, N. Cachar ¢, Margherita gj and Upper Burma o0?. The juvenile @ No. 211 is well marked. Measurements on p. 95. 1024 Cissa ornata (Wagler) (Ceylon) Cey- lon Blue Magpie 1 & Rookood, Ceylon. Measurements on p. 95. 1025 Cissa flavirostris cucullata (Gould) (Kuloo Valley) Western Yellowbilled Blue Magpie 1:44 [374] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 10:3 2¢@ (1. juv.) 3 2Q (2 juv.) 4 0? (1 juv.) 1 Doniwani Village, Lolab Valley, 2 Goond, Sind Valley, Kashmir; 1 Zokinath, 1 Chamoli, Garhwal, 4 Dakuri, Kumaon; 1 Kakam, Nepal. In view of the small number of sexed adults, the measurements do not appear worth de- tailing. Sp. No. 201 collected in Goond, Sind Valley, Kashmir, on 8 August 1873 by F. Stoliczka is perhaps one of the oldest specimens in the Bombay collection. One unregistered gt from 8000 ft, Chinakotti, West Bhutan, has its bill heavier than in the others and dark above. See under 1027 for notes on juvenile plum- age. 1026 Cissa flavirostris flavirostris (Blyth) (Darjeeling) Eastern Yeilowbilled Blue Magpie 1:43 Deans Suid juv.) 1 2 juv. 3 (1 juv.) Tongloo, 10000’, 1 Phalut 11500’, Dar- jeeling; 1 Shama Chembo, Rong Valley? All differ from C.f. cucullata in having the lower breast washed with grey (‘lilac white’) which was presumably once yellow, and the upperparts are slightly darker than in 1025. Sp. No. 190 from Chembo, Rong Valley, was collected by Stuart Baker on 13 July 1913. The words “Chin Hills’? have been added with a query by Salim Ali many years ago, but this does not appear to be correct, for Stuart Baker (1922, FAUNA, 1, p. 44) states that he had seen only one from Burma and which differed from the normal type (nominate flavirostris) in many ways. The latter specimen was col- lected by Wickham at about 7000 ft. north of Falam (JBNHS 33, p. 803) and was no doubt Shaferi Sick (q.v.). Four specimens (2 fd 2 2 2) collected in Bhutan by Salim Ali (1966-68) not yet re- - gistered show a much darker grey below. Cu- riously, in these four specimens, though the males have larger wings (190, 197 cf. 186, 187) [375] the tails are longer in the females (410, 430 cf. 335,350); EL Cissa flavirostris shaferi Victoria, Chin Hills) 1 @ Kennedy Peak, Chin Hills, Burma. Wing 172, bill 34, tail 345 (Sp. No. 189). Shaferi was described on 5 ob co and 9 2 2 and the single specimen confirms the small size, and probably represents a good subspecies with a very restricted range. Sick (Mt. 1027 Cissa erythrorhyncha — occipitalis (Blyth) (Nepal and to the N.W., as at Mus- soorie etc.) Himalayan Redbilled Blue Mag- pie 1:41 2224 64.8 22 (3 ju), 10°07? (1h Juv.) 1 Patiala State, 1 Dharmi State, 1 Kasumti 6000’, Keonthal, i Kufri 8000’, Punjab Hill States; 2 Simla; 1 Dehra Dun, 1 Naini Tal, 1 Lohghat, 1 Gangolihath, Almora; 1 Manauli, 3. Kumaon; 1 Godaveri, 1 Cholna Khel, 4 Loharipowa, Nepal; 2 no data. Sorting out both the adults and the juve- niles of flavirostris and erythrorhyncha has taken an unexpectedly long time. The red and yellow bills so distinct in the two species in life, both become yellow and I have been unable to trace any description of juvenile flavirostris. The collection contains 8 juveniles with the entire top of the head (except for a fringe on the forehead) white, which also extends down the nape. Some were listed as flavirostris and others as erythrorhyncha. Two juveniles of the above description collected by J. P. Cook at Maymyo has it noted on the original label that the bills were light red in one and scarlet in the other. In the first plum- age the bill is black in both species but this noting would link the all-white head with erythrorhyncha. Two others a go and a @ from Dakuri, Kumaon, whence 2 adults were also collected, have their crowns sooty black, followed by 83 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 a broad white patch tapering down on the black of the neck. They agree with Biswas’s description of young erythrorhyncha (JBNHS 60, p. 648), but the adults from the same place are smaller and can be included among the variations in flavirostris. The evidence available suggests that this is the juvenile plumage of flavirostris, with the white being later reduced to the collar-like band in the adult. Intermediate phases exist, depending to some extent upon the method of preparation of the skin. It is significant that the 3 yellow- billed birds illustrated in Gould’s BIRDS OF ASIA and marked A. flavirostris cucullata by A. Rutgers in 1969, all have the forecrown black, followed by white extending to the nape. Psilortinus albicapillus described by Blyth at the same time as C. flavirostris, C. e. occi- pitalis and C. e. magnirostris (1846, JASB 15, p. 27) was admittedly a juvenile and agrees with the juveniles of erythrorhyncha above. As in the case of the previous species, the large proportion of unsexed birds and others in juvenile and intermediate plumage do not make it worthwhile listing the measurements. The bills are no smaller than in magnirosiris. 1028 Cissa erythrorhyncha miagnirostris (Blyth) (Ya-Ma-Dong Mountains separating Arracan from Pegu) Burmese Redbilled Blue Magpie 1:42 8:6 24 (1 juv.) 1 2 1 o? juv. 1 Dimapur, 1 Kanglotomis, Manipur, Assam; 2 Tiddim, Chin Hills, 2 Maymyo, 1 Thayetmyo, Burma; 1 Crawford Market. Bombay, origin? These birds are slightly darker above but barely separable from occipitalis (1027) and certainly do not agree with the original des- cription of magnirostris. The bill is not 4-5 mm longer and there is no large bare patch near the eye. The two from Manipur and one from Thayetmyo differ from the Himalayan 84 population in being darker and more suffused with purple-blue on the upperparts, but Hume (S.F 6, p. 385) quotes Lt. Ramsay as saying that with large series of both groups, he has seen a specimen of occipitalis with plumages in all respects as fine as the best of my Bur- mese skins’. Ramsay also says that though some of the Burmese specimens have enor- mous bills, others have them as small or small- ler than Himalayan birds. He adds that the only constant point of difference between Burmese and Indian birds is in the colouring of the bill(?), feet and irides as pointed out by Hume on Captain Fielden’s authority (S.F 3, p. 145), i.e. the legs are scarlet instead of reddish orange of occipitalis and the irides are of different shades of brown, but never red. INDIAN HANDBOOK states that irides of occipi- talis are brown or red-brown and those of magnirostris the same’. Hume (loc. cit.) concludes “....it seems to me very doubtful whether the species (mag- nirostris) can be maintained. What is really wanted is a large and carefully sexed series from Pegu and the Arracan Hills’. ee 1029 Pica pica bactriana Bonaparte (Kan- dahar) Kashmir or Whiterumped Magpie 1:38 28:15 64 8 22 5 o? (1 juv.) 1 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Bagh-e-Jawar (4 m. S.W. of Shiraz), 1 Baghe Jaffrain, 1 Baghe Rezi, 10 Shiraz, 1 Amirabad, Birjand, 1 Neh, Kain, Iran; 1 Iggiz Yar, Chinese Turkestan; 1 Razani, North Baluchistan, 1 Razmak, South Baluchistan, 1 Kelat, 1 Toba, Quetta, 1 Devankot, Baluchistan; 4 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 2 Ugu 12000’, Indus Valley, Ladakh. In some specimens, March to May, the rump is greyish, but this character does not appear to be restricted to any age(?) or area. HAND- BOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS (1938, 1:28) refers to the rump in nominate pica ‘“‘white or brownish white to brown (in British specimens never [376] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—2? very white and often nearly black)”’. Measurements on p. 95. 1030 Pica pica bottanensis Delessert (Bhu- tan) Eastern Blackrumped Magpie 1:39 1 0? Wangadi Cholung, Bhumtang Valley, Bhutan. Together with six additional specimens col- lected by Sdlim Ali at Bhumtang in Bhutan in 1973, but not yet registered, they have a larger wing, a proportionately shorter tail and a black rump, which leave no doubt regarding the validity of this race. Measurements on p. 95. EL Pica pica sericea Gould (Amoy) Chi- nese Magpie 5:4 66 (1 juv.) 1 2 1 North Shan States, 1 South Shan States, 1 Kyat- yin-Mogok Road, Ruby Mines District, Burma; 2 Peking, China. These birds are not very distinct from bac- triana but the pair from Peking show more blue on the wings and in series there is less white visible above. In the juvenile the black is replaced by brown and there is very little white on the rump. The tarsus appears longer than in bactriana and the tail proportionately shorter. Stuart Baker quotes Gould as having affirmed the former. Measurements on p. 95. 1031 Dendrocitta vagabunda pallida (Bly- th) (Galkund, Surat Dangs, Gujarat) Western Tree Pie. (a) 15: 8 68 (2 juv.) 4 @Q (2 juv.) 1 Navashar, Jullundur, 3 Ambala; | Bahawalpur; 1 Delhi; 1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 1 Jacobabad, N. Sind, 1 Khori, 2 Luka, 3 Jah, Tatta, 1 Londi, Ka- rachi. No. 20347 ¢@ from Luka, Tatta is dark rufous below. (b) 20: 4 @4 (2 yuv.) 16 22 (6 juv.) 1 Hamavas Lake, Pali, Jodhpur; 1 Deesa, Palan- pur; 3 Vaghjipur, Mehsana; 1 Hingolgadh, Jasdan, 1 Amreli, 1 Gir, 1 Patan (?), Kathiawar; 2 Victoria (1 juv.) 3 0? [377] 1 Galkund, 1 3 Suraimal, Park, Bhavnagar; 1 Cambay City; Mheskhatri, 1 Pimpri, Surat Dangs; Thana, 1 Tanda, 1 Kuno, Gwalior. The type locality of pallida has had many vacillations. Blyth described it from a speci- men purchased at Calcutta (now the type locality of nominate vagabunda) but originally said to have come from the north-western Himalayas (the type locality of bristoli). This was restricted by Ticehurt to Simla (1922) and then to Galkund, Surat Dangs, by Paynter who, admitting the possibility of the original description referring to parvula from the south- west or vernayi from the south and south- eastern India, expressed his reluctance to change the name which had been applied for more than a hundred years. While I agree with his sentiments, I do not know if it is permis- sible to ignore the original description, though the type locality may be proved or presumed to be wrong. As supporting the original desig- nation of the north-western Himalayas, it may be worth mentioning that Psilorhynus albo- capillus now Urocissa erythrorhyncha_ occipi- talis was described by Blyth from the same collection and this does not occur anywhere except in the Himalayas. Of course, the col- lection could have included birds from diffe- rent places. As explained under bristoli, the specimens from the Punjab and Sind appear nearer to pallida both in size and colour and are includ- ed here, as was done by Paynter. Accepting, however, the type locality as restricted to the Surat Dangs, the northern birds can be sepa- rated from the southern topotypical group by their slightly darker upper and lower parts and the fact that the tail/wing ratio is invariably over 160. In this subspecies the first year birds, distinguished from the adults by the white tips to the black non-central tail feathers, show no other differences in colour from the adults. 85 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Measurements on p. 96. 1031a Dendrocitta vagabunda _bristoli Paynter (Jabri, c. 11 miles west of Murree, alt. 900 metres, Hazara District, West Pakis- tan) North Western Tree Pie. 2 64: 1 2220’ Rawalpindi; 1 2500’ Kalka, Am- bala District, Punjab. Both specimens are outstandingly large and dark and agree with Paynter’s original descrip- tion of bristoli (1961, JBNHS 58:381) in which he referred to birds from the plains near Ambala and several other places in the Pun- jab and Sind, as pallida. INDIAN HANDBOOK (5, 216) indicates bristoli as extending over the whole of the Punjab and Sind and though clines are referred to in the text, birds from the latter places appear much more like pal- lida from Gujarat and I am listing them sepa- rately under that race. In both the specimens, the tails (315,300) are shorter than in the cotypes (334, 342, 363) but this may be due to different methods of measurement, which may also affect the wing/ tail ratios. Measurements on p. 96. 1032 Dendrecitta vagabunda vagabunda (Latham) (India, restricted to Calcutta) Northeastern Tree Pie. 1:48 AS a2 mcroyaCl2. Uva): 3) 2 ON (Sajuv.) eR omonnal juv.) 1 Kudus, Thana; 1 Borivli, 1 Powai, Salsette, Bombay; 1 Khandala; 1 Akibidu, West Goa; 1 Saugor, 2 Chikalda; 1 Ambakona, 1 Jabalpore, 1 Tamia, Chindwara; 2 Wamanpalli, Chanda; 2 Sup- kar, 1 Sonwani, Balaghat; 1 Bhopalpatnam, 1 Kon- ta, 1 Darbha, 1 Antagarh, 1 Chota Dongar, Bastar; 1 Bhavanipratapur, Kanker; 2 Badrama, Bamra, 1 Keonjhar, 1 Tikerpara, Angul, 1 Raipathar. Phul- bani, Orissa; 1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatam District; 1 Partapur, 1 Nepal; 2 Meerut, 1 Bareilly, 1 Pilibhit Terai, U.P.; 1 Madhubani, 1 Baghowni, 1 Saran, Bihar; 1 Nanhati, 24-Parganas, Bengal; 2 Dibru- garh, Assam, 3 Upper Burma. There is considerable diversity in colour and 86 size between individuals which it is not pos- sible to isolate by sex, age or season. The lack of series from any one place prevents any understanding of the sequence of plumages and/or seasonal changes, if any, and it is quite possible that one or more undescribed race may be found within the conglomeration above. Two young from Wamanpalli, Chanda (No. 21186) and Akibidu, West Goa (No. 23333) have very pale underparts, as in adult vernayi, and which is accepted as the first plumage in all races, but the black tail feathers are not tipped white. Another collected at Chanda at the same time (May) is slightly darker, but paler than most other vagabunda, and may be closer to vernayi. In series the birds with white tips to the tail feathers (included in juveniles) are slightly paler than the adults but individuals are as dark just as some of the adults are as pale. Among the adults, the five with the darkest underparts are slightly but consistently larger than the others. The three unsexed skins from Upper Burma show a lot of rufous above and below but can be left in this group both in colour and mea- surements. Measurements on p. 96. 1033 Dendrocitta vagabunda parvula Whi- stler & Kinnear (Malabar) Kerala Tree Pie. 1:48 (Part) Ra Ghiep yas) Seek lio 1 Karkala, S. Kanara; 1 Kalladikol, Palghat Gap; 1 Tope, 1 Kodi Motor Road, Palni Hills; 1 The- kaddy, 1 Thattakad, Periyar; 1 Aramboli, 1 James- town, Kanyakumari. These are slightly smaller than vernayi and with darker underparts (paler than in vaga- bunda) which show some variation in the small series. The unsexed bird from Karkala, South Kanara, from the accepted range of this sub- [378] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 species, is exceptionally dark rufous below and has dark upperparts grading into the black of the head. It is marked juvenile and has white tips to the black rectrices and a pale rump. No. 4515, a male from Thekaddy, Periyar lake has underparts as pale as in vernayi, but a small 135 mm wing and is presumably in its first plumage. Measurements on p. 96. 1034 Dendrocitta vagabunda vernayi Whi- stler & Kinnear (Nallamalai Range, 2000’, S. Kurnool) Southeastern Tree Pie 1:48 (Part) DESH dd 66 22 1 0? 1 Chitteri Range, Salem, 1 Edubathi, Billigiriran- gans; 1 Shevaroy Hills; 2 Palkonda Hills; 1 Nalla- malai Hills; 1 Dharwar-Haliyal Road, Mysore, 1 Utnoor, 1 Mananur, 1 Kaulas, 1 Farahabad, S.E. Hyderabad; 1 Pootah, North Arcot. The northern birds grade into vagabunda. The juvenile, in the first plumage, as in the other races, has pale underparts like the adult of this form. There is a wide range of varia- tion in the measurements of the above speci- mens and this is no doubt due to convergence with vagabunda on the north and parvula on the west. Measurements on p. 96. EL Dendrocitta vagabunda sclateri Baker (Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills, Burma) Chin Hills Tree Pie 4 OOP 1-0? 2 Maymyo; 1 Mibauk Village, 1 Khayank Chaung, Thayetmyo District; 1 Legangyi, Henzada, Burma. These birds have very little rufous on the * The original label(s) are missing and the en- tries in both the old (and new) register and the present labels show the locality as “Berimani, South Konkan’, and I cannot find any place of this name in the postal directory. While it may be a village without a post office, the bird was collected by T. R. Bell who served in Kanara and the district is certainly an error in transcription and should be Kanara and not Konkan. [379] upperparts, the black of the head is not very distinct from the mixed colour of the back and all have pale rumps. Measurements on p. 96. 1035 Wendrocitta frontalis frontalis Hors- field (Assam) Blackbrowed Tree Pie 1:54 42S Sn27 239 2 Margherita, 1 Dibrugarh, Assam; 1 Lonkin (Chindwin Expedition) Upper Burma. Wing 22 130, 132 92 124, 128 (1H. ex Baker f2 120-126)) bill226:3% 27, 27:92) (e225) tar= sus 24, 25, 27, 27.5 (c. 30); tail 4 206, 220, 2 204, 205 (245-255). The male from Margherita (No. 273) has the nape and upper back almost white, which portion in the other male (No. 276) is also whiter than the grey in the two females, as well as in two additional females from N.E.- F.A. (Arunachal Pradesh) not yet registered. It is perhaps a sexual difference. 1036 Dendrocitta leucogaster Gould (Mala- bar Coast) Whitebellied Tree Pie 1:51 LOPE Ste orG ml Zeng ae 1 Castle Rock, N. Kanara; 1* Berimani, S. Ka- nara; 1 Wynaad; 1 Parambikolam, Cochin; 3 Thatta- kad, 1 Promacora, 1 Ponmudi, 1 Thekadi, Travan- core. No. 4520 a male with enlarged gonads (9 x 5 mm) collected at Thattakad differs from all the others in having black edges to the white upper tail-coverts. Stuart Baker’s Fauna referred to the tarsus as “about 30 mm’’ which is revised in IH 5:225 to “32-34”. My measurements agree with the former. 1037 Dendrocitta formosae occidentalis Ticehurst (Simla) West Himalayan Tree Pie. 1:52 (Part) 11: 8 3-6 @ juv.) 3 29) (1 juv.) 7 Simla & Simla Hills; 1 Tara Devi, Keonthal; 1 Phata, Gupta Kashi, Gadhwal; 1 Pithorgarh, 1 Gomai, Almora. Table of measurements in Note on Validity of D. f. sarkari, p. 143 infra. 87 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 1038 Dendrecitta formosae himalayensis Blyth (Sikkim) East Himalayan Tree Pie 1:52 DAF NO S56. 2 O82 70)? 1 Hathiban, 1 Bans Bihari, 1 Godavari, Nepal; 1 Majhkali, Ranikhet, 1 Kurseong, 1 Sevoke, Dar- jeeling; 1 Rinchingpong, W. Sikkim; 2 Dibrugarh, 1 Margherita; 2 Denning, Lohit Valley; 1 Kang- pokpi, Manipur; 2 Humgrum, 2 Haflong, N. Cachar, 1 Bagho Bahar, 2 Roopchena, Cachar; 1 N. Krang, Upper Burma; 2 south-east of, 1 Maymyo, Burma. The three from Burma have much whiter underparts than the others and, together with many from Assam and eastwards, show more brown than dusky black on their chins. Peter’s CHECK-LIST 15, p. 248 (1962) errs in referring to D. f. assimilis Hume from the Andamans. Table of measurements in Note on Validity of D. f. sarkari, p. 143 infra. 1039 Dendrocitta formosae sarkari Kinn- near & Whistler (Anantgiri, Vizagapatam). no Te Gy Gee ace 2 Anantgiri, Vizagapatam, 1 Jeypore Agency; 5 Berbera, Puri, 1 Mahendragiri, Orissa. For Note on Validity of this race. p. 142.) 1040 Dendrocitta bayleyi Tytler (Anda- mans) Andaman Tree Pie 1:55 is SAG ai 450979 4 Wrightmyo, 2 Chirria Tapoo, 1 S. Andamans. Of 2 females collected at Wrightmyo on 13 February, one has darker underparts and the colours of the head and tail more clearly de- fined. This had bright yellow irides contra greenish yellow in the other, and the former would appear to be a character of maturity. (See EL Crypsirina temea (Daudin) (Africa, in error for Java) Black Racket-tailed Magpie 2a Ses BIG 1:56 1 Kyibin, Henzada, 1 Ataran, Amherst, Burma. Wing 22 117, 119; bill 25.3, 21.8. The @ has a noticeably larger bill. 88 EL Crypsirina cucullata Jerdon (Thayet- myo, Burma) Hooded Racket-tailed Magpie 1:57 6: 2 6 (1 juv.) 4 99 (@ juv.) 1 Mungin, Magwe; 1 Pyabwe, 700’, Yamethin; 1 Tarakmaw, 1 Kandin, 1 Prome, 1 Rangoon, Burma. 42 Wing 102-109; bill 18.3-19.5; tarsus 23.5-25; tail ¢ 162, 165; @ 173-175. The 3 adults have the bill all black, their plumage clear grey, while the younger birds have a yellow patch at the gape and the plum- age washed with pinkish. 1041 Podoces humilis Hume (Kitchik Yi- lak-Sinkiang, near Sanju, Yarkand) Hume’s Ground Chough 1:71 PRS ib eek: @ 1 Chusha, Tibet; 1 Zunthulpuk, 16000’, W. Tibet. EL Podoces ploskei Zarudny (Alkor, East- ern Iran). Dicowle von et? 2 7000’, Gulugan Plain 60°EX31°N’. East Iran. 22 Wing 123, 115; bill 37.5, 32.5; tarsus 44, 37; tail 88, 85. EL Pedoces hendersoni Hume (Sinkiang, on the way to Yarkand). Bi DO ao? a iuv: 2 Opal, 4400', 1 Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan. The juvenile is one of the 3 young found in a nest on the ground on 1 May 1931 (C. H. Sherriff). The mother has a longer (46 cf. 42.5 mm) and more massive bill than in the unsexed adult which was registered as bid- dulphi. EL Podoces biddulphi Hume (Maralbashi, Sinkiang). Sis a KORA T07. 2 Keriya, 4300', Karakoram Expedition; 1 Chinese Turkestan. 1042 WNucifraga caryocatactes multipunc- tata Gould (N. W. Himalayas, restricted to _ [380] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 Kashmir, north of the Pir Panjal Range). Larger-spotted Nutcracker 1:67 De: fEond) di'2; ‘22 1 Chitral, 7000’, N.W.F.P.; 1 Yusmarg, 1 Gul- marg, 1 10000’ Ketri, Badrawan, 1 Kashmir. Measurements on p. 97. 1043 Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila Vigors (Himalayan Mountains, restricted Si- mla-Almora) Himalayan Nutcracker 1:66 Ae (part) 12: 6 66 5 22 1 o? (fledgling) 2 Nagar, Kulu, Punjab; 4 Koti State, 1 Simla, |! Bogi, Himalayas ?(), 1 Garhwal, 1 near Tonglu, Darjeeling Division; 2 11000’, Thunsi, Nepal. Measurements on p. 97. 1044 Nucifraga caryocatactes macella Tha- yer & Bangs (Hsien-Shan-Hsien, 7000’, Hupeh, China) Yunnan Nutcracker 1:66 (part) 3 66 (1 juv.) 1 Lachen, N. Sikkim; 1 Etatin, 7000’, 1 Yigang Valley, 7500'. Mishmi Hills, Burma. Though these cannot be separated from 1043 from the west by the size of, or the num- ber of spots, or any other colour character, the bills are distinctly thicker. Measurements on p. 97. EL Nucifraga caryocatactes _rothschildi Hartert (s. of the Issyk Kul, Russian Turkes- tan) Tian 1 0? Bostan Tarek, Chinese Turkestan. The white spots are fewer and larger than in both hemispila and macella above. 1045 Pyrrhocorax graculus digitatus Hem- prich & Ehrenberg (Syria) Himalayan Yellow- billed or Alpine Chough 1:70 11:4 28 6 22 1 o*? juv. 6 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Dangail, Kishtwar, Kash- mir; 1 Sissoo, 10000’, Lahul; 2 Matari, Niti, Garh- wal, 1* collected by S. L. Whymper, probably Garh- wal or Kumaon, U.P. 9 No. 348 from Chitral has its legs and feet black. [381] Measurements on p. 97. EL Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax docilis (Gme- lin) (Gilan, N. Iran). Libis Phas Core Pay IS 1 s. of Doneh Pass, Luristan; 3 Kidri, 4000’, near Kain, Iran. The three from Kidri (1st year birds?) are marked pontifex which is now accepted as a synonym of docilis (Vaurie). They differ from all the others in having the wings and _ tails brownish, contrasting sharply with the black of the head, back and rump. Measurements on p. 97. 1046 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax centralis Stresemann (Djarkent, Russian Turkestan) West Himalayan Redbiilled Chough 1:68 part) 1 0? Quetta Museum. The 289 mm wing has narrow primaries, a slightly greenish tinge and the sixth primary 13 mm shorter than the Sth. These characters recur in other forms further east and the spe- cimen is left here on geographical (?) grounds. Measurements on p. 97. 1047 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax himalaya- nus (Gould) (Himalaya Mountains, restricted to Kumaon) East Himalayan Redbilled Chough 1:68 (part) Owe Cae eae | 20. Cle juVva) 1 Rohtang Pass, 10000’, 1 Kyclang, Badrinath, Garhwal, 1 Dakuri, Kumaon; lity (juv.). Lahul; 2 1 no loca- The material available all appears to be from within the accepted range of himalaya- nus. Some show pointed wing quills and there appear to be no specific characters which would separate them from centralis. Including the 3 specimens from Bhutan (not yet regis- tered), the largest wing is 310 mm, while Meinertzhagen, when dealing with this race (bis 1927, p. 372) measures 7 males from 89 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Sikkim and Ladak, 315 to 340 av. 328. No. 339 a juvenile from the Jones Collec- tion is marked Pyrrhocorax graculus. In INDIAN HANDBOOK (5, p. 242) the bill is said to be “widely variablle 50-100 mm’’. The last figure if correct must refer to an aberra- tion. Measurements on p. 97. EL Lycocorax pyrrhopterus pyrrhopterus (Bonaparte) (Gilolo, Northern Moluccas) 1 Halmahera, Northern Moluccas. EL Corvus dauuricus Pallas (circa Baika- lem) 2:1 6 1 @ Peking, China (Nos. 130 & 131) EL Corvus torquatus Lesson (China) Sy ode a es a) 3 Temple of Heaven, Peking. 1048 Corvus splendens zugmayeri Laub- mann (Las Belas, Baluchistan) Sind House Crow 1:34 SSbLON Oud: al 1 Clo 3502, 3 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; 1 Dharmi State. 5000’, N.W. Himalayas, 1 Gunderbal, near Srinagar, Kash- mir*, 1 Jullunder. 1 Multan, 1 Mubarikpur, 3 Am- bala; 1 Dadil, 2 Sehwan, Larkana; 2 Bhung, Baha- walpur, 3 Mewashah, 1 Korangin, 1 Dhakeri, 1 Dakejee, Karachi, Sind; 2 Bikanir, 2 Pirotan, Gulf of Kutch, 2 Mandvi, 1 Tapkeshwari, Bhuj; 1 Dwar- ka, Okhamandal, 2 Hingolgad, Jasden, Kathiawar, 1 Radhanpur, North Gujarat. Ticehurst (1922, Jbis, p. 536) said ‘The Sind race differs from the typical one in hav- ing a much paler collar and underparts (as Hume noted), pale smoke grey in fresh feather, creamy grey or dirty white in worn dress’’. Young birds are darker than the adults. As in nominate splendens (q.v.) there is some variation in the shade of grey on the neck. Of the three from Rawalpindi (all Feb- * Whistler (JB 29:160) referred to an_ isolated colony in the Kashmir Valley and Ticehurst (JB 31: 692) states that its occurrence at Muscat in Arabia must be due to introduction. 90 ruary) the two males are pale, while the female could be matched with many from Peninsular India. Similarly, the four from Am- bala district are a little darker and interme- diate between nominate splendens and zugma- yeri. All 12 (8 dob 4 2 2) collected between 26 April and 13 October have worn feathers round the neck, which show collars of sandy or dirty white in varying shades, quite diffe- rent from that attained by nominate splendens. Accepting this as a racial character, the speci- mens from Pirotan in the Gulf of Kutch, Kutch and Saurashtra, all agree with zugmayeri, though Salim Ali has specifically held that this race does not occur south of the Rann, and identified the Kutch birds (also one from Larkana, Sind) as of the nominate form. Birds from Larkana and Bhung, Bahawalpur, have the palest collars. Of the two females from Mandvi, Kutch, one agrees with zugma- yeri and the other with nominate splendens. The four from Jullunder (1), Multan (1) and Bikanir (2), are albinoids in varying phases of grey and brown, and are included here on geographical grounds. The two from Bikanir were obtained in 1913 and 1940. Measurements on p. 98. 1049 Corvus splendens splendens Vieillot (Bengal) Indian Hovse Crow 1:33 35: 16 84 (2 juv.) 12 2@Q (2 juv.) 7 o? (1 head only, 1 pure, 1 partial albino, 1 isabelline). 1 Bharatpur, 1 Meerut; 1 Jalar, Jodhpur; 1 Gir, Amreli; 5 Bandra, 1 Andheri, 9 Bombay; 2 Kihim, Kolaba; 2 Nagpur; 1 Ulavi, 1 Kambally Kopa, Sagar, Mysore; 1 Edanad, Chengamner, 1 James- town, Kanyakumari; 1 Vyampapti, Trichinopoly, 1 Karumbapatti, Salem; 1 Bhopalapatnam, Bastar; 1 Bhagowni, 1 Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Calcutta; 2 no locality. Reference has already been made to the ap- preciable variations in colour in zugmayeri and it is no less in this subspecies. @ No. 90 from Vyampapti, Trichinopoly, (9 July) has [382] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 a grey neck as pale as others listed as zugma- yeri, but the nature of the worn grey feathers in the latter is distinctive and I would prefer to leave the birds from the Gulf of Kutch and the northern and western coasts of Kathiawar with them. A single ¢@ (No. 19789 dated 15 March) from the Gir, in southern Kathiawar, appears to be nominate splendens. Some addi- tional specimens of this common species from different parts of Kathiawar, Gujarat, Rajas- than, Delhi, etc., are necessary to permit more certain decisions regarding the determination of the limits of the two subspecies. Measurements on p. 98. 1050 Corvus splendens protegatus Madaras z (Mt. Lavinia, W.P., Ceylon) Ceylon House Crow 1:35 SE TL Ge es teak 1 Colombo, 2 Ceylon. : Birds from Kerala are said to be of this subspecies but I would prefer to leave the material available among the variations in nominate splendens which does become a little darker in the southwest. Ceylon birds the colour of the hindneck grades almost imperceptibly into that of the back, but the line of demarcation is distinct in Indian birds. Measurements on p. 98. 1051 Corvus splendens maledivicus Reiche- now (Maldives). nil. EL Corvus splendens insolens Hume (Ten- asserim) Burmese House Crow 8: 4 24 (i jv.) 4 22 (1 juv) 2 Maymyo; 6 Prome, Lower Burma. The adults show no trace of a pale collar. The three adult females, all taken on 8 March 1929, are duller than the males. Both juve- niles, though fully feathered, are browner than the adults. [383] 1:34 1052 Corvus frugilegus frugilegus Linna- eus (Sweden) Rook 1:14 {Ae Onan (amin: )) 429-9) (2. 1mm) 07563 imm.) * with nasal bristles 2 Sheikh Saad, 2 Shatt-al-Adhain. River Tigris, 1 Samarra, 1 Baghdad, 2 Mesopotamia; 2 Meshed, 3000’, 1 Amirabad, near Birjand, Iran; 2 Rawal- pindi; N.W.F.P.; 1 Jhelum, Punjab. Though Hartert’s ¢schusii is no longer ac- cepted, the last three from Pakistan have noti- ceably narrower and longer (¢@ 63.5 cf. 53.5- 62 av. 57.7; 2 2 60, 61 cf. 54, 57.1 in 2 imm.) bills, the main characters on which this was separated (type locality Gilgit). EL Corvus frugilegus pastinator Gould (Chusan, China). 1 8 Temple of Heaven, Peking. Wing 329; bill 60.7; tarsus 49.5; tail 190. 1053 Corvus naeus (Sweden) Jackdaw S260%ee Cl juv.)-1 9 juv. 1 0? Juv. 1 Baghdad, Mesopotamia; 2 Chitral, 2 Peshawar, N.W.F.P.; 1 Srinagar, 1 Kashmir Valley, 1 Kash- mere. Fischer’s soemmeringi from Moscow, though accepted in Peter’s Check-list (1962), is not recognised in INDIAN HANDBOOK. The bird from Baghdad has the smallest wing and bill. Measurements on p. 97. 1054 Corvus macrorhynchos intermedius Adams (Kashmir, Dagshai, and Simla, res- tricted to Kashmir) Himalayan Jungle Crow. 1:28 monedula menedula Lin- 1:36 26: 18 &@4 6 92 2 0? 1 Khalid Drosh, 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Marge, above Kongan, Sind Valley, 1 Wulur Lake, 2 Lidar Valley 9500’, 1 Gilgit, Kashmir; 1 Keonthal, 1 Koti, 8 Simla; 6 Mussoorie, 1 Darjeeling 5500’, U.P.; 1 no data (A. E. Jones Collection No. 14). Except for 3 ¢@ od Nos. 38 Gilgit, 39 and 44 Lidar Valley, and 1 @ No. 15642 Simla, all the others have white bases to the feathers of the nape. No. 44 from Lidar Valley has 91 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 brown underparts. The bill illustrated in INDIAN HANDBOOK (5, p. 252) is larger than in any specimen available. Measurements on p. 98. 1055 Corvus macrorhynchos Lesson (Bengal) Eastern Jungle Crow. Or ea GuoL a. 22) 32.08) 1 Bourini, 1 Godavery, Nepali; 1 *Gangtok, Sik- kim; 1 *Tezu, Lohit Valley, Assam; 1 Tiddim, Chin Hills, 1 s.-e. Maymyo, 1 *Kyithe, Prome; 1 *Legon- gyi, Henzada, Burma. No topotypes are available and these birds separated on geographical groups are not dis- tinctly separable from intermedius. The deeply bowed-bill is visible only in four (2 2 2 2 0?) marked with an asterisk, but 6 males (no female) of intermedius from Mussoorie, Simla and Gilgit share this character. All the birds from Chitral, Kashmir and Simla, have their tail-wing ratio over 60 (upte 67), while those from Mussoorie and east- wards average under 60%. The relatively longer tail appears to be a consistent feature of the western birds separating them from ali the other races referred to here. Except in Nos. 37 Gangtok and 55 Tiddim, Chin Hills, the nape feathers are grey. Measurements on p. 98. 1055a Corvus macrorhynches andaman- ensis Tytler = Beavan (Port Blair, Andamans) Andaman Jungle Crow. ) Ae Oriel. SO alo 1 Middle Button I, 2 Wrightmyo, 4 South Andamans. The nape feathers, as in levaillantii, are both grey or white and the measurements of the wing and tail can be included with them; but the bills are much heavier (the largest 9° 65.5 not deeply bowed) which, together with the plaintive and less harsh call (see JBNHS 61, p. 555), appear to be sufficient to retain the island race. levaillanti 2 Port Blair. 92 Measurements on p. 98. 1056 Corvus macrorhynchos tibetosinensis Kleinschmidt & Wiegold (South-east Tibet in the Sifan Region) Tibetan Jungle Crow. ROW one be Oe 1 Sadiya, Upper Assam; 1 no data. The Sadiya bird has an enormous bill, and is marked tibetosinensis by Salim Ali, who (JBNHS 48, p. 36/7) refers to this race other specimens taken in the area including 9 4513 taken at Tezu, Lohit Valley. This specimen has a small 297 mm wing and I have left it under levaillantii. The second bird with no data was listed with Corvus corone orientalis but the bristles over the nostrils are not coarse and stiff as in that species. Much of the literature relating to earlier work on this species is not available in Bom- bay, and the whole group needs re-examina- tion. Measurements on p. 98. 1057 Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes (Dukkun = Poona) Indian Jungle Crow. BB Bg Al OO Gro 2 Karnal, 3 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Gir, 1 Ajwa, Baroda; 1 Thana, 1 Malad, 1 Bandra, 3 Mahim, 2 Bombay; 1 Kihim, Alibag, Kolaba; 2 Khandala, 1 Khangaon, Dhond, Poona; 1 Santgal, North Ka- nara; 2 Hikkeri, 1 Khambikoppa, Sagar, 1 Hona- metti 5000’, Mysore; 2 Patton, Trivandrum, Kerala; 2 Chitteri Range, Salem, Tamil Nadu; 1 Raipur tal, Nellore, A.P.; 1 Gondia, 2 Darbha, Bastar, M.P.; DikanpurwU Pt? These are the darkest black. Female No. 32 from Honametti 5000’, Mysore, has the largest wing (315), bill (62) and tail (185), while the tail-wing ratio remains under 60 (58.7%). Measurements on p. 98. EL Corvus macrorhynchos colonorum Swinhoe (northeastern Formosa). 1 9 Peking, China. [384] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 This is very dull coloured, but was collected in 1900. 1058 Corvus corone orientalis Eversmann (Naryu R., Turkestan) Eastern Carrion Crow. 1:24 4s 3.96 6 1, 2 1 Kashgar, China; 2 Ugu Nulla 14000’, 1 Moul- bekh, Ladakh. The last bird collected on 3 August 1976 has the 3 outer primaries and most of the secondaries brown, the others black. The fea- thers of the head and body are mostly brown, with occasional black ones showing through. The tail is incomplete and in heavy moult. Salim Ali and S. A. Hussain who obtained it noted others completely black in the same area. Measurements on p. 99. 1058a Corvus corone sharpii Oates (Mar- dan, Punjab) Eastern Hooded Crow. 1:32 105 Te eg 229 1 0? 1 Amara, 1 Baghdad, Mesopotamia; 1 Teheran, 3 Shiraz, 1 Birjand, 3 Meshed, Iran. No. 76, Teheran, is a juvenile female with a yellow bill, contra black in all the others. Measurements on p. 99. EL Corvus corone capellinus Sclater (Fao, Southern Iraq) Sele das 3 P2749? 1 Lake Akkakurf, near Baghdad, 1 Mohamma- rah, 1 Amara, 2 Basra, 2 Mesopotamia; 1 Persian Gulf. Measurements on p. 99. EL Corvus corone cornix Linnaeus Hood- ed Crow 1 2 Mohses, Hungary. The bill is appreciably shorter than in the other races. Measurements on p. 99. 1059 Corvus corax subcorax Severizov (N.W. & S.E. Turkestan) Punjab Raven [385] SFO MEGA ieee no: OF) 1 Sheik Saad, Iraq; 2 Amirabad, 2 Birjand, E. Persia; 1 Chaman, 1 Quetta, Baluchistan; 1 Razani, Waziristan; 1 Rawalpindi, N.W.F.P.; 1 Chaurkana, Gujranwala, 1 Yahore, Punjab; 1 Bahawalpur; 1 Jacobabad, Upper Sind; 1 Pichial Lake, Jodiipur; 1 Ping Bet, Little Rann, Kutch. Some with short wings (396-412) including individuals with a brown wash on the head and other parts of the plumage were marked ruficollis, but if the wing measurements are considered along with those of the tail and the height of the bill, and the fact that young subcorax are brown, they appear to agree more closely with the latter rather than ruficoilis. While the wing and tail measuremenis of subcorax and tibetanus do not overlap, some of the former have very massive bills. Measurements on p. 99. 1060 Corvus corax (Tibet) Tibet Raven SED owar Ll 22 1 Tso Morari Lake, 2 Ladakh. While this is larger and with long neck hackles, the latter does not appear to be an infallible character for separating it from subcorax, some of which have them long. The last bird (1977) from Tso Morari is jet black, and is outstandingly different from all the others, which have probably faded. Measurements on p. 99. 1061 Verde Is.) Brown-necked Raven OPO ee Gee 2e Or 4 Amirabad, 2 Birjand, E. Persia; 1 Persian Balu- chistan, 1 Chabar, Persian Gulf; 1 Nasirabad, 24 miles west of Turbat, Mekran; 1 Panjgur, Baluchi- stan. Both ruficollis and subcorax have been taken at the same places in eastern Persia, and a reference to the specimens shows that a brown tinge on the upperparts and/or breast need not necessarily identify ruficollis. The wing range tibetanus Hodgson 1:23 Corvus corax ruficollis Lesson (Cape 123 93 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 in the material identified is appreciably lower than in subcorax, and the depth of the bill and the length of the tail are also exclusive. The short neck hackles, the brown of the head and the measurements all appear to sepa- rate this from subcorax (supra). Vaurie (1954) held that ruficollis was not a subspecies of Corvus corax but a separate spe- cies. The evidence available certainly supports this view. Measurements on p. 99. (Lin- 3:23 1062 Bombycilla garrulus garruius naeus) (Sweden) Waxwing 3 292 Temple of Heaven, Paking, China. The bills are longer and the tails shorter than in both Witherby’s HANDBOOK and _ Stuart Baker’s FAUNA. If Poljokov’s centralasiae (1915, Zansan District and Smeinogorsk, Southwestern Altai) is separable, the present specimens would distributionally be of this race. Measurements on p. 99. Bonaparte 1:357 1063 Hypocolius ampelinus (NE. Africa) Grey Hypocolius 1726 EGecieon 2.9) 16 07. 4 Sera, Tigris, 4 Shatt-al-Adhain, 1 Zad, 3 Bagh- dad, 1 Garradah, 1 Bushire, Mesopotamia, 2 Kuar Bett, Kutch; 1 Kihim, Kolaba district, Bombay. The males show the following variations among themselves which it is not possible to associate with age, season or any other factor: (a) Two from Garradah (?) and Bushire (14 April) have pale, almost cream-coloured heads, while the two from India, 14 Novem- ber, Kihim, and 23rd March, Kuar Bett, Kutch, have the head grey, darker than the back, as in the remainder. (b) Two have black bills, while the others are largely yellow (originally horny) with black tips. (c) The white patch at the tip of the wing is pure white only in two, the others being sullied by a varying amount of brown. The females are a pale brown all over with darkening tips to the tail. None of them show their primaries with ‘“‘black terminal ends and white tips’’ as per INDIAN HANDBOOK. 5, p. 269. Meinertzhagen (/bis, 1947, p. 666) refers to “juvenile females being like the adult females, but slightly more isabelline, and the juvenile male being similar but with greyish white tips to the wing feathers’. Some of the unsexed birds mentioned above may be young males, but of the three with pale tips to the primaries, one is a reliably sexed 9 from Kutch. Measurements on p. 99. MEASUREMENTS EL. Garrulus leucotis leucotis Hume Wing Bill Tarsus Tail oe 170, 179, 180 30.6, 32, 33 32.8, 37.2, 40 128, 129, 131 (165-177 c. 26 c. 45 c. 130) 1020-1021 ef al. Garrulus glandarius subspp. nominate ¢@ 2 180, 184 29, 30.5 Sess S522 140, 141 (BR. HAND. ¢ 2 174-195 from skull 28-39 39-44 140-152) haringtoni 88 (2) Vitec dee Sle Sila7/ 40, 43 138 (2) (170-178 — — —) bispecularis 6 @ (8) 161-172 av. 166.5 27.8-29.6 av. 28.8 35-39.5 av. 37.4 144-150 av. 147.8 (32 160-178 Cc. 26 (a sy c. 180) (10 ¢ 2 Central Nepal measured by Biswas and quoted in IND. HAND. 5:20, Wing 142-153) (5) 157-171 av. 166 170; 2S 173 162-172 av. 167 GH @@2 160-170 interstinctus 4 & bispecularis 22 (5) interstinctus 292 (5) 94. 28.5-30 av. 29 34.7-42 av. 38 130-153 av. 146 Mfesky asx, PA) S) 34, 35, 38 144, 152, 158 28.2-30.8 av. 29.7 36.3-38.6 av. 37.3 141-149 av. 144 from skull 29-32 38-43 142-156) [386] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 vel SS ev Lee 607 j O7I ‘TIT ‘S‘OIT 097% ‘ErT “OFT OS ‘S9Or ‘Er LE ‘S9E “SE LIZ ‘917 ‘807 PY vaoiuos ‘dg Taq (deouuryy ‘alneA X29 897Z-H7Z 5° SE HI) pO0OI ‘OOI ‘1°86 OVT “SET “TET ZS ‘OS ‘S'6P (Z) 6€ ‘8€ 6€7 ‘(Z)SET 4o TIOL “66 LEG SCC CS 1S LE ‘9€ 6E7 “PET & 3 (Z) 9 TOI OS7 ‘OPT 96 ‘7S 6E ‘SSE OFZ ‘SH ee SISUIUD]JOG O£OTl 007 ISAO (OLT-007 cr-07 TE-OE A}JSOU /7Z-Z8I 52) CPTI “AV OET-IZI TST “AB 99T-STT Ctr “AR LCS-LE OSE “AR TE-P'TE COZ “AB 6IZ-S8T (8)5 8 ‘ SZI ‘A® O€T-PIT ‘S86 €S7 ‘AB O8T-S6T CSh ‘AR 6b-P'Cr SOE "AR TH-S'SE SOT “AV SIT-O6T (SI) PP BUDIUjODq 6 ZOT oney Sur / [el [el snsieL Tt BUI ‘ddsqns void waig "J? 12 OCOI “6ZOL (SST-SET Ob ‘9 ie 9 OLI-SSsI 5 ¢) + C8 Iv L’S€ OLI 2 ByewuiO BSSID = §PZOI (OIZ-ILT peer 6E-bE CSI-8€I HI) LOZ ‘€6T ‘761 ‘O8T Str ‘(Z)LOP “6E poe ‘(E) PE Srl ‘OPI ‘Srl ‘ZrI (5) 5S (OIZ-€61 Lv-9V ZP-LE [[Mys woIy LSI-L€T HI) 761 “AR ZIT-ELT v'Ob ‘AP ph-BE ‘SPE SE “AB L'8E-9'°0E € Srl ‘AP HSI-Ibl (8) PP (semsig ‘ulpnyed x9 69I-1bl vel “AB PST-6El Spl “A® 6SI-cel Tel SISUSUTYD SISUSUTYD BSSID EZOI — Zz °9 yMys wor SEE “AB OC-8'TE ZT ‘AV SZ-S*EZ STE “AV Z'9E-L'87 V'bt “AR S°9-L'7Z snsie 1d snjyepoooueyl snamuey CCOl SSI-prl & 2 HI) QEST “AB LOT-IST (8)8 8 LISE ‘A® Lol-erl (L)P SUI 95 [387] JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 LST “A® PCL “Ae Spt “Ae OST ‘Av pS “Av br] “Ae 9ST “AR P9OT-9VI I9T ‘ABW BOT-6ST “EST Ovt “Ae Irt 6yl “Ae SOs] ‘Ae est Ae 8ST TSI “SPT SOT ‘AB 691-C9T LZ) “ca oney Buty / PRL _ ‘sroyyeoy rey yowlq 0} sdy omyM Ws Ove “AB CST-OET 90E “AB TE-S'OE T6T “AB G'OE-LE ZBI “AR TIT-EET T8T “AV TZE-9Z 6LTZ ‘AP 87-8'97 £07 “COT ‘861 6G-1S 9G “SSC REG. SSC RAC S8IZ “AB STT-PITZ [E-Gi8Z 87-97 OLET “AB 69T-OIZ 96Z “AP TE-T8BZ B8B~T “AB OE-DLT (LEvT “AB 6LT-6I7Z — — ST AR THT-SIT Of “OE S8t “S97 BET “AB 99T-9IT €'67 “AB IE-LT Bz “AB TE-p'97 SSZ ‘AV QLT-9FT C7E-6T S'0E-S 87 (POE “AR 6PE-697 — = OVC CIC wes O67 ThE. LZE-9'8T. Cibe | AP C0E-L SC 907 BZ ‘SLT “9'9T ZOE 266— 88 QETZ “AR THT-96I L'6T “AB TE-S9T P6T “AB TIE-87Z SET “AB 6PT-ZOT BZ “AB CE-ST 8°67 “AR ETE-OLT OST “AB SOT-OET = TOE “AB S'E-SBT TOE “AP STE-6e (L67Z-S° LIZ — —_ 197 8Z L@ CHG OCC SIE ‘SOE OS) SLE 9ST “AB TLT-LSZ TE ‘AB ZE-S'LT O€ “AV 1E-6'67 (9ZIE “AB €9E-S9T — OOE ‘STE CTE ‘SLE €87 ‘OE Tel snsieL, Ita ‘ddsqns epunqesva Byboipusg jp 32a EST “AB SST-OST (7) Maps = 6Ta LVI-8E1 (L) iMvusaa YEO €vl ‘Ivl ‘Cel (¢€) vinasvd €€Ol Srl ‘Ly ‘pel “evi opiueant PSI ‘AB O9I-ZrI ppungvsva EOI CEST “AG SOI-prl 9 B® ®& JqjUAe) IST ‘A® 6SI-SpT (9) s2]fuoanl SZST ‘AR Z9I-prt (8)(q) «Dpyjed 19L ‘AB LOT-LST (¢)(®) oped Eo SCOT “AP PLI-8ST rocked) _— 204814q eTEOL 56 EST ‘“6PL ‘LbL ‘Spt = (vy) Hhousaa VEO bel ‘trl “Set (¢) vjnasod E01 COST “AB QSI-ErT (OT) e[fucant TST “AR 6SI-SpE = (L) Mojaq syed SSI “AB BoT-6rl (Ss) MOTeq Yep ppunqpspa ZOOL CEST “AR ZLI-6hl GRR JoUAR) Col “Chl (Z) xe[tueant 6ST ‘TST (Z)(q) prod IOI ‘AB SOI-LST (9)(®) epyied Tel 6691 ‘AB 6LI-LST Joyuked) SLI ‘ELI (Z) 20I8lq BIEOT SUIAA ny reorl-Teol [388] 96 BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 1042-1044 Nucifraga caryocatactes subspp. Wing Bill Tarsus Tail re) 1042 multipunctata (3) 202, 207, 211 36, 45.3, 47.5 34, 36.5, 38 148, 150, 152 1043 hemispila (6) 209-220 (213) 44.5-46.6 (45.9) 37.5-40.5 (39) 132-150 (137.6) 1044 macella (2) DADADYES 43.8, 45 37, 40 143, 135 O79 1042 multipunctata (2) 206, 207 47, 49.7 351351 37.6 152 1043 hemispila (4) 207-209 45-48 35.5-39.2 131-149 (138) 0? =rothschildi 193 47 34 132 1045 Pyrrhocorax graculus digitatus & 3 (4) 263, 281, 283, 286 33.2-35 36-45 1625 17d VS, 182 (1H 274-298 from skull 34-38 42-48 174-193) 2 2 (6) 254-280 31.5-34 35-38 155-171 (1H 262-273 from skull 32-36 41-46 165-178) Etchecopar in LES OISEAUX DU MOYEN ORIENT, p.532, states that this race is larger than the nominate with the wings 280-289 mm. contra 255-279. 1046, 1047 et al. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax subspp. r Wing Bill Tarsus Tail $3 docilis (2) 289, 298 51.8, 54.5 45.5, 49 145, 147 1047 himalayanus (4) 298-310 av. 307 49.5-65 av. 56.3 46-57 150-160 av. 154 29 docilis (2) 273, 282 50, 50.5 45, 47.5 133, 135 1046 centralis (IH 6 @ 290-336 from skull 50-56 50-58 —) mostly over 310 1047 himalayanus (3) 296, 301 (2) 50:7, 5252.3 46,50, 51 152, 153, 163 (HH @@ 291-332 50-103 widely variable 55-65 —) 1053 Corvus monedula monedula aa (6) 2330053 ave oti 32-37.5 av. 34.5 37.5-45 132-146 av. 138 (IH 3 2 230-250 32-34 c. 44 c. 135) [389] 97 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 1048-1050 et al. Corvus splendens subspp. Wing me) 1048 zugmayeri (19) 252-289 av. 272 (GH @ 2 255-290 ex CBT) 246-278 av. 266 (1H 266-284 1049 splendens (14) 1050 protegatus 250 (1H_ 255-284 EL insolens (3) 245-255 Qe 1048 zugmayeri (11) 240-278 av. 261 (iH 6 Q 255-290 ex CBT) 1049 splendens (10) 256-279 av. 265 (iH: 252-282 1050 protegatus (2) 241, 252 (4H 219-264 EL insolens (3) 239, 244, 248 Bill 44-52 av. 49 47.5-52.5 av. 5.2 from skull 51-56 45.5 from skull 49-55 49.1-51 44-51 av. 46.5 45-52 av. 48.2 from skull 45-50 42.1, 46.5 from skull 42-50 48.2-50 Tarsus Tail 41-49 av. 44 150-175 av. 164 38.5-46 av. 42.8 145-173 av. 160 45-51 162-175) 44 145 45-48 147-169) 42-42.5 140, 141, 150 39.5-45 av. 42 150-175 av. 158.8 39-46 av. 42.4 154-164 av. 157.3 44-48 154-175) 38.6, 45.5 138, 150 45-48 128-155) 41-43 134, 142, 144 In zugmayeri, young birds are darker than adults, and in the material available the males measure larger than the females. 1054-1057 et al. Corvus macrorhynchos subspp. Wing rac) 1054 intermedius (18) 293*, 304-362 av. 331 GH 311-378 286-330 av. 309 (1H 308-335 303-326 av. 311.7 (304-345 av. 325 343, 347 CLVS A 6322) (iH 325-380 276-311 av. 294.6 1055 levailantii (4) 1055a andamanensis (4) 1056 tibetosinensis 1057 culminatus((11) (iH_ 273-319 29 1054 intermedius(6) 296-319 av. 311 (iH 292-343 1055 levaillantii (2) 297, 321 (iH 280-329 1055a andamanensis (2) 287, 310 (290-321 1056 tibetosinensis (iH 320-341 1057 culminatus(16) 268-315 av. 290 (1H 260-301 EL colonorum 300 98 Bill 56.5-63.5 av. 58.5 from skull 54-73 (* albinoid with horn-coloured bill) 57.5-61.5 av. 60.5 from skull 61-69 58.6-65.5 av. 61.8 bills never under 58, usually over 60, upto 70) 69, 67 from skull 69-73 59-61.6 av. 60.8 from skull 55-67 51.5-57.8 av. 55.6 from skull 54-65 59, 60.5 from skull 55-65 60.5, 64.2 bills as in ¢ @) from skull 60.67 56-62 av. 57.3 from skull 52-63 59 Tail Tail / Wing ratio (average) 166*, 181-225 av. 200.3 61.3 144-242) 165-193 av. 182 58.8 181-197) 172-195 av. 182 58.3 206, 198 60, 57 201-260) 155-181 av. 166 56.3 156-189) 173-210 av. 194.5 62.5 174-224) 186, — 58 165-192) 168, 177 Sen Le 186-240) 153-185 av. 168 58 147-183) 172 57.3 BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—22 1058 et al. Corvus corone subspp. Wing Bill Tail 1058 orientalis 68 (3) 359, 352, 305 juv.* 57.5, 54, 49.2 212, 207, 195* 2 (1) 331 50 197 (ex Vaurie ¢ 2 345-366 from skull 59-69 200-218) 1058a_sharpii 66 (7) 302-320 av. 312 50-53.7 av. 51 168-190 av. 180 Q 300 48.5 175 Geo 320-340 47-54 c. 200) EL capellinus 3 337 61 199 @e (3) 302, 318, 323 SOs eS 194, 195, — EL cornix g 312 43.4 170 1059-61 Corvus corax subspp. Wing Bill x height at centre of nostril Tail $6 1059 subcorax (5) 398-443 av. 423 62.5-68.5 av. 65.3 x 23.5-25.2 av. 24.1 220-240 av. 226.5 (IH 420-448 from skull 66-78 229-242) 1060 tibetanus (2) 447-459 70.5-75 x 24.5-26.8 253-270) (iH 461, 477 from skuli 78-87 266, 288) 1061 ruficollis 382 62 x 20 206 (iH ex Meinertzhagen ¢Q 370-413 from skull 62-70 —) one. 1059 subcorax (7) 405-438 av. 419 61-68.5 av. 64.6 x 23-26 av. 24.4 221-227 av. 223 (iH 399-430 from skull 69, 74 220, 223) 1060 tibetanus 485 13 X20-9 266 (IH 448-465 from skull 73-78 257-260) 1061 ruficollis 348-370 av. 362 57-65 av. 60.5 x 19.3-22.2 av. 20.9 186-200 av. 193 GH @Q 370-413 from skull 62-70 —) 1062 Bombycilla garrulus garrulus Wing Bill Tail 3) eS 115, 116 (2) 13 @2)ne 13-5 57, 58.5 (2) (112-120 10-11.5 59-67) 1063 Hypocolius ampelinus Wing Bill Tail 11 $24 (5 by pl.) 100-105 av. 101.5 14-16.5 av. 15.5 103-116 av. 109.5 (100-110 15-16 about 115) O es 97-102 av. 99.6 14.7-16 av. 15.3 97-106 av. 100.5 * Juvenile males may be included. (to be continued) [391] 99 CLUTCH SIZE, INCUBATION AND HATCHING SUCCESS OF GHARIAL IGAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)] EGGS FROM NARAYANI RIVER, NEPAL, 1976-1978" H. R. BUSTARD? INTRODUCTION Gharial eggs were collected from 1976, in Narayani river, Nepal, for captive incubation as part of a conservation programme on the endangered gharial. In 1976 the eggs were collected by myself, in 1977 by myself in asso- ciation with HMG Nepal’s Special Officer (Gharial), and in 1978 by HMG Nepal gha- rial staff only. The only published data for clutch size of the gharial is that of Malcolm Smith (1931) who stated, “Their eggs, 40 or more in number, are de- posited in sandbanks”’ and Parshad (1914), who removed 56 eggs from the oviducts of a 9 foot 7 inch female which he shot at Ferozpore. The data presented below as well as provid- ing hitherto unknown information on aspects of the nesting biology of the gharial allow comparison of clutch size, incubation and hatching success between years. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nesting took place on high riverine sand- banks which were protected by project staff, hence the date of egg laying was known pre- 1 Accepted January 1980. 2Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, Rajendranagar Road, 19-4-319, Lake Dale, Hyderabad-500 264 (A.P.). 100 cisely (Bustard, in prepn. a). In 1976 eggs were transported to Orissa for incubation. In 1977, in part because of the poor incubation results achieved in 1976, and also as part of a Nepalese training programme, all nests were incubated in Nepal. This was carried out by reburying the eggs as whole nests as collected in a mid-river sandbank at Korea Mohan which was enclosed by a predator-proof wood and wire-mesh enclosure with access through a hatch in the roof. Due to unseasonable weather in 1977—pre- monsoon showers started at the time of egg- laying in early April and continued until the onset of the monsoon—this sandbank flooded well before hatching. Anticipating this the nests were all removed several weeks prior to hatching and completed their incubation in sand in metal trunks in a specially-heated room at Tiger Tops Jungle Lodge, Royal Chitwan National Park. As far as possible this room was maintained between 30-32°C but tempera- tures sometimes fell below this range. In 1978 eggs were incubated in the same island hat- chery but again had to be moved due to early floods, this time to the Park headquarters at Kasara, where the hatchery room was main- tained between 30-35°C with aid of heaters. RESULTS The data recorded during the three years are given in Tables 1-4. The various topics GHARIAL FROM NARAYANI RIVER are taken up separately below: Clutch Size: Clutch size in 1976 varied from 18 to 40 eggs (mean 28.6, Table 1). In 1977 the range was 16-61 (mean 36.9) eggs (Table 2) and in 1978 18-45 (mean 31) eggs (Tables 3 and 4). The differences in mean clutch size between 1976 and 1977 should be noted (28.6 and 36.9 eggs) respectively—a mean increase/clutch of 8.3 eggs in 1977 as compared to 1976. In 1978 mean clutch size at 31 eggs was intermediate between the two previous years. Nesting Season: The nesting season is usually very discrete, at least in any one area. It proceeded up river towards the hill country (Bustard, in prepn. b). In 1976 all the nests collected on the Nara- yani river between Royal Chitwan National Park and the Indian border were laid between 29 March and 8 April (Table 1). However, one nest on the Narayani upstream of the National Park was not laid until 19 April and two nests on the small stretch of the Kali-Gan- daki were laid nine days apart (12 and 21 April). The data for 1977 show very discrete nest- ing by nesting area (Table 2). In 1978 nesting is again all very discrete, all occurring within six days (2-7 April) for eight nests for which date of laying is known (Table 3). Fertility: In many nests (see Tables 1 and 2) a siz- able proportion of the eggs would appear to be infertile at least according to the criteria for fertility given above. The mean percentage fertility in 1976 was 50.4 (data provided by Mr. L. A. K. Singh). In 1977 I recorded a mean percentage fertility of 82.5 which would appear more normal. Comparable data were apparently not recerd- ed in 1978. Percentage Hatch: The percentage hatch also varied greaily (Table 1-4) from a low of 24.2% (1976) to a high of 75.1% (1977). The overall figure for 1978 was 52.5% but this is increased to 65.3% if the results of the three nests left for natural incubation are not included. Incubation Period: The mean for the incubation period for the three years (excluding those three nests left in nature in 1978) were 84, 94 and 83 days for the years 1976, 1977 and 1978 res- pectively (Tables 1-3). The considerable varia- tions within any one year should be noted, the incubation spread being 16, 15 and 8 days in each of the three years respectively. DISCUSSION inter-year variations in clutch size: Major interest centres around the large mean differences in clutch size between years. It is known that in many species of reptiles, larger (older) females lay more eggs (Bustard 1972), although this is not necessarily the case, as some species would appear to be exceptions (Bustard, ibid.). However, at least in those species laying larger egg clutches inter-year differences in clutch size or total egg produc- tion, may be more important than any effect of larger clutches from larger females, as shown by Bustard (ibid.) on the basis of very extensive data for the green sea turtle (C. mydas), a species in which clutch size is posi- tively correlated with female size. Bustard postulated that these inter-year differences in egg production by C. mydas, may reflect differing feeding opportunities in the inter-nesting years spent at sea. In the cas< of the gharial, data were recorded on a small number of breeding females which presumably bred annually. The 1976 data (on nine nests) 101 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 shows a mean clutch size of 25.5 eggs where- as the 1977 data (on 16 nests) shows a mean clutch size of 36.9 eggs—a mean increase/ clutch of 11.4 eggs. No obvious explanation is available to explain these differences. In 1978 the data on 10 nests gave an intermediate figure of 31.0 eggs. These differences cannot be explained on the basis of sampling biases as an attempt was made to collect every nest each year. An examination of the distribution of clutch size variations in the various years indicates that in all three years there were no clutches of under 10 eggs (the smallest clutches in the three years were 16, 16 and 18 eggs respec- tively). The largest clutch sizes were 39, 61 and 45 eggs respectively. However, the mean of 36.9 eggs in 1977 reflects a marked shift towards larger clutch sizes in all nests. Twelve (of 16) nests fell in the 31-40 clutch size group in 1977 and three occurred in larger groups as opposed to three (of 9) in this group in 1976 which represented the largest clutch size grouping in 1976. Discrete nesting season: The discrete nesting season of this popula- tion of the gharial has been commented upon elsewhere for the 1977 nesting season (Bus- tard, in prepn. b). The data presented here indicates that a very discrete nesting season characterised all three years. Fertility: A percentage of apparently infertile eggs are a feature of most reptiles which deposit large clutches of eggs. However, the percentage fertility figure for 1976 (of 50.4%) should be treated with caution as it appears abnormally low. It seems likely that some early embryo- nic deaths may have remained undetected at subsequent examination. The 82.5% figure for 1977 is considered more normal. Examination 102 of the intra-nest data (Table 2) indicates that fertility varies from a high of 100% (two nests) to a low of 22.8% but with the excep- tion of this single nest and one of 59% the lowest per cent fertility recorded was 73%. Percentage Hatch: The percentage hatch figures are clearly closely related to the level of fertility. Exami- nation of the detailed data for 1977 shows that most fertile eggs result in hatchlings. The differences between fertility and percentage hatch figures are accounted for by embryonic deaths—which except for exceptional circum- stances such as flooding—are usually relatively few. Hatching results were extremely poor in 1976. Reasons for this are not known. ‘The distance over which the eggs were transported, 1400 km. was not a key factor, gharial eggs often being transported over very long dist- ances in the Project either freshly laid or two- thirds incubated and subsequently achieve very high levels of successful hatch (Bustard in prepn. a.; and S. Choudhury, unpubl.). The 1977 hatching figures (75%), on the other hand are surprisingly good, as nest tempera- tures were extremely low (near 28.3C) due to the persistant wet weather throughout the in- cubation period (Bustard, in prepn. b). Fur- thermore, these eggs were dug up twice during incubation, once when freshly laid, and again towards the end of the incubation period, to complete their incubation in a heated room where, in the absence of electricity, tempera- tures were frequently less than ideal. The 1978 hatch (65%) was likewise achieved by HMG Nepal staff despite having to move the eggs twice at similar times to 1977. Natura! nest failures: The reason for the very poor incubation success of at least two of three nest left in GHARIAL FROM NARAYANI RIVER TABLE 1 DATE OF EGG LAYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) IN 1976. Nest Date of Location Clutch Number “Percentage ; Number Percentage Iucubation No. Laying Size Fertile Fertile Hatched Hatched Period 1 2Fi3 Narayani River 27 19 70.4 4 14.8 85 243* 3/4 Narayani River 41 33 80.5 13 S17 85-6 4. 5/4 Narayani River 18 17 94.4 3 16.7 83 Ne 8/4 Narayani River 39 20 S13 17 43.6 716 6 8/4 Kali-Gandaki 32 29 90.6 23 71.9 92 7 12/4 Kali-Gandaki 24 0 0 0 0 -— 8 19/4 Narayani River 33 22 66.7 5 1542 84-5 9 21/4 Kali-Gandaki 16 0 0 0 0 = Mean — a acne 50.4 ee 84 * These nests were collected by local people and the eggs mixed prior to their reaching project staff. TABLE 2 DATE OF EGG LAYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) IN 1977. Nest Date of Clutch Number Percentage Number Percentage Incubation No. Laying Size Fertile Fertile Hatched Hatched Period 1. 4/4 39 23 59.0 22 56.4 95 Dy, 4/4 16 12 75.0 8 50.0 94-6 Qe 1/4 47* 36 78.2 DS 54.3 98-102 4, 6/4 38* 27 73.0 25 67.5 93-95 5 2/4 33* 32 100.0 a2 100.0 99 6 1/4 32 32 100.0 28 90.6 95 Ti 3/4 61 53 90.6 50 82.9 95-7 8. 31/3 31 29 93.5 29 9355 99-101 9. 31/3 SOLE* 8 76.6 36 76.6 101-2 10. 3/4 34 32 94.1 28 82.3 96 11. 8/4 37* 33 91.7 33 89.1 91-2 12s 14/4 35 8 22.8 8 22.8 89 13. 14/4 Se 33 O17 33 91.6 88-89 14. 8/4 31 27 87.1 22 70.9 90-91 Se 9/4 37 ** 35 100.0 34 Sipeat 87-8 16. 10/4 33* 28 87.5 29 75.7 89-90 Mean — 36.9 = 82.5 + Baal 94 Note: Due to damage at the time of laying the number incubated may vary slightly from the number laid. Clutches marked (*) indicate that 1 egg less, (**) 2 eggs less and (***) 3 eggs less that the clutch size was incubated. 103 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE 3 DATE OF EGG LEYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) IN 1978. ALL PLACES NAMED REFER TO NARAYANI RIVER. Nest Date of Location Clutch Number Percentage Incubation No Laying Size Hatched Hatched Period ibe 3/4 Tamaspur 45 40 88.8 84 2, 3/4 Badarjhola 44 18 40.9 85-7 3h 4/4 Badarjhola 42 40 95.2 83-4 4. 5/4 Tamaspur 25 17 73.9 83 Se 6/4 Tamaspur 18 2, 1) pa 89 6. 6/4 Tamaspur 29 25 86.2 81 Te 7/4 Tamaspur 24 5 20.8 83 TABLE 4 DATE OF EGG LAYING, NESTING SITE, CLUTCH SIZE, HATCHING SUCCESS AND INCUBATION PERIOD (DAYS) FOR THREE NESTS LEFT FOR NATURAL INCUBATION IN 1978 A NA BE SEE EFT FSS A SE ET SY EO TE Nest Date of Location Clutch Number Percentage Incubation No Laying Size Hatched —- Hatched Period ie Not recorded Badarjhola 23 10 56.5 Not known 2. Not recorded Badarjhola 27* 0 0 Not known 8} 6.0 105 2-4-1978 Deoghat * Eggs markedly smaller than normal. nature in 1978 is not known. The clutch of markedly smaller eggs may well have been defective. The HMG Nepal report (Maskey and Ram Pritt 1978) does not provide information on this point. It would seem, however, that early onset of the monsoon resulted in water logging of the nests, resulting in total loss of two nests and loss of most of the eggs in the third nest the only eggs hatching being the uppermost which were not flooded. A similar situation has been ob- served in the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) by Webb et al. (1977) and by Kar and Bustard (in prepn.). In the absence of 104 concrete data this is purely hypothesis, how- ever, Bustard (in prepn. b), on the basis of his data, stated that in 1977 most natural nests in Narayani would have failed to hatch be- cause of water logging following early onset of the monsoon. It appears that this was again the situation in 1978. Incubation period: The means for 1976 and 1978 vary by only one day (83 and 84 days respectively). The ten-eleven day longer incubation period in 1977 is explicable on the basis of the very low temperatures existing in the natural sand- GHARIAL FROM NARAYANI RIVER banks in that year, commented on by Bustard (in prepn., b), as a result of pre-monsoon showers commencing in early April at the time of egg laying, and persisting until the onset of the monsoon proper in June. Since egg in- cubation is temperature-related, the persistant rains, which coo! down the nesting sandbanks, result in a lengthened incubation period. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to; HMG Nepal National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, in particular the respective Chiefs, Mr. P. B. S. Pradhan and Mr. B. B. Shah, for authorities to carry out this work; Mr. H. Mishra, Gov- ernment Biologist; Mr. Ram Pritt Yadav, Special Officer (Gharial) who worked with me in 1977; Tiger Tops Pvt. Limited in particular Mr. Jim Edwards, Mr. John Edwards and Dr. C. McDougal for many kindnesses, assistances and provision of an incubation room in 1977; Mr. L. A. K. Singh for information on hatch- ing success of 1976 eggs; Mr. Ashish Chan- dola for assistance in the operation of the heated hatchery at Tiger Tops in 1977; and Mr. P. C. Pani, Range Officer, Gharial Pro- ject, Orissa, who accompanied me to Nepal during both the 1976 and 1977 egg collections and greatly facilitated the logistical side of the operation. REFERENCES Bustarp, H. R. (1972): Sea Turtles: Conserva- tion and Natural History. Collins, London and Sydney. —————— _ (in prepn., a): Conservation of the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia; Crocodilia) in Nepal. (In prepn., b): Nesting Ecology of the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) in Narayani River, Nepal. CuHoupuary, S. (1980): Ecological Studies on the Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin). Ph.D. thesis. University of Lucknow. Kar, S. & Busrarp, H. R. (in prepn.): Nesting ecology of the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodvlus porosus Schneider). MASKEY, T. M. & Yapav, R. P. (1978): Report on Gharial Breeding. Unpubl. Rep. to HMG Nepal, National Parks and Wild Life Conservation Office. SmitH, MatcoLtm (1931): The Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Amphibia. J Loricata, Testudines. Taylor & Francis. London. Wess, G. J. MEsSEL, H. AND MAGNUSSON, W. (1977): The nesting of Crocodylus porosus in ARN- HEM LAND, NORTHERN’ TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA. Copeia 1977 (2): 238-249. PARSHAD, B. (1914): The Gharial (Gavialis gan- geticus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 369-370. 105 NEW DESCRIPTIONS PSEUDOSCORPIONS FROM SOUTH INDIA—FOUR NEW SPECIES OF THE FAMILY CHERNETIDAE MANGE AND CHELIFERIDAE HAGEN (PSEUDOSCORPIONIDA, MONOSPHYRONIDA)! S. SIVARAMAN? (With four text-figures) Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. of the family Chernetidae Mange and Withius suis sp. nov., Metawithius (Microwithius) chamundiensis and M. (M.)_ bulli sv. nov. are described from South India and compared with related species. A Key to the new species is also given. INTRODUCTION The members of the super family Chelife- roidea, Chamberlin are widely distributed in Continental India. A number of species were described from India and Ceylon by Beier (1973, 1974) and Murthy and Ananthakrish- nan (1977). In the present paper, new species of the genera Lamprochernes Tomosvary, Withius Kew and Metawithius Chamberlin are described. Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. and Withius suis sp. nov. were collected from soil litter by using modified Berlese funnel (Siva- raman 1979) and Metawithius species were collected from bark of trees. The type mate- rial is deposited in the Museum of the De- partment of Zoology, Loyola College, Mad- ras. KEY TO THE NEW SPECIES OF FAMILIES CHERNETIDAE AND CHELIFERIDAE: 1. Accessory teeth absent: both palpal fingers with equally developed venom tooth and venedens; ‘Accepted February 1980. “ Department of Zoology, Loyola College, Mad- ras 600034, India. 106 38 flagellum with 4-5 setae; Sternites of male most- ly with special Setigerous area; (Family Cheli- feridae Hagen and subfamily Withinae Cham- berlin)e st vehicle eee eee eee 2 Accessory teeth present atleast in smaller num- bers; only the movable finger of the palp with venom tooth and venedens; very rarely with rudimentary venedens on the fixed finger, if so, the accessory teeth very clear. (Family Cherne- tidae, Mange)...Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. . Carapace with sides subparallel, as wide at the region of the anterior furrow as at the posterior border; males with patches of microsetae on Sternites V to IX or X (both inclusive) with true eyes. .22.4... hate, Withius suis sp. nov. Carapace broader at the anterior furrow region or slightly anterior there to; sides converging abruptly infront and gradually to the rear; males with patches of microsetae on Sternites VII to TX (both inclusive) only with eye-spots. (Genus Metawithius Chamberlin and subgenus Microwithius Redikozev). .......cs0scc5eee>s 3 Serrula exterior with 17 blades; palpal and pedal podomeres slender. .............. Meta- withius (Microwithius) chamundiensis sp. nov. Serrula exterior with 15 blades; palpal and pedal podomeres stouter. Metawithius (Microwithius) bulli sp. nov. NEW DESCRIPTIONS Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. (Fig. 1) Carapace and palps dark yellowish brown and the remaining parts light yellowish brown; carapace smooth, with rounded granules on the lateral margins; with anterior prominent groove, nearly median and posterior grouve obscure and nearly median between anterior groove and posterior margin of carapace; eyes or eye-spots absent; anterior end with 8, pos- terior margin with 10 setae; carapace distinct- ly longer than broad, 1.25 times as long as wide. Tergites fairly sclerotised; all tergites and sternites except I, II and III divided more or less clearly by a nearly linear suture; tergites 1 and II markedly narrowed; tergal chaetotaxy of an imperfect biseriate type, with about 6 Aig \ lif 1% yl ty NO AZ Z ’ \! discal and 16 marginal setae, posteriorly with 6 discal and 20 marginal setae; sternal chae- totaxy similar, with 6 discal and 18 to 20 mar- ginal setae; tergites with prominent lateral maculae or spots occupying nearly the full outer half of each scute; but less prominent on sternites; X tergite with 2 and XI tergite with 6 pseudotactile setae and X and XI sternites with two pseudotactile setae each; pleural membrane reticulostriate. Vestitural setae long, slender and acuminate. Palin of the chelicera with reticulate mark- ings, with 5 setae sb and 6 short; flagellum with 3 blades; fixed finger with 3 terminal serrations followed by 3 triangular teeth; api- cal tooth of the movable finger well developed, subapical tooth blunt; lamina interior with 4 ¢ aA, 4 Wht hee f = TIO0. OE Fig. 1. Lamprochernes indicus sp. nov. A—Chela lateral view; B—Palp entire (@). 107 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 dentate sub-apical lobes; serrula exterior with 17 ligulate blades; galea of the male stout and short and of female, prominent with 3 ter- minal and 2 subterminal curved branches; galea seta long and acuminate; shorter than galea and equa! to the Jength of galea in the male. Chelicerae, 2.5 times as long as deep, 1.5 times as long as the movable finger. Palps longer than the body, segments fair- ly robust; finely granulated on the flexor mar- gins of femur, tibia and near the base of chelal fingers. Trochanter coarsely granulated, with a prominent cone-like protruberance; 1.75 to 1.8 times as long as wide; femur robust, gently concave anteriorly and strongly convex post- eriorly; pedicellate; slightly shorter than tibia 1.34 time as long as trochanter and 1.75 to 1.85 times as long as wide; tibia slightly but distinctly shorter than carapace; with a curv- ed pedicel, 1.85 to 1.95 times as long as wide; chela robust; pedicellate, 2.45 to 2.55 times (with pedicel), 2.28 to 2.35 times (without pedicei) as long as wide; hand more or less conical in dorsal view, slightly longer than tibia; 1.41 to 1.45 times (with pedicel), 1.22 to 1.28 times (without pedicel) as long as wide; fingers gently curved and only slightly longer than the breadth of hand and shorter than the length of hand; chela, 1.84 times as Jong as tibia; fixed finger with 29 and movable finger with 32 marginal teeth; movable finger with four accessory teeth opposite to the 10th to 21st marginal teeth at regular intervals; the exterior accessory teeth absent; fixed finger with two subapical accessory teeth interiorly nearer to the 4th and 5th marginal teeth; sb and b separated by three areolar diameters; st in between ¢ and sb; nodus ramosus oppo- site to 18th marginal tooth and cauded to 1; et nearly terminal, opposite to 7th marginal teeth; it distad of median and much distal of est; est and ist about opposite to each 108 other; the distance between the finger tip and it more than the distance between isb and ist; isb, ib, esb and eb proximal of basal marginal teeth; a submedian pseudotactile seta occurr- ing on each finger; two dense sensory—spots interiorly between ist and isb; four such spots proximed of ish and esb; three more sensory spots distal of esb exteriorly; movable finger devoid of such spots. Legs stout, smooth with vestitural setae; basifemur shorter than telofemur and mov- ably articulated. Leg. I: femur (both segments), 2.89 times; tibia, 3.82 times and tarsus, 3.8 times as long as deep. Vestitural setae of tibia and tarsus long and acuminate. Leg IV: femur (both segments), 3.5 times; tibia, 3.88 times; tarsus, 4.18 times as long as deep. Leg III with one pseudotactile seta at the middle region of the tarsus and Leg IV with pseudotactile setae one at the distal half of tibia and another at the 1/3rd of the proximal half of tarsus. Male genitalia of characteristic lamprocher- netine type, female genitalia simple with tuft of 18 setae in the anteriomedial region and posteriorly guarded with a row of 10 setae. Holotype: female (Measurements in mm.): Total body length, 2.380; abdominal breadth, 0.780; carapace, 0.612 by 0.489; che- licera, 0.334 by 0.133; movable finger, 0.289 long. Palps: trochanter, 0.311 by 0.178; femur, 0.417 by 0.234; tibia, 0.478 by 0.256; chela, 0.878 (without pedicel, 0.812) by 0.356; hand, 0.500 (without pedicel, 0.434) by 0.356; fing- ers, 0.378 long. Leg I: miofemur, 0.289 by 0.100; tibia, 0.234 by 0.061; tarsus, 0.211 by 0.056. Leg IV: miofemur, 0.467 by 0.133: tibia, 0.345 by 0.089; tarsus, 0.256 by 0.061. Collected from soil litter, Bangalore, Kar- nataka, 10-7-1977. NEW DESCRIPTIONS Allotype: male (Measurements in mm): Total body length, 2.18; maximum width, 0.712. Collected from soil litter, Bangalore, Karnataka, 10.7.1977. Paratype: 2 females and one male collected from the same locality, 10-7-1977. This new species is very closely related to L. oblongus (Say) in having st of the movable palpal finger in the middle in between sb and 7 and the palpal fingers shorter than that of hand without pedicel. It couid be separated from the same by the stouter nature of paipal femur and slender nature of chela (L. indicus —femur, 1.75 to 1.85 times and chela with pedicel, 2.45 to 2.55 times as long as wide; L. oblongus—femur, 2.0 times and chela, 2.3 times as long as wide) and the elongated nature of the body. L. indicus sp. nov. can be separated from L. savignyi (Simon), record- ed from India by Beier, by the position of st in between ¢ and sb and stouter nature of palpal femur and tibia. Withius suis sp. nov. (Fig. 2) Carapace well sclerotised, anterior 1/3 re- gion reddish and posterior 2/3 region brown- ish in males; moderately sclerotised in females; carapacal furrows distinct; anterior furrow slightly anterior to the first pair of legs and the posterior in a level with second pair of legs; anterior region deeply convex and the posterior region much flattened; sides sub- parallel with the maximum width in the pos- terior region; postero-lateral regions membran- ous; anterior pair of eyes well developed; sur- face of the carapace with a large number of well distributed plumose setae; anterior end with 6 and posterior end with 12 such setae; carapace, 1.31 times as long as wide. Fig. 2. Withius suis sp. nov. A—Pedipalp entire (4); B—Chela lateral view. 109 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Tergites brownish; well sclerotised; tergites completely divided excepting XII; tergites I to III uniseriate and the rest biseriaie; tergal chaetotaxy of male; 12—12—12—6/10—6/10 —6/12 — 6/10 — 6/12 — 6/10 —6/8 — 8— 2m., female with lesser number of setae with the chaetotaxy: 8—10—12—2/10—2/8—4/10 —4/10—4/10—10—2m. Sternites less sclero- tised than the tergites; sternites IV to X com- pletely divided; sternal chaetotaxy of female from the IV sternite: 2/12—2/10—4/12—4/ 12—4/10—4/10—4/8—10—2m. (The num- bers in the upper row indicate the discal series and those in the lower row indicate the marginal series). Sternal chaetotaxy of male characteristic; sternite IV to IX with bristle patches in the median region of the scute, each patch with 25 to 30 setae; more setae are seen in the posterior sternites. Sternite with 14 setae, XI with 8 setae and XII with 2 setae; X and XI tergites and sternites with four pseudotactile setae each. Palm of the chelicera nongranulated but with net like markings; with 5 setae; /s, es and is long; sb and 6 short and acuminate; fixed finger with 3 terminal serrations follow- ed by 4 triangular teeth; lamina interior well developed with an elongated apical dentate process; apical tooth of the movable finger curved and blunt and subapical tooth flattened and blunt; galea of male short, stout with three terminal vestigeal bud-like projections, galea of female stout with two terminal and one subterminal branches; galeal seta equal to the length of galea; serrula exterior with 14 blades; flagellum with 4 blades, distal one serrated; chelicerae, 1.73 times as long as deep and 1.36 times as long as movable finger. Palps reddish brown, dorsal tubercle of tro- chanter, flexor and extensor margins of femur and tibia well and coarsely granulated; most 110 of the vestitural setae of the trochanter, femur and tibia plumose; trochanter with a short pedicel and dorsal tubercle; 1.83 times as long as wide; femur with a short pedicel; extensor margin strongly convex and the flexor margin more or less straight; 3.24 times as long as wide; tibia with a long pedicel, which 14 times as long as wide; clavate; 2.79 times as long as wide; chela slender with a short pedi- cel, 3.78 times (with pedicel), 3.0 times (with- out pedicel) as long as wide; hand shorter than femur and tibia and much longer than fingers; 2.17 times (with pedicel), 1.83 times (without pedicel) as long as wide, fingers, 0.74 times as long as the hand (with pedicel) and 0.43 times as long as the chela (with pedicel); fingers equal in length; ist of the fixed finger proximal in position, est closer to et than to esb; almost in the middle region of the finger; ib and eb in a same level; /t below the level of est and proximal in posi- tion. Venom glands and venom ducts well developed in both the fingers; movable finger with 32 teeth of which the proximal teeth are flattened and fixed finger with 30 retroconical teeth. Legs yellowish in female and brownish in male; weakly granulated; vestitural setae mostly acuminate and in some regions clavate. Leg i: basifemur shorter than telofemur; basi- femur, 0.83 times; telofemur, 2.0 times; tibia, 4.0 times and tarsus, 5.0 times as long as deep. Leg IV: miofemur robust and stout; longer than tibia; tibia more swollen along the flexor margin; miofemur, 3.03 times; tibia, 5.0 times and tarsus, 5.8 times as long as deep; without pseudotactile setae; however 2 elongated setae are seen near the tip of the tarsus, claws normal, arolium simple and un- divided; shorter than claws. Male genitalia complicated with 6 setae on either side of the operculum; female genitalia NEW DESCRIPTIONS with one median and two lateral cribriform plates; coxal area sexually differentiated; IV coxa of female broader with a cluster of acu- minate bristles (12) in the posterior area; coxal area of male simple. Holotype: male (Measurements in mm): Total body length, 2.246; maximum width, 0.834; carapace, 0.70 by 0.534; chelicerae, 0.211 by 0.122; fingers, 0.156 long. Palps: trochanter, 0.367 by 0.20; femur, 0.612 by 0.187; tibia, 0.589 by 0.211; chela 0.967 (without pedicel, 9.767) by 0.256; hand, 0.556 (without pedicel, 0.467) by 0.256; fin- gers, 0.411 long. Leg I: basifemur, 0.111 by 0.133; telofe- mur, 0.267 by 0.133; tibia, 0.289 by 0.072; tarsus, 0.278 by 0.056. Leg IV: miofemur, 0.523 by 0.172; tibia, 0.445 by 0.089; tarsus, 0.322 by 0.056. Collected from debris of piggery, Madras, 31-3-1976. Allotype: female (Measurements in mm): Total body length, 2.091; maximum width, OT7 12; Collected from debris of piggery, Madras, 31-3-1976. This species is very closely related to With- ius indicus Murthy & Ananthakrishnan in having similar number of setae on tergites and sternites. It can be differentiated by the slender nature of palpal podomeres; the seti- gerous area of the sternites of males having lesser number of sensory spines and much slender nature of IV pair of walking leg. It can be separated from W. subruber (Simon) (closely related to W. indicus), by the galea being sexually differentiated and the longer nature of the body. Metawithius (Microwithius) chamundiensis sp. nov. (Fig. 3) Carapace brownish, densely and coarsely granulated; very distinctly constricted from the middle region towards the distal. Anterior transverse furrow well developed and deep, granulated within; posterior furrow distinct but shallow. Anterior furrow strongly arched forwards at the sides. Eye spots two, large and distinct and non corneate. Vestitural! setae mostly plumose. Anterior end of the carapace straight with 6 small clavate setae; cucullus well developed; posterior end with 10 plumose setae. Carapace, 1.34 times as long as wide. Tergites transversely well granulated, and undivided; tergal setae short and strongly plu- mose. Chaetotaxy of male 10—10—10—8(4) —10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/ 2—8 (4) /2—6(2) /2—10—0. Tergite XI with 2 elongated tactile setae. Sternites ill sclerotised, sternal setae simple and acute. Sternal chaeto- taxy of male from the IV sternite shows cha- racteristic difference 10 — 10 — 12 — 10/ (24) — 10(2)/(25) — 10(2)/(26) — 10(2) —10—2m. The sternites VII to IX of the male with, roundish areas near the median line, each with 24—26 closely approximated, rather long and conical sensory spines. Sternite X1 with 4 slightly elongated pseudotactile setae; in female the setal patches on the sternites absent. Palm of the chelicera very finely granulated and rasplike. All the 5 setae well developed; Is and is long and acuminate. es, sb and hb of equal and of moderate length and acumi- nate. Flagellum with 4 blades, the second branch from the distal is the longest, acumi- nate and not serrated. Fixed finger with 3 terminal serrations followed by 3 triangular teeth. Lamina interior well developed with 6 serrations followed by 2 rounded dentate lobes. Basally the lamina is very broad, more or less closing the gap between the two fin- gers. Movable finger with apical tooth well 111 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Fig. 3. developed and subapical tooth is lobe like. Serrula exterior with 17 blades; in male galea seta equal to the length of the galea; stout and terminally blunt; in female galea slender and terminally branched with 3 rami. Cheli- cera, 2.11 times, as long as deep. Palps yellowish brown, coarsely well granu- lated excepting the pedicels and chela. Palpal segments slender; vestitural setae of the podo- meres excepting the chela clavate. Trochanter with a long pedicel, dorsal tubercle well developed; 1.4 times as long as wide. Femur with a short pedicel, more or less swollen along the extensor margin, with 112 Metawithius (Microwithius) chamundiensis sp. noy. A—Chela lateral view; B—Pedipalp entire (2). the maximum width in the basal region, 2.77 times as long as wide; tibia with a long pedi- cel, 1.3 times as long as wide; medially swol- len in the flexor margin and distally swollen in the extensor margin, 2.75 times as long as wide; chela smooth, rounded, posteriorly swollen on the flexor margin, 3.55 times (with pedicel), 3.32 times (without pedicel) as long as wide. Hand, 2.1 times (with pedicel), 1.86 times (without pedicel) as long as wide; hand with pedicel more or less equal to the length of tibia and slightly longer than that of femur; hand distinctly longer than fingers. Fingers sub- equal in size, 0.40 times as long as the chela NEW DESCRIPTIONS and 0.70 times as iong as the hand. Venom teeth and glands equally developed in both the fingers. Movable finger with 30 and fixed finger with 29 retroconical teeth. Proximal 1/5 of both the fingers devoid of teeth. The tactile setae sb and b of the movable finger basal in position and separated by two areolar diameters st midway between sb and 1; ¢ in the distal half of the finger; i¢ proximal in position in a level with ist; est in the distal region of the finger. Legs robust, golden yellowish in colour, finely granulated; vestitural setae clavate and acuminate. Leg I: basifemur shorter than telofemur, 0.90 times as long as deep; telo- femur, 1.9 times; tibia, 3.07 times; tarsus, 4.44 times as long as deep. Leg IV: miofemur, 2.71 times; tibia ,4.42 times; tarsus, 4.6 times as long as deep. Tarsus with a pseudotactile seta situated slightly distal of the middle re- gion; 0.52 times as long as the tarsus. Claws normal, arolium entire and equal in length to that of claws. Male genitalia well developed, genital sacs well elongated. Anterior operculum with 2 setae on either side. Holotype: male (Measurements in mi.): Total body length, 1.946; maximum width, 0.767: carapace, 0.611 by 0.455; chelicera, 0.211 by 0.100. Palps: trochanter, 0.20 by 0.145; femur, 0.478 by 0.172; tibia, 0.489 by 0.178; chela, 0.867 (with pedicel), 0.812 (without pedicel) by 0.245; hand, 0.512 (with pedicel), 0.456 (without pedicel) by 0.245; fingers, 0.355 long. Leg I: basifemur, 0.111 by 0.122; telofe- mur, 0.233 by 0.122; tibia, 0.233 by 0.122; tar- sus, 0.222 by 0.056. Leg IV: miofemur, 0.422 by 0.155; tibia, 0.344 by 0077; tarsus, 0.255 by 0.055. Collected from barks, Chamundi Hills, Mysore, Karnataka State, 25-5-1977. This species is related to Metawithius (M.) indicus Murthy & Ananthakrishnan in having the patches of setae on the sternites VII to IX. It can be easily separated from M. (M.) indicus by the slender nature of the chela and the slender nature of the podomeres of the IV pair of walking legs and by the un- divided nature of the tergites and simple un- branched nature of the galea of the male. Metawithius (Microwithius) bulli sp. nov. (Fig. 4) Carapace with two distinct anterior furrows; wider at the region of the anterior furrow; brownish, densely and coarsely granulated; very distinctly contsricted from the middle region towards the distal. Anterior furrow well developed and strongly arched forwards at the sides; posterior furrow distinct but shallow. Eye spots two, large and non cor- neate. Vestitura! setae mostly plumose. An- terior end of the carapace straight with 6 small clavate setae; cucullus well developed; posterior end with 12 plumose setae. Cara- pace, 1.1 to 1.2 times as long as wide. Tergites transversely well granulated and undivided; tergal setae short and strongly plumose. Chaetotaxy of male 10—12—10— 12(2) — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 — 10(4)/2 — 8(4)/2 — 8(4)/2 — 8(4)/2 — 12 — 2m. Tergite XI with 2 elongated tactile setae. Ster- nites ill-sclerotised, sternal setae simple and acute; sternal chaetotaxy of male from IV sternite shows characteristic difference 10-10 —12 — 15/(25) — 14(2)/(25)—10(2)/(25) —10(2) — 12 — 2m. Sternites VII to IX of the male with roundish areas near the median line, each with 25 closely approximated, long and sensory spines. Sternite XI with 4 slightly elongated pseudotactile setae; in female the setal patches on the sternites are absent. 113 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Fig. 4. Metawithius (Microwithius) bulli sp. nov. A—Chela lateral view; B—Pedipalp entire (4). Palm of the chelicera very finely granulated and rasplike. All the five setae well develop- ed; except b all the other four setae (ls, is, es and sb) are long and acuminate. Flagellum with 4 blades and not serrated. Fixed finger with 3 terminal serrations followed by 3 trian- gular teeth. Lamina interior well developed with 6 serrations followed by 2 rounded lobes. Movable finger with the apical tooth well developed and subapical tooth lobe like; serrula exterior with 15 blades. In male galeal seta short, stout and blunt terminally; in female galea slender and terminally branched with 3 rami; chelicera, 1.9 times as long as deep. Palps yellowish brown, densely granulated 114 excepting the pedicels and chela. Palpal seg- ments stout; vestitural setae of the podomeres excepting the chela clavate. Trochanter with a long pedicel, dorsal and lateral tubercles well developed; 1.67 to 1.72 times as long as wide. Femur with a short pedicel, more swol- len along the extensor margin with the maxi- mum width in the basal region, 2.56 to 2.7 times as long as wide; tibia with a long pedi- cel; medially swollen in the flexor margin and distally swollen in the extensor margin, 2.3 to 2.6 times as long as wide; chela smooth, posteriorly swollen on the flexor margin, 2.9 to 3.3 times (with pedicel), 2.7 to 3.1 times (without pedicel) as long as wide. Hand, 1.8 to 2.0 times (with pedicel) 1.5 to 1.7 times NEW DESCRIPTIONS (without pedicel) as long as wide; hand with pedicel more or less equal to the length of tibia and femur; hand distinctly longer than fingers. Fingers subequal in size, 0.42 times as long as the chela and 0.63 times as long as the hand. Venom teeth and glands equally developed in both fingers. Movable finger with 33 and fixed finger with 27 retroconical teeth. Proximal 1/5 of both the fingers de- void of teeth. The tactile setae sb and 6 of the movable finger basal in position and sepa- rated by one areolar diameter; sf inidway between sb and 1; ¢ in the exact middle region of the finger; it in the middle of the finger more or less in a level with ist; est in the dis- tal region of the finger. Legs robust, golden yellowish in colour, finely granulated; vestitural setae clavate and acuminate. Leg I: basifemur shorter than telofemur, 0.83 times as long as deep; telofe- mur, 2.08 times; tibia, 3.28 times; tarsus, 4.0 times as long as deep. Leg IV: miofemur, 2.56 times; tibia, 3.77 times, tarsus, 4.16 times as long as deep. Tarsus with a pseudotactile seta situated in the middle region; 0.6 times as long as the tarsus. Claws normal, arolium entire and slightly shorter than the claws. Male genitalia well developed, genital sacs well elongated. Anterior operculum with 3 setae on either side. Holotype: male (Measurements in mm.): Total body length, 2.035; maximum width, 0.778; carapace, 0.656 by 0.578; chelicera, 0.211 by 0.111. Palps: trochanter, 0.289 by 0.177; femur, 0.556 by 0.219; tibia ,0.567 by 0.211; chela, 0.867 (with pedicel), 0.812 (without pedicel) by 0.30; hand, 0.578 (with pedicel), 0.523 (without pedicel) by 0.30; fingers, 0.367 long. Leg I: basifemur, 0.111 by 0.133; telo- femur, 0.278 by 0.133; tibia, 0.256 by 0.078; tarsus, 0.222 by 0.056. Leg IV: miofemur, 0.456 by 0.178; tibia, 0.378 by 0.10; tarsus. 0.278 by 0.067. Collected from barks, Bangalore, Karna- taka State, 25-5-1977. Allotype: female (Measurements in mm.): Total body length, 2.072; maximum width, 0.789. Collected from bark, Bangalore, taka State, 25-5-1977. Paratype: 5 males and 1 tritonymph collected at the same locality, 25.5.1977. This species is closely related to Metawith- ius (M.) chamundiensis in having patches of setae on sternites VII to IX and by the un- divided nature of the tergites. It can be dis- tinguished from M. (M.) chamundiensis by the stouter nature of the palpal and pedal podomeres and lesser number of blades in serrula exterior, 15 blades against 17 or 18 in M. (M.) chamundiensis sp. nov. and M. (M.) indicus Murthy & Ananthakrishnan res- spectively. Karna- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to Rev. Fr. J. Kuriakose, S.J., Principal for the kind provision of re- search facilities and encouragement. I am thankful to Dr. V. A. Murthy for identifica- tion and criticisms. Thanks are due to my colleagues for their timely help. This work was supported by a UGC Teachers’ minor project grant. 115 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 REFERENCES BereR, M. (1932): Pseudoscorpionidea, II Sub ord. Cheliferinea, Das Tierreich, 58: 1-294. (1951): Die pseudoscorpione Indo- chinas. Mem. Mus. Nat. Ser. A. 1, 2: 47-123. (1963): Die Pseudoscorpionidean —fauna Israels and einigen Angrenzender Gebiete. Israel J. Zool. 12: 184-212. (1973): Pseudoscorpionidea von Ceylon. Ent. Scand. Suppl. 4: 39-55. Murtuy, V. A. AND ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N. (1977): Indian Chelonethi. Oriental ins. Monogr. 4: 1-210. SIVARAMAN, S. (1979): Studies on some Indian Pseudoscorpions. Ph.D. thesis submitted to Madras University. A NEW GENUS OF RUBIACEAE FROM GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND, INDIA’ N. P. BALAKRISHNAN? (With a text-figure) A new monotypic genus, Jainia Balakr. of Rubiacae from Great Nicobar Island in Bay of Bengal is described with illustrations. It differs from the nearest allied genus Coptophyllum Korth. mainly in being completely glabrous, in trimerous corolla with three stamens and erect stigmatic lobes. The recent intensive botanical explorations in Andaman and Nicobar Islands by the newly established Regional Station of Botanical Sur- vey of India at Port Blair yielded many new species and new records for Indian Flora, particularly from the little-explored Great Nicobar Island. This southernmost island in Andaman—Nicobar group is situated at about 200 km northwest of Sumatra between 6° 40’-7° 20’ N and 93° 30’-94° 00’ E. This island is largely hilly with the highest peak, the Mt. Thuiller rising to about 700 m above m.s.l. The island experiences very heavy rain- fall, ranging from 250-350 cm per year spread over all the months of the year, with the least fall occurring in February-March and the ma- ximum during June-December. It is almost completely covered with rich, dense, tropical 1 Accepted March 1980. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Andaman—Nicobar Circle, Port Blair-744 102, India. 116 evergreen forests except a few areas along the southeast and southwest coasts where setile- ments have sprung up recently. The flora of the island is largely Malesian with more than 65% of the species showing distribution ex- tending to Malaysia and Indonesia. About 10% of the species are endemic. During a recent trip to the Great Nicobar island, a species of Rubiaceae with white flowers in terminal heads was seen growing along shaded streamsides, in dense, evergreen forests. On examination it is found to be a new genus allied to Coptophyllum Korth. and is described and illustrated below. Jainia gen. nov. Pertinet ad Hedyotideas e familia Rubia- cearum et proxime accedit Coptophyllo Korth., a qua tamen differt plantis glabris; bracteis involucralibus 4 vel 5; calycibus pentameris, glabris; corollis trimeris; staminibus 3, insertis ad bases corollarum; stigmatibus erectis. NEW DESCRIPTIONS Plantae herbaceae vel suffrutescentes, glab- rae, simplices vel raro semel ramosae, saepe decumbentes et radicantes ad nodos inferas. Folia opposita, decussata, petiolata, glabra, integra, herbacea, penninervia; stipulae inter- petiolares, lanceolatae, integrae, glabrae, per- sistentes. Inflorescentiae terminales, panicula- tae, capituliformes, globosae, glabrae; involu- cella 4 vel 5, ovata, glabra, alba; flores her- maphroditi, parvi, sessili, bracteolati, dispositi in cymis 1-3 floriferis, bracteatis, Calyces pen- tameri; tubi non eminentes trans ovaria; lobi 5, ovato-lanceolati, albi, glabri, persistentes. Corollae albae, trimerae, tubulares tubis supra media constrictis, externe glabrae et interne dense villosae ad fauces; lobi 3, valvati, erecti, externe glabri, interne dense villosi. Stamina 3, inclusa infra fauces, imo corollae tubo in- serta; filamenta filiformia, glabra; antherae oblongae, obtusae, introrsae, basifixae, longi- tudinales dehiscentes. Disci annulari, 4-lobi, glabri. Ovaria bilocularia, placentis mediis septis affixis peltatis, ovulis numeris; styli erecti, glabri; stigmata crassa, ovoidea, erecta, inaequaliter bilobata, inclusa infra fauces. Fructus capsulares globosi, subovoidei, caly- cibus coronatis irregulariter dehiscentes ad bases, partibus apicalibus cadentibus atque operculis; semina numerosa, subglobosa, an- gulata, scrobiculjata, rubrobrunnea. Species typica sequens. Jainia nicobarica sp. nov. Suffrutex, 40-60 cm altus, glaber; caulis teretiusculus, 5-8 mm crassus, lignosis, glaber, e basi breviter repente ascendens, raro post anthesim decumbens et radicans, simplex vel parce ramosus. Folia oblanceolata, basi leviter oblique cuneata, apice acuta, 14-25 cm longa, 3-5 cm lata, supra glabra et atrovirentia, infra pallide viridia et sparse puberula; nervi late- rales 16-20 binati, recavi et anastomosentia ad marginem, infra prominentes; costa infra por- cata; petioli 1-2 cm longi, glabri; stipulae lineari-lanceolatae, latae ad bases, longi-acu- minatae, 1.3-1.6 cm longae, 2-3 mm latae ad bases, glabrae, persistentes. Inflorescentia globosa, capitata, 2.0-2.5 cm diam.; pedun- culus 1-3 cm longus, glaber; bracteae involu- crales 4-5, ovatae, triangulares, acutae, 7-8 mm longae, 4-6 mm latae, glabrae, crassae, carnosae, albae; bracteae cymarum albae, ovato-lanceolatae, 5-8 mm _ longae, 2-4 mm latae; bracteae florales lineari-lanceolatae vel oblongi-lanceolatae, 3-5 mm longae, 1-3 mm latae, albae, extra puberulae. Calycis lobi ovato-lanceolati, acuti vel subacuti, erecti, subaequales, 1-2 mm longi, + 1 mm ati, minute puberuli ad apicem, carnosi, albi, per- sistentes, accrescentes usque ad 4 mm longos in fructibus. Corolla alba, tubulares, 3-4 mm longa, extra glabra, intra dense longe villosa ad faucem; lobi 3, valvati, ovati, + 1 mm longi, carnosi, erecti, incrassati ad margines intra villosis. Stamina 3, inclusa, raro acce- dentia usque ad faucem corollam; filamenta filiformia, -+_ 0.75 mm longa; antherae oblon- gae, -- 0.75 mm longae, apice obtusae, basi breviter emarginatae. Ovarium calyce perfecte connatum, album; stylus + 0.5 mm longus; stigmatis lobi + 0.5 mm longi, oblongi, ovoi- dei, dense papillosi. Capsula oblonga, ovoi- dea, 7-8 mm longa, 5-6 mm lata, tenuipariete; semina numerosa, + 0.4 mm longa, scrobi- culata, alveolata, rubro-brunnea. TyPUS: Insula Nicobar Magna, Balakrish- nan 5837 A (holotypus in CAL); ibid. 5837 B-C (isotypi in PBL). Jainia gen. nov. Belongs to Hedyotideae of family Rubiaceae and is related to the genus Coptophyllum Korth. but differs in plants being glabrous: bracts of involucre 4 or 5; calyx pentamerous, 18 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Fig. 1. Jainia nicobarica sp. nov.; a. habit; b. flower with bract; c. & d. involucral bracts, side and inside views; e. corolla, split open showing stamens; f. ovary with disc, style and stigma; g. t.s. of ovary; h. fruit; i. seed. NEW DESCRIPTIONS glabrous; corolla trimerous; stamens 3, insert- ed at base of corolla-tube; stigma erect. Herbs or undershrubs, glabrous, unbranched or rarely once branched, often decumbent or rooting at nodes below. Leaves opposite, de- cussate, petiolate, glabrous, entire, herbace- ous, penninerved; stipules interpetiolar, lan- ceolate, entire, glabrous, persistent. /nflores- cence terminal, pedunculate, capituliform, globose, glabrous; involucral bracts 4 or 5, ovate, white, glabrous; flowers bisexual, small, sessile, bracteolate, arranged in cymes of 1-3 flowers, bracteate. Calyx pentamerous; tube not projecting beyond ovary; lobes 5, ovate- lanceolate, white, glabrous, persistent. Corolla white, trimerous, tubular with tube constricted above the middle, glabrous outside, densely villous at throat inside; lobes 3, valvate, erect, densely villous inside. Stamens 3, included be- low throat, inserted at bottom of coroila-tube introrse, basifixed, longitudinally dehiscing. Disc annular, 4-lobed, glabrous. Ovary bilo- cular with peltate axile placentae fixed to middle of septa; ovules many; style erect, gla- brous; stigma thick, ovoid, erect, unequally 2-lobed, included below the throat. Fruit cap- sular, globose, subovoid, crowned with calyx, irregularly dehiscing at base with the apical part falling off as a lid; seeds many, subglo- bose, angular, scrobiculate, red-brown. Type species follows: Jainia nicobarica sp. nov. Undershrub, 40-60 cm high, glabrous; stem somewhat terete, 5-8 mm thick, woody, glabr- ous, shortly ascending from base, sometimes decumbent and rooting at base after flowering, simple or rarely branched. Leaves oblanceo- late, slightly obliquely cuneate at base, acute at apex, 14-25 cm long, 3-5 cm wide, glabrous and dark green above, pale green and sparse- ly puberulous beneath; lateral nerves 16-20 pairs, arched and anastomosing at margins, prominent beneath; midrib ridged beneath; petioles 1-2 cm long, glabrous; stipules linear- lanceolate, broad at base, long-acuminate, 1.3- 1.6 cm long, 2-3 mm broad at base, glabrous, persistent. Inflorescence globose, captitate, 2.0-2.5 cm diam.; peduncle 1-3 cm long, gla- brous; bracts of involucre 4-5, ovate, triangu- lar, acute, 7-8 mm long, 4-6 mm wide, glabr- ous, thick, fleshy, white; bracts of cymes white, ovate-lanceolate, 5-8 mm long, 2-4 mm wide; floral bracts linear-lanceolate, or oblong- lanceolate, 3-5 mm long, 1-3 mm wide, white, puberulous outside. Calvx lobes ovate-lanceo- late, acute or subacute, erect, subequal, 1-2 mm long, -- 1 mm wide, minutely puberulous at apex, fleshy, white, persistent, enlarged up to 4 mm long in fruits. Corolla white, tubular, 3-4 mm long, glabrous outside, densely villous inside at throat; lobes 3, valvate, ovate, + 1 mm long, fleshy, erect, thickened at margins, villous inside. Stamens 3, included, rarely reaching up to throat of corolla; filaments fili- form, + 0.75 mm long; anthers oblong, + 0.75 mm long, obtuse at apex, shortly emargi- nate at base. Ovary united completely with calyx, white; style + 0.5 mm long; stigmatic lobes + 0.5 mm long, oblong, ovoid, densely papillose. Capsules oblong, ovoid, 7-8 mm long. 5-6 mm wide, thin-walled; seeds numer- ous, + 0.4 mm long, scrobiculate, reticulate- alveolate, red-brown. INDIA. Great Nicobar Island: Near 15 Km on East-West Road, dense evergreen primary forests, shaded moist places near streams, + 75 m above m.s.]., 16 June 1977, in flower and fruit, Balakrishnan 5837 (holotype 5837 A in CAL and isotypes 5837 B-C in PBL). Jainia differs from all other Rubiaceae mainly in the presence pentamerous calyx, and trimerous corolla with three stamens, a combination unknown or extremely rare in 119 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE 1 Coptophyllum Korth., nom. cons. 1. Plants with stiff hairs on all young parts, espe- cially leaf margin, stipules, bracts and calyx- lobes. 2. Involucral bracts 4, 5 or 8, never mixed in same species. . Corolla 4-5 lobed. . Corolla-lobes stellately spreading. . Corolla hairy outside on midrib. . Stamens 4 or 5. . Anthers apiculate. . Filaments attached to the middle or below the middle of corolla-tube. 9. Stigmatic lobes rectangularly spreading. 10. Stigmatic lobes protruding out of corolla-tube. ONDN BW meer ea ES Sm saa the family. However undoubtedly this new genus is closely related to Coptophyllum agreeing with it in general habit, terminal capitate inflorescence with involucral bracts and sessile flowers, many-ovuled ovary, and in the dehiscence of fruits. Reference to lite- rature on this genus including the revision by Bremekamp (in J. Arn. Arb. 28: 189. 1947) under the synonymous generic name Poma- zota Ridl. and study of specimens in Cal- cutta and Leiden herbaria show several dis- tinctive features which distinguish this new genus from Coptophyllum as tabulated in 120 Ce ES Jainia gen. nov. 1. Plants glabrous corolla- tube inside. throughout, except 2. Involucral bracts 4 or 5, mixed in same species. 3. Corolla 3-lobed. 4. Corolla-lobes erect. 5. Corolla glabrous outside. 6. Stamens 3. 7. Anthers obtuse. 8. Filaments attached to the tube. 9. Stigmatic lobes erect or suberect. 10. Stigmatic lobes included, reaching up to the mouth of corolla-tube. base of corolla- The genus is named in honour of Dr. S. K. Jain, Director, Botanical Survey of India, for his valuable contributions to the taxonomy of Tndian flora during the last 30 years. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I gratefully acknowledge the help rendered by the Director and his colleagues at Rijksher- barium, Leiden in comparing the new genus with specimens of Coptophyllum and allied genera and for their valuable opinion. NEW DESCRIPTIONS A NEW SPECIES OF LINDENBERGIA (SCROPHULARIACEAE) FROM EASTERN INDIA? J. K. SIKDAR AND G. G. Maiti’ (With four text-figures) Lindenbergia titensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-4) Lindenbergia titensis Sikdar et Maiti arcte affinis L. macrostachyae Benth. sed _ bracteis ovatis, calyce longioribus, lobis calycis ovatis, corollae labio postico obovato, ovaris basique styli dense piloso, facile distinguenda. I... phi- lippensi (Cham.) Benth. persimilis, a qua differt bracteis elliptico-ovatis, lobis calycis ovatis acutis, ovaris dense piloso. Herba perennis, deorsum lignosa. Caulis 50-60 cm longus, perramosus, rami adscenden- tes, graciles, teretes, pubescentes, saepissime ad apicem. Folia 2.5-8 x 1-2.5 cm, opposita, vel suprema alterna, elliptico-lanceolata, acuta, dentata, dentibus acuminatis, basi acute cune- ata, supra glabrescentia, infra pilosa vel gla- brescentia, nervis prominentibus, _ petiolis linearibus, 0.5-2.5 cm longis. Racemus 3-8.5 cm longus, terminalis axillarisque, penitus parum pubescens. Flores multi, alterni et sub- oppositi, sessiles vel brevissime pedicellati, flavidi, aggregati in racemo compacto tantum ad apicem (2-3 cm), aliter laxe dispositi. Bracteae 5-9x3-5 mm, foliaceae, elliptico- ovatae, acutae, denticulatae, calyce longiores, utrinque pilosae. Calyx parum dimorphus, 3.5-4 mm longus, 2-3 mm diametro, 5-lobatus, ca 2/3 connatus, 1/3 liberus, utrinque pilosus, quoque lobus 2x2 mm, ovatus, acutus. Corolla bilabiata, tubo 6-7 mm longo, 2-2.5 mm diametro, cylindrico, extus pubescenti, labrum posticum 2.5-3x2.5 mm, 1 Accepted March 1980. 2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103. obovatum, retusum, cum 2 lobis parum angu- latis, Jabium anticum 5.5-6x3 mm, apice 3 lobatum, lobis rotundatis, patentibus, obtusis, intus ad medium minute pilosis. Stamina 4, didynama, libera, inclusa, filamentis 4-4.4 mm longis, 2 mm supra basim corollae inser- tis, glabris, filiformibus, thecis subglobosis, 0.3 mm diam., connectivis 0.3 mm_longis. Ovarium 2.5 x 2-2.5 mm, subglobosum, dense pilosum, stylo 3 mm longo, lineari, solum ad basin piloso. Capsula matura non visa. Holotypes lectus a J. K. Sikdar ad locum Titi in area sylva Madarihat, regione Jalpai- guri, Benghala occidentale, die 5-3-1976, et positus in herbario indico nationali (CAL), sub numero 4519A. Isotypi 4519 B-C_ positi in eodem herbario. Lindenbergia titemsis sp. nov. It is closely allied to 2. macrostachya Benth., but is easily recognisable by ovate leafy bracts, bracts longer than calyx, ovate calyx lobes, obovate posterior lip of corolla and finally ovary and style base densely hairy. It is also very similar to JL. philippensis (Cham.) Benth. from which it differs in hav- ing elliptic-ovate bract, ovate, acute calyx lobes and densely pilose ovary. Perennial herbs, woody below. Stem 50-60 cm long, slender to stout, many branched; branches ascending, slender, terete, pubescent, more often at the apex. Leaves 2.5-8 x 1-2.5 cm, opposite or the uppermost alternate, elli- ptic-lanceolate, acute, dentate, teeth acumi- nate, base acute-cuneate, upper surface gla- brescent, lower surface pilose or glabrescent 121] JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Figs. 1-4. Lindenbergia titensis sp. nov.: 1. Plant habit; 2. Calyx; 3. Corolla split open and 4. Carpel. 122 NEW DESCRIPTIONS or pubescent, nerves distinct on the undersur- face; petiole 0.5-2.5 cm long, linear. Racemes 3-8.5 cm long, terminal and axillary, slightly pubescent throughout. Flowers many, alter- nate and subopposite, sessile or very shortly pedicillate, yellowish, aggregate into a com- pact raceme only at the terminal (2-3 cm) position, otherwise loosely arranged. Bracts 5-9 x 3-5 mm, uppermost leaves gradually pass- ing upwards to bracts, foliaceous, _ elliptic- ovate, acute, denticulate, longer than calyx, pilose on both surfaces. Calyx slightly dimor- phic, 3.5-4 mm long, 2-3 mm diam., 5-lobed, about 2/3 part united and 1/3 free, pilose on both surface; each lobe 2x2 mm, ovate, acute. Corolla bilabiate, tube 6-7 mm long, 2- 2.5 mm diam., cylindrical, pubescent at the outer suface, posterior lip 2.5-32.5 mm, obovate with 2 slightly angular lobes, retuse; anterior lip 5.5-6 x3 mm, apex 3-lobed, lobes rotundate, spreading, obtuse, minutely hairy at the middle inside. Stamens 4, didynamous, free, included; filaments 4-4.5 mm long, in- serted 2 mm above the corolla-base, filiform, glabrous; thecae subglobose, 0.3 mm diam., connective 0.3 mm long. Ovary 2.5 x2-2.5 mm, subglobose densely pilose; style 3 mm long, linear, pilose at base only. Mature cap- sule not seen. Holotype, J. K. Sikdar 4519A (CAL) and the isotypes J. K. Sikdar 4519B-C (CAL) were collected from Titi, Madarihat Forest Range, Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal on 5-3-1976. The specific epithet is derived after the name of the locality ‘Titi’? from where it was collected. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium for facilities, to Prof. R. S. Rao of Andhra Uni- versity for encouragement and to Dr. N. C. Majumdar, Central National Herbarium, Howrah, for Latin translation and helpful suggestions. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. NOTES ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR OF TADARIDA AEGYPTIACA (GEOFFROY) INTRODUCTION This paper presents an observation on mat- ing made in the course of a study of the re- productive cycle of this species in East-Nimar. Copulation was witnessed many times at the roost and a few instances occurred in cages also. Since little has been published on this aspect of Indian Molossid bats, this study was under- taken to collect data on mating period of Ta- darida aegyptiaca in East-Nimar of India. OBSERVATIONS The species is locally scarce in East-Nimar. Three colonies were observed, one in a build- ing and the other two in two dilapidated forts. The portion of the building where these bats roost, is being used as a class room. The forts are ancient monuments in Asirgarh and Bur- hanpur looked after by the State Archeolo- gical department. Over five thousand bats roosted in the three colonies from June till the second week of April the following year. They reside in crevices vertical about 8 feet in length and three inches in width. The number of bats at the three roosts decreases during the hot weather but several hundreds occur during the other seasons. During the years 1975 to 1977 the roosts were vacated from the second week of April upto the month of May. On their return the females were examined and were not found pregnant. Ovulation occurs between the second 124 and third week of June. The strength of the colony increases as new arrivals appear daily. The bats are noisy and their squeaking and chattering at the roost is audible at a consi- derable distance. The bats roost in a typical pattern in which they appear as if they have been arranged in orderly straight lines of ten to forty bats. In the total population of bats, hundreds were no- ticed copulating but observation was limited to 50% of the total population of bats at Burhanpur and Asirgarh. This investigation lasted five to ten hours a day but not at night. In the estimated population during 1976 and 1977, the sex ratio was approximately 40% males and 60% females. Mating was noticed during day light when males and females were quite active. The majority of males collected at this time had scars on or around the muzzle region. Apparently these injuries resulted from aggressive interactions with other males and possibly females also. The male mounted on the female in the position of coitus posteriori. The male usually grasped fur of the female’s head with his teeth. However, in a few instances the neck was grasped by the male. The male’s thumb was always inside the dactylopatagium brevis of the female. The male pushed his hindquarters backwards and forwards making an angle of 20° on female’s body in the plane of coitus. The tail of the female including its femoral membrane was curled upwards and the male protruded penis beneath her femoral mem- brane. After copulating with one female, the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES male often holds another female. Immediate dissection and histological studies by fixation and microscopic examination after copulation revealed that female’s uterus and vaginal canal were filled with sperms. The male does not pay any attention to the rival bats during copulation. Males were ob- served fighting with each other, squeaking and showing their teeth to opponents. The female was passive. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF SAUGAR, SAauGAR (M.P.), INDIA, May 4, 1979. 2. FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON Some 20 hours of observations (mostly be- fore noon) were made on langurs (Presbytis entellus) of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamilnadu) during February and March 12, 1978. The Sanctury is situated at an altitude of 885 m on the way of Mysore-Ooty road and is 95 km from the Mysore. The forest is moist-deciduous with ‘Teak’, Tectona grandis as the dominent species. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Prof. D. R. Sharma for suggestions. My thanks are due to the Head, Department of Zoology, S. N. College, Khand- wa for providing facilities for this investiga- tion. The financial assistance offered by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi is gratefully acknowledged. S. K. KASHYAP THE HANUMAN LANGUR There were five groups of the langur in an area of about 2 km’. Two groups were multi- male-bisexual and three groups were unimale- bisexual type. There was no all-male group. The composition of the groups as given in Table-1 reveals that adult sex ratio was male 1:6 females; adult female to infants (new born) ratio was female 1:0.47 infants. The age-classification of the individuals followed is TABLE 1 GROUP COMPOSITION OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR Sapadults Group Total Adult Adult and Infant-2 Infant-1 males females Nuveniles 1. Mudum-B 18 1 10 2: 0 5 2. Mudum-E 17 1 9 3} 2 2 3. Mudum-H 21 1 8 4 4 3 4. Mudum-S 22 3 9 2 2 6 5 2 4 3 7 . Mudum-L 125, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 according to Jay (1965). The mean group size is similar to size re- corded by Jay (1965), 18-25 in forests of northern and central India; Vogel (1977), 23.5 in Bhimtal, while it was larger (34 for bisexual groups and 18.5 for all male groups) in open areas of Western Rajasthan (Mohnot et al., in press). There was no apparent in- teraction among the adult males of the multi- male bisexual groups and also between the two neighbouring groups. Langurs are purely phytophagus and eat leaves, flowers, buds, fruits, seeds and resin of some 30 plant species (to be identified). Some of the common food plants were Anoge- issus latifolia, Butea monosperma, Salmalia malabarica, Dalbergia sissoo, Schleichera tri- juga, Mangifera indica, Terminalia chebula etc: The bonnet monkey, Macaca radiata co- exists freely with the langurs and almost use the same plants for feeding and roosting. The Jangur avoids the bonnet macaques but hit out, ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR, JoDHPUR-342001. FACULTY OF Lire SCIENCES, NorTH BENGAL UNIVERSITY, DARJEELING-734 430, August 31, 1978. whenever they are disturbed by the macaques. The langurs are afraid of Pie dogs and give alarm barks and climb trees, whenever they see dogs approaching them. On 6th March (9.05 a.m.) a pack of 6 pie dogs chased a langur group which was crossing the road. The leader of the langur group threatened the dogs but was bitten on his right ear. Langurs were seen in an association with Chital (Axis axis) in the Bandipur Tiger Re- serve, adjacent to Mudumalai. Both species were noted together or Chitals fed under the same tree on which langurs were feeding. Occasionally langurs were seen sitting on the ground near browsing chital. On Sth March (6.40—6.52 p.m.) we saw Jangurs and chitals giving repeated alarm calls together, probably there was a common predator (?). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are indebted to Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore for providing working facilities. S. C. MAKWANA S. MAJUMDAR REFERENCES Jay, P. O. (1965): The common langur of North India. In Primate Behaviour: field studies of mon- keys and apes. ed. I. DeVore. pp. 197-247. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. Mounor, S. M., Gapcit, M. AND MakKwana, S. (OF Population dynamics of the langur, Presbytis entellus 126 at Jodhpur. (in press). VocEL, C. (1977): Ecology and sociobiology of Presbytis entellus. In Use of non-human primates in biomedical research eds. M. R. N. Prasad and T. C. Anand Kumar. Indian nat. Sci. Acad., New Delhi, India. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 3. A NOTE ON THE BREEDING OF THE LEOPARD-CAT (FELIS BENGALENSIS) IN CAPTIVITY The female of a pair of Leopard-Cats (Felis bengalensis) has given birth to four lit- ters at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa. The litter size was one to two with an average of 1.75 kittens per litter. There were four fe- males and three males. The four births were recorded as follows: February, 1; March, 1; May, 1; and July, 1. At birth the seven kittens weighed 93 to 120 g with an average of 113.14 g and measured 22 to 25 cm with an average of 24.14 cm tip to tip including tail lengths of 6.5 to 7 cm (average 6.86 cm). The inter-parturition intervals recorded _ thrice (Dates of births:; 26.11.1977, 19.v.1977,- 21 ii. 1978 and 4.vii.1978) were 81 days, 305 days and 104 days respectively mostly depending on the period of survival of the young. The mother leopard-cat weighed 2.805 kg and the male weighed 3.605 kg on 8.iii.1977. The mother used to carry the kittens like other cats. The eyes of the new-born kittens were closed at birth and the details of opening of eyes of five kittens under observation are given in the Table 1. TABLE 1 Dates of Age in the days w Sl. Sex Date of opening the eves of car No. birth of eves kittens opened 1 2 3 4 5 ils Female 19.v.1977 31.v.1977 13th (Left eye) (Left eye) and and 14th (Right eye) 1.vi.1977 (Right eye) DZ Female 19.v.1977 26.v.1977 8th (Right eye) (Right eye) and and 9th (Left eye) 27.v.1977 (Left eye) 3. Female 21.11.1978 31.11.1978 11th (Left eye) (Left eye) and and 12th (Right eye) 1.iv.1978 (Right eye) 4. Female 4.vii.1978 11.vii.1978 8th (Left eye) (Left eye) and and 9th (Right eye) 12.vii.1978 (Right eye) 3 Male 4.vii.1978 14.vii.1978 11th (Right eye) (Right eye) and and 12th (Left eye) 15.vii.1978 (Left eye) 2 EE ee EC OS a 127 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE 2 Date Age in weeks Weight in kg. | D 3 19.v.1977 Birth weight 0.120 26.v.1977 1 0.182 2.vi.1977 2 0.232 9.vi.1977 3 0.294 16.vi.1977 4 0.385 23.vi.1977 5 0.430 30.vi.1977 6 0.570 7.vii.1977 7 0.695 14.vii.1977 8 0.845 21.vii.1977 9 0.945 28.vii.1977 10 1.073 4.viii.1977 11 1.156 VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON, NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK, P. O. BaRANG, DIST. CUTTACK. WILD LirE CONSERVATION OFFICER, 95-SAHID NAGAR, BHUBANESWAR-751 007, December 16, 1978. The canines of two kittens under observa- tion appeared at the age of four weeks. Week- ly growth records of one female kitten born here on 19.5.1977 was maintained upto the age of 11 weeks and the details of the same are given in the Table 2. Prater (1971) states that the young of this species have been obtained in March and May and 3 to 4 kittens may be born in a litter. In India, this species mates in May and has 3 to 4 young per litter after a gestation period of 56 days (Asdell 1964). L. N. ACHARJYO CH. G. MISHRA REFERENCES ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of Mammalian Reproduction. Second Edition, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 490. Prater. S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani- mals. Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 73-74. 4. DO LEOPARDS USE THEIR WHISKERS AS WIND DETECTOR? I had an apportunity to witness a peculiar behaviour of a big male Leopard in the hilly tract of Udaipur. My father and we three brothers were sit- ting on a hillock and admiring four sambar (Cervus unicolor) does and two grown up fawns grazing peacefully in a clearing on the face of a hill about 200 yards from us. Bet- ween us and the sambar, there was a belt of scrub jungle and beyond there was dense jungle. They were on a higher ground from us. We were engrossed in watching when sud- 128 denly my elder brother caught sight of a leo- pard in a depression, between us and the hinds about 80 yards from us, stalking them. A good breeze started from our direction to- wards the hinds. When the leopard was about 70 yards from them and almost level with us the does became uneasy. He crouched there for about five minutes occasionally raising and slightly turning his head sideways, his whiskers taut and relaxed alternately, which I could see clearly with the help of binoculars. Then the leopard turned and retreated for about 30 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES yards towards our right side and disappeared, reappearing again over the bank of a dry nullah and started stalking over a comparative- ly barren ground. Soon he was detected by a hind, she advanced two or three steps towards the leopard followed by two other hinds, gave a loud bell and all of them dashed into the dense jungle. The leopard rose from his posi- 41 PANCHWATI, Uparpur-313 001 (INpIA), June 25, 1979. tion took two steps, raised his tail, gave a woogh call and went off. From this incidence I inferred that these big cats know the importance of wind and use their whiskers as a tool to detect wind direction. I would therefore be grateful if some na- turalist throws more light on the matter. RAZA H. TEHSIN 5. NILGIRI TAHR (HEMITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS) IN CAPTIVITY (With a photograph) Nilgiri Tahr at Trivandrum Zoo. 129 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 One adult male was transferred to Trivan- drum Zoo, from Trichur Zoo on 9.9.1964. A female was added on 29.9.1965 and another on 13.12.1967. Four offsprings were born on the following dates, 4.2.68, 5.11.68, 1.5.69 and 11.12.69. The first one died on 1.4.69 and the last on 30.1.72. The second was exported and the third was supplied to the Mysore Zoo. The original male died on 21.3.72 and the female on 10.8.69. The other female was aiso exported. During this period only the original male developed the saddle mark. As I was observing the animal every day, it is difficult for me to state with precision when it started dcevelop- ing the saddle. The saddle becomes noticeable SUPERINTENDENT, Zoos & GARDENS, TRIVANDRUM-1, September 14, 1979. very gradually. It may be from 5 to 8 years. The food given to adults per day is as fol- lows: Bengalgram 100 gms, Cattle feed 500 gms, Horsegram 200 gms, Plantains 500 gms, Fodder 2.5 kg., and Napier Grass 5 kgs. In the Zoo the tahr enjoy concentrates more than green fodder. They like the fodder to be tied above ground level so that they can browse. I have not seen them drinking during my visits to their run. They seldom drink. On 22.1.76 one pair of tahr aged 1 month was caught at Eravikulam and these are doing well. I have seen them mating recently. However, the mating has not been successful. P. R. CHANDRAN 6. A FURTHER NOTE ON MOSCHUS Since contributing a note on the taxonomy of Moschus to this Journal (Groves 1976) the author has seen a number of further specimens which was unavailable to the author at that ranges, both geographical and altitudinal, of the two species in the Indian region. A taxo- nomic contribution by Dao van Tien (1969), which should be recorded as they extend the time, should also be evaluated now. Two species of Musk-deer are found in In- dian and Nepalese territory: M. sifanicus has light brown fur, the backs of the ears are rim- 130 med with pure yellow, the skull length aver- ages about 160 mm, and the lacrimal bone is long and low; M. chrysogaster has dark brown fur, the ear-backs are wholly dark, the skull length is about 150:mm, and the lacrimal is relatively short and high. The former, which lives above the tree-line, is represented in China by a race in which the whole tip of the ear, not just the rim, is yellow, but which is otherwise poorly distinguished and is an any case unnamed; the latter species, which lives in forest and is represented in India and Nepal MISCELLANEOUS NOTES by its nominate form, is smaller and short- faced, though it was pointed out that in fact two subspecies would probably be better re- cognised in China (see below). It must be mentioned that in the table of skull measurements (Groves, 1976:674), there is a misprint. Two headings read “M. sifani- cus’: only the second of these is correct, the first being a lapsus for “‘M. c. chrysogaster’’. The additional specimens examined are as follows: 1. M. sifanicus Two skins, one skull and a headskin in the Powell-Cotton Museum, Birchington, Kent, England. T.31.2 is a skin and skull; the skin is light tobacco brown, fading to off-white on head, shoulders and again on rump. The ears are yellow-rimmed. Skull broken, but its length is approximately 160, lacrimal 21 x 14; mid- point of skull probably in orbit. Locality is Baital, Kashmir (not found on any map). The other complete skin (no number) and_ the headskin (M.46.99) have no locality beyond ‘Kashmir’, but are clearly of this species. 2. M. chrysogaster chrysogaster The Powell-Cotton Museum possesses an incomplete skull that is probably of this form, numbered T.31.3, from Srinagar, which (if it is the actual locality rather than a base camp) is in the forest zone. The length would have been about 145 mm.; lacrimal 23 x 20; mid- point would have been approximately at the front edge of the orbit. The Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, has three specimens: two skins with skulls (see Biswas & Khajuria, 1957) and unmatched skin. The first two are nos. 12448 and 12449, of the “Daily Mail’ expedition, 1954; locali- ties respectively Thami and Hunko, both at 13,000 feet but, because of the protected loca- tions, in the forest zone (mainly rhododendron and juniper). Skins are dark brown with ear- backs dark, becoming nearly black towards the tips. The skull of the former is 145 mm. long, with lacrimal 25 x 19; the other speci- men is immature, with third molars not yet erupted, but skull length is 140, lacrimal 23 x 15. In both, skull midpoint is well within the orbit. The metacarpal length of 12448 is 93.5, metatarsal length 126; both these mea- surements are slightly above the figures for M. c. berezovskii given by Flerov (1952) and Kao (1963), but well below the limits for M. sifanicus given by the same authors. The third skin, no. 12451 from Khumbu, 12,000 feet, closely resembles the other two. Two head-skins and a partial skull are pre- served in the palace at Wankaner, Gujarat; they were obtained by M. K. Ranjitsinh at Shodu, Bhutan (in the rhododendron zone), and are the only known specimens from Bhu- tan. The head-skins are very dark grey-brown, the ears being dark especially on the terminal half. The skull, which may belong with one of the skins, is incomplete but is clearly short- faced. The importance of the above specimens is that they confirm the distinctiveness of the two species, the association of skull and skin char- acters, where both are represented for the same specimen, being demonstrated; and that they confirm the association of each with a diffe- rent habitat type, even when the forest zone extends to a higher altitude than usual. A recent paper by Dao (Dao 1977) refers to a taxon, Moschus moschiferus caobangis Dao, 1969, from North Vietnam and provides the first description of this in French (the ori- ginal description being in Vietnamese). Dao’s papers were based on the old single-species theory, and clearly written without knowledge of Groves’s revision, but neatly extend the re- sults. It is clear from the description that cao- 13] JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 bangis is Groves’s ‘“‘M. chrysogaster subsp.” recorded from Kwangsi, to which the British Museum specimens from Ichang also probably belong: (1) Dao’s new race is described as ‘“‘brun grisatre”, which approximately describes B.M.1.3.2.6 from Ichang; Wang et al. (1962) describe a specimen from Kwangsi as “brown’’. Skins of M. c. berezovskii from Szechwan, Kansu, Shensi and Shansi are de- scribed as darker than this (“dark olive- brown with a red tinge” in Kao, 1963, which describes B.M.3.5.15.6 and 11.9.8.144, both from Szechwan). (2) Skulls in two caobangis are 113 and 132 mm. long; the second of these, the type, is figured, but it is not stated whether the other is adult or not. Kao’s (1963) Kwangsi skull is 121 mm., whereas all his and other authors’ other berezovskii skulls are at least 136 mm. Wang ef al. (1962) report a Kwangsi skull as being 116.7 mm, but this may actually mean the basal length; it is, at any rate, short. The Ichang skulls in the British Museum are 135 and 141 mm, so overlapping with one of Flerov’s (1952) DEPARTMENT OF PREHISTORY & ANTHROPOLOGY, AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, CANBERRA, AUSTRALIA, August 28, 1979. specimens, whose age is however not stated. (The locality ‘‘Peling Mts.’’, whence comes a rather large skull, is probably not Mt. Pai Ling in Kwangsi as surmised by Groves (1976), but the Pai-Lung Chiang in south- ern Kansu.) The light colour probably, and the small size definitely, validate Dao’s subspecies; it ex- tends into Kwangsi and probably even as far as Ichang. M. moschiferus caobangis Dao, 1969, and ‘“‘M. chrysogaster subsp. uncertain” of Groves, 1976, therefore both become M. chrysogaster caobangis. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all those who have specimens in their care which were made avail- able to me for study: in Birchington, Mr. L. Barton, Curator of the Powell-Cotton Mu- seum; in Calcutta, Dr. B. Biswas, Superintend- ing Zoologist of the Zoological Survey of In- dia, and all staff; in Wankaner, H. H. Maha- rana Saheb and M. K. Digvijaysinhji. I am most grateful to all these people for their courteous assistance in this study. COLIN P. GROVES REFERENCES Biswas, B. & KuHAsuria, H. (1957): Zoological results of the “Daily Mail” Himalayan expedition, 1954. Notes on some mammals of Khumbu, eastern Napal. Proc. Zool. Soc. Calcutta, Mookerjee Memor. Vol., 229-253. DAo VAN TIEN (1969): Ve hai loai huou o Viet nam, huou sao (Cervus nippon) va huou xa (Mos- 132 chus moschiferus). Thong bao khoa hoc, Sinh vat hoc, Dai hoc tong hop Ha noi, 4:49-53. (1977): Sur quelques rares mammi- feres au nord du Vietnam. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, 53 : 325-330. Fierov, C. C. (1952): Musk and deer. Fauna of USSR, Mammals, vol. 1. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Groves, C. P. (1976): The taxonomy of Moschus (Mammalia, Artiodactyla), with particular reference to the Indian region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72 :662-676. Kao YEUH-TING (1963): Taxonomic notes on the Chinese musk-deer. Acta zool. sinica, 15:479-488. WANG SUNG, LU CHANG-KWUN, DAo YUEH-TING & Loo TAI-cHUN (1963): On the mammals from south-western Kwangsi, China, Acta zool. 14:555-568. sinica, 7. REPORT OF THE OCCURRENCE OF THE METAD IN WEST BENGAL In the afternoon of the 17th February, 1978, while digging rodent burrows in a harvested paddy field, south of Apurbapur village near Singur in Hugli District, we caught an adult female rat with five juveniles, which were iden- tified as of the Soft-furred Field Rat or Metad, Millardia meltada (Gray). The known distribution of Millardia meltada (Gray), is Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal Tarai, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Peninsular India south of the Satpura-Vindhya ranges, south to Nilgiris, south-western Sri Lanka, parts of Gujarat and the adjacent region of Pakistan, but does not include the north-eastern part of India (Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram), Orissa and West Bengal. The present collec- tion, therefore, constitutes the first authentic ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 8, Linpsay STREET (1ST FLOOR), CALCUTTA-700 016, September 21, 1978. record from West Bengal. The details of the specimen is given below. The external measurements were taken in the field and are in mm. Material: 1 2; ZSI Reg. No. 17.2.78; A. K. Mondal Coll. Measurements: External—Head and body 111.0; tail 76.0; hind foot 22.0; ear 20.0. Cranial—Occipitonasal 31.4; condylobasal 30.5; nasal 11.5; palate 16.4; bulla 6.1; tooth row 5.6; anterior palatine foramina 7.4; diastema 8.8. In comparison with the recognised subspe- cies of Millardia meltada namely, the Méillar- dia meltada meltada (Gray) and the Millardia meltada pallidor (Ryley), the present material is much darker. However, without examination of additional material nothing definitely could be said of its subspecific status. 19935; in alcohol; AJOY KUMAR MANDAL SANTANU GHOSH 8. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE OPENBILL STORK, ANASTOMUS OSCITANS (BODDAERT), IN SOUTHERN BENGAL (With a plate) The Openbill Stork [Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert)] is the smallest and commonest stork of our country. This paper reports on observations made in South Bengal in Saknakhali bird sanctuary in the Sundarban Reserve Forest, Sagar Island, Frazergunge and Diamond Harbour by the author from 1975 onwards. 133 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wol. 77 The Openbill is a tree-nester. Generally it forms a huge breeding colony of its own but also nests in a breeding colony with other birds. In the Sajnakhali bird sanctuary, Sun- darban, the breeding colony included such spe- cies as the large egret (Egretta alba Linn.), smaller egret (Egretta intermedia Wagler), little egret (Egretta garzetta Linn.), little cor- morant (Phalacrocorax niger Vieillot), paddy bird [Ardeola grayii (Sykes)] and some others. The situation and size of the breeding colo- nies depend to a great extent on the available marshy conditions, richness of feeding ground in the vicinity and non-interference by preda- tors and man. Colonies have been found very close to human quarters, roads and railway stations, where birds are not disturbed or pestered. Some colonies are found in impas- sable marshes in dense forested area on isolat- ed islands for safe raising of the brood. PAIR FORMATION AND PAIR BOND Since the male and female are almost alike in general appearance in the non-breeding pe- riod, sexes cannot be differentiated, but dur- ing the breeding period it becomes possible to distinguish them by their behaviour, specially the attitude of the male towards the female. The males are rather more aggressive quar- relling amongst themselves for nesting space than the females. At times, subadult males have been found courting adult females, but such females simply change their perch and pay little heed to them. Consort pairs are formed just before the monsoon starts. Such pairs often forcibly push each other which compels one of them to fly from the perch and again after a short flight return to occupy the same place in close proximity of its partner who waits for its mate. Courtship display is not very conspicuous. The male has been ob- 134 served at times to throw its neck backward when the female returns from flight. After sometime the male stretches its neck up and partially opens its wings and bill. The male offers a stick to the female and if it is accept- ed by the female, it signifies approval of pair formation. In selecting the nesting site the male and female perform a ritual. They perch face to face, lower their heads and point at the nest-site with their bills partly open. After this act the pair flies away but returns to the spot. The same performance is repeated three or four times within an hour. When the site selection is finalised the male is also finally accepted by the female. NEST-BUILDING, SEXUAL DISPLAY AND MATING The bird selects trees that are from three to ten metres high. In Sundarban (Sajnakhali) most of the nests that I came across were hard- ly four to five metres from the ground level. The host plants selected for nesting were mostly Bina, Avicennia alba and Avicennia officinalis, which represented about 80 per cent of the plant community. These provided bet- ter support due to ramification of branches, and also the canopy provided wider landing space which generally varied from 9 to 16 square metres. The next choice was the Geng, wa, Excoecaria agallocha, which represented roughly 15 per cent. Other trees that were sometimes selected were Passur, Xylocarpus sp., Goran, Rhizophora sp., and Kulsi, Aegi- ceras sp., but these were comparatively of small percentage. In Diamond Harbour, trees that were used for nesting were Jarul, Lager- stroemia flosreginae, Neem, Melia azadirach- ta, Peepul, Ficus religiosa, etc. It seems that the bird does not bother much about the height of the trees, some 10-12 metres height was mostly preferred, whereas in Sagar Island and ‘[esuog ISOM ‘ueqivpuns “Aivnjourg pllg peyyeuleg Ul YI9IS []!quadO sy} Jo vale BUL}SOU DAISUDJUT supjioso snuojspvup :KkeXypedoyyny ALV Id LL (0S “LSIH “LVN AvaWOg ‘[ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Frazergunge areas the nesting tree heights were only five to seven metres. Nesting sites were generally not changed in the following year unless there was disturbance in the area. The tree-tops are the first choice of nesting site and when this is not available, alternative sites are selected further down. Generally tree- forks are the usual sites for nests. Trees which provide a good number of forks are preferred. Since the birds are gregarious, congregation is quite dense; naturally there is overcrowd- ing and struggle for space. Nests may be 60 centimetres apart, but there is a good under- standing between the breeding pairs in the colony. The male with nest-building material flies straight to the nest-fork, and as soon as it perches it drops the material, and the female which waits at the rim of the nest makes a guttural buzzing sound on the arrival of the male, and the freshly brought material is then properly arranged. The male erects the neck and exposes the breast feathers and produces a buzzing sound and both bend their heads over the nest. It is interesting to note that the sticks that are brought by one of the partners, generally the male, is examined by the other. During this process the material that falls down is not picked up. Sometimes the female rejects the material brought by her partner. In Sundarban heronry, as many as 30 trips per day were counted in connection with the nest-building operation during the whole day in the beginning but the trips were gradually cut off as the nest under prepara- tion was half way to completion. After almost half the nest is ready the pairs mate usually in the late afternoon or any time on a cloudy day. The act is performed when the female settles herself on a branch near the nest. The male vigorously beats the beak of the female with his own, thereby producing a clat- tering sound which coaxes. the female to bend her tail laterally to allow copulation. It generally takes 11 days to complete the construction of a nest. Nest may be construct- ed even in late August. Sometimes when the nest prepared is destroyed by storms and gales, it is soon replaced by a fresh one. The nest is a loose, flimsy, structure which generally does not last till the next season but those that withstand the rough weather are taken as foundations and fresh nest-build- ing material is brought for their repair. In Sajnakhali and Frazergunge, soft and leafless branches of Excoecaria, Avicennia and some- times branches of Derris, Ceriops and Xylo- carpus species are added. Soft leaves brought by the male are properly arranged in the egg- chamber so as to prevent the eggs from drop- ping. Green leaves are from time to time add- ed to replace the old dry ones in nests till the fledglings are ready to leave the nests. The size of nests vary largely. The circumferences of five nests measured 100-125 cm (average 113) in Sajnakhali. The eggs are laid by the third week of June and egg-laying continues til! the first week of August depending on the onset of monsoon. Generally three to five eggs are found in a nest but in two nests in Sajnakhali, Sundar- ban, only two have been found. Some nests were also found without any egg. Incubation period varies from 28 to 30 days. Regurgita- tion of water and mucous over eggs specially on dry rainless days has been observed. The parent birds also control the humidity by wet- ting their abdominal feathers to aid fermen- tation of nest material to help incubation. PREDATION Predation is largely by the Water Monitor (Varanus salvator) which is the most common species of reptile in Sundarban. It not only destroys eggs but also appropriates nestlings. co 135 et JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 The lizards has been found to swim in creeks and climb trees to devour eggs and chicks. At the approach of the parent birds it jumps from trees and dives into the water. The land moni- tors, namely Varanus flavescens and V. ben- galensis, also predate on eggs and chicks. Other than the Varanus species, the Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) destroys eggs and steals chicks at the slightest opportunity. The mother guards her eggs while incubating from -predators by partially opening her wings and bill, and tries to scare away the intruders, but a powerful predator like the water monitor compels the parent bird to leave the nest. Some birds of prey, namely the Pariah Kite, (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s Hawk Eagle (Hie- raaetus fasciatus) and Pallas’s Fishing Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus) have been observed to fly over and snatch the nestlings at oppor- tune moments. THE REEACTION OF ADULTS AND FLEDLINGS TOWARDS INTRUDER As soon as the adult birds become aware of the presence of an intruder, they react sharply by an escaping flight in flocks, not bothering much about their chicks and nests. This sudden evacuation of the nests by the adults, causes a panic among chicks and fledgl- ings. Their fear is reflected through their struggle by sudden hopping and beating of their tiny wings, which enable them to escape to safety to some other area. As a result of which accidents occur and a few chicks do fall to the ground to die. But, most of the nestlings which have not developed enough strength to stand up or beat wings lie helpless in the nest. In Sajnakhali bird sanctuary, I have observed that the birds are so sensitive that they be- come alarmed even when a country boat is traversing a creek through or near the sanc- tuary. 136 FooD OF CHICKS AND FLEDGLINGS Mukherjee (1975) gave a detailed analysis of the food of the Openbill in Sundarban and found that 85 per cent of its food comprised of Mollusca in wet season. Both parents gather soft body and viscera of the gastropods, which are skillfully extracted from shells chiefly of Pila globosa, to feed the young. Availability of gastropods does not pose a problem since the area is well-watered. These are collected from wet paddy fields and marshes. The bird flies to the nests to regurgitate the food on the floor of the nest for the brood. The sup- ply of food is about 5-6 times in a day. Chicks and fledglings pick up the food-material from the floor. BREEDING SUCCESS Breeding success was about 50 per cent, based on the remaining fledglings almost ready to fly. This was observed in ten nests in Sun- darban which had a total of 41 eggs and the count of fledglings in advanced age was 20 only. It takes 35-36 days for the fledglings to fly after hatching and they finally leave the nest after 6 weeks. POPULATION In approximately one hectare of intensive nesting area in Sajnakhali, Sundarban, the total number of nests of Openbill counted was approximately 80 in the year 1977 (Plate). The population of adult birds toge- ther with the fledglings at the closure of the breeding season in that area was 320. In about 350 hectares of the total breeding area, the estimated population was over 10,000 birds. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT, CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY, CaLcuTTa-700 019, April 6, 1978. ANAND MUKHOPADHYAY REFERENCE MUKHERJEE, A. K. (1975): Food-habits of Water- birds of the Sundarban, 24-Parganas District, West Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 188- 191, 9, THE NESTING OF THE COOT (FULICA ATRA) IN THE VILLAGE POND OF KHANDALA Lavkumar Khachar’s note, in the Journal vol. 74: 525, recording several Coots (Fulica atra) nesting near Nasik, reminds me that last month (December 1978) Fr. J. Hernandes of our Institute reported a pair nesting in the village pond along the roadside at Khandala (Poona). There are earlier records of Coots nesting near Poona, where Major Betham (JBNHS 14 p. 176) found it breeding between 14th July and 17th August 1901. He speci- fically refers to this being the first occasion on which he found the species nesting, in India. Some of these eggs are in the BNHS collection which, contains another obtained at Pashan, near Poona, on 29th August 1920 by F. Lud- low. Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali in “The Birds of Bombay and Salsette’” (1939) said that there were no nesting records from Bom- bay, but I later discovered in the St. Xavier ST. XAVIER’S HicH SCHOOL, Bomsay-400 001, February 6, 1979. High School collection, an egg taken at Maha- laxmi, Bombay in 1910. It would appear that the nesting of this species in peninsular India is sporadic. Incidentally, INDIAN HANDBOOK (2:181) re- fers to Whistler’s statement (Pg. 263, The Avi- faunal Survey of Ceylon - 1944). “Tt has now established in Ceylon” (Giant’s Tank, near Marungam), but adds on page 183. “It has not yet been recorded nesting in Ceylon’. It may be worthwhile drawing at- tention to a note by A. E. Butler in Ceylon Bird Club notes—December 1962, where he refers to a young Coot brought to him on 5th December in brownish-black plumage, with the shield undeveloped, and the bill pinkish in colour. There would appear to be no doubt that Whistler meant that he had nesting re- cords for Ceylon (Sri Lanka). A. NAVARRO 137 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 10. A NOTE ON THE SURVEY OF THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD (CHORIOTIS NIGRICEPS) Shri R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, Regional Honorary Secretary (West) of the Indian Board for Wildlife, Member of the Maharash- tra State Wildlife Advisory Board, and Mem- ber of the Working Group of World Bustards, was keen that we should survey the habitat of the Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps) in Marathwada region, with a view to afford stricter protection to this rare bird, which is alarmingly on the decline and to promote conditions for its breeding and multiplication. The likely habitat of this bird, was indicated as the area in the vicinity of the confluence of the rivers Godavari and Pravara, known as the Pravarasangam, about 40 km to the south- west of Aurangabad district, on its border with the adjoining Ahmednagar district. An- other probable site suggested, was the area near about the confluence of the rivers Goda- vari and Purna, about 20 km to the south of Purna in Parbhani district. The Divisional Forest Officers concerned, as also the field- staff, were given description the bird and were asked to keep an eye on its occurrence and movement and to report no sooner than it was sighted. Local enquiry revealed that nearly two de- cades ago this bird was seen in fair numbers, in the grassland interpersed with cultivation between Vaijapur and Gangapur, along the river Godavari on the south-western border of Aurangabad district. The other likely areas indicated were: Shiur 50 km to the north-west of Aurangabad on the Malegaon road, Nim- gaon-Chaoba in the eastern part of Ashti ta- luka, in Beed district, bordering Ahmednagar district, Chausala, 35 km to the south of Beed in Beed district, and near about Ruibhar and Tuljapur in Osmanabad district. 138 We had been in quest for the bird for near- ly a year when on 28-9-1978 accompanied by Shri K. K. Chavan, Divisional Forest Officer, Aurangabad. I undertook a rapid survey, of the tract between Vaijapur and Gangapur along the river Godavari. After a brief halt at Gangapur, we proceeded southwards to Pra- varasangam (the confluence of rivers Goda- vari and Pravara) and crossed over into New- asa taluka, of Ahmednagar district, to the other bank of the river Godavari. Enquiry about the bird, with the local villagers near Pravarasangam, drew a blank. We found there was no access by road, along the river Goda- vari on the other side of the Pravarasangam. We therefore thought of returning and survey- ing the fringe, on the other side of river Goda- vari in Aurangabad district. As we were pro- ceeding along this course, we met some villa- gers near Pravarasangam, who were hacking, Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite), which has wild- ly overrun the low-lying tract, near the con- fluence of the above rivers for fuelwood. En- quiry with them, gave us a ray of hope, as one of them said, that he had seen this bird two years ago, in bajra fields near his hamlet, at Babulkheda, in Newasa taluka, in Ahmed- nagar district. He described the bird, vividly and offered to take us to the site. It was incredible, that almost on our arrival I could sight two bustards foraging for food, on the edge of a bajra field about a hectare in extent. On two sides of the field, were small patches of grassland, admeasuring barely 2 ha. dotted with shrubby growth of ber (Zizyphus jujuba) and hivar (Acacia leucophloea). The birds were about 150 m away from us. We tried to approach them on foot, to have a closer glimpse and we succeeded in getting MISCELLANEOUS NOTES within a distance of about 30 m from them. The birds which had strayed into the bajra field perfectly camouflaged with the crop. We could spot another pair, in all four birds. Two were smaller than the others, leading to infer, they were a pair each, male and female. As we got closer to them we could clearly see their majestic, almost martial stride, with their conspicuous black-crested crowns, swivelling right and left, looking out warily for the in- truder. As we got closer to them, within a range of about 30 m they took off in the air, almost instinctively, flapping their wings rhyth- mically. Though the common vernacular name of the bird is ‘maldhok’’, it is locally known as: ‘‘kal- dhok”’ or ‘“‘kuldhokmane’”’. The villagers in- formed us, that Babulkheda fields and grass- lands are permanent habitat of the birds and CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS, AURANGABAD CIRCLE, AURANGABAD, (MS.), November 27, 1978. that they are also come across in the neigh- bouring villages of Salbatpur, and Jalka. They estimate a population of about ten birds in this tract. The natural habitat of the bird, is very much disturbed with cultivation perniciously making inroads into grasslands and the shrubby vege- tal growth being cleared in the process. Con- tinual human traffic too, as a result of the spread of cultivation all round, also comes in the way of safe and sheltered habitat for the birds. The fringe of grassland interspersed with cultivation and shrubby growth, on either side of the river Godavari between Vaijapur and Salbatpur (about 1500 sq. km.) both in Aurangabad and Ahmednagar districts, could be considered for protection and development, as available habitat for the vanishing Great Indian Bustard in Maharashtra. L. H. A. REGO 11. ON THE TAXONOMIC VALIDITY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN BLACKHEADED ORIOLE, ORIOLUS XANTHORNUS MADERASPATANUS FRANKLIN (AVES: ORIOLIDAE) (With a ttxt-figure) During the course of a faunistic survey in Andhra Pradesh in 1978, I collected a female specimen of Oriolus xanthornus maderaspata- nus Franklin on 22 February from Kotapalli, c 48 km north-east of Mancherial, Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh. Its measurements are: Wing 144, tail 87, and bill 30 mm. The south Indian population of the Black- headed Oriole was separated from Oriolus xanthornus xanthornus Linnaeus, 1758, as Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus by Frank- lin, 1831, on the basis of yellow markings on inner secondaries and tertiaries being reduced to terminal spots. Baker (1926) considers the whole population of Indian Blackheaded Oriole under one subspecies, Oriolus xanthor- nus xanthornus. Biswas (1947) also treated maderaspatanus as a synonym of xanthornus, since he found that the yellow markings are very variable and not a constant character. Rand & Fleming (1957) while studying the birds from Nepal, commented that the 139 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE 1 Assam 6 7 8 a) ie) 20.00—22.00 20.00—23.00 19.00—24.00 (21.00) (21.40) (20.80) Tripura died 26.00 26.00 25.00 West Bengal 6 3 19.00--26.00 20.00-28.00 20.00—32.00 (23.00) (23.50) (23.00) 1 @ 19.00 18.00 20.00 ile? 21.00 24.00 25.00 Bihar 42 16.00-24.00 18.00-24.00 16.00—23.00 (19.00) (21.50) (20.25) ie 27.00 23.00 22.00 Drie 21.00-23.00 18.00—22.00 18.00-23.00 (22.00) (20.00) (20.50) Uttar Pradesh J 8 19.00-23.00 23.00-25.00 25.00 (21.00) (24.00) (25.00) 1? 29.00 29.00 31.00 Orissa 6 4 15.00—22.00 12.00-20.00 9.00-17.00 (18.00) (16.00) (14.00) 3 9 15.00—-27.00 15.00-27.00 15.00—24.00 (22.00) (22.00) (20.00) Madhya Pradesh 4 2 11.00--17.00 12.00-17.00 11.00—16.00 (14.50) (14.25) (12.50) Andhra Pradesh eS 11.00 11.00 12.00 Maharashtra 7 6 9.00-11.00 10.00—-14.00 10.00—15.00 (7.00) (11.14) (11.85) Goa 1g 11.00 10.00 10.00 Tamil Nadu Py} 9.00 9.00 7.00 Dime 8.00-10.00 8.00-10.00 7.00-10.00 (9.00) (9.00) (8.50) Kerala 26 10.00-11.00 10.00-11.00 9.00-11.00 (10.50) (10.50) (10.00) He? 10.00 10.00 10.00 SS RT ES 140 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES validity of maderaspatanus of peninsular India was questionable. Ali & Ripley (1972, p. 110, note) while admitting maderaspatanus stand that the ‘subspecies is considered questionable by some authors’. An attempt has, therefore, been made to review the taxonomic status of Oriolus xan- thornus maderaspatanus on the basis of the material present at the Zoological Survey of India. The differences of measurements (in mm) of yellow spots on secondaries 6, 7 and 8 (from outside) between the populations from northern and southern India are given in Table 1 (averages in parenthesis). From the table 1 the difference in the sizes of the yellow spots on three secondaries bet- ween the northern and southern populations appears quite clear, although a very small number of specimens exhibit some variations which may possibly be only individual varia- tions. The accompanying sketch showing yel- low spots on the secondaries of the two popu- lations also make the issue quite clear (fig. 1). On the basis of the data presented above, I believe (Ali and Ripley 1972) are justified in recognizing maderaspatanus as a_ distinct subspecies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for his valuable suggestions and for going through the manu- script. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, INDIAN MUSEUM, CaLcuTTa 700 016, January 7, 1978. Fig. 1. Secondary wing feathers of Oriolus xan- thornus showing the extent of yellow spots on the 6th, 7th and 8th feathers. A. North Indian population; B. population. South Indian N. MAJUMDAR 141 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 REFERENCES Auli, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1972): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 5: 110. BAKER, E. C. S. (1926): Fauna of British India, Birds 3: 11. Taylor & Francis, London. Biswas, B. (1947): Notes on a Collection of Birds from the Darrang District, Assam. Rec. In- dian Mus. 45: 233. Ranp, A. L. & FLEMING, R. L. (1957): from Nepal. Fieldiana, Zoology, 41(1): 108. Birds 12. ON THE VALIDITY OF DENDROCITTA FORMOSAE SARKARI KINNEAR & WHISTLER In the course of the Vernay Scientific Sur- very of the Eastern Ghats held during 1929- 30, seven specimens of the Himalayan Tree Pie (Dendrocitia formosae) were obtained in the Vizagapatam Hills and separated as Dez- drocitta formosae sarkari by Kinnear & Whist- ler (1930, Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 51 p. 17). It was referred to again in the course of the Eastern Ghats Report (JBNHS 35 p. 517) as differing from the form in the Eastern Hima- layas (now D. f. himalayensis Blyth). Biswas 1964, JBNHS 60: 650-1 imeasured three paratypes of sarkari (2 6d 1 ¢@) and compared them with a large series (30 oo 20 ¢ 2 32 0?) from Eastern (himalayensis Blyth) and Western (occidentalis Ticehurst) Himalayas. Noting the slight overlap in the measurements he expressed the opinion that sarkari was synonymous with himalayensis. This has been accepted in IND. HANDBOOK (5: 226) In the course of cataloguing the Bombay Natural History Society collection, I have examined 9 specimens, 2 from the original series from Anantagiri, Vizagapatam Hills, and 7 fresh specimens collected by Salim Ali at Berbera, Puri, and Mahendragiri, all in Orissa. 142 While -the average measurements are not very different, in series they are strikingly smaller than both occidentalis and himalayen- sis, and the range of measurements is also very different. The wing and tail measurements decline from the north-west (occidentalis) through Eastern Himalayas (himalayensis) to Orissa and the Vizagapatam Hills (sarkari). The measurements overlap with those of the ad- joining race, the only consistent difference being the acquirement of a larger wing and tail, both by occidentalis, as compared to himalayensis, and the latter as compared with sar kari. In the first two, the distribution is contigu- ous and they no doubt form a cline. The southern birds are, however, isolated and of those examined, the largest wing is 143 mm., bill 23.7 and tail 207. It is generally overlooked that the bird was described only for its smaller bill. When view- ed sideways, it is much smaller than in any of the others and the width at the nostrils never exceeds 11 mm., while it is always more in the others. On these differences, I think that sarkari is a good race and deserves to be retained. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Wing $4 sarkari (4) 135-143 himalayensis (8) 135-148 Biswas’s_.,, (30) 137-151 (142.7) occidentalis (6) 140-154 Biswas’s ,, (4) 147-156 ore sarkari (5) 133-140 himalayensis (12) 135-150 Biswas’s_,, (20) 137-148 occidentalis @)e525153 Biswas’s_,, (7) 149-156 75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BomBay-400 003, March 31, 1979. Bill From Width at Tail nostril nostril 28.5-30.6 21-23 9.8-10.6 200, 207 29.8-33.3 22-25 11-12 188-224 34-39.5 (36.5) — — 194-228 32-35 24.3-26 11.3-12.3 233-249 35-37.5 (36.5) — — 243-260 27.5-30.7 21.7-23.7 10-11 193-203 29-33.2 22-25 11-12.3 188-233 33.5-39 (36.1) —— — 192-230 30, 33 222, 25:8 11.5,12.3 238, 243 35-40 (37.4) — -— 241-261 HUMAYUN ABDULALI 13. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TYTLER’S LEAF WARBLER, PHYLLOSCOPUS TYTLERI BROOKS IN GOA Grubh & Ali (1976) state that they obtain- ed a specimen of Tytler’s Leaf Warbler Phyllo- scopus tytleri Brooks in Goa in early Decem- ber 1972. I have examined this specimen in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. The diagnostic characters of this spe- cies are its ‘‘peculiarly long thin bill” (Tice- hurst 1938) and dark lower mandible. Com- parison with specimens obtained during the breeding season from Kashmir shows that this specimen does not have these characters. It is clearly a Greenish Warbler, Phylioscopus tro- chiloides (Sundevall), of which I have made a special study (MS.). Presumably the mis-identification was made on the basis of no wing bar. However, indi- vidual Greenish Warblers in worn plumage (as this specimen is) often show very faint or missing wing bars (pers. obs.). The Green- DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MIcHIGAN 48109, WEStA., January 3, 1979. ish Warbler goes through its complete annual mouit in Spring (Ticehurst 1938) and would be expected to be in worn plumage at this time. Tytler’s Leaf Warbler, on the other hand, goes through a complete post-nuptial moult (Ticehurst 1938) and would be expected to be in relatively fresh plumage. There are therefore only three confirmed records of the Tytler’s Leaf Warbler in Winter (Grubh & Ali 1976) and several sight re- cords (Ali & Ripley 1973), all from the west side of the Indian peninsular. The Winter range of this species remains unclear. Ripley records this species in the Dhenkanal District, Orissa, which extends its known winter range considerably further east (Ripley 1978). I thank Dr. Robert Grubh for help with the Society’s collections. TREVOR D. PRICE 143 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 REFERENCES Atl, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1973): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 8. Oxford University Press. GRuUBH, R. B. & Att, S. (1976): Birds of Goa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 42-53. Price, T. D. (1978): The Ecology of the Green- ish Warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides (Sundevall) in its Winter quarters. Manuscript. RipLey, S. D. (1978): Changes in the bird fauna of a forest area; Simlipal Hills, Mayurbhanj Dis- trict, and Dhenkanal District, Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 570-574. TICEHURST, C. B. (1938): A Systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus. British Museum (Natu- ral History). 14. GREEN MUNIA (ESTRILDA FORMOSA) AT DELHI, AND OTHER INTERESTING RECORDS FOR 1978 During 1978 we recorded two species which, according to Ganguli (1975), have not been recorded previously within the Union Terri- tory of Delhi, the Plaintive Cuckoo and the Green Munia, the latter record falling well out- side the normal range of the species. In addi- tion we obtained evidence of breeding for two species formerly of doubtful status within the area, the Red and Spotted Munias. All obser- vations were made in the Government Nur- sery, Sunder Nagar, just beside Delhi Zoo. Plaintive Cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus. An immature of this species was seen on 20 Au- gust 1978 perched in the crown of a mango tree, into which it made periodic sallies to snatch insects. It was identified from the si- milar Bay-banded Cuckoo C. sonneratii by the presence of a rufous suffusion on the face and throat, and by the fact that the legs were orange and the bill brown, becoming yellow- ish at the base of the lower mandible. Green Munia Estrilda formosa. A male was seen feeding in tall grass along with Red Mu- nias on 11 October 1978. The bird was in very fresh plumage and we were able to ob- serve it at ranges down to 3 m. It took no notice of us, but appeared unsettled, flying round more than the other munias present, 144 and after half an hour flew off and did not re-appear. The bird was also seen by Narender Sharma. According to Ali and Ripley (1974) the species’ main range is in central India, but there are two isolated records from the north- ern part of the sub-continent, at Lucknow and Lahore, and it is therefore possible that a scat- tered population does exist north of the Vin- dhyas. Red Munia_ Estrilda amandava. Birds were seen collecting and transporting nest ma- terial on 17 September and 11 October 1978 and pairs were seen with fledglings from 31 October onwards. Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata. One was seen repeatedly carrying strips of green grass blades to a nest in the crown of a palm tree, about 6 m up. The pieces were frequently several times the length of the bird and could be carried only with difficulty. Juveniles were noted in November, but the nest seen being built did not fledge any young. One other record for 1978 which is worth mentioning is that of a male Dark Grey Bush- chat Saxicola ferrea seen by AJG on 29 Octo- ber. The two records mentioned by Ganguli from Delhi were apparently not certain. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES C/O OxForD UNIVERSITY PRESS, A. J. GASTON 2/11 ANsari Roab, J. MACKRELL DaryA GANJ, Deut 110 002, February 19, 1979. REFERENCES Aur, S. & Riptey, S. D. (1974): Handbook of GANGULI, U. (1975): A Guide to the Birds of the the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 10. Delhi Area. LC.A.R., New Delhi. Oxford University Press, Bombay. 15. A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY PARTS 1-17—NON-PASSERIFORMES ERRATA JBNHS Serial es Vol. p. page No. No. 65(1):189 (8) 23 “December” is month of acquisition, and not collec- tion. 65(1):191 (10) 33 For ‘“‘Ardea imperialis”’ read ‘‘Ardea insignis Hume’’. 65(2) :423 (24) 97 Bor 25356:sread “153567, 65(2) :424 (25) 101 Specimen 15384 marked ‘‘Gadwall/Mallard hybrid’ has been re-identified as a teal/Baikal teal hybrid, Bull. BOC 1969: 100. 65(2) :429 (30) 121 The specimen marked “‘Gangpur, Bihar’? was obtain- ed by the ruler of that State on Ib River, Sambalpur, Orissa. 65(3) : 700 (36) 138 ‘Bhagat State (in Simla Hills), N.W.P.” not N.W.F.P.” 65 (3) :706 (42) 157 Khojdar is not in Persia but in Baluchistan 27.48N., 65.36E (Dr. R. D. Etchecopar, in epist.). 65(3):713 (49) 185 In line 8 for ‘‘bengalensis’’ read ‘“‘indicus’’. 65(3):718 (54) 203 For “Shaiba, Arabia’ read ‘‘Shaiba, Iraq’. 66(2) :264 (73) 264 For ‘Manipur Bush Quail” read ‘‘Assam Bush Quail’’. 66(2) :267 (76) 278 For “Bharatpur, Rajasthan” read ‘“‘Karauli, District Sawai Madhopur, Rajasthan”. (Sent by Maharaja of Bharatpur! ). 66(2):270 (79) 286 For “‘Tragopan satyr’’ read ‘“‘Tragopan satyra’’. 66(2) :283 (92) 314 Insert name “Yellowlegged Button Quail’’. *Originally based on Ripley’s Synopsis. 145 10 66(3) 66(3) 66(3) 67(2) 67(2) 67(2) 67(2) 68(1): 68(3) 69(1): 69(1): 69(1): 69(1): 69(1): 69(1): 2382 69(2) 69(2) 69(3): 146 2544 2547 2559 2282 :283 7284 2269 68(1): 148 152 SIA 69(1): 104 105 106 1i5 121 126 129 2385 541 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 (97) (100) (112) (122) (123) (124) (129) (160) (164) (191) (195) (196) (197) (206) (212) (217) (220) (225) (228) (236) 334 347 384a 415 For ‘‘Shaiba, Arabia” read ‘‘Shaiba, Iraq’. For ‘“‘Shaiba, Arabia” read ‘“‘Shaiba, Iraq’. This is synonymous with No. 375 and should be en- tirely omitted. The measurements of Sp. No. 14793 from Chilka Lake are erroneous and the specimen is minutus No. 416. In the penultimate sentence the word ‘“‘omitted” is in error for ‘“‘accepted’’. Delete ‘“‘nil’’ for some specimens under the next may be of this subspecies. Delete ‘‘nil’’ for some specimens under the next may be of this subspecies. For ‘‘Shaiba, Arabia” read ‘‘Shaiba, Iraq’’. Invficst dine reade noe. nee there is only one female 99 Ten live birds in Calcutta Zoo (1 April 1973) had yellow claws. Under subadult tarsus read “‘av. 40.4’. In line 5 for ‘‘third primary” read “‘first primary” and in following paragraph the date of the Ratnagiri speci- men should be “8 January 1879”. After “Supa”? add “N. Kanara’’. The single specimen is Otus magicus (?) For “‘Sonapura”’ read ‘“‘Sonarupa’’. 2 bdo from Nilgiris (February 1975) agree with the bird from Yercaud and the differences from Strix lep- togrammica indranee Sykes are probably due to the other skins being older and having faded. In type locality for ‘Bengal’? read “now Chaibassa, Bihar’. In last line after “JBNHS”’’ insert ‘69: 185”. For “Apus acuticaudis” read ‘‘Apus acuticauda’. (R. K. Brooke, Bull. B.O.C. 1969:97-99). For “‘C. p. batasiensis’” read ‘‘C. p. balasiensis’’. (Wells & Medway, JBNHS 723:539-542). Insert locality ‘Jalawli, collected by T. R. Bell = N Kanara?”’. INDIAN MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ADDENDA Only species/subspecies of which no specimens were available or had not been correctly identified are now listed. HANDBOOK. No. 19 43 108 /9 128 202 240 Phaeton lepturus lepturus Daudin (Mauritius) 1 off Battye Maive, between Anda- man and Nicobar Islands (pair of central feathers only). Ardeola bacchus Bonaparte (Malay Peninsula), 1 < Sipighat, South Andamans, 1 ¢ Narcondam Island. Paget’s Pochard, a cross between Aythya ferina and Aythya nyroca netted at Bharatpur. JBNHS 69(2): 415-417. Aviceda leuphotes Abdulali & Grubh 1 ¢ 1 2 Type & paratype (Wright- myo, South Andaman). Spilornis cheela klossi Richmond (Pulo Kunyi, Great Nicobar). 1 ¢ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, (Topotype). Francolinus pictus pallidus Gray) (Udaipur). 1 o& Udaipur, 1 September 1977— See note JBNHS 76(2): 362. Lophurus sp. In JBNHS 66(2), p. 276, I refer- red to 3 specimens (2 ¢ 1 ¢) from near Htangaw between Kachin Hills and China which I was unable to identify. A og and @2 were sent to Dr. Delacour at American Museum of Natural History and in a letter dated 4 November 1974 he replied “They are L. leucomelanus lathami andamanensis (@ ined Shs 254 345b 378 386 427 527b 543 (Horsfield’s Kalij) williamsi, but they are much nearer to Jathammi. There are a lot of more or less in- termediate specimens from the Ka- chin Hills. They are unstable and do not deserve names’’. Coturnix chinensis __ trinkutensis (Richmond) (Trinkut Island, Nico- bar Group). 266 2 22 Trinkut Island, Cen- tral Nicobars (Topotypes). Amaurornis phoenicurus midnicoba- rica Abdulali (Nancowry, Central Nicobars). 1 & (Holotype) 1 1 3 1 2 Camorta. Charadrius hiaticula tundrae (Lowe) (Valley of Yenessei) 1 o? Muthupet, Thanjavur dist., Tamil Nadu. Numenius — phaeopus variegalus (Scopoli) (No locality = Luzon, ex Sonnerat). 2 obtained from Japan in exchange for Indian specimens. Others from Andamans & Nicobars, and | from Pulicat, Madras, transferred from 385 (JBNHS 71, p. 497). Phalaropus fulicarius (Linnaeus) (Hudson Bay) 1 g& Oregon, U.S.A. (in exchange). Macropygia rufipennis tiwari Abdul- ali (Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar) 4 $ 1 2 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Chalcophaps indica robinsoni Baker (Cocawath Estate, Ceylon) 3 No. 23485, collected by S. Green Q Nancowry; 147 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 at Colombo, Ceylon. Phodilus badius ripleyi (Hussain & Reza Khan (Nelliampathi Hills) 1 Peria Solai Estate, Nelliampathi, Kerala (Type). Otus magicus subsp. yet undescribed. 1 g Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar (1969). Ninox affinis affinis Beavan (Aber- deen Point, Port Blair, Andaman Is- lands. 1 @ South Andamans, (Topotype). Ninox affinis isolata Baker (Car Nicobar) 2 3 ¢ Car Nicobar*, 1 @ Camor- 610a 642¢ 646 647 75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BomBay-400 003, June 8, 1977. ta, (* Topotypes). Ninox affinis rexpimenti (Great Nicobar). 266 1 @ :Vopotypes: Ceyx erithacus macrocarus Oberhol- ser (Great Nicobar) 1 g Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. The specimen obtained in 1966 and listed under this form is of the no- minate race and was wrongly iden- tified. Pelargopsis amauroptera (Pearson) (Calcutta) 2 oc Bhitarkanika, Athadhar Forest Division, Balasore, Orissa. HUMAYUN ABDULALI 647a Abdulali 728 7129. 16. TERRITORIALITY IN IMMATURE CAPTIVE SALTWATER CROCODILES (CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER) Since 1975, extensive rearing of saltwater crocodiles, hatched in captivity, has taken place at Dangmal, Orissa as one facet of a con- servation programme on this endangered spe- cies (FAO, 1975). Hatchlings show a strong tendency to aggre- gate, but by about eight months old they start to loose this aggregation tendency becoming progressively more solitary if space permits. In the early spring (February/March) of their third year, at an age of 24 years, signs of ter- ritoriality/dominance behaviour commenced in groups in two successive years (Table 1)). This behaviour was exhibited by both sexes. The dominant female of the all female batch hatched in 1975, did not allow the other four females to enter the 4x4x1 m deep pool when she was in the pool or to approach her 148 on land. In September 1978 this female was removed and housed separately, following which the next largest female in the group became dominant. The 1976 batch showed si- milar dominance behaviour from February/ March 1978, the dominant in this year being a male. Towards the end of the third year the dominants commenced actual physical attacks on the subordinate members of their respec- tive groups. This behaviour was very marked during the fourth year resulting in injuries to the head, jaws and back legs. We consider that this dominance behaviour results from territoriality which cannot find expression in a confined space, hence result- ing in the development of a dominance hierar- chy. The development of strong territoriality is MISCELLANEOUS NOTES TABLE 1 DEVELOPMENT OF TERRITORJALITY /DOMINANCE BEHAVIOR IN GROUPS OF IMMATURE SALTWATER CROCODILES. SIZES (M) AND WEIGHTS (KG) Date of birth of territorial /dominance behaviour 21 August 1975 17 August 1976 Feb /Mar 1978 (24 years) Feb /Mar 1979 (23 years) surprising in immature individuals assumed to have at least a further 5-7 years of immature life prior to first breeding (Yangprapakorn 1971). Furthermore, the existence of strongly developed female territoriality is likewise un- expected. However, as pointed out by Neill (1971) virtually nothing is known of the bio- logy of C. porosus outside of nesting. Further- more, crocodilians may represent a behaviour- ally more diverse group than hitherto limited data have suggested. CROCODILE BREEDING & MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE, 19-4-314 Lake DALE, RAJENDRANAGAR Roap, HYDERABAD-500 264. SALTWATER CROCODILE RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION CENTRE, DANGMAL-754 220, ORISSA, February 20, 1980. Time/Age of commencement Composition . ’ : Dominant of group : Aare Sex Size Weight 5 Females Female 1.42 10.5 3 Females Male 1.29 ES 2 Males It is standard practice in large-scale croco- dilian rearing to restrict the numbers per pool, to keep year classes separately, and to resort individuals within year classes so that similar- sized individuals are kept together. This is done to prevent bullying of smaller individuals by larger animals. However, the behaviour de- scribed here for C. porosus is markedly diffe- rent in degree from our experience with other crocodilian species. H. R. BUSTARD S. K. KAR REFERENCES FAO (1975): India: Gharial and Crocodile Con- servation Management in Orissa (based on the work of H. R. Bustard) FAO, Rome (FO:IND/71/033). NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of the Ruling Reptiles. Columbia Univ. Press. New York. YANGPRAPAKORN, U. (1971): Captive Breeding of Crocodiles in Thailand. Jn Crocodiles. TUCN Publs. N.S. Suppl. 33: 98-101. 149 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 17. STATUS OF THE GHARIAL (GAVIALIS GANGETICUS) GMELIN) IN BHUTAN The distribution of the gharial is given by Malcolm Smith (1931) as, “The Indus, Gan- ges, Mahanadi and Brahmaputra Rivers and their tributaries, and the Kaladan River, Ara- kan.” The gharial formerly occurred in the Manas River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra which rises in the hill country in the himalayan King- dom of Bhutan and passes through southern (lowland) Bhutan before entering Assam. In 1978 I carried out crocodile field work in Bhutan including Manas Sanctuary (Bustard 1979) and confirmed the presence of ideal gharial habitat on the Bhutan portion of the Manas river from the border with India until the Manas enters the hill country. This area of the Manas river appeared similar to the so-called Satkosia Gorge of river Mahanadi in Orissa which is one of the sanctuaries dec- Jared for the gharial under the Government of India Crocodile Project. Satkosia Gorge has long been famous as gharial habitat. The Ma- nas river within Bhutan includes good bas- king/nesting sandbanks further enhancing its habitat potential. No gharial appear to occur today in this CENTRAL CROCODILE BREEDING & MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE, LAKE DALE, RAJENDRANAGAR ROAD, HYDERABAD-500 264, February 2, 1980. stretch of the Manas River in Bhutan nor in the stretch within India adjacent to Bhutan. The last definite records of gharial were of an adult of 5-5.5 m which was frequently seen between 1962 and 1964 about 8 km upstream from the Bhutanese Manas Tourist Lodge, and another individual of about 4.5 m which was seen daily for about 17 years until con- struction of the Tourist Lodge at the site where the Tourist Lodge now stands. In November 1977 Forest Department per- sonne! of Project Tiger brought a gharial, re- ported to be about 1.5 m in length, and libe- rated it in the Manas river on the Bhutanese side of the Indo-Bhutanese border. This gha- rial was seen for 7 months until the commen- cement of the 1978 monsoon. However, I was advised by Shri Deb Roy, LFS., Field Di- rector, Project Tiger, Manas, during Decem- ber 1979 that this gharial is still being seen occasionally. As recorded in my 1979 FAO report, efforts should be made to re-establish the gharial in Bhutan in this good habitat in Manas, espe- cially in view of the extensive protection now afforded to Manas Sanctuary. H. R. BUSTARD REFERENCES Bustarp, H. R. (1979): Bhutan: Crocodile Con- servation Commercial Farming. FO:DP/BHU/78/ 003. FAO. Rome January 1979. SmirH, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British In- 150 dia including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Am- phibia. 7. Loricata Testudines: Taylor and Francis, London. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 18. EXTENTION OF RANGE OF THE NARROW-MOUTH FROG, UPERODON GLOBULOSUM (GUNTHER) TO KAMRUP DISTRICT, ASSAM The narrow-mouth frog, Uperodon globuio- sum (Giinther), is believed to be a rare spe- cies from its smal! numerical records from the reported areas, although it enjoys a wide range of distribution. The species has been obtained from West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Orissa has also been inciud- ed in the range of distribution of this species (Boulenger 1890) but no specimen from that state could be traced. In West Bengal, this species has been collected from the Botanical Gardens, Shibpur, Howrah District in 1880's; from Khardah, 24 Parganas District in 1928, from Jalpaiguri District in 1956, and recently from Barakpur and Baj Bai, 24 Parganas Dis- trict. In their note on its record from Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, Bhaduri and Basu (1956) wrote: “The presence of U. globulosuim in Jalpaiguri in northern Bengal particularly as it is situat- ed in the borderline of Assam, seems to be an interesting feature. Its occurrence, there- fore, in some parts of Assam may not be un- likely from the point of view of its distribu- tion’. This remark has now been fully borne out by a recent finding of an example of this species from a termitarium in Mothanguri, Manas Sanctuary, Kamrup District, Assam, by one of us (S.S.S.), who brought a live speci- men to Calcutta. The alleged rarity of the species is probably because it eludes collectors from its subter- ranean habits. There remains much to be learnt about the biology of this narrow-mouth frog. On earlier occasions the frog was exhum- ed from termitarium or from fields, usually from among debris. Abdulali & Daniel (1954) found it in fair numbers in the Salsette Island, Bombay, when the frogs came out of their burrow habitats for breeding. The present col- lection was from a forested area, in the semi- open mixed forest tract of Manas Sanctuary, in a block where the soil was damp and the forest floor was littered with piles of decay- ing logs, mostly infested with termites. The narrow-mouth frog was located underneath a decaying log and partly embedded in soft clay. The soil termite, Speculitermes sp., was found in association with this frog. This termite does not make exposed mounds but forms a system of tunnels in the clay as well as in the decay- ing logs lying on the ground. The frog was found buried in the soft clay, head and part of its upper back out of soil but under a de- caying log, hollowed out just over the frogs body. Termites were apparently undisturbed by the presence of the frog. However, it is presumed that those termites constitute the chief food of the frog. The live specimen was brought back to Calcutta. No attempt was made to feed this animal and it died after 14 days of starvation. It may be recalled in this connection that Mukerji (1933) observed this species died after 31 days of starvation. Maierial: 1 2, collected on 14 June 1975 by Shri S. S. Saha from Mothanguri, Manas Sanctuary, Kamrup District, Assam, and de- posited in the National Zoological Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. The present finding, extending the range of distribution of Uperodon globulosum (Giin- ther) to Assam, has significant bearing on the zoogeography of the species. Discoveries from further eastern part of its known range, parti- culuarly from the Indo-Malayan subregion may, pernaps, throw some light on the affinity of the species. 151 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, INDIAN MUSEUM, CaLcuTra-700 016, January 10, 1979. JNANENDRA LAL BHADURI SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA REFERENCES ABDULALI, H. AND DANIEL, J. C. (1954): Exten- tion of range of the frog Uperodon globulosum Giinther). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 637. Buapurt, J. L. anp Basu, S. L. (1956): Further extention of range of the frog, Uperodon globulo- sum (Giinther) in Jalpaiguri, West Bengal. ibid. 53: 712-713. BOULENGER, G. A. (1890): Fauna of British In- dia. Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor and Francis. London. MuKERJI, D. D. (1933): Some observations on burrowing toad, Cacopus globulosum Giinther. J. Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, N. S. 27: 97-100. 19. OCCURRENCE OF BOTIA LOHACHATA CHAUDHURI IN HIMACHAL PRADESH WITH REMARKS ON THE TAXONOMY OF INDIAN SPECIES OF BOTIA GRAY (PISCES: COBITIDAE) Recently, I came across in the fish collec- tion of this Station 3 specimens of Botia loha- chata Chaudhuri collected from Nakeri Khud, 10 kms from Dehragopipur, Distt. Kangra (H.P.). These specimens, labelled as Botia dayi Hora, agree well with the account of B. lohachata as given by Chaudhuri (1912). Since B. lohachata is hitherto known from Bihar, Uttar-Pradesh, Rajasthan (Udaipur), Delhi, Punjab and Sind (Menon 1974), the present find extends its distributional range to Himachal Pradesh, as may be expected from the zoogeographical point of view (Menon 1962). Tilak and Hussain (1977) in their check- list of the fishes of Himachal Pradesh includ- ed two species of Botia, B. birdi Chaudhuri and B. dayi Hora, the latter species recorded for the first time from Himachal Pradesh. Hi- 1See vol. 76 (3): this record—Eds. 525-527, for the validity of 152 therto, B. dayi was known from Eastern Hi- malayas (Menon 1974) and from the western ghats (Rao and Yazdani. 1978).* Day (1878-1889) referred to 6 species of Botia, namely, B. nebulosa Blyth, B. dario (Ham.), B. geto (Ham.), B. almorhae Gray, B. berdmorei Blyth, and B. histrionica Blyth, As Day’s (op. cit.) key to the species of Bo- tia, based mainly on the differences in the fin- ray counts and number of barbels, was not helpful Hora (1922) analysed Botia spp. on the basis of other characters such as size and position of eyes and length of snout in rela- tion to head. He (op. cit.) dealt with alto- gether 17 species, 8 of which, namely, B. al- morhae, B. birdi, B. dario, B. geto, B. histrio- nica, B. lohachata, B. rostrata, and B. striata were considered valid from India. He (op. cit.) synonymised B. berdmorei (having 6 bar- bels) with B. hymenophysa (Bleeker)—a spe- cies (having 8 barbels) known from Burma, Thailand, Indo-Australian Archipelago and re- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES jected B. nebulosa of Day on the ground that it was a species of Noemacheilus. Hora (1932) described B. dayi from River Mahanadi, Darjeeling Himalayas and synony- mised with it the species described by Day (1878, 1889) under the name Botia geto. Me- non (1974), in his check-list of fishes of Hi- malayan and Indo-gangetic plains, recorded 6 species of Botia, namely, almorhae, berdmorei, dario, histrionica, lohachata and rostrata. He (op. cit.) ignored the synonymy of B. berdmo- rei with B. hymenophysa but omitted B. birdi, perhaps inadvertently, and B. geto without cla- rifying their taxonomic status. Thus, only 8 species of Botia, namely, almorhae, birdi, da- rio, histrionica, hymenophysa, lohachata, ros- trata and striata may be provisionally recog- nised in India. As Menon (op. cit.), in his check-list, in- ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, HIGH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STATION, SOLAN (HIMACHAL PRADESH), August 30, 1979. cludes Botia berdmorei from India, and as Hora synonymised it with B. hymenophysa, Hora’s (1922) key may be modified as fol- lows: Under Group II. Barbels eight (Boiia s.s.), after the position B, I, b, i and after the state- ment ‘“‘Anterior origin of dorsal almost equi- distant from tip of snout and base of caudal’, add Length of head greater than depth of body .. ....Botia hymenophysa Length of head almost same as depth of body... .. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to Dr. H. Khajuria, Deputy Director, for kindly providing necessary faci- lities. G. M. YAZDANI REFERENCES CHAUDHURI, B. L. (1912): Descriptions of some new species of freshwater fishes from North India. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 7, pp. 437-444. Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India, being a Na- tural History of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwater of India, Burma, and Ceylon (Re- printed in 1958 William Dawson & Co., London). pp. 1-XX-778, pls. 195. ———_—— (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, London, /, pp. 1-XTII, 1-548, 104 figs. Hora, S. L. (1922): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum. IV. On fishes belonging to the genus Botia, (Cobitidae). Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 24(3): 313-321. (1932): Notes on the fishes of the Indian Museum XIX. On a new loach of the genus Botia, with a remark on B. dario (Ham.-Buch.). Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 34: 571-573. Menon, A. G. K. (1962): A distributional list of fishes of the Himalayas. J. zool. Soc. India, Cal- cutta, 1/4(1): 23-32. (1974): A check-list of fishes of the Himalayan and the Indo-gangetic plains. Inland fisheries Society of India, Special Publication No. 1, pp. i-vii, 1-136. Rao, M. B. AND YAzDANI, G. M. (1978): Occur- rence of the cobitid genus Botia Gray in the western ghats of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(2): 367-368. TILAK, R. AND Hussain, A. (1977): A check-list of the fishes of Himachal Pradesh. Zool. J. Syst. Ed., 104: 265-301. 153 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 20. THE GIANT MAHSEERS OF KUMAUN HIMALAYAS WITH A RECENT RARE RECORD The mahseers of Kumaun Himalayas, either from lentic or lotic waters, are famous throughout the world. They not only provide good sport for the angler but are also good to eat. Records of the largest mahseers caught in Kumaun and other waters of the Himalayas are many in the past, but few recent records are available. Hamilton (1822) found a 271 cm (9 ft) mahseer in his collctions from India; Tho- mas (1893) reported 18 to 25 kg mahseers as common in India without any reference to Kumaun Himalayas; Corbett [1923, 1937, in his observations sent to B. S. Raj (1945) in mahseer symposium] records mahseers of approximately 27.00 kg from Malwa tal, a 22.50 kg from Naini tal and one of 13.50 kg from Bhim tal. Hora (1939, 1940, 1951) made observations on the natural! history and iden- tification of different mahseer species, with the largest size upto 60 cm (2 ft) from his all-India collections. Raj (1945) reported that Mr. Langdale Smith reared a 13.50 kg mah- seer in his pond at Bhowali near Naini tal. McDonald (1939) reported his largest mah- seer of 12.75 kg from Himalayan rivers. The size and population of mahseers of Kumaun have been going down in recent years, and no recent record of giant mahseer is avail- able. However, I was able to record the largest recent catch of an 18.50 kg female mahseer (Tor putitora) by rod and line in the early morning (at 6.10 a.m. on 8th August, 1977) from Bhimtal lake of Kumaun Himalayas. The bait used was a 0.2 kg Jabua (Barilius ben- delisis). This mahseer was caught in the in- shore region from the lake bank in breeding season when the fish migrates to shallow spawning sites in Bhimtal lake. They also come 154 inshore to feed even in spawning season (Pa- thani 1979). Thus the large female mahseet may have come to the shallow region for spawning and littoral feeding and was caught by rod and line at dawn. The fish exhibited swollen abdomen and female secondary sexual characters (as already recorded by Pathani 1978). The various body measurements taken are as follows: Total length, 126.00 cm; caudal fork length, 117.00 cm; standard length, 110.00 em; body length, 78.30 cm; head length, 31.70 cm; eye diameter, 3.10 cm; body depth, 31.00 cm; depth at caudal region, 11.00 cm; length of dorsal spine, 16.00 cm; length of pectora! fins, 16.00 cm; length of pelvic fins, 14.00 cm; length of anal fin, 9.40 cm; and length of cau- dal fin, 16.00 cm. The weight of the fish with viscera was 18.50 kg. The age of the fish determined by me by scale method was 12 = years. Autopsy of the fish was done and length and weight of ripe ovary was recorded, its total length being 35.5 cm and weight being 1.5 kg. The ovarian eggs were interspersed in four sizes confirming the observations of Pathani (1979). The largest mature egg dia- meter ranged from 3.0 to 3.2 mm and the smallest egg diameter ranged from 0.66 to 0.74 mm. The total fecundity estimated was 3,56,500. The length of alimentary tract was 246 cm and length of intestinal bulb was 40 cm. The present rare record of an 18.50 kg. mahseer is the first such record in the last four decades, and is higher than the last re- cord of 13.50 kg from Bhimtal by Jim Cor- bett. The present find also demonstrates the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES rarity of giant sized mahseers in Kumaun_ going through the manuscript. Thanks are also waters. I am grateful to Dr. S. M. Das for critically D.S.B. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT, NAINI TAL, (U.P.), December 24, 1979. due to CSIR, New Delhi for awarding a fel- lowship. S. S. PATHANI REFERENCES Das, S. M. AND PATHANTI, S. S. (1978): Studies on biology of Kumaun mahaseer Tor putitora (Ham.). Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48(6): 461-465. *HAMILTON, B. (1822): An account of the fishes in river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh, p. 405. Hora, S. L. (1939): Game fishes of Tndia VII, (The putitor mahseer). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 272-285. (1940): The game fishes of India, IX. The tor mahseer, Tor tor (Hamilton), ibid. 40: 518-525. *—_______—__ (1951): Knowledge of ancient Hindus concerning fish and fisheries cf India. 2. Fish in the Sutras and Smruti literature. Jour. Asiastic Soc. Dett. 17: 61-68. PATHANI, S. S. (1978): A note on secondary sexual characters in Kumaun mahaseer, Tor tor and Tor putitora (Ham.). Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48(10): 773-775. — (1979): Studies on the ecology and biology of Kumaun mahaseer, Tor tor and or puti- tora (Ham.). Ph. D. Thesis, Kumaun University, Naini Tal. Ras, B. S. (1945): The decline of mahseer fish- eries of the Kumaun lakes and possible remedy. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 11(3): 341-345. Sincu, A. ef al. (1975): Souvenir of the Corbett Centenary year, 70 p. Tuomas, H. S. (1893): The Rod in India. W. Thacker & Co., London. *Original not consulted. 21. MALE IN COPULATION WITH DEAD FEMALE OF HIEROGLYPHUS NIGROREPLETUS BOL. Uvarov (1928) described abnormal pairing among locusts. He mentioned that many males copulate with dead females. Husain and Ma- thur (1945) stated that pairing of male with dead female locust is a physical impossibility. Bhatia (1959) observed eight instances of ma- ture males of Desert Locust, Schistocerca gre- garia Forsk. copulating with females which had died the previous night. Katiyar (1962) observed males of Aularches punctatus Drury . and Parahieroglyphus bilineatus Bol., to ride and copulate with dead females. He also ob- served a few females of P. bilineatus in coitus with dead males. During the normal course of breeding of Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus Bol. males were noticed to continue copulation even after the death of female. This appears to be the first report of such phenomenon in H. nigroreple- tus. We are highly indebted to Prof. S. M. Alam, Head, Department of Zoology for providing laboratory facilities and encouragement. One of us (S.A.) is also thankful to University Grants Commission for financial assistance. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ENTOMOLOGY SECTION, DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY, ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH-202 001 (U.P.), Januuary 20, 1979. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 SHAMSHAD ALI REFERENCES BuaTiA, D. R. (1959): Copulation of Locusts males with dead-females. Indian J. Ent., New Delhi, 213): 220: Husain, M. A. AND Matuur, C. B. (1945): Stu- dies on Schistocerca gregaria Forsk. XIII. Sexual life. Indian J. Ent., 7(1 & 2): 89-101. KaTiyar, K. N. (1962): A crazy-instinet of copu- lation in males with dead females and vice-versa among short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae: In- secta). Sonderdruck Aus Z. Ang. Entomologie, 49(4): 399-401. Uvarov, B. P. (1928): Locusts and Grasshoppers. London (Imp. Inst. Ent.). A text Book on Locust and Grasshoppers. 22. MATERNAL CARE IN OXYRHACHIS TARANDUS FABR. (MEMBRACIDAE: HOMOPTERA) Oxyrhachis tarandus is a common species of membracid usually found on Acacia ara- bica and Cassia fistula. \t is a brown insect with the posterior pronotal process extending backwards upto the posterior end of the ab- and fulgorids. The female of this species anterolateral processes of the pronotum are in the form of short tricarinate horns. This treehopper caught our attention dur- ing field surveys for collecting the membracids and fulgorids. The female of this species usually sits on the egg mass laid by it on the twig of Acacia arabica. While laying eggs the female cuts the bark longitudinally and inserts eggs into the twig in two parallel rows on either side of the slit and placing them at an acute angle to the main axis. The micro- pylar end of the egg is exposed. Careful examination of the tree twigs re- vealed many females sitting over the eggs. The tree was marked and the females were observ- ed closely for several days. After about three weeks the little ones were out and on account 156 of their gregarious habit they grouped a little above the egg shells and the mother had mov- ed a little away from the egg mass but was still amidst the young treehoppers. The mother always sat tightly perched over the egg mass least disturbed by approaching animals or man. It did not move away. even if the twig was shaken violently. It could only be removed from its place through a physical push. If any object was gently directed at it with the purpose of inducing it to move away from the egg mass, it usually retaliated and tried to push it aside with its pronotal horns. The female was observed to get extremely agitated on sighting minute hymenopterous egg parasites which threatened to parasitise the eggs. The female used to push aside the hymenopterous egg parasites with the help of its pronotal horns and by the movement of wings and legs. Tt was apparent that the mother never leaves its eggs even temporarily till they are hatch- ed and it may also be assumed that the brood MISCELLANEOUS NOTES mothers remain foodliess during the period of maternal care as very careful observations have failed to reveal any punctures in the twig in front of them. Maternal care in this species can be attri- buted to the fact that eggs of membracids are frequently parasitised by the hymenopierous parasites. In order to protect the eggs from parasitisation by these insects the female sits over the eggs. In this context the observation that the most of the eggs that remain uncover- ed are parasitised by the hymenopterous para- site is revealing. So it can be safely conclud- ed that this instinctive type of maternal care exhibited by O. tarandus pertains to the pro- DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, PUNJABI UNIVERSITY, PATIALA-147 002, (PUNJAB), INDIA, March 19, 1979. tection of its eggs from the attack of its enemies. Murtfeldt (1887) observed the female of Eutilia sinuata Fabr., a membracid, hovering over a Cluster of her eggs laid on the leaf of Ragweeds (Ambrosia). He found the parent insect remaining with her eggs and young leafhoppers. When the female was touched with finger even with all the shaking and brushing the mother was not dislodged. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are thanful to University Grants Com- mission for the grant of a fellowship to one of us (S.K.S.). SAWAI SINGH SURYA KANT SHARMA 1 MurtTFeLpt, Mary E. (1887): Traces of mater- nal affection in Eutilia sinuata Fabr. Ent. Amer. 3: 177-178. 23. PARNARA BUTTERFLY FROM PATNA: A CORRECTION In our faunal list of butterflies from Patna (Bihar) published in this Journal (Varshney and Nandi 1977), the occurrence of Parnara guttatus bada (Moore) has been shown in the Family Hesperiidae. According to Evans (1949) the species guttatus is now almost re- stricted to China, Japan, Sumatra etc. eastern countries. Only one subspecies guttatus man- gala Moore is found in India, which too has limited distribution — Kashmir to Kumaun, Sikkim, Assam. The subspecies bada Moore, which is com- mon in peninsular India, has been placed ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, CaLcuTtTa-12, June 27, 1978. under the species naso Fabricius. The type material of bada came from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and it has been collected all over In- dia, except western parts, vide Evans (1949). Thus, the Patna material should rightly be named as Parnara naso bada (Moore). Evans (I. c.) has pointed out that the fi- gures given of guttatus in Seitz (1927) also belong to naso bada. We are thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, for providing facilities and permission to publish this note. R. K. VARSHNEY B. NANDI 157 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 REFERENCES Evans, W. H. (1949): A Catalogue of the Hespe- riidae from Europe, Asia and Australia in the Bri- tish Museum (Natural History). London: 1-502 (p. 435). Seitz, A. (1927): Macrolepidoptera of the World. Vol. 9-—Indo-Australian Region. VARSHNEY, R. K. AND NANDI, B. (1977): Butter- fly fauna of Patna (Bihar). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(2): 325-328. 24. OCCURRENCE OF ARTEMIA SALINA (CRUSTACEA: PHYLLOPODA) IN DIDWANA LAKE, RAJASTHAN Recently, the study of Artemia has gained importance because of its utility as food in aquaculture. Artemia nauplii constitute the best available source of live food for the young stages of most cultured species of larval fishes and decapods (Bardach 1972, Godwin 1976). There has been a numbr of records of Artemia from salt pans near sea coast in India. But barring Baid’s (1958) record of Artemia salina from Sambhar lake in Rajas- than, there is no record of its occurrence from other inland sait lakes. During the course of a limnological study of two major salt lakes of the country, namely Sambhar and Didwana (Rajasthan), we found A. salina in Didwana lake. It is the first record of its occurrence from this lake. But, surprisingly, A. salina was not found in Sambhar lake by us. The study of Didwana lake was conducted from March to May 1979. Water samples were collected in the first week of each month and analysed for chemical factors such as pH, dis- solved oxygen, alkalinity and salinity. pH was measured by a battery-operated pH meter, dissolved oxygen by Miller’s method (as sug- gested by Walker et al. 1970), alkalinity and salinity after APHA (1975). For collection of zooplankton, 50 litres of water were filtered through a bolting silk net (0.3 mm mesh size) and zooplankton thus collected preserved in 4% formalin. The data of the physico-chemical factors are given in Table 1. During the course of the study, with the advance of summer, salinity and total alkalinity tremendously varied from one month to another. Dissolved oxygen was TABLE 1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL FACTORS OF DIDWANA LAKE DURING MARCH-May 1979 Air temperature (°C) Water temperature (°C) pH Dissolved oxygen (ml/L) Total alkalinity (ppm) Carbonate alkalinity (ppm) Bicarbonate alkalinity (ppm) Salinity (%,) March April May 24.5 35.0 30.0 23.0 26.5 26.5 8.2 8.5 9.5) 2.24 1.45 0.6 1738 2920 3700 870 1240 2000 868 1680 1700 108.0 170.0 268.0 158 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES found to be inversely related with alkalinity, salinity, pH and water temperature. A. salina was the only zooplankter found in the samples. During the first sampling 40 spe- cimens were found—all live adults. In the second sampling 150 specimens were collect- ed, mostly larval stages with 50% dead indi- viduals. In the third sampling only cysts were found. By this time the salinity had increased to 268%, and lake water assumed the form of saturated brine. The death of the speci- mens occurred some time between the second and fourth weeks of April due to the high salinity and alkalinity and paucity of dissolved oxygen. During the study period, two types of indi- viduals of different size and colour were found. The males were pale yellow and shorter in size while the females were reddish in colour and longer. Probably they feed on Aphano- theca sp., Anabaena sp. and Nitzschia sp. as these were the only phytoplankton present in DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR, JoDHPUR-342 001 (RAJASTHAN), December 4, 1979. the lake. The data (Table 1) reveal that the maximum limit of tolerance for salinity lies between 170 and 268%, and for alkalinity 2920-3700 ppm. Baid (1958) reported maxi- mum salinity tolerance limit for Artemia salina to be 194.3%, at Sambhar lake. But during the course of our 15 month’s study (from April, 1977 to June, 1978} of Sambhar lake, the maximum salinity was only 15% and A. salina was totally absent. The disappearance of Artemia might be due to drastic changes in ecological conditions, mainiy the decrease of salinity, owing to heavy rainfall and flood conditions for 3 to 4 years from 1975 onwards. Our thanks are due to Prof. S. D. Misra, Head, Department of Zoology, University of Jodhpur for guidance and to Dr. J. Royan, National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa for help in identification of the species. Thanks are also due to U.G.C. for financial support to M. Alam. S. C. BHARGAVA M. ALAM REFERENCES AMERICAN PuBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION (1975): Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. APHA, 14th ed. Washington. Baip, I. C. (1958): Occurrence of Ariemia salina in Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan. Curr. Sci. 27(2): 58- 59. BarDACH, J. E. RyrHer, J. H. & McLarney, W. O. (1972): Aquaculture; The Farming & Husban- dry of Fresh Water and Marine Organism. Wiley Interscience. New York. Gopwin, H. L. (1976): Proc. First Int. Aqua. Nut., Delaware (USA). WALKER, K. F., WILLIAMS, W. D. AND HAMMER, U. T. (1970): The Miller method for oxygen deter- mination applied to saline lakes. Limmnol. Oceanogr. 15: 814-815. Conf. 159 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 25. ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF LEECHES COLLECTED DURING THE DAPHABUM AND SUBANSIRI EXPEDITIONS, ARUNACHAL PRADESH The present note is based on a small collec- tion of leeches collected by one of us (JMJ) as a member of the multidisciplinary scientific survey expeditions to hitherto unexplored areas of Daphabum (Lohit Distt.) and Suban- siri in Arunachal Pradesh. The leech fauna of Arunachal Pradesh is known only from the contribution of Chandra (1970) who records five species, viz., Haemadipsa montana, H. sylvestris sylvestris, H. zeylanica zeylanica, H. zeylanica agilis and H. zeylanica montivindicis from the Kameng District. Except H. zeylanica zeylanica, all these species are re-recorded in the present communication. In addition, two species, viz., Paraclepsis praedatrix and Her- pobdelloidea lateroculata are being recorded for the first time from Arunachal Pradesh. Family GLOSSIPHONIDAE Paraclepsis praedatrix Harding Material— 1 ex; Glo-Howel Lake, about 4 km. from Tihun (Lohit Distt.); alt. 1170 m; 9.xii.69. Remarks. This is the first record of Para- clepsis praedatrix from Arunachal Pradesh. It is generally found attached to submerged arti- cles in lakes, tanks, pools and small streams. It often attacks molluscs, amphibians and rep- tiles. Distribution— India: Glo-Howel Lake (pre- sent record) in Arunachal Pradesh; Assam; Bihar; Haryana; Himachal Pradesh; Rajas- than; Maharashtra; Karnataka. Family HERPOBDELLIDAE Herpobdelloidea lateroculata Kabu- raki Material 4 ex; Wakro (Lohit Distt.); under 160 stones in the vicinity of a hill stream; alt. 510 m; 1.xii.69. Remarks.— This is the first record of Herpob- delloidea lateroculata from Arunachal Pra- desh. In field, this species can be easily re- cognised by its planarian-shaped body. It main- ly feeds on insect larvae, planktonic crusta- ceans and debris. Distribution— India: Wakro (present record) in Arunachal Pradesh; Manipur; Madhya Pra- desh; Rajasthan; Maharashtra. Outside India: Burma. Family HAEMADIPSIDAE Haemadipsa montana Moore Material— 1 ex; Tihun (Lohit Distt.); under stones near a stream in a dense forest; alt. 1260 m; 13.xii.69. Remarks—H. montana inhabits mountain forests. This species is reported to attack cat- tle and man. The colour ornamentation on the dorsum is mainly of a black median and a pair of lateral white longitudinal stripes. Distribution— India: Moshing, Domkho, Shergaon and Chug valleys in Kameng Distt. (Chandra, 1970), and Tihun in Lohit Distt. (present record) in Arunachal Pradesh; Sik- kim; Darjeeling Hills in West Bengal; Paini Hills in Tamil Nadu. Haemadipsa sylvestris sylvestris Blanchard Material— 3 ex; Chowkham (Lohit Distt.); under stones on the bank of Berang river; alt. 242 m; 22, 23.xi.69. 2 ex; Wakro; alt. 510 m; 1.xii.69. Remarks— This land leech is known to at- tack fresh-water crabs, cattle and man. The MISCELLANEOUS NOTES colour in living specimens is brownish with three black longitudinal stripes on the dorsum. Distribution— India: Amatulla, between Jhumla and Moshing, Dorkochu, Shergaon village, Sangloo and Domkho in Kameng Distt. (Chandra 1970) and Chowkham, Wakro in Lohit Distt. (present record) in Arunachal Pradesh; Assam; Sikkim; W. Bengal; Uitar Pradesh; Meghalaya. Outside India: Burma, Indonesia. Haemadipsa zeylanica agilis Moore Material— 1 ex; Damin (Subansiri Distt.); under stones near a stream; alt. 1100 m,; 20.1.75. Remarks.— H. z. agilis is commonly found in forests and grasslands. It is known to attack cattle and man, and can be easily recognised by the dark-blotched pattern on the dorsum. Distribution— India: Ankaling village in Ka- meng Distt. (Chandra 1970), Damin in Suban- siri Distt. (present record) in Arunachal Pra- HicH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STATION, ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, SoLAN-173 212 (H.P.), February 12, 1979. desh; Uttar Pradesh; Himachal Pradesh; Ta- mil Nadu; Kerala. Outside India: Nepal. Haemadipsa zeylanica montivindicis Moore Material— 2 ex: Tihun (Lohit Distt.); under stones near a stream in a dense forest; alt. 1260 m; 13.xii.69. Remarks— This species is very common in forests of the eastern Himalayas. It often at- tacks cattle and man. Dark-blotched pattern on the dorsum is obscure or absent. Distribution— India: Ankaling village in Ka- meng Distt. (Chandra 1970), Tihun in Lohit Distt. (present record) in Arunachal Pradesh; Sikkim; Assam; W. Bengal. Outside India: Nepal, Burma. We are grateful to the Director and Dr. H. Khajuria, Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of India for the necessary facilities for this research. J. M. JULKA M. CHANDRA REFERENCES CHANDRA, M. (1970): Notes on a small collec- tion of leeches in the Zoological Survey of India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 64: 107-109. 26. SOME INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS ON A SPIDER ARGIOPE ARCUATA SIMON (ARACHNIDA: ARANEIDAE) During the course of desert locust survey conducted along the Indo-Pak border area during August-September 1976, some interest- ing observations were recorded on an orb weaving spider, Argiope arcuata Simon. Habitat: The habitat of this spider was in most difficult and inaccessible desert tracts comprising high sand dunes with narrow ba- sins. Even in this habitat their population was confined to the narrow basin and lower edges of the sand dunes as the population of Acri- dids was heavy in the areas. Not a single spider was detected at the top of the high sand dunes or their upper slopes. The webs 161 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 were mostly found on woody shrubs growing in the basins but sometimes they were also seen on luxuriantly growing herbs such as Boerhavia elegans Choisy. The habitats of grasshoppers and that of this species of spider are almost the same. Food and feeding habits: The web formed by this spider is an efficient trap even for very large insects; the gossamer being quite strong. In its web, nymphs and adults of grasshopper such as Acroftylus sp., Oedaleus sp., Chroto- gonus trachypterus, Thisioecertus littoralis, Ochrilida sp., Truxalis exima exima, bugs, dung rollers and other beetles, some unidenti- fied caterpillars and that of Celerio sp. were detected. At two places Solitaria hoppers of 4th instar of the desert locust were also found. On one occasion one 7Jruxalis adult got en- tangled in its web but by struggling hard it escaped. It is interesting to note that large insects such as grasshoppers etc. when trap- ped in the web are further rendered helpless by being speedily fastened with silky thread on the legs and wings of the prey insect by the spider, and this ultimately causes death of the prey. As many as eight insects were found in the skins of one web. Bhatia and Singh (1966)! recorded Argiope sp. as predator of the desert locust adults and hoppers from Bikaner dis- trict but it is not known to which species, the spider belonged. It appears that many species of Argiope may be predating on nymphs and adults of grasshoppers and desert locust. Cannibalism: Some instances of cannibal- ism were also observed. Predators: Lizards are predators of this spider. Several specimens of Acanthodactylus 1Bhatia, D. R. & Singh, Charan (1966): Natural enemies of the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria Forsk.). Plant Protection, Bull. 18 (1-2): 14-17. 162 cantoris cantoris and Skink Ophiomorus tri- dactylus and Calotes versicolor were dissected and spiders of this species were found in their gut contents. Some passerine birds also pre- date upon these spiders when they move from one place to another. Population: 1 have frequently visited border areas of Barmer and Jaisalmer districts from 1974 to 1977 but only during August-Septem- ber 1976 a significant population of this spider was noted. Maximum number of spiders per bush was two individuals. Prior to 1976, a web of this spider was seldom seen; obviously po- pulations were extremely low, thus escaping notice. The number of the spiders was generally five per square metre in Dhanana-Murar area (Jaisalmer). The population explosion (appro- ximately 2000 per hectare) observed during 1976 was most probably due to availability of ample insect food and good vegetation dur- ing 1975 to 1976 in view of good rains. Distribution: The spiders of this species have been collected from Sundra area of Bar- mer district and Dhanana-Murar area of Jai- salmer district during September 1976. It was commonly met with in the desert belt from Sundra (Barmer) 25° 05’ N, 71° 07’ E to Dhanana-Murar (Jaisalmer) 26° 42’ N, 70° 12’ E during 1976. It is just possible that the belt of its distribution may be further extend- ed into Bikaner district along the Indo-Pak border, being of similar terrain, vegetation and insect fauna. This appears to be the first re- cord of its occurrence from these districts. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS I am obliged to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Poona for identification of the spider and scrutiny of the manuscript and MISCELLANEOUS NOTES helpful suggestions. I am thankful to Dr. S. N. Banerjee, Plant Protection Adviser to the LocusT WARNING ORGANISATION, Locust SUB-STATION, JODHPUR, May 29, 1978. Government of India, Faridabad for the faci- lities. CHARAN SINGH 27. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SILK CHAMBER CONSTRUCTION AND BROODING BEHAVIOUR OF PSEUDOSCORPIONS (CL. ARACHNIDA) (With five text-figures) It is the habit of pseudoscorpions to build chambers of silk which are used for breeding, moulting and hibernation (Gabbutt and Va- chon 1965). The silk chamber is generally constructed with the help of the spinneret or galea, situated at the distal end of the fixed finger of chelicera (fig. la). The silk glands lie in the prosoma and ducts pass along the fixed finger and open at the tip of the galea (fig. 1b) or the spinneret. Savory, T.H. (1935) pointed out the homology of the silk appara- tus with that of the poison apparatus of Ara- neae. It is to this presence of the silk glands in the chelicerae, the false scorpions owe the name chelonethi, given by Thorell. By the issue of silk glands, the chambers of silk are constructed in damp places under- neath the barks of trees by the bark dwelling forms or under decaying leaves of debris by litter inhabiting pseudoscorpions. It is of in- terest to know whether the method of cons- truction, the period of nesting and the reaction towards external disturbance differ among the members of the three different suborders namely Monosphyronida, Diplosphyronida and Heterosphyronida, inhabiting different habitats. Furthermore, extensive work has been done in the field of population dynamics of pseudoscorpions in different parts of the world (Kew 1914; Morikawa 1962; Gabbutt and Vachon 1965). However, during the studies they have failed to take into conside- ration nested forms, which may influence the population fluctuation remarkably. In_ this connection, a statistical allowance has been thought of during the present investigation. METHODS Tullgrenius indicus, Calocheiridius elegans and Lechytia indica were taken up for obser- vation as members of the suborders namely Monosphyronida, Diplosphyronida and Hete- rosphyronida respectively. For each species 10 individuals were observed at the time of nest- ing, moulting, brooding and hibernation with reference to their behaviour variations. OBSERVATIONS Tullgrenius indicus: (Table-1): This species was seen beneath the bark of tamarind trees. During breeding season, the gravid female carries 10 to 12 eggs attached to the genitalia as a spherical mass and covered by a thin membrane. With the help of the branched galea the female deposits the silk in an irre- gular fashion between the stem and the bark 163 164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 1b) g tc) sp mf. Figs. 1-5. 1) Chelicerae of Tullgrenius indicus; 1b) galea; 3) spinneret of Lechytia indica. 2) Nests of T. indicus. 3) Nests of Calocheiridius elegans. 4) Nests of L. indica. 5) T. indicus female carrying eggs. Abbrevitations bf—brooding female of Tullgrenius indicus, br—bark of tree, ch—chelicera, eg— egg cluster, g—galea, It—litter, mf—movable finger, n—nest, sp—spinneret. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES of the tree. The deposition of sand grains and tiny bark particles over the completed nest have been observed. The males and_ the females hibernate during winter (December and January), but the females club the brood- ing during that period. At a time, below a bark 5 to 7 nests have been observed with the least gap of 0.5 mm between two nests. In- variably the ramification of the hyphae of saprophytic fungi like Penicillium and Asper- gillus have been observed over the silken chambers. (Fig. 2). After about four weeks the protonymphs hatch from the eggs and remain with the mother inside the nest and they feed on the exudation from the mother. During moulting the three nymphal stages (Protonymph, deuto- nymph and tritonymph) build nests and the diameter of the nest varies from 6 to 8.5 mm. The brooding female constructs the largest chamber. Calocheiridius elegans : (Table 1): This spe- cies occurs beneath the bark of tamarind trees. During the breeding season the gravid female extrudes 6 to 8 eggs which remain attached to the genitalia and present a rous- sette-like appearance. At that time, the gravid female, with the help of the galea issues sticky silk and screens the gap between the stem and the bark of the tree. The deposition of coarse wood particles over the completed nest has been observed. The males and females hibernate during win- ter, during that period the females also exhi- bit the brooding of eggs while in the silken chamber. At a time, 4 to 5 nests have been observed below a piece of bark with the least gap of 4 cm. Fungal growth over the nesi has been observed in this species also (Fig. 3). After about three weeks the protonymphs hatch from the eggs and remain with the mother till moulting. The nymphs also build nests during moulting and the size of the nest varies among the three nymphal stages. The diameter of the nest varies from 2.5 to 4 mm and the brooding female constructs the largest nest. Lechytia indica: (Table 1): This species was observed beneath decaying leaves of soil litter. During brooding, the gravid female having 5 to 6 eggs as globular mass, moisiens the leaf with silk from the spinneret (fig. 1c). Gradually debris and sand particles deposit over the wet silk. Some times the nest appears like a ball of insect faecal matter. The size varies from 1 to 3 mm in diameter (Fig. 4). Since winter migration from litter to soil is predominant and is subsequently followed by hibernation in silken chambers, the indi- viduals are fewer in number during sampling. In all these forms, when the nest is disturb- ed the animal comes out immediately and in the case of brooding female the brood sac is discarded. (Fig. 5). Besides, they cease to con- struct another silken chamber for a minimum period of 20 days. When the nymphal forms undergoing moulting were disturbed, they died within a period of 2 hrs. due to lack of chi- tinization. The body cavity of the dead ani- mals showed the presence of fungal hyphae. DISCUSSION The Chelonethi use their nest solely for protection and the form of construction varies. Among bark inhabiting pseudoscorpions, Tul- lgerenius indicus and Calocheiridius elegans there is lesser deposition of sand grains or wood particles on their nest, whereas in Lechy- tia indica, a litter inhabitant, the deposition of decaying matter and sand grains is more, which gives strength and protection to the nest. In bark dwelling forms probably due to 165 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE 1 THE NATURE OF SILK CHAMBER CONSTRUCTION AND THE PERIOD OF NESTING AMONG PSEUDOSCORPIONS Suborder and Silk issuing Sh f name of organ of h Eis) species chelicera WO WI MONOSPHYRONIDA Tullgrenius branched irregular indicus galea DIPLOSPHYRONIDA Calocheiridius branched circular elegans galea HETEROSPHYRONIDA Lechytia indica spinneret globular Diameter pi Period of of nest Additional nesting in (in mm) substances days 6 to 8.5 Coarse sand 21 to 30 and wood particles 2 to 4 Coarse 20 to 24 wood particles 1 to 3 Sand 30 to 50 particles and decaying matter the availability of controlled microclimate, the additional substances are not much _ utilized. It may be inferred here that the variation in the mode of construction of silken chamber depends upon the habitat of the pseudoscor- pion. Further pseudoscorpions undergo nesting during winter and the nymphs moult through- out the year. Similar conditions that influence the population study of pseudoscorpions, have been observed in the life history analyses of pseudoscorpions by Gabbutt and Vachon (1965). In this connection Gabbutt (1970) has stressed the inclusion of nested forms in population recordings to arrive at a probable figure. The suggestion of Gabbutt (1970), does not seem to be sound since it has been observed that the encumbered female rejected the brood-sac when disturbed, thereby deplet- DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, LoyoLaA COLLEGE, Mapras-600 034, February 6, 1980. 166 ing the number of individuals during the next sampling. In addition, the mortality rate of nymphs increases when the nests are disturbed during collection. Thus, the present study suggests that nested forms should not be disturbed during popu- lation analysis and a statistical modulation could be introduced inorder to incorporate the nested forms in the population dynamics. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are indebted to Prof. Dr. T. K. Raghu- natha Rao for the help and advice rendered during the course of investigation. Our sincere thanks to Principal, Loyola College for evinc- ing keen interest and for his continuous en- couragement throughout our work. S. SIVARAMAN V. A. MURTHY MISCELLANEOUS NOTES REFERENCES GassuTr, P. D. & VACHON, M. (1965): The ex- ternal morphology and life history of the pseudos- corpion Neobisium muscorum. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 145: 335-358. GasBuTt, P. D. (1970). Sampling problems and the validity of life history analysis of pseudoscor- pions. J. Nat. Hist. 4: 1-15. Kew, H.W. (1914): On the nest of pseudoscor- pions with historical notes on the spinning organs 25% and observations on the building and spinning of the nests. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1914: 93-111. Morikawa, K. (1962): Ecological and some biological notes on Japanese Pseudoscorpions. Mem. Ehime. Univ. Vol. TV. No. 3: 417-35. Savory, T. H. (1935): Arachnida. Academic Press, London, 1-291. Weycotpt, P. (1969). The biology of psudos- corpions. Harvard. Univ. Press., 1-145. SOME INTERESTING OBSERVATIONS IN WRIGHTIA TINCTORIA R.BR. SSP. TINCTORIA (With a text-figure) An interesting specimen of Wrightia tincto- ria R. Br. ssp. tinctoria was collected by the senior author from Kumbharli ghat, about 12 kms from Koyna, Maharashtra during a bota- nical exploration tour in April 1978. The species W. tinctoria R. Br. has been divided into two subspecies namely ssp. fincto- ria and ssp. rothii by P. T. Pgan (1965). The specimen (Nayar 153166) collected from Kumbharli ghat differs from W. tinctoria ssp. tinctoria in the following characters: 1) Inflorescence less lax 2) Pedicel not exceeding 12 mm. 3) Corolla lobes acute 4) Corona segments not distinguishable as supplementary segments and _alternipe- talous segments. The most interesting observation made was on the nature and arrangement of the corona segments. Pgan (1965) has described the structure of corona in W. tincotria, wherein he has explained the arrangement of corona segments in three distinct series, i.e. supple- mentary segments, alternipetalous segments and antepetalous segments. Pgan had noticed some variations in the corona segments of W. tinctoria (Fig. 1, A-A3). The variations observed in the corona seg- ments of the specimen (Nayar 153166), how- ever do not agree with any of the variations as shown in fig. 1 (A-A3). On a critical study it was observed that the corona segments B Fig. 1. A-A3: Diagrams showing variation in co- rona structure; antepetalous segments white, alter- nipetalous segments dotted; supplementary segments solid black. B: Diagram showing an inner row of segments (solid black) indistinguishable as alternipetalous segments and supplementary segments; antepetalous segments white. 167 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 are not clearly distinguishable as supplemen- tary segments and alternipetalous segments (Fig. 1-B). In this case the true alternipetalous nature of corona segment is not observed, only an inner series of corona segments of variable lengths (not exceeding 2 mm) and an outer series of antepetalous segments are seen. These interesting observations can be inter- preted as a result of hybridization as suggest- BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Poona-411 001. December 30, 1978. ed by Pgan or due to abberation. The specimen (Nayar 153166) is deposited in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, Poona (BSI). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The junior author wishes to thank the Director, Botanical Survey of India for award- ing him a Research scholarship. M. P. NAYAR R. K. KOCHHAR REFERENCES PcAN, P. T. (1965): A revision of the genus Wrightia (Apocynaceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 52 (2): 114-175. 29. VERNONIA CHINENSIS LESS.—A NEW RECORD FOR ANDAMANS Vernonia chinensis Less. is known from Malay peninsula, Burma, China and Philip- pines. During re-organisation work we noticed a few specimens collected from South Anda- man which after critical study were identified as Vernonia chinensis; a first record for Andaman. The plant is characterised by tomentose slender, terete branches, leaves petioled ellip- tic or ovate-elliptic 2.5-7.5 cm.x1.5-3.5 cm., puberulous, serrate, bracts pubescent, lanceo- late, awned, receptacle pitted, achene small, 4-5 ribbed, glabrous. Vernonia chinensis Less. in Linnaea, IV. BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Howrau-711 003, May 16, 1978. 168 674, Mig. Flor. Ind. II p. 18; Clarke, comp. Ind. 18:1876; Flora Brit. Ind. 3; 235: 1881. Cyamosa pubescens and Cyanopsis villosa DC., v. p. 69; Conyza punctulata, Wall. list 2995. Specimens examined: Tavoy, 4 nov. 1829, Wall. list 2995; Burma, Kurz 843, Kurz 2237 (CAL); Malay Penin- sula, King’s collector 1120 (CAL), Hook. 1325 (CAL). Philippines, Elmer 8209, Lohr 3686, Kobbi 6582 (CAL); Andaman: North Bay, Hill jungle, Dr. King’s Collector, 8-9-1895, sn. (CAL). BIMALENDU MITRA GIRIJA SANKAR GIRI MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 30. A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR EUPATORIUM ADENOPHORUM SPRENG. FROM TEHRI GARHWAL During a recent survey of, ‘The Flora of Tehri Garhwal,’ Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng., a weed belonging to family Compo- sitae was found growing in moist and shady situations at Vyasi, in the Tehri Garhwal, at an altitude of 455 metres. It is being reported for the first time from this region. This weed is a native of Mexico and Jamaica. It was in- troduced as a garden plant about 1924 but within recent years has run wild and natura- lized. The distribution of the taxon is not wide- spread in the area and its migration seems to be recent to the area. Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel, Syst. Veget. 3: 420, 1826; Koster in Blumea 1: 502, 1935. Hara in Fl. E. Himal. 137, 1971. An erect, perennial branched undershrub. DEPATMENT OF BOTANY, D. A. V. (P.G.) COLLEGE, DEHRADUN-248 001. May 15, 1978. Bil Branches cylindrical, densely glandular hairy. Leaves opposite, petioled, sharply pointed, coarsely serrate above the cuneate base, 2.5-9 cm. long. Corymbs fastigiate trichotomous, flower heads clustered, white, pedicelled, 40- 70 flowered, slightly fragrant, receptacle flat, involucral bracts about 20 in two rows, lan- ceolate. Corolla tube white, 1 mm., slender, abruptly dilated. Achenes black glabrous, slender, crowned by a pappus of 10-12 white scabrid hairs, twice as long. Flowers and Fruits: March-July. Specimen examined: Dhyani 115, 28-3-1976. Collected from Vyasi, Tehri Garhwal. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am indebted to Prof. Som Deva for his invaluable help. SHIV KUMAR DHYANI WIESNERIA TRIANDRA (DALZ.) MICHELI (ALISMATACEAE) —AN INTERESTING AND RARE ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF MADRAS, FROM KERALA, SOUTH INDIA (With eleven text-figures) The genus Wiesneria Micheli is represented so far by four species throughout the world. Out of which only one species is recorded (from Konkan, Western Peninsula) in India hitherto. There is every possibility that an in- tensive search for them in pools and ponds of Kerala may result in the discovery of the other allied species as well. The present paper with its detailed description incorporating in- traspecific variation and analytical sketches would definitely facilitate in the search. This is an addition to the flora of erstwhile Presi- dency of Madras and thus this present dis- covery extends its distribution to the Southern most part of India. Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli in A. DC. Monog. Phan. 3: 82-83. 1881; Benth. & Hook. in Gen. Plant. 3: 1007. 1883; Hook. 169 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Figs. 1-11. Weisneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli: 1. Whole plant; 2. Single leaf; 3. In- florescence; 4. Infructescence; 5. Basal portion of the inflorescence (2 flower with sepals spreadout); 6. Terminal portion of the inflorescence (4 flowers); 7. 2 flower: 7a. sepal, 7b. petal, 7c. staminode, 7d. gynoecium; 8. @ flower: 8a. sepal, 8b. petal, 8c. stamen; 9. Fruits (young); 10. C. S. of young fruit; 10a. L. S. of young fruit. 11. Bract from young fruit, spreadout (not to scale). 170 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES f. Fl. Brit. India 6: 562. 1893. Buchenau in Engler, Pflanzenr. 16: 60-61. 1903; Cooke, FI. Press. Bombay 3: 346-347. 1958. (rep. ed.) Sagittaria triandra Dalz. in Hook. Journ. bot. and Kew Gard. Misc. 2: 144. 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay Fl. 249. 1861. Aquatic plants in shallow water in paddy fields, gregarious, semi-submerged, caespitose, monoecious, rooted. Roots many, long, white spongy. Leaves radical, numerous, long petiol- ed, linear, lamina shorter than the petiole, ligulate; petiole + 20.0x0.6 cm, constricted at the joint with the lamina, obtusely trigon- ous in cross section, aerenchymatous, broad- ened into a sheathing base; lamina + 14.0 0.7 cm, linear, keeled especially towards the base, obtuse at tip. Inflorescence raceme, + 20 cm long, with long peduncle and very short floriferous portion, axillary, shorter than leaves, erect; peduncle + 18 cm long, obtusely trigo- nous; flowering axis sharply trigonous with unisexual flowers arranged at very short inter- vals; floriferous portion + 2 cm long, narrow with 5 or 7 whorls; lower 2 (or 3) whorls with pistillate flowers (or very rarely 3rd whorl with both sex flowers) and upper whorls with staminate flowers, sometimes the upper most whorls sterile, intervals of whorls (es- pecially the lower ones) elongating very much after fertilization. Flowers white, bracteate, trimerous. Female flowers shortly pedicellate; bracts three, connate at base, -+ 3.02.0 mm, erect, trapezoid, truncate and subentire at apex, slightly accrescent; sepals three not spreading, + 3.0x2.0 mm, erect, ovate, obtuse, slightly accrescent in fruit; petals three, alternating BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, SOUTHERN CIRCLE, COIMBATORE-2, May 20, 1978. 1 Present address: Shillong, Meghalaya. Botanical sepals, ++ 1.00.5 mm, ovate or obovate to ligulate, obtuse, persistent; pistils 3 or 4 (rare- ly less), + 2.00.75 mm, flask shaped; ovary globose to ovoid, abruptly narrowed into a short neck and ending in a bilobed stigma; lobes of stigma broadly auricular, warted on the receptive surface; sfaminodes three, trian- gular, + 0.75 mm _ long, thick, acute. Male flowers about 3.5 mm across; pedicel + 1.75 mm long; bracts three, similar to those of female flowers; sepals three, spreading, ovate to obovate, slightly connate at base, obtuse to rounded at tip, subequal, longer one + 2.0 x 1.25 mm; other two sepals + 1.51.0 mm; petals three, much smaller than sepals, as large as the petals of female flower, obovate, round- ed at tip; stamens three, antisepalous, + 1.5 mm long; filaments + 1.0 mm long, dilated towards base; anthers large, conspicuous, basi- fixed, anther lobes reniform; pistillodes usual- ly three, ovoid. Young fruits subglobose or ovoid with short apical beak, one seeded; em- bryo curved. Specimens examined: Joseph 44444 (BSI/ SC ace. nos. 85768 & 85769), fallow paddy fields, near Kottur dairy farm, Trivandrum District, Kerala, 27-9-1973,+300 m; Stocks. Law etc. s.n. (MH acc. no. 73292) Malabar, Concan etc. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We wish to express our thanks to the De- puty Director, Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India for confirming the identity of the specimen. Ji JOSEPH* V. CHANDRASEKARAN Survey of India, 171 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 32. CHLOROPHYTUM ARUNDINACEUM BAKER (LILIACEAE) IN MAHARASHTRA (With five text-figures) Chlorophytum arundinaceum, (family Lilia- ceae) was newly collected from Chandra- pur district, Maharashtra. The species has not been earlier recorded by Cooke (1901-08) or by Haines (1916). In view of the absence of any known pub- lished illustration of the plant, a drawing is given along with a few salient points below, based on the study of our specimens (see text- figures on p. 173). Chiorophytum Journ. Linn. Soc. India 6: 333, 1892. Herb. Leaves lanceolate-oblanceolate. Scape long, racemes - 12 cm long. Pedicels about arundinaceum Baker in 15: 323, 1876; Fl. Brit. BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, WESTERN CIRCLE, PUNE, March 3, 1978. 33. NOMENCLATURE OF SOME In the Flora of British India, J. D. Hooker recognised 5 species under genus Urginea Steinh. Subsequently Blatter & McCann (1928) described U. polyantha from Western India and Boraiah et Fatima (1970) have added U. govindappae from Karnataka. However, during a recent revision of the genus from India, Deb & Dasgupta (1974) have reduced U. coromandeliana Hook. f. and U. govindap- pae as synonyms under U. indica (Roxb.) Kunth, with the result they recognise only 4 species in India, namely U. indica, U. congesta Wt., U. polyantha and U. polyphylla Hook. f. Jessop (1977) while critically analysing the 172 6 mm long in flower, 9-10 mm in fruit, arti- culated at or below the middle. Perianth outer 9-103 mm oblong or elliptic oblong. Inner 9-10 3.5 mm _ oblong-lanceolate, both five nerved. Anthers 6 mm long, filaments 2-3 mm long. Stigma simple. Capsule subglobose. Fi. & Frt.: July-October. Loc.: Bhambra nallah (Allapalli) Malhotra 135799, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to the Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune, for facilities and to Shri M. Y. Ansari, Systematic Botanist, for helpful suggestions. S. K. MALHOTRA SIRASALA MOORTHY BULBOUS LILIACEAE OF INDIA bulbous Liliaceae of Africa, is of the opinion that the genera Urginea Steinh., Idotheae Kunth, Thuranthos Wright, Urgineopsis Com- pton and Drimia Jacq. ex Willd. are closely allied to each other having no reliable con- stant distinguishing character to separate them and hence he preferred to treat them all under Drimia Jacq. ex Willd., the earliest valid name. The differences between Urginea and Drimia are essentially based on their perianth being reflexed or not, the nature of perianth tube and colour of the bulbs. The degree of fusion of the perianth tube considerably varies and overlaps in both the genera and although a MISCELLANEOUS NOTES h and Gynae- lant 2 & 3. Peri ’ 1. Habit Baker inaceum Chlorophytum arund 4. Stamen; 5. Capsule. (For descr Figs. 1-5. wel 2) ion see p t 1p > clum is JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 majority of the species under Urginea from India have only white bulbs, a few (from South Africa) have red bulbs as well. Fur- ther, in Indian species of Urginea, it is also observed that perianth segments are spreading and get reflexed either partially or wholly when fully opened. The arguments put forth by Jessop are convincing and equally apply to the Indian species of Urginea. As a result new combinations have been suggested for the other 3 Indian species, the one Urginea indica being already changed to Drimia_ indica (Roxb.) Jessop comb. nov. along with other 22 new combinations effected by Jessop Che))s 1. Drimia congesta (Wt.) Ansari et Ragha- van comb. nov. Urginea congesta Wt. Icon. t. 2064 (Left- BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, WESTERN CIRCLE, PUNE, May 16, 1978. hand fig.) 1853; Baker in J. Linn. Soc. 13: 218, 1873. Deb & Dasgupta in Bull. bot. Surv. India 16: 121-122. 1974. 2. Drimia polyantha (Blatt. et McC.) An- sari et Raghavan, comb. nov. Urginea polyantha Blatt. et McC. in J. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 735. Deb & Das- gupta Ic. 122-123. 1974. 3. Drimia polyphylla (Hook. f.) Ansari et Raghavan, comb. nov. Urginea polyphylla Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 6: 348. 1892; Deb & Dasgupta /I.c. 123. 1974. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona for his kind encouragement. M. Y. ANSARI R. SUNDARA RAGHAVAN REFERENCES BoralAH, G. & FATIMA, T. K. (1970): Cytotaxo- nomy of Urginea govindappae sp. nov. Bull. bot. Surv. India 12: 128-131. Jessop, J. P. (1977): Studies in the Bulbous Liliaceae in South Africa: 7. The taxonomy of Drimia and certain allied genera. Jour. S. Afr. Bot. 43(4): 265-319. 34. HITHERTO UNDESCRIBED FOLLICLES OF MARSDENIA BRUNONIANA WT, & ARN. AND ITS DISTRIBUTION (With three text-figures) R. Wight and G. A. Walker-Arnott (1834) described Marsdenia brunoniana without fruits based on his collections “‘Wight! Cat. n. 1524 —Prope Columala’’. It is understood from correspondence with Kew Herbarium that the 4 type sheets are of specimens all in flower- ing condition, as is another unnumbered sheet from Wight’s herbarium; and only one sheet 174 has the reference on distribution “‘Coroman- del’. In the literature the references on its distribution are “COROMANDEL, near Co- termala” (Hooker 1883); “Prope Columala” (Wight 1834); and ‘“‘near Columala (Kolli- malais?)’> (Gamble 1923). Further there is no specimen of this species represented either in Madras Herbarium (MH) or in Central MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Figs. 1-3. Marsdenia brunoniana Wt. & Arn.: 1. Follicles; 2. C. S. of fruit to show the winged angles; 3. Seed. 175 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 National Herbarium (CAL). Thus the exact locality of its occurrence has not yet been clearly indicated in the floras by J. D. Hooker (1883) and J. S. Gamble (1923); also the description on the fruits of this species is not available in literature since there was no col- lection with fruits. Surprisingly the occurrence of this species was recently noted by the senior author on the northern slopes of Palni hills during a plant exploration trip, and collected with flowers during October 1977 and with fruits during February, 1978. Thus the rare and interesting species has been rediscovered after a lapse of over 100 years. Since the fruits of this species are not known so far, a short description of them with figures has been provided. Marsdenia brunoniana Wt. & Arn. in Wt. Contr. 40. 1834; Wt. Ic. t. 356. 1840; Dene. in DC. Prodr. 8: 614. 1844; Hooker, FI. Brit. India 4: 36. 1883; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 846. 1923 & 2: 594. (rep. ed.) 1957. Follicls 8-9 x 3-5 cm, green, ripe pale yellow, BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, COIMBATORE, TamMiIL Nabu, December 29, 1978. two or solitary, ovatelanceolate, 4-angled, angles sharply winged, smooth, glabrous, ob- tuse, slightly indented at apex, truncate at base; seeds 1-1.5<0.7—1 cm, many, black, white-margined, ovate-elliptic, flattened, sub- obtuse at apex, with white silky coma up to 4.5 cm long. (Figs. 1-3). Field note: This climbing shrub grows over small trees in scrub jungles at an altitude of + 700 m. Fruits are quite distinct in having 4-winged angles. Specimens examined: INDIA. TAMIL NADU: Madurai Dt. Poomparai-Vilpatti R. F., 18-10-1977, Chandrabose 51367; Palani-Kodai- kanal, 17-2-1978, Chandrabose 53371. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England for providing the details on the type specimens of the above species and to Dr. A. N. Henry, Systematic Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Coimba- tore for help. M. CHANDRABOSE N. C. NAIR 35. MORE RECORDS OF ENTOMOGENOUS FUNGI FROM PRESERVED DRAGONFLY COLLECTIONS INTRODUCTION Several reports of fungal infestation of in- sects have been brought out by many work- ers. In India, however, comparatively much less work has been carried out on this phase of study. The most noteworthy and informa- tive reports on fungi entomogeni have been produced by Kamat eft al. (1952), Jagtap 176 (1958) and Narasimhan (1970) who have reported fungi from various groups of insects, such as, Aphids, Termites, Mosqui- toes, House flies, Grasshoppers, Butterflies, Honey bees, Cockroaches, Ants, Scale insects, Beetles etc. A review of the above literature clearly indicates that no attenion has so far been given on the dragonflies being infested by fungi, and the sole exception are the papers MISCELLANEOUS NOTES of Pacioni (1977) and Tyagi and Vijay Veer (1978). The latter workers, in their general study of the entomogenous fungi attacking preserved dragonfly collections, also, discussed the various precautionary and control methods on such fungi. The present note is the second report on the fungi entomogeni infesting the preserved dra- gonfly material, which also marks the end of our current investigations in this field. OBSERVATIONS In the present investigation were used some nine dragonfly species from which the follow- ing fungus material was recorded, altogether for the first time. The dragonfly material exa- mined for the purpose are as follows, Copera marginipes, Pseudagrion rubriceps, Ceriagrion coromandelianum, Ischnura forcipata, Rhino- cypha quadrimaculata, Anisopleura lestoides, Brachythemis contaminata, Trithemis festiva and Trithemis pallidinervis. Save for the last species, all the dragonfly material were male. The fungus species discovered on these dra- gonflies are, Alternaria sp., Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus nidulans, Coelomomyces sp., En- tomophthora aphidis, Spicaria javanica, and Stemphylium sp. Considering the entire amount of fungi entomogeni thus far known to the world, it seems worth mentioning here that no Spicaria sp. has ever been discovered from any insect previously and, therefore, its first record is only from a dragonfly. Summing up our knowledge on the prepon- derence of all the fungus species hitherto DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, D.V.A. (P.G.) COLLEGE, DEHRADUN-248 001, U.P., December 29, 1978. 12 known to occur or attack dragonflies, whether dead, preserved or alive, it soon becomes evi- dent that Entomophthora spp. are the most common fungi to infest their present hosts among which, also, the former has a good dispersal range. Generally, a single fungus species may be found on many different dra- gonflies while, at the same time, several spe- cies of fungi are apt to be obtained from the same individual belonging to any dragonfly species. This conclusion suggests that these fungi are not specific to any particular dragon- fly host and can be found attacking any part of the dragonfly body. This opinion regarding the general abund- ance of more than one fungus species on a solitary dragonfly host is in contrast to our previous view as mentioned in the former re- port (cf. Tyagi & Vijay Veer 1978), and which has now become certain as to the non- specificity of these fungi with respect to their host under discussion and that even several fungi can simultaneously infest one and the same insect, and vice versa. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. S. K. Sangal and Dr. S. K. Kulshrestha (both of the Depart- ment of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Dehra Dun) for encouragement; to Dr. M. B. Lal (Head of the Department of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Dehra Dun) for laboratory facilities; and to Mr. S. N. Sachan (Botany Depart- ment, D.A.V. College, Dehra Dun) for kind- ly identifying the fungus species. BRIJ KISHORE TYAGI VIJAY VEER 177 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 REFERENCES Jacrap, A. P. (1958): Studies in the entomoge- nous fungus, Metarrhizium anisophae (Metsch.) Sorok. Curr. Sci. 27: 99-100. KAMAT, M. N., PATEL, M. K. AND DHANDE, G. W. (1952): Occurrence of the green muscardine fungus on Pyrilla sp. in Bombay. Curr. Sci. 21: 317. NARASINHAN, M. J. (1970): Entomogenous fungi and possibility of their use for biological control 178 of insect pests in India. Indian 16-26. Pacioni, G. (1977): Interessanti fungi entomogeni Phytopath. 23: italiani: I Paecilomyces fumosa-rosens, Cordyceps memorabilis. Giornala Botanica Haliano 111 (3): 145-151. TyaGcI, B. K. AND VEER, VIJAY (1978): A note on some entomogenous fungi attacking the preserved dragonfly collections. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (3): 946-947. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1977-78 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE President Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.A. Vice-Presidents Mr. R. E. Hawkins Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.S. (Retd.) Mr. D. J. Panday Membe Ex-officio r Secretary, Dept. of Science & Technology, Government Elected Members Mr. Humayun Abdulali Dr. S. R. Amladi, M.D. Prof. P. V. Bole Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda Dr. B. Dasgupta Mr. H. K. Divekar Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Hon. Treasurer) Mr. Nazir Latif Mr. Bansi Mehta Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati (Hon. Secretary) Mr. M. S. Srinivasan Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava of India. ADVISORY COMMITTEE . H. G. Acharya . F. C. Badhwar, O.B.E. . B. Biswas . S. Chaudhuri . Chintaman Deshmukh, I.C.S. . Zafar Futehally . N. D. Jayal . Shivarajkumar Khachar . M. Krishnan . Duleep Matthai Ahmedabad New Delhi Calcutta New Dethi (Retd.) Hyderabad Bangalore New Delhi Jasdan Madras New Delhi 179 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1977 The report covers the activities of the Society in the 94th year of its existence. MEMBERSHIP During the year 161 new members were en- rolled. Unfortunately the total number of ordinary members continues to be more or less static in the region of 700-800. There has been an increase of interest of members in the Society’s activities and we hope to reduce the number of members lost every year. Drop outs were 100 and resignations 32 during the year under review. The number of members in each class of membership is given below: ing the year, two of them (Vol. 73 No. 2 and Vol. 73 No. 3) being issues of the Journal for the previous year, and only one issue (Vol. 74 No. 1) relates to the current year. It has been possible, with the increased page space available in the new format to reduce the number of pending articles. The articles continued to cover a wide range of subjects with emphasis on the ecology, be- haviour, and taxonomy of Indian Fauna and the taxonomy and regional lists of Indian Flora. The Society’s illustrated newsletter-cum- popular Journal, the Hornbill has had a suc- 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Ordinary Members TAO = 163) eae 02 Individual 561) 721 Corporate 160) Life Members 1989992321247 47, Individual 246) 259 Corporate 13) Student Members 16 20 19 20 39 Honorary Members 4 4 4 4 4 Forest Dept. Nominees 90 99 9 36 — _- pu SE SR PUBLICATIONS The Journal continues to be delayed in its publication. Three issues were published dur- 180 cessful year and has served the purpose of creating and retaining member interest in the Society and in attracting new members. Four issues of the Hornbill were published during the year. A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS Books: During the year the following sales were made: of THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS and the first edition of the GRASSES OF WESTERN INDIA by T. Hodd. The work on the Centenary Publi- cation, ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL HIS- Book of Indian Birds Book of Indian Animals India’s Wildlife in 1959-70 Some Beautiful Indian Trees Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra Sale Balance stock 31 December 1977 2894 5106 479 61 319 161 235 2765 267 2774 58 466 The following books were published: BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali, 10th edi- tion. This edition received excellent support from members and others and nearly one third of the copies printed were sold. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES by Blatter and Millard, 3rd edition. We are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, Gov- ernment of India for the financial assistance which made this publication possible. INDIA’S WILDLIFE 1959-70 by M. Krishnan. Based on Mr. M. Krishnan’s survey of the wildlife in India during 1970 under a Jawahar- Jal Nehru Fellowship. The publication of this book was made possible by the generous finan- cial assistance of the Seth Purshottamdas Thakoredas and Divalibai Charitable Trust. Books under preparation: We have in the press the second edition of A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKIS- TAN by Dillon Ripley and the second edition of SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS, by Bor and Raizada. The former is financed by the author and the latter from funds made available by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. Also under preparation are the 4th edition TORY with Mr. R. E. Hawkins as general edi- tor, is in progress. This publication is also being financed by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. CONSERVATION The Society continued to take an active part in the Conservation Movement in the country through its association with State and Central Wildlife Boards, and through its members on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the World Wildlife Fund, and the International Council for Bird Preservation. The Society’s Curator has been nominated as the Co-Chairman of the SSC’s Asian Ele- phant Specialist Group. The regional meeting of the group was arranged at Bangalore at the Indian Institute of Science, when the program- me of work and regional task forces to under- take surveys were organised. MEMBERS’ ACTIVITIES It has been possible to interest and encour- age members in Bombay and elsewhere in field activities. 181 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Bird Count: A monthly roadside count of birds in the Borivli National Park was organis- ed with the assistance of members. The acti- vity received financial assistance from the Salim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund. The activity is being continued. Nature Walks: Nature walks were organised in Borivli National Park and elsewhere for bird-watching, vegetation studies and general natural history. A large number of members participated. Nature Camp: A camp was organised in October at Bandipur National Park and the Tahr country in the Nilgiris. 41 members par- ticipated in two groups led by Dr. Robert B. Grubh, Dr. Reza Khan and Mr. P. B. Shekar. RESEARCH Bird banding data: Computer analysis of the data has been arranged in collaboration with the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; feeding of data has commenced. University Department: Mr. M. A. Reza Khan was awarded the Ph.D. Degree in Field Ornithology of the Bombay University for his thesis on the ecology of the Black-and-Orange Flycatcher in South India. Mr. M. K. Chan- drahas was awarded M.Sc. degree for his thesis on the Ecology of the Five-striped Palm Squirrel. Nilgiri Bird Survey: On behalf of the Gov- ernment of Tamil Nadu two field trips to the Nilgiri district were made by the Society’s staff and the report on the birds of the district has been sent to the Government. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary: The Maharaja of Bharatpur has very generously donated the Kadam Kunj rest house in the Sanctuary to the Society. It is proposed to establish a hydro-biological station in collaboration with the WWF (India) to monitor the ecology of 182 the Sanctuary on a continuing basis. Ecology of the Honeyguide: Studies were made by Dr. Salim Ali assisted by Mr. S. A. Hussain. Both of them made visits to Bhitan for preliminary investigation of Honeyguide locations. An ad hoc grant of Rs. 5000/- was made by the Govt. of Bhutan, towards expen- ses of the study. ICAR Frog Project: The project with Mr. Humayun Abdulali, as Principal Investigator is programmed to examine the effect produced on agricultural ecology by the removal! of frogs for the export of froglegs. DONATIONS For Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund Rs. Dr. Salim Ali 351,000.00 Mr. E. W. Mudge Jr. 879.57 For Charles McCann Fieldwork Fund Mr. S. Choudhury 600.00 Mr. H. Abdulali 175.00 For Salim Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Research Fund Dr. Salim Ali 1000.00 For Hornbill Newsletter Dr. Dasgupta 100.00 Mr. Dilip Patil 50.00 Dr. Scaver A. Ballard 56.00 Mr. H. K. Divekar 101.00 MEETINGS January, 27: Talk: ‘Biological clocks and seasonal breeding cycles in Animals’ by Prof. B. K. Follet. February, 1: Talk: ‘Scientific expeditions connected with Zoology and Marine Biology’ by Dr. Ferdinand Starmuehlner. March, 19: Talk: ‘Introduction to Bird Watching’ by Mr. S. A. Hussain. A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS May, 21: Talk: ‘Introduction to Bird Wat- ching’ by Dr. Robert B. Grubh. May, 16: Film show: ‘The Last Strong- hold’. May, 27: Film show: ‘Snakes of India’. June, 29: Talk: ‘Indian Flowering Trees’ by Prof. P. V. Bole. July, 16: Talk: ‘Introduction to Bird Wat- ching’ by Dr. Robert B. Grubh. September, 17: Talk: ‘Identification of Waders’ by Dr. Robert B. Grubh. October, 19: Film show: ‘Antarctic’ by Miss Meher Moos. November, 24: Talk: ‘Wildlife of the Nil- giris’ by Mr. Reza Khan. November, 29: Talk: ‘Environment’ by Dr. R. M. Naik. November, 30: Slide show: ‘Ladakh’ and other subjects by Mr. Prakash Gole. December, 16: Talk: ‘Another trip to the Andamans and Nicobar’ by Mr. Humayun Abdulali. December, 20: Talk: Bhutan: ‘In search of the Honeyguide’ by Mr. S. A. Hussain. REFERENCE COLLECTION During the year 273 specimens were receiv- ed at the Society: Mammals 3 Birds 149 Reptiles 56 Amphibians 65 Total 273 Important additions are: Birds: Ninox affinis, Micropygia rufipennis-— Coll: H. Abdulali. New subspecies from the Car Nicobar 1976 collection are being described. Phodilus badius_ ripleyi—Coll: Reza Khan & V. S. Vijayan. Amphibians: Philautus glandulosus—Coll: J. C. Daniel. Philautus chalazodus—Coll: J. C. Daniel. NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME More than 400 schools were contacted from time to time through circulars. 32 field trips were arranged to Borivli National Park in- cluding one for a blind school. A nature camp was arranged for Municipal Secondary School children. Students from 18 schools were taken to the Prince of Wales Museum, 9 to taraporewala Aquarium and 12 to Jijamata Udyan (Victoria Gardans). Guidance was given to schools in the pre- paration of projects on different aspects of nature. 40 schools were visited personally. In addition 5 radio talks on Nature Education were given during the year. Slide shows were arranged in 5 schools. During the wildlife week an xhibition of ‘Our Wildlife’ was arranged for school child- ren. 5862 students from 46 schools visited the exhibition. LIBRARY During the year 1977 thirty eight (38) books were added to the Society’s Library. Of these: 18 were presented 8 purchased 12 received for review Total 38 183 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 REVENUE AND ACCOUNTS ciation of the willing co-operation of the staff in the activities of the Society. The financial situation of the Society conti- nued to be unsatisfactory. The year’s operation ACKNOWLEDGEMENT showed a small surplus. The Committee wishes to record its appre- ciation for the assistance received from mem- The Committee wishes to record its appre- bers towards the activities of the Society. STAFF 184 A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS ee SS OS TEL‘OS 90°€76'b9 S98 19'TT ST ETI 6E TIN 90°€76'b9 797067 67 ETS FL L6'V96'8 97'88P'ET 00°000°@ 00°000°S7Z $6866 07 0E 17 IaAO paliied yoayg coueleg se] Jod se souvjeg :quaudinby pup ainjxig ‘adnjuUiny Ieak oY} SUlINp UoTeIDeIdaq :ssaT yo uoywM Assequiq ueolIoury 0} poriojsuey sdoag Z JO 4sOd :ssaT yooys souvleg jse[ Jod se sourjeg :aj9kQ oinp ‘ajakQ 4010p ‘sip 40j0FW (-/Zos‘I ‘SY enpea yyxseW) -/000Z ‘SM jo onjea sovy sy} Jo 000‘Z UeOT eipuy jo yoUTUIAAOH %F¢ (-/o00'sT ‘sa onyea yy) -/O00'ST ‘SA JO onea sov}j ay} Jo 98/9p6] UvOT Uols1oAUOD %E ysoo } SSallIngag JUaWUsaAo V ie S D (-/z9¢‘91 “SH onjea yoyreUL) pied Ajjny ‘pry ‘oD BunuIg ooeD ¥ SuuMovynueyy Peqepauyy Jo -/9IT “SY Jo yors spuog sz[qeulsspey %8 ‘707 (-/00S‘€ ‘SH onyea joyseUL) pred Ayny “pry oD Bunurg coeD % SuLINjORJnNue|, Peqepoulyy jo - /oot ‘su jo yors spuog 9IQIJIOAUOZ %8 “OS (ented poyelidoiddy ty) :siuauysaauy :saysadolg ajqvaowuy SLASSV 0S6I ‘LOV LSOUML OITANd AVANOE AHL ALAIODOS AYOLSIH TVYNLVN AVENO (NO) rb? “A ‘ON GHAALSIOAY 7I'BITSTT 89'Pr7'6 IL'7S6LE $6'709°C 9E CECT OV'STO'PE O7'ELY'S9 LULOVIL L6'0C9'9L L6'796'8 76'S8S°S8 00°720°T p6'E9S'b8 EOBPSTIT OO'PIL‘OL EO VES TIOT JOAO paliieg yooys sourjeg yse, Jod se courjeg :pung sulpying yUNOSNeB sory[eAOr predun wiolj possojsues yunouy :ppy LV, 2[Npeyos ur sjiejep Jod se spuny Jayj}O WOIJ possojsuel JyUNOUTY :ppy yaasys souv[eg sey Jod se sourleg ‘puny aAdasay [vsaUuaH reak ay} IO} uUorleIDs1dep jo junosse Uo jyUNODDe sINyIpuad -Xq % oUIOOUL WIJ porlsojsuvi], :ssaT Assequiqy uvolioury 0} poliojsueiy, sdoar Z JO sOd OY} YO Us NIM ‘S597 reok oy} BulInp peseyoimd sjosse poxy oy} Jo onjeA :ppVy yaoys sourjeg se] Jod se oourjeg :puny Slassy paxi, Iesh oy} BUlINp poAsoeI yUNOWY : PPV yaoys soured jse] Jod se courleg :puny diyssaquay afi] :sndsog pup spuny Isn1y SHILITIGVIT GNV SAND ee ee ee ee LL6l MAIWAOAd 1¢€ GAUNA UWAA AHL YO LAAHS AONV'IVA [CLT PION Spl] TTA eMpeyos 185 Vol. 77 SOCIETY, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. br l6s‘0c'S 9L°8S0'E6 vS'S98'°98'C TO'LST6L'T ST6EL‘S 00°S6€ €6TOL‘LS 08 TEL‘Os TOAO posltIVD IO°'LS861 ‘ET 98° 18P‘SI Aequiog ‘youvig SSUIAVG Wnesnyy ‘eIpuy Jo yueg ‘7 LSPLT PI Avquiog ‘peoy iypury eujyeyey] “pyT yueg shv[pury *| [YjIM Junoddp ssulapg uj L0°S88‘6 Aequiog ‘yueg porojieyD ‘¢ vO'OSEbZ (T3=09'ST ‘Su ye payoauos (06/09ST 3) Zee SSCS T uopuoyT “pry yueg sAvjpuriH ‘7 l 77 L90°97 Aequog ‘proy iypuey ewjeyey “py yueg skeppuy ‘| ! 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M. 1977-78—-PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS ILSEE‘67'y TO'VZO'LS ES7CI'8 = 81068 CLOSE 98 i 99'OLN'LTT 90'689°8S‘E JIAO polled ae Oe'sT aa oc'sT Oc'sT a a oe'sT AeAIng pllg leyoyynpng Joy npeN [wey ‘searyory Jo sJoyoud (91) = 9E EET OE '7EET = #9€ CECT = = 9E EET uonn[od Ladd Joy AZo0jooq UoNNTOg Jo 9)n} -ysuy Avg esopog woly jUeID (CI) PLOET'LE 98°698°7 = 98698‘ 00°000‘0r ae 00°000‘0r = SL-LL6T Worzeolqnd Joy} AZojouyseT, 2? soUusIDg Jo ydoq ‘eipuy jo yaoH wrIn (PT) 00'00009 = = = 00°000‘09 = 00°000°09 = 8L-LL6T S}ouTqes [993s Io} Asoj[ouysay,, 2? s.oUsINg Jo ‘ydoq ‘eIpuy Jo yoH yweIH (€T) 8E°ST8IZ COLI — COLT 00°000‘7Z = aa 00°000°7Z SL-LL “P}WOD *LL-9L Alo\sI{ [TeInNJeN JO eipsdopoAou_ Joy} AZojouyssy, W sous1I9g +jJo ydaq ‘eIpuy jo ‘yAoH jwueIy (71) OS EOL‘ST Os'9Lr's oa OS 9LV‘S 00°08 1TZ = os 00'08T‘I@ 8L-LL “Pquos ‘11-9161 sesued -xo ‘31g jeuInog jo so]xOeqG ay} IoJ ASojouysaL, 2 sdUusINg Jo ‘ydoq ‘eIpuy jo "yAoH ywreih (TT) ON ETBLE = OLS PTL = OL'SPI'L 0£ '696'br = a 0£'696'Ph = BL-LL “PIUOD “LL-9L6T “PIUOS ‘OL -¢/6[ OJ oInpIpuedxe uv[_ JOJ ‘ASOJOUYIATL, 3 DdUSIDG Jo JUSUI yledoq ‘eIput JO jAOH juRID (01) (qs019}U]) 78 PSP'P Iv 7r6'b7 = Iv 7r6'b7 €7 LOE 67 = Z0'0+6°C7Z IT LSP9 SyUSU}SOAUT puny Yolvasoy [ed1so[oyWUIO oyjueM exO7T/ITy wIyS ‘Iq Jepun puny diyssrejoyss (6) LU86E°TS'T = 9T'LOO'ST LV06L'9 60°LL7'8 ES SOPL9oT a yOOEL'Y 68'PEL‘7I'T Joao JYsNoIg (6) (8) (L) (9) (s) (p) (€) (2) (1) (8 snuiui ¢) dpak LL61 dvat ay 8ulanp jaays daquiazag LPO spung ay1 Su1anp rpPp‘e'z spun paalazad aouvjog ISTE 1D SuUN]OI fO 4ayjo OJ xPapunfay suwnjor fo aeyjo wodf sjunowmp isp] dad SD aounjvg /D10L sda {Suva ], |quady /010L Sdafsubay,, | Suo1ippy Sp aouvjog juvip|puny ayi fo awon 189 SOCIETY, Vol. 77 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. LOTOETTS TEPISTE ESS G6OTZOLT T 6S 9br'9r'6 6ELEL‘6Y'S 07'669°96'E JOAO pollieg Z9'9ES‘T 8E'PO9'TT ma 8E'P09'TT €9°9CS ‘CI 67 ETL‘0Z Er 67 ETL‘0Z 6S LS8‘IS‘€ a ran a = 00°000‘s a 00°000°S 00°8777 00°7Z0'T = 00°7Z0°T 99°919°C ad = == 9L107'T CL P67CT cas TL V6C CT 00°000°07 =z aes = = CU'SLPZ = CU'SLY‘T = 00°000°S a 00'000‘S ILSee 6th T0'PZ0°LS ES7@71'8 = 8 106'8h (6) (3) (Ge --=_0) OO'IPT‘ET 76 6b7'EE 6S LSS‘IS*E 00'000°¢ 00'0S7'€ 999197 8r'96r'ET 00'000°07 CUSLYT 00°000°S TL'6SE“98'P (S) (Q snuilu ¢) LLOI Anak daquiavaq LPO Spung = ay Suranp— vy PE *Z IS[€ 1D suiunjo2 fO Aayjo Oo] y»Papunfay suuinjos fo SD aoUunjvog DIOL, SAafSUuDd [iuads [D101 4ayjo wosf 00 IPI ‘el (38019}UT) 76 '6F7'EE 6S°LS8‘IS‘E 00°000°S (9s919}UT) 00°000'7 00°08¢‘91 CCB 99 OLN LTT (€). ddad ay) su1Anp padlazad sjunoup /suollippp sp aauvjpg 00'0S7'E 99°919 879169 00'000°07 00'L777 00°000°S 90°689°8S°E (Z) Jaays’ aouvjog iso] sad queIDH Avaing yueydaq ‘aMM/ NONI JUOUTSOAUT pun wolearssuoy Wy UNTeS ‘Iq Jopun puny wornearasuod puny wonearssuoD Ty WITYS IG AdAING ueNYyg jo spiig JO} uvnyg jo ‘oH 4UrID SIOquIoUl WOIJ PoAlsdeI pun. J0}af0Ig JUOU}SOA -UI puny Uolnepuno,y fe1poH eys -fong Jopun puny yIoM ppd yiodxe 10} vjAjopppxay vUuDy jo yeaowor Aq posned spurt suimol[pe pue [einjjnouse ul soourqin}siq [voIsojooq jo uol} -VUIUIO}Op IO} YOIvesay [eInj}[No “ZY jo [IOUNOD UeRIpuy jURID pun uonepunoy foipoH eysfolg 941 ADAING Pg IO} vJOYLWeYyliIg ‘Uores -IUR3IQ YoIeesoy oovdg uvIpuy eunvyiay jo AdAIng Io}JOZVH-- PIISIGY -IWNBIN OJ NPEN [wel “YoIvasoy [ediIo}sipy{ 3 soarypory Jo JOUOISsIUTWIOD (97) (12) (07) (61) (81) (LT) Juvip/punyz ay fo awuvonN 190 1977-78 PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS A. G. M. ‘S]JUDJUNOIIP patajJAvYyD . 2/61 “49G901I90 YICZ ‘AVAWOG “oo % alavy -/PS ‘puny sAlosoy [etoust) 0} poitojsuell x nn ne LE ee Or'6ELTH'S SL'VE6'8TT €S'7C1'8 TCUSOCE ICKL ILOL 2 — 6E'SSIETI 7B'8IO'SH'Y TVLOL SS 97 6E9'SE aa 97 6E9'SE 97'6£9'SE ae = 97'6E9'SE uoneol[qnd Joy Asojouysey, Y souUs!INg Jo ‘ydoq ‘vIput JO "WAOH WRI «* or 9E PIT IS LL@S ae IS TLb'S 00°806'€L = 00°806°€L = souvusjureW SUIpling 3% JUOUIYsSI[Qe}so OZ :8L-LLOL fof tuptp (7) ae 9€'089'ST =— 9€'089'ST 9€ '089'ST mae a 9€'089'ST _ soueusjureud SsUuIplIng 3 juourYysi[qejso IOF “LL-OL6L Hof suoin (1) :DAJYySpivyv fo Juamusaa0H wodf sjuvIH LOTOETZ'S TEPISTI ES7ZTS GOIZOLIT 69° 9rb'9r'6 an 6E'LPL'6h'S 07'669'96E Joao WYysnoIg (6) (8) (L) (9) (s) (p) (€) (Z) (D (g snuius) dvad LLOI {pad ayy Su1anp = jaays’ daquia2aq LY9 spun ay) sulinp =p PET spuny padjazat aounjog 1S\|€1D suuinjod fo 4ayjo Of] zpepunfay suunjoo fo sayjowodf sjunowp 48d] dad Sp aouvjvg /010L sda {Sud J, /iuads /D10L Sdafsuvd][, [Suollpppy Sb aouvjog juvdip|/puny ay) fo auvn Se 191 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 6£ LYS8‘L7y JOAO polite) 66818 TT TL 6PL'TS'T TSAOMPoLLies) ETOST PSE ES LSSISE PUN UoHeArtosuoD oINMjeN IV WITYS 00°000'T puny yorvesoy [eoIsoT “O4WUIQ OYWULM SAT HV WITS y9'ET9 puny orej[oAA YRS OO'SLL puny YOM pelt Shape €6°LE6 16 (eA0qe uey} I9q}0) ASO[OOZ s}eIQoIIA UURDOP sopreyoO on Vcr Sinner Ronees TLY' - IOJ spuny ofi2adg¢ spapmoy “ IS TLy by 8L-LL6l LON UES 87'OrE'ST LL-9L61 105 (euo0d Jad se) elyyseleyeyy JO JUSWUIDAOH WOIT . ‘6 . ‘6 se U 08 6te O86 yse) ul ‘99 “y-q. 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M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS a ID p8'6CT TPL J9AO polled 7Z'0E0'91 7 JOAO polled OS'T6L'E 00°CET eijysereyey JO spilg oy} JO ysipTyooyO LLULPI IT +9'06'T afoho ony OS TEL‘T s}JaJyoog sInjeN Jo sasdun[H W spOAD IOJOPL ‘sivd IOJ}OW UO 00°676' I sojeg [euinor €lEp7's yuswidinbs pue sinj}iuInyJ uO :suoyvoygqnd woif awoouy “* :uoyvlaidag “ ELTIL€L O00CL*Y sooj souRIjUq SLI8IL 00°0SL'7 SdoJ [eUOISsaJOIg 3 [e3eT] 86'6rI'ST (sIaquuoul PO OLiI‘l juswidinba 2 oinjUIny 0} sieday UON) [euInos 0} UOTdIIDsqn¢s 00°607 winiwiseid sduevInsuy LI€90'81 suonjdtiosqns diysiaquiepw 9}e10d109 PL TSO'E sesieys jelous 00°009 suondiiosqns diysiaquisyy juepnig :sasuadxg snoaunjjaosiy “ 8S 6LI‘SE suondiiosqns diysisquiayy :$aaq aounayuq 2 UoNdiuosqng wodf awoouy “ EN TET'S = qual e[qeieAosaiy (9) aa sdiysrejoyog uvoy (q) é P EN TETS $3q9 eq (2) CTLLE‘SETZ = OOTPFI‘ET Asains jueydely ‘ io Alp - ; ee “ 10} JMM/NONI wey (3) labia a a 00°000‘S ueynyg ul Asaing pig 00°000'T :saaq qipnp “ IO} uvnyg JO JWOUIUIDAODH jUeIn (J) OO'O8S‘91 yalorg sts BL-LL61 IO} YorIvssoy SO'6P9'SL'T E8'ZSI‘F sasuadxa eourusjureu pue JeinyNosy jo [IouNnoD ueIpuy (9) siiedax JOJO ‘Zed 10}0/W CT 8HT eyoylreylig ult Adaing piig 105 06°LS9 (je007) sasuedxq uolesIuRsIQ, YoIeasoy soedg uvipuy (Pp) Zur[faaes], 3 aouvaauo> 00'000‘€ Sesuedxy BuljUIIg [VUINOL 8/-//61 OJ Awapesy souaiog [euoleN ueIpuy (9) S9'OLL'I ‘O79 «sMOYS WIY 0000009 939 S}OUIGed [2991S 8/-LL6I ION “€ ‘syye)} SuIpNpoul sosusdxs Sunes 00°000‘0r suoneoyqnd 8L-LL6l Od “T 06°06€"€ sasieyo ouoydejoL 00°000‘07 sasuodxa €1'008 sodieyo yueg suljulid jeuinoe 8/-//6] 104 ‘I 00°S6 JUOWWASTJIOAPY AZo[ouYyIATL, W sousiog Jo juouedaqd LU9P6'P Arouonej}S 2? 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SOCIETY, Vol. 77 SOPIE'SE’S 66LE60E 7 TINO Poles) IVLIPIb8 0S°619°67 JoAO pallied SEEN TST (eu09 Jad se) spunj JUBAZ[oI 0} polIojsued} sjoafqgo) =6oyideds §=uo 8 oinjipusdxg LSS 1°89 (ero Jad se) eID eyseieyepF Jo yAoH 0} pelisjsuel] souRUdJUIeU “Splg 3 yuouysiqejsq uo sinypusdxg LL LY IL (er]U09 Jod se) puny sjosse pox 0} polioy -suel] sjosse poxy jo uoleissidoq (spunj oyloads 0}) :suafsupi 7 80°€0S 9 spuny SAT} -dedsol 0} pojiqop IvoA 94} SUlIMp spun} yofoid snolieA Sul[puey I0F 60°LL9'P Qsnzy 9]qey4 “ey eqyeald 2 sseparoyeyL sepuleyjoysning jeg wos; }UIS JO JNO IIT PIA S.eIpuy uo Yyoog s,ueuysiIy, “We ys jo uoneoyqnd uo sasuedxq (Z) Iv Cr6 v7 JUSUN}SA “UJ pun Ydivesay [eo1Zojoy} TIO O4UeM eYOT-Ty wes ‘Iq Jopun punj diysiejoyos jo jNO YSIvasel [VIISo[oyyUIO uo sasuedxa Ioyjo x diysiejoyos YyoivassalI spiemo} soasuodxq (1) :$aaq aAloujsiunupy (e1}U09 Jed se) spuny aanoadsor woz ace Dee ta : jDUONDINpy 19°Z9Z'P Z6'SLE o/Y Bul[Ia}s Jo eBueyoxs uo ]VOIg 6£0SP7'TZ s}diad01 I9yIO :4ysn4f— ayy fo sjoalqQ uo sasuadxq of 00°00rI sotoucredsuel} s.AJaIN0g JO dsN 9} IOJ saoJ4 OL'Ee sauy Areiqry] 68°98E°S7T'9 H6'68E09 spun oAnoadsay 0} :QUIOIUT ~SNOBUDIJIISIY Ppeliajsuelf, syisodaq poextj uo jsaiajuy ; 00'TET (eljYyseieyey jo TroO9eEs 16TH sesivyo suryoed uo Wold :ppy SPIlg oY} Jo 4stf-yooyo) puny yom IS‘9CE'€8 Play AB0[OOZ s}eIQaIaA UURDI\V sajieyD 0} polsajsuvi} spaso01d ayes 60°L60°81 STepus[e o1njeNn OS TEL (slaPjoog simjeN jo sasdunjo) Or'OIT'' suohwolqnd 10y4iO yunosse puny uwoneorlqng 00°StY syreyo 0} pollojsuvi} spoadsoid ajes ayeus snouosiod jo uoneoynuopy ET OST PSE jooug sourleg oy) UI SL'9TS'6 OL-6S6] Ul SFTPILM S.etpuy $]UN099B JURAI[OI 0} porsoysuvIt 9T 818 C SdotL, Uvipuy [NnjJynevog suog spunj oyiseds spiemo} suoleuog cS TEO OL sjeumluy uelpuy jo yoog 7TTLL8‘80'T SpUNy JURAD[OI 0} parIajsueN ywRIH €SLOT 6E Sspilg uvrpuy jo yood ispuny oifisads :syoog fo ajps uo snjding 40 aAdasay 0} patia{subdy Junowp “ p8'6cC I'L Joao JYySnoIg ZUOEO OLE I9AO YySno1g HWOONT FAN LIGNAdX| 194 A. 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M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS ce 916 89 01 I9AO paliiey IVLIP irs 9207S OL'T T9AO polite) CC SLY C Byoyeylg Ur uoljesiuesiQ Ydieasay sovds uvIpuy UIOIJ jUeIs Jo 4yno yout AdAINS pllg UO sasuadxq (6) 00°000°S npeNn [uel jo jyUuOWUIDAOH juPI3 jo yno jaw AdaIng JI99}}0zZBH UISIG WISIN uo sasusdxq (g) CL V6C TC yorvas dy yeimynousy jo jpiounod uvIpUy WOIJ JULIS JO yno Jour pafoid S01J Uo sasuddxq (Z) OS'9L'S LL-9L61 Asojouysey, 3» «s0usIDg jo juoWw}Iedaq ‘eIPU[ JO "JAOD UID jo yno Jou SuI}UIId [euINOL JO sonsst yoeg uO soxapuy uO sasusdxyq (9) 98°698°C 8L-LL6l Asojouysoy, W souaI9g jo y\doq ‘elpuy Jo ‘JAoyH juei3 jo yno uonroyqnd uo sasuedxq (¢) 9TOED SE LL-9LO6T AZojouysey, = s0ueINg = Jo ‘\doq ‘eIpuy JO ‘jAoyH juels Jo yno uoleoqng uo sasusdxyg (rp) OL'SPI'L oinjipuedxs ur[d SE ISS EET 6EEINT Ty wis Id Joy ABojouyoaL, WP soualog jo Aq uvinyg jo splig jo uoneoyqnd ‘ydaq ‘eIpuy JO ‘JAODH jueIs Jo oy} JoJ uenyg jo 3ury “AY ys yno Apnys SursAyeue evyep plig ay} UO poUiea jsoIO}UI JO jJUNOUTY 0} Sunejal sosuadxa I0yj0 :spuny solie[es Yes ploy uo sasuadxg (¢) aYi9adg§ 410 dAsasay woaf pastafsubs1y, “ 0S 619°6Z (‘pluog) 66'LE6 OE 7 (‘pluo0oDy) :suafsunr1y Kg :ysnig, ayi fo sjoalqQ uo sasuadxq Of C6 PIE ‘SE'S Joao JWYSNoIg IU LIV‘ It's IoAO jY4sNoIg AWOONT AYN LIGNAdX| SS ES 1S I EE TL ET EE RS SE CE SS I SS ET BET ES SS YD 195, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 €£°916'89°01 €£°916 89°01 AWOONT IoAO jYSNOIg IVLIP Irs IT LIV‘ Ty's SO'ETH IST 00°007°€ cO'PLI 00°00r 8eP09'TT 00°000°s 67 ETL0C 9L'07S ‘OI'T urinyg jo suly “HH Wor; jueis Jo no TTy uN[YS “Iq Aq ueynyg JO spllg uo sosuedxq (sT) LL-9L6L Asojouyset, RP s0UaIDNg ~=«jo juswjiedeq ‘eIpuy Jo ‘jAoH ques JO jno AIojsiPY [eInN}eN jo eipedojoAouq uo sasuedxq (PI) puny civjjom yeas jo yno soakojduia 0} pieg (¢1) AMM/ NONI wory jueI8 jo jno jour Aaaing jueyday AMM/NOAI uo sesuadxg (71) ueinyg JO jAoyH WOlJ jUvInQ JO ynO AsAINg pig uejnyg uo sasusdxg (TI) OT6EL‘'OT O0'8SS‘S yusur -astJIOApy :SSaT 07 L677 }s09 ]®10} 1919]-SMeN TIIG -uloH Jo sunutig (9) 81°L69 diz} Asaing Pilg orosAyW (q) 16 987'€ AdAING plig uejnyg (e) :uo sasuedxq (01) (‘pjuod) (euo0s Jed se) :ysn4, ayy fo sjoalqQ uo sasuadxq OF I9AO yYSnNoIg 196 TaN LIGNAdXA A. G. M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS ‘sadnspady, KADIOUOH 9/61 ‘4290199 YIGZ ‘AVAWOg ‘SJUDJUNOIIP pasajADYD INUVIINY “A ‘O -/PS “OD 8 aIaVH -/ps ‘Kapjadaag KiDAOUO HY ‘juapisadd ajep UsAd Jo yodei ino Jad sy ‘ILVAVNYN ‘Gd 'N ‘'V -/ps ‘ITy WIIVS -/ps Hasse sneer aera s a reer ese a ee reer cere eee eee eee ———————————————————————E————_————————— €£°916'89'01 TR}0.L €£'916 89°01 [R10 Se99T'L yous aourleg 0} poasiajsues} ommjipued -xd JOAO WOU, Jo ssooxg L8ZEEOCT TE POT? > U01jI92]/0D aouaiafay fo adupuajulnpFe (q) Sr'6r sasuedxe AIvIqiy I3uIO SLTL syooq Mou jo sseyoing 6C 8L8‘7 SdtjaId0s I9yJO 0} suOI}dIIosqng :qunosIp avigiqT (dq) 66 TLE‘E sdi} Apnys ploy rey}0 pue sowuwivizoid Apnjs platy (dD) EL LIT‘09 sosuadxe jeumnog (q) Oe'ST npeN [wey ‘Yyoieasay = [eo1I0}ST HL y sayy jo JouOIsstwWWOD wiolJ spunj 94} Jo yno Asains reyoyynpng uo soasusdxq (91) SO'ETITST (‘pluog) :1Sn4 ZL ay fo sjvalqQ uo sasuadxq OF €£°916 89°01 IoAO 4sNoIg IT'LIP'Ip'8 Joao qySno1g AWOONT aUNLIGNaaxXy ee ee ee ee ————EEEEEEEE===E=™ 197 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 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M. 1977-78—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS The Annual General Meeting of the Bom- bay Natural History Society for 1977 was heid on Wednesday, the 10th January 1979 at 6.30 p.m. at Hornbill House, Opp. Lion Gate, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay, when the following were present: . Humayun Abdulali Dr. Salim Ali . G. V. Bedekar . H. K. Divekar . S. P. Godrej . D. N. Goenka . R. E. Hawkins . J. P. Irani . A. K. Joshee .C. V. Kulkarni . Duleep Matthai . Bansi Mehta . C. B. Mehta .S. N. Mistry . A. N. D. Nanavati . Dinsha J. Panday Mr. V. K. Paralkar Mr. Dilip Patil Mr. Ulhas Rane Mr. A. Rashid Mr. K. K. Vajifdar Mrs. D. S. Variava Dr. Salim Ali proposed Mr. R. E. Hawkins to the Chair and was seconded by Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati. The Honorary Secretary’s report having been circulated was taken as read, and the mem- bers present were asked if they had any queries on the report. Mr. Humayun Abdulali questioned the wisdom of carrying on with the computerisa- tion of the Bird Banding data. His enquiries in the company of a knowledgeable friend at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research at the instance of the Society’s last AGM re- vealed that no programme was set, and he was doubtful if any useful purpose would be served by carrying on with the work. Mr. Hawkins explained that computerisation of some 250,000 records was being carried on for sake of a general study of the data collect- ed during the ten years of bird banding. Mr. Abdulali enquired about the proposed Hydrobiological Station at Bharatpur and whether a project proposal has been prepared and submitted to the Executive Committee. The Honorary Secretary stated that a pro- ject has been prepared and incorporated in the Society’s Five-Year Plan and that further action depends upon the availability of funds. Mrs. Variava proposed that the Honorary Secretary’s report be accepted, and Mr. Bede- kar seconded the proposal. The Honorary Treasurer while dealing with the Balance Sheet and Accounts stated that the Balance Sheet showed a surplus of Rs. 7166.35, reducing our previous deficit from Rs. 61,973.16 to Rs. 54,806.81. He explained that the suggestions made at the last AGM have been executed as far as they were practicable. Mr. Bedekar proposed that the Honorary Treasurer’s report be accepted and was second- ed by Mr. H. K. Divekar. Mr. Bedekar proposed that the auditors Messrs Habib & Co. be re-appointed on the same terms (viz. a fee of Rs. 1000/-) and was seconded by Dr. Kulkarni. The Chairman expressed the hope that, as the business of the meeting had been complet- ed expeditiously, the next Annual General Meeting would be combined with a lecture or film. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chair. 199 os i i a i Pit ; é _ ee | . ft i] t ‘ f ‘ 4 hall il Hisik ey VARs ie iy Say hie b betel ee a es ie ah Ls i 3 4 NTC de sobre ike aonb: on te, Bresixe pirtesabel ify A Ae Iie, ; "a SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS Mammals The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition eosin) 28 plates in colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 60.00 (Price to members Rs. 55) The Ecology of the Tester Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, by James Juan Spillett. Rs. 10 Birds The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and many monochrome plates. Rs. 60.00 (Price to members Rs. 55) Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali. mars: 2.50), (Price to members Rs. 2) Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali & J. D. Panday. Rs. 3.00 Snakes Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5 Plants Some. Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and monochrome plates. 3rd edition (Reprint). Rs. 40.00 (Price to members Rs. 35) Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. (in Press) Miscellaneous Glimpses of Nagie Series Booklets : 1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Kannada Rs. 0.62 2. OuR BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi Rs. 0.62 3. Our MoNSOoN PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0.80 4. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, and Hindi aN Rs. 1.25 Glimpses of Nature in India (with 40 coloured plates) in English Rs. 7.50 (Price to members Rs. 5) Back numbers of the society's Journal. Rates on application. The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, from mem- bers who may not wish to preserve them. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP Entrance Kees: Ordinary and Life Members ch of Me 5S Rs. 25 Student Members 5 ate 45 bd Rs. 10 Subscription : (a) Ordinary individual Members a a a Rs. 50 (b) Ordinary Corporate Members j ae an Rs. 100 -(c) Ordinary Members resident outside India re a Rs. 85 Life Members ne Rs. 750 (Rs, 250 after 20 years) Compound Corporate Members As 3 we Rs. 1500 Student Members (without Journal) ms a Bes Rs. 10 Annual subscription to Journal se ay Rs. 105 Members residing outside India should pay their sobecintion by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £5.50 should be paid annually rey ee to the Society’s London Bankers—The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London - EC3P. 3ED. Account No. 1101091. The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the - ie period from the date of their election to the end of the following year. 4 a y s CONTENTS PAGE A NEW SPECIES, AND A NEW SUBSPECIES OF BIRD FROM’ TiRAP Dis7Rict, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, AND COMMENTS ON THE SUBSPECIES OF Stachyris. nigriceps BLYTH. By S. Dillon Ripley Se 1 FRESHWATER ALGAE OF DAVANAGERE AND RAICHUR OF KARNATAKA STATE, INDIA. By U. D. Bongale and S. G. Bharati Rs 6 BIRD NOTES FROM BALUCHISTAN PROVINCE, PAKISTAN. By T. J. Roberts at 12 SSERVATIONS ON FOOD AND GROWTH OF Bufo melanostictus TADPOLE. By J. H. Sabnis and Ku. S. M. Kuthe i 21 DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCS IN AND AROUND THE CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN COAST IN INpIA. By C. S. Gopinadha Pillai and K. K. Appukuttan Re 26 A MARCH BIRD COUNT IN PcoNna. By Prakash Gole : A 49 4 MAMMALS FROM NEPAL. By David H. Johnson, S. Dillon Ripley, and Kitti Thong- longya ; se S6 ite ‘ PARENTAL CARE IN THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER) AND — R MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS. By H. R. Bustard and B. C. Choudhury ms 64 g EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF TOR MAHSEER FISH. By C. V. Kulkarni os 70 q FamILy CYPERACEAE IN KOLHAPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. By A. R. Kulkarni, S. R. Yadav : and J. S. Pawar ib 76 a + A CATALOGUZ OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BomMBAY NaTuRAL History Sociery—22. By Humayun Abdulali Pe 81 CLUTCH SIZE, INCUBATION AND HATCHING SUCCESS OF GHARIAL [Gavialis gangeticus (GMELIN)] EGGS FROM NARAYANI RIVER, NEPAL, 1976-1978. By H. R. Bustard .. 100 New DESCRIPTIONS , .. 106 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES volte ae ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BomMBAY NaTuRAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1977-78 .. 179 STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY Ae RSS, MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING HRTLS ‘ Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 092 and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023. ‘ id, ing, the. following, instructions: oF a Piney, ~~ journals or ange or ae Altea been omg seats Zs, © COMERS ; a the sheets properly numbered. — | a has. gs betas phlei ay ase ae of spovianens a i ue iste ‘Polar for a heen most. ce clear anil ee dee Oe. 47 Prime cee be of a size not smaller fan 8.20%5. 60 cm (No. 2 Brow ri ea Blossy glazed paper. a : ae ef, te? on Bristol board. ae ao ieseay arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles o na! aoe ae oe underlined. pore and titles of ‘books 9 not Honediaet) La coy Soc. 550): OAD ICR Rl ag F © shoul not be underlined. ee name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958): | eae written synopsis, nortnally not exceeding 200 words. in the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will: be given gratis to be ¢ ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks Bers contribution earlier then a non-member’s, ~ Hornbill House, — aT BY rie 1 TORS ‘Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, . RAN te Ae ts Journal of the Bombay 400 023. — scout Natural History. S _ NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS “3 Cetin of f scientific artis: are requested to assist the ecivors by obs 1. Papers Which have at the same time been otferap me , 2: The MS. a he Sars (double spacing) on one c side of All scientific names to be printed. in italles should 1 be nat 4° ‘Trinomtials referring to. subspecies should only be used where ide ed. ane 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be i in Tngian ink, Bias References to literature anim be laces at the cad of the 7 A Baer Me he (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian “Animals Bombay. t , 8. Reference to iteratute i in ite text should te sass by cuotng ee Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be. ‘accompanied by a 10. Reprints: Authors are-supplied 25: reprints of their atticles tes among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should after the author of the acceptance of the SEO as will be ee for at Cost. and packing, pie ane editors reserve the right, oa coe Seite. equal, to bobs , ¢ * va + santeh fetisem, «Sarr bine Pe ee ny cele om ed entrant meres VOLUME 77 NO. 2: AUGUST 1980 Date of Publication : 28-3-1981. CONTENTS CONSERVATION FUTURE OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus SCHNEIDER) IN INDIA. By H. R. Bustard and B. C. Choudhury. (With four plates & a text- figure) FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIior (M.P.). By H. C. Goel and C. P. Srivastava. (With nine text-figures & a map) A CONTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA (SOUTH), SINGHBHUM DIST. (Soura BIHAR). By D. K. Biswas and J. K. Maheswari BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. PART Vik=Seoto: Philus heathi (HORSFIELD)—VESPERTILIONIDAE. By A. Madhavan STUDIES ON THE INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN Trithemis festiva (RAMBUR) (OpoNaTA: LIBELLULIDAE). By Mahabir Prasad and Arun Kumar. (With six text-figures) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION OF THE SONG OF THE KokEL Eudynamis scolopacea. By M. V. V. Subrahmanyam and R. V. Krishnamoorthy. (With four text-figures) OBSERVATIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris LINN. IN caPTiviry. By Adhir Kumar Das. (With a chart) PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATUS OF SILVER CARP IN RELATION TO CATLA IN THE CULTURE FISHERY OF KULGARHI RESERVOIR. By S. J. Karamchandani and D. N. Mishra. (With two text-figures) NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES IN THE BOTANY OF ORISSA. By N. C. Nair and R. K. Ghosh DISTRIBUTION RECORDS OF CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BasTAR DISTRICT, MADHNE PRADESH, INpIA. By Zakir Husain Husainy. (With a text-figure) NOTES ON THE BREEDING AND HUNTING BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED MACAQUES (Macaca silenus) IN CAPTiviTy. By Y. Artaud New DESCRIPTIONS: On a new silurid cat-fish from Uttar Pradesh, India. By S. K. Gupta, K. C. Jayaram and K. P. Hajela. (With a text-figure) On a new species of genus Allotrissocladius Freeman (Diptera, Chironomidae) Agnes India. By P. K. Chaudhuri and S. K. Nandi. (With three text-figures) A new species of the genus Herculia Walker from North India (Lepidoptera: Pyra- lidae: Pyralinae). By H. S. Rose and S. S. Dhillon. (With seven text-figures) Description of a new species and a key to Indian species of Belostomatidae. By P. Ven- katesan and T. K. Raghunatha Rao. (With seven text-figures) Aconogonon kuttiense (Polygonaceae)—A new species from N. W. Himalaya. By G. G. Maiti, R. M. Dutta and C. R. Babu. (With five text-figures) A new species of Jasminum (Oleaceae) from India. By A. K. Sinha, G. G. Maiti and G. S. Giri. (With five text-figures) A new species of Eunotia. By P. T. Sarode and N. D. Kamat. (With two eroureN OBITUARY: D. E. Reuben (1893-1980) REVIEWS: 1. The Fauna of India, Spiders. (M. L. Roonwal) i 2. Collin’s Handguide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-continent, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka & Nepal. (Humayun Abdulali) es MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: PAGE 201 215 311 Mammats: 1. Food habits of the Indian Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus): A preliminary analysis. By Bruce D. Barnett, James A. Cohen. A. J. T. Johnsingh and Michael W. Fox (p. 313); 2. Observation on carnivorous habit of Irrawaddy Squirrel, Callosciurus pygerythrus (Geof- froy). By Santanu Ghosh (p. 316); 3. Unusual Rat feeding behaviour associated with cattle affected with foot and mouth disease. (With a text-figure). By S. Odend’hal (p. 317); 4. Bait shyness and poison aversion in Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) using RH-787 as Roden- ticide. By M. L. Sood and’ R.-P. S: Gill -(p. 319);-5. On the unusual occurrence of the Common Dolphin. Delphinus delphis Linnaeus in longline catches at Port Blair, Andamans. By T. E. Sivaprakasam (p. 320); 6. Litter size of some captive wild mammals. By L. N. Acharjyo and §. Mohapatra (p. 321). Birps: 7. Observations on parental care of a wounded chick of the Bronzewinged Jacana, Metopidius indicus (Latham). By Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 325); 8. Blacknecked Crane in Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh—A survey report for January-February 1978. By Subhendu Sekhar Saha (p. 326); 9. The Bluecheeked Bee-eater Merops superciliosus Linnaeus in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 328); 10. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo, Cuculus varius Vahl in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 329); 11. A new nesting site of Common Myna, Acrido- theres tristis (Linnaeus), in the Punjab. (With two photographs). By H. S. Toor and Manjit Singh Dhindsa (p. 329); 12. On the taxonomic status of the Eastern Ghats Hill Myna, Gracula religiosa peninsularis Whistler and Kinnear, 1933 [Aves: Sturnidae]). By N. Majum- dar (p. 331); 13. Egg-bound death of a Purplerumped Sunbird at Baj Baj, West Bengal. By Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 333); 14. Occurrence of the Bengal Black Robin, Saxicoloi- des fulicata erythrura (Lesson )[Muscicapidae: Turdinae], and the Assam Purple Sunbird, Nectarinia asiatica intermedia (Hume) [Nectariniidae] in Orissa State. By N. Majumdar (p. 334); 15. Dispersal of bayas with recorded distress calls. By S. T. P. V. J. Swamy, N. Shivanarayan and Mir Hamid Ali (p. 335); 16. On nesting association of the Whitebacked Munia, Lonchura striata (Linnaeus) with the Mound-Forming Tree-Ant, Crematogaster rogenhoferi Mayr. By Srikumar Chattopadhyay (p. 337); 17. Bird pests to rice at Bumbong Lima, Province Wellesley, West Malaysia. By Michael Avery (p. 338). REPTILES: 18. Notes on sexing crocodilians. (With two plates). By Romulus Whitaker, Zahida Whitaker and Allen Vaughan (p. 341); 19. On the occurrence of Bifurcated Tailed in Agama Lizard from Simla Hills, Himachal Pradesh. By Mahesh Chandra and Rathin Mukherjee (p. 343); 20. Recent re-discovery of the rare Agamid Lizard, Otocryptis beddomii. By T. S. N. Murthy (p. 343); 21. Growth rate of Indian Python, Python molurus molurus (Serpentes: Boidae) in captivity with special reference to age at first egg-laying. (With two text-figures). By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 344); 22. Cobra and Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus. By B. D. Sharma (p. 350). FISHES: 23. Khulnawa—A special fishing device for minnows in the river Ganga at Patna (Bihar). (With a plate). By S. R. Banerji, M. L. Singh, S.. K. Thakur and Nirmal K. Thakur (p. 351). Insects: 24. A note on the Dragonflies (Odonata: Insecta). By Mahabir Prasad and M. K. Biswas (p. 353); 25. Microtrombidium sp.—An Acarine Ectoparasite of Musca domes- tica nebulo Fabr. By S. C. Dhiman and R. C. Dhiman (p. 353); 26. A supernumerary larval instar and antimelanin effect on the 6th instar larvae of Spodoptera litura (F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) by Altozar—a juvenile hormone analogue. By S. Badrul Islam and Mumtaz Ahmed Khan (p. 354). Botany: 27. Pteris dactylina Hook. from Silent Valley—a new record for Peninsular India. By N. C. Nair and P. Bhargavan (p. 356); 28. The genus Macroptilium (Benth.) Urb.—A new record for India. (With eight text-figures). By S. V. Subba Rao and R. Gopalan (p. 357); 29. Additions to the Flora of Rajasthan. By A. N. Singh (p. 359); 30. Note on the occur- rence of Agrostis nervosa Nees ex Trin. in Western Himalaya. By B. C. L. Sah and D. N. Joshi (p. 360); 31. On the occurrence of Cleome felina L.f. (Cleomaceae) in Maharashtra. (With six text-figures). By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy (p. 361); 32. Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf—A grass new to Kashmir. (With a text-figure). By H. Thakur and G. N. Javeid (p. 363); 33. Notes on Vaccinium leschenaultii—Complex (Vacciniaceae) in South India. (With two text-figures). By V. Chithra and R. Rajan (p. 365); 34. Cryptolepis grandi- flora Wight—A new record for Andamans. By Amit Sinha and Girija Sankar Giri (p. 366); 35. Occurrence of Pithophora kewensis Wittrock in Bangladesh. (With a_ text-figure). By A. M. Abdus Salam and Yusuf Sharif A. Khan (p. 367); 36. Distributional notes on certain recently described Taxa. By V. V Sivarajan and J. Joseph (p. 368); 37. Powdery mildew of walking fern (Camptosorus rhizophyllus)—a new record. By J. Raghava Reddy and A. Purnachandra Reddi (p. 370). JOURNAL OM) “THe BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1980 AUGUST Vol. 77 No. 2 CONSERVATION FUTURE OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER ) IN INDIA’ H. R. Bustarb? AND B. C. CHOUDHURY* (With four plates & a text-figure) The conservation future of the Saltwater Crocodile in India is discussed together with reasons for the species’ decline and conserva- tion programmes already in progress. The Saltwater Crocodile is endangered in India at the present time due to inadequate steps be- ing taken to ensure the long-term survival of its mangrove habitat. Whereas hunting was responsible for the earlier dramatic decline in the species’ numbers habitat loss now poses the most serious long-term problem since the species is fully protected by law and effective protection can be provided in the field. Con- servation programmes have operated since 1975 in Orissa, and 1976 in West Bengal and 1 Accepted August 1979. 2 Chief Technical Adviser, Government of India. Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Train- ing Institute, Lake Dale, Hyderabad-500 264. ’ Research Scholar, Andhra Pradesh Forest De- partment, Crocodile Conservation Project. Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad. Andhra Pradesh, and work commenced in 1979 in the Andamans. However, the Bhitar- kanika Sanctuary in Orissa is the only suc- cessfully operating sanctuary for the species in India and its integrity is seriously threaten- ed by encroachment. Much of India’s coastal mangrove forests have been destroyed and the remnants are rapidly disappearing. Unless sanctuaries to effectively protect the man- groves, as well as the wildlife, can be set up and soundly managed to ensure their long- term integrity, the Saltwater Crocodile will become extinct. It is suggested that well- managed commercial utilisation of this valu- able economic species could help to ensure the future of the sanctuary areas and with them the crocodile. “No country has done more than India to conserve its crocodilian resources and no- where has the effort met with such marked success” (Bustard, in press, a). Concerned about the future of India’s crocodilians, parti- cularly the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. Government of India asked UNDP for assist- ance in carrying out a survey. The resultant report (FAO 1974), stated that the Gharial was on the verge of extinction, the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) reduced to two pockets in its former strong-hold along the Bay of Bengal, and the mugger (C. palu- stris) a fast depleting species. Following this Report, Government of India initiated a Crocodile Project, with FAO/ UNDP assistance, and the senior author, who had carried out the 1974 investigation, be- came Chief Technical Adviser for the large scale Project which subsequently ensued and is still in progress. (The present project is scheduled to terminate in December 1980.) An early account of the project develop- ment in Orissa, the first State to take up works under the Government of India Pro- ject, is given in FAO (1975). The gharial occurs only in the Indian region and its fu- ture was the subject of much international concern. The very critical situation facing the gharial (FAO 1974, 1975) led naturally to maximum efforts being directed to that spe- cies in the early years. This tended to over- shadow the deteriorating status of the salt- water crocodile, and delayed realisation of the seriousness of its poor future conservation status as a member of the Indian fauna, al- though a project was initiated on this species in Orissa in 1975, and a further project com- menced in West Bengal in 1976. Today, the very success of “Project Gharial’’ tends to hide the urgent steps that need to be taken to assure the future of the saltwater crocodile in India. As recently as 1971, Neill was able to write of this species. “In spite of its wide range, the estuarine crocodile has not become well known’’ and, “The activities of the adult estuarine croco- 202 SOCIETY, Vol. 77 diles, outside of nesting and of predation on man, are practically unknown.” Since then the species has been the subject of considerable research, particularly in Aus- tralia by Messel’s group which followed on from Bustard’s high-lighting of its conserva- tion predicament in the Australian region (Bustard 1967, 1969 a, b, and c, 1970, and numerous inter-governmental reports) and in India as part of the Government of India Project on Crocodile Breeding and Manage- ment (FAO 1974, 1975, Bustard 1978, in press, b; Choudhury & Bustard 1980; Kar & Bustard, in press). The biology of the spe- cies is now sufficiently well known to plan sound conservation management. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND PRESENT STATUS The saltwater crocodile formerly had an enormous geographical distribution from Cochin in South-west India, eastwards to South China, and extending Southwards through Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philip- pines to New Guinea and Northern Australia. In India the species had its world Western distributional limits near Cochin and occurred along the Bay of Bengal in the States of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal and the Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Figure 1). The species is now extinct on the Asian mainland east of Saigon. Throughout this ex- tensive remaining distributional range the species must now be considered rare to en- dangered. It is listed as endangered in the RED DATA BOOK of JUCN (1975). This species was still common in the im- mediate postwar years before large-scale hunt- ing commenced. However, whole populations were wiped out in a matter of years. In CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE Papua-New Guinea it had become very rare by the early sixties (Bustard 1967), in North- ern Australia by around the mid-sixties with the hunting effort in Western Australia taking place last (Bustard 1970). India did not escape this large-scale hunt- ing phase (FAO 1974). In 1974 no reliable information existed on the then status of the saltwater crocodile in India. Early writers fre- quently commented on its abundance. The Fig. 1. Distribution of the Saltwater Crocodile in India today. Mangrove areas are indicated by diagonal lines and the occurrence of Saltwater Crocodile by solid black areas. The arrow indicates the location of Cochin, the former Western distributional limit of the species. The scale indicates 800 km. 203 JOURNAL, BOMBAY distinguished herpetologist Giinther (1864) wrote, ‘This is a very common species along all the rivers of the East Indian Continent and Archipelago.” More recentiy Deraniyagala (1939) noted: “Tt flourishes along the shores of the Bay of Bengal.” Within the memory of reliable living wit- nesses this species was abundant in most suit- able Indian habitat. Following a catastrophic decline as a re- sult of indiscriminate hunting in the total ab- sence of controls (Bustard 1978), the salt- water crocodile is now rare or extinct in most of its former Indian habitat. Starting at its Western geographical limits, it is now believed to be extinct in Kerala (where most of the mangrove cover has been lost), extinct in Tamil Nadu (the last individual was shot in 1936, Biddulph 1936), extinct in Andhra Pradesh, [a 3.2 m individual was captured in the Krishna estuary mangroves in January 1979 but is believed to have reached there from elsewhere (Bustard & Choudhury, in press)], virtually restricted to the 176 sq. km. Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary in Orissa, which was declared for the species under the Govern- ment of India Project and very rare in Sun- darbans, (FAO 1974). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands con- stituted a major shelter for this species until recently, and apparently, large populations existed there (Anon. 1931). However, the rate at which the main islands are being settl- ed and forest lands encroached, combined with the high incidence of poaching, and large-scale egg robbing recorded in North Andaman in 1978 (Choudhury & Bustard 1980) indicates that these populations have an_ uncertain future. Two pockets of the saltwater crocodile still occur, therefore, on mainland India (in Oris- 204 NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Viol? 77, sa and West Bengal) together with much re- duced populations in the Andaman and Nico- bar islands. The latter populations presum- ably have had some interchange with those in Burma, and in the case of the Nicobars, with Sumatra. Similarly, the coastal popula- tions were more or less contiguous from Burma to Cochin. The present situation is that interchange between the Sunderbans and Bhitar Kanika populations is now unlikely and the Andaman-Nicobar populations are discrete from either. REASONS FOR DECLINE The likely extinction of the saltwater croco- dile will be result of a number of factors some operating sequentially and some together. 1. Commercial hide hunting. Historically the reason for the massive depletion in num- bers throughout its entire range was commer- cial demand for its hide. Reptile leathers have long been held in very high esteem. The most sought after of the reptilian leathers has al- ways been that of crocodiles. The saltwater crocodile has an unsurpassed hide among the world’s twenty-two species of crocodilians. This is because, this giant of crocodilians has greatly reduced armour, perhaps, as a result of its extremely aquatic nature. The hides of heavily armoured crocodiles are difficult (ex- pensive) to process due to the heavy ossifica- tion of the scutes (known as ‘“‘buttons”’ in the trade) with the result that, in all but small individuals, much of the total skin area is un- usable. The saltwater crocodile hide is large- ly devoid of such problems. Furthermore, as pointed out by Neill (1971) the large average size, as well as the reduced armour, assures the hide-hunter of a hand- some profit. Neill stressed; ‘“‘Man is the great- CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE est enemy of the estuarine crocodile and the species is rapidly being exterminated.” The coastal mangrove-fringed tidal swamps and associated river systems favoured by this species, are in general inhospitable to man and in most parts of the world people for- merly entered this ecosystem only to hunt the saltwater crocodile. It is important to realise that enormous sums of money were made by certain individuals. The senior author per- sonally knows of one shooter who claimed to have shot over 40,000 crocodiles in North Queensland and in Papua New Guinea pro- bably more than half belonging to this species. Although the saltwater crocodile now enjoys legal protection in at least some parts of its range (e.g. India, Australia) prevention of poaching requires effective enforcement in the field and any sustained level of poaching could wipe out the small remnants of the for- mer large populations which survive today. This threat is still very much alive. Commercial hunting for the hide took place in India, as elsewhere, resulting in an equally massive depletion of the population. 2. Loss of habitat. The phase of massive depletion in crocodile populations is now past. but the threat to the species’ future survival has intensified not decreased. This is because the very habitat of the species is now threat- ened by land reclamation/drainage of swamps and clearing of mangroves. Throughout most of its geographical distribution the species is closely tied to the mangrove ecosystem. With the threatened loss of this whole ecosystem the saltwater crocodile will have lost its habi- tat. The threat now is to the very vulnerable survivors—vulnerable because their numbers have shrunk so drastically as a result of the hunting phase, and with this their average size, threatened because the habitat is con- tracting rapidly—nowhere more so than in India. Habitat destruction in India has been very much worse than the mean situation else- where in the geographic range. This, in part, reflects the massive depletion of India’s forests in the last three decades, as a result of the ever increasing timber requirements for fuel and house construction of the rapidly expand- ing population. The mangroves have not been immune from this, and indeed, have proved most vulnerable. This is because: a. mangrove forests are not considered to be valuable in economic timber terms in India, and, therefore, have a low pro- tection and management- priority with the State Forest Departments, b. the alluvial soil built up by the mangrove ecosystem is extremely fertile, and when reclaimed high quality cultivation land is obtained, and c. the ecological significance of the man- groves—as a barrier to cyclone damage, beach erosion and as a natural spawn- ing/nursery ground for many species of marine fish, prawns and crabs has not been properly appreciated. So the loss of India’s mangroves continues today. 3. Animosity. Crocodiles suffer from a low level of public esteem. The saltwater cro- codile, because of its very large size, and its existence in a habitat which is itself frighten- ing to man, is greatly feared. There have also been instances of attacks on humans, mostly by nest-guarding females (Bustard & Chou- dhury, in press). These, greatly exaggerated, have helped to turn the hand of man firmly against the species. There was no legislation to protect the species anywhere in its world- wide range until the massive depletion had already occurred. 4. Use as food. The: saltwater crocodile is hunted as food in various parts of its range. 204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 This subsistence hunting, when not associated with commercial hide-hunting, is not usually dangerous to the population and has existed as part of the species’ ecology since time imme- morial. The natural increase of the population is well able to cope up with such losses in the absence of commercial hide-hunting provided there is not an explosion in the population of the hunters. There is little eating of cocodile meat in India, apart from some tribal groups, how- ever, the eggs are widely eaten. These are a good source of nourishment, particularly valuable where hens’ eggs are rare or expen- sive—as in the Andamans. 5. Medicinal uses. In India, there have been additional, subtle pressures on the spe- cies not found in many parts of its non-Indian range. These include medicinal demand for parts of the crocodile and/or its eggs. The liver, spleen and particularly the gall bladder and also the fat of the crocodile, are highly esteemed medicinally. The gall bladder is be- lieved to cure eye diseases such as cataract, the liver and spleen bronchitis, and the fat to be remedial for rheumatism. In some areas the eggs are also believed to have medicinal value resulting in enhanced egg hunting (Choudhury & Bustard, in press). CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES The first conservation programme for the saltwater crocodile started in Papua New Guinea following Bustard’s Report to Govern- ment in 1967 (Bustard 1967, 1969). This has now grown into a large-scale project, tied in to the commercial economy of the swamplands. This Project, now receiving assistance from UNDP/FAO, will have major conservation impact if it succeeds in combining the conser- vation of saltwater crocodiles with successful village farming as proposed by Bustard. 206 In Australia, the first legislation to protect the saltwater crocodile was gazetted by the Government of Western Australia in 1971 as a result of Bustard’s (1970) report on the status of the species in the State. Western Australia also gazetted the first sanctuary any- where in the world specifically for the salt- water crocodile in 1971. Meanwhile, conser- vation studies aimed at commercial production of skins, and a sound conservation program- me by tribal aborigines were commenced by Bustard at Edward River, Cape York, North Queensland, Australia. This work continues on a small pilot research basis but has not reached the commercial phase of Papua New Guinea. Bustard’s highlighting of the conser- vation status of the saltwater crocodile in Australia (see earlier references) has resulted in very extensive studies on the species by Messel’s group (Messel e¢ al. 1977, 1978), which are bound to have a useful impact on its conservation at least within Australia. In India the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which listed the saltwater crocodile to- gether with India’s two other species of cro- codilians in Schedule I (fully protected at all times) was a most significant step. This legal- ly banned all crocodile hunting in India. Similarly, Export Instruction No. 46/73 for- bade the export of crocodiles and gharial., their hides or products therefrom. This Gov- ernment of India Act was taken up by all States in India. Enforcement of the Act be- came a problem and has been overcome with varying degrees of success. The initiation of even a small-scale project on the species has enormous conservation effect, since the pre- sence of even a very few dedicated workers in India has been found to be an effective de- terrent to poaching. The present conservation status of the spe- cies is presented below on a State by State J. BomBpay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE I Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile Above: Large male Saltwater Crocodile (over 6.5 m) in one of the typical basking situations in the Bhitar Kanika Wild Life Sanctuary, Orissa. Such large individuals are extremely rare in most of the species’ distributional range today. Below: A typical ‘blank’ (Siddhu 1963) in the mangroves of Coringa Reserve Forest (now Coringa Wild Life Sanctuary), Godavari delta, Andhra Pradesh. These result from clear felling in the past and show little/no mangrove regeneration. J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Pirate II Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile Above: Spoor marks of a large male Saltwater Crocodile (over 5 m) the hind foot impressions are seen on the left and on the right the massive rut left by the tail. The hind foot impressions, from which total length was established, measured 40-45 cm. Below: Preferred basking area of a 3.5-4 m Saltwater Crocodile. The many foot im- prints and the semi-circular slide mark should be noted. At high tide this individual will be basking in the grass like the male shown in Plate I. CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE basis. 1. Orissa. The entire remaining man- grove forests of the Brahmini-Baitarani delta, known as Bhitar Kanika, and comprising 176 sq. km, was declared a sanctuary in May 1975. In the same month, fishing was banned with- in the sanctuary. This latter action was essen- tial as all poaching activity was carried out by people from inter-state visiting the area under the pretext of fishing. Furthermore, cro- codiles readily become entangled in fishing nets and drown or are clubbed to death. Clear- felling had been practised on an extremely short rotation cycle and was threatening the very future of the mangrove forests. Subse- quently (1976) the State Government of Oris- sa completely ceased mangrove felling ope- rations in the entire sanctuary area. The sanctuary area comprises part of the ex-zamindari lands of former Raja of Kanika. Rajasaheb Kanika has long been extremely interested in saltwater crocodiles and is very knowledgeable about them. Although he al- lowed hunting under licence, this was organis- ed so that the species would be preserved. The massive depletion in numbers took place later in the 1950’s and early sixties. At the end of 1976 the census carried out by Mr S. ' Kar, Research Scholar working on saltwater crocodile under the senior author through the State Forest Department Crocodile Pro- ject, gave a total of thirty-five adults and only six in the age classes about to recruit to the breeding population. It is interesting that fol- lowing twenty months of conservation-re- search-management of the area there were 61 young crocodiles between 1-1.4 m—hatchlings of the 1974 season. (Kar and Bustard, in press). This contrasts markedly with the situa- tion facing the young of the previous year (1973), which by late 1975, had “‘virtually ail disappeared, presumbaly as a result of poach- ing activities prior to the declaration of the sanctuary’”’ (FAO 1975). Clearly, the greatly enhanced survival observed at the end of 1976 is a result of the ban on fishing and the pro- tection afforded to the sanctuary area. The Orissa Project, following the “‘rear and release” technique described in FAO (1974), proposes to increase the breeding population to several 100 adult individuals and, there- after, to manage the population at around this optimal level. This is being done by col- lecting all available natural nests as soon after egg laying as practical for safe hatching in- cubation and subsequent rearing of young to a release size of 1 metre. First releases back into the wild took place in 1977 (15 animals). And this, combined with the excellent survival of juveniles in the wild described above, boosted the potentially recruiting segment of the population over twelve times. This is an excellent illustration of the ease with which a population can begin to recover, if afforded stringent protection. The 1978 release (of 80 crocodiles) has boosted the recruiting segment over 25 times, since 1975.4 The conservation programme will ensure that these released crocodiles have every opportunity to recruit to the breeding cohort of the population with- out the risk of being killed by poachers. The definitely recorded survival of the 1977 re- leases was 80 per cent after two full years had elapsed (it may, of course, have been even higher). 2. West BENGAL. A project for the salt- water crocodile was taken up by the State Forest Department in Sunderbans in 1976. One nest was collected from the wild for cap- tive incubation and rearing of young. Excel- lent survival was obtained and the immature crocodiles will be released during winter *A further thirty were released in January 1980. 207 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 1978/79.° Sunderbans is the largest mangrove area in the world. A large part of it is in Bangladesh but the Indian portion extends to 200,000 hectares (Blasco 1977). A portion of this is already included in the State Project Tiger Reserve, protection should be good and the potential for the saltwater crocodile ex- cellent. 3. ANDHRA PRADESH. The major remain- ing mangrove area in the State, Coringa Re- serve Forest, in the Godavari delta, was de- clared a sanctuary (Coringa Wild Life San- ctuary) in July 1978 with the aim of rehabi- litating the saltwater crocodile, extinct in Andhra Pradesh. This is being done by egg collection in the Andaman Islands and captive rearing at Hyderabad in order to build a stock of the species. Three 1.2 m crocodiles hatched from eggs collected from the Andamans, were released into this area in March 1978. Further releases are planned. 4. Tamir Tapu. The sole remaining man- grove area is Pitchavaram in the Cauvery delta. This area has been suggested as a re- habilitation site for the saltwater crocodile in Tamil Nadu. However, the area is extensively fished and it may not be possible to recon- cile the conflicting requirement of crocodile and fishermen. 5. ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. Vir- tually nothing is known about the quantitative status of the saltwater crocodile in this Union Territory. Chaterjee (1977) noted that the saltwater crocodile; “‘is widely distributed and is found in almost all the islands of the Anda- man and Nicobar groups. Unrestricted per- secution of these animals by local people in the past has greatly reduced their numbers. Much destruction is also caused by collecting May. 5 Forty 1976 hatchlings were released in 1979, 208 Vol. 77 their eggs whereby the entire brood is wiped out. The slaughter of these animals has been greatly reduced since the implementation of the Wildlife (Protection) Act.” Whitaker and Whitaker (1978) highlighted the need to carry out detailed surveys to de- termine the crocodile population and current- ly available habitat, a conclusion with which we concur. They also advocated better en- forcement of protection by posting adequate field staff. The Government of India Crocodile Pro- ject has been interested to extend conservation work to the Andamans and to have the An- daman Forest Department as a full member of the Project by initiating a Government of India-assisted Crocodile Project in the Terri- tory. The Andaman Forest Department has al- lowed the Project to collect eggs since 1976. However, due to logistic difficulties, it was not possible to undertake a full egg collection until 1978 when this was carried out by the Andhra Pradesh State Project by one of us (Bustard & Choudhury in press). In 1979, the Andamans Forest Department started their own project with the construction of a holding capacity and the collection of eggs. IMMEDIATE PROBLEMS FACING THE SPECIES IN INDIA 1. Habitat loss. Doubts about the con- tinued survival of the mangrove habitat, both on the mainland and in the Andamans, gives rise to serious concern for even the medium- term future of the saltwater crocodile. The model rehabilitation programme being operat- ed by the Orissa Forest Department at the Saltwater Crocodile Research and Conserva- tion Centre at Dangmal, within the Bhitar Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary declared for the CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE species under the Project, will be of no avail unless the habitat can be effectively protected against encroachment. This problem is_politi- cal and applies equally to other projects under initiation or planned. 2. Large-scale egg robbing in Andamans. Choudhury & Bustard (1980) have — indi- cated the very high level of nest predation by settlers (84%) on North Andaman. They also noted five instances of nest-guarding females being killed at the nest during the 1978 nesting season. This represents a loss of 17% of the nesting females in a single season. Clearly under such a regime, in a_ species which does not commence breeding until it is at least 10 years old, the population will soon become extinct. This could be effectively stop- ped by extending the Government of India Crocodile Project to the Territory. NEED FOR NEW INCENTIVES IF THE SPECIES IS TO SURVIVE Now that India has adopted suitable legis- lation—the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 —it is necessary as a second step to see that it is fully implemented. Bustard (1969 c), in a world-wide review on problems of crocodile conservation, wrote; ““Few Governments have suitable conservation legislation for crocodiles. Where legislation does exist no attempt is be- ing made to enforce it.” This legislation shouid be complemented by the creation of good National Parks or Sanctuaries for crocodiles. It should be noted that, as pointed out by Bustard (1971), National Parks and other categories of refuges are not, and can never be, any more than tools in crocodile conser- vation. Bustard (1971) concluded that the creation of National Parks as an act in isola- tion would be of little help to crocodile con- servation. The third step in India is to ensure that the National Park and sanctuary areas are in- violate—both against legal and illegal en- croachment and ail kinds of poaching activity. This requires active co-ordination at the Cen- tral level and staffing by a cadre of motivated and specially trained protection staff. The various saltwater crocodile habitats in India are discussed below in the light of the requirements set out above. ORISSA 1. Ten per cent of the sanctuary area was reportedly encroached during the year 1977/78. (de, Waard 1978). The ex- zamindari forests which comprise — the sanctuary have to be clearly demarcated to prevent encroachment. The many villages within the sanctuary have to be carefully demarcated to pre- vent encroachment, which will otherwise obviously take place increasingly with population growth. Adequate supplies of timber for fuel pur- poses will have to be maintained at a number of conveniently located timber depots within and around the sanctuary (Kanungo 1976). 4. Protective staff will, of course, have to be maintained as an effective deterrent to poaching activities. 5. The research husbandry unit will have to provide continuously updated figures on the status and break-up of the croco- dile population within the sanctuary, so that proper assessment of the perform- ance can be made and future require- ments planned on a_ sound = scientific management basis. 6. In order to retain the co-operation of the local people, so essential for a project of this kind, the crocodile management pro- gramme should result in real material i) ww 209 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 benefit to the people. This would be pos- sible by tying conservation in the sanc- tuary to commercial crocodile farming at the village level. 7. Putting such an economic price tag on the sanctuary may be the most effective method for ensuring its future integrity. WEST BENGAL There is need for the crocodile project in West Bengal to gather momentum. Otherwise there are at present no measures specific to this area which require implementation. It will, of course, be essential to completely ban fishing in the crocodile rehabilitation sanctu- ary areas. ANDHRA PRADESH 1. The recently declared sanctuary will have to be staffed and become operational. If the sanctuary is to be of any use, fish- ing will have to be banned throughout the entire sanctuary as was done in the Bhitar Kanika Saltwater Crocodile Sanc- tuary, Orissa, immediately following de- claration. 3. Felling of mangroves has ceased in the sanctuary. This action must be maintain- ed for the following reasons: a. the mangroves are not regenerating well following clear-felling on a twenty year rotation cycle. Even cur- sory examination shows that in many areas there will not be a further crop after twenty years. b. furthermore, the clear-felling practice used in mangrove areas encourages encroachments—there is a strong ten- dency for people to move into the felled areas and take up cultivation. c. finally, the amount of disturbance caused by clear-felling is quite incon- Nw 210 sistent with a small sanctuary like this. 4. Proper protection should be given to the total land area of the sanctuary so that the mammal fauna—especially the ungu- lates—can recover. These form an im- portant part of the diet of adult saltwater crocodiles, and as in the case of tiger, healthy populations of deer and wild pigs are the best guarantee against predation on domestic stock. In the Bhitar Kanika Wildlife Sanctuary the chital herds have responded excellently to the protection and wild pigs have increased to such an extent as to become a nuisance on ad- jacent agricultural lands. TAMIL NADU Before a rehabilitation programme could be taken up in the Cauvery delta mangrove, it would be essential to ascertain that it would be possible to completely prohibit fishing throughout the proposed sanctuary area. This matter is under investigation. THe ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 1. A crocodile project should be taken up in this Union Territory under the Govern- ment of India Project, Crocodile Breed- ing and Management, receiving technical assistance from FAO/UNDP. 2. In order to implement such a project it will be essential to strengthen the Wild- life Wing of the Andamans Forest De- partment. The sequential tasks of the Project would be: a. to carry out surveys of the Andaman- Nicobar Group in order to establish the location of the best remaining salt- water crocodile populations and relate these to areas where the creation of sanctuaries will be feasible. b. to take up conservation/husbandry J. Bompay NAT. Hisv. Soc. 77 Prate UI Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile PO at Bon. ie eer. ey ES ie $8 . M x Above: Felling of mangroves for fuel-wood and house construction. Below: Clearing for cultivation along the sweet-water creeks used for nesting by the Saltwater Crocodile. Note the bamboo fencing erected to keep out ungulates. J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE IV Bustard & Choudhury: Saltwater Crocodile Above: Eighteen month old juvenile Saltwater Crocodiles (mean 1.1 m in total length) in the Bhitar Kanika Research and Conservation Centre, Dangmal, Orissa. Below: A general view of one part of the above hatchling pool complex. CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE work within the sanctuaries as they are gazetted. c. to assist the Wildlife Wing of the Andamans Forest Department in re- ducing nest-robbing and other poach- ing activities. 3. It is urgent to locate and gazette suitable sanctuary areas prior to increased setile- ment. MASTER PLAN FOR THE FUTURE The master plan for the future combines the creation, management, and operation of a net-work of specially gazetted sanctuaries/ National Parks with the creation of a cadre of highly trained and motivated wildlife staff. Commercial utilisation is seen as an important tool in the crocodiles’ conservation. A. SANCTUARIES MAINLAND 1. The future integrity of the Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary must be guaranteed. The Bhitar Kanika population of saltwater crocodile is remarkable in still having quite a number of very large individuals in the population. In most of the species range these large individuals were wiped out many de- cades ago. Ninty-three per cent of the adults in this sanctuary measure more than 3.5 m and ten per cent exceed 6 m (Kar & Bustard, in press). The sanctuary also has the distinc- tion of being the habitat of the largest croco- dile of any species in the world known to scient (Daniel and Hussain 1974, Bustard in press, c). Bustard, on the basis of measurement of the intact skull, estimated this crocodile to be 7.35 m. In view of this, and the excellent conser- vation management programme being operat- ed by the Wildlife Wing of the Orissa Forest Department it is essential that this population be preserved for posterity. The threat to the population arises from the threat to the sanc- tuary itself. To ensure the survival of this unique population of a critically endangered species, Government of India should assume responsibility for the territorial integrity of the sanctuary. This might best be achieved by making the sanctuary a National sanctuary as has been done in case of the gharial (Gavia- lis gangeticus) in a tri-state sanctuary (U.P., M.P. and Rajasthan) on Chambal river. The size of adults of the Bhitar Kanika population is very much larger than the popu- lation studied on North Andaman (Chou- dhury & Bustard 1980). Discussion with a number of crocodile hunters, on the basis of large samples killed a decade or more ago, confirms that the Bhitar Kanika population even then consisted of very much larger cro- codiles than those of North and Middle Andamans. In any conservation programme for the saltwater crocodile in India the Bhitar Kanika sanctuary will be a lynch-pin. This is because this is the only scheme for the saltwater cro- codile in India which has been fully imple- mented. It will still be essential to ensure the territoial integrity of this area even if the embryonic scheme in Sunderbans becomes a success. This is in part because it is most unwise to place total reliance for a species survival on the animals within one single sanc- tuary. 2. A viable population of saltwater croco- diles, should be built up in Sunderbans within the Project tiger reserve where they can be assured of good protection. ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS The importance of the Andamans for the saltwater crocodile lies in the following con- 211 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. siderations: a. there may still be good populations in less accessible areas of the Group b. if these areas are located quickly it should be possible to gazette sanctuaries in virgin mangrove forests, prior to en- croachment. Clearly, it is much easier to manage a sanctuary without human settlement within it c. the Andamans is the home of the most isolated population of saltwater croco- diles in the Indian region. North Anda- man fies at a distance of 896 km south- east of the mouth of the Hoogly and 1300 km East of the nearest area of the mainland. In the case of the Andamans, urgent action is essential because of rapid rate of settlement and consequent encroachment. It is important to gazette at least one large sanctuary and prefer- ably two, for the species in this Union Territory. B. ComMMerciAl, UTILISATION The saltwater crocodile is an ideal species for economic management. Exploitation, pro- vided it is on sustained yield basis or from farms in which all products are produced from eggs laid in the farm, in no way con- flicts with conservation. On the contrary this can provide an important tool for the con- servation of the species resulting in a good level of management in the sanctuaries. If the sanctuaries and associate rearing farms can give good revenue to government then the integrity of the sanctuary areas is assured and with that the saltwater crocodile. C. STAFF TRAINING The Government of India Project, Croco- dile Breeding and Managment, under techni- cal assistance from FAO/UNDP, has establish- aio) SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ed a Central Institute—the Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute—charged with the training of Forest Department per- sonnel. The training programme covers not only all aspects of crocodile husbandry and management but also sanctuary and wildlife management. This Institute was created be- cause of the obvious need fcr a cadre of well- trained management personnel without which even the best planned sanctuary programme of government could not hope to succeed. The senior author has also been providing highly technical training of seven Ph.D Re- search Scholars recruited at post-M.Sc. level. Their contribution to the Project has been substantial and the junior author of this paper is one of them. SPECIES WORLD-WIDE SURVIVAL PROSPECTS Neill (1971) concluded his account on this species with these words: ‘In the 1950’s and 1960’s with the price of crocodilian leather skyrocketing, hundreds of thousands of estu- arine crocodiles, were killed annually and its disappearance from all parts of its ranges is to be expected within a very few years.” It is our task to ensure that this gloomy prognosis does not prove accurate—at least for India. Neill considers that probably all the living crocodilians are doomed to extinc- tion. The Crocodile Breeding and Manage- ment Project of the Government of India has shown that this need not be the case. The gharial is well on the way to being saved and if proper decisions are taken now the salt- water crocodile can look forward to a secure future within India, even if it is doomed to extinction throughout most of its range. Mayor RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are sug- CONSERVATION OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE gested in order to implement the proposed Master Plan: 1. Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary, Orissa should become a National sanctuary (100 per cent Central funding for both capital and recurrent costs). 2. The Government of India, FAO/UNDP assisted Project, Crocodile Breeding and Management should be extended to the Union Territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands with immediate eifect. Once again this will have to be on the basis of 100 per cent Central financing. The reason a scheme has not been initiat- ed already is lack of staff in the Wildlife Wing of the Andamans Forest Depari- ment. This Department faces special difii- culties not being a service department. 3. Every effort should be made by the Gov- ernment of India Project to encourage State schemes (under the Central assist- ance programmes to National Parks and Sanctuaries) in order to rehabilitate the saltwater crocodile elsewhere. It may not now be possible to do anything in Kerala, but Andhra Pradesh should be encourag- ed and possibilities in Tamil Nadu should be investigated. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS Both of us acknowledge the co-operation of our respective organisations—The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations and the Andhra Pradesh State Forest Department—and assistance from the Orissa Forest Department, especially, Mr. Sudhakar Kar, and the Andamans Forest Department. REFERENCES ANNON. (1931): Census report for Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Govt. of India. New Delhi. BipDULPH, C. H. (1936): A Mugger (Crocodylus porosus) with a broken jaw. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29 (2): 421. Biasco, F. (1977): Outlines of Ecology, Botany and Forestry of the Mangals of the Indian Sub- continent. Im Ecosystems of the World. /. Wet Coastal Ecosystems. V. J. Chapman (Ed.) Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam. Bustarp, H. R. (1967): Report on the Crocodile Skin Trade in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea with Recommendations for the Future De- velopment of the Industry. Unpublished confidential report to Minister. — (1969a): The Future of Austra- lian Crocodiles. Wildlife of Australia. 6 (2): 40-43. (1969b): A Future for Crocodiles. 10 (4): 249-255. (1969c) : Crocodilians of — the World—Summary of the present position. W.W.F. Yearbook. Morges. Switzerland. Oryx — (1970): status of crocodiles in Fish current Dept. Report on the Western Australia. Fauna. West. Aust. Rept. No. 6. (1971): National Parks, Refuges, etc. as tools in Crocodile Conservation. / Croco- diles: L.ULC.N3 Publ: N.S. Suppl. Pap. No. 32: 145-8. — (1978): Crocodile Population Eco- logy and Management. Zool. Ind. Anim. Ecol. Surv. Symp. —————— (in press, a): General Status of Crocodilians in India. Jn Indian Crocodiles—Con- servation & Research. Occ. Publ. 7: Cent. Croc. Br. Met. Trg. Inst. Hyderabad, India. ——_—_———— (in press, b): The Saltwater Cro- codile Conservation Programme in India. Jn Indian Crocodiles—Conservation & Research. Occ. Publ. 1. Cent. Croc. Br. Met. Trg. Inst. Hyderabad. India. (in press, c): Record size salt- water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider). Orissa. India. Br. J. Herpet. 213 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ——_ — & CHOUDHURY.) ba Ca Uingpress):: Parental care in the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocudy- lus porosus, Schneider). In Indian Crocodiles—Con- servation & Research. Occ. Publ. 1. Cent. Croc. Br. Mgt. Trg. Inst. Hyderabad. India. CHATERJEE, S. K. (1977): Wildlife in the Anda- man and Nicobar Islands. Tigerpaper. 4 (1): 2-5. FAO, Bangkok. CuoupHury, B. C. (in press): Status, Conserva- tion and Future of Saltwater Crocodile in North Andaman Island. Jn Indian Crocodiles—Conserva- tion & Research. Occ. Publ. 7. Cent. Croc. Br. Met. Trg. Inst. Hyderabad. India. — & Busrarp, H. R. (1980): Pre- dation on natural nests of the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) on North Anda- man Island with notes on the crocodile populations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 311-323. DaNiEL, J. C. & Hussain, S. A. (1974): The record (?) Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus poro- sus Schneider). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 7] (2): 309-12. DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1939): The Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. J. Testudinates and crocodilians. Colombo Museum. Ceylon. FAO (1974): India. A preliminary Survey of the Prospects of Crocodile Farming (based on the work of H. R. Bustard) FAO. Rome (FO:IND/71/ 033) Oct. 1974. — (1975): India. Gharial and Croco- dile Conservation Management in Orissa (based on the work of H. R. Bustard) FAO. Rome (FO: IND/71/033) Dec. 1975. GUNTHER, A. C. L. G. (1864): The Reptiles of British India. Roy. Soc. London. HonecGar, R. E. (1975) (Ed.): Red Data Book 3. Amphibia and Reptilia. IUCN Morges. Switzer- land. KANUNGO, B. C. (1976): An Integrated Scheme for Conservation of Crocodiles in Orissa with Management Plan for Satkosia Gorge and Bhitar Kanika Sanctuaries. Forest Dept. Cuttack. Orissa. India. Kar, S. & BustarD H. R. (in press): The Salt- water Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) Population of Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary. Orissa. India. Zn Indian Crocodiles—Conservation & Re- search. Occ. Publ. 7. Cent. Croc. Br. Mgt. Trg. Inst. Hyderabad. India. MESSEL, H., BurpBipGE, A. A., WELLS, A. G. & GREEN, W. J. (1977): The status of the Saltwater Crocodile in some River Systems of the North- West Kimberly, Western Australia. Rept. No. 24. Dept. of Fish. & Wildlife. West. Australia. . WELLS, A. G. & GREEN, W. J. (1978): Status of Crocodylus porosus in tidal River Systems of Northern Australia. Fourth Working Meeting. IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group. Mad- ras. India. NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of Ruling Rep- tiles. Columbia Univ. Press. New York. WAARD, J. M. DE (1975): India. Economic Poten- tial of Gharial and Saltwater Crocodile Schemes in Orissa with Notes on the Sea Turtle Industry. FAO. Rome (FO:IND/71/033). WHITAKER, R. & WHITAKER, Z. (1978): A _ pre- liminary Survey of the Saltwater Crocodile (Croco- dylus porosus) in the Andaman Islands. J. Bombay. nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (1): 43-49. FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M_.P.)’ H. C. GOEL? AND C. P. SRIVASTAVA® (With nine text-figures & a map) INTRODUCTION With few exceptions molluscs serve as the only or as one of the intermediate hosts of digenetic trematodes and thereby acquire a significant importance from the point of view of public and veterinary health. While work- ing on the secondary host of schistosomiasis it was deemed necessary to study the freshwater snail fauna of Gwalior city and its neighbour- hood. Few references are available on the occur- rence of freshwater snails of various places in India [Annandale et al. 1921 (a); Annandale & Srinivas Rao 1925; Tonapi & Mulherkar 1963; Annandale et al. 1921 (b)] but no record is available about the commonly occurring snails of Gwalior. The present paper is a brief account of various aquatic snails together with their habitat and a list of trematode larvae parasitising these snails in India (Table 1). MATERIALS AND METHODS The specimens were collected regularly once a fortnight from different aquatic habitats with the help of various snail collecting devices such as long handled kitchen sieve, Dipnet, Drag Scoop etc, (Anon. 1965) from various places 1 Accepted August 1978. 2 Institute of Nuclear Medicine & Allied Sciences, Probyn Road, Delhi-110 007. 3 Defence Research & Development Establishment. Gwalior-2. in and around Gwalior city as shown in the Map. The specimens were brought to the laboratory and kept under observation to find out the release of trematode larvae so as to confirm them as positive vectors. The snails were then preserved in seventy per cent alcohol and were identified in con- sultation with Zoological Survey of India, Cal- cutta. The collections were made at different sites uniformly in terms of man-hours. This gave a fairly good idea about the relative oc- currence of various snails species. Measurements of the specimens have been taken as per standard expressions (Ward & Whipple 1918, Barth 1958). All measurements given here (Table 2) re- present the commonly available size of the adult members of the species. The place of oc- currence of different snail species has been ex- pressed by number in Table 2 and has been correspondingly shown on the map Family: VIVIPARIDAE Vivipara bengalensis f. typica (Lamarck) There are 54 to 64 rather inflated whorls with well marked suture. Shell ovate, sharply acuminate with a mouth angularly pointed above and rounded below. Umbilicus narrow- ly perforate. Outer lip almost semi-circular joining columellar margin by thin glassy de- posit. Shell sculpture of fine longitudinal ridges forming fine irregular ribs or varias on the body whorl. Colour olive green with alternating and 215 We SOCIETY, Vol. LTE ST NATURAL JOURNAL, BOMBAY 331440 150d LddNs VHONY@ YWnyauve "OHW LS HONIL -: 3799S YVYOW F YOINVMS YVHHSV) 40 dVW CINVMYHHO 14 SONIKS 1V) VHNSYSNOS >ANVL undula Wl AYNYE ( $39/330 1S0d dO 40dNs 30 30/350 YV3N) AGOS Y31LVM TVNVO Vaoll Va3Hf WOW TL YVOVS (VOY SVHIYVd 9 ISYVE YVYOW NO) LSINAIN. YSIVM VHGNVS vouauvr CYVYOW YV3N) IGQVYN SVYOW LV 390/Na TVHVW ILOW IV ANVIL (109 I1vd'VY3Hy 3 100 YVOVN IHONVS) YHN3SYINOS (11S 3 A30 S34 °33G) IYVMVa SHV N3SNV1 ‘ANOLDV4 391 GNIH38 vuolL QN3931 noms -—-— — o- -— -_NOMOnwTYNON DOM FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M.P.) TABLE 1 SNAIL HOSTS AND THEIR TREMATODE PARASITES a Snail Parasite eee ee ha 1. Indoplanorbis exustus i) Schistosoma indicum ii) S. nasale iii) Cerecaria anuri Nn. sp. iv) C. sppericauda n. sp. v) C. Kotal n. sp. vi) C. rajai n. sp. vii) Furcocercous cercariae viii) Clinostome Group (Cercaria develops into the radiae which infest the liver of snail). i) The cercaria resembles to Azygia tereticola, A. sehago and A. acuminata ii) C. shikarii n. sp. 2. Vivipara bengalensis 3. Lymnaea luteola i) Schistosoma incognitum ii) Schistosoma nasale iii) Echinostome cercaria & its meta cercaria iv) Cercaria quadradena v) Orientolulherzia dattae vi) Cercariae leotai n. sp., C. rajai n. sp., C. mathurenensis n. sp. 4. Lymnaea acuminata i) Schistosoma nasale li) Fasciola gigantica Note:— The information is compiled from the following publications :— 1. Emile A. Malek & Thomas C. Cheng, 1974, Medical & Economic Malacology. Academic Press, New York & London pp. 398 2. Zoological Abstracts Helminthology Vol—II Pt—II Section: prepared under the auspices of the Madhya Pradesh Zoological Society, Bhopal. (1973). 217 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ee es Co ecc Ou 78 07 = Clee Olt = Sch $9 DE one ore ah ol aes On ce 2 0iL 8 = = = oe! Sie ile SL) 0z sel l= -€I- = 0°6 ol 0°9 O'S 208. 2 :O'e = o8 Sb G9 *$ = 9S:8) 40°01 St 9 CC iS 9 LI 9 0c = Ic 91 87 L 07 OL 0°9r 0°83 OT SL OS £29- St (a6 el ve LI ce ve I? 6! 0°81 val Ove! Ol C s vi ‘OL 8 °L°9 BL ‘9's iS ZI 9S “€ 9 PIaticl V8 L29es VC €L ‘IT ‘OL ‘6 9 ‘p “¢ €I ‘OT 6 ‘9 ‘SE Ul 1! ‘9 (uosueg ) DUodaUDns2d ~DUIOJSOIUOSIG. (won) snjnosnixaauod sninpiky (49712) DAQDIS (DIJO]q) Saplouvjap (127101) DIoDj]NI4aqn] saplouvjapyy (19M) Sipuissip Davdiar, (jor1ewe'T) poidd} ‘J sisuajpsuaq vavdia1j (AeID) suaosa{nas “J DIDUIUINID (pauloonsopnasg) vapuudT Joyosor1y, vandwi ‘J vjoain] (paulzonsopnasg) DaDUUA'T (soAvyseq ) snjsnxa sigiouvjdopuy eee ere eer en RN ES (dey Jojo) UPI ‘xe CUPL UR “XRIN WoATOAOUddO HLGIM uN uBR peas ie ee ee ee ‘xR UW HLONAT (tu) NOISNAWIG poulwexa ‘ON FONATANIDDO SdioddsS IVNS NOVIVMD LY AISVIVAV STIVNS 4O SaloddS SNOMVA dO NOISNAWIG GNV AONaXANOOO Z wavy 218 FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M.P.) : \ ee oS Fig. 1. Vivipara bengalensis f. typica (Lamarck) x 2 narrow dark brown spiral bands. V. bengalen- sis is abundant in the fresh water canals or ponds etc. throughout Gwalior. Snails remain attached to stones etc. on the banks of canal or ponds. Vivipara dissimiles (Muller) This species closely resembles V. dengalen- sis but the shell is broader and the body whorl marked with prominent spiral ridge that subsequently makes the aperture more rhom- boidal than V. bengalensis. Sculpture consists of close-set, delicate, spiral striae, and oblique transpiral growth striae, which are prominent bo oo oo Fig. 2. Vivipara dissimilis (Muller) x 3 and well marked in the peripheral region of the body whorl. Umbilicus narrower than in Vivipara bengalensis. Shell dirty olive green in colour, the interior being dull bluish white tint. Family AMNICOLIDAE Digoniostoma ceramepoma (Benson) The species is rare in Gwalior and only two specimens could be collected during the Sur- vey work from water logged area near Morar Dam. It closely resembles young forms of Vi- vipara sp. but is comparatively very small in size. — - | Fig. 3. Digoniostoma ceramepoma (Benson) ™ 4. There are about 5 rapidly increasing in- flated whorls with well marked suture and varix. Shell oblong, ovate, and obsoletely sculptured, with week growth lines. Umbilicus narrow and deep. Shell cinereous, shading to yellowish white. Aperture ovate, and a little oblique. Operculum, shelly, slightly concave, having about seven convolutions. Family MELANIIDAE Melanoides (Melanoides) tuberculatus (Muller) Shell elongated with acuminate apex, whorls increase gradually from the apex to 219 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 the mouth, and are moderately convex. Aper- ture oval, but narrowed above, and broad be- low. Mouth small, considerably less than one third the total length of the shell. Sculpture Eb Si Fig. 4. Melanoides tuberculata (Muller) x 3.5. of transpiral, tuberculated, ridges with rais- ed spiral striae. Body whorl normally devoid of transverse tuberculated ridges. Colour of the shell dark brown with distinct longitudinal wavy reddish marking. Interior of the shell is glossy with external marks faintly visible. It is found in slow flowing or stagnant ’ water. Specimens are found attached to some substratum. Melanoides (Plotia) scabra (Muller) Shell markedly thick with acutely conical shape. Whorls have well developed angular shoulders provided with spinous projections. Aperture small, oval sinuous above and round- ed below. Colour variable between pale brown to sandy brown with fine reddish tran- spiral wavy elegant marks. It is found in abundance in slow flowing 220 L | Fig. 5. Melanoides (Plotia) Scabra (Muller) x 3 water to stagnant water usually attached to some substratum or lying free at the bottom. Family LYMNAEIDAE Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) acuminata f. ru- fescens (Gray) The length of the suture at the base of the spire is not appreciable or is hardly longer | Fig. 6. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) acuminata f. rufescens (Gray) x 2.5. FRESHWATER SNAILS OF GWALIOR (M.P.) than the height of the spire. Anterior margins of the mouth of shell broadly rounded, or sub- truncate. Outer lip of the shell dilated. Shell ovately oblong, smooth, thin, and semi- transluscent. Body whorl shortly angular above and inflated below the middle. Apex pointed, spire short, narrow; aperture wide and columellar lip, twisted. Fine, close- set, transpiral striations exist on the surface of the shell. Colour of shell variable with a yellowish brown tinge. The body whorl is clearly demonstrated from the spire with an abruptly narrowed base. The species is frequently available in clear water as well as in turbid, muddy water as compared to L. luteola. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) luteola f. impura Troschel Spire as a rule about 1/3 as high as the Shell and consists of 4 to 5 gradually increas- ing transverse whorls which are never appre- ciably convex. Suture always more or less transverse. Length of suture never less than the height of the spire. Mouth of shell ovate, % Fig. 7. Lymnaea (Pseudosuccinea) luteola f. impura Troschel x 3. evenly rounded anteriorly gradually narrow- ing towards its posterior extremity. The outer lip is never so extended or so convex in out- line as that of Lymnaea acuminata. The col- umellar gallery is thin and broad; opaque white in colour. Shell smooth, glossy, with a pale yellow horny tinge. Shell sculpture consists of close-set fine transpiral striations. The snail commonly inhabits clean clear water as compared to L. acuminata. Family: PLANORBIDAE Gyraulus convexiusculus (Hutton) Shell dextral having four to five whorls with deep sutures, very much depressed with the sunken spire giving the appearance of a flat- tened disc. Aperture oblique and lunately oval; outer margin smooth and much elevated, um- bilicus wide. Surface smooth and pale horny in colour, bearing close-set oblique transpiral striae. Fig. 8. Gyraulus convexiusculus (Hutton) x 5 G. convexiusculus inhabits clean fresh water of stagnant or slow running nature and even muddy polluted water. Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes) Shell discoidal, suture deeply impressed but 221 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 the whorls are convex. Aperture ear shaped, when the shell is held with mouth on left. Shell sinistral; foot feebly sharp, relatively broad and short broadly rounded in front and point- ed behind. Shell moderately thick, transpiral- ly and finely striated throughout the body. Body-whorl has more distinct ridges and um- bilicus is wide. Colour varies from locality to Jocality and varies from dull grey brown to reddish brown. ed Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes) x 3. Fig. 9. This snail is available in slow running water or small water bodies commonly available in the fields or on sides or road during rainy season. Remains attached to submerged stones or other objects. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to express our sincere thanks to Shri S. L. Perti, Assistant Director, Vector Control Division, Defence Research & Deve- lopment Establishment, Gwalior, for his en- couragement and guidance and to Dr. S. C. Goel, Reader, Dept. of Zoology, University of Pune, Pune, for his help in preparing the ma- nuscript. Thanks are also due to Director, DRDE, Gwalior for interest and to Dr. N. V. Subba Rao of Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for identifying the snail species. REFERENCES ANONYMOUS (1965): Snail control in the pre- vention of Bilharziasis, WHO, Geneva, pp. 255. ANNANDALE, N., SEWELL & SEYMOUR, R. B. (1921a): The Banded Pond Snail of India. (Vivi- para bengalensis). Records of Indian Museum 22: 217-278. ANNANDALE, N., PRASAD, B. & AMIN-UDDIN (1921b): The aquatic and amphibious Mollusca, Manipur. Records of Indian Museum, 22: 530. (1922): Material revision of the freshwater Gastropod. Molluscs of Indian Planorbidae. Re- 357-363. ANNANDALE. N. for a generic the Indian Empire No. 5, cords of Indian Museum 24: 222 ANNANDALE, N. & Rao, S. (1925): Material for a revision of the recent Indian Limnaedac (Molius- ca, Pulmonata). Records of the Indian Museum, 27: 137-190. MANDAHL BArTH, G. (1958): Intermediate hosts of Schistosoma (African Biomphalaria and Bulinus). WHO Monograph series No. 37 WHO Geneva, pp. 132. Tonapl, G. T. & MuLuerKAr, L. (1963): On the freshwater Molluscs of Poona. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 60 (1): 104-120. Warp, H. B. & Wuiepre, G. C. (1918): Fresh- water Biology. Edited by Edmondson W. T. John. Wiley and Sons Inc., USA.. pp. 248. A CONTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA (SOUTH), SINGHBHUM DIST. (SOUTH BIHAR)’ D. K. Biswas AND J. K. MAHESWARI? INTRODUCTION Chaibasa situated between 22°5’ and 22°35’N and 85°20’ and 85°55’E is on the southern fringe of Chotanagpur plateau and composed of steep rocky hills, hillocks and intervening valleys, beside same areas which are plain. Geologically Chaibasa is one of the most im- portant areas in the Singhbhum dist. of Bihar because of its mineral deposits. The soil in this locality is characteristically of the red soil type (Sandy loam to clay) formed on parent rocks occurring in these areas. They are acidic with pH varying from 5.0 to 6.5. The climate of the area is more or less similar to that of the district in particular and to Bihar in ge- neral with rainfall mostly being confined to monsoonic months, i.e. July-September. The average annual rainfall is about 142 cm with maximum fall during July-August. The hot- test months in the year are May-June with mean maximum temperature of 43°C and cold- est months are December-January with mini- mum temperature of 12°C. ENUMERATION In the following enumeration the system of Bentham and Hooker with some delimitations of families has been followed. Nomenclature 1 Accepted November 1977. 2Botanical Survey of India, rah-711 103. Sibpur, How- has been, as far as possible, brought up to date. It may be noted that the following species were collected during the months of June- July 1975. The field number mentioned against the place of collection is indicative of the author’s own contribution. The enumerated taxa have been deposited in the Central Na- tional herbarium, Shibpur, Howrah-3. DICOTY LEDONS ANNONACEAE Annona squamosa Linn. Biswas 112. Miliusa velutina Hook.f and Thoms. Biswas 201, 181. PAPAVERACEAE Argemone mexicana Linn. Biswas 113. POLYGALACEAE Polygala chinensis Linn. Biswas 141, 144. DIPTEROCARPACEAE Shorea robusta Gaertn. Biswas 182. MELIACEAE Heynea trijuga Roxb. Biswas 171. OLACACEAE Olax scandens Roxb. Biswas 124. 223 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 CELASTRACEAE Celastrus paniculata Willd. Biswas 214, 131. VITACEAE Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Vitis latifolia Roxb. Biswas 165. SAPINDACEAE Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, S. trijuga Willd. Biswas 163. ANACARDIACEAE Semecarpus anacardium Linn. Biswas 151]. Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz. 8. mangifera Willd. Biswas 108. PAPILIONACEAE Crotalaria prostrata Roxb. C. mucronata Desv. C. striata DC. Biswas 184. CAESALPINIACEAE Cassia fistula Linn. Biswas 163. Delonix regia (Boj) Raf Poinciana regia Boj Biswas 118. MIMOSACEAE Acacia leucophloea Willd. Biswas 131. COMBRETACEAE Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wt. & Arn. Biswas 183, 131. T. crenulata Roth T. tomentosa var. crenulata Clarke Biswas 189. T. bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Biswas 179. LYTHRACEAE Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. — Biswas 175. 224 Biswas 129. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. W. floribunda Salisb. Biswas 114. ONAGRACEAE Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara. Jussiaea re- pens L. Biswas 161. SAMYDACEAE Casearia elliptica Willd. C. tomentosa Roxb. Biswas 111, 177. MOLLUGINACEAE Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A. DC. Mollugo spergula Linn. Biswas 154. RUBIACEAE Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth Stephe- gyne parvifolia Korth. Biswas 213. Oldenlandia paniculata Linn. Biswas 218. Pavetta crassicaulis (Bremek.) P. indica auct. non Linn. Biswas 137. Wendlandia tinctoria DC. Biswas 136. Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay Randia dumetorum Lamk. Biswas 221, 164. X. uliginosa (Retz.) Mahesh. Randia uliginosa DC. Biswas 204. COMPOSITAE Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC. Biswas 156. Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. E. alba (Linn.) Hasak. Biswas 130. Glossogyne pinnatifida DC. Biswas 139. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Biswas 196. SAPOTACEAE Madhuca indica Gmel. Bassia latifolia Roxb. Biswas 102. VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA (SOUTH), SINGHBHUM DIST. EBENACEAE Diospyros exsculpta Buch.-Ham. D. tomen- tosa Roxb. Biswas 219, 176. D. cordifolia Roxb. D. montana Clarke Biswas 199. OLEACEAE Jasminum arborescens Roxb. Biswas 210. APOCYNACEAE Holarrhena antidysenterica (Roth.) A. DC. Biswas 126, 171. Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. 7. nerii- folia Juss. GENTIANACEAE Canscora decussata Roem. and Sch. Biswas 155. BORAGINACEAE Cordia myxa Linn. Biswas 107. Heliotropium indicum Linn. Biswas 197. H. ovalifolium Forsk. Biswas 140. CONVOLVULACEAE Volvulopsis nummularia (Linn.) Roberty Evolvulus nummularius Linn. Biswas 205. SOLANACEAE Solanum surattense Burm. f. S. xanthocarpum Schrad. and Wendl. Biswas 117. SCROPHULARIACEAE Lindernia verbenaefolia (Colsm.) Pennell Bonnaya_ veronicaefolia var. verbenaefolia Hook. Biswas 160. Biswas 110.. ACANTHACEAE Andrographis paniculata (Burm.) f. Wall. ex Nees Biswas 207. Barleria cristata Linn. Biswas 193. Ruellia tuberosa Linn. Biswas 202. VERBENACEAE Callicarpa arborea Roxb. Biswas 126. Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene. Biswas 135. Vitex negundo Linn. Biswas 116. LABIATAE Leucas mollissima Wall. Biswas 145. Pogostemon benghalense (Burm. f.) Ktze. Biswas 206, 147. POLYGONACEAE Biswas 131. Biswas 115, 192. Polygonum barbatum Linn. P. plebejum R. Br. EUPHORBIACEAE Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Phyllanthus embli- ca Linn. Biswas 150. Jatropha curcas Linn. Biswas 105. MONOCOTY LEDONS DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea glabra Roxb. Biswas 182. COMMELINACEAE Commelina hasskarlii Clarke Biswas 183. CYPERACEAE Cyperus rotundus Linn. Biswas 184. C. difformis Linn. Biswas 83. Carex indica Linn. Biswas 85. Fimbristylis dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl Biswas 87. 229 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 F. junciformis Kunth Biswas 91. Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. syn. F. glomerata Lamk. Biswas 88| Scripus articulatus Linn. Biswas 108, 89. Scleria levis Retz. syn. S. hebecarpa Nees ex Wight Biswas 2. POACEAE Dichanthium aristatum (Poir) C. E. Hubb. Biswas |. Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) Beauv. ex Boem. and Schult. Biswas 95. E. pilosa (L.) Beauv. Biswas 75. Heteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv. Biswas 96. Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. var. major (Nees) Hubb. ex Hubb. and Vaughan Biswas 79. Phragmites karka Trin. Biswas 101. Pogonatherum paniceum (Lamk.) Hack. Biswas 3. Polypogon manspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. Biswas 78. Saccharum spontaneum Linn. Biswas 76. Themeda quadrivalvis (L.). O. Ktze. Biswas 78, 79. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are thankful to Dr. M. N. Sanyal, Head of the Dept. of Botany, Ramananda College for providing necessary facilities, valuable sug- gestions and encouragement. BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS Part VI — Scotophilus heathi (Horsefield) — Vespertilionidae' A. MADHAVAN* Scotophilus heathi (Horsefield) from Trichur, Kerala State, has an annual reproductive cycle. Copulation occurs during the second week of November and ovulation and fertilization by the stored spermatozoa occur in the last week of December. Every female in the colony conceives in December and young ones are delivered during the following April and the first week of May. Lactation continues until August. Animals are sexually quiescent during the rest of the year. The two uterine cornua are normally functional and carry an embryo each during each cycle. The gestation period varies in different animals from 100 to 130 days. The females far outnumber the males in the adult stage although at birth the sex ratio is even. INTRODUCTION Scotophilus heathi is one of the species chosen for detailed study under the project of studies on the breeding habits of Indian bats. This species has been chosen not only as a representative from an area from which the breeding habits of no bat has been so far re- ported but also because this species presents unusual features of reproduction. Detailed re- views of earlier literature on bat reproduction have been given (Gopalakrishna, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1955; Madhavan, 1971; Gopalakrishna and Choudhari, 1977; Gopalakrishna and Rao, 1977). MATERIAL AND METHODS Most of the specimens of Scotophilus heathi 1 Accepted February 1978. *Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur. Present address: Professor of Zoology, Bharat Mata College. Cochin 21, Kerala. examined for the present study were collected from under the tiles of roofs of houses. A few specimens were also collected from under the leaves of palmyra trees, from the belfry of churches and on one occasion from a well. All specimens were collected in and around Tri- chur, Kerala (approximately 10°N., 76.3°E.). The animals were collected at frequent inter- vals commencing from April 4, 1971 and until February 5, 1978 except during the year 1974. Altogether 957 specimens were studied for the present report. Scotophilus heathi is a large bat for a mi- crochiropteran with an adult body weight of 36 to 39 g (the females attaining a higher weight than the males, a wing-span of c. 40.0 cm, forearm length of c. 6.5 cm, head lengih of c. 2.5 cm and ear pinna length of c. 1.5 cm. The specimens were collected from their roosts with the help of a pair of long forceps and after killing with chloroform they were weighed in a sensitive spring balance. Obser- vations on the disposition of the external geni- talia, mammary teats in the females, and po- 227 “ae JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, sition of the testes in the males were recorded. The genital organs and the accessory struc- tures were dissected out and fixed in different fixatives. After fixation for 24 hours the tissues were preserved in 70% alcohol. The tissues were dehydrated by passing through graded series of ethanol, embedded in paraffin and sectioned at thickness of 6 to 10 p. The testes were uniformly cut at 10 p. The sections were stained with Ehrlich’s haematoxylin, counter- stained with eosin and mounted in DPX. The character of a group of specimens col- lected on a given calendar date is almost the same during the different years when the col- lections were made. Hence, in the following descriptions only the date and month are men- tioned where pertinent except where the men- tion of the year has a special significance. A detailed collection diary was maintained wiih descriptions of individual specimens. Table 1 gives the summary of the collection diary and Table 2 gives the monthwise distribution of collections. OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION 1. GENERAL NOTES ON Scotophilus heathi This species occurs in small groups of 5 io 15 specimens which lie huddled together. There may be several clusters of specimens occupying different locations in the same house. During April, May, June and July the males were sometimes found ‘sitting’ away from the females although in the same house. The ani- mals emerge from their roosts a little before sunset and take a dive almost to the ground level before they take to the sky. They fly about near the roosting place for a consider- able time before flying out to distant places. The roost is empty by about 7 o’clock in the evening. The suckling mothers leave the young ones in the roosts before flying out in the even- 228 Vol. 77 ing for foraging. The mother vigorously shakes her body and actively pushes the young from its hold to the mammary nipple. Several times during the night the adult specimens visit the roosts where the young ones are left behind. They finally return to the roosts a little before sunrise. The mothers carry away the young ones if the roost is disturbed and roost in some other place, often returning with the young ones to the old roost two or three days later. Day light is not an impediment for them to roost because they are found roosting in well- lit areas in the roofs of the houses. The young ones assume an oblique posture with the head towards the mother’s head while sucking. The young ones with body weights of 24 g and be- low are not able to execute sustained flights, but fall to the ground after flying a few yards. The adult specimen has brown fur on the dorsal surface and bright yellow fur on the ventral surface of the body. The juveniles have dark brown fur on the dorsal surface and yel- lowish grey fur on the ventral surface of the body. Several parous adults have brick red- yellow fur on the ventral surface of the body. Scotophilus heathi does not tolerate the pre- sence of other species of bats in the roost. On a few occasions a specimen of Pipistrellus mimus mimus was introduced into a cage in which Scotophilus heathi specimens were pre- sent. But it was immediately attacked and killed by an adult Scotophilus heathi. No other species of bats could be found in the houses occupied by Scotophilus heathi. The specimens remain in partial torpidity during daytime throughout the year. Although normally two young ones are de- livered each time, there were a few instances when only one was produced. The newly born young is reddish in colour with naked skin and adherent eyelids. A pair of pectoral mam- mary glands are present, one on either side, BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF COLLECTION DIARY Date 4-1-76 7-1-78 9-1-77 12-1-77 16-1-77 17-1-77 18-1-73 19-1-77 20-1-72 22-1-77 24-1-76 26-1-77 29-1-72 30-1-77 4-2-77 5-2-78 6-2-77 9-2-77 12-2-77 16-2-77 19-2-77 24-2-77 26-2-72 27-2-77 3-3-77 4-3-73 5-3-77 6-3-76 10-3-73 11-3-72 13-3-77 14-3-76 19-3-72 23-3-77 28-3-77 29-3-77 31-3-72 Males Jmmature Attached Free Adult Total eee rior i tamOnOnConreerUse.| vane lol ow | Females Immature Adult Attached Free Non-preg- nant 6 7 8 Preg- nant 9 Total Lacta- ting 10 —_ a Jou — — PON HYYHWNHENONNAAWAANARNIOIWBYARYUANWWOA OY — | _ | (Hs MPONWNYNWWNRFNONNAAWIADNA DBA Grand Total jaw Nm _— _— CNYMWMBWENRE NONWIADR OEP REISCHDMORYARALIAUR OCA mMoOeEe —_— — 229 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 as aa —— a — — — 1 a = = 1 1 = = a 2 = 2 — Bs 2 1 ~ ae = 2 — ——— —— — — = = D2 — = = 4 4 — = = 9 = —- — = — — a, — 4 — 1 = — 1 — a a 3 = == 1 1 — = _ 2 = ae mis tis aan ao = axe 5 — 3 == _ 3 1 = = == 1 = oe 5 5 = pes is a paw = = 2 2 = = = 6 = I = ae l i = = 3 1 4 == = 4 5 = = 1 6 ad ae ae ee = ae ae 8 ad ae oe: = pe pels ae ae 1 os 5 a = 5 3 = = 1 5 3 = = 3 1 = a 1 2 = — = aes me — = 2 Bee 1 = = | 3 = = 1 3 6 == = 6 4 “= = 2 4 4 2 1 7 4 = = = 4 2 = 3 2 1 = _ 2 5 = = 5 3 = = = 4 = 2 3 5 3 uth, = _ 2 2 = — 2 4 = 1 = 2 2 1 ae 3 5 = 1 os 3 = == 3 3 = 3 = 2 ane a= 9) 2 = = nae a 2 i = 12 3 ] == = 2 sak a — — —— il a = 5 2 7 = 1 2 ae 4 = 2 3 5 a = 3 = 3 \ 2 1 4 == I 1 = 3 = r 2 3 ws 1 == _ — == a 3 r = 5 ee cent 6 6 = = = == = = r — = = = 1 = = I 1 — = = ~ 2 — 2 = 2 = 4 Ze = _ £ = l = = 2 2 os = l = = = — 2 2 == — 2 se: 1 “= = 4 4 = 1 = — — Pw Uw & 6 lef — a aonitiurntnrnwoonnti OF DANUND FETS 7 Se Oh OS Ie ee _ N WN UAW ee —y PK WONDAWAUNUNUMNAwW UN FS — _ coUN waeN ns OAWK OWNAD WO £ BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI1 1 9-7-77 11-7-72 14-7-72 17-7-76 17-7-77 20-7-75 24-7-77 6-8-77 15-8-72 15-8-76 18-8-73 21-8-72 21-8-75 21-8-76 23-8-77 24-8-75 7-9-76 10-9-76 10-9-77 13-9-75 14-9-73 19-9-76 25-9-76 25-9-77 28-9-75 29-9-71 2-10-76 3-10-71 8-10-77 9-10-76 11-10-75 12-10-75 14-10-75 16-10-71 18-10-75 18-10-76 23-10-76 23-10-77 28-10-73 30-10-76 6-11-71 7-11-76 10-11-73 12-11-77 13-11-76 15-11-75 eh roen elke es lle kk elton a & ROS KONE [ees Gare AO) at RS to: RO | mH WWNre Ne RK Wh HY | Ree ae Gs ese eras tos Ron eee tus, eins Core cami eee tlt 1a Comers leeavtoe| Sagi D aroseead |e ro ROMS warts evcas lesen) eS cuartasiostonl| nah: pacts | ec oui setae [raven Reuse es. tou _ =o -—N —_ _ KH wWNN FWD ADAUMUNY wW [icqeae aa! | ous Ra EONS Goll) oe ce Cane on en orton el on _ a KL tS) — NM _— Ame DABNNUADA OAWD WDnn — NNONNK ONFAUAN FRR ARP WH WHA WANA HW WO 231 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18-11-73 — — 3 3 = — 3 — — 3 6 20-11-76 — — > 5 = = 1 _— — 1 6 22-11-75 — a 1 1 = —_ 3 — — 3 4 23-11-75 — — D; 2D; = = = = = = 2 26-11-77 — — 7 di — — 16 — _ 16 23 27-11-76 —_— — 4 4 — — 1 — = 1 5 1-12-73 — _ 3 3 — — 1 —_ = 1 4 4-12-77 —_ — 5 5 — _ = _ — 3 8 5-12-75 — — —_ — — — 1 = == 1 1 5-12-76 _— — 2; 2, — _ 3 —_ — 3 5 8-12-73 — — 3 3 — — — — —_ — 3 10-12-77 — —_ p) 2 — = 1 = == 1 3 11-12-76 _ — 6 6 — _— 4 — _— 4 10 11-12-77 — — 3 3 — — = — — —— 3 12-12-76 —= — 8 8 — — 3 — _— 3 11 13-12-77 —_ —— 9 9 —_ —= 3 = — 3 12 15-12-75 — — 1 1 —_— — 1 _ — 1 2 15-12-77 — — 1 1 — — 1 — — 1 2 16-12-77 —_ —_ 4 4 — — 6 — — 6 10 18-12-76 —_ —_ 1 1 — — 1 = — 1 2 18-12-77 — — 8 8 — — 6 — — 6 14 23-12-73 —_— — i 1 — —_ —_ — — — 1 23-12-76 — —_— 3 3 — —_ — — — —— 3 24-12-76 — — DZ 2 —_ = 1 = — 1 5 27-12-76 —_ — 2 2. — = = 4 = 4 6 28-12-76 — — 1 1 — = = = — = 1 29-12-71 — — ; 2 — — = 2 — Z 4 31-12-76 — — 5 3) — — — 13 = 13 18 31-12-77 — — 4 4 — —_ — 1 — 1 5 TABLE 2 and the mammary nipples are visible only MONTHWISE COLLECTION OF THE SPECIMENS after the first lactation. Month Males Females Total e = 2. BREEDING HABITS January 16 67 83 February 2 55 17 The examination of table 1 shows that preg- March 21 51 72 nancies as evidenced by the occurrence of bul- April 39 99 138 bous uterine cornua are present only from vee 61 73 134 about the first week of January to about the ae re an fourth week of April. The one female collect- September 5 7 52 ed on January 4 showed unmistakable sign of August 13 22 35 pregnancy since there was a swelling in both October 24 30 54 the uterine cornua. Between January 4 and November 39 38 77‘ January 12 progressively there was a greater Peso lacs us 22 131 proportion of females with bulbous uterine Total 370 587 957 cornua among the specimens collected on each 232 BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI1 date. All females collected between January |< and April 4 had noticeably large conceptus in the uterine cornua and carried progressively advanced stages of development of the foetus. Microscopic examination of the females re- vealed some interesting features. Some of the female specimens collected on November 12 had undergone copulation as evidenced by the fact that sperms were present in the uterus and the uterine end of the failopian tubes. Their ovaries had follicles in the multilaminar condition, and one or two follicles showed the beginning of the formation of antral spaces. Sperms were present in the uterus and the uterine end of the fallopian tubes of all fema- les collected on and after November 12 and up to December 27, thereby indicating that copulation had taken place in all the females. One female collected on December 27 had a four-celled egg in the uterus. Free early emb- ryos in progressively advanced stages of cleav- age were present in every female collected bet- ween December 27 and January 4. These facts indicate that although copula- tion occurs as early as November 12, ovula- tion does not take place until about the last week of December (Gopalakrishna and Ma- dhavan, 1978). Secondly, ovulation occurs in all the specimens within a sharply defined period in the last week of December and ferti- lization and pregnancy follow immediately. Although every female collected during Ja- nuary, February and March was_ pregnant, and although progressively advanced stages of development of the embryos were present dur- ing the successive weeks after December 27 it was noticed that the size of the conceptus carried by different females collected on any given date during February to April varied. This indicates that the rate of embryonic de- velopment may not be the same in all the specimens. The last batch of pregnant females could be collected on April 25 although pregnant fe- males probably occur until May 3 as evidenc- ed by the fact that newly delivered young ones were available until May 3. After this date there was not a single female which could be assigned to having delivered recently al- though vigorous efforts were made to collect specimens at frequent intervals. Evidently all females in the roost had delivered their young by May 3. Pregnancy was not found to occur in any other month of the year. The above facts show that Scotophilus heathi has an aii- nual reproductive cycle confined to a sharply restricted period. The first batch of postpartum mothers and newly born young ones was collected on April 4. The young ones weighed 5.5 to 6.0 g, and in each case the umbilical cord was still at- tached to the body, the eyelids were adherent and the body was devoid of hair. These char- acters taken along with the fact that the high- est weight of the foetus was 5.0 g, indicates that they might have been born less than a day before. It was interesting to note that although all females undergo ovulation and beconic pregnant during the last week of December (and not a single non-pregnant female was col- lected after December 27 until April 4 during the six years when collections were made dur- ing these months) all deliveries in the colony do not occur at about the same time. After April 4, when the first batch of postpartum mothers were obtained in the year, progressi- vely more females in a collection had deliver- ed their young during the following days untii April 25. It is very likely that a few deliveries occur after April 25 until May 3 as mention- ed earlier. This fact is an additional evidence to indicate that the rate of embryonic deve- lopment varies in the different specimens as otherwise all females should deliver within a 233 JOURNAL, BOMBAY short span of time since all females become pregnant in a sharply defined period in the last week of December. Evidently the duration of pregnancy varies between 100 to 130 days, calculating the minimum period of gestation as 100 days from the first day when early cleavage stage of the egg was noticed (Decem- ber 27) to the date on which the first deliver- ed young are collected (April 4) and 130 days as being the maximum period as calculat- ed until May 3, when the last deliveries prob- ably occurred, and allowing a margin of a couple of days on either side. The sucklings are carried by their motheis at their breasts while they are in the roost or when they are disturbed when they fly away with the young attached to the breast. The first batch of weaned free young ones was collect- ed on May 1. Assuming that these were the young ones delivered in the first batch (that is around April 4) it is evident that the young are suckled for about 24 to 28 days allowing a margin of a couple of days. All the mothers in the colony are free of their young by the end of May. However, the females continue to be in Jactation until the first week of Au- gust. From the foregoing account of the breeding habits of Scotophilus heathi the annual life of the adult female of this species can be re- cognized into the following periods: (1) pe- riod of sexual quiescence from about the se- cond week of August until the first week of November; (2) period of copulation from the second week of November until the last week of December; (3) ovulation and fertilization during the last week of December; (4) preg- nancy from the last week of December until about the first week of May; (5) lactation from about the first week of April until about the first week of August. On comparing the breeding habits of this 234 NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 bat with those of other Indian bats, it is in- teresting to note that Scotophilus heathi re- sembles Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan, 1971) in that the inseminated sperms remain viable and suc- cessfully fertilize the ova released several weeks later. It was earlier known that survival of inseminated spermatozoa is a_ characteristic feature present only in the bats living in cold and temperate climates (Gates, 1936; Folk, 1940; Wimsatt, 1942, 1944; Hiraiwa and Uchi- da, 1956). It is now evident that this pheno- menon is also prevalent in several tropical bats (Medway, 1972; Gopalakrishna and Ma- dhavan, 1978). Scotophilus heathi resembles most Indian bats in having a_ sharply restricted annual breeding cycle (Gopala- krishna, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950; Ramakrishna, 1951; Ramaswamy, 1961; Madhavan, 1971: Gopalakrishna and Rao, 1977; Madhavan ef al., 1978, Gopalakrishna and Madhavan, 1978). Only a few Indian bats have been known to breed more than once a year (Go- palakrishna, 1954, 1955; Gopalakrishna ef al., 1975: Madhavan, 1978). 3. NUMBER OF YOUNG AND SYMMETRY OF THE FEMALE GENITALIA Unquestionable indication of pregnancy as evidenced by the occurrence of bulbous uterine cornua was noticed in the females collected between January 4 and April 25. During this period altogether 245 pregnant females were collected. Out of these 219 had an embryo in each uterine cornu. There were 25 females having a single embryo each — 15 of these had the foetus in the right cornu and 10 in the left. One female carried two embryos in the right cornu of the uterus and the left had none. Examination of the ovary of the preg- nant females revealed that a single corpus BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—VI luteum was present in each ovary in the spe- cimens having a single foetus in each uterine cornu. In the case of the specimen which had two embryos in the right cornu the right ovary had two corpora lutea and none in the left. Evidently, the two sides of the genitalia are symmetrical morphologically and physio- logically, and each side is equally functional during each reproductive cycle. 4. GROWTH AND MATURITY The growth of the body of the young one is rapid during the early life and the young animals weigh almost as much as the adults when they are about 5 months of age so that young ones cannot be distinguished from the adults on the basis of the size of the body after this age. Until the middle of September. that is up to the age of 4 to 5 months, the young ones of the year can be distinguished from the adults by their having dark brown fur on the back and grey fur on the belly. Older adults have invariably bright yellow fur on the ventral side in both sexes. Sexual ma- turity is attained by specimens of both sexes at the body weight of about 28 g. The young ones are attached to the mother’s breasts for about 24 to 28 days. The highest weight of an attached young one was 23 g and the low- est weight of a naturally weaned free young one was 24 g. It is evident that the young ones become free from their mothers when they reach about this weight. The young ones grow rapidly and increase in their weight by well over four times (from 5.5 g to 24.0 g) during the sucking period. Several juve- nile specimens were collected from _ the first week of June until the middle of Sep- tember. Since the examination of the stomach contents of these animals revealed the absence of curdled milk it is evident that the juveniles do not visit the lactating females after May. The growth of the young one is not rapid through the months of August and September, but they gain weight during October, Nov- ember and December. Hence, October on- wards it is not possible to distinguish the ani- mals born in the year from the adults on the basis of the size of the body. However, in the case of females the animals of the year can be recognized as they do not have well-deve- loped nipples. Microscopic examination of the testes of specimens collected during October, November and December revealed that all the males exhibited spermatogenetic activity. All the females become pregnant during the last week of December. This indicates that sexual maturity is attained in both sexes in the year of their birth and when they are 5 to 6 months of age. 5. SEX RATIO Out of a total of 957 specimens collected at random and at frequent intervals for over 6 years, there were 370 males and 587 fe- males giving a sex ratio of 630 males per 1000 females. This should reflect the natural sex ratio in this species in the total population since there is no segregation on the basis of SeX, age or season in this species. There were equal number of males and females among 86 young ones found attached to their mother’s breasts. Evidently, there is a balanced sex ratio during early juvenile life, and the diffe- rence in the proportion of males to females in the adult period is due to larger mortality of the males during the adolescent period. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. A. Gopalakrishna, Director, Institute of Sci- 235 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ence, Nagpur, for constant guidance, help and encouragement during the progress of this work. I also thank Dr. Thakur, Dr. Bhal- chandra, Miss Deepa Bhatia and Miss M. S. Khan for assisting me in various ways in the laboratory. My thanks are also due to Dr. Vol. 77 V. B. Marathe, Head of the Zoology Depart- ment, Institute of Science, Nagpur, for giving me laboratory facilities. I acknowledge with gratitude the financial assistance granted by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi. REFERENCES Fotk, G. EB. (1940): The longivity of sperms in the female bat. Anat. Rec. 76: 103-109. Gates, W. H. (1936): Keeping bats in captivity. J. Mammal. 17: 268-273. GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1947): Studies on the em- bryology of Microchiroptera. Part I — Reproduc- tion and breeding seasons in the south Indian ves- pertiliénid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas). Proc: Ind. Acad. Sci. 26: 219-232. (1948) : . Part Il. Re- production in the male vespertilionid bat, Scoto- philus wroughtoni (Thomas). ibid. 27: 137-151. ——————_ (1949): ————————.. Part _ III. Histological changes in the genital organs and the accessory reproductive structures during the sex- cycle of the vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus wrough- toni (Thomas). ibid.; 30: 17-46. (1950): Part VI. Structure of the placenta in the Indian vampire bat, Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 16: 93-98. (1954): Breeding habits of the In- dian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 23: 60-61. (1955): Observations on the breed- ing habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath- tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 21: 29-41. & CuHoupuar!, P. N. (1977): Breed- ing habits and associated phenomena in some In- dian bats. Part I — Rousettus leschenaulti (Des- marest) —- Megachiroptera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74 (1): 1-16. —————————— & Mapnavan, A. (1971): Survival of spermatozoa in the female genital tract of the Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 236 73(1): 43-49. DQ a SE (1977): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part III — Hipposideros ater ater (Templeton) — Hipposideridae. J. Bombay. nat. Hist. Soc. 74: (3): 511-517. (1978): Viability of inseminated spermatozoa in the Indian vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus heathi (Horsefield). Ind. J. Exp. Biol. ~16: 851-854. —_—_—_____—-_ —————— & Rao, K. V. B. (1977): Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part If — Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck) — Rhinolophidae. ibid. 74 (2): 213- 219. , THAKUR, R. S. & MADHAVAN, A. (1975): Breeding biology of the southern dwarf pipistrelle, Pipistrellus mimus mimus (Wroughton) from Maharashtra, India. Dr. B. S. Chauhan Com- memoration volume: 225-240. Hiraiwa, Y. K. & Ucuipa, T. (1956): Fertiliza- tion in the bats, Pipistrellus abramus abramus (Tem- minck). III. Fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa stored in the uterus after copulation in the fall. Sci. Bull. Fac. Sci. Kyushu Univ. 15: 255-266. MapuwavaNn, A. (1971): Breeding habits of the In- dian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chry- sothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia 35(2): 283-306. (1978): Breeding habits and asso- ciated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part V. Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson) — _ Vespertilionides. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (2): 426-433. ——_—_—_—_——., Pati, D. R. & GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1978): — Part IV — Hippohideros fulvus fulvus (Gray) — Hipposideridae. ibid. 75 (1): 96-103. Mepway, Lorp. (1972): Reproductive cycles in the flat-headed bats, Tylonycteris pachypus and T. BREEDING HABITS OF SOME INDIAN BATS—V1I robustula (Chiroptera — Vespertilioninae) in a hu- mid equatorial environment. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 57: 33-61. RAMAKRISHNA, P. A. (1951): Studies on repro- duction in bats—I. Some aspects of reproduction in the oriental vampires, Lyroderma lyra_ lyra (Geoffroy) and Megaderma spasma (Linn). J. Mys. Univ. 7: 1-41. RAMASWAMY, K. R. (1961): Studies on the sex- cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 27: 287- 307. Wimsatt, W. A. (1942): Survival of spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract of the bat. Anat. Rec. 83: 299-307. (1944): Further studies on the sur- vival of spermatozoa in the female reproductive tract of the bat. ibid. 88: 193-204. 237 STUDIES ON THE INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN TRITHEMIS FESTIVA (RAMBUR) (ODONATA: LIBELLULIDAE) ' MAHABIR PRASAD? AND ARUN KUMAR* (With six text-figures) INTRODUCTION Like many other insects, variations within the species is common in order Odonata. These variation have been briefly studied and reported from time to time in different species of dragonflies. Asahina (1952-53), while studying the Odonata material collected from Nepal by Japanese Himalayan expedition has noted the variations within the different spe- cies, similarly Singh & Baijal (1954) in Wes- tern Himalaya dragonflies; Baijal & Agarwal (1955) in Madhya Pradesh dragonflies: Sahni (1965a, 1965b) in the Odonata of Kumaon hills; Raychaudhari et al. and Lahiri ef al. (1970) in Brachythemis contaminata (Fabri- cius), Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur) and Cro- cothemis servilia servilia (Drury); Varshney & Guha (1972) in Rhyothemis variegata varie- gata (Linn.); Lahiri & Mitra (1972) in Acanthagyna dravida (Lief.); Kumar & Pra- sad (1976) in Orthetrum garhwalicum Singh & Baijal; Singh & Prasad (1976, 1977) and Prasad & Singh (1976, 1977) in Doon Valley and Corbett National Park dragonflies: Pra- sad (1976a, 1976b and in press) in Western 1 Accepted May 1978. 2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-700012. 3 Zoological Survey of India. Northern Regional Station. Dehra Dun-248 001. 238 Himalaya and Eastern Uttar Pradesh Odonata; Bose & Mitra (1977) in Rajasthan dragonflies and Lahiri (1977) in Manipur dragonflies studied and have made brief remarks on in- traspecific variations. However, these records are only occasional variations in small num- ber of specimens, no attempt has so far been made for detailed biometrical study of intra- specific variations in Indian dragonflies. Dur- ing the course of Odonata collection over many years in Western Himalaya, we noted distinct pattern of intraspecific variation in Trithemis festiva (Rambur), a species fairly common throughout lesser Himalayan range. We noticed the occurrence of two distinct group of specimens large sized and small sized. Kiauta (1969) also reported the occurrence of small size specimen (2) from Nepal and states that “its abdominal length amounts scarcely to 21 mm. and that of the hind wing to 27 mm.” Keeping the above in view we made a detailed study of intraspecific variations in Trithemis festiva (Rambur) on the basis of material collected from various localities in Western Himalaya. The species is widely and commonly distributed throughout Indian sub-continent (Kiauta 1969). Adults are common on the wing from March-April to November; larvae occur in slow running marshy streams and near the weedy banks of rivers (Kumar 1972). INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN TRITHEMIS FESTIVA (RAMBUR) Figs. 1-3. Male accessory genital structures of large sized specimens of Trithemis festiva (Rambur): 1. Ventral view, 2. Lateral view, 3. Enlarged view of Prophallus and Vesicula spermalis. Figs. 4-6. Male accessory genital structures of smail sized specimens of Trithemis festiva (Rambur): 4. Ventral view. 5. Lateral view, 6. Enlarged view of Prophallus and Vesicula spermalis. 239 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 OBSERVATIONS Male: (Refer Tables I], HI & VI for various measurements) Both large and small dragonflies, present at same localities, are violaceous black in colour. Head small in size, eyes contiguous, labium blackish brown in large size specimens while small size specimens it is black, some times yellowish brown. Labrum and mandi- bles black, anteclypeus black to yellowish brown, postclypeus dark olivacious brown to black, occiput dark brown to black. Eyes brown above and black beneath. Prothorax dark blue to black, small poste- rior lobe is black, not fringed with hairs. Thorax narrow, black and coated with thin purplish pruinecence. Legs. long. black but hind femora with small closely set spines, and with a single set of long spines present on its distal end. Wing hyaline, a dark opaque brown mark- ing present only in hind wing of large size specimens. but in small size it is found both in fore and hind wings. The brown marking in the hind wing extends upto the subcosta, cubital space, beyond the cubital nervure and posteriorly beyond the membrane. In fore wing of small size specimens it extends upto the cubital space and posterior border of the wing. Reticulation close, and are situated be- tween the Ist and 2nd antenodal nervurer, cu- bital nervure one, pterostigma black and cover 2 cells. Node nearer to pterostigma than base in both wings. Nodal index varies from ya | oi eo a nica large sized 8-7 | 7-8 10-8] 8-9 f 6-103|104-6 9-114|114-9 specimens, while “eT 8-7 to e-8 | O-11 in small sized specimens. Discoidal cell in the fore wing narrow, its costal side just half 240) of proximal side and traversed only once. Subtrigone 3-celled, sector of arc with a large fusion at its origin. Distal antenodal nervures incomplete, discoidal field begins with 3 rows of cells and is convergent at wing border. In hind wing discoidal cell entire, CUII arising from the posterior angle of discoidal cell. Dis- coidal field begins with 2 rows of cells. 2 rows of cells present in between IRIII & RSPL. Membrane dark brown and triangular in shape. Abdomen 20.0-25.5 mm in length, black; anal appendages black. Female : (Refer Tables IV, V & VI for various body measurements) Labium yellowish-brown, its middle lobe black, labrum yellow and sides black. Ante and postclypeus yellow, face and frons_ yel- lowish brown, but some portion of upper sides of frons metallic blue. Upper portion of eyes brown and lower portion black, occiput black. Prothorax black, thorax yellow and marked with black, mid-dorsal carinal suture present upto the anterior sinus. Hamular stripe very thick, an inverted Y-shaped stripe present on the mesepimeron. The posterio—lateral suture short but oblique stripe ends across the meta- pimeron. Lower portion of the thorax yellow and marked with black stripe. Legs black, inner side of the anterior femora yellow, coxae and trochanter yellow. Wings similar to the male, except the base of the hind wing which is marked with opaque brown marking upto the costal area, costal space and upto the cubital nervures and near the membrane. Nodal index varies from 8-103/113-7 9-124]104-8 8-7 legion 2) fore lieio Abdomen (20-23 mm in length) black and marked by yellow, dorsally, laterally and ven- trally but its last three segments (8th, 9th and INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN TRITHEMIS FESTIVA (RAMBUR) 10th) are totally black on the dorsum, marked And appendages black, long and acutely with yellow and the lateral and ventral sides. pointed at the tips. TABLE I SHOWING THE FREQUENCY OF SPECIMENS WITH BOTH SMALL AND LARGE SIZED SPECIMENS OF Trithemis festiva (RAMBUR) FROM DIFFERENT LOCALITIES IN WESTERN HIMALAYA. SI. Locality District Large sized specimens Small sized -specimens No. Male Female Male Female Ny Asarori Dehra Dun 9 2 — = de Barkot 4 4 ae a. a3 By Dehra Dun Fe | = = = 4. Donga 5 15 6 ? | 5 Herbertpur “ 4 ae mel s. 6. Jaintanwala 55 9 3 3 _— te JShajra 5 = 2) = = 38. Mianwala . . D 3 — = OF Motichur “ 12 2) 4 = 10. Rajpur rf 23 1 4 3 IE, Rishikesh 4 = = = 12% Sahastra Dhera a 60 3 9 2 13. Boxar (Corbett Pauri 8 9) 4 1 National Park) Garhwal 14. Dhikala (Corbett Pe 6 1 B 1 National Park) 15? Pauri ¥. 10 3 5) 1 16. Deoprayag Tehri Garhwal ? = = — ila Tehri Tehri Garhwal 10 a on iis 18. Chamoli Chamoli 8 ot a3 as 119: Uttar Kashi Uttar Kashi 3 | = _ 20. Bij Rani (Corbett Nainital 20) 4 3 = National Park) PALS Haldwani PA 3 — — = 22) Kathgodam * 4 I | oa 23% Sultan (Corbett ea 15 == 4 = National Park) 24. Dhobighat Almora 2 — =e = (Ranikhet) sy Dwarson e 2 — | = 26. Garli Kangra = = aa I Di. Jhankaur a — 2 — —- 28. Jawalamukhi a. 12 4 a = 29. Kangra i 2 4 | aD 30. Mataur Fe 4 3 — = Bile Maranda © — = 2 aes 32, Ranital : 15 6 2 — 24] JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 00 ISSSSESS UOA O'S" rrr SS PS SS SSS SS SSS SSS SS, WU O0'¢ wur¢6 8 wurgd Tt wu ¢°6 wus ct =O pt UT OSC «WW 06 = 07 £ 8 WUTC" WUT 00°6 wur¢’o] wtrgo's WU OO] Wl py, WUON 27 WWOD'ST WW O07 Il aL, WU ¢°C wu ¢°6 WU COT wt (06 wurgo’cy, Wie c, wure yo wie g¢ wu Cz I eS) UIUL ¢°C wu ¢°6 uur COT wut id's wuUrgoe, Wurepy wurgg gc WU OO sZ WW O00 9 aS UIUT ¢°¢ uur 6 WW OO TT wutgo'6 WUT OO'e, WW YOST WUOQDST wWiuic eZ WW O07 (E v wu OQ"¢ wurg6 WUT] wus Muu go’e, luc cy, wile 87 WWO0'6T WW ¢ IZ C e UU C°C wu 00"6 Wl COT wus twaurect = uaa cp TW ZW TZ tI EG wu 00"¢ WU ONG WUOOT, Wud'6 wure’ct =o CT WW QOL «=O gg WU "TZ 8 =e] Se Se | a a ee a ee ee ee SUIM SUI SUM SUIM SUIM pury 310.7 pulp 2104 pug eWSI}so19}d sosepuodde ews} jo uIpIM 0} opou useM apou 0} oseq us0 SUM SUIM jeue yum SUSUIDS = ‘ON -solgjq wnuwixeyy -joq Ul YI3UdT -Mj0q Ul 4VSUaT pulpt 3104 uswopqy -ds Jo ‘oN ‘IS ee rsp (AWW) (inaNVvY) vAysef sruayi4T AO SNAWIOTS GIZIS TIVWS JO SLNIWANNSWAW AGOg Ti] dave a SS SSS SSS SSS SSS, WU QO'¢ ww QQ'T | wu CT] wuUgo ll wUurOd' Pr] ww L, WUC Ts WWOOTE WUYgO'EZ ww ¢7 We WU ¢°¢ wu CO] wu CCT wu CO] UU OOP] WwOOLT WuUgO TE wWluggzTe wui¢¢z WU $6 ac WU Q0'¢ ww QO'OT ww ¢'|] Wut ¢*Q| Ulu cg} We C9] wuucog Wu te WU O0'EZ LOI ie WU QO'¢ wur QO’ TT wu’ cg] = wurgo lt Ut Cet Www Od LI uur yE UU cE WU C'EZ 8P ‘| emer SUI SUIM SUM SUI 3UIM pulpy 310.4 pulH 3104 puiy BUISI}SO19}d sosepuodde ews jO YIPIM 0} opou u90M} Spou 0} dseq ude SUIM SulM yeue qyM SUSWID “ON -SO19}q WNUIXe]y -oq UI Y\SsUIT -Mjaq Ul W)suNT puly 9104 uawopqy -ads Joon ‘Ss (JIVAW) (ANAWVY) PAysof stwoYI, AO SNAWIDAdS GAZIS JOUVT AO SLNAWANASVAW AGO Il wavy 4 4 (RAMBUR) VARIATIONS IN TRITHEMIS FESTIVA INTRASPECIFIC ————————— WUE Q0'¢ tu ¢’6 = WUE 000] UI 6° wu scl = Wt pT WL §9Z WIE BT) WU 90'0Z I 'y COU OOS wur¢°6 = WT 000 UIL ¢°8 WUT OO] WU go's] UU OO'LT WW OO'sT Ww ~D;0Z € t WUT OOS UWI ¢°6 WU COT Ul 00'6 wurs’cl WWOOc] WWOO'ST Wu ~s7 wu coz c c WUE Q0'¢ UIUL ¢°6 wu co] = UI 06 WwUroo’cT wure'ce UU OO'sT UU OdST wur¢oz 9 1 ————— SUI SUIM SUM SUIM SUIM pury 104 pury 3104 pury BUWISI}S010}d sosepuodde ewist} jO YIpim 0} 9pouU usdsM opou 0} 9seq Uda SUIM SUIM Jeue YIM usWID9 = ‘ON -SO191q umnunxe py -79q Ul YSUuaT -Mjoq Ul YISUIT pury 3104 uswopqy -ds JO‘ON ‘JS LL ————————————————— Se SNS SCS SSS SS SCE SS SSSR, (@IvWaq) (ANGNVY) Asef snUurYyIT AO SNAWIIGdS GAZIS TIVWS JO SLNAWANNSVAW AGO INC GChAR SS SS SSS ESS SSS GS IS STSSS _S S = SSSMETS SESS wu 00'¢ uur CO, wugg' Tc, wurgo'ol Wurgo'e, Wie g], WW OO TE WWD TE Wi OO'EZ I 2 ww QO'¢ wucot wwe TT UU ¢°6 WUTOO'ET WOOL] wig s67 WWOOTE WW C7 8T aS WI 0O'¢ UU COT wut c yy] UU ¢°6 WU OO'ET UU OO LT WU OOOE WugoTE wu go'Ez fk v WW OO'E WUT CO, Ulu OO'TT WULU ¢°6 Wu set WWOOLT WUIQO'OE WUOO TE wu ¢'7Z cl € WwW O0'€ WU COT wurgo'T WU 6°6 wu s'eT wie ol WUIQOOE WOO TE wu ¢ 7 9 aC ULL OO'¢ WUT OOO, wu cy] UU ¢°6 wuUoo' rr wig oy, wlUOgog WWOOTE wui¢7z 8 “l ee a SUIAA SUI SUIM SUIAA Sam pulp 3104 pur 304 pay eW31}s019}d sasepusdde ewst} jO WIpim 0} 9pou usaM 9pou 0} dseq Uda SUI SUI yeue qqM susWwIN9 = ‘ON -SO191g WUNUWIxe -J0q Ul YWBUST -Mj9qQ Ul ySuST pup 2104 uawopqy -dsjJo‘oN ‘Ig ee ESSEC >t (AIVWAT) (ANAWVY) vASaf, srUdYyilI SNAWIOIdS GAZIS ADVI JO SLNIWaANASVAW xAGOg AI Sav. 243 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 8-10 10-8 TABLE VI SHOWING VARIATION IN NODAL INDEX WITHIN THE LARGE AND SMALL SIZED SPECIMENS OF Trithemis festiva (RAMBUR) Large Sized | Small Sized 6-9) 198-53 > 7108 104-7 6-103/103-6 | 7-108]103-8 _, 8-7 | 7E8 92g) (Nein | Cer Rsisnieats 8-93 94-7 | T-LAAILIG-7—, 7-12$|11}-8 | 7-103/103-7 10-7 = 8-8 | 7-8 9-8 | 8-9 8-8 | 8-8. 8-103 |103-9 | 9-103/95-8 8-102'114-7 | 8-103/112-8 10-7 | 8-10 9-7 | 7-9 Tes Son eT | 7.8 9-124|10$-8 , 8-105/103-8 8-104/113-8> , - 8-113]113-9 91 9-8 | 8-9 8-8 | 7-9 9-8 | 8-10 eal ea ei |UD oes Lobes 9-113{113-9, 9-8 | 8-9 al 9-11 TABLE VII SHOWING VARIATION IN BODY MARKING OF BOTH LARGE AND SMALL SIzED Trithemis festiva (RAMBUR) COMPARED W!TH THE PUBLISHED DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES ea ee ae Ao sce NEV Sl. Different parts Large sized Small sized Published descrip- No. of body Specimen specimen tion of the species He Labium Blackish brown Black, sometimes Black yellowish brown Yellowish brown 2; Anteclypeus Black Black Black 3h Postclypeus Dark olivaceous Black Dark olivaceous brown 4, Occiput Dark brow ac ccipu ar rown Black Black DY. Prothorax Dark blue Some times a brown Black 6. Wing marking Brown marking at marking at the base Brown marking at in’ male the base of fore of fore wing in male — the base of fore wing in male absent present wing in male absent 7. Nodal index 6-91 | 94-5, 6-104 103-6, ae rear 8-7 7-8 8-7 8-7 8-8 | 7-8 10-8 | 8-10 9-123)103-8, 8-103]113-8, 9-8 | 8-9 9-8 | 8-10 244 INTRASPECIFIC VARIATIONS IN DISCUSSION Both large and smali sized specimens of Trithemis festiva occur at same localities in Western Himalaya. The abdomen (along with anal appendages) of 272 examples of large sized male specimens varies from 23.00 mm to 23.5 mm, forewing 31.5 mm to 32.5 mm, hindwing 30.5 mm to 31.5 mm and pterostig- ma 2.5 mm to 3.00 mm. For detail of the other body measurements in male refer to Table II. 52 examples of large sized female specimens were studied, their abdomen (along- with anal appendages) varies from 22.5 mm to 23.00 mm, forewing 31.00 mm to 32.00 mm, hindwing 29.5 mm to 31.00 mm, pterostigma 3.00 mm (for other body measurements kind- ly refer Table IV). Only 48 male specimens of small size were studied, and their abdomen (along with anal appendages) varies in between 20.00 mm to 22.00 mm, forewing 28.00 mm to 29.5 mm, hindwing 26.00 mm to 29.00 mm, pterostigma 2.5 mm to 3.00 mm. The 12 female specimens of small size have their abdomen (alongwith anal appendages) 20.00 mm to 20.5 mm, forewing 28.00 mm to 29.5 mm, hindwing 26.5 mm to 28.00 mm and TRITHEMIS FESTIVA (RAMBUR) pterostigma 3.00 mm (For other body mea- surements in male and female refer Tables Ill and V). The large and small sized Trithemis festiva male and female are quite distinct from each other and can be easily separated from each other on the basis of their body measure- ments [the two type of specimens also have some differences in body colour and nodal index (refer Tables VI & VII)]. However, it is noticeable that large and small sized speci- mens are very close and similar to each other in their wing venation, body colour and male accessory genital structures (refer figs. 1-6). Thus the variations found in large and small sized male and female in their body measure- ments, wing venation, body colour are treated as intraspecific variations in Trithemis festiva. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for permission to carry out the present study. Our thanks are also due to Dr. B. S. Lamba, Deputy Director, Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Dehra Dun, for various facilities. REFERENCES ASAHINA, S. (1952-1953): Fauna and flora of Nepal Himalaya Scientific results of the Japanese expeditions to Nepal Himalaya 1952-1953, Edited by H. Kihara. Fauna and flora Res. Soc. Kyoto, 291-300. (In Japanese) BaiJAL, H. N. AND AGARWAL, J. P. (1955): Opu- scula Libellulogica. Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci.), 4 (2): 453-470. Bose, G. AND Mitra, T. R. (1977): The Odonata fauna of Rajasthan. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 71 (1-4): 1-11. FRASER, F. C. (1936): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma (Odonata) 3: XT-461. Taylor and Francis, Ltd., London. KiauTA, B. (1969): Scientific results of the Yugoslav 1969 Himalaya expedition. Bioloski vesti- nik, 20: 109-119. Kumar, A. (1972): Studies on the life history of Trithemis festiva (Rambur, 1842) (Odonata: Libellulidae). Odonatologica, 1 (2): 103-112. KuMaAr, A. AND Prasap, M. (1976): On the oc- currence of Orthetrum garhwalicum Singh & Bai- jal (Odonata: Libellulidae) in Kinnaur (Western Himalaya: Himachal Pradesh). News! zool. India, 2 (3): 94. Lanier, A. R., Mirra, T. R. AND RAYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1970): A note on Crocothemis servilia ser- vilia (Drury) (Odonata: Libellulidae: Sympetrinae), Surv. 245 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 334. AND MirtrA, T. R. (1972): A note on Acanthagyna dravida (Lieftinck) (Insecta: Odo- nata: Aeshnidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 69 (2): 438-439. SCianiCulisno0e (1977): On a collection of Odonata from Manipur with new records. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 72 (1-4): 409-418. Mitra, T. R. (1975): A review of Indian species of Agriocnemis Selys (Insecta: Odonata: Zygop- tera: Coenagrionidae) with a note on Agriocnemis nainitalensis Sahni. Dr. B. S. Chauhan Comm. Vol., 403-409. PrasaD, M. (1976a): On the occurrence of Uro- themis signata signata (Rambur) (Odonata: Mac- rodiplactidae) from Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. Newsl. zool. Surv. India, 2 (4): 142. (1976b): Odonata of district Kan- gra (Himachal Pradesh). Rec. zool. Surv. India 71 (1-4): 105-119. ————————— (in press): Studies on the Odonata of Garhwal Hills. Ind. J. Ent. ——————— AND SINGH, A. (1976): Odonata of Doon Valley 2. Zygoptera. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 70 (1-4): 121-131. RAYCHAUDHURY, D. N., Laniri, A. R. AND MITRA, T. R. (1969): A note on the distal antenodal ner- vure of Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius) and Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur) (Insecta: Odonata: Libellulidae). Sci. Cult., 35: 220. SAHNI, D. N. (1965a): Studies on the Odonata (Zygoptera) of Nainital. Ind. J. Ent., 27: 205-216. —————— _ (1965b): Studies on the Odonata (Anisoptera) of Nainital. Ind. J. Ent., 27: 277-289. SINGH, A. AND PRASAD, M. (1976): Odonata of Doon Valley I. Anisoptera. Rec. zool. Surv. India, 70 (1-4): 21-38. (1977): Odonata (Insecta) of Cor- bett National Park (Uttar Pradesh, India). J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (2) [1976]: 419-421. SINGH, S. AND BarJAL, H. N. (1954): Entomolo- gical Survey of the Himalaya II—on a collection of Odonata. Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci.), 3 (2): 385- 400. VARSHNEY, R. K. AND GUHA, M. (1972): A note on the wing marking of dragonfly Rhyothemis varie- gata variegata (L.) (Odonata: Libellulidae). Patna Univ. J., 27: 1-4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION OF THE SONG OF THE KOEL EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEA’ M. V. V. SUBRAHMANYAM AND R. V. KrRISHNAMOORTHY? (With four text-figures) The koel Eudynamis scolopacea sings both in the morning and the evening. The morning song consists of 15 notes and the evening song 9 notes. As the note number increases, the frequency as well as the loudness of the song increases. Evening song usually contains high frequency notes. The frequencies range from 976 to 1818 Hz, which probably may be the reason for the mellowness of the song. When a recorded song was played to a singing koel, the latter stopped singing and sometimes quit its position. This suggests that the song reflects territoriality. INTRODUCTION Bird song usually refers to the loud and persistent vocalisations delivered seasonally by males in possession of a breeding or courting territory (Brockway 1969). The song probably stimulates the femaie’s breeding behaviour and also aids in spacing breeding males (Marler 1956). The same song may unleash an attack by others when it is broadcast within the bird’s territory (Weeds and Falls 1959, Falls 1969). The ontogeny of bird song and its seasonal effect has been worked out for many species (Allard 1930, Thorpe 1956, Nottebohm 1970, Panov eft al. 1978). For the Indian Koel, the breeding season lasts from March to July (Lamba 1963); its habitat and parasitic nature has been well documented (Ali 1977, Hume 1890, Lamba 1969). However, no attempt has been made to characterise its song, although it is considered by some to be the pleasantest among the songs of common Indian birds. In 1 Accepted June 1980. 2 Department of Zoology, GKVK Campus, Uni- versity of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore 560 065. the present study an attempt has been made to characterise the acoustic parameters of the daily song of the koel. METHODS Two Sennheiser MKH 805 directional mic- rophones were placed 15’ (about 4.6 m) apart, on a tree top, which was identified ear- lier as being visited by the koel. The micro- phones were connected to a 5310 National Panasonic tape recorder, placed on the ground and 100’ away (30.5 m) from the tree. With such a set-up the song of the koel both in the morning (6-8 a.m.) and in the evening (4- 5.30 p.m.) were recorded during the months April-June, 1979. Pre-recorded tapes were analysed for quality of notes of the songs using a Fourier Analyzer System (Hewlett-Packard). Note frequencies and song timings were ob- tained from the converter. RESULTS The morning song consists of 15 notes with a total duration of 40.96 s, and each note in 247 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, M Vol. 77 Fig. 1. the song is of 0.5 s duration. The evening song consists of 9 notes with a total duration of 20.48 s and a note duration of 0.6 s. Some- times there were 14 notes in the morning song and 8 in the evening song. The internote period in both songs is not constant (Fig. 1). The song starts with low ‘‘kuoo’’, the loudness of which rises in scale gradually in both morn- ing and evening songs (Fig. 1). The frequency of the sound at which the notes are delivered also varies as the notes proceed. In the morn- ing song, as the note number increases the frequency gradually increases non-linearly. In the evening song there is linearity in the in- crease of frequencies as the notes are delivered (Fig. 2). The evening song invariably consists of higher frequencies (Fig. 2). The morning song starts with a frequency of 976-1218 Hz and ends with 1381-1818 Hz in the fifteenth note (Fig. 3). The evening song starts with 1200 Hz-1393 Hz and ends with 1243-1787 Hz. (Fig. 4). When the song reaches the final frequency the koel stops singing for some time and again resumes the song in the same fre- quencies. When a recorded song was played to a singing koel, it often stopped singing and 248 Spectrograms of morning and evening songs of the koel. Horizontal axis denotes time in s and vertical axis represents loudness in millivolts. Scale: M- x axis 1 cm 2.48 s; y axis 1 cm 2.1 mV E- X axis. 1) cmili20s:ayeaxise lcm sum, sometimes quit its position. DISCUSSION The koel breeds during March-June in southern parts of India (Lamba 1969). The song of the koel can be heard in the same months and therefore, the coincidence of the song with season could be related to the breed- ing activity and the reproductive behaviour of the bird. It is also known that only the male koel sings till it mates (Lamba 1969). There is evidence that testosterone stimulates the mating behaviour of birds (Andrews 1964, Hamilton 1938, Hutchinson 1970). However, no correlations were made that the same hor- mone induced singing in birds. We tried in vain to check whether there were any behaviou- ral responses in other koels of the surroundings when the tapes were played back, but the song has impact on the singing of a conspecific. When’ the recorded tape is played before a singing bird, the latter stops singing and flies away. This suggested that the song is purely territorial. Similar such territorial songs were noted in male chaffinches (Thorpe 1956). SONG OF THE KOEL (EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEA) 1.8 Fi ae KHz variation 5 Morning song MOM eo) ah WS Ge 7B 9-10. ff 42 19 ie. 418: Note number 1.8 (= SF | me a ata ia a cad aa, eee! iS Wola St HES AW girl «| tee? See i eal eet Ne ied ete 2 iy x | Evening song 7 mms ©) 0 Se SR aes ae») Laon reo Note number Fig. 2. Changes in frequencies in relation to the note number in morning and evening songs of the Koel. 249 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 | i i dawns nanos | at i aghealin cacon eae \ \ i lit \, ‘\ ) dime Aaa, YE OU see run Ki Opies eee St Matta | Mbeya Aiea AW a AV ne eevee: 3 erravin | h sen , ee oe Meant a WO OL SDT ea A \ if tt | | 5_ eas ae Sree S| Mi Vital yar (oe ‘a Ray \ i a oe \ ee gee ne [Wi Handbiiriaun a SUN. Fig. 3. Spectrograms of the notes of morning song of the Koel. Horizontal axis denotes the frequency in Hz and vertical axis represents loudness. Scale: x axis 1 cm 62.5 Hz with 625 Hz as starting y axis 1 cm 2 x 10°°V 250 SONG OF THE KOEL (EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEA) | a Nid MA Me rae ) Fig. 4. Spectrograms of the notes of the evening song of the Koel Horizontal axis denotes frequency in kHz and vertical axis represents loudness. Scale: x axis 1 cm 62.5 Hz with 625 Hz as starting point frequency y axis 1 cm 2 x10°°V 251 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Brockway (1969) suggested that the strength of the song and its persistence may be a measure of metabolism of the bird and climatic conditions at any particular place. This may be true for the difference in the number of notes observed in the morning and evening songs. Changes due to climatic conditions may be over ruled as there were not much variations in air temperatures between morn- ing and evening in the present context. Cor- relations between climate and song (Allard 1930) was possible in the case of the dove which inhabits temperate lands. Probably the metabolism of the koel determines the short- ness of the song in the evenings. It is interesting to note that after the 9th note in morning song, the frequencies of the notes remained constant. Decrease in the note number in the evening song can be attributed to the physiological status of the bird. Exhaus- tion after a day’s activity may decrease the note number. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to Dr. D. Anand and Mr. H. S. Srinivas Chakravorthi, Department of Electronic Communications, Indian Institute of Science for their help in spectrographic analysis of the song; and Dr. R. Narayana for encouragement. REFERENCES ALI, S. (1977): The Book of Indian Birds. Bom- bay Natural History Society, Bombay. ALLARD, H. A. (1930): The first morning song of some birds of Washington, D.C., its relation to light. Am. Naturalist, 64: 436-439. ANpbrREWS, R. J. (1969): The effect of testoste- rone on avian vocalizations. In R. A. Hinde (ed.): Bird Vocalizations, Cambridge University Press. Brockway, B. F. (1969): Roles of budgerigar vocalisations in integration of breeding behaviour. In R. A. Hinde (ed.): Bird Vocalizations, Cam- bridge University Press. FALts, J. B. (1969): ‘Function throated sparrow’, in R. A. Hinde (ed.): Vocalizations, Cambridge University Press. HAMILTON, J. B. (1938): Precocious masculine behaviour following administration of synthetic male hormone substance, Endocrinology. 23: 53-7. Hume, A. O. (1890): Nests and eggs of Indian birds. Vol. 1, (Ed. R. H. Porter, London). HUTCHINSON, J. B. (1970): Influence of gonadal hormones on the hypothalamic integration of court- of the white Bird ZL ship behaviour in barbary dove. J. Rep. Fert. Suppl. 11: 15-41. LamBA, B. S. (1963): The nidification of some common Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 121-123. ——————— (1969): The nidification of some common Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 72-80. Marcegr, P. (1956): Behaviour of chaffinch, Fring- illa coelebs. Behaviour sup. vol. 5. NoTTEBoHM, F. (1970): Ontogeny of bird song. Science, 167: 950-956. PANov, E. N. Kostina, G. N. AND GALICHENKA, M. V. (1978): Song. organisation in southern nightingale. Zool., 57(4): 568-581. TuorpPe, W. H. (1956): The language of birds. Scientific American, 195(4): 128-138. Weeps, J. S. AND FALLs, J. B. (1959): Differen- tial responses of male oven birds to recorded songs of neighbouring and more distinct individuals. Auk. 76: 343-351. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER, PANTHERA TIGRIS TIGRIS LINN. IN CAPTIVITY* ADHIR KUMAR Das? (With a chart) INTRODUCTION In view of the importance of tiger as one of the major endangered species in India a study of its reproductive behaviour is worth noting. This study was undertaken to provide informa- tion (i) on the reproductive behaviour of tiger, (ii) to ascertain the duration of oestrus. (iii) breeding season, (iv) gestation period, (v) percentage of pregnancies, (vi) litter size, (vii) sex ratio and (viii) the ratio of white and coloured cubs produced through crossing among coloured hybirds and between colour- ed hybrids and pure white tigers. This paper is based on data collected at the Calcutta Zoological Garden from 1965 to 1977. MATERIALS AND METHODS The Calcutta Zoological Garden has a good record of breeding of tigers in captivity. The first birth of tiger cubs at this Zoo took place in May, 1880 when three cubs were born. Two cubs were born in May, 1886 and two more cubs in April, 1889 (Sanyal 1892). Since then many tiger cubs have been born in this Zoo during the last several decades. Moreover, the acquisition of 3 white tigers (two pure white males from Maharaja of Rewa and one coloured female carrying gene for white, from Delhi Zoological Park) of the 1 Accepted May 1978. ? Zoological Garden, Alipore, Calcutta-700 027. same litter in 1963 has improved much of its breeding potential. The tigers at Calcutta Zoo are kept in spacious enclosures and cages hav- ing sufficient space for exercise. Each cage or enciosure has a small den at the back where the tiger is shut in at night. Tigers at Calcutta Zoo are fed six days in a week on beef and on Thursday no food is given. On average an adult tiger is given 12 kg of raw beef with and without bones daily. The ration of beef given to tigers ranges from 7 to 15 kg depending on the age, size, sex and general condition of the animals. For the purpose of this study, data have been collected from my own observations from 1968 onward, supported by the records main- tained at Calcutta Zoo in the form of daily report, birth and mortality registers etc. Mat- ing behaviour of tigers have been recorded by me with assistance from some of my staff. BREEDING SEASON The tiger in India breeds all the year round and the cubs are born in any month of the year (Asdell 1946, Crandall 1964, Prater 1964, Schaller 1967, Ewer 1973). At Calcutta Zoo the tigresses came in oes- trus during all the months of the year. From 1965 to 1977, 48 oestruses or heat periods of seven tigresses had been recorded, and the females produced 61 cubs in 22 litters. This data is presented in Table 1. Ne nn we) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE | BREEDING SEASON OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris IN CAPTIVITY Months Number of Percent- Number of Percent- oestrus age litters born age January 5) 10.4 1 (2) 4.5 February 5) 10.4 _ — March 7. 14.5 3 (9) 13.6 April 4 8.3 3 (9) 13.6 May 3 6.4 4 (12) 18.1 June 3} 10.4 3 (8) 13.6 July 4 8.3 3 (10) 13.6 August 3 6.4 —_— _ September 2 4.1 3 (8) 13.6 October 5 10.4 1 (1) 4.5 November 2 4.1 EQ) 4.5 December 3 6.4 — — 48 100 22 (61) 100 The figures in the bracket indicate number of cubs. tioned behaviours of a tigress were recorded and when she permitted mounting and copu- lation by the male. The data of oestrus periods as recorded in 7 tigresses in Calcutta Zoological Garden are shown in Table 2. The minimum interval be- tween two consecutive oestruses was 26 days. Last oestrus phase was observed upto the age of 16 years in a tigress (Malini). Sexual maturity: Crandall (1964) reports that a tigress in New York Zoo reached maturity at 3 yrs. 8 months. Sankhala (1967) reports that tiger cubs attain maturity at an age between 34 and 6 years. In captivity female lions become cyclic at 36 months of age (Crandall 1964). According to Stracey (1968) tigresses start TABLE 2 BREEDING RECORDS OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris iN CALCUTTA Zoo ‘ Number of Range of Average Average of Average Specimens oestrus oestrus oestrus last day of number of periods periods periods oestrus to cubs/Litter (days) (days) birth (days) Gestation period. Malini 16 4—7 5.1 103 2G) Chandni 14 3—7 5 104 322 Ch) Shashi 7 4—6 4.8 103 3.8 (5) Sona 4 4—7 5.3 == cs Rupa 3 6—9 7-3 = Faas Bharati 3 6—9 Fed, 102 6S (C4) Moti ] 5 i 103 2 1(5)) 48 The figures in the bracket indicate number of litter. Duration of oestrus: The tigress in oestrus becomes restless and moves about very frequently and sometimes does not feed. Schaller (1967) reports that the tigress in oestrus squirts scent, sniffs, moans and roars in a low voice. The duration of oestrus was calculated on the basis of the total number of days for which the above men- 254 to breed at the age of about three years. Tig- resses in the wild reach sexual, maturity at about four years of age, but in the abnormal conditions of captivity copulation has been observed as early as two and a half years (Mountfort 1973). Sexual maturity and birth of Ist litter in the case of six tigresses are shown in Table 3. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER TABLE 3 OBSERVATION OF SEXUAL MATURITY OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris, AT CALCUTTA ZOO Se PP A PR TE" EIS AE MSI I I ET EE I BE Date Date of Age at Date of Age when Specimens of first onset of birth of first birth oestrus oestrus first litter born litter Malini 18.6.60 255° 2.65) 4 yrs. 8 months 12. 6.65 4 yrs. 11 months Chandni 12.6.65 2. 3.69 BES 14. 7.69 ASO) ass Shashi 8.9.67 INN SI 415, 10 24.11.72 Seas eee es Rupa 25.9.70 12. 3575: Ae a Siae — = = Sona 25.9.70 22. 3.74 3 1G os — = — Bharati 10.6.66 10.10.70 BF 6 $3 24 ee 4 ,, 10 Mating behaviour: Tigers and tigresses which are kept together, except at night, from very early age, breed freely in captivity but attempts to introduce new specimens to each other are not without risk of injury. When a tigress comes in oestrus at Calcutta Zoo, a male tiger is put in the adjacent cage from where the two can see each other. At the advent of oestrus the tigress becomes restless, walks and sits frequently. While walking it moans and roars in low voice and squirts scent from its anal gland. She sits repeatedly in front of the wire-netted door of the adjacent cage where the male is confined. She sniffs at dif- ferent places of the floor and wall and on seeing the male in the adjacent cage she pro- duces a purring sound. Courtship: When the door of the adjacent cage is open- ed, the tigress hurriedly rushes into the ad- jacent cage and proceeds to the male very cautiously, sniffs the male producing puffing sound. If the male is in mood for mating he responds with a purring noise. If the male is not in a mood for mating a fight may occur and the couple have to be separated. It is seen that after fighting on the first day of oestrus, the male may accept the female the next day. When mutual confidence is established, the female approaches the male, purrs, rolls on her back on the ground in front of the male and pats at him playfully. The male sniffs the genitalia of the female, purrs and squirts scent frequently. He follows the female when she walks with lashing tail and starts playing with her. Mountfort (1973) states that the prelude to mating is accompanied by periods of play and harmless sparring which help to reduce the normal antagonism between sexes. Copulation: The tigress sometimes comes very close to the male and rubs her head, body and mouth to the head, body and mouth of the male. She sometimes lies on her beily stretching her fore- limbs fully on the ground and her hind limbs remaining half bent. The male approaches from behind the female and arches his back, bringing his penis in contact with the genital region of the female. At this time the female begins to tread by pushing against the floor with her hind legs and when vaginal contact is made she bends her tail sharply to one side exposing her genital region and at the same time she turns her hind end in the direction of the stimulus. The male then holding the scruff of the neck of female by his teeth begins a series of vigorous pelvic thrusts at the female’s 255 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 urinogenital sinus. Intromission of penis is sig- nalled by a loud copulatory cry from the female and a tremendous roar is produced by the male as he presses his genital region tightly against that of female. Ejaculation occurs dur- ing this interval. The actual time of coition varies from 7 to 10 seconds. The female then pulls forward, turns abruptly on the male, hisses and paws him and throws him off her back. Sometimes fighting takes place between the sexes inflicting scratch wounds. There may be unsuccessful attempts at mounting prior to successful mating. Post copulatory behaviours: After each copulation the male moves away from the female and walks about in the en- closure or usually lies on the ground. Some- times he passes stool and urine and in some cases drinks water. The female tigress after copulation rolls on the ground and sometimes goes to the water for bathing. It is seen that the female goes to water at 3 to 5 times a day during her heat period. After a short interval, the female again ap- proaches the male and the whole process of courtship and copulation is repeated. With re- peated copulations, initiative and eagerness of mating are seen more in the female than the male. The tigress proceeds to the male, rubs her head, body with the male and makes pur- ring sound and sits in front of the male in the mating posture inviting him to mount. The entire process of copulation lasts for 1 to 3 minutes. In Calcutta Zoo tigers are allowed to mate from 7 a.m. to 10-30 a.m. in the morning and again at 2.30 p.m. to 5 p.m. in the afternoon, i.e. for 6 hours per day. The duration of mat- ing period as observed during 48 heat periods was from 3 to 9 days and average heat period was 5—9 days. The range of mating was from 2 to 52 times per day and the averags per day was 22.2 times. The minimum interval be- tween two consecutive matings was I minute and maximum was 90 minutes and the average interval was 7.1 minutes. The highest number TABLE 4 OBSERVATION OF MATINGS OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris AT CALCUTTA Zoo SE SB SR SS ES Number Duration Average of heat of heat heat Matings between period _ period period (days) (days) Malini x Neeladri 16 4—7 Sil Chandni ~ Himadri 12 3—-6 4.9 Chandni ~ Bhanu 2 4—7 565) Rupa x Barun* 2 7—9 8 Shashi ~« Rabi Hf 4—6 5 Rupa x Arun* 1 6 6 Sona x Bhanu* 4 6—8 6.4 Bharati x Johny* 3 6—9 lees Moti x Bhanu l 5 5 Range Average Average Highest Lowest of matings interval number number matings per day between of of per day in 6 two matings matings (in 6 hours consecu- ina in a hrs) tive single single matings heat heat (in period period minutes) 5—52 25-1 TS 235 66 2—45 20.4 4.9 171 20 4—44 23.9 os) 174 89 3—25 17s 12.9 By? 122 7—49 25.8 6.9 167 ij 12—26 19.5 6.9 117 — 10—48 251511 7.8 206 126 10—47 26 5.6 247 170 9—35 18.4 6.7 92 —- a ES * Indicates the pair of tigers which lived together except at night. 256 REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER of matings observed in a single heat period was 235 times and the lowest was 20 times (Table 4). Gestation period: The gestation period of tiger is given as 105 to 109 days by Asdell (1946). Crandall (1964) records the gestation period as 100 to 108 days. Stracey (1968) records the gestation pe- riod as 15 to 16 weeks. Schaller (1967) re- ports the gestation period of tiger as 95 to 107 days. Ewer (1973) shows the gestation period of Indian tiger as 95 to 109 days. It Percentage of pregnancies: The tigress does not become pregnant after matings in each heat period. In Calcutta Zoo, 7 tigresses mated with the males in 48 heat periods from 1965 to 1977. Out of 48 mating or heat periods pregnancy occurred in 22 cases and did not occur in 26 cases. The percentage of pregnancy is therefore 45.8% only and non- pregnancy is 54.2%. (Table 5). Jt was ob- served that the number of heat periods and percentage of pregnancy were less when both sexes lived together except at night. TABLE 5 RECORDS OF THE PERCENTAGE OF PREGNANCY AND NON-PREGNANCY OF _ TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris, 1N CALCUTTA Zoo Mating between Number Number (specimens) of of mating pregnancy or heat period. Malini x Neeladri 16 Tl Chandni x Himadri 12 6 Chandni x Bhanu 2; 1 Shashi x Rabi 5 Bharati x, Johny* Q) 7 3 Moti x Bhanu 1 Rupa x Arun* I = Rupa x Barun* 2, Sona x Bhanu* 4 Percentage uber Percentage oO non- pregnancy 43.7 9 56.3 50 6 50 50 | 50 71.4 2, 28.6 66.6 1 33.4 100 = me frie: 1 100 = 2, 100 = 4 * Indicates the pair of tigers which lived together except at night. is difficult to compare the above data, as in most cases the date of conception is defined differently. Crandall (1964) shows the gesta- tion period of a tigress from the last observ- ed mating as 100 to 108 days. The duration of gestation period in the pre- sent observation has been estimated as the period from last day of mating to birth and the mean period was 103 days and the maxi- mum and minimum were 107 and 101 days respectively. Litter size: Asdell (1946) records that the size of the litters varies from one to six but usually two to three cubs are produced. Schaller (1967) shows that the size of the litters varies from 1 to 7. Ewer (1973) reports that range of lit- ter size is from 1 to 4 but 2 to 3 cubs are usually produced. Schaller (1967) shows the average size of 79 litters of tiger cubs born in Zoos as 2.8. Data of 22 litters of tiger cubs at Calcutta 257 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Zoo indicate that one cub per litter was on three occasions, two on nine occasions, four on eight occasions, three on one occasion and five cubs were born on one occasion. Average number of cubs per litter was 2.6 and the range of cubs per litter was 1 to 5 (Table 6 and Genealogical chart of white tigers). TABLE 6 LITTER SIZE AND SEX RATIO OF TIGER, Panthera tigris tigris, IN CALCUTTA Zoo Vol. 77 Sex ratio: Thirty two tiger cubs were born in eleven litters to one tigress from 1948 to 1959 at New York Zoological Park, the divisions of sexes being nineteen males and thirteen females (Crandall 1964). According to Schaller (1967) the sex ratio of 196 tiger cubs at birth in va- rious Zoological Gardens was 100 males and 100 females. Acharjyo and Mohapatra (1977) reported that 18 tiger cubs were born from 1960 to 1975 in Nandan Kanan _ Biological Park, Orissa of which 6 were males and 12 were females with a sex ratio of 50 : 100. Specimens Litter Size Sex Ratio In Calcutta Zoo five tigresses gave birth to Total Number of Average Male Female 61 cubs from 1965 to 1977 in 22 litters, the anata he um uated divisions of sexes being 25 males and 36 fe- litters in litter males. The ratio of male and female cubs was (4 Malini 7 4 2.0 8 6 100: 144 (Table Rs Ghaniai 7 14 3.2 8 15 Ratio of white and coloured cubs: Shashi 5 2-5 3.8 7 12 In Calcutta Zoo 56 cubs were born out of Bharati 2 1—2 {5 1 2 crossing between pure white tigers with co- Moti I 2 2 I | loured hybrids, among pure whites, among co- 79 55 6 loured hybrids and between pure white and pure coloured tigers. Fourteen cubs were born CHE ANE Se HITE FEMALE O re MALINI © Ls HIMADRI @ COLOURED MALE Zphet 20.15 12.665 $.9.70 @ COLOUREE FEMALE Tate 0 RA , RUPA ees CRANBNE = | qGauese TIGER 2 9.67 oe (COLOURED) 8.5.7 as (PUT To SLEEP) NABARUN ape 27-B.73 PURBASA SHAKTI Himaprs Tunror ~ Lae 20.U.73 34.27; — wee 13.274 =e ee BE BIKASH ~~ 19.6.7 “ago Ctiaie ¢ ¢ ) TARA B8IRAT HEERA cNi _— PARITAT. un CHAMELI_SEFALI PANNA ey J (SENT TO GAUHATIZ00) Y Chart. Genealogy of white tiger Panthera @ j sub (sent fo Giuwary “ARSRAN MALA a0) Calcutta ZOO. tigris tigris, at REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE TIGER to Malini (coloured hybrid female) being cros- sed with Neeladri (pure white male). The ratio of white and coloured cubs was 7 : 7. Twenty cubs were born to Chandni (pure white female) being crossed with Himadri (pure white male). All cubs were white. But Chandni when crossed with Bhanu (pure co- loured Burmese male tiger) produced 3 co- loured cubs. Nineteen cubs were born to Sha- shi (coloured hybrid female) being crossed with Rabi (coloured hybrid male). The ratio of white and coloured cubs was 1 : 18 (Ge- nealogical chart of white tiger). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Tigers mate throughout the year and cubs are produced during all seasons in captivity although there are peak periods of matings and births. High percentage of mating took place in the month of January, February, - March, April, June and October and mating percentage is low in other months of the year. High percentage of birth occurred in March, April, May, June. July and September. These correspond to the high breeding activities in the month of January, February, March, April, June and October. In the month of February, August and December not a single cub was born. These correspond with low breeding acti- vities in the month of November, September and May. The variations in the peak period of birth and mating may be due to climatic condition and other conditions in captivity. All Felidae appear to be polyoestrus in tropics (Asdell 1946, Crandall 1964, Prater 1964). Crandall (1964) shows that the recep- tivity of tigress Jasts about 5 days on aver- age. Sankhala (1967) states that the mating period of the tiger ranges from 3 to 23 days. Schaller (1967) reports the average length of receptivity of 14 oestrus periods as 7.1 days. At Calcutta Zoo the duration of 48 oestrus periods of 7 tigresses ranged from 3 to 9 days and the average length of oestrus was 5.9 days. The variations in oestrus periods may be due to age, physical condition and frequency of copulation. Last oestrus phase was observed in a tigress (Malini) upto the age of 16 yrs. This suggests that menopause starts in a tigress after 16 years. It needs fur- ther verification. There is much individual variations in the age at which the tigresses become sexually mature. It appears that tigresses attain sexual maturity at ages between 34 to 5 years. But no clear conclusion can be drawn from these small examples. The compatible pair of tigers mate freely in captivity but there is a chance of serious injury in first meeting. It can be seen from the Table 4 that the range of mating period is greater in case of tigresses which live to- gether with the males in captivity. It may be due to the fact that the females are with the males at the vary beginning of oestrus or heat period. The average heat period of tigress in captivity is 5.9 days and the average matings per day is 22.2 times. The range of gestation period of four ti- gresses in 22 litters was from 101 to 107 days with an average of 103 days. These data com- pare well with the gestation period given by other authors (Asdell 1946, Crandall 1964 and Ewer 1973). The tigress does not become pregnant after matings in each heat period in captivity. The data of pregnancy show that out of matings in 48 heat periods, pregnancy occurred in 22 cases and did not occur in 26 cases. The per- centage of pregnancy was 45.8% and non- pregnancy was 54.2%. It is not known whe- ther the age, physical condition, range of mat- 259 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ing period and number of matings in each heat period of a tigress have any role in preg- nancy. Crandall (1964) reported that the average number at birth of tiger cubs at London Zoo in 17 litters was 2.3 per litter. In Calcutta Zoo, the range of tiger cubs per litter was from | to 5 with an average of 2.6 cubs per litter. Usually 2 or 4 cubs were born in Cal- cutta Zoo. It seems probable that condition of health, availability of food, and stress and strain in Zoo condition have some role in litter size of a tigress. The sex ratio of tiger cubs at birth varies widely. The ratio of male and female cubs born in Calcutta Zoo from 1965 to 1977 was 100: 144, Genealogical chart of white tigers shows that the ratio of white and coloured cubs pro- duced in a crossing between pure white male with coloured hybrid female is 7 : 7. The pure SSS Wolke HH white female when crossed with pure white male produces all white cubs and pure white female when crossed with pure coloured male produces all coloured cubs. All these data are in conformity with the laws of inheritance. The data of crossing between coloured hybrid female with coloured hybrid male are yet to be observed. The tigers’ adaptibility, wide range in choice of habitat and above all its remarkably short gestation period suggest that under favour- able condition it can survive well. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Dr. D. K. Nanda, Depart- ment of Zoology, University of Calcutta for kindly going through the manuscript and sug- gesting some improvements. I am also grate- ful to Shri R. P. Banerjee, a lover of wild life for kindly making available some important reference books and his encouragement. REFERENCES ASDELL, S. A. (1946): Reproduction. Ithaca, New lishing Co. Ine. ACHARJYO, L. N. & MoHAPpaTRA, S. (1977): Sex ratio at birth in some captive wild mammals. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 167-169. CRANDALL,, L. S. (1964): Management of Wild animals in Captivity. London & Chicago, The Uni- versity of Chicago Press, The University of Toronto Press, Toronto-5, Canada. Ewer, R. F. (1973): The Carnivores. feld & Nicolson, London W1. Mountrort, G. (1973): Tigers. David & Charles (Holdings) Ltd., South Devon House. Newton Abbot. Devon. Patterns of Mammalian York. Comstock Pub- Weiden- 260 Prater, S. H. (1964): The Book of Indian Ant- mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. SANYAL, R. B. (1892): A Hand Book of the Management of Animals in Captivity in Lower Bengal. Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta. SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago & London. The University of Toronto Press, Toronto-5, Ca- nada. SANKHALA, K. S. (1967): Breeding behaviour of Tiger in Rajasthan. Int. Zoo Yb. 7: 133-147. Srracey, P. D. (1968): Tigers. Arthur Barker Limited, 5, Winsley Street, London W1 & Golden Press, New York. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATUS OF SILVER CARP IN RELATION TO CATLA IN THE CULTURE FISHERY OF KULGARHI RESERVOIR’ S. J. KARAMCHANDANE’ AND D. N. MISHRA” (With two text-figures) INTRODUCTION The Chinese carp, AHypophthaimichthys molitrix (C.&V.), popularly known as silver carp, is an exotic fish introduced into India from Japan in September 1959. it is native to Chinese rivers, but has been introduced into almost all the South-east Asian countries. The work carried out at the Pond Culture Divi- sion of Central Inland Fisheries Research tn- stitute, Cuttack has shown that silver carp is a fast growing fish, growing faster than catla and that its growth in Indian waiers is faster than in its native waters. The observations further indicated that though the production of silver carp alone in a pond is over double that of catla, the presence of both in a pond seems to affect the growth of either adversely (Alikunhi and Sukumaran 1964). With this background, a small consignment of silver carp fingerlings was stocked in Kulgarhi re- servoir on experimental basis on 11-2-1969. Based on the recovery of 8 specimens of silver carp (size range: 575-794 mm) from Kulgarhi reservoir during ithe period 2.12.69 to 4.6.71, Rao and Dwivedi (1972) have reported ex- cellent growth of this exotic fish, thus indicat- 1 Accepted February 1979. 2 Small Reservoirs Unit, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Rewa (M.P.). Present address: Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-station, Alla- habad, (U.P.). ing a great promise for the increased fisn pro- duction from the reservoir. However, in a separate study, the comparison of growth rates of silver carp and catla from Kulgarhi reser- voir has indicated that the culture of silver carp with catla in the reservoir adversely affects the growth of the latter. It is well known that the food habits of a fish have a direct bearing on its growth and survival. With a view to evaluate the status of silver carp in culture fishery of the reservoir with particular reference to catla, the observations were made on the food habits and the growth of silver carp and catla from Kulgarhi reservoir during the period 2.12.1969 to 22.12.1972 and the re- sults thereof are reported in this communica- tion. Kulgarhi Reservoir: It is situated about 85 km from Rewa in Nagod Tahsil, Satna District, Madhya Pradesh near Kulgarhi village, its geographical loca- tion being 80° 44’ 0”E longitude and 24° 28° 50”N latitude. The work on the construction of the reser- voir was started in the year 1959 and com- pleted in the year 1966. On the north of it, an earthen dam having a length of 1450 m and maximum height of 18.6 m has been con- structed across a seasonal stream called Durha * Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-centre, Jaunpur (U.P.). 261 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 nalah (Ganga river basin), which originates from hills surrounding the reservoir on east, south and west sides and drains rain water from the catchment area of 10.69 sq. miles into the reservoir from south-west corner. The waste weir is located on the north-east side of the reservoir. The maximum water spread area is 193.5 hectres which was attained for the first time during 1971 monsoon season. The live storage capacity of the reservoir is 306 me ft., whereas its dead storage capacity is only 26 mc ft. MATERIAL AND METHOD The construction work of Kulgarhi reser- voir was completed in the year 1966. The fingerlings of major carps including catla were stocked for the first time in Kulgarhi re- -servoir in the year 1966 and again in the year 1968. The fry of silver carp (size range: 15- 17 mm), which were obtained from Cuttack Sub-station of this Institute in September 1968, were reared in a nursery pond at Satna (M.P.) till the beginning of February 1969 and 229 fingerlings (size range: 121-216 mm) recover- ed from this nursery pond were stocked in the reservoir on 11.2.1969. For comparing the growth patterns of catla and silver carp, 137 specimens of the former belonging to 1966 brood and captured from the reservoir from February 1968 to June 1972 and 12 specimens of the latter belonging to 1968 brood and captured from December 1969 to December 1972 have been utilized. The age of the individual specimen of caila and silver carp in terms of months has been determined on the basis of date of their re- covery from the reservoir, assuming period of their hatching as August 1966 and August 1968 respectively. For food studies, the guts of 11 specimens 262 of silver carp and I1 specimens of catla ob- tained in the months of December 1969, Sep- tember 1970, February 1971, June 1971, July 1971, March 1972 and June 1972 were exa- mined and their gut-contents compared. OBSERVATIONS Food and feeding habits: The observations on the gut-contents of silver carp and catla by Alikunhi and Sukuma- ran (1964) have shown that both are plankton feeders and the differences in feeding habits are only structurally indicated. Singh (1972) has stated that silver carp competes for food with catla, both being surface feeders. Accord- ing to Chakraborty (1972), silver carp and catla are both dwellers of the same strata of water in ponds and there is some overlapping in the food spectrum of these two species. Laxshmanan ef al. (1971) have observed keen competition for the same type of food be- tween catla and silver carp. Like catla, silver carp has a terminal mouth indicating surface feeding habits. The presence of insignificant quantities of decayed organic matter and sand mixed with mud in the guts of the two species in most of the months* in Kulgarhi reservoir has also indicated that the two species rarely feed at bottom. The gut length in young silver carp (size range; 52-367 mm) is 3.0 to 7.8 times the total length of the fish (Inaba and Nomura 1956). In the present study, the ratio of fish length to gut-length in adult silver carp (size range: 575-795 mm) has been found to vary from 1:4.36 to 1:8.6 (Av.-1:6.25) and is al- 4 Only in the month of June when the water level in the reservoir was low, the guts of the two species were found to contain sufficient quantities of sand mixed with mud and the bottom debris. SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY most comparable to that of catla (Range— Hoto 129:58;- Av.-1: 7:39). This seems to indicate that the food and feeding habits of the two species are almost the same, as the length of the gut depends on the nature of the food taken by the fish (Mookerjee and Das 1945). The foregoing observations seem to give clue to the fact that when silver carp and catla are cultured together, they mutually compete for the same type of food. With a view to elucidate this point, the guts of the two species obtained during the corresponding months were examined for their contents. The overall composition of the gut-contents of silver carp and catla, as determined in the present study, has been compared and given in Table 1. TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF GUT-CONTENTS OF SILVER CARP AND CATLA FROM KULGARHI RESERVOIR Items of gut-contents Silver carp Catla Sand mixed with mud 13.29% 5.75% Decayed organic matter 7.14 TAD Digested matter 40.29 67.95 Blue-green algae 4.32 12.96 Green algae 9.09 0.43 Diatoms 3.76 1.79 Dinoflagellates 1.07 0.06 Rotifers 20.81 2.31 Copepods 0.23 1.30 Cladocerans — 0.26 According to Inaba and Nomura (1956), silver carp has specialised structure of the gill rakers adapted to micro-plankton feeding and is predominantly phytoplankton feeder. Alli- kunhi and Sukumaran (1964) have observed that silver carp feeds predominantly on phy- toplankton and it is an efficient converter of basic food, whereas catla is predominantly zooplankton feeder. In the present case (vide Table 1), silver carp and catla have been found to subsist on almost equal quantities of phytoplankton (18.24% and 15.24% respectively). Among phytoplankton, the green algae was the most dominant (9.09%) in the diet of silver carp, followed by blue-green algae (4.32%), diatoms (3.76%) and dinoflagellates (1.07%), where- as catla was found to feed predominantly on blue-green algae (12.96%) and insignificantly on diatoms (1.79%), green algae (0.43%) and dinoflagellates (0.06%). Melosira, Eunotia, Cyclotella and Navicula among diatoms; Chlo- rella, Gloeocystis, Scenedesmus, Coelastrum and Tetraedron among green-algae; Microcystis and Merismopedia among blue-green algae: Peridinium and Ceratium among dinoflagella- tes were the most dominant in the diet of sil- ver carp. Melosira and Cyclotella among dia- toms: Gloeocysiis and Scenedesmus among green algae: Microcystis among blue-green algae; and Peridinium and Ceratium among dinoflagellates were likewise the most domi- nant in the diet of catla. In the guts of silver carp, the zooplankton (21.04%) was made up almost entirely of rotifers (20.81%), the only other component insignificantly represented being copepods (0.23%). Catla is known to be mainly zooplankton feeder. As the foregut in catla has a rudimentary stomach in the form of slightly dilated bulb, most of the crustaceans (copepods and _ cladocerans) get digested. As such the bulk of this group is encountered in digested condition (67.95%) and very little of it is in identifiable condition (copepods: 1.3% and cladocerans: 0.26%). In the diet of silver carp, Keratella among roti- fers and Cyclops among copepods were the most common forms, whereas in the diet of catla, Keratella among rotifers; Cyclops, Nau- plius and Diaptomus among copepods; and Bosmina and Daphnia among cladocerans were 263 the most common forms. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 the gastrosomatic index being 20.05. In com- The observations on the feeding intensity of parison to silver carp, catla appears to be a silver carp and catla have indicated that the moderate feeder (9.1% of the guts full and former is more voracious feeder than the lat- the gastrosomatic index—7.4). As catla feeds ter. 50% of the guts of silver carp were full, on crustaceans (nutritiously rich food), it LENGTH (MM) nO AGE iG Hee ELK.) WeE 264 900 800 700 600 Figs 1; 20 30 40 50 60 70 Ally Ge (MONTHS) Growth pattern, by length and weight, of catla (1966 brood). (MM), TOTAL LENGTH WEIGHT (KG) w Oo Oo @ o) oO SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY 30 40 50 20 60 A G E (MONTHS) Fig. 2. Growth pattern, by length and weight. of silver carp (1968 brood). 265 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 77 requires comparatively little quantity of food for its normal fast growth. On the other hand, silver carp feeds abundantly on rotifers and sparingly on copepods. The two species sub- sist on almost equal quantities of phytoplank- ton. The food of silver carp is therefore not so nutritiously rich as that of catla. Hence, it is imperative that in order to attain fast growth, silver carp consume food at faster rates than catla. Growth: As already stated, the fingerlings of catla were stocked in the reservoir for the first time in the year 1966 and again in the year 1968. From the fact that the reservoir was not stock- ed with catla in the year 1967, it has been pos- sible to separate catla specimens belonging terms of months of 12 silver carp captured from the reservoir has also been determined from the date of their recovery (vide Appen- dix I). Based on the data on growth by length and weight of catla and silver carp, the growth curves for the two species have been drawn in figs. 1 and 2, and the growth in terms of months, as has been read off from the curves, is presented in Table 2. From the analysis of growth data on silver carp and catla, the following facts emerged: (i) The growth of silver carp was fast in the early period, i.e. upto 25 months (fig. 2), when the plankton was abundant and silver carp could feed voraciously on rotifers. But the growth of silver carp showed decline in the later period, i.e. in following 25 to 50 months, a TABLE 2 GROWTH OFSSILVER CARP AND CATLA IN KULGARHI RESERVOIR Date Age Total length Growth Weight Growth rate (in months) (mm) rate (mm) (kg) (kg) SILVER CARP March 770 20 650 — 3.00 — January 71 30 760 110 S25) DDS) November 771 40 800 40 6.00 0.75 September °72 50 830 30 6.50 0.50 : CATLA March ’68 20 610 _ 4.50 = *January *69 30 760 150 8.25 3.75 November °69 40 825 65 9.75 1.50 September ’70 50 850 2S 10.00 0.25 July ’71 60 855 5 10.25 0.25 May 772 70 855 0 10.25 0.00 * Silver carp was introduced in the reservoir in February 1969. to 1966 and 1968 broods captured from Feb- ruary 1968 to June 1972 and assign age to the individual fish in terms of months on the basis of date of their capture. As the finger- lings of silver carp were stocked in the reser- voir only once in February 1969, the age in 266 when rotifers were poorly represented in plankton (vide Table 3). . (ii) Catla belonging to 1966 brood showed normal growth up to the time silver carp was absent in the reservoir, but with the introduc- tion of silver carp in February 1969, catla SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY showed retarded growth thereafter (fig. 1). Catla belonging to 1968 brood showed extremely poor growth from the very begin- ning. From the above observations, it is evident that the culture of silver carp in Kulgarhi re- servoir has adversely affected the growth of catla. REMARKS It is evident from the data presented that the growth of catla has greatly suffered since the time silver carp was introduced in Kul- garhi_ reservoir. Alikunhi and Sukumaran (1964) and Sukumaran ef al. (1969) have stated that catla adversely suffers in competi- tion for food in presence of silver carp. Ac- cording to Singh (1972), silver carp competes for food with catla, both being surface feeders and the former grows much faster than the latter. Laxshmanan et al. (1971) have observ- ed that the Indian carps and the Chinese carps compete to some extent for the same type of food and this competition is more pro- nounced between catla and silver carp. Cha- kraborty (1972) has also observed that catla and silver carp are both dwellers of the same strata of water in ponds and though the for- mer feeds prodominantly on zooplankton and the latter predominantly on phytoplankton. there appears to be some overlapping in the food spectrum of these two species. The obser- vations on the feeding habits of silver carp in Kulgarhi reservoir have, however, indicated that it is a more voracious feeder than catla and it feeds predominantly on rotifers. These ob- servations are amply confirmed when the data on the yearly fluctuations in plankton popu- lation of Kulgarhi reservoir from 1968-69 to 1971-72, presented in Table 3, is critically examined. As is seen from this table, the popu- lation of rotifers and in turn that of zooplank- ton has suffered sharp decline immediately after the introduction of silver carp in the re- servoir and the lower level of rotifers and con- TABLE 3 YEARLY FLUCTUATIONS IN PLANKTON COUNT (UNITS PER LITRE) IN THE SURFACE COLLECTION SAMPLES OF KULGARHI RESERVOIR FROM 1968-69 To 1971-72. Plankton 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 Diatoms 53.0 106.2 32.6 6.0 Green algae 15 8.1 18.8 11.5 Blue-green algae 14.8 17.7 31.1 19.3 Dinoflagellates 123.3 184.2 150.9 5.0 PHYTOPLANKTON 192.6 316.2 233.4 41.8 Protozoans 13.7 15.9 36.6 0.9 Rotifers 155.6 45.4 63.6 71 Copepods 34.7 28.0 15.0 8.6 Cladocerans 6.7 1.9 6.6 2.6 ZOOPLANKTON 210.7 91.2 121.8 19.2 TOTAL PLANKTON 403.3 407.4 355.2 61.0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, sequently that of zooplankton concentrations has continued to prevail during subsequent years (1969-70 to 1971-72). This phenomenon cannot be considered merely a coincidence, as rotifers in large quantities have been encoun- tered in the guts of silver carp. Moreover, the depletion in rotifer population in Kulgarhi re- servoir, which has been recently constructed, cannot be attributed to trophic depression (re- ferred to by Jhingran 1965), as in that case the entire plankton population would have suffered depietion, which does not happen to be the case here. The total plankton, on the contrary continued to maintain almost the same level (355.2 to 407.4 u/l) during the first three years (1968-69 to 1970-71). Since catla does not feed exclusively or even abundantly on rotifers, silver carp by feeding on rotifers does not seem-to compete directly with catla in food. The overwhelming prefer- ence for rotifers (mostly Keratella) by silver carp has probably created imbalance in plank- ton production cycle, greatly affecting the pro- duction of zooplankton, which constitutes the main food of catla. Thus, it is probable that catla indirectly suffers in the presence of silver carp. Furthermore, silver carp is known to grow faster than catla (Alikunhi and Suku- maran 1964, and Singh 1972). It is therefore imperative that in order to maintain faster growth, silver carp devours plankton at faster rate. Singh (1972) also stated that silver carp has the capacity to utilize the natural food (phyto-and zoo-plankton) efficiently. As such, it is not difficult to visualize that in any body of water populated with silver carp, if the rate of plankton production does not keep pace with that of plankton consumption by silver carp, such waters would soon result in poor productivity and affect the normal growth of major carps, particularly catla, cultured along with it. It may therefore be surmised that it 268 Vol. 77 would not be a profitable proposition to cul- ture silver carp along with catla in the reser- voir. In. view of these considerations, it is deemed proper to undertake further detailed biological studies on silver carp before its in- troduction in Indian reservoirs for large scale cultivation. In this context, Aijikunhi and Sukumaran (1964) have expressed the view that ‘further detailed observations are neces- sary before decision is taken about large-scale introduction of silver carp for cultivation in ponds in India’. Singh (1972) has also ex- pressed the opinion that ‘the question of re- lease of silver carp in open waters where it could exercise some adverse effect on major carps fishery, particularly of catla, may await further investigations’, as ‘hasty transplanta- tions for hobby or trade are likely to prove hazardous’. Silver carp is reported to have more or less similar breeding habits as those of Indian major carps (Chaudhuri 1969) and it has been found to breed naturally in Tone river of Japan (Konradt 1968) and in Ah Kung Tian reservoir of Taiwan (Tang 1963). Instances of breeding of major carps in Indian reservoirs under suitable conditions are not rare. If silver carp is stocked in Indian reservoirs on large scale and it starts breeding in them naturally, it may prove to be a menace to the culture fishery of these waters. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director and Dr. Y. R. Tripathi former De- puty Director, of this Institute for their keen interest in this work and to Dr. A. V. Nata- rajan, Scientist S-3 and to Shri J. C. Malho- tra, Scientist S-3 for going through the manus- cript critically. Thanks are due to Shri G. K. SILVER CARP AND CATLA IN CULTURE FISHERY Bhatnagar, Scientist S-2 and Shri P. N. Jait- ley, Senior Research Assistant, for placing the plankton data of Kulgarhi reservoir at our disposal. REFERENCES ALIKUNHI, K. H. AND SUKUMARAN, K. K. (1964): Preliminary observations on Chinese carps in India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B) 60 (3): 171- 188. CHAKRABORTY, R. D. (1972): Composite culture of Indian and exotic fishes. Silver Jubilee Souvenir, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrack- pore, December 1972. 25: 29. CHAUDHURI, H. (1969): Breeding habits of cul- tivated fishes. FAO/UNDP Regional Seminar on induced breeding of cultivated fishes, Calcutta, Cut- tack, Bombay: 1-13. *INABA, D. AND Nomurd, M. (1956): On _ the digestive system and feeding habits of young Chi- nese carps collected from Tone river. J. Tokyo Univ. Fish, 42 (1): 17-24. JHINGRAN, V. G. (1965): Report on Inland Fisheries Research and management and fish cul- ture in the USSR., Misc. Contri. No. 5, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore 1-27. *Konrapt, A. G. (1968): Methods of breeding the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella and silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix. FAO Fish Rep., (44), 4: 195-204. LAXSHMANAN, M. A. V., SUKUMARAN, K. K., Murty, D. S., CHAKRABORTY, D. P. AND PHILIPOSE, M. T. (1971): Preliminary observations on inten- sive fish farming in fresh-water ponds by the com- posite culture of Indian and exotic species., J. Inland Fish. Soc., India, 3: 1-21. MOoKERJEE, H. K. AND Das, B. K. (1945): Gut of carnivorous and herbivorous fishes in relation to their food at different stages of their life. Proc. 32nd Indian Science Congress, Part If, Abstracts.: 109. Rao, J. B. AND Dwivepl, R. K. (1972): On the recovery and growth of silver carp (Hypophthal- michthys molitrix) from Kulgarhi reservoir (M.P.). J. Inland. Fish. Soc. India., 4: 214-215. SINGH, S. B. (1972): Role of exotic fish on pis- ciculture in India. Silver Jubilee, Souvenir, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute. Barrackpore, 30-33. SUKUMARAN, K. K., SINGH, S. B., Murry, D. S. AND CHAKRABORTY, P. C. (1969): Studies on com- patibility and competition between Silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Val.) and Catla, Catla catla (Ham.). Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish Coun., 13 (2): 185-194. *TANG, Y. A. (1963): Report on the investigation of spawning of Chinese carps in Ah Kung Tian reservoir. Bull. Taiwan Fish. Res. Inst., (8): 30 p. * Not referred in original. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 APPENDIX I DETAILS OF RECOVERY OF SILVER CARP FROM KULGARHI RESERVOIR DURING THE PERIOD 3.12.1969 To 22.12.72. OEE ST RG SE ED SI. No. Date of *Age (in months) Total length Weight Sex recovery (mm) (kg) 1 3.12.69 16 575 2.00 M 2 5.9.70 25 155 5.00 F s) 5.2.71 30 728 5.00 M 4 15.2.71 30 727 4.50 M 5 15-271 30 795 5.00 M 6 15:2:71 30 744 5.00 M Ui 17.2.7] 30 ag, 5.00 M 8 4.4.71 34 768 5.00 M 9 23.7.71 36 800 6.00 F 10 2873.12 44 835 7.00 F 11 28.6.72 47 790 S575) M 12 D222 53 850 6.50 M * Counted from August 1968. 270 NOTES ON THE FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES IN THE BOTANY OF ORISSA’ N. C. Nair? AND R. K. GHosH® Psilotum nudum (Linn.) Griseb., Helminthostachys zeylanica (Linn.) Maxon, Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link, Pteris biaurita Linn., Pteris quadriaurita (sensu lato), Doryopteris concolor (Langsd. et Fisch.) Kuhn, Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze, Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon, Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd., Asplenium unilaterale Lamk. var. majus (C. Chr.) Sledge, Asplenium varians Hook. ex Grev., Colysis hemionitidea (Wall.) Presl, Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching and Pyrrosia naya- riana Ching et Chandra are reported from Orissa with notes of interest. INTRODUCTION In an earlier paper (Nair and Ghosh 1975) notes on eleven new distributional records to the Botany of Orissa have been given. Further critical study of our collections as weil as those of earlier collectors from Orissa particu- larly from Koraput and Kalahandi Districts have enabled us to discover more interesting taxa of ferns and fern-allies several of which are found to be additions to the flora of Orissa. Notes on these taxa are presented here along with certain noteworthy features of other ferns collected from the area. With the present account the total number of ferns recorded so far from Orissa goes up to 116 (cf. Haines 1924, Mooney 1950, Panigrahi et al. 1964, Nair and Ghosh 1975, 1978). The specimens mentioned are deposited in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India, Howrah (CAL). The arrangement of homosporous ferns are after Nayar (1974). 1 Accepted December 1978. We are thankful to Sreemathy C. K. Vijayam for typing the manuscript. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore-641 003. 3 Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic Gar- den, Sibpore, Howrah. I. PsSILOTACEAE Psilotum nudum (Linn.) Griseb. in Abh. Ges. Wiss. Gotting. 7: 278, 1857; Clarke in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 2, Bot. 1: 589, 1880; Engl. Pflanzenw. Afr. 2: 76. fig. 75, 1908. Lycopodium nudum Linn. Sp. Pi. 2: 1100, 1753. Psilotum triquetrum Sw. Syn. Fil. 187, 1806; Baker, Fern Allies 30, 1887; Adams et Alston in Bull. Brit. Mus. 1: 185, 1955. This is predominantly a tropical and sub- tropical taxon and is common along the coastland of India particularly among the ad- ventitious roots of coconut trees. Sometimes it grows on mossy moist rocks in shade. The present specimens were collected from steep mossy rocks along the banks of Karandy river. The species has an altitudinal range from sea level up to 1250 m. Material examined. Dodari, Koraput Dist., 1200 m, N. C. Nair 53258 (6-2-1976), 53297 (9-2-1976). II. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE Helminthostachys zeylanica (Linn.) Hook. Gen. t. 47, 1840; Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 467, 1883; C. Chr. Ind. Fil. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 344, 1906; Haines, Bot. Bihar, Orissa, 3: 1268, 1924. Osmunda zeylanica Linn. Sp. Pl. 1063, Ws3 Haines (1924) states that he could not find any specimen from Bihar or Orissa. But, he did see specimens from Bengal. This appears to be a rare taxon in Orissa. Although we made extensive exploration in Koraput and Kalahandi districts we could not come across this species. The present record is based on the collections of Shri D. C. S. Raju. We are thankful to him for placing his collection at our disposal. Material examined: Dharmagod Reserve forest near Govindapally (Koraput Dist.), D. C. S. Raju 1242 (19-11-1963), 2403 (10-8-65). On southern slopes in sal forest. {II. PTERIDACEAE 1. Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link, Fil. Sp. Hort. Reg. Bot. Berol. Cult. 80, 1841; Bedd. Ferns. South India t. 124, 1865; Pichisermolli in Webbia, 17: 318, 1963. Asplenium radiatum Sw. in Schrad. Journ. Bot. 1800: 50, 1801. Actiniopteris dichotoma_ Forsk. FI. Aeg.-Arb. 184, 1775 (non Linn. 1753)); Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 197, t. 98. 1883. Actiniopteris australis auct. (non Link, 1841). Mooney (1950) states that “‘it seems very doubtful if this fern occurs within the boun- daries of our province’. We have seen several collections from the area. This appears to be a rare species in Orissa. Material examined: Sunki, D. C. S. Raju 2090 (24-7-1965), D. C. S. Raju 9655; Kora- put Dist. D. C. S. Raju s.n. 2. Pteris biaurita Linn. Sp. Pl. 1076, 1753; Haines, Bot. Bihar, Orissa 1203, 1924. Mooney, Suppl. Bot. Bihar, Orissa 222, Ne) ~ NS) 1950. Campteria biaurita (Linn.) Hook. Gen. Fil. t. 65A, 1841; Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 116, 1883. This pantropic species has been collected from several localities in Orissa. It has a lik- ing for lightly shady moist places particularly near streams and springs. This has 5 to 9 pairs of opposite pinnae with an apical pinna hav- ing the same shape like all the others. The lowest pair of pinnae are the longest of the lot and are again branched near the base. This being the usual condition we have come across a large plant of (over 2 m) the taxon near a stream on Devi hill, Jeypore (Koraput Dist.), in which each of the lowest pair of pinnae had four secondary pinnae each, on the basiscopic side. Each of the branches had 20-26 falcate and widely spaced segments. Material examined. Devi Hill, Jeypore (Koraput Dist.), N. C. Nair 51312 (25-10-73). 3. Pteris quadriaurita Retz. in Obs. Bot. 6: SSF 17S ee It has been shown earlier (Nair and S. R. Ghosh, 1975) that Pteris quadriaurita Retz. is strictly a Ceylonese and South Indian species and that the reports of the taxon from other parts of the subcontinent of India need con- firmation. Typical Pteris quadriaurita Retz. has segments with rounded and serrated apex, sinus reaching nearly to the costa and the lower branch of the lowest vein reaching above sinus (Hieronymus 1914). In the pre- sent study we have come across a plant with venation similar to that of P. quadriaurita Retz., but the apex of the segments was not serrated. The costa and costules of this plant were sparsely white hairy on the lower surface. There are very few hairs on the upper sur- face of the segments as well as on the costa. On the lower surface of some of the pinnules there were adventitious buds on the costa deve- loping into plantlets. Generally leaves sprouting FERNS & FERN-ALLIES IN from bulbils have the same form as leaves of the parent plant. But here, fronds arising froin the adventitious buds are very different from the ordinary parent frond. Similar heteromor- phy in leaves of the genus has been earlier re- ported by Masters (1868). On an examination of specimens belonging to Pteris from the Central National Herbar- ium, Sibpur, we have come across a specimen collected from Manipur, Naga Hills, by S. K. Mukerjee 3477 and determined by G. Pani- grahi as Pteris biaurita Linn. showing adven- titious buds on the lower side of the frond. It is certainly not Preris biaurita since the lowest veins of segments are not arching. This specimen also has segments with non-serrated apex and the basal branch of the lowes: vein of the segment reaches above the sinus. Bui the specimens differ from our plant in having (1) purplish costa and costule and (2) glabr- ous costa and costule. While it is certain that the Orissa specimens do not belong to Pteris quadriaurita Retz. (sensu stricto) their taxonomic status will re- main open to question till further materials are at hand. Material examined. Devmali (Koraput Dist.), 1500 m, N. C. Nair 53289 (7-2-1976) under deep shade near stream. IV CHEILANTHACEAE 1. Doryopteris concolor (Langsd, et Fisch.) Kuhn, V. Decken Reis. 3, Bot. 19, 1789; C. Christens. Ind. Fil. 243. 1906; Nayar et Kaur Companion Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. India 28, 1974. Pieris concolor Langsd. et Fisch. Ic. Fil. 19, t. 21, 1816 Pteris geraniifolia Bedd. Ferns. South India t. 37, 1863. Pellaea geraniifolia Hook. et Bak. Syn. Fil. 146. 1865. Pel- laea concolor (Langsd. et Fisch.) Bedd. ORISSA Handb. Fern. Brit. India 100, 1883. In India this fern has been previously re- ported only from the Western Ghats of the former Presidency of Madras, at an altitude above 1000 m. In these places it is reported to be a common species. We have collected the species from areas adjoining Orissa, such as Anantagiri and San- kermata in Andhra Pradesh from altitudes be- tween 1000-1500 m, N. C. Nair 53518. From this it can be safely concluded that it is a spe- cies common to both Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats at higher elevations. Material examined. Dodari (Karandi river bank), Koraput Dist. 1110 m, N.C. Nair 53294 (Feb. 9, 1976) in crevices of rocks, common. V DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Microlepia platyphylla (D. Don) J. Sm., in Jour. Bot. 1: 427, 1842; Bedd. Ferns. South. india t. 13, 1863 et Handb. Ferns. India 66, t. 33, 1883; Nayar et Kaur in Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. 79: 12, 1963 ef Compan. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. India 19, 1974. Devallia platyphylla D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nepal. 10, 1825. This is a large elegant fern over 2 m tall. The lamina when young is hairy on costa and costule, and when mature, glabrous on both surfaces or sometimes hairy on the vein above in fertile lobes. This is a wideiy distributed taxon in India but has not so far been collect- ed from Orissa. Material examined. Devmali (Koraput Dist.), 1500 m, N. C. Nair 53280 (7-2-1976) under deep shade near stream; common in this area only. VI DRYOPTERIDACEAE |. Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze in Linnaea 17: 273 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 568, 1843; Bedd. Ferns. South India, 53, t. 160, 1863; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nato Hist.) 2237296, t.-305 £7103 11962- Asplenium thwaitesii A. Braun ex Mett. in Abhandl. Senekenb. Naturforsch. Ges. 3: 227, 1859; Hook. et Bak. Synops. Fil. 235, 1867. Diplazium thwaitesii (A. Braun ex Mett.) Klotzsch ex T. Moore, Index Fil. 339, 1862; Bedd. Fern. Brit. Ind. t. 291, 1868. Diplazium japonicum sensu. Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 180, 1883 (Pro parte) non Bedd. (1876) nec Asplenium japonicum Thunb. This is a common species in South India and Ceylon. The taxon appears to be very variable as to its robustness. Beddome (1883) united this species with Diplazium japonicum sensu lato. According to Sledge (1962) Diplazium japonicum sensu stricto and Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze are distinct. Beddome’s Diplazium japonicum also includes Diplazium polyrhizon (Baker) Sledge which is endemic to Ceylon. In the distribution of Diplazium japonicum (sensu Beddome), Beddome (1883) _ gives Jeypore hills. Although we made extensive search for the species in the mountainous re- gion in the neighbourhood of Jeypore we could not come across even a single specimen of Diplazium lasiopteris Kunze in the area. The present specimen was collected from Devmali (Dodari), the eastern most region of Koraput District, which is continuous with the mountain ranges of Visakhapatnam Dis- trict. In the Indian subcontinent this species is usually found above an altitude of 1000 im in deep forests. Material examined. Devmali — (Dodari, Koraput Dist.), 1500 m, WN. C. Nair 53274 (7-2-1976)—under deep shade in rocky place near spring. 2. Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon in 274 Vol. 77 Wash. Acad. Sci. Jour. 3: 114, 1913; Nair in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 11: 187, 1969; 7Vrichomanes chinensis Linn. Sp. Pl. 2: 1099, 1753. Adiantum chusanum (Linn.) Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. chinensis (Linn.) Mett. ex Kuhn Fil. Afr. 67, 1868. Stenoloma chinensis (Linn.) Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 70, t. 34, 1883 (excl. Syn. Davallia ‘enuifolia Alston ef Bonner in Can- dollea 15: 198, 1956). Odontosoria chi- nensis (Linn.) J. Sm. Bot. Voy. Herald 430, 1897; Haines Bot. Bihar Orissa 3: 1248, 1924; Mooney Suppl. Bot. Bihar, Orissa 219, 1950. Sphenomeis chusana (Linn.) Copel. in Bish. Mus. Publ. 59: 69, 1929; Holttum, Fl. Malaya 2: 341, 1954; Tagawa, Col. Ill. Jap. Pterid. 257, 1959. Haines (1924) and Mooney (1950) reported it only from the border areas of Madhya Pra- desh and Bihar and Bihar and Bengal (Singh- bhum). In Koraput and Kalahandi districts this is not a rare fern. Sometimes it reaches a length up to 80 cm. It is generally found on moist cuttings along hill-roads in shade. Material examined. Along Karandi river, Dodari (Koraput Dist.), 1550 m, N. C. Nair 53252 (Feb. 6, 1976) — along with Nephro- lepis. Very common in this area. VII. ASPLENIACEAE 1. Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd. in Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 4, 5: 322, 1810; Hieron in Hedwigia 61: 22, 1919; Sledge in Bull. Brit. | Mus: \(Nat. Hist.) 3'7 9 252:\41965; Asplenium trapeziforme sensu Bedd. Ferns. South India 45, t. 134, 1864 (non Roxb.). Asplenium lunulatum var. trape- ziforme Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 148, 1883 pro parte (non A. trapezi- forme Roxb.) FERNS & FERN-ALLIES IN ORISSA This is a typical tropical fern of South Ame- rica, Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, etc. In India this species has been previously reported only from Palnis, Nilgiris, Anamalays, and Bombay. The present discovery extends its dis- tribution further east. Our plants were between 30-40 cm tall and very membraneous. It loves deep shade and grows amidst boulders near streams. This fern has been confused in the past with Asplenium unilaterale. Christensen (1906) treated Asplenium inaequilaterale and Asple- nium unilaterale as conspecific. Beddome (1883) considered Asplenium trapeziforme Roxb., from Malaya, also as conspecific. But, Roxburgh’s species is very distinct from As- plenium inaequilaterale in the veins running to the extremities of the marginal teeth (cf. Sledge 1965) and in the shape of the pinnae. This species grows side by side with Asple- nium unilaterale Lamk. to which it has super- ficial similarity. Material examined. Saput, Padwa, (Kora- put Dist.) N. C. Nair 53215 (28-1-1976). 2. Asplenium unilaterale Lamk. var. majus (C. Chr.) Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) 3: 246, 1965. Asplenium uni- laterale forma majus. C. Chr. in Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 177: 67, 1943. According to Sledge (loc. cit.) this taxon is found in northern and southern India. But so far no one has collected it from Orissa. This appears to be a variable species as far as the size of the plant is concerned. It is a shade-loving fern often growing on wet mossy rocks by streams. Material examined. Devmali, Koraput Dist. (1500 m) N. C. Nair 53275, 53287 (7-2-1976) common; Rastaguda forest, Kasipore, Kora- put Dist. (900 m) N. C. Nair 51418 (8-11- 1973). 3. Asplenium varians Hook. & Grev. Ic. Fil. Da teal 25.1829: Hook. Sp. Fil. 3, 192; 1810; Bedd. Ferns South. india 44, t. 129, 1864; Handb. Ferns Brit. India 158. 1883; Hope in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 667, t. 20, 1901; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus :CNat. cist.) 3% 272, 1965. This is a small shade-loving fern with her- baceous and delicate fronds. It is very rare in Orissa and has been collected only from one locality. Material examined. Rastaguda forest, Ka- sipore (Koraput Dist.) 900 m, N. C. Nair 51427 (Nov. 8, 1973). VIIL PoLyPoDIACEAE 1. Colysis hemionitidea (Wall.) Presl, Epim. 147, 1849; Nayar et Kaur Companion Handb. Bedd. Ferns. Brit. India 87, 1974. Polypodium hemionitideum Wall (Cat. 284, 1828 nomen nudum) ex Mett. Farngatt. 1 : 215, 1857; Clarke in Trans. Linn. Soc. Ser::2. 1: 561, 1880. Pleopel- tis hemionitidea (Wall.) Bedd. Handb. Ferns. Brit. India 359, 1883. This fern has been previously reported froin the western mountains of southern India, Hi- malayas and Khasia hills. This has a single row of rounded or elongated (oblong) sori between adjacent main veins which separate the two rows of areoles. In Central National Herbarium (CAL) there are several sheets identified by C. B. Clarke and others as Co- lysis hemionitidea (Polypodium hemioniti- deum, Pelopeltis hemionitidea) which have two rows of sori between the main veins which separate the two rows of areoles. We have also seen several sheets of this kind from Sri Lanka. In general they have similarity with specimens of Microsorum zippelii (Bl.) Ching but to determine whether both are identical or not needs further intensive study. Holttum 21D JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, (1954) remarked that Colysis hemionitidea and Colysis acuminata (Bak.) Holttum “should perhaps be united’. Although both the species have general similarity we could not arrive at a definite decision with the limii- ed material at our hand. If both turn out to be conspecific in future, Colysis hemionitidea (Wall.) Pres! alone can be the correct name for the species. In India this generally grows above an alti- tude of 400 m in deep shade near streams and springs. In Orissa it appears to be a rare spe- cies having been collected only from two places. Material examined. Devmali, Near Dodart, Koraput Dist., 1500 m, N. C. Nair 53281 (Feb. 7, 1976); Dodari (on the bank of Karandi river), Koraput Dist., 1100 m, NM. C. Nair 53267, (Feb. (2/1976). 2. Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching in Bull. Chin. Bot. Soc. 1: 53, 1935; Nayar et Chandra. Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. No. 117: 67, 1965; Nayar et Kaur, Companion Bedd. Handb. Vol. 77 Ferns Brit. India 81, 1974; Bedd. Ferns. Brit. India 330, 1883 (pro parte). Nayar et Chandr. (Loc. cit.) gives the dis- tribution as Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills, hills of Assam, and Central and Eastern Hi- malayas at altitude between 1000-3000 m ele- vation. In Orissa it has been collected only from one place. It was an epiphyte on mango trees. Material examined. (Kasipore (Koraput Dist.), 1100 m, N. C. Nair 50537 (Sept. 30, 1972). 3. Pyrrosia nayariana Ching et Chandra in Amer. Fern Journ. 54: 62, 1964 e¢ Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. 117: 70, 1965. This was considered to be a very rare spe- cies confined to Manipur (NE. India). In Orissa this epiphyte has been collected only from one place. Material examined. Kasipore (Koraput Dist.) 950 m, WN. C. Nair 51396 (Nov. 6, 1973). REFERENCES BEDDOME, R. H. (1864): Ferns of Southern India, Madras. - (1883): Handbook to the ferns of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula, Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta. CHRISTENSEN, C. (1906): Index Filicum. Hafniae. CuaRKE, C. B. (1880): A review of the Ferns of the Northern India. Trans. Linn. Soc. London. Sec- ries (Bot.) 1: 425-619. Haines, H. H. (1924): Orissa. London. HEIRONYMUS, G. (1914): Pteris quadriaurita Retz. und einige asiastische, malesische und poly- nesische Arten aus der Gruppe und Verwandschaft dieser Art.: 325-375. Hottrum, R. E. (1954): A revised flora of Ma- Jaya II. Ferns of Malay. Singapore. MAstTeErS, M. T. (1868): Vegetable Teretology. Ray Society, London. Mooney, H. F. (1950): Supplement to the Bo- tany of Bihar and Orissa. Ranchi. Botany of Bihar and 276 Narr, N. C. & Guosu, R. K. (1975): Additional distribution of Ferns to the Botany of Orissa. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 54: 45-49. (1978): Pteris heteromor- pha Fee—A new record for India. Indian For. 104: 374-376. & GuHosH, S. R. (1977): Pteris quadriaurita Retz. and its related taxa in Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 438-443. Nayar, B. K. (1974): A classification of homo- sporous ferns. Jn B. K. Nayar and Surjit Kaur, Companion to R. H. Beddome’s Handbook to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon and Malay Peninsula. 109-201, New Delhi. PANIGRAHI, G. S., CHowpuHurY, D. C., Ragu, 8S. & Deka, G. K. (1964): Contribution to the botany of Orissa. Bull. bot. Surv. India. 6: 237-266. SLEDGE, W. A. (1962): The Athyrioid Ferns of Ceylon. Bull. Brit. Mus. 2 (11): 275-325. ———— (1965): The Ceylon species of As- plenium. ibid. 6: 235-277. DISTRIBUTION RECORDS OF CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BASTAR DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA (DIPTERA: CULICIDAE)' ZAKIR HUSAIN HUSAINY? (With a text-figure) INTRODUCTION Prakash and Husainy (1974) listed Ano- pheles mosquitoes taken in 102 villages of Bastar district, Madhya Pradesh between October 1968 and September 1974. Outdoor collections were made at various sites be- tween the larval habitats and the village homes in order to determine the outdoor resting habits of the anophelines. In these surveys culicines were of course encountered along with the anophelines. The present paper lists the Culicini (Culicidae) collected. In all 24 villages were selected for outdoor surveys which had the village of Asirguda located at 48.5 m a.s.l., as the lowest, and the locality Kirandul situated at 1275.5 m a.s.l. as the highest altitudes of the district. The majority of the villages are located in the North Eastern plateau and its sub-division, the Indravati plains. The general elevation of these physiographic divisions ranges from 457 to 609 m a.s.]. The climate is in the hot-wet to hot-moist range. The villages which are sparsely populated, consist of several hamlets each with a few hutments situated at some distance from each 1 Accepted August 1978. 2 Assistant Entomologist, National Malaria Era- dication Programme, Jagdalpur, District Bastar (M.P.). Present address: C/o. D. S. P. Bungalow, In front of Rest House, Jagdalpur, Distt. Bastar (M.P.). other. Each family of the village essentially keeps such domestic animals as cow, goat, pig, dog and poultry. Most of these are ac- commodated in cattle sheds. The larval habitats in the area may be streams, ponds, ditches and seasonal pools. Large broken earthenwares are generally thrown in the backyard of the hutments in which sufficient rain water accumulates to provide larval breeding sites for aedine mosquitoes. In between the hutments and the larval habi- tats, grasses and shrubs are commonly tound apart from the trees. MATERIALS AND METHODS Outdoor collections were made in natural vegetation, bushes, tree holes, crevices etc., located between the larval habitats and nearest human dwellings. An outdoor pit shelter (2 m x1 mx2 m) was constructed in one vil- lage (Bispur) in this connection. The collec- tions were generally attempted in the morning between 0600 and 0900 hr. A few man-biting rate observations were also taken to detect the species preferring human blood meals. This was done by placing a man as bait in human dwellings and collecting only the mos- quitoes actually feeding on this bait since land- ing rates do not always indicate biting. RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS A total of 1,014 specimens representing 14 2) 278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 : @ Uselt . ry ae Five Se he ¢ aie ’ ( ! ' ‘ \ ' ss se sl V bs Ban Usri ABUSH ! ) MARH \ S ; ! Chitrakot = ies Dhar @© Asia aes 2 Aghanpur fe Hat Kachora ee Birangpa}@ @Adhawal Mamadpal @Mangnar @ Machkot a Bispure © 4 @K otamsar E ijapur Tirathgarh Kamanat Kesaiguda @ g 2 @Eipal Darbhe. *Kukalgut Kirandul® Jagargunda & 16 32 SCALEURsr = oe KMS Asirgudag Fig. 1. Map of Bastar District showing the villages surveyed. CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BASTAR culicine species were collected in 24 localities of Bastar distirct. The locations of the villages surveyed are shown in the map (Fig. 1). More culicine mosquitoes (1,014 specimens) than anopheline (232 examples) were encountered in outdoor surveys. In the man-biting rate ob- servations a total of 263 culicine and 67 ano- pheline females were captured in 80 man- hours. Thus more culicine than anopheline females had bitten human beings in the given time. Among culicines, the highest numbers were of C. p. fatigans (76 examples) and lowest were of M. uniformis. The species wise habitat of all the recorded culicine mosquitoes is given below. The classi- fication system enumerated by Stone e/ al. (1959) has been followed in this paper. Genus: Aedes Meigen 1818 Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse), 1895 Specimens collected: Ban Usri 3 females (fm); Ti- rathgarh 1 fm; Mamadpal 9 fm; Jagargunda 3 males (m), 2 fm; Kirandul 7 fm; Sat Dhar 3 fm; Darbha 6 fm; Chitrakot 7 fm; Bijapur 15 fm; Kesaiguda 2 fm; Hat Kachora 1 m; Adhawal 1 fm; Useli 3 m, 4 fm; Kotamsar 29 fm; Kamanar 2 m, 8 fm; Ku- kalgur 5 m, 2 fm; Aghanpur 1 m, 9 fm; Asna 2 fm. Total 15 m and 110 fm. Distribution: This species was recorded in the North-Eastern plateau, Godavari-Sabri low- lands, Bailadila hills, Indravati plains and Southern plateau of the Bastar district. Altitudes: Encountered between 48.5 and 1275.5 m a.s.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in January, May, July and November in the hot-moist, hot-wet, moderately hot-moist and vey hot- moist climatic regions of the district. Observations: A. (S.) albopictus is a dominant species in the district. A massive attack on human being for feeding in the day was no- ticed in the forests of the village Kotamsar. In the township of Jagdalpur, this mosquito is predominantly a day-time feeder. Baisas (1974) stated that A. albopictus attacks man but in places far away from human dwellings, it probably feeds on animals. Specimens of A. albopictus were captured on human body while collecting and from bushes, tree holes and fen- ces. Twenty females were taken inside houses. Joshi ef al. (1965) collected five females out- doors in jungles of Nepal. The breeding in Bastar district was noticed in broken earthen pots retaining rain water. Baisas (1974) stat- ed that A. albopictus breeds mostly in tree holes in Subic, seldom in bamboo, rock holes and artificial containers. Huang (1972) stated that the immature stages of A. albopictus have been found mainly in tree holes, bamboo stumps and artificial containers in Philippines, Ryukyu Island, Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Burma and India. Peters and Dewar (1956) reared A. albopictus and A. w-albus from eggs contained in the dried residue in holes in mango trees. These eggs had survived at least seven months since the last rainy sea- son and hatched within a day or two of addi- tion of water. Aedes (Mucidus) sactophagoides (Theobald), 1901 Specimens collected: Mangnar 7 m, 2 fm; Darbha 4 m, 6 fm; Adhawal 3 m. 2 fm; Ban Usri 3 fm; Jagargunda 2 fm; Sat Dhar 1 fm. Total 14 m, 16 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains, North-Eastern plateau, Godavari-Sabri low- lands and Tinkanpalli hills. Altitudes: 152 to 761 m ass.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in March, May. July, September and October in the hot-wet, hot-moist and very hot-moist climatic regions. Observations: This mosquito was taken in bushes near a stream (Darbha); from fence crevices (Adhawal), underneath the logs (Ku- kalgur) and from a pit shelter (Bispur). Joshi et al. (1965) took three females each from a mosquito net and inside a house in Nepal. Zo JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Aedes (Stegomyia) w-albus (Theobald), 1905 Specimens collected: Mangnar 11 m, 3 fm; Darbha 4m, 3 fm; Adhawal 2 m; Hat Kachora 2 fm; Ban Usri 3 fm, Useli 5 fm: Total 17 m, 16 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains, North-Eastern plateau of Bastar district. Altitudes: Between 457 end 761 m a.s.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in March, May, July and September in the moderately hot- moist, hot-moist and the hot-wet climatic re- gions. Observations: Specimens of A. w-albus were secured in a pit-shelter (Bispur); ponds (Ban Usri), tree holes (Useli) and from tall grass (Mangnar). Joshi ef al. (1965) collected two females from a jungle in Nepal. Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (Linnaeus), 1762 This species was not encountered anywhere in the district although diurnal surveys were made in the townships of Jagdalpur, Kirandul and Kanker. It requires further study to as- certain if this mosquito is prevalent in Bastar district, for this is typically a dense forest area. However, at present, forests are being cleared and the towns are growing in magnitude. Baisas (1974) reported the distribution of this mosquito in South-East Asia, Indo-Malayan region and ejsewhere where modern transpor- tation distributed this mosquito. Aedes (Stegomyia) vittatus (Bigot), 1861 Specimens collected: Machkot 5 fm; Ban Usri 2 fm; Kotamsar 17 fm; Tirathgarh 1 fm; Darbha 3 fm; Mamadpal 2 fm; Mangnar 1 m; Chitrakot 6 fm; Kesaiguda 3 m, 3 fm; Useli 2 fm; Kukalgur 7 {m; Bispur 3 m, 2 fm; Aghanpur 2 m, 2 fm; Asna 2m, 3 fm. Total 11 m, 55 fm. Distribution: Recorded in Indravati plains, North-Eastern plateau and Southern plateau. Altitudes: Encountered between 48.5 and 761 m a.s.l. Seasonal prevalence: Recorded in May, from July to November in the hot-wet and the hot- 280 moist climatic regions. Observations: Predominant in forests of Bastar district. Specimens of A. vittatus were caught on human beings and from bushes in the forests. Five females were secured in tree holes (Machkot) in forests. Joshi et al. (1965) collected two examples of this mosquito from jungle in Nepal. Genus: Culex Linnaeus 1758 Cuiex (Culex) bitaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901 Specimens collected: Kotamsar 2 fm; Mamadpal 1 fm; Kukalgur 6 fm; Kesaiguda 1 m, 1 fm; Bispur 3 m, 1 fm; Darbha 3 m. 4 fm, Kamanar 1 m, 4 fm: Total 8 m, 19 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains; North-Eastern plateau, Southern plateau. Bram (1967) reported distribution in Thailand, Ethi- opia including Madagascar, Australia, New Guinea, some islands of the South Pacific and the Soviet Far East. Altitudes: 152 to 671 m a.s.l. Peters and De- war (1956) collected larvae of C. bitaenior- hynchus from residual pools in the main river beds at Bhimphedi, Nepal at 11,583 m_ height. Seasonal prevalence: Encountered in March, May, July, September and November in the hot-wet and hot-moist area. Biting habits: Twenty one females were cap- tured on human bait. In Singapore the origin of blood meals in females collected from un- biased sources were exclusively from birds (Colless 1959 as quoted by Bram 1967). Observations: Recorded in forests of Bastar district. This mosquito was taken in bamboo fences in the courtyards (Darbha); from a pit shelter (Bispur), green grass in the vicinity of hutments (Tirathgarh). Joshi et al. (1965) collected this mosquito inside houses in Nepal. Culex (Culex) epidesmus (Theobald), 1910. Specimens collected: Ban Usri 1 m; Kukalgur 3 fm; Jagargunda 5 m, 2 fm; Sat Dhar 1 m, 2 fm, Darbha 5 m, 5 fm; Kamanar 3 m, 10 fm; Aghan- CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BASTAR pur 32 m, 35 fm; Adhawal 18 m, 27 fm; Asna 16 m, 13 fm; Hat Kachora 28 m, 22 fm; Useli 6 m, 11 fm; Kotamsar 3 fm; Kesaiguda 6 m, 2 fm; Bis- pur 4 m, 5 fm, Birangpal 2 m, 2 fm: Total 127 m, 142 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern plateau; Godavari Sabri lowlands; Tinkanpalli hills, Indravati plains and Dantewara plains. Altitudes: 48.5 to 761 m a.s.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected all round the year in the hot-moist, hot-wet, moderately hot- moist and very hot-moist climatic regions. Abundant during August in village Hat Ka- chora. Biting habits: A total of 76 females were se- cured from human bait. Observations: Predominant species all over the district. Collected from bushes near the fencing of a farm; from pit shelter, and from vegetation in the vicinity of houses. Joshi et al. (1965) took females from inside houses and one female from pit shelter in Nepal. Culex (Culex) pipiens fatigans Wiedemann, 1828 Specimens collected: Machkot 35 fm; Ban Usri 2 fm; Kukalgur 1 m, 1 fm; Mamadpal 4 fm; Mangnar 9 m, 5 fm; Kamanar 1 m, 12 fm; Kirandul 3 m, 5 fm; Chitra Kot 5 m, 3 fm; Etpal 1 m; Bijapur 1 fm; Bispur 6 m, 6 fm; Birangpal 1 fm; Asirguda 8 fm; Useli 9 m, 4 fm; Hat Kachora 5 m, 7 fm; Adhawal 3 m, 3 fm; Aghanpur 6 m, 7 fm; Asna 2m, 5 fm: Total 51 m, 109 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains; North-Eastern plateau; Bailadila hills, Goda- vari-Sabri lowlands. This mosquito is distri- buted throughout the world in tropical and sub-tropical areas (Baisas 1974). Altitudes: 48.5 to 1275.5 m a.s.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected all round the year in the hot-moist, hot-wet, moderately hot- moist and very hot-moist climatic regions. Biting habits: From human bait 97 females were taken. Seven blood meals obtained from adult females taken out of doors had two smears positive for human and five for bovine blood. Baisas (1974) indicates that from its large number it constitutes the most annoying Culex to human beings. Very seldom taken in Carabao-baited traps but numerous in hu- man baited traps and in unscreened houses, barns and huts (Baisas 1974). Observations: Predominant species all over the district. Encountered in pit shelter and out of doors in a variety of places namely bushes, vegetation, bamboo fences, fence crevices and underneath logs. It must be recognised that the result of investigations in one geographi- cal area are not necessarily valid when applied to another population of the same subspecies in a different geographical area (Bram 1967). Culex (Culex) gelidus Theobald, 1901 Specimens collected: Kotamsar 3 fm; Tirathgarh 4 fm; Mamadpal 2 m, 3 fm; Darbha 2 m, 6 fm; Bispur 1 fm; Kukalgur 1 m, 2 fm; Sat Dhar 1 m, 2 fm; Aghanpur 3 m, 8 fm; Useli 4 m, 1 fm: Total 13 m, 30 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern plateau; Tinkanpalli hills, Indravati plains. Baisas (1974) reported distribution from Ma- laysia, Singapore, Indonesia, New Guinea, Phi- lippines, Taiwan, Japan, China, Vietnam (N & S) Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Burma, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Altitudes: Recorded between 304 and 761 m a.s.l. Scanlon and Esah as quoted by Bram (1967) collected gelidus females biting man from 4,572 to 13,716 m of elevation on a mountain in Chiang Mai. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in July, Octo- ber to December in hot-moist, moderately hot- moist and hot-wet climatic regions. Biting habits: Eleven females were secured from human bait. Baisas (1974) stated this mosquito as zoophilic. Bram (1967) reported 281 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 that adult females are vicious biters but feed on man only in the absence of other suitable hosts. Observations: Collected from bushes near stream, in tree holes and in pit shelter. Re- corded in forest at higher altitudes. Joshi e7 al. (1965) secured three females from houses and three examples from pit shelter. Peters and Dewar (1956) found adults in native dwel- lings, cattlesheds and in tents in Nepal. Culex (Culex) tritaeniorhynchus Giles, 1901 Specimens collected: Darbha 2 m, 5 fm; Kotamsar 3 m, 1 fm; Mamadpal 1 m, 2 fm; Mangnar 3 fm; Kukalgur 8 m 6 fm; Bispur 1 fm; Kamanar 4 m, 11 fm: Total 18 m, 29 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern plateau and Indravati plains of Bastar dis- trict. Bram (1967) reported distribution throughout Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, Mal- dive Islands, Malagasy, Tanzania, Kenya, Ubangishari, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Senegal, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Turkmen S.S.R., Philippines, Taiwan, Ryukyu-Retto, Japan, Korea, China, Indo- china, Indonesia, Malaya and Maritime pro- vince, U.S.S.R. Altitudes: 304 to 761 m asl. Scanlon and Esah as quoted by Bram (1967) collected fe- males biting man at elevation up to 1,372 m in Chiang Mai. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in July, Sep- tember and November in the hot-moist and hot-wet climatic regions. Biting habits: On human bait, 17 females were captured. Baisas (1974) reported that this mos- quito is largely zoophilic, a certain percentage bite human beings and so this mosquito be- comes the object of interest and study in con- nection with Japanese ‘B’ encephalitis and other diseases of man. Observations: Recorded in forests at higher 282 altitudes and in pit shelter. Nakao as quoted by Bram (1967) suggested that C. tritaenior- hynchus may be an indoor resting species. Spe- cimens of C. tritaeniorhynchus were secured in tree holes, underneath logs, and from bushes in the courtyard of the hutments. Joshi ef al. (1965) captured one female from pit shelter, six females from outdoors and three females inside house in Nepal. Culex (Lutzia) vorax (Edwards), 1921 Specimens collected: Kotamsar 1 fm; Kamanar 7 fm; Mangnar 6 m; Darbha 1 m, 2 fm; Kukalgur 1 m, 1 fm; Adhawal 3 m, 1 fm; Useli 8 fm, Ma- madaptl 3 m, 5 fm: Total 14 m, 25 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati Plains and North-Eastern Plateau. Altitudes: 457 to 761 m a.s.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in June, July, September to November in the moderately hot-moist and hot-wet climatic regions. Observations: This mosquito was taken in bushes in forests (Kotamsar); tree holes (Useli), underneath logs and from tall grass. Culex (Culex) ‘vishnui’ Theobald, 1901 Group Specimens collected: Mamadpal 1 fm; Darbha 11 m, 35 fm; Etpal 14 m, 3 fm; Adhawal 3 m, 2 fm: Total 28 m, 41 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern plateau, Indravati plains and Godavari Sabri lowlands. Altitudes: 48.5 to 761 m as.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in Feb., Sept. to Dec. in the hot-wet, hot-moist and very hot- moist climatic region. Biting habits: A total of 32 females were taken on human bait. Observations: Specimens of this species were encountered in grass in the vicinity of hut- ments; fences along side rice fields, bushes in courtyards and from pit shelter. CULICINE MOSQUITOES OF BASTAR Genus: Mansonia Blanchard 1901 Mansonia (Mansonioides) annulifera (Theo- bald), 1901 Specimens collected: Kotamsar 3 fm; Kamanar 3 fm; Darbha 3 m, 2 fm; Kesaiguda 1 m, 2 fm; Ku- kalgur 4 m, 2 fm; Useli 2 m, 3 fm; Aghanpur 2 m, 3 fm; Bispur 3 fm; Hat Kachora 3 m, 6 fm: Total 15 m, 27 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains, North-Eastern plateau and Dantewara plains. Baisas (1974) quoted distribution in Philip- pines (Mt. Province, Sorsogen, Leyte, Olon- gapo Zambales, Manila and Rizal), Ethiopia, Oriental and Australian regions, Solomon Is- lands, Japan and Ryukyu-Retto. Altitudes: Between 48.5 and 761 m a.s.l. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in Jan., Feb., May, July to Sept. and Nov. in the hot-wet, hot-moist and moderately hot-moist climatic regions. Biting habits: Not secured on human bait. Baisas (1974) reported it as both zoophilic and anthropophilic. Specimens were collected in Carabao-baited traps, a few were caught while biting man in late afternoon (Baisas 1974). Observations: M. annulifera was encountered in bushes near perennial stream, in pit shelter and fences along side rice fields. Joshi et al. (1965) encountered this mosquito inside house in Nepal. Mansonia (Mansonioides) uniformis (Theo- bald), 1901 Specimens collected: Ban Usri 1 m, 1 fm; Darbha 4 fm; Tirathgarh 1 m, 3 fm; Kotamsar 2 fm; Ku- kalgur 3 fm; Kesaiguda 2 m, 2 fm; Bispur 7 fm, Adhawal 3 m, 3 fm: Total 7 m, 25 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the North-Eastern plateau, Indravati plains and Dantewara plains. Baisas (1974) reported distribution from Phi- lippines, South-East Asia, Indonesia and Thailand. Altitudes: 152 to 761 m asl. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in May, July to December in the hot-moist and hot-wet cli- matic regions. Biting habits: Nine females were secured on human bait. Baisas (1974) described it as largely zoophilic, seldom anthropophilic. Observations: Specimens were secured in a tree hole at a height of 1.2 m above the ground. Encountered in pit shelter, bushes near ponds and from vegetation out of doors. Joshi et al. (1965) collected M. uniformis in- side house in Nepal. Genus: Armigeres Theobald 1901 Armigeres (Armigeres) subalbatus (Coquil- lett), 1898 Specimens collected: Mangnar 9 m, 1 fm; Kukalgur 4 fm; Darbha 3 m, 7 fm; Adhawal 2 m; Kesaiguda 4 fm, Ban Usri 2 fm: Total 14 m, 18 fm. Distribution: Recorded in the Indravati plains, the Southern plateau and the North-Eastern plateau of Bastar district. Baisas (1974) re- ported distribution from Philippines, Indone- sia, Malaysia, and Japan. Altitudes: 152 to 761 m asl. Biting habits: Not taken on human bait. Baisas (1974) indicated that this mosquito is seldom anthropophilic. Seasonal prevalence: Collected in March, July, Sept. and Oct. in hot-wet and hot-moist cli- matic regions. Observations: Specimens were taken in the bushes near a stream, tree holes and fences of rice fields having tall grass. Joshi e¢ al. (1965) took six females from jungle and two females from inside houses in Nepal. Baisas (1974) reported that A. subalbatus usually breeds in cut bamboos, sometimes in coconut shells and artificial containers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Dr. B. L. Wattal, Dy. Di- 283 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 rector, Medical Entomology Division, National Institute of Communicable Diseases, Delhi for identification of specimens and to Dr. Ronald A. Ward, Mosquito Entomology Project, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C. for critical comments on the paper. REFERENCES Baisas, F. E. (1974): The Mosquito fauna of subic Bay Naval Reservation. Tech Rpt. No. 72-2 hq. First Med. Ser. Wing (PACAF), APO San Fransisco, 170 pp. BrAM, R. A. (1967): Contributions to the Mos- quito fauna of Southeast Asia. IH—The genus Culex in Thailand (Diptera: Culicidae). Contr. Amer. Ent. Inst. 2 (1): 1-296. HuANG, YIAU-MiIN (1972): Contributions to the mosquito fauna of Southeast Asia XIV. The sub- genus Stegomyia of Aedes in Southeast Asia. I. The Scutellaris group of species. Contr. Amer. Ent. Inst. 9(1): 1-109. JosH1, G., PRADHAN, S. AND DarsIg, R. F. (1965): Culicine, Sebathine and Toxorhynchitine Mosquitoes 284 of Nepal including New country records. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 67(3): 137-146. PETERS, W. AND Dewar, S. C. (1956): A preli- minary record of the Megarhine and Culicine mos- quitoes of Nepal with notes on their taxonomy (Dip- tera: Culicidae). Ind. J. Mal. 10(1): 37-51. PRAKASH, R. AND HUSAINY, ZAKIR HUSAIN (1974): Studies on the Anopheline Mosquitoes of Bastar District (Madhya Pradesh). Pt. I. Distribu- tion Pattern of Adults. The Annals of Zool., 10(2): 13-52. STONE, A., KNIGHT, K. L. AND STRAKE, H. (1959): A Synoptic Catalogue of the Mosquitoes of the World (Diptera: Culicidae). Ent. Soc. Amer. Tho- mas Say Found., Vol. VI, 358 pp. NOTES ON THE FEEDING AND HUNTING BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED MACAQUES (MACACA SILENUS) IN CAPTIVITY* Y. ARTAUD? INTRODUCTION These notes come from the continuous ob- servation of a small group of lion-tailed ma- caques in captivity since 1970. Most of the facts reported however within the limits im- posed by the title, belong to the year 1977, after the monkeys had been transferred from the urban zone to the countryside near Pon- dicherry. There they have shown an evo- lution of their dietary habits, mainly due to the richness of the vegetal and animal life of their new habitat as compared to the old. A vast garden now surrounds and prolon- gates the monkeys’ house. Beside it a pond grows papyrus within their reach, which ex- plains the coming of visiting frogs inside the cages. There is the possibility for some of our monkeys to be taken into the garden where they can choose from a wider variety of food than is normally put at their disposal. The group, in 1978, was composed of a 9- year-old male, a 9-year-old female and their one-year-old infant, together with a 7-year- old female. They live in a compound of three communicating cages. The five-metre high central cage, protected from sun and rain, is adjacent to and entirely visible from the two-floor abode of the observer. This is where 1 Accepted December 1978. 2 Identity Research Institute, Sr1 Aurobindo Ash- ram, Pondicherry. the females spend more than half of the day and where the entire group retires at night. A floodlamp projecting a soft artificial moon- light captured by the pale grey beard of the lion-tailed macaques, permits observation at night. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR When we started our observation of lion- tailed macaques in captivity, we soon noticed their great need of animal proteins, compared to that of the bonnet macaque (Macaca ra- diata) which we also study in our centre. An adult lion-tailed macaque male lent us for one day in 1969 from an itinerant zoo, chose fish first (we did not offer him meat) from a plate with varied samples of food, asked several times for more and ate practically nothing else except grapes. When the second of our lion-tailed females, then 4 months old, arriv- ed at our centre at the beginning of 1972, she disregarded the food put before her, includ- ing milk, cereals, several varieties of fruits and fresh vegetables. Instead she stole meat from the dogs. That need can be expressed so vivid- ly when they smell or foresee the possibility of getting some cooked meat or fish, that we have baptised its vocal expression “the pro- tein cry”. But it is only recently that we have witnessed some of their hunting practices. The following parts of this article might give the impression that our monkeys are 285 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 undernourished. That is why we have first to explain that they are fed according to advice given by European and American zoos. They get, season by season, all the varieties of vege- tal food available in the Pondicherry mar- ket, besides plants, flowers and leaves from the garden, and a cereal pudding with cal- cium and vitamin supplements. Some of the items they like to have daily, such as toma- toes, lady fingers, guavas, grapes and a local plant called in Tamil kirai. For years they have received also twice a week a supplement of animal proteins. But it has been increased in quantity and frequency since we discover- ed their propensity for hunting. The male eats approximately 100 grams of liver, 100 grams of buffalo meat, some crab or fish and half an egg per week. Natural Animal food: As we have already explained, some of our monkeys are taken regularly through the gar- den and eat whatever they like. Small ani- mals happen also to visit their cages and the monkeys catch them. Frogs: On 15 January 1977 at 10 p.m. we noticed an unusual activity. While the females remained on their sleeping plank, the male was sitting on the floor, his back turned to us, eating a frog. Acknowledging our presen- ce, he showed us his prey and continued eat- ing with obvious satisfaction. Following this event, we focussed our observations on the beginning of the night period. The same scene occurred on the 27th, 28th, 29th and 30th of the same month. On the 30th, the male even succeeded in capturing three frogs at a time and kept one in one foot while eating the two others. We did not wait long to start increasing the amount of proteins alloted to our small co- lony, but this did not seem to curb the appe- tite of our male lion-tailed macaque for liv- 286 ing frogs. All year long he goes around after nightfall inspecting his premises. If he finds some frog, he likes picking it up and chew- ing it leisurely. The females are not permitted to hunt in his presence. Only three times have we seen them capturing and eating frogs inside the cage, when the male was busy with some other occupation, twice in day time and once at the beginning of the night. But while sepa- rated from the male and taking a walk in the garden, the females know where to find frogs in palm-roofed pavilions. On 14 June 1977, we saw the older female fishing a frog di- rectly out of the pond and devouring it on the spot. Snails: In the garden, the females some times eat snails. They do not automatically pick up a snail whenever they see one. Dur- ing a period of three months of daily walks in the garden, from the middle of June to the middle of September 1977, we counted that the older female must have eaten about a dozen snails. On two occasions, she ate 3 or 4 at a time. Insects: Insects are common food for the lion-tailed macaques. They consume a large variety of them—including house _ spiders, cockroaches and white ants—when they have the opportunity to do so. In the daily ration of fresh plants and small branches put inside their cages, they always look for insects before looking for buds. They also eat several varie- ties of water bugs and crunch them with de- light. But only the male has been seen to make a feast out of giant Belostomatidae, un- appetising for his companions. When they for- age in the garden, they often pick up at the same time with insects, pieces of grass or leaves. It may be quicker to capture them that way, but it also seems to be a desired mixture. BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE Eggs: Wherever possible, the females also rob birds’ nests, but they have never eaten birds, not even those which happened to enter their cages, though they killed two of them by trying to chase them away or to play with them. Reptiles: During her pregnancy, the older female became a keen and skillful hunter. She looked not only for insects but also for bigger prey. On 19 June 1977 we saw her for the first time capturing and eating entirely a large Indian Bloodsucker lizard (Calotes versicolor). Within the three months of her maximal hunt- ing activities she ate 9 of them and missed 2. A huge one bit her fingers two times and she let it go. Another one she wounded before it could escape her. Other smaller varieties of lizards are also eaten, but only partly. Finally we discovered that lion-tailed maca- ques attack and eat snakes. Feeding behaviour of the alpha: The rights of the chief. As the princeps, he is the one who takes and eats first whatever he likes. His choice is quickly made; after that he retires a little to give the others their turn. A titbit of food dis- tributed outside the schedule, which someone manages to get before the chief, is usually not contested by him, though the others do not hide their pleasure and vocalise it with a spe- cial sound which means “How good!” His permissiveness varies with the degree of rarity of the food, its dietetic value and the distance at which the misdeed happens—the nearest the most reprehensible. But his attacks do not actually injure anyone. Animal proteins are considered by him to be his exclusive property. When we distribute liver, for example, we have to separate the chief from the others. And hunting in his presence is absolutely prohi- bited, Ritualistic behaviour: From time to time our monkeys are given a complete coconut to peel off and open. One day, in front of several spectators, the chief had worked for ten or fifteen minutes with his four hands and teeth and the entire mus- culature of his body to remove the thick coat of fibers that cushions the wooden shell. He rejected the last mouthful of fibers and looked at the coconut. Usually he tries to break the shell before the peeling is over. But that day he had carefully stripped the entire nut, which was now lying at his feet. He looked at it, seized it with both hands, stood up and held it high above his head, his gaze fixed on it. Then he turned slowly around 3 or 4 times, lowered the coconut to his chest, held it with a single hand and in a few jumps reached the top of the 5 metre cage. From there he looked to be sure that nobody was standing just be- low, and let the coconut drop to the floor. One second later he was drinking the water from the open fruit. A few minutes afterwards everybody had a piece of it. Changes brought about by the birth of a young: After the birth of the first young, a change occurred in the feeding behaviour of the alpha. He often gave precedence to the mother to go from one cage to another where some simple food had been placed. He regularly turned his back and looked somewhere else when we offered a special food every morning to the females. He let them eat first, on the highest level of the cage, together with the baby, while he sat on the floor, sometimes picking up what they had let drop, waiting for us to come down to give him his share. His tolerance was limited to a few given situa- tions. But it did not lessen today, when the child is nearly one year old. The restraint im- posed on his huge body and exhuberant if not 287 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 explosive vitality by the presence of the child is amazing to observe. The second female plays the role of the elder sister. When the infant started to eat, she shared her part of the food with it, so giving the nursing mother more chance to fulfil her energy needs. Now the child goes freely outside the sage and serves in a liaison capacity, bringing to the other monkeys desired items, such as bones abandoned by the dogs or pieces of brick, which are very much appreciated. HUNTING BEHAVIOUR Monkey-snake encounters: On 11 April 1977, a snake some 80 centi- metres long had entered the central cage. When we became aware of it, the male lion- tailed macaque had already taken hold of it at a few centimetres from the head. With pre- cision and skill, he prevented the snake from turning towards him. He stood in a bipedal position, the right arm fully extended, holding the snake. The left hand remained free. His whole attitude reminded us of a fencer fend- ing off the attacks of his adversary. What happened next went so fast that we were not able to perceive it. The monkey reached the middle floor level of the cage and suddenly the snake had lost 10 centimetres or more of its tail. Then the male macaque disappeared with the snake towards the highest level of the cage. He soon came down empty-handed. We asked him: ‘“‘Where is the snake?” He reach- ed with his fingers into his mouth and labori- ously extracted the dead snake from one of his cheek-pouches to show it to us and then carefully put it back. The distended pouch was not visible behind his large facial ruff. A little later the second female ate the tail that she had secured for herself and the male ate all the rest of the animal. 288 In January 1978, we discovered the male holding a snake again, this time in his left hand. It was the size of a viper and we gave the danger signal. He let it drop and the snake found its way out. Recently, we observed the beginning of a fight between the same lion-tailed macaque male and another visiting snake. The monkey had trapped the snake in a corner of the cage and was manoeuvring to catch it. The snake was facing the monkey and it suddenly lunged towards him in a lightning attack. The maca- que avoided the snake with a minimum of movement and resumed his approach. Some outside event interrupted the fight and the snake disappeared. Replacement behaviour: The intrepid behaviour of the captive lion- tailed macaque male confronted for the first time by a snake, contradicts apparantly his cautious behaviour in front of unknown ani- mals or moving toys. Even a new wooden ball introduced into his cage, which rolled on the sloping floor—and though he has been playing with wooden balls before and can recognise one at once—became the object of a test per- formance, leading to its identification and classification. He approached the ball with a commanding gesture to keep everybody at a distance, and covered it with a leafy branch. He started rolling the object vigorously to and fro on the floor, using the leaves as a protective layer. He bent to the ground to try to see the ball and pushed it around, always under the leaves, to observe its reactions. As nothing happened, he parted the leaves, smelled the ball from a distance, pushed it a little with the branch and finally touched it directly with his fingers. He bent, sniffed it again and put his mouth on it. Only then did he start manipulating it freely and tasting a scrap on it. BEHAVIOUR OF LION-TAILED MACAQUE This special hunting behaviour brought about by a new ball or whatever new or un- known thing that moves by itself, evidently gives him time to examine it and if possible take hold of it. He exhibited the same kind of behaviour, in an abridged form, in evaluat- ing the quality of a tree frog whose skin had turned whitish. He finally pushed it outside the cage with a branch without touching it. Killing techniques: We never saw the females going through this elaborate testing process, which seems to be- long to the function of the chief. However all of them roll insects under or between their naked hands or against the bark of a tree, or sometimes with the back of the hand which is covered with hairs. In some cases they also use leaves as a protection. But they most often put insects directly into their mouth without preparatory manipulation. When they eat snails, they crunch the shell with the teeth or by rolling it against something. They remove the anal end. When the manipulation is finish- ed, they clean their sticky hands against some grass or bark. The killing becomes more dramatic when the technique of rolling the insects is applied to frogs and this is how the male generally operates. He almost lost one of his first vic- tims, which jumped away partly eaten, but he caught it again in the semi-darkness and finish- ed eating it. The females seem to be better killers. They bite the animal at the head or open its belly. When we saw for the first time the older female killing an Indian Bloodsucker lizard, she seemed in possession of a perfect techni- que. She seized the animal by its upper part and, with lightning speed and strength, bit its head and ate it immediately. Her next choice was the tail, followed by the thighs. She then opened its belly, threw away the anal part and ate the rest of the contents. Then she sat down more comfortably, peeled the skin off, let it drop, and ate practically the entire body except for the front legs. DISCUSSION Living under the same roof with a group of monkeys, in a proximity which makes ob- servation possible day and night, permits the discovery of behavioral traits difficult to ob- serve otherwise. The many-faceted lion-tailed macaque—a rare and little known monkey— shows here its ingeniousness, its capacity for adaptation and change and its nearness to man particularly in the way its society reacts to the birth of a child. SUMMARY The lion-tailed macaques in captivity, that we have observed since 1970, have demons- trated a great need for animal proteins and a natural taste for living food. If given the op- portunity, they capture insects, snails, frogs, lizards and even snakes and rob birds’ nests. Their way of killing and their dietary tastes are rather individual and adapted to circum- stances. We did not see them attacking birds or small mammals with a view to feeding on them. But they eagerly eat boiled meat, fish, crab and even bones. The chief of the group has been seen to go through some kind of ritual performance to celebrate the opening of a coconut and to evaluate the potential danger or food value of some moving thing or unknown animal. These facts have been gathered in an en- vironment which gives the facilities of close and constant observation and provides at the same time enough stimulation and freedom to the monkeys to deploy their native psycholo- gical capacities. 289 NEW DESCRIPTIONS ON A NEW SILURID CAT-FISH FROM UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA? S. K. Gupta,? K. C. JAYARAM? AND K. P. HAJELA (With a text-figure) INTRODUCTION During the course of faunistic and ecologi- cal studies of the fishes in and around Kan- pur, Uttar Pradesh, India, three specimens of a new cCat-fish of the family Siluridae were collected. The specimens are akin to Wallago attu (Bloch) but differ from it in possessing a second rayed dorsal fin, not confluent with caudal and for that matter from all other forms of the superfamily Siluroidae where the smooth adipose dorsal fin is not so uncom- mon. After examination of the specimens and on comparison with the material present in the National Zoological Collections in Zoo- logical Survey of India, Calcutta, (by one of us KCJ), it was thought fit to describe it as a new genus of Silurid cat-fish. This paper presents the description of this new fish. Pinniwallago gen. nov. Similar to Wallago Bleeker but distinguish- able from it by the presence of second dorsal rayed fin without spines. All other characters as in the type-species. 1 Accepted March 1980. 2 Zoology Department, D.A.V. College, Kanpur, U.P., India. 3 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 290 Pinniwallago kanpurensis sp. nov. (Fig. 1) B.- 21; Dy 5-6; Dz’ 30-36; , Ps l4ev Sal0: A. 84-89 (4/80-85); C. 18. Body depth 5.2 (4.8-5.5); head length 4.43 (4.2-4.6); head width 7.73 (7.7-7.8); head depth 7.7 (7.4-8.1); pre-dorsal length 3.3 (3.29-3.31); post-dorsal length 1.42 (1.42-1.43); pre-pelvic distance 2.7 (2.5-2.9); in standard length. Eye 8.0 (7.9-8.1) in head length; 3.60 (3.45-3.72) in inter-orbital space width; 3.11 (2.81-3.27) in snout length. Width of base of first dorsal fin 9.9 (9.0-10.8); width of base of second dorsal fin 1.21 (0.90-1.57) in head length. Least depth of caudal peduncle 0.43 (0.40-0.47) in its length. Body elongate, compressed. Head broad, large, depressed. Snout depressed, sharp but not pointed. Eyes large, inferior, visible from below ventral surface. Mouth large, gape ex- tending beyond eyes. Jaws subequal, lower jaw slightly longer than upper with numerous depressible cardiform teeth; an oblique vome- rine patch on either side, palatines without teeth. Barbels two pairs, one each of maxillary and mandibular; former thick reaching slight- ly beyond origin of anal fin, latter thin, fila- mentous extending to a distance slightly pos- terior to the eye. Two dorsal spineless fins, NEW DESCRIPTIONS first short with five or six rays, second long with 30 to 36 rays and widely apart from caudal fin. Pectoral fin short with a spine. Anal fin long, ending near caudal fin but not confluent with it. Caudal fin forked with rounded lobes. Lateral line simple and com- plete. Fresh specimens greyish with a_ yellow tinge along the back; sides and belly, yellow. and second dorsal, caudal and anal, ventral, yellow, blending with sides and speci- First grey; belly coloration. Alcohol preserved MAQ@Q NS Fig. 1. Pinniwallago mens dark grey along upper half of body and anal fin base, light grey along ventral half. Distribution: Ponds in and around Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. All known specimens were collected from ‘Bara Tal’ near village Bhitargaon, Tehsil Ghatampur, District Kan- pur. Holotype: in Z.S.1., Calcutta, collected on 27-6-1976 from above locality; F.F. 1443. Paratypes: Two, one in Z.S.I., Calcutta, F.F. 1444 and the other in the museum of Zoology Department, D.A.V. College, Kanpur, collected on 5-vii-1976 from above locality. Affinity: This new species is undoubtedly related to the widely distributed Wallago attu from which it differs in having the second rayed dorsal fin. Discussion: In Indian Siluroid fishes, the second dorsal fin whenever present, is smooth and adipose except in the genera Choca Gray and Plotosus Lacépéde where the second dorsal is rayed but confluent with the caudal. Jayaram (1966),* while discussing the affinities of the genus Clarotes Kner of the family Bagridae from Africa, pointed out the unique modifi- a ide cate rect UEC SQN kanpurensis sp. nov. cation of the adipose dorsal fin as a fin with rays and spines which justified the provision of a generic rank for the African fish. Phylo- genetically Wallago is primitive and the new genus can be stated to be slightly better evolv- ed in possessing the second rayed dorsal fin. The species is named after Kanpur, India from where it has been first reported. 4JAYARAM, K. C. (1966): Contribution to the study of the Fishes of the family Bagridae. 2. A systematic account of the African genera with a new classification of the family. Bulletin de i’? Institut Fontamental d’ Afrique Noire. Tome xxviii, Ser. A. n 3 tuillet pp. 1094-1095. 2911 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ON A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ALLOTRISSOCLADIUS FREEMAN (DIPTERA, CHIRONOMIDAE) FROM INDIA? P. K. CHAUDHURI AND S. K. NANDIZ (With three In course of our studies on the Chironomid midges of India, a few specimens of genus Allotrissocladius Freeman were noticed amongst collections of insects from Darjee- ling, West Bengal, India. The insects at first sight seem to be members of the genus Paratrissocladius Zaviel but close examina- tion of characters especially the presence of accessory appendages in male hypopygium, assigns them to the genus Allotrissocladius. The genus was first proposed by Freeman (1964) on the basis of specimens from West- ern Australia and Allotrissocladius amphibius Freeman was the type-species. The descriptions and terminologies used in this paper have been followed after the works of Saether (1976). Allotrissocladius acutus sp. nov. Male: Body length 3.38 (3.34-3.39, n=6) mm; wing length 1.72 (1.68-1.74, n=6) mm; Wing breadth 0.53 (0.52-0.53, n=6) mm. Head: Brown in colour. Vertex brown with 6-10 setae of which 2 being postocular on each side. Clypeus with 4 setae in transverse row. Maxillary palp light brown, palpomere III with a small preapical pit bearing 1-2 sensilla, palpomere V with an apical seta, ratio of length of palpomeres from I to V 8:13:32: 26:45, L/W ratio 4.0. Eyes reniform, bare and slightly extended dorsally, extension be- ing 0.1 mm. Antenna pale, flagellomeres cylin- 1 Accepted May 1979. 2 Department of Zoology, University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713104, West Bengal, India. 292 text-figures) drical, flagellomere XIII lance-shaped, ratio of length of flagellomeres from I to XIII 8:7:8:8: 10211211: 10210: 11.3122 Sie ARS 0.76. Thorax: Antepronotum with 1 lateral seta. Acrostichals 4-6 (6), dorsocentrals 10 in a row on each side, prealars 4, prescutellars 2 on each side. Scutellum with 4 setae on each side, postscutellum brown with dark margin. Wing (Fig. 1): wing without macrotrichia, microtrichia visible in high magnification. Brachiolum with 1 seta, R with 14-15 (14) setae from the base, Ri and R,+; with out setae; R.+, ends C at a distance of 0.19 mm from R,, R,t+; ends slightly proximal to M3+,, C extended little beyond R,+, being 0.04 mm long, f-cu considerably distal to r-m, Cu; straight and slightly bent at the apex, ends slightly proximal to f-cu. Sensory organ 1 each r-m and at the base of R,. Squama with 12 setae. Anal lobe well developed and produced. Haltere pale. VR 1.1, CR 0.93. Legs: uniformly brown. Spur of fore tibia 0.06 mm long, ratio of length of spur to the apical diameter of fore tibia 5:9; spurs of mid tibia equal 0.32 mm long, ratio of length of spur to the apical diameter of mid tibia 8:10; spurs of hind tibia unequal 0.076 mm and 0.032 mm long, ratio of length of spurs to the apical diameter of hind tibia 18:12, 8:12. Hind tibial comb with 12 setae, 0.028- 0.056 mm long. Claws of hind leg equal, curv- ed 0.028 mm long with 2 setae at the base. Empodium smaller than claws. LR 0.47 in fore leg, 0.56 in mid leg and 0.58 in hind leg. TR of hind leg 1.78. NEW DESCRIPTIONS Abdomen: Terga ochreous, tergum I with 15-16 lateral setae, terga I] to VIII mottled brown with numerous setae. Hypopygium (Fig. 2). Anal point narrow and pointed bear- ing 5-6 (6) setae on each side. Gonocoxite with a thumb like basal lobe, gonocoxite with 24-26 setae; gonostylus (Fig. 3) slightly bent SS PENSE SP Ne ere real ORF SEN = 8 SES ES ae I ee PEO oS I] at the middle, base narrow and distal part wider with an apical tooth 0.012 mm long and a seta on each side of tooth. Appendage two in number, outer one narrow, profusely seta- ceous and inner one broad. HR 2.2, HV 3.9. Material: 6 males were collected by the senior author from the Govt. College, Dar- 293 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 jeeling in May, 1970. Holotype male (Type no. 60, B.U .Ent.) in the collections of insects at the department of Zoology, University of Burdwan, Burdwan. Female: unknown. The present species has been named Allo- trissocladius acutus sp. nov. in view of its nar- row and pointed anal point. The species shows close similarities with A. amphibius Freeman from West Australia in some aspects but the differences in the setae of thorax, wing with its venation and structure of male hypopygium are sufficient to treat the species as a new one. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Prof. Ole A. Saether of the University of Bergen (Norway) for kind- ly confirming the species and going through the manuscript and to Prof. D. K. Choudhuri, Head of the department of Zoology, Univer- sity of Burdwan for laboratory facilities. REFERENCES FREEMAN, P. (1964): Notes on Chironomidae (Diptera; Nematocera). Proc. R. Ent. Soc., London (B) 33: 147-150. SAETHER, O. A. (1976): Revision of Hydrobae- nus, Trissocladius, Zalutschia, Paratrissocladius and some related genera (Chironomidae, Diptera). Bull. Fish. Res. Bd., Canada 195: 1-287. A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS HERCULIA WALKER FROM NORTH INDIA (LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE: PYRALINAB)? H. S. Rose Anpb S. S. DHILLON? (With seven text-figures) During an extensive survey of Pyralid moths of North India, we collected six species belonging to the subfamily Pyralinae. These six species included two new species, one of which has been already described (Rose and Pajni 1978). The second species, according to Hampson’s key (1896), is clearly referable to the genus Herculia Walker, which includes fourteen other species from India. The species under reference is distinctly different from all other Herculia spp. (Hampson 1896a, 1896b, 1916, 1917) and hence, is being described as 1 Accepted January 1980. 2Department of Zoology, Punjabi Patiala-147 002. 294 University, . a new species. The nomenclature of Klots (1970) has been followed for genitalic struc- tures. Genus Herculia Walker Herculia Walker, 1859, Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus., 19: 807. Type species: Herculia martha- lis Walker (Range: Universally distributed). Herculia hansi sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7) Head: Vertex covered with densely arrang- ed long and ochreous scale; frons profusely scaled with ochreous brown scales. Antenna: shorter than fore wing; scape over laden with brown scales; flagellum annulated and finely ringed with fusco- rufous and pale brown scales; minutely pilose and without any bran- NEW DESCRIPTIONS ches in male. Eye: large, with a row of grey- ish brown scales behind. Ocellus absent. Labial palpus: upturned; second segment long, reaching vertex of head; third segment por- rect, short and acuminate; all segments thickly scaled with brown scales, irrorated with fus- cous and fulvo-rufous scales. Maxillary pal- pus: reduced and filiform, covered with light brown scales. Proboscis: long, furnished with fuscous brown scales at base. Posterior end of head densely clothed with ochreous brown scales. Herculia hansi sp. nov. Fig. 1. Photograph of the adult. Thorax: covered with dull green scales dorsally; scales on tegula reaching beyond metathorax; white ventrally. Fore wing: Anterior margin straight; apex rounded; termen evenly curved; tornus round- ed; posterior margin straight. Ground colour dull green, uniformly and finely irrorated with white scales; the costal margin yellowish brown; a slightly curved white antemedial line from costa to inner margin; an inwardly obli- que and straight white postmedial line from costa to anal margin; margin whitish; marginal fringe greyish. Discal cell shorter than half the length of wing. Sc straight; R, free, from anterior angle of cell; R. free; R;, Ry and R; stalked; M, from base of R;+,+;; M, and M; from posterior angle of cell, closely ap- proximated at origin for sufficient distance, diverging distally; Cu, weakly curved towards base of M,; Cu, from cell at about two-third the length of cell; 3A making a small loop at base of 2 A. 3A Fig. 2. Fore wing. Fig. 3. Hind wing. Abbreviations: 1A, First anal vein; 2A, Second anal vein; 3A, Third anal vein; Cu,, First cubital vein; Cu,, Second cubi- tal vein; M,, First median vein; M,, Second median vein; M,, Third median vein; R,, First radial vein; R,, Second radial vein; R,, Third radial vein; R,, Fourth radial vein; R,, Fifth radial vein; Rs, Radial sector; Sc, Subcosta; Sc. R,, Stalk of Sc and R,. Hind wing: Costal margin straight; apex, termen, tornus and anal margin rounded. Ground colour dull green, finely irrorated with white scales; a fine white antemedial line from 295 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 SL SDSS . > 7 of‘ “N\\ = 47] ol. WOW YT: Si oo KY IWNG NAL a = A UU IEF Sosenge AEA eh SBA AE : a a ) \ s : EN y = 4 deciise juovih daira Figs. 4-6. Parts of male genitalia, Abbreviations: CRN, Cornutus; GN, Gnathos; JX, Juxta; SL, Sacculus; SOC, Socii; TG, Tegumen; TU,A, Tuba analis; UN, Uncus; VIN, Vinculum; VLYV, Valva, 996 NEW DESCRIPTIONS middle of cell to posterior margin; an in- wardly oblique white postmedial line from Sc+R, to tornus; margin white; marginal fringe grey, with a dark line. Discal cell slight- ly less than half the length of wing; discocel- lulars long, straight and oblique; cell closed. Rs apposed to Sc+R, beyond cell for some distance; Rs+M, stalked; M. and M, from the same point at posterior angle of cell, ap- proximated at base, diverging distally; Cu, diverging; Cu, from slightly beyond middle of cell; three anals present. Legs: covered with brown scales, irrorated with fuscous and fusco-rufous; tibiae promi- nently and densely scaled; outer spur on mid tibia two-third the length of inner; outer spur of anterior pair on hind tibia exactly one- third the length of inner; outer spur of distal pair slightly less than half the length of inner. Abdomen: brown dorsally, irrorated with dull green, poorly ringed with white, under surface ochreous brown. Male genitalia: Uncus more or less slender, rounded distally, tip very minutely — setose; socii quite prominent, long, each with an an- gular process, completely naked; gnathos well developed, shorter than uncus, strongly scler- tized, its arms broad at base, meeting the dis- tal end and drawn out into a short, more or less pointed process; tuba analis nearly as long as uncus, simple; tegumen reduced and well sclerotized; vinculum V-shaped; saccus rudimentary or absent. Valva moderately long, more or less boat-shaped, costal margin angu- late, saccular margin arched, distal end nar- row and rounded; costa not differentiated, sac- culus very poorly demarcated at base only: harpe absent. Transtilla represented by a thin- strap; juxta more or less squarish. Aedeagus long and slender, its walls well sclerotized: vesica with a well developed long and thorn- Fig. 7. Female genitalia. Abbreviations: ANT.APO, Anterior Apophyses; CRP.BU, Corpus Bursae; DU.BU, Ductus Bursae; OVP, Ovipositor: PO.APO, Posterior Apophyses; SIG, Signum. 297 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 like, strongly sclerotized cornutus and with a few loosely arranged denticles. Female genitalia: Corpus bursae globular, membranous, lined by a sclerotized line on in- ner side; signum circular, well sclerotized and beautifully adorned with short denticles; duc- tus bursae membranous; anterior apophyses quite long, thin and well sclerotized; posterior apophyses much longer than anterior apophy- ses and slightly better sclerortized; ovipositor lobes more or less conical, each bearing short and long setae. Alar expanse: Male: 20.5 mm to 23 mm Female: 25.5 mm Material Examined: Holotype: 1¢; 344 and 22° paratypes, India, Solan and Cham- baghat (Himachal Pradesh) (Collected by HS Rose). Material deposited in the Department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147002, Punjab, India. Remarks: The genus Herculia Walker in- cludes fourteen species, two of which namely imbecilis Moore and dharmsalae Butler have been described from North India (Hampson 1896a). The species under reference is, thus, the third species from North India which dif- fers prominently from all the described species belonging to genus Herculia. The new species, Herculia hansi, however, shows slight similarity to H. imbeciles Moore in having an ante- medial line on the dorsal surface of the fore wing while differing from it in lacking a dark speck at the end of the discal cell. The alar expanse of the latter is drastically larger (male 30 mm, female 34 mm) than as it occurs in the former (male 20.5 mm to 23 mm, female 25.5 mm.). The generic identity of H. hansi sp. nov. has been confirmed from the British Museum (Natural History), Lon- don. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank Dr. J. D. Bradley of British Museum (Natural History), London for the confirmation of the species and Dr. Hans Raj Pajni, Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh for his help in the preparation of this manuscript. REFERENCES Hampson, G. F. (1896a): Fauna of British India, Moths, 4: 1-594. (1896b): On the classification of three sub-families of moths of family Pyralidae, the Epipaschiinae, Endotrichinae and _ Pyralinae. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 451-550. (1916): Descriptions of new Pyra- lidae of subfamilies Epipaschiinae, Chrysauginae, Endotrichinae and Pyralinae (Lepidoptera). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. London, 18(8): 126-160, 349-373. (1917): Descriptions of new Pyra- lidae of subfamilies Epipaschiinae, Chrysauginae, 298 Endotrichinae and Pyralinae (Lepidoptera). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. London, 19: 65-100. Kiots, A. B. (1970): Lepidoptera, in “Taxono- mist’s glossary of Genitalia in Insects” (ed. S. L. Tuxen), 2nd ed. Munksgaard, Copenhagen, pp. 115- 130. Rose, H. S. AND PAJNI, H. R. (1978): Further comments on the genus Tamraca Moore with the description of a new species from Chandigarh (Lepi- doptera: Pyralidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc., 75 (1): 170-173. NEW DESCRIPTIONS DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES AND A KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF BELOSTOMATIDAE? P. VENKATESAN AND T. (With seven Lauck and Menke (1961) showed that Sphaerodema was synonymous with Genus Diplonychus Laporte of sub-family Belosto- matinae. Earlier workers in India, while re- cording and studying the biology of the species of this genus, had included them under Sp/ae- rodema Laporte, overlooking Diplonychus (Presswala & George 1936, Rao 1962, Indira 1963, Madhavan 1973). Distant (1906) dif- ferentiated S. annulatum (Fabricius) from the other two recorded Indian species of this genus on the basis of the nature and the size of the hemelytra and the measurement of the head width between the eyes. He _ differentiated S. molestum Dufour from S. rusticum Fabricius on the basis of the size of the claw in the front tarsus. Menke (1960 & 1961) stressed the im- portance of the structure and terminology of male genitalia and gave a more critical ana- lysis of other characters used to distinguish the taxa of this sub-family. Hence, it is felt worthwhile to include the characters of the genitalia in the present investigation while des- cribing a new species of the genus Diplony- chus, collected from Chetpet pond, Madras, India and forming a key to the Indian species of Diplonychus. KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF Diplonychus Laporte 1. Total body length less than 20 mm; body nar- row and tapering; greatest expanse of hemely- tra together shorter than the total body length. ip} K. RAGHUNATHA RAO? text-figures ) Total body length more than 20 mm; body very broad; greatest expanse of hemelytra together equal to the total body length. .. D. annulatum (Fabricius) Anterior claws shorter than the width of tarsus. 3 Anterior claws longer than the width of tarsus. . D. molestus (Dufour) 3, Head length shorter than the width between the eyes; the posterolateral margin of the res- piratory strap of male without the setal tufts or spikes; air straps meeting at the tip of aedeagus. .. D. rusticus (Fabricius) Head length more than the width between the eyes; the posterolateral margin of the respira- tory strap of male with a cluster of setal tufts or spikes; air straps not meeting at the tip of aedeagus. .. D. indicus sp. nov. i) Diplonychus indicus sp. nov. (Figs. 1 to 7) Diagnosis: Small and elongated bug measuring 13.5 mm to 16.5 mm long, greatest width being 9.6 to 10.1 mm; ochraceous or ochraceous brown in colour; the lateral and basal mar- gins of pronotum and embolium always paler than the meso—and metathoracic segments (Fig. 1); legs and ventral part of body con- colorous; head 14 times longer than the width between the eyes; anteoculus moderately deve- loped, shorter than the interoculus; eyes slight- ly convex; interoculus half as wide as the eye; eyes obliquely triangular, strongly flattened 1 Accepted August 1980. * Department of Zoology, Madras 600 034, India. Loyola College, Zou JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Figs. 1-6. Diplonychus indicus sp. nov. ja. Scutellum; 1b. Thoracic region; 2. Head; 3. Hemelytra; 4. Antenna; 5. I, II, Il legs; 6. Ventral view of abdominal segments to show the ventrolateral pubescence. Abbreviations: (A,, A,)—Anals, An—Antenna, C—Claw, Cu—Cubital, Ec—Epiclypeus, F—-Fron, Mp—Maxillary Palp, Pc—Postclypeus, Pub—Pubescence, Ros—Rostrum, R+M— Radial + Medial, Sc—Subcosta, T-—Trochanter. 300 NEW DESCRIPTIONS dorsally and 14 times longer than wide (Fig. 2); external margin of eye often straight and continuous with the pronotum; bulgings pre- sent on the margin of anteoculus; posterola- teral angle of anteoculus variable; claws and embolium of hemelytra paler than meso- and metathoracic segments but not smooth (Fig. 3) and punctured with setigerous holes; mem- brane of the hemelytra with a patch of minute chitinous hairs at the bottom; rostrum long and conical; segment I of rostrum 2 times longer than segment II (Fig. 2); antenna hid- den, four segmented and located near the eyes with segments II and III bearing long curved finger-like projection dorsally; IV segment with slightly bulbous projection than that of II and III (Fig. 4); pronotum with lateral margin nearly straight; anterior margin of pro- notum more than half time as wide as the posterior margin. Ventral laterotergites of abdominal segments III to VII with a narrow, sinuate, central band of pubescence, attaining the external margin at posterolateral angles at the region of HI segment only (Fig. 6); abdominal sternites shiny with short spinules. Legs shiny but often covered with minute spinules; front femur strongly dilated, bearing two grooves for the reception of tibia; front tibia and tarsus usually bearing rows of large setigerous punctures; front tarsus two-segment- ed, terminated by two small and equal claws that are shorter than the width of the tarsal segment; segments II and III of the tarsus Fig. 7a. Genitalia of male D. indicus sp. nov. Fig. 7b. Genitalia of female D. indicus sp. nov. 301 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 being fused; segment I of the tarsus shorter than segment II, the division being visible on the ventral side; two spinules project between the claws of the mesothoracic and metathora- cic legs (Fig. 5). The phallus composed of the [IX abdominal segment, articulating within the genital capsule as on a U shaped sclerotic basal plate; arising from sides of the genital capsule at the arti- culations of the basal plate are the parameres, triangular in shape with a feather of setose hairs; a ligamentous lamina ventralis being at- tached at the base of the basal plate which articulated posteriorly with a rather bulbous sclerotized caudal extension—the ventral diver- ticulum; the basal half of the phallus surround- ed dorsally and internally by rather heavily sclerotized plate—phallobase; a hollow scle- rotized tubular aedeagus arises within the phal- lobase, which extends dorsal to the ventral diverticulum; the VII abdominal segment being closely associated with the genital cap- sule, possesses the long air or respiratory straps; air straps not bifurcate and their arms not meeting at the tip of the aedeagus (Fig. 7). In the male, the lateral margins of the air straps bearing a cluster of setae or setal tufts to form together as a spike extending down- wards and being visible to the naked eye; be- sides the inner margin bearing another cluster of the same nature distolaterally but half as long as the cluster in the outer margin; arising in the phallobase a hollow sclerotized tubular aedeagus, which extends dorsally to the ven- tral diverticulum (Fig. 7a). In the female, the air straps not possessing any long setae; female genital plate bearing one tuft of setae on the lateral margins api- cally (Fig. 7b). Material studied: Holotype < collected from Chetpet pond, Madras, India on 6-2-1977. 302 Allotype @ and paratype 5 nymphs collect- ed from the same locality. The type series is deposited in the Museum of Loyola College, Madras, India. Measurements: Holotype and Allotype in mm. (Allotype measurements given in paranthesis). Total body length—14.65 (16.46); greatest width— 9.6 to 10.1; anteoculus—1.78 (1.78); intero- culus—2.12 (2.12); rostrum—2.78 (2.68); hemelytra—11.42 (11.52); anterior margin of pronotum—4.9 (5.2); posterior margin of pro- notum—6.92 (6.92); head length—2.54 (2.30); thorax length—6.24 (6.19); abdominal length —7.87 (7.97); I leg- femur 2.88 (2.88); tibia 2.02 (1.92); tarsus 0.48 (0.48); claw 0.095 (0.095); IL lege—femur 5.8 (4.8); tibia 5.56 (5.13); tarsus 2.73 (2.63); claw 0.58 (0.46); III leg—femur 4.08 (3.74); tibia 3.64 (3.46); tarsus 1.54 (1.78); claw 0.48 (0.38). Remarks: Diplonychus indicus sp. nov. is closely re- lated to D. rusticus (Fabr.) in having heme- lytra shorter than the total body length, ante- rior claws short and the presence of tuft of setae on the lateral sides of the basal plate in the female genitalia. It differs from D. rus- ticus in head length being more than the width between the eyes, cluster of setae forming the spike being present on the posterolateral mar- gins of the respiratory straps, air straps not meeting at the tip of aedeagus, the pubescence of ventrolateral tergites from III to VII reach- ing the external margin on the segment III only and the membrane of the hemelytra with a patch of spinules at the bottom. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. Margaret Parsons, Minnesota, U.S.A. for her valuable suggestions. We thank Rev. Fr. Kuriakose, S.J., Principal for providing facilities and extending constant encouragement. NEW DESCRIPTIONS REFERENCES Distant, W. L. (1906): The Fauna of British India, Rhynchota, Vol. III (Heteroptera—Homop- tera). Taylor and Francis, London, 35-37. INpIRA, T. (1963): Biochemical and Cytochemical studies during development and ovarian growth in Sphaerodema molestum Duf. Ph.D. Thesis, Anna- malai University. Lauck, D. R. & Menke, A. S. (1961): The higher classification of the Belostomatidae (Hemip- tera). Ann. Ento. Soc. Amer., 56: 644-657. MADHAVAN, M. M. (1973): Structure and func- tion of the hydropyle of the egg of the bug Sphae- rodema molestum. J. Ins. Physiol., 20: 1341-1349. MENKE, A. S. (1960): A review of the genus Lethocercus (Hemiptera: Belostomatidae) in the Eastern Hemisphere with the description of a new species from Australia. Aus. J. Zool., 8: 285-288. (1961): A taxonomic study of the genus Abedus Stal (Hemiptera: Belostomatidae). Univ. California Publ. Ento., 16 (8): 393-440. PrESSWALA, M. J. & Georcg, C. J. (1936): Mor- phology of Sphaerodema rusticum Fabr. J. Univ. Bombay, 4: 29-65. Rao, T. K. R. (1962): On the biology of Rana- tra elongata Fabr. (Heteroptera: Nepidae) and Sphaerodema annulatum Fabr. (Heteroptera: Belo- stomatidae). Proc. Roy. Ento. soc. Lond., 37: 61- 64. ACONOGONON KUTTIENSE (POLYGONACEAE)—A NEW SPECIES FROM N. W. HIMALAYA? G. G. Maiti, R. M. Dutta? & C. R. Basu* (With five text-figures) Aconogonon kuttiense sp. nov. (Figs. 1-5) Arcte affinis A. tortuosum (D. Don) Hara, sed foliis anguste elliptico-lanceolatis subtus tomento denso albo-lanato indutis, inflorescen- tia plus minusve laxe racemosa axillaris brevis, perianthio majore differt; a A. sericeum (Pal- las) Hara, inflorescentia racemosa, perianthio glabro, foliis minoribus discrepat. Suffrutex erectus, nanus 15-45 cm altus; radix perennis, crassa. Caulis repetite dicho- tome ramosus, subteretis vel teretis, costatus, rubro-brunneus, indumento fere longe erecto- patento vel adpresse brevi-setoso vestitus. Folia subsessilis, 1—3.5x0.3—1 cm, anguste elliptico-lanceolata vel oblonga, ad basim an- gusta et acuta, margine fortiter revoluta, ad 1 Accepted July 1980. 2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103. 3 Present address: Department of Botany, Delhi University, Delhi. apicem obtuso-acuta, fere rubro-brunnea, supra tenuiter adpresse pilosa, infra dense albo-lanata, supra nervis depressis, infra ner- vis principalibus conspicuis. Ochreae tubulares, basin versus irregulariter laceratae, dein deci- duae, membranaceae, distincte nervosae dense adpresse longe setosae, setis + 1.5 cm longis vestitae. Flores racemosi, raro brevipaniculati, 1.5—3 cm longi, terminales vel axillares, albo- tomentosi; pedunculi 3—8 (—10) mm longi; Bracteae membranaceae, primo tubulares dein irregulariter laceratae, adpresse longe albo-tomentosae 2.5—3 mm longae; pedicelli tenues, anguste marginati, glabri, 1—1.5 mm longi. Perianthium rubrum, campanulatum, 3.5—4 mm longum, ad trientem fissum undique glabrum, segmentis 5, raro 6, oblongis, obtusis + 3 mm longis. Stamina 8; filamentis lineari- bus, 1—1.2 mm longis; antherae minutae, late oblongae, 0.3—0.4 mm longae. Ovarium par- 303 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 vum, 3-quetrum, 0.7—0.8 (1) mm longum; quilonga, + 4 mm longa. styli 3, breves, 0.1—0.2 mm longi, apice capi- Holotypus (R. M. Dutta 277A) et isotypi tato-stigmatosi. Nux rubro-brunnea, ellipsoi- (R. M. Dutta 277B) lecti die Sept. 22, 1968, dea, triquetra acute marginata, perianthio ac- in loco Kutti, in provincia Uttar Pradesh, ° 41 mm a Se 2 ere . SNF ; r <2 Soon Gy. AAS QL Fe woul Py R ths if ast | y . Zz f..: an acces ESS Ni (“es OO ee - psa : aN : ‘Ze <“~ : oe a on, pare é al Re One he Sigrekiet ee yen, Oi ‘ etary UU ue : ' } nig A ane T m , Qa Wi, yi; : Ri \ "'t, a a \ \ , // bf p WHE: ~ SNH Wg” Figs. 1-5. Aconogonon kuttiecnse sp. nov. |. Habit; 2. Flower opened out with ovary removed; 3. Stamen; 4. Gynoecium; 5. Fruit. 304 NEW DESCRIPTIONS India; Holotypus et isotypi positi CAL. Para- typus: Kumaon, Kutti Valley, 14-15000 ft. 31-7-1886, J. F. Duthie 5929 (CAL) and Kutti Valley, way to Samzurkchan Glacier, 3 km. from Kutti village, C. 4000 m., 24-10-1976, G. G. Maiti 790 (CAL). Closely allied to A. tortuosum (D. Don) Hara but is easily recognizable by densely white-lanate or woolly lower, surface of the leaves, narrowly elliptic-lanceolate leaves with a narrowed base, axillary, short, more or less lax racemes and larger perianth. A. sericeum (Pallas) Hara—a Siberian species, is also very similar to this in its hairiness and shape of leaves, but A. sericeum (Pallas) Hara differs in having axillary flower-clusters, hairy peri- anth and larger leaves. Whereas A. kuttiense is characterised by flowers being in racemes, glabrous perianth and smaller leaves. The specific epithet is derived from the name of the locality from where it was collect- ed thrice, by Duthie during 1886, then by Dutta 1968, and by Maiti 1976. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, De- puty Director, Central National Herbarium, Howrah, for Latin translation and helpful sug- gestions. Thanks are also due to the Council of Himalayan Exploration and Research, Cal- cutta, for providing financial assistance and opportunity to join the “Kutti Valley Expedi- tion—1968 and 1976”. A NEW SPECIES OF JASMINUM (OLEACEAE) FROM INDIA? A. K. Stnua, G. G. Malti AND G. S. Giri? (With a text-figure) Jasminum simonsii sp. nov. J. dispermo (J. dispermum Wall.) affinis, a qua differt plantis glabris, foliis simplicibus, 5-nervibus, combinate venosis, cymis laxis era- mosis, pedunculis longis gracilibus, calycis dentibus acuminatis, et tubo corollae brevi. Frutex parvus gracilis, glaber, partibus junioribus pruinosis. Folia simplicia, ovata ad ovato-lanceolata, 7-10 3.5-4 cm, apice acu- minata basi cordata ad rotundata, integra, gla- bra, membranacea, infra secus nervos majores puberula, 5 nervia, combinate venosa, petioli 10-13 mm longi, glabri ad pruinosi, penitus canaliculati. Inflorescentia cymosa axillaris, 1 Accepted July 1980. * Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah-711 103 (W.B.). eramosa, 2-5 flora, pedunculi 2-3 cm, pedicelli gracili, 1-2 cm longi, glabri vel raro pruinosi. Flores bracteati, bracteae subulatae angulares, 2-3 mm XxX 1 mm. Calyx 5-lobus, cupularis, dentes acuminati, glabri. Corolla 5-loba, tubu- laris, tubus 10 mm longus, lobi ovato-lanceo- lati, 6x5 mm, acuti, glabri. Stamina 2, in tubo inclusa, fila 7 mm, antherae 5 mm, oblongae, 2-cellulares. Ovarium ovoideum, 2 mm dia- metro, stylus 12 mm, filiformis, glaber; stigma lineari-oblongum, bifidum. Fructi maturi semi- naque non visa. Holotypus lectus a Simons sine numero, sine loco, et positus in herbario indico nationali (CAL) sub numero accessionis 285972. Jasminum simonsii sp. nov. Small slender shrub, glabrous to pruinose in 305 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 01, he da ih KC Figs. 1-5. Jasminum simonsii sp. nov. 1. A portion of the twig; 2. Flower; 3. Calyx split open; 4. Corolla split open with two stamens; 5. Gynoecium. 306 NEW DESCRIPTIONS younger parts. Leaves simple, ovate to ovate- lanceolate, 7-10 cm x 3.5-4 cm, apex acumi- nate, base cordate to rounded, entire, glabrous, membranous, puberulous along the major ner- ves below, 5-nerved, convergent with succes- sive marginal loops. Petiole 10-13 mm, long, glabrous to pruinose, deeply channelled. In- florescence axillary cyme, unbranched, 2-5 flowered. Peduncle 2-3 cm. Pedicels slender, 1-2 cm long, glabrous or rarely pruinose, Flowers bracteate, bracts subulate, angular, 2-3 mm x1 mm. Calyx 5-lobed, cupular, teeth acuminate, glabrous. Corolla 5-lobed, tubular, tube 10 mm long, lobes ovate-lanceolate, 6 x 5 mm, acute, glabrous. Stamens 2, included with- in the tube, filaments 7 mm, anthers 5 mm, oblong, 2-celled. Ovary ovoid, 2 mm diam.; style 12 mm, filiform, glabrous; stigma linear- oblong, bifid. Mature fruits and seeds not seen. Holotype: Without any precise _ locality, Simons s.n. (CAL) [Jasminum attenuatum Roxb. ex DC.—Det. by C.E.C. Fischer, dated 12-8-1936, Acc. No. 285972]. Isotype: Without any precise locality, Simons sn. (CAL) [Jasminum attenuatum Roxb. ex DC.-Det. by CE.C... Fischer, dated 12-8-1936, Acc. No. 285972A]. The specific epithet was chosen based on Mr. Charles J. Simons, who was a pioneer collector in the regions of Khasia hills and Mikir hills. Jasminum simonsii sp. nov. differs from J. dispermum Wall. in having glabrous plant body, simple leaves, 5-nerved, lateral nerves united before they reach the margin, unbranch- ed lax cyme with long slender peduncles, den- tate acuminate calyx lobes and short corolla tube. It is related to J. stenopetalum Lindl, but can be easily differentiated by the acumi- nate leaves, 5-nerved, glabrous, except the nerves beneath, larger peduncles and pedicels, smaller angular bracts, shorter calyx teeth and 5-shorter ovate corolla lobes. ACK NOWLEDGEMENT We wish to thank Dr. N. C. Majumdar for Latin translation and valuable suggestions. A NEW SPECIES OF EUNOTIA’ P. T. Sarope AND N. D. KAMAT? (With two text-figures) During studies on the freshwater diatoms of the Vidarbh region of Maharashtra State we came across a species of Eunotia which is different in many respects from all known species of Eunotia and hence described here as new. 1 Accepted May 1980. 2? Botany Department, Institute of Science, Auran- gabad. Eunotia vidarbhensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-2) Frustula solitariae, in aspectu zonali asym- mertice, linearis; valvae 34.5—36.7 p» longae, 6—6.5 » latae, aliquantum arcuatae, tenuiter curvatis ac latere ventrali paulum inflatae ad anum apice; apicibus late rotundatis; nodulae polares retractis, satis magnae ac raphe ter- minalibus distinctis; striae 14—16 in 10 », plus minus equidistante evolutae sed proxime 307 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 positae ad apicem, crassae. In palude, Nagpur (20-1-78). Typus lectus ab autores et positus in col- lectione sub numero V 540. A TTT ee AA 0K 1-2. Eunotia vidarbhensis sp. nov. 1. view; 2. Girdle view. Figs. Valve Frustules solitary, asymmetrical, linear in girdle view; valves 34.5—36.7 » long, 6—6.5 uw broad, scarcely arcuate, slightly inflated on the ventral side at one end; ends _ broadly rounded; polar nodules retracted, fairly large with termination of raphe distinct; striae 14— 16 in 10 », more or less uniformly set but somewhat closer towards the ends, coarse. In a pond, Nagpur (20-1-78). Type collected by the authors and kept in the collections No. V 540. The new species is close to Eunotia major (W. Sm.) Rabh. f. ventricosa A. Cl. (Cleve- Euler 1953, 119, f. 456d, e) and Euno- tia asymmetrica Chol. (Cholnoky 1954, 209, f. 21) in some respects but differs from both of them in shape and dimensions. In addition it differs from the former in not having pseu- doraphe and from the latter in having denser and coarse striations. ACK NOWLEDGEMENT Grateful thanks are due to Prof. Dr. L. A. Whitford, North Carolina for help in Latin translation and identification of the specimen. REFERENCES CHOLNOKY, B. J. (1954) : Diatomeen aus Sud- Rhodosien. Port. Acta. Biol. (B) 4 (3-4): 197-228. CLEVE-EULER, A. (1953) : Schweden und _ Finnland-II. Die Diatomeen von K. Svenska Vetens Akad. Handl. Fjurde ser. 4: 1-158. 308 OBITUARY D. E. REUBEN (1893-1980) It is with deep regret that we record the death of Mr. D. E. Reuben on 24th March 1980, after a long and painful illness borne with patience and fortitude. David Ezra Reuben was born at Hassan, Mysore, on 3rd September 1893 and did his schooling at St. Joseph’s, Bangalore, and Bishop’s High School in Poona. He then took his B.A. in Mathematics at the Deccan Col- lege, Poona, followed by a first class in Mathe- matics at St. John’s College, Cambridge. While at Poona, he participated in cricket, rowing and rifle-shooting, and then secured tennis colours at Cambridge. Standing first in his batch for the ICS. Examination in 1917, he served as a Sub- Divisional Officer in Bihar and Orissa, and then as an additional Magistrate. Having opt- ed for the judiciary, he took the Bar Exa- mination, reached the High Court in 1943, and retired as Chief Justice of Bihar in 1953. After retirement, he settled down in Bombay, and served for three years as a member of the Labour Appellate Tribunal. 1List of papers & Notes. On the occurrence of the Clucking Teal (Nettion formosum) in the Monghyr District 45: 609. A jumping snake 53: 477. The Abominable Snowman 54: 762. The Indian Mongoose in Jamaica 54: 941. Gazelle in North Africa 55: 343. Occurrence of the Blue Mormon (Papilio polymnes- tor Cramer) in Bombay 57: 231. Migrational flights of the common Indian Crow butterfly [Euploea core (Cramer)] 57: 673. During the years of his service, Bihar and Orissa were still wild areas and he shot his fair share of deer, antelope, and the larger carni- vores. He joined the BNHS in 1924. In Bom- bay, he served on the Executive Committee of the Bombay Natural History Society from 1954-1975 and though his name appears as editor of the Society’s Journal only for two years, he vetted the proofs and read the minu- tes and other papers of the Committee with meticulous care and the queries and notings marked ‘D.E.R.’ always received the closest attention and respect. The 2nd edition of Prater’s BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS owed much to him. The present writer was particularly fortunate in receiving similar assistance which permitted him to prepare, often in a hurry, the several papers: published by him in the Journal over recent years and as a small token of which an Andaman bird has been named Oriolus xanthornus reubeni. Such unassuming and valuable assistance is seldom available and both the Society and individual members have suffered an irrepla- ceable loss. HUMAYUN ABDULALIi Nocturnal ‘Predator’ of fruit of Yellow Oleander (Thevetia neriifolia) 58: 808. Occurrence of the Blue Mormon (Papilio polymnes- tor Cramer) in Bombay 58: 816. Intelligent behaviour by the Mason Wasp (Eumenes petiolata Fabr.) 60: 283. Persistent vitality in Bee-hole Borer Moth Duomitus leuconotus Wlk. 65: 801. Crabs summering in lakeside hotel 75: 516. 309 REVIEWS 1. THE FAUNA OF INDIA, SPIDERS. Araneae, Vol. I. Part 1, Thomisidae (crab-spiders). By B. K. Tikader, iv+1-247 pp., 2 pls. Part 2. Lycosidae (wolf spiders), By B. K. Tika- der and M. S. Malhotra, 249-446 pp., 2 pls, Issued by the Zoological Survey of India, Cal- cutta, 1980, Price India: Rs. 100/- Foreign: £10/- or $20.00. Spiders, though ubiquitous, have remained a neglected group, and in the only consolidat- ed volume, on the Arachnida, published 80 years ago, in the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDiA series (now called the FAUNA OF INDIA), Po- cock (1900) listed only some 200 species, and the family Thomisidae (which forms half of the present volume) was not even represented. In the last 20 years, mainly through the work of Dr. Tikader, an enormous amount of in- formation on Indian Spiders has been gather- ed together, and the present is the first of a series of projected volumes on Indian spiders. The volume is divided into two halves. The first half deals with the family Thomisidae (by Tikader) and the second half with the Lycosidae (by Tikader and Malhotra). The volume begins with a short but clear and well illustrated account of the taxonomic characters of spiders, followed by a key to the 44 families of Indian spiders. Then follows the descriptions of various genera and species. The taxonomic accounts are clear, precise and extremely well illustrated by the taxonomically important body-parts, especially the cephalo- thorax and the epigyne. In all cases, excellent identification keys for genera and species are 310 provided. There is a select bibliography and an alphabetical index of species and genera. The Thomisidae includes 25 genera and 115 species and the Lycosidae 9 genera and 81 species. Considering that there are still 42 families to cover, the spider series may be expected to run to several volumes, and we sincerely hope that Dr. Tikader, who is to be warmly con- gratulated upon this fine volume, will be able to complete the volumes within a reasonable period of time, perhaps during the next five or six years. A remarkable fact that emerges from a per- usal of the volume under review is that so many species are described from single speci- mens. This emphasises the need for intensive collections, by both professional zoologists and the non-professionals, in order that the lacu- nae can be satisfactorily filled. The printing, which is on art paper, and the binding are very good, and we can only hope that subsequent volumes in the Fauna series will be able to maintain this high standard. M. L. ROONWAL REVIEWS 2. COLLIN’S HANDGUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT, IN- CLUDING INDIA, PAKISTAN, BANGLADESH, SRI LANKA & NEPAL. Written and illustrated by Martin W. Woodcock. Designed by Hermann Heinzel. pp. 176 (1911.5 cm) with coloured and monochrome illustrations. Distributed by Rupa & Co. Price £4 (Rs. 94), Hardback; £3 (Rs. 66), paper back. This is the first real attempt at a field guide to the birds of the Indian Sub-Continent on the lines established by Peterson for American birds just about 50 years ago. 272 species are illustrated in colour, followed by 273 sketches in black and white. A quick look-over has been very enjoyable but attention may be drawn to a few points which may be rectified in the next edition. The first bird, the Dabchick, is referred to as Tachybaptus ruficollis. This generic name is probably being used for the first time in Indian literature and raised the fear that there was to be a plethora of name changes, but this proved unwarranted. The sequence is not the same as in INDIAN HANDBOOK. The pictures are on the whole excellent, though some of the colours do appear a bit too vivid, e.g. the Red Junglefowl (p. 38) and the Courser (p. 59). The stripe down the front of the Purple Sunbird (p. 108) shows very blue. On page 10, reference is twice made to a 1000 km contour which is presumably a slip for the land over 1000 metres shown on the map opposite. In the good old days, Great Indian Bustard were sometimes seen in small parties of 5 to 8 but these were scattered over a mile or more and one wonders if ten would be seen to- gether on the ground as illustrated (pp. 48- 49). Again while several snipe may rise to- gather, it is unlikely that one would see three of them together on the ground (p. 57). The Fantail Snipe in flight is too heavily marked on the underparts, and lacks the white trailing edge to the wing (really secondaries only), which character distinguishes it from the Pintail. The popular name of Buceros bicornis the Great Indian Hornbill has been changed to the Great Pied Hornbill. As two other pied hornbills already exist it would perhaps be better to drop the term ‘‘pied’’ and continue to refer to the old name. The male of the Common Iora on page 89 would perhaps be more distincitive with a black head, and the colour of the male Rosefinch on page 111 is the only one which I would call really mis- leading. With this example before us, we may hope that we will in due course see a similar field guide which covers all the Indian species and also perhaps the subspecies which are suffici- ently distinct. Thereiceryx zeylanica on page 76 has a streaked breast, and the Bombayman suspects an error, for the nominate race in western and southern India has a plain breast. The picture represents caniceps, the northern race of zeylanica, (which is found as far south as Chikalda, Berar) but suggests another spe- cies M. viridis. The House Crow of the nomi- nate race on p. 7 shows no pale collar round the neck, while birds around Bombay, accepted as CC. splendens splendens do. These are only subspecific differences and when one considers that only 543 of some 1250 species (220 species and subspecies) are illustrated, there is still a long way to go. The last paragraph in the book is a hand- some tribute to the BNHS journal. In the Introduction (p. 15) the author says that half the battle in bird identification is in knowing what to expect in a given area or 311 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 season. We hope he will soon produce another Woodcock who had illustrated A FIELD GUIDE guide which covers all the species likely to be TO THE BIRDS OF SOUTH EAST ASIA (1975) is to seen including Martin and Woodcock. be sincerly congratulated. It is indeed a fine effort and Mr. Martin HUMAYUN ABDULALI 312 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES FOOD HABITS OF THE INDIAN WILD DOG (CUON ALPINUS): A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS From October through December of 1975, one hundred and fifty (150) droppings of wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) were collected from within an area of twenty four (24) square miles in and around the eastern entrance of the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. The study area was bounded by the Kalhatty slope to the east, the village of Ma- sinigudi to the west, Anaikatti to the north, and Bokapur to the south. This region of the Nilgiris lies at an altitude of between 3000 and 3500 feet and is char- acterized by low scrub jungle, interspersed with stands of bamboo surrounding the larger waterways. Cultivation is common and occurs at fairly regular intervals throughout the study area. At the time of collection, the north-east monsoon was well under way, providing moisture necessary for the rapid growth of lush vegetation. Consequently, the animal life, large and small was abundant. As the wild dog typically whelps from Nov- ember through February (Cohen 1977), only yearling and adult dogs are assumed to have contributed to our sample. Identification of fecal content was made using hair samples, bone fragments, vegeta- tion, and insect parts found in each bolus. For this preliminary analysis, unknown hair sam- ples were compared by gross visual inspection with similar samples collected from known species at the Bombay Natural History So- ciety. A more detailed hair follicle analysis, based on microscopic techniques will be re- ported elsewhere. Bone fragments were iden- tified by AJ.T. Johnsingh and K. Paraman- antham of the Ayya Nadar Janaki Amma! Col- lege in Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu. Assistance in the identification of vegetational types was kindly given by Dr. M. Joseph, Regional Bo- tanist of the Botanical Survey of India at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The food items represented in the droppings, the number of times each item occurred, and their frequency percentage in the sample are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 DIET OF THE INDIAN WILD Doc (Cuon alpinus) AS DETERMINED BY FECAL ANALYSIS OF 151 DROPPINGS Item Times occurring Frequency percentage Spotted Deer (Axis axis) Sambar (Cervus unicolor) Wild Pig (Sus scrofa) Mouse Deer (Tragulus meminna) Blacknaped Hare (Lepus_nigricollis) Rodentia Unidentified Mammal Domestic livestock Insecta Fruits Grasses & Vegetation 62 4} 10 i 3 D, 1 0.7 53 35 17 i] 11 7 1 OFF 9 6 2 I 71 47 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 A similar collection of 138 droppings was made by Dr. Michael Fox and A. J. T. John- singh in December through February, 1974 and will be cited in the following discussion. These results are summarized in Table 2. relative food abundance. It was reported to these investigators by the Forest Ranger at Theppakadu that the estimated chital popu- lation in the Sanctuary in 1975 was approxi- mately 1750 animals (by pellet count), while TABLE 2 DIET OF THE INDIAN WILD Doc (Cuon alpinus) AS DETERMINED BY FECAL ANALYSIS OF Item 138 DROPPINGS Spotted Deer (Axis axis) Sambar (Cervus unicolor) Wild Pig (Sus scrofa) Small Mammals (lagomorphs, rodents) Domestic Livestock Times occurring Times occurring Total in adult faeces in pup faeces freq. % 102 5 78 13 0 9 1 0 0.7 12 2 10 3 0 2 Iseilema prostratum grass common in faeces Segments of tapeworm, Taenis hydatigena frequent in scats. DISCUSSION Mammals : Spotted deer (Axis axis) exceeded all other items in the diet, except grasses. They were six per cent (6%) more frequent in the drop- pings than hare remains. That these animals are the chief staple in the diet is thus reaffirm- ed. In those scats able to be identified as such, chital fawns outnumbered adults as prey by almost three-to-one (3:1). Sambar comprised a relatively small part of the diet (7%). Fox and Johnsingh (1975) also found spotted deer remains in seventy-eight per cent (78%) of the samples they collected from the same area in January and February of 1974, compared to only nine per cent (9%) sambar. There may be several explanations for this observed pre- ference of chital in the diet. There is a great size difference between sambar and chital and, given the fact that the dogs usually hunt in groups of three to five individuals, a full- grown sambar may present too much of a risk to the predator, especially in times of 314 the sambar population numbered only about 200. These facts and the additional fact that Sambar are relatively solitary in their habits as opposed to the chital, who tend to congre- gate in herds of up. to 250 animals in the evening, before breaking up into smaller for- aging groups during the daylight hours, may help to explain our observed results. Periods of hunting activity in the wild dog correlate well with the observed increase in the sizes of chital herds in early evening and early morn- ing hours. The remains of wild pig, a common inhabi- tant of the region, occurred in only two per cent (2%) of the sample. Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna) for Indian Chevrotain also play a very minor role in the wild dog’s diet, com- prising only seven-tenths of one per cent (0.7%). This may be expected due to the rarity of this species in the region. Blacknaped hare ranked next to chital in relative frequency of occurrence (35%). This correlates well with the observed abundance of this species of lagomorph in the study area. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES No other lagomorph species occurs in the area of the Mudumalai. Eleven per cent (11%) of the fecal samples contained members of the class Rodentia. In the present study, hare and rodents com- prised forty-six per cent (46%) of the wild dog’s diet. Johnsingh and Fox, in 1974 found all small mammals to make up only ten per cent (10%) of the total diet. It must be taken into consideration, however, that while the present collection was made at the end of the monsoon season, the other was made at the height of the dry season. Due to the extreme ground temperatures, lack of cover, scarcity of water, and reduced availability of food, a reduction of small mammal activity and a pro- bable reduction in population sizes of such animals would subsequently result in a reduc- tion in the frequency of these prey items in the dogs’ diet. According to analysis of fecal samples, do- mestic livestock comprised only seven-tenths of one per cent (0.7%) of the dogs’ total diet. This is most interesting in light of the fact that the wild dog is still considered to be a “pest”, with bounties awarded for its ex- termination. M. Krishnan (1972) states that wild dogs rarely take domestic stock as prey. Although this statement is reaffirmed in the present study and from the collection and analysis made by Fox and Johnsingh (op. cit.), who found livestock remains in only two per cent (2%) of their sample. Fox, found, upon asking paddi owners, that nearly seven per cent (7%) of their cattle losses are attributed to wild dogs. It is possible that in times of scarce food supply, the wild dogs turn to do- mestic stock, which is plentiful in the region, for food. Other possibilities also exist. Among those is the possibility that the actuals kills are not witnessed by the paddi owner, but merely the loss of an animal is automatically attri- buted to the wild dog. Indeed there seems to be some disparity between observed propor- tions of cattle in the wild dogs’ diet and their reputed effect on livestock numbers in the area. By studying the food habits of the wild dog in relation to that of the leopard, tiger, and pariah (pie) dog (Canis familiaris), a recently introduced. predator, a true picture of the wild dogs’ role in the region’s ecology could be gained. The common attitude of the wild dog as a “‘pest’’ to be exterminated re- quires intensive re-examination. The remaining animal matter found in the feces (7%) were unidentifiable due to the condition of the scats themselves. The age of the dropping (e.g. calcification of contents) and the quantity recovered prevented any de- finite identification of the hair samples. Miscellaneous : Insects appeared in only six per cent (6%) of the droppings. The majority of these were identified as beetles (from elytra and wings). It is not known if these animals were purpose- fully eaten or perhaps entered the feces after being deposited. Fruit of the Zizyphus genus was found in one per cent (1%) of the sample. Although this seasonal fruit seems to serve as a food source for many of the mammalian and avian herbivores of the area, it does not appear to be an important supplement in the diet of the wild dog. The most frequent item found in the feces of the wild dog was grass and vegetation. Although only two of the one hundred and fifty-one droppings were totally vegetable in content, occurrance in all other cases appear- ed incidental to the existance of animal matter. The following grasses were identified: Hete- ropogon contortus, Cynodon dactylon, Dacty- loctenium aegyptium, Cynodon barberi, Aris- tida hystrix, and Eragrostis bifaria. 315 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, WoRLD FEDERATION FOR THE PROTECTION or ANIMALS, ZURICH, SWITZERLAND. DezPT. OF ForEST ZOOLOGY, STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW York, COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ForESTRY, SyRACUSE, NEw York, U.S.A. AyyA NapDAR JANAKI AMMAL COLLEGE, SIVAKASI, TAMIL NADU. DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH INTO ANIMAL PROBLEMS, HUMANE SOCIETY OF THE U.S.A. August 11, 1977. Vol. 77 BRUCE D. BARNETT JAMES A. COHEN A. J. T. JOHNSINGH MICHAEL W. FOX REFERENCES COHEN, J. A. (1977): A review of the biology of the dhole on Asiatic Wild dog (Cuon alpinus). Anim. Reg. Stnd. 1: 141-158. Fox M. W. (1975): In Search of Wildness and Whistling Jungle Dogs. Unpublished. Fox, MICHAEL & JOHNSINGH, A. J. T. (1975): Hunting and feeding in wild dogs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2): 321-326. KRISHNAN, M. (1972): An ecological survey of the large mammals in peninsular India. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 69: 26-54. 2. OBSERVATION ON CARNIVOROUS HABIT OF AN IRRAWADDY SQUIRREL, CALLOSCIURUS PYGERYTHRUS (GEOFFROY) During a trip to North Lakhimpur, Assam, in October 1976, an interesting behaviour of the Irrawaddy Squirrel, Callosciurus pygery- thrus (Geoffroy), was noted. On October 15th 1976 at about 8.00 hours, { noticed the animal eating the fruit of an Olive tree (Olea europaea) in a small orchard (about an acre in area) having a pond and other trees, namely Embelic (Embelica offi- cinalis) in fruit, shrubs such as Lemon (Citrus lemon) and undergrowth mainly of Pineapple (Ananas sativus) and other fruit-bearing herbs, just behind the house where I was camped. The squirrel slipped away when an attempt 316 at closer observation was made. On that very day at about 16.00 hours, the cackling call of a squirrel was heard, but unfortunately, it could not be traced. The following day two mongoo- ses were seen busily digging the earth beside the pond. With a view to catching them, two traps were set in the bushes at about 13.00 hours with intestine of chicken as bait. After about two hours, to my great surprise I found that an Irrawaddy Squirrel, instead of a mon- goose, had been trapped. It was still feeding on the bait. The squirrel was allowed to con- sume the whole of the bait without being dis- turbed. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES According to literature (Prater 1971), Cal- losciurus pygerythrus (Geoffroy) feeds on fruit, leaf-buds and is particularly partial to oranges. In spite of the availability of abun- ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 8, LINDSAY STREET, CaLtcuTTA 700 016, December 26, 1978. dance of fruits on the trees in and around the area the preference for animal food is highly interesting. SANTANU GHOSH REFERENCE PRATER, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani- mals. ed. 3. Bombay Natural History Society, Bom- bay. 3. UNUSUAL RAT FEEDING BEHAVIOUR ASSOCIATED WITH CATTLE AFFECTED WITH FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (With a text-figure) An epidemiological investigation aimed at revealing the possible role of rodents in the transmission of foot and mouth disease was conducted in Purulia district of West Bengal. Rats (Rattus rattus) and squirrels (Funamz- bulus pennanti) were trapped in and around cow sheds which had harboured confirmed cases of foot and mouth disease two months previously. Their blood was collected and the serum was tested as described below. The study utilized an immuno-diffusicn test (Virus Infection Associated antigen) to detect the presence of serum antibodies specific for foot and mouth disease (FMD). Antibodies to the Virus Infection Associated (VIA) antigen cross reacts with all four types of foot and mouth disease (O, A. C and Asia,) found in India (Cowan and Graves 1966) and is diagno- stic with just a single test (unlike serum neu- tralization and compliment fixation tests). The results of this study demonstrated that no squirrels (10 serum samples) and no rats (47 serum samples) were infected by the FMD virus despite an intimate association with the infected cattle. (Many villagers reported that they had seen rats feeding on the foot lesions of the FMD infected cattle when they would enter the cow shed at night.) An unexpected result was a definite preci- pitation line between the unknown rat serum wells and the control bovine antisera wells in twelve out of forty-seven cases (see figure 1). This same phenomena was never observed with any of the squirrel sera. The precipitin line between the control bovine serum and unknown rat serum depicted in the figure may be explained by various in- terpretations. It could be due to; a non-spect- fic reaction, the presence of a cross-reacting antibody, a common infective process, or spe- cific antibodies in one serum directed toward serum components of the other. The last ex- planation seems more plausible for the reasons outlined below. Rats were seen feeding on the FMD lesions at which time serum substances undoubtedly 317 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 could have been ingested. It is known that mice given bovine serum orally will develope specific antibodies to certain components (Andre et al. 1973). No other species of ani- mal tested (cattle, goats, sheep, chickens or squirrels) demonstrated a similar precipitin line in the VIA test. It is probable that not all rats fed on the FMD lesions or fed intense enough to become sensitized to bovine serum factors. While the above is admittedly a conjecture, it does provide some possible scientific docu- mentation to the villager’s observation of rats feeding on the foot lesion of cattle infected with FMD. Even though rats are. considered. “versatile feeders” (Barnett 1975) it is doubtful that this particular feeding behaviour has been reported before. It is unknown how common or extensive this practice is. ACK NOWLEDGEMENT This work was sponsored by an Indo-Ame- rican Fellowship from the Indo-U.S. Subcom- mission on Education and Culture. DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND RADIOLOGY, COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, ATHENS, GEoRGIA 30602, U.S.A., August 25, 1978. Fig. 1. Agar gel immuno-diffusion VIA antigen test for serum antibodies to foot and mouth disease. The central well contains the VIA antigen. Wells number 1 and 4 contain known reacting control bovine antisera. Wells number 2, 3, 5 and 6 contain four different unknown rat serum samples. The line between the central well and well 1 and 4 is a posi- tive reaction of VIA antigen and its specific antibody. The line between well 1 and 2 may be due to an antigen—antibody complex of unknown origin which occurred in 12 out of 47 rat sera tested. S. ODEND’HAL REFERENCES ANDRE, C., BAZIN, H. & HEREMANS, J. F. (1973): Influence of repeated administration of antigen by the oral route on specific antibody producing cells in the mouse spleen. Digestion 9: 166-175. Barnett, S. A. (1975): The Rat. A study in be- 318 haviour. 318 pp. Cowan, K. M. & Graves, J. H. (1966): A third antigenic component associated with foot and mouth disease infection. Virology 30: 528-540. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4. BAIT SHYNESS AND POISON AVERSION IN BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS (GRAY) USING RH-787 AS RODENTICIDE INTRODUCTION Studies have been made on behavioural as- pects of poison aversion and bait shyness in Rattus rattus (Barnett et al. 1975), Tatera indica, Meriones hurrianae (Prakash and Jain 1971) and Gerbillus gleadowi (Rana et al. 1975). In the present experiments, studies have been made on bait shyness and poison aver- sion in Bandicota bhengalensis (Gray) when subjected to sub-lethal dose of RH—787 (N- 3-Pyridylmethyl-N-P-Nitrophenylurea)'. — Ac- ceptability of RH-787 to B. bengalensis in labo- ratory conditions has already been studied (Sood and Dilber 1977). preferred food mixed with one per cent mus- tard oil and simple sorghum grains for 24 hours after 7th and 15th days from initial exposure to the sub-lethal dose of RH-787 and TDI of both the food materials was re- corded. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION B. bengalensis preferred millet over sorghum during the first three days. The TDI of millet was significanily more than that of sorghum (t=7.08 P<.005). On the subsequent four days, less millet was consumed to which 0.025 per cent RH-787 and one per cent mustard TABLE 1 MEAN DAILY INTAKE (g/100 g BODY WT.) OF SORGHUM AND MILLET BY B. bengalensis (GRAY) Food Ist day na fay “ Millet 10.1-+1.01 11.66+1.07 9.71-+1.46 Sorghum 4.96-+ 1.61 5.9-+0.98 MATERIAL AND MetTOoDS Ten individuals of B. bengalensis were kept segregated in laboratory cages for 15 days to acclimatise them. Each individual was daily provided with sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) and millet (Pennisetum typhoides) grains. Water was supplied ad-libitum. For the first three days, total daily intake (TDI) of each food item was measured. For the subsequent four days, 0.025 per cent of RH-787 (Vacor) and one per cent mustard oil were mixed with the preferred food material, and the TDI of both the food materials were recorded. There- after, rats were fed on wheat (Triticum aesti- vum) grains. They were then exposed to the 3rd day 1.45 +0.57 PSTD 4th day —«Sth day _—s 6th day_—=7th day 6464102 1.56-40.95 2.954122 4.5-41.52 2.16+0.71 1.19+-0.40 1.72-+0.61 2.39--0.60 oil were mixed (Table 1). The difference in TDI of plain millet prior to the exposure to sub-lethal dose of RH-787 and of millet grains mixed with RH-787 and mustard oil is signi- ficant (t=3.64 P<.01). There is no significant difference in TDI of plain sorghum consumed on subsequent four days when millet was mix- ed with RH-787 and mustard oil. On the 10th day, rats were provided with plain sorghum and millet mixed with mustard oil. TDI of millet was less than that of the initial three days of the experiment. On the 15th day, the consumption of both the food materials surpassed the initial level similar to that reported in Gerbillus gleadowi using sub- lethal dose of zinc phosphide (Rana ef al. 319 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 1975). Thus, sickness developed due to feed- ing on sub-lethal dose of Vacor lasts for 7-15 days only. This implies that the poisoned bait is liable to be rejected by the rats if, it is pro- vided before the completion of 15 days from the previous poison baiting. Hence the poison baiting for control in B. bengalensis should not be repeated before 15th day. of previous poison baiting, using RH-787 as a rodenticide. However, more studies of the type as also the field trials need to be done before recommen- dations. Present studies also reveal that 30% rats on 2nd and 3rd days of exposure and 10% rats on 4th day of exposure did not feed on poisoned millet. When a second group of ten individuals of DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA, April 7, 1978. B. bengalensis was provided with plain sor- ghum and millet grains mixed with one per cent mustard oil for four days, there was no decline in the consumption of millet. Thus shyness can be ascribed to poison not mustard oil. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. S. S. Guraya, Pref. & Head for the laboratory facilities provided and Mr. M. L. Bansal, Asst. Prof. of Statistics for help in statistical analysis and to Indofil Chemicals Ltd.. Bombay for providing RH- 787. Thanks are also due to Dr. Ishwar Pra- kash, Principal Animal Ecologist, C.A.Z.R.L., Jodhpur for going through the manuscript and giving useful suggestions. M. L. SOOD RYVPSS VGH REFERENCES BARNETT, S. A., COWEN ,P. E., RADFORD, G. AND PRAKASH, I. (1975): Peripheral anosmia and dis- crimination of poisoned food by Rattus rattus L. Behavioural Biol. 13: 183-190. PRAKASH, I. AND JAIN, A. P. (1971): Bait shyness of two gerbils Tatera indica indica Hardwicke and Meriones hurrianae Jerdon. Ann. Appl. Biot. 59: 169-172. RANA, B. D., PRAKASH, I. AND JAIN, A. P. (1975): Bait shyness and poison aversion in hairy footed gerbil, Gerbillus gleadowi (Murray). Proc. All India Rodent Seminar 1975 Ahmedabad (India): 58-60. Soop, M. L. AND Dieser, D. S. (1977): Accept- ability of Vacor to Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) and Tatera indica (Hardwicke) in laboratory condi- tions. Int. Pest Control. 10-11, 20. 5. ON THE UNUSUAL OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON DOLPHIN, DELPHINUS DELPHIS LINNAEUS IN LONGLINE CATCHES AT PORT BLAIR, ANDAMANS The Exploratory Fishing Vessel, Meena- prayas, conducting longline tuna fishing off Port Blair, Andamans, had an unusual catch of the Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, on 30-3-1979. The black-skinned 320 dolphin measuring 202 cm, weighed 68 kgs. The animal was dead when hauled on deck. Tt was not actually hooked in the mouth, but had fouled in the branch line of the longline gear. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES The dolphin was fouled in the tail region and probably lashing at the bait hanging at the end of the line and playing around, ihe animal must have got entangled in the line. Being an air-breather, it has to come to the surface periodically to breathe and because of the fouling, it could not come to the surface and had drowned. This kind of behaviour has also been observ- ed in the case of the Thresher or Fox Shark, Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre), which is al- most never hooked in the mouth which is small. This shark has a tail, as long as the body, with which it is believed to jash and frighten schools of fishes and feed on them. Similarly, this shark lashes at the bait and gets hooked in the tail. It is also hooked in the body or gills. The Common Dolphin, which has world- Govt. oF INDIA, Port BLAIR BASE OF EXPLORATORY FISHERIES PROJECT, PorT BLAIR, ANDAMANS, April 2, 1979. wide distribution, is common in the Andaman Sea, often found swimming in large schools. True to the popular belief that it is fisher- man’s friend, they are invariably found along the bow of fishing vessels while steaming to the fishing grounds. Other Cetaceans and Sireniar are also common in the Andaman Sea. Re- ports of large whales blowing ‘water-spouts’ off Nancowry, Little Andaman and Middle Andaman are received frequently. Their iden- tity has however not been established. Two large False Killer Whales, Pseudorca crassi- dens (Owen) were caught in gill nets off Port Blair on 27-7-1976 and 9-6-1977. A Dugong, Dugong dugon (Muller) was also caught in gill nets off Port Blair on 8-7-1977. They were inavriably dead while hauling for the same reason mentioned earlier. T. E. SWAPRAKASAM 6. LITTER SIZE OF SOME CAPTIVE WILD MAMMALS This note presents some data on litter size of nineteen species of captive wild mammals Orissa. The details of our observations are given in the Table. observed at Nandankanan Biological Park, TABLE Serial ppcrice Bees eee ane rie Siz Average No. fc) ; - co) F of young born Oe litter mamma observation during the period) irths) size (1) (2) ie: (3) (4) (5) (6) Ne TIGER 1.7.1969 Gls) (Panthera tigris) to 8 (19) 243) 2.38 31.3.1978 3 (4) SPA JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 De LION 1.7.1969 1 (3) (Panthera leo) to 13 (24) 2 (9) 31.3.1978 3 (1) 37 LEOPARD 1.7.1969 1 (2) (Panthera pardus) to 2 (12) 31.3.1978 22 (54) 3 (6) 4 @) 6 (1) 4, GOLDEN CAT 1.4.1972 1 (3) (Felis temmincki) to 4 (5) 2 (1) 31.3.1978 Di JUNGLE CAT 1.7.1976 3 (1) (Felis chaus) to 2 (8) 5 (1) 31.3.1978 6. COMMON PALM CIVET 1.4.1964 2 (3) (Paradoxurus to 3 (7) hermaphroditus) 31.3.1978 12 (36) 4 (1) 5 (1) the COMMON MONGOOSE 1.7.1969 (Herpestes edwardsi) to 1 (2) 2 (1) 31.3.1978 8. JACKAL 1.4.1964 (Canis aureus) to 1 (3) 3 (1) 31.3.1978 9. RHESUS MACAQUE 1.7.1969 (Macaca mulatta) to AGA) 1 (7) 31.3.1978 10. BONNET MACAQUE 1.7.1969 (Macaca radiata) to 3 (3) 1 (3) 31.3.1978 iit? INDIAN WILD BOAR 1.4.1969 (2) (Sus scrofa cristatus) to 2 (4) 31.3.1978 3 (4) 40 (179) 4 (10) 5 (9) 6 (5) 7 (6) 12s SAMBAR 1.7.1969 (Cervus unicolor) to 60 (60) 1 (60) 31.3.1978 Ib 3h SPOTTED DEER 1.7.1969 (Axis axis) to 74 (74) 1 (74) 31.3.1978 14. HOG DEER 1.7.1966 _ (Axis porcinus) to 11313) 1 (13) 322 31.3.1978 1.85 2.45 1.25 4.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 1.00 1.00 4.48 1.00 1.60 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Si BARKING DEER 1.7.1969 (Muntiacus muntjak) to 23)7 (23) 1 (23) 1.00 31.3.1978 16. MOUSE DEER 1.7.1969 (Tragulus meminna) to 6 (6) 1 (6) 1.00 31.3.1978 life NILGAI 1.7.1969 1 (6) (Boselaphus to 7 (8) 2a) 1.14 tragocamelus) 31.3.1978 18. BLACKBUCK 1.7.1969 (Antelope cervicapra) to 64 (64) 1 (64) 1.00 31.3.1978 I), FOURHORNED ANTELOPE _ 1.4.1974 1. (2) (Tetracerus to 5 (8) 273) 1.60 quadricornis) 31.3.1978 The observations of some of the earlier workers on litter size of these nineteen species of wild mammals along with a study of the above table follows. TIGER: The litter size of eight births of this species in this park was from | to 3 with an average of 2.38 cubs. The size of 79 litters born in zoos was | to 5 with an average of about 2.8 (Schaller 1972). The litter size is usually 2 to 3 but as many as 6 may be produced (Prater 1971). The litter size varies from 1 to 7 (Brander 1923). LION: The litter size of thirteen births was from 1 to 3 with an average of 1.85 cubs. The average of 64 lion litters in captivity was 2.5 (Cooper 1942). The usual litter size is 2, sometimes 3 and it may contain as many as 5 (Prater loc. cit.). The number of cubs per litter is 1 to 6 with an average of 3.04 and the litter size of one birth in one lioness in Dublin was 7 including three dead ones (Steyn 1951). LEOPARD: ‘The litter size of 22 births at this Park was from 1 to 6 with an average of 2.45 cubs. The birth of 6 cubs in one litter, observed in this Park, appears to be the maximum so far recorded. ET a a = The usual litter size is 2 to 4 (Prater, loc. cit.). The litter size of 27 births of leopards in the Zoological Gardens of London from 1839 to 1937 was 1 to 3 (Zuckerman 1953). The litter size of 39 births in Delhi Zoological Park was | to 3 with an average of 1.6 cubs (Desai 1975). The litter size of four births was 1 to 2 (Acharjyo 1970). GOLDEN CAT: The litter size of four births of this species was | or 2 with an average of 1.25 kittens per litter. The litter size of one birth is one (Acharjyo 1971), of two births is 1 to 2 (Acharjyo and Misra 1973) and 2 (Prater, loc cit.). JUNGLE CAT: The litter size of two births was 3 and 5 with an average of 4 kittens per litter. Acharjyo and Mohapatra (1977) state thai the litter size of eight births of this species was from 3 to 5 with an average of 3.5 kittens per litter. Usually 3 to 4 young are born per litter (Asdell 1964). COMMON PALM CiIveET: The litter size of 12 births of this species was from 2 to 5 with an average of 3 young per litter. The usual litter size is 3 to 4 (Prater, loc. cit.) and 3 to 4 but sometimes as many as 6 (Asdell, loc. cit.). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 COMMON MONGOOSE: Only one birth with two young per litter was recorded. The litter size is small, usually 2 to 3 (Pra- ter, loc. cit.). The litter size of two births was 1 and 3 respectively (Acharjyo 1970). JACKAL: Only one birth with three young per litter was recorded. The number of young per litter varies from 2 to 6, mode 5, and mean 4 (Asdell, loc. cit.). RHESUS MACAQUE: The litter size of seven births was always one. All primates usually produce their young singly but occasionally twins are born (Prater, loc. cit.). Twins in this species are born about once in 90 to 100 births (Asdell, loc. cit.). BONNET MACAQUE: The litter size of three births was always one. INDIAN WILD BOAR: ‘The litter size of 40 births was from 1 to 7 with an average of 4.48. The litter size of this species is 4 to 6 (Pra- ter, loc. cit.). The litter size of five births was from 4 to 7 young (Zuckerman, loc. cit.). SAMBAR: The litter size of 60 births was al- ways one and never twins. One to two fawns are usually born per litter (Asdell, loc. cit.). One pair of twins was born in 41 births (Crandall 1965). Always single young was born to the 30 births recorded at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa upto 30th June 1969 (Acharjyo 1970). A_ single fawn per litter is the rule (Schaller 1972). SPOTTED DEER: Always single young per litter was recorded at all the 74 births. Usually one young per litter is born (Prater, loc. cit.). Only one pair of twins was noted in 225 births (Crandall, loc. cit.). Twins have been born only once in 80 births in the London Zoo (Asdell, loc. cit.). The litter size of 99 births was always one and never twins (Achar- jyo 1970). One to three is usual with twins being common (Brander, loc. cit.). There were no twins in the 25 births at the Calcutta Zoo 324 and 97 births at the Bombay Zoo (Schaller, loc. cit.). HOG DEER: always one. Single young was born to all the 32 births recorded at the New York Zoological Park (Crandall, loc. cit.). Twins have been recorded twice in 55 births in London Zoo (Asdell, lochicits): BARKING DEER: was always one. The young born per litter is usually one and sometimes two (Prater, loc. cit.). Always single young were born to all the 30 births recorded in the Zoological Gardens of London (Zuckerman, loc. cit.). Twin birth was re- corded once in 47 births (Acharjyo 1970). MOUSE DEER: The litter size of six births was always one. The litter size is generally two (Prater, loc. cit.; Asdell, loc. cit.). NILGAI: The litter size of seven births was ! or 2 with an average of 1.14 young per litter. Always single young was born to all the eight births recorded at New York Zoological Park (Crandall, loc. cit.). There were two twitis in four births (Acharjyo 1970). In about 61 births in the Zoological Garden of London, Zuckerman (loc. cit.) states that on an aver- age twins were born in every alternate birth. BLACKBUCK: The litter size of 64 births was always one and never twins. One or two young are produced at a time (Prater, Joc. cit.; Asdell, loc. cit.). Always single young and never twins was recorded in 97 births (Crandall, loc. cit.). The litter size of five births was always one (Acharjyo 1970). FOURHORNED ANTELOPE: The litter size of five births was 1 or 2 with an average of 1.60 young per litter. The litter size of six births was from 1 to 2 with an average of 1.83 (Acharjyo and Misra The litter size of 13 births was The litter size of 23 births MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1975). Twins were produced in 3 of the 5 births in the London Zoo (Asdell, loc. cit.). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Sri G. M. Das, I.FS., VETERINARY ASST. SURGEON, NANDANKANAN BiOLOGICAL ParK, P. O. Barana, Dist., CUTTACK. WILD LIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER, 95-SAHEED NAGAR, BHUBANESWAR-75 1007, May 23, 1978. Chief Wildlife Warden, Orissa, Bhubaneswar and to Sri S. Jee, I.F.S., Chief Conservator of Forests, Orissa, Cuttack for the facilities pro- vided. L. N. ACHARJYO S. MOHAPATRA REFERENCES ACHARJYO, L. N. (1970): Observation on some aspects of reproduction among common wild mam- mals in captivity. Indian J. Anim. Health, vol. X (2): 125-129. — (1971): A note on the birth of a Golden Cat (Felis temmincki) in captivity. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc., 68 (1): 241. AND Misra, R. (1973): Further notes on the breeding of Golden Cat (Felis temmin- cki) in captivity. Indian Forester, 99 (1): 53-54. ——_—_—— — (1975): A note on the breeding habits of Fourt-horned antelope (Tetra- cerus quadricornis) in captivity. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc., 72(2): 529-530. -—————— AND MonapatTra, S. (1977): Some observations on the breeding habits and growth of Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) in captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74 (1): 158-159. ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of mammalian reproduction, Second Edition, Cornell University Press, Ithaca .New York. BRANDER, A. (1923): Cited by Schaller, George, B. (1972). Cooper, J. B. (1972). CRANDALL, Lee S. (1965): The Management of Wild Mammals in Captivity. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. Desa, J. H. (1975): Observations on the Re- productive Biology and early Post-natal Develop- ment of the Panther Panthera pardus L. in captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72 (2): 293-304. Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani- mals, Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. SCHALLER, GEORGE B. (1972): The Deer and the Tiger. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. STEYN, T. J. (1951): Cited by Crandall, Lee S. (1965). ZUCKERMAN, S. (1953): Cited by Crandall, Lee S. (1965). (1942): Cited by Schaller, George. 7. OBSERVATIONS ON PARENTAL CARE OF A WOUNDED CHICK OF THE BRONZEWINGED JACANA, METOPIDIUS INDICUS (LATHAM) While collecting waterbirds in a small fish tank at a swamp in Senpukur, Baj Baj, West Bengal (about 16 km SW. of Calcutta), on 3rd October 1977 around midday, a rico- chetting shot from my .22 bore rifle acciden- tally hit a leg of one of the four chicks of a brood of the Bronzewinged Jacana. At the time of shooting they were following their parent on the other side of the tank. Next day when I visited the tank I observed 325 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 an extremely irritated and pugnacious Bronz- winged Jacana chasing and driving away al- most all the birds which came to visit the tank for foraging, which included Cotton Teal, Lesser Whistling Teal, Pheasant-tailed Jacana, etc. It even chased and drove away a White- breasted Kingfisher and compelled a Little Grebe, an actual resident of the tank, to leave the place. I discovered that the hostile behavi- our of the bird was only to protect the wound- ed chick which was unable to move with the others and was only able to feebly paddle in a small pool of water cleared by a parent bird by pushing or pulling apart the thick floating c/o. Dr BiswamMoy Biswas, ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, INDIAN MUSEUM, CaLcuTtTa 700 016, December 20, 1977. aquaic weeds with its bill. This rather cum- bersome and laborious process of making clear spaces in the thickly entangled mass of aquatic weeds was observed to be performed repeated- ly whenever the chick intended to move about. This behaviour of assistance to the wounded chick lasted till the midday of 5th October when the chick died. During the period of observation, the three other broodmates of the unfortunate chick were unattended by the parent, but were found to be behaving normally like typical precocial chicks. SRIKUMAR CHATTOPADHYAY 8. BLACKNECKED CRANE IN BHUTAN AND ARUNACHAL PRADESH—A SURVEY REPORT FOR JANUARY-FEBRUARY 1978 For studying the status of the allegedly rare Blacknecked Crane, Grus nigricollis Przevalski, in the eastern Himalaya during winter, the Bombay Natural History Society, the Zoologi- cal Survey of India and the World Wildlife Fund—India, organised a joint expedition to Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh during Janu- ary-February 1978. Due to unavoidable rea- sons Dr. Sdlim Ali of the BNHS and Dr. B. Biswas of the ZSI could not join the team. Mr. K. S. Lavkumar of the World Wildlife Fund—India and I from the Zoological Sur- vey of India, therefore, conducted the survey. Earlier under the leadership of Dr. Salim Ali, an expedition in search of the breeding ground of the crane had been undertaken in Ladakh during June-August of 1976, when the BNHS, the ZSI and the WWF-India, participated. 326 On the basis of the report by F. N. Betts (1954) from the Apatani Valley, Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh and the report furnished by Dr. B. Biswas, who led a fauni- stic exploration in central and eastern Bhutan from the Zoological Survey of India and actu- ally found the cranes in the Tashi Yangtsi Valley in eastern Bhutan during 1973, together with the information supplied by the forest department of the Govt. of Bhutan, Central and Eastern Bhutan and Subansiri District (Apa- tani Valley in particular) in Arunachal Pra- desh were chosen for the study. ITINERARY: In Bhutan: 11 Jan. 1978. Dep. Calcutta 15 Jan. 1978. Arr. Bumthang (Cham- khar Chu Valley), central Bhutan 20 Jan. 1978. Dep. Bumthang MISCELLANEOUS NOTES (Due to road blocks produced by heavy snowfall in the higher reaches, the party was unable to pro- ceed further east to the Tashi Yangtsi Valley. It left Bhutan on 23 Jan. 1978). In Arunachal Pradesh: 24 Jan. 1978. Arr. Itanagar 27 Jan. 1978. Dep. Tarajuli (near Itanagar) 28 Jan. 1978. Arr. Apatani Valley (at Hapoli) 29-31 Jan. 1978. Halt at Tale Valley 1 Feb. 1978. Dep. Apatani Valley 2 Feb. 1978. Arr. Daporizo 4 Feb. 1978. Dep. Daporiza 5 Feb. 1978, Arr. Tarajuli 6-12 Feb. 1978. Halt at Ta- rajuli 13 Feb. 1978. Dep. Tarajuli 15 Feb. 1978. Arr. Calcutta. The Blacknecked Crane a bird of the Tibe- tan Plateau, inhabited the grassy shores or reed-beds on the shores of the lakes of the Tibetan Plateau, or on their islands. It ranges from Ladakh in Kashmir east to Koko Nor region of Tibet and is believed to be migra- tory. Very little was known about this beauii- ful crane. In recent years, the Zoological Sur- vey of India team, headed by Dr. B. Biswas found nine birds in the Tashi Yangtse Valley in eastern Bhutan during November of 1973. And lastly, in 1976, the breeding birds with nestlings were found in Ladakh by the joint expedition team headed by Dr. Salim Ali. Altogether we came across sixteen Black- necked Cranes during our stay in Bhutan. At Gyetsa, 42 Km east of Tongsa, in the Kagan Chu Valley, a pair was seen foraging in the bogs as well as in the cultivated fields, soaked with melting snow. At Byakar, in Bumthang area, in the Chamkher Chu Valley, fourteen birds were seen. The composition of the flocks in Bumthang was nine adult and five juvenile birds. The flock broke up into family parties during the daylight hours. There were two pairs with two young, one pair with single young, one pair without any young, and a singleton male. The family parties collected in a flock at their roost before dusk. Segre- gated family parties were observed throughout the daylight hours, foraging in feeding grounds, usually in the bogs and marshes as well as in the ploughed fields. Each party maintained its own feeding territory. The gap between the feeding territories were usually about a kilo- metre or more. Only the mateless male was seen foraging near the couple without young. But he was not allowed to come closer than about a hundred metre or so. Each family party, even with the young foraged in its own particular field. Young fed independently of their parents but their movements from place to place or when alarmed were always together. Before dusk, each party came down to a parti- cular field not far from the roost, where they had their last feed. The congregated family parties had their preening and other rituals and just at dusk, they simultaneousely left for their roosting ground in a marshy fallow field at the foot of a hillock somewhat away from the river bed. Whether at their last feeding ground or at roost, the parties maintained their sepa- rate entities. At daybreak, the parties were seen coming out one after another over the river and settling on their respective feeding grounds. Usually they foraged in a particular field throughout the day unless disturbed. They took no notice of the local people in tradi- tional costumes and would allow them to come within about 20 metres, or so, but were visibly suspicious and cautious at the sight of per- sons not in the familiar apparrel. They became alert and agitated at the report of a .22 rifle and invariably left the feeding ground, sug- gesting a familiarity with firearm sounds ap- parently in their breeding grounds, as they have never been shot at in Bhutan. On the day B27 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 we left Bumthang ,a fresh pair was seen. This, apparently, was the pair we saw at Gyetsa on 15 January, for we did not see it there on our return journey. In the Apatani Valley, Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh, the recorded wintering ground of the Blacknecked Crane, a thorough search for the bird was conducted, but with- out any success. The crane is a well known bird and has found its place in the folk-lore. Information from local sources suggests that some twenty years back flocks of twenty or thirty Blacknecked Crane used to land in the Apatani Valley during the winter, when on such an occasion F. N. Betts encountered them in 1954. At that time the bird enjoyed pro- tection from the local inhabitants. Since then, ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, INDIAN MUSEUM, CaLcuTTA-700 016, December 29, 1978. however, its population in the valley has start- ed dwindling, chiefly due to human interfer- ence by way of hunting. Over the years, ap- parently, the habits of the local inhabitants has changed. During recent years, the free use of firearms, has made persecution of this bird much easier, so that the population of the Blacknecked Crane has now dwindled alarm- ingly, so much so that during the last two years no crane has been sighted in the Apa- tani Valley. The last pair that appeared in the Apatani Valley near Hang Village in Feb- ruary of 1975 was soon collected for the pot within an hour or so of its landing. Since then cranes are not flying over this otherwise beautiful country, an erstwhile favourite win- tering ground. SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA 9. THE BLUECHEEKED BEE-EATER MEROPS SUPERC/LIOSUS LINNAEUS IN KUTCH The Bluecheeked Bee-eater has so far been believed to be only a passage migzant in Kutch. However on June 25, this year I saw one young bird which appeared to have just left its nest, since it kept on sitting in the same position on an electric wire and was being frequently fed by one adult bird. This was at the Devisar Tank, about 16 kms. north of Bhuj. While I, along with the local bird-en- thusiasts, Messers Bapat, Varu and others, watched this young bee-eater no other adult bird except one was seen. Almost all the in- sects caught and fed to the young were dragon- flies (sp ?). The parent bird, after catching its prey, would settle down at some distance on the wire and only after properly killing the 328 insect feed the young one. This, I think, is the first breeding record of this bee-eater in Kutch. Dr. Salim Ali did not come across the Blue- cheeked Bee-eater in Kutch in any season ex- cept during their outward passage migration in Sept.-Oct. They are known to breed in Saurashira (Dharmakumarsinhji—BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA—Specific breeding areas not men- tioned). I have seen them off and on in Kutch during summer. I first came across the bird on May 2, 1950; this too was at the same place (Devisar), and I saw them in the Banni on October 6, 1950, then on November 8, 9, 10, 1973 on the sea coast of Mandvi in scatter- ed parties in a stretch of about 19 kms. from MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Raval Pir to Panchatiya village. These birds were obviously on their way to their wintering JUBILEE GROUND, Buus, KuTcH, August 12, 1978. grounds. M. K. HIMMATSINHSII 10. THE COMMON HAWK-CUCKOO, CUCULUS VARIUS VAHL IN KUTCH The Common Hawk-Cuckoo or Brainfever Bird is found practically all over the country, and I have heard and seen it quite often in Saurashtra (Wankaner) and elsewhere in India. However, I had never come across it in Kutch until 23rd August this year. So far as I know, Dr. Salim Ali has not recorded it here during his surveys JUBILEE GROUND, Buus, KuTcH, September 1, 1978. prior to the publication of the BIRDS OF KUTCH. Thus this sighting of Cuculus varius by me seems to be the first record for the area, at least after the publication of the list of birds recorded by Stoliczka and Hume (BIRDS or KUTCH, p. 171). I am inclined to put this bird down as an extremely rare visitor or a vagrant into Kutch. M. K. HIMMATSINHII 11. A NEW NESTING SITE OF COMMON MYNA, ACRIDOTHERES TRISTIS (LINNAEUS), IN THE PUNJAB (With two photographs) The common myna, Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus), has been reported to nest in holes in trees, rock faces, vertical earth banks, walls of buildings and wells (Whistler 1963, Ali and Ripley 1972 and Ganguly 1975). Occasionally it also builds untidy nests in trees. During July 1977, this bird was seen exploiting a dif- rent nesting site in the Punjab. We saw this bird making use of wheat hay stacks for nest- ing purposes. A wheat hay stack is locally known as kup, a dome shaped structure about 3 to 4.5 metres high and approximately of the same diameter (Photo.1). Only one pair of birds usually nests in a kup. The mynas make a slit at the top of the kup by pulling out straw and an entrance hole is made at the bottom of the slit (Photo.2). There is sufficient place for laying eggs and raising young inside the hole. The eggs are laid directly on the flat platform of hay. How- ever, in some nests it was observed that the bird had placed a few dry leaves and feathers. This nesting site was discovered accidentally on 9th July, 1977 in an agricultural farm at village Darawan, Distt. Jullundur (Punjab). Examinations of the nest in the kup revealed 329 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Photo.l. A kup showing entrance hole of common myna nest at its top. the presence of five eggs of the common myna on the flat platform of wheat hay. On the same day, all kups of that village were examin- ed and the majority of these had common myna nests. In 1978, during mid-July to mid-August, DEPARTMENT OF. ZOOLOGY, PUNJAB. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA-141 004, September 12, 1978. 330 286 kKups were observed at. random in the dis- tricts of Hoshiarpur, Jullundur and Ludhiana. Out of these, 151 contained nests of common myna. This number clearly indicates a change in the nesting behaviour of this bird which is probably due to the changed ecological condi- tions. SEES Photo.2. Top portion of the same kup (enlarged) showing common myna coming out of the nest. The nest in the kup is well protected against rain and sun and is not easily approached by predators. Even if rain water penetrates to some extent, the structures quickly dry up owing to their porous. nature. Besides this, the birds need not collect nesting material, and can lay eggs directly on hay. In using other nesting sites, mynas are known to stuff nesting holes with twigs, roots, tow and rubbish- (Ali & Ripley 1972). H. S. TOOR MANJIT SINGH DHINDSA MISCELLANEOUS NOTES REFERENCES Aut, S. & RipLtey, S. D. (1972): Indian Myna Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus). In: Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. pp. 177-180. Oxford University Press, Bombay, London and New York. GANGULY, U. (1975): Common myna. In: A guide to the Birds of the Delhi Area. pp. 207-08. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. WHISTLER, H. (1963): The common mynah. In: Popular Handbook of Indian Birds. pp. 203-04, Oli- ver and Boyd. Edinburgh and London. 12. ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE EASTERN GHATS HILL MYNA, GRACULA RELIGIOSA PENINSULARIS WHISTLER AND KINNEAR, 1933 [AVES: STURNIDAE] The Eastern Ghats population of the Hill Myna was separated from the Northern Hill Myna, Gracula religiosa intermedia A. Hay, 1844, by Whistler and Kinnear (1933) as Gracula r. peninsularis with Sambalpur district, Orissa, as the type-locality, on the basis of its being smaller in size and in having finer and shorter bill. Ripley (1961) and Ali and Ripley (1972) also accepted them as separate sub- species. However, while working out some recent collections of birds from Orissa made by me in 1976 and 1977, I find that my specimens of the Hill Myna are very difficult to separate from Gracula r. intermedia. An attempt has, therefore, been made to settle the taxonomic status of Gracula religiosa peninsularis on the basis of the material present at the Zoological Survey of India and the Bombay Natural His- tory Society. The differences between the popu- lations from Orissa and northern India are given in Table. TABLE MEASUREMENTS IN MM. (AVERAGES IN PARENTHESIS) : . : Wing-Tail Wing-Bill Wing Tail el Index Index Gracula religiosa intermedia: Nepal 14: 170 78 31 45.88 18.23 NORE 170 79 46.47 18.23 Darjeeling 34 : 16-166 71-74 31-33 43.82-45.62 18.91-20.62 (162.66) (72.66) (32) (44.67) (19.76) 32 : 168-172 78-80 34 45.34-47.05 20-20. 34 (170) (76.66) (34) (46.27) (20.19) Bhutan (Data taken from Dr. B. Biswas) 3¢ 160-165 75-79 30-31 46.87-47.87 18.18-19.37 (161.66) (76.33) (30.66) (47.20) (18.97) 32 : 158-172 72-81 32-33.5 45.56-47.64 18.82-20.88 (166.66) (77.66) (32.83) (46,57) (19.72) 331 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Arunachal Pradesh 22 : 164-168 74-75 (166) (74.50) Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya 3g : 161-171 714-77 (165.66) (75.33) 15 ee: 162 718 Garo Hills, Meghalaya 26 : 168-170 73-74 (169) (73.50) Goalpara 2a : 167-174 71-79 (170.50) (78) Orissa population (=Gracula religiosa peninsularis) : Chahala, Mayurbhanj Dist. 2S : 160, 161 77, 78 (160.50) (77.50) 12 : 156 716 Kotagarh, Phulbani Dist. 5&6 : 156-168 72-80 (163.20) (75) 32 : 154-155 69-74 (154.66) (71) Madpad, Koraput Dist. 58 : 154-169 74-84 (162.80) (79) 42 : 157-162 76-80 (160) (78) Chitrakunda, Koraput Dist. 26.0: 1545163 74, 79 (158.50) (76.50) Kutri and Gonia, Puri Dist. Dopey 155% 160 75,77 (157.50) (76) 31-33 44.64-45.12 18.90-19.64 (32) (44.88) (19.27) 34(2) 45.02-45.96 19.88-20.60 (34) (45.47) (20.24) 34 48.14 20.98 32-34 42.94-44.04 18.82-20.23 (33) (43.49) (19.52) 32-34 45.40-46.10 18.39-20.35 (33) (45.75) (19.37) 30, 32 48.12, 48.44 18.63, 20 (31) (48.28) (19.31) 31 48.71 19.87 33-34 43.97-47.14 19.64-21.79 (33.75) (45.85) (20.79) 30-32 44.80-47.74 19.35-20.64 (31) (45.89) (20.03) 32-34 42.01-48.44 18.93-21.42 (33) (46.85) (20.29) 31-33 46.91-50.31 19.13-21.01 (31.75) (48.75) (19.84) 3733 48.05, 48.46 20.24, 20.77 (32.50) (48.25) (20.50) 33 48.12, 48.38 20.62, 21.29 (33) (48.25) (20.95) It appears from the above data that infer- media and peninsularis cannot be separated from each other on the basis of either size or bill characters. Though intermedia is generally slightly larger than peninsularis, only about 50% and not 75% of the population can be separated, and there is complete overlap in 332 the size of the bill between them, and in their wing-tail and wing-bill indices. Hence, Gracula religiosa peninsularis should be considered a synonym of Gracula religiosa intermedia. I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for his valuable sug- gestions and for going through the manuscript MISCELLANEOUS NOTES and to Dr. S. D. Ripley of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., for his wise ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, INDIAN MUSEUM, CaLcuTTa 700 016, January 3, 1978. advice in this matter. He also agrees with my conclusion. N. MAJUMDAR REFERENCES ALI, S. AND Riptey, S. D. (1972): Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon, 5: 195. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Riptey, S. D. (1961): A synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. P. 304. Bombay Natu- ral History Society, Bombay. WHISTLER, H. AND KINNEAR, N. B. (1933): The Vernay Scientific survey of the Eastern Ghats. Orni- thological Section, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 36: 586. 13. EGG-BOUND DEATH OF A PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD AT BAJ BAJ, WEST BENGAL The Purplerumped Sunbird, Nectarinia zey- lenica sola (Vieillot), breeds throughout the year. However, there is marked increase ia breeding activities in lower West Bengal froin the early part of March to May. Early in February this year, with the first incursion of the south wind that brings humi- dity from the Bay of Bengal and heralds the advent of spring in lower Bengal, I noticed a female Purplerumped Sunbird building its pouch-like pear-shaped nest which lacked the porch-like projection over the entrance, sus- pended from a thin branch of a Sourlime tree [Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle] at a height of c. 1.5 m from the ground at Baj Baj, 24-Parganas District, West Bengal. The nest was built entirely by the female, while her mate did the ‘watch and ward’ duties. She took six days for completion of the nest, from 5th Bas Bat, WEST BENGAL, July. 1, 1977. February to 11th February 1977. The first egg of the clutch was laid on 20th February. The bird was found dead at her nest on the 22nd morning. Its head was tucked in- side the wall of the nest-chamber and the lower part of the abdomen bulged out in such a way that the brood-patch was completely exposed, and the anal circlet was curved inward. The presence of a ring formed by pollen and nectar at the distal part of its bill indicated that it had its early morning feed. On postmortem it was found that the bird died egg-bound. A thinly shelled and properly shaped egg measuring 15.6x11.7 mm was found in the distal part of the oviduct. Traces of haemorrhage in the brain and in the mouth cavity probably the effect of egg-binding were also noticed. SRIKUMAR CHATTOPADHYAY 333 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 14. OCCURRENCE OF THE BENGAL BLACK ROBIN, SAXICOLOIDES FULICATA ERYTHRURA (LESSON) [MUSCICAPIDAE: TURDINAE], AND THE ASSAM PURPLE SUNBIRD, NECTARINIA ASIATICA INTERMEDIA (HUME) [NECTARINIIDAE] IN ORISSA STATE While working out a collection of birds from Orissa State made by Dr. V. C. Agrawal in 1972, Dr. A. K. Mondal in 1972, Shri P. K. Das in 1973 and by me in 1976 and 1977, I came across two species of birds, namely, the Bengal Black Robin, Saxicoloides fulicata ery- thrura (Lesson) [Musicapidae: Turdinae] (15 examples) and the Assam Purple Sunbird, Nectarinia asiatica intermedia (Hume) [Nec- tariniidae] (two examples). According to the standard literature on Indian ornithology like Baker (1926) and Ali and Ripley (1973 and 1974), these have not so far been reported from Orissa. The particulars of the specimens are as follows: Saxicoloides fulicata erythrura (Lesson) Material—@: 2, Tikarpara, Dhenkenal dis- trict, January 8 and 11, 1972; 1, Lathore, Bo- langir, December 19, 1972; 2, Rairakhol, Sam- balpur district, January 26 and 27, 1973; 2, Madpad, Koraput district, February 21 and 24, 1974; 4, Balimela, Koraput district, March 6.7 and 8. 1977. 2: 1, Charmal, Sambalpur district, March ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, INDIAN MUSEUM, CaLcuTTa 700 016, December 21, 1977. 27, 1976; 2, Balimela, Koraput district, March 7, 1977; 1, Chitrakonda, Koraput district, March 17, 1977. Measurements (in mm.): Wing Tail Bill 114: 68,69(3),70,71(3), 59(3),60,61,62, 16(7),17(4) 74(2),75 63(3) 64,65 42 66,67,68,69 58(2) ,60,62 15,16(3) Distribution: Ali and Ripley (1973) stated that it is known from eastern Bihar, West Bengal and adjacent areas of Bangladesh. This is the first record of the occurrence of this subspecies in Orissa. Nectarinia asiatica intermedia (Hume) Material— 3: 1, Badrama, Sambalpur dis- trict, December 27, 1972; 1, Madpad, Koraput district, February 20, 1977. Measurements (in mm.): 26: Wing 56, 58: Hail 37;, 383, Bille22)23: Distribution: According to Baker (1926) and Ali and Ripley (1974) this subspecies is found in Assam and Bangladesh. The present specimens, therefore, constitute the first record of its occurrence in this region. N. MAJUMDAR REFERENCES Aut, S. AND Ripley, S. D. (1973, 1974): Hand- book of the birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. 334 9: 61; 10: 37. BAKER, E. C. S. (1926): Fauna of British India, Birds. 3: 398. Taylor & Francis, London. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 15. DISPERSAL OF BAYAS WITH RECORDED DISTRESS CALLS INTRODUCTION The Indian Baya (Ploceus philippinus) is a common crop pest causing considerable dam- age to cereal crops. They commence visiting the fields in flocks from the time the crops are in milky stage of grain and continue to damage till the harvest of the crop (Hamid Ali et al. 1980). Though various control mea- sures have been advocated none has given a satisfactory result. Some investigators (Frings and Jumber 1954, Frings and Frings 1963 and 1967, Pearson et al. 1967) used the distress calls to frighten away and disperse the birds from their roosts and bird pests from feeding areas. The present experiment was conducted to investigate whether recorded distress calls have any repellent effect in dispersing the bayas from crops. - MATERIALS AND METHODS The roosting site of bayas selected for the present study was situated in the midst of the Agricultural University experimental paddy fields approximately one kilometre from the Veterinary College, Rajendranagar, Hydera- bad: About 350 bayas roosted in a bush. These bayas caused heavy damage to the surround- ing experimentl fields. The acoustic equipment used for the experiment consisted of micro- phone, stereo tape recorder of high quality, 30 W amplifier, speakers and 12 V battery. The distress calls of bayas were recorded for a continuous period of three minutes in the laboratory. The recorded distress calls have high signal-to-noise ratio. The experiment was conducted during March 1978. The amplifier feeding a speaker, and the tape recorder playing the recorded distress calls were operated at a distance of 200 metres from the roosting site. On March 1, 1978 at 5 p.m. about 350 bayas arrived in groups at their roosting place. Prior to the arrival of bayas the speaker was kept hidden on one side of the roosting bush. After 15 minutes of the arrival of bayas and as they began to settle down, the distress calls were played for 30 seconds. Immediately the birds responded to the distress calls and showed signs of restlessness and moved to the other side of the bush. After an interval of 5 minutes the distress calls were again played for 40 seconds. Groups of bayas came out of the bush and hovered around the speaker at a height of about 12 metres and flew off in a northern direction. The birds did not return to the site to roost on that night. The same experiment was repeated at inter- vals of 2 to 7 days. The experimental data on the effect of distress calls on baya population are shown in the Table. TABLE EFFECT OF DISTRESS CALLS ON THE POPULATION OF BAYAS DURING THE EXPERIMENTAL PERIOD No. of bayas Time of arrival Date in the bush of the bayas (in hours) 1-3-1978 350 17.00 3-3-1978 350 16.50 6-3-1978 200 17.40 8-3-1978 80 17.30 10-3-1978 49 18.00 13-3-1978 20 18.20 16-3-1978 — — 23-3-1978 — — 30-3-1978 — — In each trial the bayas came out of the bush in small groups, hovered around the speaker 335 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 without actually settling down and after 6 to 8 seconds activity at the roosting site, the bayas dispersed. DISCUSSION Observations recorded in three trials after the last batch of bayas were dispersed show that the birds did not return to their night roosts till the end of the experimental period, i.e. till 30 March when the last observation was taken. Pearson et al. (1967) observed that starlings were not habituated to distress calls contrary to the findings of Frings & Frings (1963). In the present studies the dispersal of bayas from their roosting site indicates that they are not habituated to the distress calls which is in confirmation with findings of Pearson ef al. (1967). From the above observations it is inferred that the bioacoustic method is effec- ORNITHOLOGY SCHEME, INSECTARY BUILDING, A. P. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD 500 030, February 21, 1979. tive in moving bayas from their roosts. Further experiments with regard to the effective dis- tance of audibility in cropped area, duration of the effect and the response of the bird pests toward the distress calls of other species are in progress. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are due to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for financ- ing a research scheme for biology and control of bird pests at Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Hyderabad, under which the pre- sent studies were carried out. The authors are also grateful to Dr. B. Biswas, Dy. Director and Dr. A. K. Mukherjee, Superintending Zoologist, Zoolgical Survey of India, Calcutta for their valuable suggestions on the manu- script. S. T. P. V. J. SWAMY N. SHIVANARAYAN MIR HAMID ALI REFERENCES FRINGS, H. AND Frincs, M. (1963): Pest Control with sound. Part II. The problem with vertebrates. Sound 2(i): 39-45. (1967): Behavioural manipulation (visual, mechanical and acoustical). In “Pest Con- trol” (Kilgore, W. W. and Doutt, R. L. ed) Acade- mic Press, New York. 387-454. AND JUMBER, J. (1954): Preliminary studies on the use of a specific sound to repel starl- ings (Sturnus vulgaris) from objectionable roosts. 336 Science. 119 (3088): 318-319. Hamip Aut, M., SincH, T. G. M., BANu, Aziz, Rao, M. A. AND JANAK, A. T. (1980): Observa- tions on the food and feeding habit of Baya weaver (Ploceus. philippinus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (supplement): 1198-1204. PEARSON, E. W. SKON, P. R. AND CorNeErR, G. W. (1967). Dispersal of urban roosts with records of starling distress calls. J. Wildl. manage. 31(3): 502- 506. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 16. ON NESTING ASSOCIATION OF THE WHITEBACKED MUNIA, LONCHURA STRIATA (LINNAEUS) WITH THE MOUND-FORMING TREE-ANT, CREMATOGASTER ROGENHOFERI MAYR The nesting association of birds with aggres- sive social insects like bees, wasps and ants is well known. As early as 1866, Ramsay wrote of Gerygone olivacea, the Whitethroated Gery- gone: “The nests are often placed in trees covered with ants, which insects are often on the nests themselves but do not, as far as I am aware, cause the bird any anxiety.” Since then some work has been done on this subject by various authors such as North (1904, 1909), Jackson (1907), Maclaren (1950), Chisholm (1952) and a collation with critical analysis of all those works has been done by Hindwood (1955). In India the only bird that has so far been recorded to form its nesting association with tree-ants (Crematogaster, Plegiolepis, etc.) is the Rufous Woodpecker, Micropternus, brach- yurus (Vieillot) [Baker (1927), Ali & Ripley (1971)], though the nesting association of the Blackheaded Munia, Lonchura malacca (Lin- naeus), with paper-wasps has been recorded from Australia (Hindwood 1950), where the bird was imported from the East as a cage- bird. The present paper deals with a four-year study on the nesting association of the White- backed Munia, Lonchura striata (Linnaeus), with the paper nest tree-ant, Crematogaster rogenhoferi Mayr, at Baj Baj, 24 Parganas district, West Bengal. In the year 1974, a pair of Whitebacked Munia built their nest in a Kamini tree (Murya paniculata Jack) at a height of c. 3 m from the ground at the edge of a pond. They com- menced building the nest on 5th August and completed it on 14th August. On close inspec- tion which was only possible after a good number of ant-bites, it was found that the nest was constructed very close to a live, oval- shaped nest of tree-ants. The parent birds were abie to rear successfully all the four young of the brood that year. The female bird was caught in a mistnet and was marked by clipping its middle claw of the right foot. Next year, the same female along with a male again commenced building their nest in the same bough close to that nest of ants on 3rd August 1975 and completed it on 11th August 1975. Unfortunately, however, after the female had laid the first egg of the clutch the local village boys damaged the nest along with the egg on 18th August 1975. Three weeks later, on 9th September 1975, to my utter surprise, I found that the pair had again started building another nest at the same spot, and completed its construction on 19th Sep- tember 1975. This time they were successful in raising their brood. In 1976 in order to study the habitat and associate preference, I intentionally damaged the newly built nest on 27 August. They re- built the nest on 7th October at the same spot. A very interesting thing happened this year (1977). The same female bird and a male built their nest at exactly the same spot as in the previous years, commencing on 15th Septem- ber and completing it on 24th September. How- ever, soon after the tree-ant nest was damag- ed by torrential rain on 6th October, the birds deserted the nest and shifted to a nearby Bakul tree (Mimusops elengi Linnaeus) that was heavily infested with tree-ants, to con- struct another nest. 337. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 From the above observation it appears that the Whitebacked Munia prefers such an asso- ciation with the ants, and that the nesting acti- vities of the pair are tolerated by the ants, which can also differentiate the intruders, as whenever I ventured near the nest, the ants rushed towards me in hundreds, holding their abdomen skywards like anti-aircraft guns and within a very short time I found myself cover- ed with ants all stinging, until I made a hur- ried retreat. A female Longtailed Mouse, Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett), who built her nest in the same tree, was, however, unable to rear her young because of the ants. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, INDIAN MUSEUM, CALCUTTA 700 016, December 22, 1977. It appears that the munias were aware of the arms of protection provided by the ants, because there is no convincing alternative for the evaluation of such an association known at present. ' ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I record my sincere thanks to Dr. Biswamoy Biswas of the Zoological Survey of India, for his interest in this study and helping me in the preparation of this paper, I also thank to Dr. Amalesh Chowdhury of the Depart- ment of Zoology, Calcutta University, for en- couragement. \ SRIKUMAR CHATTOPADHYAY REFERENCES Aur, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1971): Handbook of birds of India, Pakistan and Ceylon. 10. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Baker, E. C. S. (1927): Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. 6. London. CuisHoLmM, A. H. (1952): Bird insect nesting as- sociation in Australia. Ibis. 94: 395-405. Hinpwoop, K. A. (1955): Bird/Wasp nesting as- sociation. Emu 55: 263-274. Jackson, S. W. (1907): Catalogue and data of Jacksonian Oological collection: 72. Sydney. Mac aren, P. I. R. (1950): Bird-ant nesting as- sociations. Ibis 92: 564-566. Nort, A. J. (1904): Nests and eggs of birds found breeding in Australia: 1-194. Sydney. (1909): Notes on the Nesting-site of Gerygone personata, Gould. Rec. Aust. Mus. 7: 186-188. 17. BIRD PESTS TO RICE AT BUMBONG LIMA, PROVINCE WELLESLEY, WEST MALAYSIA From April 1975 through March 1977, { conducted an investigation of bird pests to rice in northwestern peninsular Malaysia. The study came under the auspices of the United States Peace Corps/Smithsonian Institution Environ- mental Program, and was conducted in co- operation with the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MAR- DI). My study area consisted of 15 ha. of 338 experimental rice fields at the MARDI Rice Research Center (RRC) at Bumbong Lima in Northern Province Wellesley. The RRC conducts research in the areas rice breeding and varietal improvement, rice plant physio- logy, agronomy, and crop protection, which includes such pests as rodents, insects, weeds, fungus and bacteria. Bumbong Lima is situated in one of Malaysia’s most productive rice- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES growing areas. Much of the agricultural land is irrigated so that two crops of rice are har- vested annually. Throughout Asia, numerous species of seed- eating birds cause extensive damage to cereal grain crops such as rice. In West Malaysia, the main bird pests are four species of munia in the genus Lonchura (Estrildidae), and the Baya Weaver, Ploceus philippinus (Ploceidae). Munias have long been popular with avicultu- ralists, and many cage studies of their beha- vior have been made, but relatively little re- search has been conducted under natural con- ditions. On the other hand, the Baya Weaver has been the subject of many field studies, particularly with regard to its nesting beha- vior, but as with the munias, its role as a crop pest has not received much attention. This study was designed to gather data on move- ments, food habits, and breeding seasonality of the bird pests to rice in the Bumbong Lima area. At the RRC, the principal rice-eating spe- cies were the Sharp-tailed Munia, Lonchura striata; the Spotted Munia, L. punctulata; and the Baya Weaver. The Chestnut Munia, L. malacca, and the White-headed Munia, L. maja, occurred abundantly in fields within 15 km of the RRC, but only seldom did I observe them on the study area. The results of my study are summarized below under three main headings. Additional data or details of the investigation are avail- able from me upon request. Movements I instituted a ringing program early in the study to obtain data on the movements of the three target species. During 1975, numerous ringed birds were retrapped at the RRC, but reports of ringed birds being trapped out- station were non-existent. To spur interest among farmers, I advertised in the local news- papers and on the radio a reward of M$2.00 (US$0.80) for out-station recoveries of ringed birds. The response was very enthusiastic, and a total of 50 recoveries resulted. The Sharp-tailed Munia (STM) was by far the most numerous of the three target species on the study area. Regular censuses showed that STMs were most abundant during the months of March and September, with lows occurring in May and November. This pat- tern of abundance corresponded with the pat- tern of rice availability at the RRC. Overall, I ringed 1988 STMs, and recorded 250 on-station retraps. The high rate of re- traps indicates that STMs in the Bumbong Lima area had rather localized movements and returned regularly to the RRC to feed. There were 11 out-station recoveries of STMs, all from within 10 km of the RRC, again indi- cating a localized pattern of movement. At the RRC, field counts of Spotted Munias (SPM) tended to be low during the first eight months of the year and high during Septeni- ber-December, probably due to the addition of juvenile birds to the population. A total of 531 SPMs was ringed during the study, but only 14 on-station retraps were recorded. This suggests either that this species moves about more extensively than do STMs, or that SPMs are more successful in avoiding being recap- tured. Two out-station recoveries of SPMs were reported, one from 16 km south of the RRC. Numbers of Baya Weavers (BW) fluctuated quite drastically from month to month with no apparent pattern. Altogether, 863 BWs were ringed and 193 were retrapped on-station. Most of the retraps occurred within one month of the ringing date, and retraps over longer intervals were uncommon, indicating that once they left the study area, BWs seldom returned, 339 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 unlike STMs which regularly came back. There were 37 out-station recoveries of BWs. About half of these were from locations greater than 10 km from the RRC, suggesting that BWs ranged over a greater area than did the munias. Food Habits The food habits of the three target species were examined through field observations and crop analyses. In addition, cage studies were conducted on the munias. In the field, STMs were observed eating rice almost 75% of the time. The only other food item recorded in the field was the filamentous green algae, Spirogyra. Rice was also the most common food item for SPMs in the field, but they were also frequently seen eating Echino- chloa, a common weedy grass that was abund- ant at certain times of the year. SPMs also ate algae, but not as often as did the STMs. BWs were never seen eating algae. Rice comprised the bulk of their diet, according to the field observations, although they frequently were seen in tall grass and reed areas adjacent to the rice fields. Crop analyses performed on a total of 231 birds largely confirmed the field observations. Very little other than rice and algae was found in the crops of STMs. SPMs ate rice more often than any other food item, but seeds cf wild grasses as well as algae were recorded with appreciable frequency. No algae was found in BW crops, two-thirds of which con- tained rice. Seeds of the grass Paspalum sp. and various sedges (Cyperaceae) were frequ- ently found. Insect matter was found in two BW crops. In the cage experiments, munias, singly and in pairs, were given a choice of two food items on each of five days. In the first series, the food items were ripe rice and the grass Echi- 340 nochloa crusgalli. In the second series, rice at various stages of ripening was used. The SIMs tested usually showed a preference for rice over Echinocloa whereas the SPMs displayed no preference. This is very consistent with the field observations. In the second series, STMs tended to prefer younger, milky stage rice over rice that was at least two weeks older, although both were eaten. No distinction was made by the birds between rice that differed in age by just one week. Breeding Seasonality The breeding seasonality of the two munia species was examined in three ways: the pre- sence of juvenile-plumaged birds in the popu- lation, the gonad size of autopsied birds, and field observations of nesting activity. The juvenile plumages of both munia spe- cies persist until about three months of age. Among the STMs, birds in juvenile plumage were most common during the periods March- April and September-October. These periods were also the times of maximum rice abund- ance at the RRC. The peak time of juvenile- plumaged SPMs was September-December, al- though birds in juvenile plumage were present all year round. Among the adult-plumaged STMs of both sexes, the greatest periods of reproductive acti- vity, as indicated by enlarged gonads, were January-February and July-August, just prior to the periods of greatest juvenile abundance in the population. Thus, it appears that STMs at the RRC have two main periods of breed- ing activity annually. Not enough SPMs were collected to deter- mine their seasonal gonadal condition. STM nesting activity was determined regu- larly at five locations outside of Bumbong Lima, and local (within 1 km) rice conditions were assessed at the same time. These obser- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES vations showed that active or very active nest- ing occurred 12 times when rice was locally available and 6 times when it was not. On the other hand, only once was nesting not recorded when rice was available in local fields. The remaining 13 observations when ne, or slight, nesting was recorded, there was no locally available rice. Thus, there was a de- 231 GIBSON RoapD, ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND 21401, U.S.A., March 15, 1978. finite association between STM nesting acti- vity and nearby rice conditions. It is hoped that the results of this study will lead to a better understanding of the relation- ships between certain bird species and the rice crop in Malaysia, and that these results will provide a basis for further studies. MICHAEL AVERY 18. NOTES ON SEXING CROCODILIANS (With two plates) The need for sexing crocodilians for captive propagation or for release is self evident. Several authors have reported the effectiveness of the simple cloacal probe technique. The crocodile is held and turned on its back. The cloacal area is cleaned with water, finger (close- cropped nail advisable) is inserted to feel for the presence or absence of the penis. Male crocodilians possess a single organ, rooted to the interior ventral wall of the cloaca immediately anterior to the anal vent. Normal rigidity of the organ permits contact when probed at a depth of 8 centimetres or less in an animal 3 to 4 metres in length. The absence of a rigid organ within the cloaca of the female reveals only a vacant chamber when probed. The small flaccid clitoris of the female cannot easily be confounded with the penis of the male if a minimum specimen size limitation of 75 cm is observed, particularly when deal- ing with individuals of the genus Tomistoma and Gavialis (Brazaitis 1968). With smaller mugger (70-80 cm) it is often impossible to insert a finger. However the penis was extrudable by applying digital pres- sure on both sides of the cloaca while bending the animal’s tail upwards (plate I). Mugger (C. palustris) of under 80 cm are difficult to sex. The cloacal opening is small, the clitoris and penal tip are extrudable and look alike. As they grow larger the clitoris is no longer extrudable while the penis grows and continues to be extrudable manually. At 2.5 metres (near breeding size for the male) the penis will extrude approximately 10 cm and is about 3 cm in diameter. Crocodylus porosus is similar in structure and development rate to the mugger. Animals of 90 cm can be reliably sexed using the fifth finger (small opening). There is little in the literature on sexing Gavialis gangeticus. Our experience in exan- ing 20 Gavialis from 1 m (2 years) to nearly 3 m (20 years) suggest that this animal has a slower rate of sexual development than the other two Indian crocodilians. In none of the gharial checked was the penis more than a few centimetres in length though the 2.7 m spect- men was over 12 years of age (plates). Capti- vity (diet, metabolism, enclosure, disturbance) 341 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 places some developmental limits but one cap- tive male (Nandankanan, Orissa) of about 2.5 m is reported to be developed “‘normally”’ by other known crocodilian standards (H. R. cussion it was felt that the non-breeding of this crocodilian in captivity is at least partly due to the difficulty in sexing them. The Table gives the basic details of the Gavialis checked. I RR A RE SS Year ee Place Size Sex Notes 1. 1974 10 Mysore Zoo 2.8m 3} No ghara, penis small, distin- guishable. 2.° 1974 10 Mysore Zoo 2.7m g Smooth cloacal wall with small clitoris 3. 1974 3 Mysore Zoo 1.2m 2 At this size sex probably not determinable 4 1975 D} Madras Crocodile Bank 1.2m ou, In 1975 it was sexed as a female; in 1978 (at 2 m) it is apparently a male! Sa 1975 3 Madras Crocodile Bank 1.6m 3 Penis small but distinguishable. 6. 1977 10+ Ahmedabad Zoo 2.5m 3 Thought to be a female and penis not detected at first check. Upon rechecking confirmed io be a male (at 2.7 m). eee OUT 20+ Calcutta Zoo 2.5m so) Smooth, wide cloaca with small clitoris about six cm inside on anterior wall. 85 LOTT 2 Madras Crocodile Bank 1.1m 9? At this size sex probably not determinable. 9. 1977 2, Madras Crocodile Bank 1.2m ? Sex not determinable. 10. 1978 T+ Patna Zoo .3m é No ghara, penis small but dis- tinguishable. 11 1978 Pe) Gharial Project, 1-1.6m ? Cloacal opening small and sexes to Kukkrail, Uttar Pradesh undistinguishable. 20. Bustard, pers. comm.). The specimen is not particularly old (12-15 years) but has a well- developed ‘“‘ghara” over its nostrils (plate). The ghara is interpreted to be a dimorphic male character (Martin and Bellairs 1977) and may indicate sexual maturity. At the Crocodile Bank we have 6 gharial ranging from two 1.2 metres 2 year old to a 2.7 m, 18 year old male. After the February 1978 IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group Meeting, several of the specialists worked with us checking the lower size limit for sexing young mugger and sexing the gharial. In dis- 342 Discussion: If further studies on sexing gha- rial confirm the difficulties mentioned above, other methods of sex determination must be investigated. Bellairs (THE LIFE OF REPTILES, 1969) mentions that karotyping may not work in crocodilians (Gavialis?) but other sex cha- racters may come to light. This problem attains more importance considering that recent re- search indicates that egg incubation tempera- ture influences the sex ratio of crocodilian otf- spring and the need in release programmes to stock a suitable ratio. J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE [ Whitaker & Whitaker : Sexing crocodilians Demonstrating the technique of sexing a juvenile C. palustris of 80 em by tail bending and pressure on sides of cloaca. Close up of extruded penis of C. palustris. J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 Whitaker & Whitaker : Sexing ars iii psy, be crocodilians m Gavialis. PLATE II MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Mapbras CrocoDILE BANK TRUST, VADANEMMELI VILLAGE, TamMiL Napbu, January 25, 1979. ROMULUS WHITAKER ZAHIDA WHITAKER ALLEN VAUGHAN REFERENCES BELLAIRS, A. D’A. (1969): The Life of Reptiles. Weidenfeld and Nicholson. BrazalTis, P. J. (1968): The Determination of Sex in Living Crocodilians. British Journal of Her- petology. Martin, B. G. H. & BeLvarrs, A. D’A. (1977): The narial excrescence and pterygoid bulla of the gharial, Gavialis gangeticus. J. Zool. London 182: 541-558. WHITAKER, R. (1975): A note on Crocodilian Sex Determination. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (3): 531-532. 19: ON-THE OCCURRENCE OF BIFURCATED TAILED IN AGAMA LIZARD FROM SIMLA HILLS, HIMACHAL PRADESH During September 1970, while undertaking a general faunistic survey of Rajgarh and its vicinity of district Sirmour, H.P., we observed a good number of agama lizards basking on barren rocks, creeping out from below stones and crevices of boulders, of which a few lizards were collected. While studying these specimens, one lizard was noted to have its tail bifurcated last one- third of the total length of the tail. The speci- men was identified as Agama _ tuberculata HicH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STATION, ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, SoLAN (H.P.), December 21, 1978. 20. RECENT RE-DISCOVERY OF ; OTOCRYPTIS ‘Recently I picked up a juvenile agamid lizard from a bush near a stream in the upper shola, Kodaikanal (2100 m), Palnis, Western Ghats, South India. On detailed examination later the specimen was recognised easily as Oto- cryptis beddomii Boulenger because of its sub- Gray. Material: 1 ex. Loc. Rajgarh, Dist. Sirmour, H.P., 3-9-70, M. Chandra. Measurement: 250 mm. Total length. 123 mm. Standard length. We are deeply indebted to Dr. R. Bielowski, Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sci- ence, Warsaw for his valuable comments and confirmation during his study of Solan in 1973. Thanks are due to the Director, Z.S.1. for the facilities afforded. MAHESH CHANDRA RATHIN MUKHERJEE THE RARE AGAMID LIZARD BEDDOMII dermal tympanum and the short fifth toe. Bou- lenger (1885: 272) has described this species based on five specimens—two females and three juveniles—collected by Colonel Beddome at Sivagiri Ghat, Cardamom Hills, South India. Smith (1935: 148) says: “Ferguson obtained 343 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 two more specimens in Travancore’. The specimen has the following characteris- tics: snout-vent length—35 mm; tail—73 mm. Its coloration is as follows: Dorsum with five black transverse bars. While the dark bars on the limbs are clearly visible, the forehead is devoid of the dark bar observed by Smith. No traces of gular appendage. The specimen bearing Register Number L. 151 is deposited in the reptile collections of the Southern Regional Station of the Zoolo- gical Survey of India, Madras 600 028. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, MapbraS-600 028, June 23, 1980. The present record of this species from Palanis other than its type locality and nearly after a century since its description is rather interesting. We can definitely say that it is not as rare as to be restricted to the Cardamom Hills, Kerala. However, its definitive distribu- tion should await further exploration of the Western Ghats. I am thankful to the Officer-in-Charge, Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Madras for facilities. T. S. N. MURTHY REFERENCES BOULENGER, G. A. (1885): Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum (Natural History), Vol. I, 436 pp. Dlr SmiTH, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. 2, Sauria. GROWTH RATE OF INDIAN PYTHON, PYTHON MOLURUS MOLURUS (SERPENTES: BOIDAE) IN CAPTIVITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO AGE AT FIRST EGG-LAYING (With two text-figures) The growth rate of Indian Python from the time of hatching to the age at first egg-laying has rarely been reported. Acharjyo and Misra (1976) reported on the mating, gestation period, egg-laying, incubation, behaviour of the brooding female, hatchlings and quarterly growth rate to the age of one year of Indian Python observed at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa, India. They have also stated that it was intended to rear a batch of these hatch- lings to sexual maturity. This communication is a follow up to these earlier observations. In this, studies on the quarterly growth rate 344 of 4 to 9 hatchlings of Indian Pythons from the 12th month to the age of the first egg- laying and beyond observed in the same park are reported. Growth Rate: The quarterly growth rate of 11 to 38 Indian Python babies from the time of hatching to one year old has already been reported by Acharjyo and Misra (loc. cit.). Our further observations on growth rate from the 12th month to the age of 51st month are as follows (Table 1, Figs. 1 & 2). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES TABLE 1 QUARTERLY GROWTH RATE OF YOUNG INDIAN PYTHONS FROM 12TH MONTH TO THE AGE OF SIST MONTH Dates Age in Sample Mean length Mean weight months size (Range) cm (Range) g 1 2, 3 4 5 4 July 1975 12 11 136.41 942.91 (126.5-153) (720-1535) 25 Sept. 1975 15 9 142.72 1251 (127-142) (780-2330) 25 Dec. 1975 18 6 144.83 1152 (128-179.5) (635-2170) 25 March 1976 21 5 167.60 1813 s (151-194) (1210-3005 ) 25 June 1976 24 5 215.50 4755 (190-237) (2390-6640) 25 Sept. 1976 27 4 215.80 4378 (194-240) (2250-6110) 25 Dec. 1976 30 4 218.25 4378 (194-240) (2250-6110) 25 March 1977 33 4 219ETS 5551 (195-241) (3220-7535) 25 June 1977 36 4 23325 7945 (214-249) (6580-8540) 25 Sept. 1977 39 4 241.00 8444 (220-257) (7250-8910) 25 Dec. 1977 42 4 245.75 8408 (233-261) (7440-8870) 25 March 1978 45 4 246.75 9090 (235-262) (7750-10,600) 27 June 1978 48 4 248.75 8523 (235-266) (5570-10,970) 25 Sept. 1978 51 4 250.25 9565 (236-267) (7430-10,940) Examination of this table and the graphs reveals that the average growth rate in total length in the first year was maximum (75.70 cm) and the growth rate during the second year (44.99 cm) and third year (51.85 cm) remained almost the same. But during the fourth year the average growth rate was much reduced (15.50 cm). The weight increase graph (Fig. 2) reveais that the maximum average growth in weight (5115 grams) was recorded during the third year of life and the minimum average growth in weight (578 grams) was recorded in the fourth year. Two of the (female) pythons first laid eggs in the fourth year and as usual starved for about two months during incubation. Age at first egg-laving: Two female pythons hatched in the Park during the period from 23 to 25 June 1974 (whose matings were not observed) laid eggs on 27 April 1978 and 4 May 1978 respectively at the age of 3 years 345 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 10 months and 3-5 days and 3 years 10 months and 10-12 days respectively. Taking the gesta- tion period as 82-83 days (Acharjyo and Misra, loc. cit.) the age of sexual maturity in these two cases can be said to be about 3 years and 74 months. The two females weighed 7.750 Kg (Total length 235 cm) and 8.920 Kg (Total length 250 cm) on 25 March 1978 before egg laying. These two weighed 5.570 Kg (Total length 235 cm) and 6.880 Kg (Total length 251 cm) on 27 June 1978 after the incubation was over. The two male pythons weighed 9.090 Kg (Total length 262 cm) and 10.660 Kg (Total length 240 cm) on 25 March 1978. They weighed 10.970 Kg (Total length 266 cm) and 10.670 Kg (Total length 243 cm) on 27 June 1978. Since no mating was observed and since all the eggs were found infertile and spoiled, it is presumed that the male pythons require a longer time to reach sexual maturity than females. Clutch size and eggs: The clutch size of one female which laid eggs on 27 April 1978 was 13 (eight normal sized white coloured eggs and five small sized light brown coloured eggs) whereas the clutch size of the other femaie which laid eggs on 4 May 1978 was 17 (two normal sized white coloured eggs and fifteen small sized light brown coloured eggs). Five white coloured eggs measured 8.5- 12.0 4.7-5.2 cm and weighed 165-207 grams. Five light brown coloured eggs measured 7.4-9.6 x 3.9-5.0 cm and weighed 73.97 g. DISCUSSION Deoras (1965) states that in the laboratory an Indian Python of unknown age and un- stated size and weight grew 6-8 inches (15- 20 cm). Pope (1962) states that the Indian Python 346 holds the record growth rate of 34 feet per year for the first two years of life. Our obser- vations partly agrees with his observations in that maximum average growth rate in total length (75.70 cm) was recorded in the first year of life but was less than recorded by Pope (loc. cit.). This partly reflects the natural con- ditions under which pythons are kept with a marked winter period during which feeding was greatly reduced. About this species Smith (1943) states that “the rate of growth in nature is not known, and the records of growth in captivity vary so greatly that they are obviously influenced by the conditions under which the snakes live’. According to Grzimek (1975) the boids grow fairly quickly until they are 2-3 metres long, but after that time, growth proceeds at a much slower rate. Eight hatchlings of this species grew from an average length of 19? inches to 6 feet 7 inches in twenty months, a fourfold increase (Pope, loc. cit.). Fig. 1 shows the effect of the cooler weather (monsoon quarter) on growth in length. In the year one ,growth was slow in the winter quar- ter (October-December), picked up in the next quarter (January-March) and was maximum in summer (April-June). The following comments on the Orissa climate are essential for proper understanding of the discussion. First quarter (January- March) winter gives way to a very brief spring followed by warm weather during February; second quarter (April-June) hot (very hot) season; third quarter (July-September) mon- soon season (cooler); fourth quarter (Octo- ber-December) autumn and winter, feeding much reduced. In the second year there was marked reduc- tion in growth in the monsoon and winter quarters and rapid growth thereafter which was marked in the monsoon quarter of the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 270 240 210 iso 60 30 oO 6 12 IS 24 30 36 42. 48 age in months Fig. 1. Graph showing quarterly average growth rate in total length of Indian Pythons from the time of hatching to the age of 51 months (4 years and 3 months). 347 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 10 in grams (thousands) & d weight ayr lyr Oo 6 '2 is 24 30 36 42 48 age inmonths Fig. 2. Graph showing quarterly average growth rate in weight of Indian pythons from the time of hatching to the age of 51 months (4 years and 3 months). 348 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES third year. After this, growth slowed down as is to be expected with attainment of sexual maturity. Fig. 2 shows these effect also and makes interesting comparison with Fig. 1. Marked increase in weight commenced in the third quarter of the second year at eighteen months of age and continued until the age of three years (36 months) with the sole exception of the fourth quarter (October-December) of 1976, when actual loss of weight was recorded due to cessation of feeding. Weight increase was minimum in the fourth year. This partly reflects brooding by the females but also mark- ed reduction in growth following attainment of sexual maturity. There was a good weight increase in the third quarter of 1978 but this reflects more regaining weight lost during the fasting incubation period. The rapid increase in length was over by 27th month of age, having commenced at sixth month, thus covering 21 months. The rapid weight increase was over at 36th month, hav- ing commenced at 18th month and thus occu- pying 18 months. Hence growth in length was followed subsequently by weight increase which took more time to catch up. The idea of Williamson (1967) that about half of the total length may be attained in the first 3 to 4 years of life is extremely interesting. This hypothesis receives some confirmation from Bustard’s finding in the Green Sea Turtle, Chelonia mydas (Bustard 1972). To put this more concisely this means the maximum size of the indvidual depends upon early growth, the rate of which is clearly dependent upon genetic and environmental factors (Bustard, Singh and Choudhury, MS) as observed in Indian Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palu- stris). It is clear that much faster growth rates than here reported could have been achieved by winter heating resulting in greatly enhanced feeding during the winter quarters. Such growth rates would however have been much faster than occurs in nature as occurring in the Indian Crocodile (Bustard, Pers. Comm.). Our own figures are considered to be more closely approximates natural growth being re- corded out-doors under ambient temperature conditions within the natural range of the spe- cies. However they may exceed wild growth as a result of enhanced food supply. This in itself may have resulted in first egg laying at an early age than is naturally the case in nature (Bustard, Pers. Comm.). The boids reach sexual maturity in three years in captivity (Grzimek, loc. cit.). Accord- ing to Pope (loc. cit.) the smallest Indian python to produce fertile eggs was only 8 feet 6 inches (2.55 m). He further states that the female of a mated captive pair of this species laid fertile eggs at the age of less than three years. SUMMARY The quarterly growth rate of 4 to 11 Indian pythons from the 12th month to the age of 51st month were observed in a natural environ- ment at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa, India. The average growth rate in total length in the first year was maximum (75.70 cm) and the growth rate during the second year (44.99 cm) and third year (51.85 cm) remained al- most the same. But during the fourth year growth rate was much reduced (15.50 cm). The maximum average growth in weight (5115 g) was recorded during the third year of life and the minimum average growth in weight (578 g) was recorded in the fourth year. 349 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to Dr. H. R. Bustard, F.A.0O./U.N.D.P. Consultant on Crocodiles in VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON, NANDAKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK, P.O. BaraAnGc, Dists CUTTACK, Orissa (INDIA) 754005. WiLD LirE CONSERVATION OFFICER, 95-SAHID NAGAR, BHUBANESWAR-751 007, OrISSA (INDIA), April 21, 1980. India for his help in the preparation of this paper. L. N. ACHARJYO CH. G. MISHRA REFERENCES ACHARJYO, L. N. AND Misra, R. (1976): Aspects of Reproduction and Growth of the Indian Python, Python molurus molurus, in captivity. British Jour- nal of Herpetology, 5: 562-65. BustTArRD, H. R. (1972): Sea-Turtles: Their Na- tural History and Conservation. Collins, London & Sydney. SincH, L. A. K. AND CHOUDHURY, B. C. (M.S.): Growth of Three Populations of Mugger Crocodiles, Crocodylus palustris Lesson (Reptilia, Crocodilia) from Tamilnadu, South India, MLS. Deoras, P. J. (1965): Snakes of India. National Book Trust, India, New Delhi. GRZIMEK, BERNHARD (1975): Animal Life En- cyclopedia, Vol. 6, Reptiles, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, Cincinnati, Toronto, London, Melbourne, pp. 363-380. PoprE, CLierorD H. (1962): The Giant Snakes. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. SMITH, M. A. (1943): The Fauna of British India, Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. III, Serpentes, Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 102-110. WILLIAMSON, MICHAEL A. (1967): Notes on the Growth Rate of Python reticulatus (Serpentes: Boidae). Herpetologica, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 130-132. 22. COBRA AND LITTLE BITTERN /XOBRYCHUS MINUTUS On the morning of 5th August I had the opportunity to collect a cobra (Naja naja oxiana) lying dead on the bank of river Tawi (360 m), with a little bittern stuck in its throat. Examination confirmed that the snake had DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF KUMAUN, NAINITAL, (U.P.), September 18, 1978. 350 died in the struggle to swallow the little bit- tern (Ixobrychus minutus) which was com- paratively large in size and there were no bruises or even scratches on the body of the snake. B. D. SHARMA MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 23. KHULNAWA—A SPECIAL FISHING DEVICE FOR MINNOWS IN THE RIVER GANGA AT PATNA (BIHAR) (With a plate) Break-up figures of fish landings from the river Ganga at Patna during the years 1958 to 1966 indicate the larger groups, comprising Cirrhinus mrigala, Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Mystus aor, M. seenghala, Wallago attu and Hilsa ilisha, constitute over 55% of the total fish landing (Jhingran et al. 1970). From our visits to fishing sites in the river at Patna and also from emphatic comments of the fishermen we gathered that there has been a sharp decline in the catch of the larger groups of fishes in - this stretch of the river with Hilsa ilisha on the verge of disappearance. Increasing dependance of the local wholesale fish market (Mussalle- pur Haat) on the imports to the extend of over 60% from other states for the larger fishes is yet another evidence of fall in the catch in the river. The fishermen recall notic- ing the declining trend with coming up of the Farrakka barrage across the Ganga in the Malda district of West Bengal. While obstruc- tional role of the barrage on the migration of Hilsa ilisha is as per expectations, cause of the fall in catch of the other larger fishes is in- comprehensible beyond the point that their number might have thinned out in this stretch of the river due to some unobserved subtle ecological changes associated with the instal- lation of physical structures in the river. Natu- rally, the fishing community dependent on the river Ganga along Patna are obliged to adopt the gears suitable for exploiting the smaller group of fishes whose catch is relatively assur- ed. During the course of a survey of these newly adopted fishing practices, an ingenious device for catching minnows was noticed with quite a large concentration of the same at Ghaggha Ghat in the Patna Sahib area. The antecedent, structure and operation of the gear- craft were studied by visiting the fishing sites and interviewing the fishermen. The findings are presented in this note. Nomenclature and history: The device is locally called Khulnawa which means an open wale boat. It has been introduced here from the Tarai region of Nepal only a decade ago but now with its proven efficacy to fetch a good catch of minnows, already there are one hundred and odd of the gear-craft operating in the 30 km stretch of the river along Patna. Obviously, the gear-craft does not find men- tion in any of the earlier descriptions of the fishing methods in the Ganga river system (Hornell 1923, Farupui and Sahai 1943, Ano- nymous 1949, Job and Pantulu 1953, and Saxena 1966). Structure: The device (see Plate) has three components namely (1) the boat with one of the wales open (2) a screen platform and (3) a frilled pole. The boat; It is an ordinary plank built narrow keel-less dinghy with equipointed bow and stern. It is about 7.5 m long and about 65 cm broad at the middle with a shallow depth of merely 25 cm. The wale on one side has a cut out opening, about 5 m long and 12 cm deep. Kathal (Artocarpus integriofolia) or Sal (Shorea robusta) wood are used in con- struction of the boat. The boat is kept pitch dark in colour by regular coatings of coal-tar. The screen platform: It is a closely knit screen of bamboo splinters measuring about 5 m by 0.5 m. To construct it, 40 and odd number of fine flat strips of bamboo are woven 351 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 by interlacing them with 5 rows of plastic cords. For reinforcement, the screen is sup- ported by broader splinters of bamboo 70 cm long at intervals of about 50 cm. The extra length of the splinters over the width of the screen project inwards where it is attached to the boat and provide room for fastening with strings to pegs fixed on the floor of the boat. Fixed at the cut portion of the open wale, the screen slopes out so that its free margin is constantly immersed in the water. The screen is always maintained in sparkling white condition by coatings of enamel paint. The frilled pole: It comprises of one full length piece of 4 to 6 m long bamboo pole with tufts of dry Save grass (Pollinidium an- guistifolium) drooping as frill along ?th of its length. To make the outfit, a tuft of 4 to 6 dry blades of the grass is tied to the nar- rower end of the pole, then while half the length of the tuft is twisted into string, the other half is left loose. The next tuft is tied to the portion of the first tuft and likewise initial half of it is twisted into string and the remaining part droops as frill. Series of the tufts of the grass are wrought in the fashion to make a drooping frill along the desired length of the pole and the last tuft is twisted into string and fastened to the pole. The whole frill remains hanging from the pole by the tying of it at intervals of about 50 to 60 cm. Operation: Khulnawa is operated by two men, keeping the boat always parallel to the bank of the river at a distance little more than the frilled pole. The side of the boat with open wale and the screen faces the bank. The man sitting at the stern rows the boat and manoeuvres the frilled pole while the other one sitting at the bow helps in rowing and attends to the catching operation. The manoeu- 352 vring of the frilled pole is so done as to keep the free edge of the drooping grass just overhanging the surface of the water. Surface inhabiting minnows that happen to be school- ing in between the boat and the bank are scare-driven towards the boat by the looming shadow of the frilled pole. In the dark, the bright white screen jutting down to the water from the cut wale, possibly, gives the fishes an illusion of flowing stream and in their attempt to negotiate it, they leap into the boat-hold. Khulnawa’s catch efficacy is confined to night time with better results in moonless nights having calm weather. Possibly, such conditions favour the illusionary effect. The best opera- tion period in a year has been experienced as February to April, obviously owing to favour- able ecological condition of the water like higher transparency and plankton growth lead- ing to surface foraging by the fishes. When Khulnawa is taken out for fishing, it is operated intermittently althrough the night covering a distance of 5 to 10 km from the point of sail. The catch during a single night varies from 15 to 50 kg with the high figures restricted between middle of March to end of April. The species featuring in order of abundance are Oxygaster bacaila, Gadusia chapra, Setipinna phasa, Aspidoparia morar and smaller species of Puntius. Major or me- dium carps or catfishes are rarely caught. Khulnawa seems to be a fishing device worth trying in lakes, reservoirs and other rivers with favourable ecology. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to Dr. P. S. Prasad, Director of Fisheries, Bihar and Shri T. K. Chakra- varty, District Fisheries Officer, Patna for their cooperation. J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 77 PLATE Banerji ef al.: Khulnawa (A) The components of Khu/nawa when not in opera tion. Note the screen platform kept in rolled condition on the boat aground, the two frilled poles kept tucked on the same boat, and the dinghy in full view in water. (B) The components of Khulnawa being set together for a fishing round. (C) A close-up view of the screen platform fixed up in the boat for start of operation. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE, GOVERNMENT OF BIHAR, MITHAPUR FARM, PATNA 800001. CENTRAL FISHERIES (ICAR), MITHAPUR FISH Farm, PaTNA 800 001, February 14, 1979. S. R. BANERJI M. L. SINGH S. K. THAKUR NIRMAL K. THAKUR REFERENCES ANONYMOUS (1949): Preliminary guide to Indian fish, fisheries, methods of fishing and curing. Mana- ger of Publications, Delhi: 137 pp (Marketing Series, 66). Faruqul, A. J. AND SAHAI, R. (1943): Methods of catching fish in the United Provinces and the scope of establishing inland fisheries in these pro- vinces. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 13 (B): 198-214. HorneELL, J. (1923): The fishing methods of the Ganges. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 8(3): 199-237. JHINGRAN, V. G. et al. (1970): Fisheries of the Ganga river system (MS) crossed referred to from ‘Fish and Fisheries of India’ by V. G. Jhingran, Hindustan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi (1975). SAXENA, R. K. (1966): The fishing nets and traps in a section of the middle reaches of Ganga river system of India. Pro. Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun. 11 (2): 250-271. 24. A NOTE ON THE DRAGONFLIES (ODONATA: INSECTA) In October, 1976 we saw a specimen of Orthetrum sabina sabina (Drury) flying above the water in a small weedy pond in Sibpur Botanical Garden, Howrah district, West Ben- gal (India). After flying for sometime, it sat on the vegetation in the pond. Some Acisoma panorpoides panorpoides were also circling ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, CaLcuTTa 700 012, February 4, 1978. over the water and then resting on the aquatic vegetation. The Orthetrum sabina sabina sud- denly caught by the thorax an Acisoma panor- poides panoropoides with its legs and sat on the small grass stalk and chewed it slowly till it was fully consumed. MAHABIR PRASAD M. K. BISWAS 25. MICROTROMBIDIUM SP.—AN ACARINE ECTOPARASITE OF MUSCA DOMESTICA NEBULO FABR. Recently at Saharanpur (U.P.) the common house fly, Musca domestica nebulo Fabr., was observed infected by the larvae of Microtrom- bidium (Trombididae, Acarina). This is the first record of an ectoparasite on this house fly. During May to August, 1976 and 1977, a good number of house flies were collected 353 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 from different localities and examined for in- fection by larvae of Microtrombidium. During 1976, 12.70 to 14.10 per cent of (average being 13.4 per cent) were infected by the acarine. Similar trend was noticed during 1977 also and the infection ranged from 11.80 to 13.70 per cent, average being 13.00 per cent. The ectoparasite was found attached in general, on almost all parts of the host fly, namely wings, head, mouth parts, thorax, abdomen and legs, the maximum individuals occurring at wing articulation and on the mouth parts. These suck the body fluid of the host fly and severely infected flies fail to feed and fly, become weak and finally die. The larva of Microtrombidium is about 0.43 mm long and 0.19 mm wide with the colour of the body being red. Two blackish dots are visible externally, one each on the DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, MAHARAJ SINGH COLLEGE (P.G.), SAHARANPUR (U.P.), April 26, 1978. thorax and the abdomen. On the thorax, blunt small spines are present. The body and appen- dages are densely clothed by fine spines. Late- rally, on the dorsal surface of the body, poly- gonal areas are present. Transmission of this ectoparasite takes place during the process of mating. Often the larvae are shed off in the debris from the host body from where they stick on to the body of visit- ing house flies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the Director, Common Wealth Institute of Entomology, British Mu- seum (Natural History), London for identi- fying the ectoparasite. The help of Prof. V. C. Chatterjee in the preparation of this note is gratefully acknowledged. We are also thankful to Dr. G. D. Garg for his encouragement. S. C. DHIMAN R. C. DHIMAN 26. A SUPERNUMERARY LARVAL INSTAR AND ANTIMELANIN EFFECT ON THE 6TH INSTAR LARVAE OF SPODOPTERA LITURA (F.) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) BY ALTOZAR—A JUVENILE HORMONE ANALOGUE A number of analogues of the juvenile hor- mone have been obtained and tested against several species of insects to inhibit the adult growth and reproduction. Altozar is one of these analogues. In the present note observa- tions carried out with Altozar against Spodop- tera litura, a serious lepidopterous pest of several crops for its juvenile effect are reported. Newly moulted 6th instar larvae of S. litura were obtained from a stock culture maintained in breeding jars at 27+ 1°C and 70-80% R.H. Separate strips of filter paper each mea- 354 suring 3.0 x 3.0 cm were soaked in 0.25 ml ace- tone solution containing 0.25 mg, 0.50 mg and 1.00 mg Altozar (Ethyl 3, 7, 11-trimethyl- (2E, 4E)—2, 4-dodecadieonate), a juvenile hormone analogue (supplied by Zoecon Corp., Palo Alto, California, U.S.A.) and dried. On each paper strip, treated with the respective con- centration, a group of three larvae of S. litura, newly moulted from the 5th instar were releas- ed to remain in contact with the treated paper for two days. A total of 78 larvae were treat- ed with each concentration. Strips soaked in MISCELLANEOUS NOTES acetone alone served as control. These larvae were daily provided with fresh castor leaves as their food. All the larvae kept in contact with the treat- ed strips with the respective concentration of Altozar developed red pigmentation on the cuticle instead of normal dark black pigmen- tation within 24 hrs. Further, the larvae con- tacting 0.50 mg and 1.00 mg concentrations of Altozar had longer (5-6 days) duration of this instar than that of the control which had 3-4 days duration of the 6th instar. Out of the larvae in contact with 0.50 mg concentration, 5.0 per cent unsuccessfully tried to moult to a supernumerary larval instar. Such larvae developed a new cuticle below the larval cuticle of the 6th instar but the older cuticle could not be cast off completely in- spite of the repeated trial by the larvae and they died after 3-4 days. In case of the Jarvae kept in contact with 1.00 mg concentration, 6.25 per cent larvae died in their unsuccessful attempt to moult to a supernumerary instar, but 13.33 per cent of these larvae successfully moulted to a supernumerary instar which also had red pigmentation. The larvae when they successfully entered the supernumerary larval instar had an average duration of two days and their average length and width were 4.860 cm and 0.658 cm res- pectively as compared to 4.12 and 0.50 cm of the normal 6th instar larvae. The supernume- rary larvae were also heavier (0.939 g) as compared to the normal 6th instar Jarvae (0.616 g average). In other morphological res- pects supernumerary larvae were like those of the 6th instar. However, all the supernu- merary larvae died during the larval-pupal moult. Melanin pigments are generally incorporated in the substance of the cuticle, they range in colour from yellow to black. Tyrosine (Mon- oxy-phenyl alanine) is oxidized in the presence of the enzyme Tyrosinase (Cordier 1928). At least three compounds are recognized in the tyrosinase complex: monophenolase converting tyrosine to ‘dopa’ or 3-4-dioxy- phenylalanine; diphenolase, a copper protein compound con- verting ‘dopa’ to red substance, hallachrome; and enzyme III, apparently a dehydrase which converts hallachrome to a colourless substance and then to melanin (Danneel 1946). In S. litura, it appears that Altozar inhibits enzyme III so that hallachrome did not convert into melanin and remained to give red coloration of the cuticle. However, in Blatella germanica, Altozar increased level of melanization in supernumerary nymphs and adultoids (Riddi- ford et al. 1975). In S. litura, the duration of larval period increases probably because of the presence of exogeneously applied juvenile hormone ana- logue in the last larval stage which delayed the pupal moult. The implantation of active corpora allata results in the production of a supernumerary larva in Galleria mellonella (Sehnal 1968). Application of Cecropia Juve- nile hormone to final instar larvae also have the same effect (Sehnal and Meyer 1968). Thus the formation of a supernumerary larval instar in S. litura totally conforms to the fact that the exogeneous application of juvenile hormone analogue to the last instar Jarva re- sults in the production of a supernumerary larva. However, no significant increase in the number of larval stadia was observed in ano- ther lepidopteran, Porthetria dispar when its Jarvae were treated with Altozar (Granett 1974). ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to express our gratitude to Prof. Shah Mashhood Alam, Head of the Department of Zoology, A.M.U., Aligarh, for his encour- 355 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 agement and constructive criticism and to Zoe- con Corporation, Palo Alto, California, for the gift of Altozar. The first author also ex- SECTION OF ENTOMOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, ALIGARH MusLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH, U.P., May 9, 1978. presses his thanks to the C.S.I.R., New Delhi, for the award of a Research Fellowship during the progress of this work. S. BADRUL ISLAM MUMTAZ AHMED KHAN REFERENCES CorvigER, R. (1928): Melanin pigments. Ann. Bull. Soc. Roy. Sci. Med. Nat. Bruxelles., 43-57. DANNEEL, R. (1946): Melanin formation: Dro- sophila. Biol. Zbl., 63: 377-94. GRANETT, J. (1974): Juvenile hormone analogue toxicity to laboratory reared gypsy moth larvae, Porthetria dispar. Can. Entomol., 106: 695-99. RIDDIFORD, L. M., AJAMI, A. M. AND BOoaKE, C. (1975): Effectiveness of insect growth regulators in the control of populations of the german Cock- roach. J. Econ. Entomol., 68: 45-48. SEHNAL, F. (1968): Influence of the corpus alla- tum on the development of internal organs in Gal- Ieria mellonella. J. Insect Physiol., 14: 73-85. SEHNAL, F. AND Meyer, A. S. (1968): Larval- pupal transformation: Control by Juvenile hormone. Science, 159: 981-983. 27. PTERIS DACTYLINA HOOK. FROM SILENT VALLEY—A NEW RECORD FOR PENINSULAR INDIA Beddome (1883, 1892) described twenty six taxa belonging to the genus Pteris Linn. (including Campteria Presl, p.p.), out of which fifteen are reported by him to be present in Peninsular India. Nair and S. R. Ghosh (1976) described a new species Pteris furunculata Nair et S. R. Ghosh from the Western Ghats. Further studies on the ferns of Kerala (Nair and S. R. Ghosh 1977 a, b) enabled them to discover P. confusa Walker, P. gongalensis Walker, P. multiaurita Agardh, P. praetermissa Walker and P. roseo-lilacina Hieron. from that area. P. tremula R. Br. was reported from Shevroy Hills, Salem Dt., Tamil Nadu, by Nair and S. R. Ghosh (1977 c). P. hetero- morpha Fée and P. memoralis Willd. were dis- covered from Orissa by Nair and R. K. Ghosh (1975, 1978). Bole and D’Almeida (1977) des- cribed a new species P. almeidiana Bole et 356 D’Almeida from Maharashtra. These new dis- coveries emphasize the need for more intensive and extensive explorations and _ herbarium studies with regard to the genus Pferis Linn. in Peninsular India particularly in view of the fast disappearing forests from the region and the consequent ecological imbalance setting in. It must also be stressed that several species of Pteris Linn. are very sensitive to environ- mental changes. The present record of P. dactylina Hook. from the dam site in Silent Valley, Kerala is another addition to the fern flora of Peninsu- lar India and it is certainly one among the threatened taxa of ferns from the area in view of the proposed Silent Valley Project. Earlier, this small and delicate plant was known only from Sikkim to Khasia. The present discovery, therefore, is also of phytogeographical signi- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ficance. Since a detailed description of this species is not available in the literature, it is provided in the present report. Pteris dactylina Hook. sp. Fil. 2; 160. f. 13A. 1858; Bedd. Ferns Brit. India 23. f. 23. 1866; Handb. Ferns Brit. India 107. fig. 56. 1883. Terrestrial small herbs; rhizome short, erect or obliquely ascending, scaly at growing tips; stipes variable, 5-25 cm long, stramineous, glabrous; lamina digitate with 3-7 pinnae; pin- BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, COIMBATORE 641 002, July 26, 1979. nae 5-15 cm long, linear, margin sharply ser- rate towards the sterile apex; veins simple or forked; indusium broad, subintramarginal, membranaceous; sori submarginal, _ linear; spores brown with light brown perispore. Specimens examined: Kerala, Palghat Dis- trict, Panthanthode to Silent Valley Dam site, 900 m, N. C. Nair 56637, Acc. No. 103435, 7-4-1978 (MH); Eastern India, Assam, Local Hill, Cherapunji, + 1200 m, Gustavmann 65, Acc. No. 87906, Sept. 1889 (MH). N. C. NAIR P. BHARGAVAN REFERENCES BEDDOME, R. H. (1865): Ferns of British India being the figures and description of ferns of all parts of British India. Gantz Brothers, Madras. (1883): Handbook to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula. Thacker Spink and Co., Calcutta. (1892): Handbook to the ferns of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula with a supplement, Calcutta (repr. ed. 1969, New Delhi). Bote, P. V. AND D’ALMEIDA, M. R. (1977): Four new species of Pteridophytes from Bombay Presi- dency. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 320-325. Nair, N. C. AND GHOoSH, R. K. (1975): Notes on some additional distribution of ferns to the botany of Orissa. J. Indian bot. Soc. 54: 45-49. (1978): Pteris heteromorpha Fee— A new record for India. Indian Forester 104: 374- 376. Narr, N. C. AND GHosH, S. R. (1976): A new species of Pteris from Western Ghats. J. Indian bot. Soc. 55: 38-40. (1977a): Pteris quadriaurita Retz. and a few related taxa in Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 438-443. (1977b): Pteris roseo-lilacina Hie- ron.—A new record for Peninsular India. ibid. 73: 424-425. Pteris tremula R. Br.—A 240-241. —(1977c): new record for India. ibid. 73: 28. THE GENUS MACROPTILIUM (BENTH.) URB.—A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA (With eight text-figures) Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb. Symb. Antill 9: 452. 1928. Verdc. in Kew Bull. 24: 517, 1970 (in foot notes). Phaseo- lus atropurpureus DC. Prodr. 2: 395, 1825. Slender creeping herbs; stem terete, obscu- rely striate, grey tomentose. Leaves alternate, trifoliate; petioles 1-5.2 cm long, tomentose; stipules 2-5 mm long, reflexed, narrowly del- toid, acute, tomentose, more so without. Leaf- lets ovate, terminal ones sometimes rhomboidal, 1.3-3.5 x 0.7-2.9 cm, lateral leaflets as long as terminal ones and broader, acute, apiculate, 357 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Figs. 1-8. Macroptelium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb.: 1. Part of plant. 2. Young in- florescence 3. Calyx split open. 4. Corolla parts. 5. Androecium. 6. Gynoecium. 7, Pods (dehisced). 8. Seed. 358 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES obscurely lobed, round or truncate at base, nerves prominent beneath, grey tomentose above and more so beneath; petiolules 2-5 mm long, tomentose; stipels minute, subulate, to- mentose. Flowers in axillary racemes; pedun- cles 10.5-20.5 cm long, tomentose; bracts and bracteoles minute, tomentose, caducous, Calyx green tomentose, tube nearly as long as lobes; upper 3 lobes shorter than lower 2, narrowly deltoid, acuminate. Corolla purple, upto 1.5 cm long; wing petals deeply coloured, longer than vexillum and keel; vexillum reflexed, keel incurved. Stamens 9+ 1, vexillary stamen free; style incurved at right angle, bearded on the adaxial side below the capitate stigma. Fruits nearly terete, beaked, upto 7 cm long, grey tomentose, valves twisting after dehiscence. Seeds dark brown, upto 3 mm long, more than 1 mm broad. This is a tropical American species now widely cultivated in parts of Africa (Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, South Africa and Zimbabwe); New South Wales and Queensland in Australia and Hong Kong in Asia. It was found growing SOUTHERN CIRCLE, BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, COIMBATORE 641 002, July 25, 1979. in the fodder grass plot of Tamil Nadu Agri- cultural University, Coimbatore and probably came as an impurity with some other seeds. An allied species, M. bracteatum (Nees & Mart.) Verdc. is also found near Waltair in Andhra Pradesh. (Information kindly furnish- ed by Dr. G. Panigrahi from Kew Herbarium.) The typical characters of the genus Macro- ptilium (Benth.) Urb. are squarish hooked style; wings rounded and longer than vexillum and keel; stipules not produced below the base. Specimens examined: Farm of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 487 m, 20-8-1974, Marudan 39285, in flowers and fruits. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. G. Panigrahi, Re- gional Botanist at Kew, for confirming the specimens and supplying the distribution data. We thank Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy Director, Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of India for his help and encouragement. S. V. SUBBA RAO R. GOPALAN 29. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF RAJASTHAN During the course of identification of plants collected from Bhilwara and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan, I came across the following spe- cies which were not recorded earlier from Rajasthan. All the specimens cited in the paper are deposited in the herbarium of Arid Zone Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Jodh- pur (BSJO). Alysicarpus heterophyllus (Baker) Jafri & Ali, in Biologia 12: 33. 1966; Ali, in Fl. W. Pak. 100. 343. 1977; A. vaginalis var. heterophyl- lus Baker, in Hook. f., Fl. Br. Ind. 2: 158. 1879. An erect or diffuse annual herb upto 45 cm,- in moist sandy soil amidst grasses. Stem slight- ly angular, puberulous. Leaves stipulate, 1-3, foliolate intermixed. Leaflets 0.5-4.5 x 02-1 cm, lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate, acute. Flowers 359 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 yellowish-pink to bluish pink in distant pairs along a filiform, leaf opposed rachis. Calyx teeth equalling the first joint of pod. Pods 4-6 jointed, compressed, sub-moniliform, reticula- tely veined. Scarce. JODHPUR: along Jaisalmer road near Tole- sar, A. N. Singh 4350. Flowers & fruits: August. Eleocharis congesta D. Don, Prod. Fl. Nep. 41. 1825; Clarke, in Hook. f., Fl. Br. Ind. 6: 630. 1894. Erect tufted herb, nearly 10 cm tall, in mar- shy places. Stem striate. Sheath appressed, pur- plish at base. Spikelets ovoid, solitary, terminal. Glumes membranous, ovate, lanceolate, 1-ner- ved. Bristles brown, scabrid. Nuts trigonous. Common. JODHPUR: Banganga river bed, near Bilara, A. N. Singh 3523. Flowers & fruits: February. Samolus valerandi Linn., Sp. Pl. 171. 1753; Hook. f., Fl. Br. Ind. 3: 506. 1882; Duthie, CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, HowraHu-711 103, July 3, 1979. Fl. Up. Gang. Pl. 2: 7. 1911. A glabrous annual herb in moist shady places, in rocky soil. Stem erect (rarely hori- zontal), upto 50 cm tall. Leaves rosulate, spa- thulate, apiculate at base, alternate spathulate to obovate-elliptic above. Flowers white, in axillary and terminal racemes, pedicelled. Pedi- cels geniculate at the insertion of a small bract at or above the middle. Calyx tube hemi- spheric, half adnate to ovary, 5-toothed. Corol- la lobes imbricate. Stamens 5, alternating with scaly staminodes. Ovary globose, half inferior. Scarce. BILWARA: Mandalgarh forests along Bijolia Road, A. N. Singh 7164. Flowers & fruits: February. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah and the Deputy Director, Arid Zone Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Jodhpur for encouragement. A. N. SINGH 30. NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AGROSTIS NERVOSA NEES EX TRIN. IN WESTERN HIMALAYA During a collection tour of Rudranath bug- yal (an alpine-medow) of District Chamoli (North Garhwal) U.P. an interesting grass was obtained. It was identified as Agrostis nervosa Nees ex Trin. syn. A. Clarkii Hook. f. Hook, f.; in Fl. Br. Ind. 7: 257 (1896) ‘Mentioned the occurrence of this grass from North Western Himalaya without precise loca- lity. Bor, N. L. in Kew Bull. (1954) 459-60, states, ““This grass is exceedingly common in 360 Sikkim but strangely enough the Type comes from Western Himalaya and is the only gather- ing from the areas’’. Bor (1960) in Grassess Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan: 388 does not indicate its occurrence in Western Himalaya. This note now presents the precise locality of this grass in Western Himalaya, i.e. Rudra- nath bugyal, alt. 4000 m. District Chamoli (North Garhwal), U.P., where it is gregarious in open grassy hill slopes of alpine pastures. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES This grass is relished by sheep and goats. Specimen examined: Joshi, D. N., 87 DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, Govt. (PosT GRADUATE) COLLEGE, GoPESHWaAR, CHAMOLI 246 401, June 4, 1979.. 1 Present Address: Colleges, (U.P.). P.O. New Forest, (30-8-1976) Rudranath, 4000 m., District Chamoli (North Garhwal), U.P. B. C. L. SAH D. N. JOSHI Forest Research Institute & Dehra Dun-248 006: 31. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CLEOME FELINA L. f. (CLEOMACEAE) IN MAHARASHTRA (With six text-figures) Hooker f. & Thoms. (1872) and Gamble (1916) have recorded the occurrence of Cleome felina L. f. from Deccan and Carnatic areas in South India. This species has not been recorded earlier by Cooke (1901- 08) or Haines (1916) from areas that fall under Maharashtra State. A critical study of this species collected from Chandrapur district reveals that Cleome felina L. f. is often con- fused with Cleome chelidonii L. f. especially in the vegetative condition, though both are easily distinguishable in flowering or fruiting stage. The former is characterised by slender woody root system, densely clothed with bri- stly hairs all over, small pink flowers and short compressed striate capsules while the latter has got robust fleshy root system, is less hairy, has comparatively large rosy flowers and long slender terete, often constricted, capsules. The earlier collections (R. K. Bhide s.n., Rolla S. Rao’ 85280; K. V.. Billore 116179) housed in the herbarium of Western Circle (BSI) identified as Cleome felina L. f. are in vegetative condition and on scrutiny they are referable to Cleome chelidonii L. f. only. The plant collected from Manikgarh hills, Lakkad- kote area, Chandrapur district (Malhotra 140127) is Cleome felina L. f. and is a new record for Maharashtra State extending its dis- tribution further north. In view of its rarity and absence of any known published illustrations for the plant, a line drawing is provided along with a brief description. Cleome felina L. f. Suppl. 300. 1781; Hk. f. & Thoms. in Fl. Brit. India 1: 170. 1872; Gamble FI. Pres. Madras 1: 41 (29): 1915. An appressedly hairy herb. Leaves usually trifoliate, obovate. Flowers small 0.5 cm, co- rolla pink, bristly, hairy on the back. Stamens usually 50. Capsules 2-3 cm equal or slightly longer than the pedicel, compressed striate. Seeds reniform, yellowish brown, spiny. tuber- cled. 361 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 yr eS . om. Figs. 1-6. Cleome felina Linn. f. 1. A twig; 2. Sepal (ventral view); 3. Petal (ventral view); 4. Stamen; 5. Gynoecium; 6. Seed. 362 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey ot India, Calcutta for providing the BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Pune 411001, September 29, 1979. facilities. S. K. MALHOTRA SIRASALA MOORTHY 32. ARTHRAXON MEEBOLDII STAPF—A GRASS NEW TO KASHMIR (With a text-figure) Arthraxon Beauv. (Poaceae) is a genus of 20 species (Airy Shaw 1966) native to old world tropics. Some species are introduced ox adventive in the temperate regions of the world. From the Kashmir Himalayas several species of Arthraxon Beauv. have been report- ed (Bor 1960, Stewart 1972). During studies on the alpine fodder grasses of Kashmir we collected several specimens of Arthraxon Beauv. which on critical scrutiny turned out to be Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf. The litera- ture revealed that this taxon has not been re- ported so far from this area. The present paper records for the first time the occurrence of this grass from the Kashmir valley. The note is supplemented by short des- cription and illustration. The voucher speci- mens have been deposited in the Herbarium, Kashmir University. DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR, SRINAGAR- 190 006, KASHMIR (INDIA), November 22, 1979. Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf in Kew Buil. 449 (1908) Annual. Culms ascending to prostrate; leaf margins ciliated with penicillate bulbous base hairs; Racemes 2-3 paniculate, densely pube- scent with silky silvery hairs; spikelets binate; lower glume of sessile spikelet with a doubic row of muricate teeth; upper glume setosely acuminate, keeled upwards, complicate; lemma with a dorsal basal awn; palea small; anthers 3; styles 2, free; Lower glume of pedicelled spikelet rigidly keeled. Flowering and Fruiting: August to Novem- ber. Specimens collected: Dachigam; in the shade of forest trees, HT: 902: Phalgam; moist places; HT: 746: Harwan; on the bund of water reservoir; HT: 840; Telbal; on the bank of Telbal nallah; HT: 650. H. THAKUR G: N. JAVEID REFERENCES Bor, N .L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Cey- lon, India and Pakistan. Pergamon Press, Oxford. AirY SHAW, H. K. (1966): A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns. Cambridge. STEWART, R .R. (1972): Cat. Vas. PI. Pakistan and Kashmir. Karachi. of West 363 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Fig. 1. Arthraxon meeboldii Stapf H. Habit of plant; S. Sessile spikelet; PS. Pedicelled spikelet; B. Ligule; G,. Lower glume of sessile spikelet; G,. Upper glume of sessile spikelet; L,. Lemma of sessile spikelet; P,. Palea of sessile spikelet; F. Flower of sessile spikelet; G,. Lower glume of pedicelled spikelet; G,. Upper glume of pedicelled spikelet; L,. Lemma of pedicelled spikelet; P,. Palea of pedicelled spikelet; A. Anther of pedicelled spikelet. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 33. NOTES ON VACCINIUM LESCHENAULTII—COMPLEX (VACCINIACEAE) IN SOUTH INDIA (With two text-figures) Wight (1848) described Vaccinium lesche- naultii based on his collections from the Nil- giris. He remarked, ‘‘...leaves shortly petiol- ed, ovate-elliptic, serrated, acute...’’ Further, Wight (1850) described another species viz. V. rotundifolium from (Kelso cottage) Ceylon, mainly based on the shape of the leaf, “*... leaves orbicular, coriaceous, entire or slightly crenulato-serrate....”. Later C. B. Clarke (1882) treated this taxon as a variety of V. leschenaultii. Subsequently, Gamble (1921) reported this variety from the Nilgiris in his Fl. Pres. Madras. The figure given by Wight (Til. t. 139. 1850) shows only orbicular leaves all over the branch. While undertaking critical studies on the specimens of Vaccinium lesche- naultii Wight represented at Madras Herbar- ium, we came across some interesting speci- mens [M. A. Lawson s.n. (Acc. No. 29181); Vajravelu 34923, 43511; Subbarao 40440, 41527] bearing both orbicular and ovate-elli- ptic leaves on the same branch. Hence we doubt whether this variety rotundifolia can be kept as a distinct taxon. It is also observed that some of the speci- mens (Collector? 13450) collected from Nete- rikal, Tirunelveli Dt. show persistent, leafy bracts as compared to other specimens of V. leschenaultii Wight. C. B. Clarke (1882) des- cribed var. zeylanica based on the presence of persistent, Jeafy bracts and he recorded this variety only from Ceylon. Hence the present report of its occurrence in Tirunelveli Dt. is of phytogeographical interest and forms a new distributional record for India. We keep this variety as distinct at present, as such a type of persistent, leafy bracts are not at all seen in any of the specimens of V. leschenaultii Wight collected from all other areas in South India. However, more field studies coupled with suitable evidences from experimental taxono- Fig. 1-2. lanica C. B. Clarke: 1. Infructescence showing per- sistent bracts; 2. Bract. Vaccinium leschenaultii Wight var. zey- 365 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 my can only fix the exact status of this taxon. KEY TO THE VARIETIES OF Vaccinium leschenaultii WIGHT OCCURRING IN SOUTH INDIA Bracts up to 1.5 mm broad, lanceolate, not leafy, deciduous var. leschenaultii Bracts up to 8 mm broad, ovate-elliptic, leafy, per- SIStENthe Pete ween cess ccne eT var. zeylanica V. leschenaultii Wight var. leschenaultii Wight Ic. 4(1): 5, t. 1188, 1848; Bedd. FI. Sylv. 3: t. 227. 1872; C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 455. 1882; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 742. 1921 & 2: 582. 1957 (rep. ed.). V. leschenaultii Wight var. rotun- difolia sensu Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 742. 19D 6c 22: 522 Vos 7a(rep, eds): Distribution: INDIA. TAMIL NADU: Anamal- lais, Palnis, Nilgiris, KERALA: Idukki Dt. V. leschenaultii Wight var. zeylanica C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 455. 1882; Trimen in Handb. Fl. Ceylon 3; 61. SOUTHERN ‘CIRCLE, BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, COIMBATORE-641 002, February 14, 1979. 1895. Shrubs or small trees, glabrous excepting the tender branches. Leaves 1.5-5.0 x 0.7-2.4 cm, ovate-elliptic, acute or acuminate, serrate, coriaceous, glabrous, shortly petiolate. Bracts 0.7-2.2 x 0.3-0.8 cm, leafy, ovate-elliptic, acute, persistent. Berries -_ 8 mm across, globose, glabrous. (Figs. 1 & 2). Specimen examined: INDIA: TAMIL NADU: Tirunelveli Dt.: Neterikal, 22 September 1916, Collector? 13450. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy Director, Southern Circle, Coimbatore for faci- lities and encouragement. Our thanks are due to Dr. A. N. Henry, Systematic Botanist and Sri M. Chandrabose, Botanist for helpful sug- gestions. V. CHITHRA R. RAJAN 34. CRYPTOLEPIS GRANDIFLORA WIGHT—A NEW RECORD FOR ANDAMANS Cryptolepis grandiflora Wight, a specimen collected from South Andaman by S. Kurz; was identified up to the genus. During reorga- nisation work we noticed the interesting speci- men and after critical examination identified it as Crytolepis grandiflora Wight; A review of literature and herbarium specimens available shows that the species is reported from Tamil- nadu, Kerala and Karnatak. It is now reported from Andamans. A short descriptive note is given below:—- Cryptolepis grandiflora Wight; Wight Ic, t. 831; F.BI. 4: 5, 1883. Twining glabrous shrubs, flowers in very lax 366 slender, few flower axillary or terminal pedun- cle, calyx with 5 scales within, corolla lobes overlapping, filaments free, anthers acuminate, leaves obovate oblong, obtuse or mucronate at apex, glaucous beneath, 6-8 pairs of nerves arched near the margin. Specimen examined: Mornur, South India, 2100 ft, 29-10-1906; C.E.C. Fischer 517 (CAL); Papanasam to Mundandurai, Kerala, 18th Feb. 1913, D. Hooper and M. S. Rama- swami 39291 (CAL); Karnatak, G. Thomson sn. (CAL); South Andaman; S. Kurz s.n. (CAL.). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank the Deputy Director, Cen- tral National Herbarium for all facilities and BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Howrau, W. BENGAL, September 21, 1978. Dr. K. Thothathri and Dr. N. C. Majumdar for valuable advice. AMIT SINHA GIRIJA SANKAR GIRI 35. OCCURRENCE OF PITHOPHORA KEWENSIS WITTROCK IN BANGLADESH (With a text-figure) The interesting genus Pithophora has so far not been recorded from any part of Bangla- desh and is reported here for the first time with the specis Pithophora kewensis Wittrock. It is generally found to grow in freshwater habitat both in Tropical and Sub-tropical re- gions. Some authors namely Hoek (1959) con- sider P. kewensis Wittrock as a synonym of the American species P. oedogonia Wittrock. The algae was was collected by us from the Karnafuli River, Chittagong (Bangladesh), on 12th September, 1975 attached to a log by means of its branched unicellular rhizoids. The plants are about 4 cm tall and the filaments are freely branched. The branches may be solitary, alternate or on one side and some- times opposite in the case of lowest branches. Fig. 1. Branches originate from a short distance be- low the top of the cells. These morphological characters agree well with that of the descrip- tions given by Patel (1971). The diameter of the main filaments varies from 55-75p which agrees with the measurements given by Wit- trock (1877). The length of the vegetative cells are much variable and in general, they are 8-15 times the diameter. The branches of the first degree are of approximately the same diameter as the main filament. Thick walled, terminal and intercalary aki- netes are found in the materials. They are fewer in number. Intercalary akinetes are 70- 80 » in diameter and 110-224 » in length which agrees well with the dimensions given by earlier Pithophora kewensis Wittrock, portions of the filament with terminal and intercalary akinetes. 367 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 workers (Wittrock 1877, Heering 1921, Patel 1971). Terminal akinetes vary. from 55-84 » in diameter and 140-259 » in length and agree with Patel (1971) but differ from Wittrock DEPARTMENT OF MaArINE BioLocy, UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG, CHITTAGONG, BANGLADESH, April 4, 1979. (1877) where they were rather greater. Thanks are due to Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Nurul Islam for his valuable comments on the iden- tification of the species. A. M. ABDUS SALAM YUSUF SHARIF A. KHAN REFERENCES *HEERING, W. (1921): Die Susswasser Flora, 7, Chlorophyceae. 4: 3-61. Hoek, C. V. (1959): Caribbean Fresh and Brac- kish water Chlorophyta. Blumea. 9(2): 590-625. PATEL, R. J. (1971): Cytotaxonomical studies on Pithophora kewensis Wittrock. Phykos. 10(1 &2): 36. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON CERTAIN 18-23. Wittrock, B. (1877): On the development and systematic arrangement of the Pithophoraceae. Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sci., Upsal. 3, series 1, Volumen extra: 1-80. * Not seen in original. RECENTLY DESCRIBED TAXA Borreria eradii Ravi, Heliotropium kera- lense Sivarajan & Manilal, and Phyllanthus kozhikodianus Sivarajan & Manilal, are but a few of the taxa discovered and described re- cently from S. India. A perusal of the mate- rial of the concerned genera at the Central National Herbarium, Howrah, and those at the herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Shillong, revealed interesting information re- garding their extended distribution in India and the data are presented here. Borreria eradii Ravi (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 539-541. 1970) has been invariably (except in the case of a single sheet, Viveka- nandan 46570, in CAL) identified as Borre- ria articularis (Spermacoce hispida). Though closely resembling, these two species can well be distinguished by the prominently winged stems, conspicuously veined leaves, short cam- panulate flowers and the glandular papillae on the calyx in the former. 368 This particular species is a common weed in the sandy loam or laterite soils, mostly on the hill slopes in Kerala, and can at once be recognised by its yellowish green colour. Inte- restingly enough, this species is represented in these herbaria from various eastern States, like Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and W. Bengal and even from the neighbouring countries like Bhutan and Nepal. On Gauhati-Shillong road- side, it is a quite common weed. Specimens examined: Assam: Panigrahi 1878, 18722 & 9246. Siva- rajan 28637. Meghalaya: Patnaik 10963 (Khasi & Jaintia Hills). Mizoram: Dutta 34103. W. Bengal: Thotha- thri 9436 (Kalimpong), Mukherjee 6211 ‘Suk- na’). Sikkim: Majumdar 169 (Gangtok) Sen- gupta 296 (Rungpo). Kerala: Vivekanandan 46570, Sivarajan 464. Bhutan: Thothathri 10323, Subba Rao 136, Coll: 353, Sengupta MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 863, 1298. Heliotropium keralense Sivarajan & Manilal Heliotropium indicum as recognised in the past, has been a complex with at least two different taxa, more or less similar in vegeta- tive condition. The one having pink flowers with the corolia tube much longer than the calyx and covered with short pubescent hairs on the outside is H. indicum. Sivarajan and Manilal (Jour. Indian Bot. Soc. 51: 348-350. 1972) separated the white flowered taxon with corolla tube almost as long as the calyx and covered with long villous hairs into a new species namely H. keralense. However, there seems to be no good character to distinguish these species in their vegetative phase. This species is originally described from Kerala, where it is a very common weed in the wet lowlands, often growing in association with H. indicum Linn. But it is now found to have a much wider distribution. Specimens examined: Assam: A. S. Rao 39038 (Kamrup), Verma 46257 (Lakhimpur), Nath 13433 (Tangla), R. S. Rao 9827 (Kaziranga), Panigrahi 9336 (Gauhati). Andamans: Thothathri 9189. Karnataka: Bar- ber 6807. Kerala: Calder 1573, Sivarajan 997. Tamil Nadu: Wight 2065, Subramaniam 8139, 3459 (Madurai), Sebastine 801 (Coimbatore). Orissa: G. V. Subba Rao 30198. Phyllanthus kozhikodianus Sivarajan & Manilal, (J. Indian bot. Soc. 56: 165-168. 1977), is however, the most confused of these. Mukherjee 6181. Nepal: Hara et al. 191 (type), DEPT. oF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, CALICUT, KERALA. BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, SHILLONG, February 14, 1979. This species, originally reported from Kerala, is closely related to P. rheedii Wt., from which it can be distinguished by its rather unbranch- ed habit, different disc glands and sepals; and to P. rotundifolius Klein., from which it could be made out by its leaves, pedicelled male flowers, staminal filaments which are free above, and larger capsules. The identity of the specimens of this species at ‘CAL’ is con- fused with other species and kept accordingly. Puri 4306, from Maharashtra, is labelled as P. niruri Linn., but can be distinguished by its equilateral leafbases and the presence of six sepals which are l-veined, in both male and female flowers. Wadhwa 5462, identified to be P. fraternus Webster, has two different taxa mixed up, of which one is definitely P. kozhi- kodianus, since this possesses spreading, deep- ly bifid styles unlike P. fraternus. Interestingly enough, one of us (V.V.S.) could collect it from the grassy slopes alongside Gauhati- Shillong Road. Specimens examined: Andhra Pradesh: Subramanian 6950 (Chit- toor), Balakrishan 10804 (Visakhapatanam), Assam: Sivarajan 28701 (Gauhati). Kerala: Sivarajan 1762 (type). Maharashtra: Puri 4306 (Khandesh), Patas- kar 101445. Rajasthan: Wadhwa 5469 (Jhalawar), Wadh- wa 5462, in part. Tamil Nadu: Sebastin 12616 (Madurai). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are due to the authorities of Bota- nical Survey of India, Howrah, for the facili- ties. V. V. SIVARAJAN J; JOSEPH 369 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 37. POWDERY MILDEW OF WALKING FERN (CAMPTOSORUS RHIZOPHY LLUS)—A NEW RECORD Walking ferns are very common in water- fall areas and moist shady areas of Seetham- madhara area of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pra- desh. Powdery mildew fungal occurrence on Filicineae is very rare. During our periodic surveys of powdery mildews on flora of Visa- khapatnam, we encountered in December 1973 some walking fern plants infected by a powdery mildew. A brief description of the pathogen and the symptoms it causes on the susceptible host fern are described below. In the early stages of infection, small circular white powdery spots of the fungus appeared on the upper surface of the leaves. With ad- vancement of age, the mildew turned dusty grey. New plants bred from the leaf-tips of walking fern were also infected. The infected leaves turned yellow due to the fungal infec- tion. DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, WALTAIR, A.P. DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES, ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, WALTAIR, A.P., April 11, 1979. Morphology of the fungus: Mycelium super- ficial, hyaline, septate, 3.0-4.5 ym wide, at- tached to the leaves by means of appressoria. Sometimes bulbous haustoria were produced into the host’s epidermal cells. Conidiophores were erect, simple, septate, measuring 58- 102 x 10-18 »m and arising vertically and bears chains of conidia. Conidia mature epigenously and are elliptical to cylindrical, 25-36 x 10-15 um in size. No cleistothecial formation was observed. According to Yarwood’s key (1973) based on conidial characters, the powdery mildew was identified as Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. There was no previous record of powdery mil- dew infection on walking ferns and this is a new record for India. and Camptosorus rhizo- phyllus is an addition to the host range of E. cichoracearum DC. J. RAGHAVA REDDY A. PURNACHANDRA REDDI REFERENCE Yarwoop, C. E. (1973): Pyrenomycetes: Erysi- phales in The Fungi-An Advanced Treatise vol. IV A (Edited by Ainsworth, G. C., Sparrow, F. K. and Sussman, A. S.). Academic press; New York. pp. 71-86. 370 oe | as. ‘edition mein) oe ‘d Bes ae ment Our | BIRDS 1 he 8 Ceaenes: a Kannada _ aie ie UTIFUL ‘TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi | Our Monsoon elle (with 8 colou ed | in Hinc uh 8 coloured plates) in] oa in India clove ee lish Wan orien, ee ae noe. to. members. — gee te M Mannan E Student Members (without. 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Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of oho In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multi- - ples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. 11. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a mem- . ber’s contribution earlier thay a non-member’s. Hornbill House, EDITORS, Shahid nies Singh nigh ; . - Journal of the Bombay Bombay 400 023. : Natural History Society. 6 es ie be s ez < ae ant" * Re eke. Sax 3 ne ee ee aoe ee VOLUME 77 (3) : DECEMBER 1980 Date of Publication : 27-4-1981 CONTENTS PAGE THE SPARROW-HAWKS (Accipiter) OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. By .G. F. Mees. (With a plate & three text-figures) £ 371 STUDIES ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HAIR IN SOME INDIAN BATS: (MAMMALIA: CHIROPTERA). By J. H. Sabnis. (With nineteen text-figures) ae 413 SEDGES OF PUNJAB—ECOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION AND ENUMERATION. By M. Sharma .. 424 A POPULATION STUDY OF TWO SPECIES OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES: Macaca mulatta AND Macaca radiata. By Raghubir Singh Pirta, P. Prakash & Mewa Singh. (With two text-figures) e, 429 THE RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR AND LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF A FRESHWATER Carp, Labeo gonius (HAM.) (CYPRINIDAE, TELEOSTEI). By Anil Chatterji. (With five text-figures) ah 435 SOME ASPECTS OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF BLACKBUCK JN NEPAL. By John F. Lehmkuhl 444 MATERIALS FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 450 FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIELD ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN Bats. By Y. P. Sinha 465 FLORAL BIioLoGy OF Mimusops eclengi LINN. By C. Subba Reddi and A. Janaki Bai. (With three text-figures) ne 471 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON TIGER BEHAVIOUR IN THE CONTEXT OF BAITING. By Charles McDougal. (With a text-figure) a 476 New DEScRIPTIONS: Description of a new species Drosophila gangotrii (Diptera: Drosophilidae) from South India. By N. Muniyappa and G. Sreerama Reddy. (With seven text- figures) - 486 A new species of high altitude spider of the Genus Erigone Audouin (Family: Erigonidae) from India. By B. K. Tikader. (With six text-figures) e 490 A new Memecylon L. (Melastomataceae) from Tamil Nadu, India. By A. N. Henry. (With eight text-figures) aU 492 OBITUARY: Charles McCann (1899-1980). (With a plate) ae 494 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: Mammals: 1. Observations on a remarkable association between Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta villosa) and the Himalayan Langur (Presbytis entellus schistaceus) in the Kumaun Himalayas, India. By S. M. Das and B. D. Sharma (p. 496); 2. Observations on birth of a Musk Deer fawn. By M. S. Jain (p. 497); 3. Occurrence of the Large Brown Flying Squirrel and Mouse Deer near Udaipur, Rajasthan. By Raza H. Tehsin (p. 498); 4. Obser- vations on the Epidemiology of Hairy-Footed Gerbil, Gerbillus gleadowi Murray in the Indian desert. By Charan Singh and Rajinder Singh (p. 498); 5. Occurrence of Bandicota bengalensis and Vandeleuria oleracea in Western Rajasthan. By B. D. Rana (p. 501); 6. Impact of cyclone on the rodent population in Andhra Pradesh. By A. M. K. Mohana Rao (p. 502); 7. Some notes on age of sexual maturity of seven species of Indian Wild Mammals in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. H. Mishra (p. 504). Birps: 8. Twelve years old Common Teal (Anas crecca). By V. C. Ambedkar (p. 507); 9. The Crab Plover (Dromas ardeola) in Kerala. By K. K. Neelakantan, K. V. Sreenivasan and V. K. Sureshkumar (p. 508); 10. Nocturnal activity of the Turnstone (Arenaria inter- pres) on South Sentinel (Andaman Islands). By R. Altevogt and T. A. Davis (p. 508); 11. Occurrence of the Blackwinged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) in Kerala. By K. K. Neelakantan and V. K. Sureshkumar (p. 510); 12. Occurrence of the Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) at low altitudes. By Peter Davidar (p. 511); 13. Occurrence of Dicrurus para- diseus lophorhinus (Vieillot) in Goa (India). By Bhabesh Chandra Saha and Ajit Kumar Mukherjee (p. 511); 14. Sparrow ‘Helping’ nesting bulbuls. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 513). REPTILES: 15. Defence of the nest against man by the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider). By H. R. Bustard and S. K. Kar (p. 514); 16. Some observations on the growth of captive crocodiles. (With five text-figures). By V. S. Krishnamurthi and R. Bhaskaran (p. 516); 17. A new turtle for Nepal. By Philip M. Hall (p. 521). FISHES: 18. First record of the milk fish, Chanos chanos (Forskal, 1775) from Iran and the Persian Gulf. By Brian W. Coad (p. 522); 19. Occurrence of Zebrias keralensis Joglekar (Pisces: Soleidae) off Visakhapatnam, with a note on its taxonomy. By K. Srinivasa Rao and M. Rama Murty (p. 524); 20. On the record of the Black Ruby Barb, Puntius nigrofas- ciatus (Gunther) (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from India. (With a text-figure). By B. F. Chhapgar and S. R. Sane (p. 526); 21. Local names of Pomfrets from the Indian coasts. By S. Pati (p. 527). INsecrs: 22. Sexual dimorphism in Lohita grandis Gray (Heteroptera-Pyrrhocoreidae). By S. C. Dhiman and V. C. Chatterjee (p. 529); 23. Occurrence of Epilachna ocellata Redt. on Bitter Gourd, Memordica charantia L. with a note on its damage and biology. By V. K. Koshta and S. V. Dhamdhere (p. 529); 24. Dragonflies feeding on houseflies. By Brij Kishore Tyagi (p. 531); 25. More butterflies from Bombay. By Salman Abdulali (p. 531); 26. Strange practice of a Caterpillar. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 532). BoTraNy: 27. Vicia monantha Retz. and Sporobolus airoides (Yorr.) Torr.—New to Indian flora. By G. P. Roy and V. Singh (p. 532); 28. Crotalaria laburnifolia L—A little known species from Maharashtra State. (With six text-figures). By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy (p. 534); 29. Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin——A new fodder grass addition. (With a text-figure). By H. Thakur and G. N. Javeid (p. 536); 30. Davallia fejeensis Hook.—A new additional naturalized element to the Indian flora. By N. © ™air and P. Bhargavan (p. 538); 31. Phlebodium aureum (Linn.) J. Sm. (Polypodiaceae) —A’ 2w record for India. (With a plate). By P. Bhargavan and N. C. Nair (p. 539); 32. Nomen- clatural notes in the Family Lycopodiaceae P. Beauv. ex Mirb. By R. D. Dixit (p. 540). ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1978-79 542 STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HisToRY SOCIETY 2 550 MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING an 562 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1980 DECEMBER Vol. 77 No. 3 THE SPARROW-HAWKS (ACCIPITER) OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS* G. F. MEES? (With a plate & three text-figures) The identification of sparrow-hawks (Accipiter) collected in the Andaman Islands has caused problems. A study of all the specimens known from these islands revealed that they belong to three species: resident A. virgatus, represented by an endemic subspecies here described, and the winter visitors A. nisus and A. gularis. A fourth species, A. soloensis, has erroneously been recorded but actually is likely to occur as a winter visitor, being already known from the Nicobars. These species and 4A. badius (not known from the Andamans but widely distributed in south-east Asia) have often been confused. In this paper the characters by which they may be dis- tinguished, their distribution, geographical variation and migrations are discussed. CONTENTS ACCIPITER NISUS NISOSIMILIS os x 380 ACCIPITER VIRGATUS ae ae nas 381 INTRODUCTION an oe a Ei 372 A. v. affinis = es ce oe IDENTIFICATION | a BS in 273 A. v. besra a ie ne a 385 MEDIAN IPE iu. .* THE THROAT .. 373 A. v. abdulalii if x cee 357 BANDS ON THE TAIL Hs ah 374 ACCIPITER GULARIS i A ed 388 UNDER WING PATTERN 7 i ne 375 A. g. gularis = se ee a 392 COLOURS OF UNFEATHERED PARTS - 375 A. g. iwasakii a ox = 394 WING SHAPE as - a 376 ACCIPITER BADIUS ee: at ae 397 FOOT STRUCTURE a a A 379 ACCIPITER SOLOENSIS es 4 3h 398 SEXUAL DIFFERENCE IN SIZE ; ' 330 THE IDENTITY OF Accipiter nisoides BLYTH 400 IDENTIFICATION KEY a - ‘. 380 «IS Accipiter virgatus affinis MIGRATORY? .. 402 TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS te bis 407 1 Accepted July 1979. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS a is Hee 409 2 Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden. REFERENCES ms Pi a os 409 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 INTRODUCTION The occurrence of sparrow-hawks in the Andaman Islands has been known for over a century or, to be exact, since 24 April 1873, when W. R. Davison obtained an adult female (Hume 1874: 141). Two years later Hume (1876: 280) recorded three more specimens: a juvenile male and two juvenile females, which had been forwarded to him by Captain Wimberley. Breeding was established early in the present century by Osmaston (1906) and Wickham (1910). These older authors, using binary nomen- clature, identified their birds as Accipiter vir- gatus, although Hume, observing some difie- rences between mainland specimens of A. vir- gatus and Andaman birds, wondered whether the name A. gularis might be applicable to the latter. With the introduction of ternary nomenclature, the names A. (cf. Baker 1928: 164), A. virgatus nisoides (cf. Peters 1931: 223), A. virgatus gularis (cf. Ali & Ripley 1968: 250) and A. virgatus besra (cf. Brown & Amadon 1968: 469) came into use for the Andaman resident birds. gularis nisoides As far as I know, the four specimens re- corded by Hume and a single specimen of a different species, the winter visitor A. nisus nisosimilis (cf. Hume 1876: 280), remained the only sparrow-hawks ever obtained in the Andamans until Abdulali (1965: 507) re- ‘corded three more, collected by him person- ally in 1964, under the name A. virgatus gularis. Incidental to a study of resident A. virgatus from Formosa (Taiwan), I examined the adult Andaman female previously recorded by Hume (BM no. 85.8.19.690) which I found to be close to A. v. affinis from continental Sikes Asia, but smaller. This led me to observe: “This bird probably represents an undescrib- ed subspecies, characterized by small size. The breeding records quoted by Abdulali (1965: 507) would refer to this form and certainly not to A. v. gularis, under which name he lists them’ (Mees 1970: 291). From the preceding notes it will be clear that the identity of the sparrow-hawks inha- biting the Andaman Islands was not yet de- finitely settled. Therefore I gladly accepted an offer by Mr Abdulali to forward for my exa- mination the sparrow-hawks collected by him in the Andamans, together with some speci- mens from peninsular India and one from Camorta Island, Nicobars, for comparative purposes. In addition to the specimens col- lected in 1964, this material included a bird obtained during a more recent visit to the Andamans, making four altogether from that locality. The results of this study can be summariz- ed as follows: three species of Accipiter are known from the Andamans, of which one (A. virgatus) is a resident belonging to an endemic subspecies here described, and two (A. nisus and A. gularis) are winter visitors. In literature one finds a fourth species listed from the Andamans: according to a number of recent authors, A. soloensis would occur as a winter visitor. As will be explained in the dis- cussion of A. soloensis, the record is errone- ous although actually the species may be ex- pected for it is an apparently regular visitor to the Nicobars. An unexpected additional result is the iden- tification of two specimens of A. gularis from Point Calimere, southern India. These are apparently the first records from continental India and their location makes it likely that in SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS fact this migrant is more widely distributed but has not been recognized. Confirmation of this has already been obtained to a certain extent. It proved impossible to discuss the Anda- man sparrow-hawks properly without paying attention to related species and _ subspecies from the mainland of south-east Asia and for that reason this paper has expanded. beyond the limits, if not the scope, originally envisag- ed. The need for this came as a surprise, for the recent works of Brown & Amadon (1968) and Wattel (1973) had given me the impres- sion that litthe museum work remained to be done on the genus Accipiter. Actually, and in spite of the fine work done by the authors “just mentioned, a lot of traditional miscon- ception remains to be cleared up. In this paper a modest beginning will be made. Apart from the specimens individually re- corded, I have measured as a basis for com- parison ten adult males and ten adult females each of A. v. virgatus, A. g. gularis and A. soloensis from Java, all from the collection of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie (RMNH). Additional material recorded in the text and in the tables is from the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History (AMNH), Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), British Museum (Natural History) (BM), Merseyside County Museum (MCM), Natur- historisches Museum Wien (MV), and United States National Museum (USNM). IDENTIFICATION Several species of sparrow-hawks resemble each other closely, especially in the immature plumages, and this has led to frequent mis- identifications. It is therefore necessary to dis- cuss the characters by which the following species can be differentiated: A. soloensis, A. badius, A. virgatus and A. gularis. A. trivir- gatus must also be mentioned in this conne- xion as in plumage it shows some resemblance to A. virgatus, but skins can always be distin- guished by their heavy feet; for additional characters, see Mayr (19-49). In this section I shall discuss the various characters that in literature have been used for identification, and have this followed by a key. Many of the descriptions found in literature are quite satisfactory for the identification of adult birds, but break down when birds in immature plumage are studied. Indeed, it is my opinion that plumage characters are of little use in the identification of immature birds, an opinion supported by the many mis- identified specimens one finds in collections. Therefore I have in the key almost ignored plumage characters, but have worked with measurements and proportions. My ambition has been to enable anybody to identify speci- mens by taking a few simple measurements, and without any comparative material. There- fore characters that can only be evaluated by comparison have also been avoided. I believe that correctly sexed material can always be identified with the key. As regards wrongly sexed specimens (of which unfortunately large numbers clutter collections) I am not so sure. Median stripe down the throat. This cha- racter has been used extensively to distinguish between A. virgatus (stripe broad) and A. gularis (stripe narrow). Whereas in A. vir- gatus this is indeed a reliable character in- asmuch as this species shows in all plumages a comparatively broad stripe, it is not so satisfactory in A. gularis, being variable to the extent that in some specimens it is practically absent, in others so broad as to equal or al- JOURNAL, most to equal certain individuals of A. wir- gatus. Only when direct comparisons are made will it be seen that the former has the stripe darker and more sharply defined. If a bird has a broad and somewhat fluffy looking median stripe, it is definitely not A. gularis. Adult specimens of A. soloensis rarely show a median stripe and if it is present, it is grey rather than blackish, but birds in immature plumage have it invariably, blackish and fairly broad, usually supported by a few smaller and narrower lateral stripes. In both adults and immatures of A. badius the median stripe is frequently present, moderately developed, but other individuals only show a few incons- picuous non-median longitudinal striae on the throat. Bands on the tail. In two species, A. badius and A. soloensis, the adult birds have or may have the middle pair of rectrices, which in the closed tail covers the others, without distinct cross-bars. In A. soloensis these fea- thers are dark grey, gradually changing to blackish towards the tips. In A. badius, which is lighter grey above, there is a distinctive subterminal black band followed by a narrow white margin; sometimes there is also a sug- gestion of one or two dark cross-bars, but these are never fully developed. When study- ing material of these two species, one should be aware of the possibility that the central rectrices are missing: the other rectrices have cross-bars, not very pronounced in A. soloen- sis, very distinct in A. badius. I do not understand the remark made by Brown & Amadon (1968: 514) under the heading Field Characters of A. soloensis: “Could be confused with the Shikra (A. badius poliopsis), which occurs in part of the range, but should be distinguishable by (1) 374 BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 upper side much clearer blue grey than the Shikra...”’. In my material the difference is just the other way round: the upper parts of adult A. badius poliopsis are light blue-grey, whereas A. soloensis is dark grey above. In general terms the bands can be described as follows: A. virgatus: 4 broad dark bands, about as wide as the pale bands separating them; in some individuals all four bands are visible, in others the proximal one is concealed under the upper tail coverts. A. gularis: 4, sometimes 5 bands, usually narrower than the pale bands_ separating them; usually four bands are exposed. A. badius: central feathers in adults with only the terminal band well-developed, the others weakly indicated or entirely absent; lateral rectrices of adults and juvenile tails with 4-6 bands. A. soloensis: central rectrices of adult males usually without bands, of adult females some- times without bands; lateral rectrices of adults and juvenile tails with 4-6 bands. One of the problems is to decide exactly how many bands there are. Whereas in the distal part of the tail this is no problem, in the proximal part there is often some darken- ing near the base of the feathers which could or could not be counted as a band. One might try to escape from this problem by counting only the exposed bands, visible without look- ing below the upper tail-coverts, but that does not help much as usually one band is about half covered by the coverts, and moreover especially the larger of these coverts are fre- quently missing in skins, so that whether or not one counts a band comes to depend on how many coverts the specimen has lost in the process of preparation. In addition there SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS is a relatively large variation in the number of bands, even within one species (as listed above). Evidently the bands of the tail are of very limited use in identification; all I would dare to say is that A. virgatus can usually be recognized by having the bands broad and well-defined. Under wing pattern. Adult individuals of A. soloensis differ from all other species in having the underwing not barred; the outer primaries are blackish below, the remainder of the underwing is white or pale buffish. Un- fortunately, in immature birds the outer pri- maries are more or less barred underneath and such birds also have the underwing coverts with some dark spotting. Previous authors (e.g. Brown & Amadon 1968: 515) have used this character but without mentioning its re- striction where immature birds are concerned. A. virgatus and A. gularis always have a strongly barred underwing pattern, but A. badius is variable: some specimens are as lightly barred as immature A. soloensis, others are almost as heavily barred as A. virgatus and A. soloensis. In other words, only adult A. soloensis can be readily distinguished by this character. The illustrations in King & Dickinson (1975: pl. 6) show the differences between adult birds of A. badius, A. virgatus and A. soloensis very well as far as colorir pattern is concerned, but the artist has cor 1- pletely missed the structural differences in wing shape; surely A. soloensis has pointed wings and not the extremely blunt ones indi- cated, and the same can be said in a lesser degree of A. badius. The figures given by Grossman & Hamlet (1965: 247) are much better. Colours of unfeathered parts. As is usual in collections, only a minority of specimens has the colours of the unfeathered parts in- dicated on the labels. A. soloensis: itis of g& ad. dark brown or dark red, of @ ad. and immature birds of both sexes yellow or orange-yellow, bill slate to black, cere orange-yellow to orange, feet orange-yellow to orange. The sexual difference in iris colour must have been noted by many collectors, and was recorded by La Touche (1932: 188-190), Kolthoff (1932: 138-139), Stresemann (1941: 85), etc. It is confirmed by material examined by me, collected by Bar- tels, Coomans de Ruiter, Jacobson & van Heurn, and Kooiman. A. g. gularis: iris of g& ad. red-brown, of g ad. and immature birds of both sexes yel- low, bright yellow or dark yellow, bill dark grey with a black tip, cere greenish, feet light greenish to bright yellow, nails black. Sexual dimorphism in colour of the iris was already recorded by Swinhoe in Gurney (1863), fol- lowed by La Touche (1932: 193-194) and Shaw (1938: 153) and is confirmed by such specimens in our collection as have the colours of the unfeathered parts recorded on _ their labels. A. g. iwasakii: iris in adults of both sexes yellow (based on only one specimen of each sex). A. v. virgatus: itis o& ad. dark cadmium yellow, 2 ad. yellow, in immature birds grey- ish yellow or greenish yellow, in a nestling (2) greenish grey, bill dark grey to blackish, cere greenish, feet light greenish to bright yellow, nails black. As far as can be ascertain- ed from the material at hand, there is little sexual dimorphism in iris colour, but from this species the data sheets of the Bartels collec- tion are missing, and the assumption that the adult male has a yellow iris is based on two specimens only. A. v. affinis: iris & ad. orange (BM no. 375 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 1937.1.17.85), @ ad. bright yellow (BM no. 1949 Whl. 1-161). See also Deignan (1945: 67). A. v. besra: itis 3 ad. orange-yellow (BM no. 1959. 19.1), orange-red (BM no. 1956.44. 8) or bright orange-red (BM no. 1956.44.7). A. badius: iris @ ad. light orange, 92 ad. yellow, ¢ im. greenish yellow, bill black, near gape greyish or bluish, cere green to greenish yellow, feet yellow, nails black. Note that the adults of A. soloensis and A. g. gularis have a pronounced sexual dimor- phism in iris colour, that is absent in A. vir- gatus and A. badius, where adult males have the iris merely deeper in colour, orange rather than yellow. It is not surprising that the sexual dimor- phism in iris colour, combined with the gene- rally poor labelling of specimens, has been too much for ornithological illustrators. Thus, Brown & Amadon (1968) show the adult male of A. gularis with a yellow iris (pl. 62 fig. 1), the adult female of A. soloensis with a dark brown iris (pl. 77 fig. 2). The adult male A. gularis figured in Etchécopar & Hie (1978: pl. 4 fig. 3) also shows a yellow iris. The bird so beautifully illustrated in Kuroda (1936: pl. XXIV fig. 2) under the name A. v. virgatus 3 ad. shows hardly a trace of a median stripe down the throat, neither has it the dark streaks on the upper breast which are characteristic of that species. The measure- ments of this specimen, provided by Kuroda (1. c.: 513): wing 166, tail 118.5 mm, prove its identity as A. gularis. Therefore the yellow iris pictured is definitely wrong. A. soloensis differs from all others by the brighter more orange colours of cere and feet and the difference remains visible in skins, inasmuch as all specimens of A. soloensis examined by me, be they adults or immatures, 376 can be recognized by the pale yellowish cere, which contrasts conspicuously with the dark bill and the dark feathers of the forehead. For identification this is, however, of limited value: birds with a dark or blackish cere (in skins) are not A. soloensis, but it does not always work the other way round as in all three other species occasional skins are found in which the cere (sometimes also the bill) is pale. Wing shape. A difference in shape of the wing tip between A. virgatus and A. gularis was noted as long ago as 1862 by Schlegel (1862: 32-33), the former having the: “‘Qua- triéme rémige dépassant a peine la cinqui- éme’’, the latter having: “‘la quatriéme rémige dépassant notablement la cinquiéme”. This character was accepted as an excellent and highly reliable one by Ogilvie-Grant (1896: 105), but rejected by Hartert (1910: 211): “I find, however, that this character varies con- siderably and is therefore not reliable’. Sub- sequent authors have again paid attention to the wing-formula, the proportional lengths of the primaries. Apart from the existence of variation as already noted by Hartert, char- acters that have to be described in terms of ‘a little larger” against ‘“‘notably larger” have an element of inexactness and subjectivity that makes them difficult to use. A far more useful character was introduced by Voous (1950), probably inspired by Mayr (1949). Voous measured the wing tip, being the difference in length between the longest (be it the third, fourth of fifth) primary and the tenth (in- nermost) primary; this measure he also ex- pressed as a percentage of the whole length of the folded wing. Wattel (1973) followed suit and provided a whole series of very use- ful measurements. I find the length of the wing tip the easiest and most reliable character SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS "P Ws 6S Woy ‘smwssA ca sp :uonog 'P yw s yoy ‘swiffo ‘ap ido ‘sdy Suiqy *] “Bty JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 9S~ 6h Wo] ‘Wyospm1 “8 “p :WoyVog ° L G'9P v Wsit ‘6 Mol ‘sunjns “3 -p :doyz ‘sdy 4 378 SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS Fig. 3. there is. By simply measuring the length of the wing tip, a complete separation between A. virgatus and the other three species can be made. In the available material a complete separation between A. soloensis on the one hand against A. g. gularis and A. badius on the other hand is also possible, but the ex- treme measurements are so close that in very large series the possibility of some overlapping must be envisaged. Finally, A. hbadius and A. g. gularis cannot be separated by wing tip length and wing tip index, these being very sumilar in both. In their case, wing length and tail length have to be used. It is necessary to mention that, within the confines of India, there is one other small sparrow-hawk with a very blunt wing: A. but- leri, in which according to Wattel (1973: 33) ‘the wing tip index is 22.3%. This species, being endemic to the Nicobars where A. virgartus does not occur, cannot be confused with it. The blunt wing will, however, serve to dis- tinguish A. butleri from the migrant species 68—75 Wing tip of A. soloensis 2 A. gularis and A. soloensis which visit the Nicobars in the northern winter. Foot-structure. Traditionally much atten- tion has been paid to the structure of the foot in the classification of Accipiter-species; for- merly the distinction between the genera Astur and Accipiter was largely based on it, species ascribed to the first genus having generally heavier feet with shorter toes. Of the species here discussed, A. soloensis and A. badius used to be placed in Astur, whereas A. virgatus and A. gularis (as well as A. nisus) were regarded as “‘typical’’ of Accipiter, having: long and slender toes. Ali & Ripley (1968: 232-233) still use this old distinction in their key, where they separate A. virgatus (includ- ing A. gularis, regarded as a subspecies by these authors) from A. badius by the former having: “Middle toe without claw consider- ably longer than outer toe with claw’, and the later: ‘‘Middle toe without claw about as long as outer toe with claw’. Actually, the difference is slight and in both species as well 39 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 as in A. gularis the outer toe with claw is about equal in length to the middle toe with- out claw. It is true that A. badius has gene- rally somewhat shorter toes than A. virgatus, but the relative proportions of the toes do not differ and therefore cannot be used for their separation. Whereas A. soloensis has, com- pared with A. virgatus, conspicuously short toes (see table), the same cannot be said of A. badius, which has the toes only a little shorter and less slender than A. virgatus. Sexual difference in size. In the absence of weights, which would give a much better picture of the acutal differences between the sexes, | have been forced to use wing length as a measure of size differences between the sexes. It will be clear that, being one-dimen- sional, these do not do justice to the great differences in bulk they express so inade- quately. It is a pity that of several forms the num- bers of specimens are insufficient to work out satisfactory averages, but even so it is evident that the sexual difference in size is a reliable specific character: within each species, even when that is divided into several well-diffe- rentiated subspecies, it is almost constant, but there are significant differences between the species. Summarizing from the table, it will be seen that the greatest sexual difference is found in A. virgatus (wing length of males 80-84% of that of the females), less so but still considerable in A. gularis (87-88%), and in A. hadius (88.7-92.6%), and very little in A. soloensis (97.3%). It is tempting to spe- culate about possible explanations for these interspecific differences, but that is outside the scope of this purely descriptive contribu- tion. Therefore I refer to the interesting dis- cussions given by Brown & Amadon (1968: 26-28), and Amaden (1975), and only note that the two species with the greatest sexual 380 dimorphism in size are bird-hunters, whereas the intermediate A. badius has a mixed diet and the species with the least dimorphism, A. soloensis, appears to feed mainly on insects, amphibians and reptiles (cf. Wattel 1973: 32). IDENTIFICATION KEY la. In adult plumage, under surface of folded wings not barred; outer primaries black or blackish, remainder white or pale buffish; in the immature plumage, the outer primaries can be barred below; third primary usually longer than fourth, sometimes equal; wing tip 68-75 mm or c. 37% of wing length..... A. soloensis In all plumages under surface of folded wings at least on the outer primaries distinctly bar- red dark brown-grey and white; third primary usually shorter than fourth, sometimes equal; wing tip 35-66 mm or 23-34% of wing length. 2 SF mm, or 22.8-28.5% of wing length; under sur- face of folded wings entirely barred.......... SMe RIN PCL PR MARES Ini My ned-b. ty o:¢ A. virgatus b. Wing tip in males 49-63 mm, in females 55-66 mm, or 27.6-34.2% of wing length; under sur- face of folded wing either entirely barred, or barring more or less restricted to the primaries. SP ree NEM er ER ch os Soha oso 3 3a. Wing in males 160-170 mm, in females 183- 197 mm, tail in males 111-118 mm, in females 120-134 mm, or 64.7-71.3% of wing length; under surface of folded wing entirely barred. SOE, BER on ute ten! Siegen. att os che eee A. gularis b. Wing in males 172-200 mm, in females 194- 214 mm, tail in males 125-150 mm, in females 143-168 mm, or 70.7-78.5% of wing length; barring on under surface of folded wings somewhat variable, usually weak or absent on the ‘secondaries Geb cacti n suchen A. badius ACCIPITER NISUS NISOSIMILIS (TICKELL.) Falco Nisosimilis Tickell, 1833, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 2: 571—-Marcha, in Borabhum. Material from the Andamans. 9°, x.1875. South Andaman, leg. J. N. Wimberley (BM no. 85.8.19.594), an immature bird in its first SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS autumn. Wing 248, tail 174, tarsus 63, culmer from cere 15 mm. Discussion. This Asia is a winter visitor to India and Burma, but it has never been recorded from Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The Andamans must be near the south-eastern limit of its winter range and it is unlikely that A. nisus is more than an occasional visitor to the islands. Its large size will serve to distinguish this species from other members of the genus occurring in the Andamans. migrant from Central ACCIPITER VIRGATUS (TEMMINCK) Characters. A. virgatus shows in most of its subspecies no more than a moderate sexual difference in plumage, but a conspicttous one in size. As regards sexual differences in plum- age, adult males and adult females of A. y. affinis and A. v. besra differ only in the former having the back blackish grey, the latter hav- ing the back with a brownish tinge. There is no sexual difference to speak of in colour and colour pattern of the under surface. In A. v. abdulalii, on the other hand, the females are in colour similar to females of the mainland subspecies, but the male is distingiushed by the very different underparts. A character by which A. virgatus can in all plumages be readily distinguished from A. soloensis, A. badius and A. g. gularis, is found in its round- ed wings, the wing-tip of the subspecies occur- ring in India being 35-43 mm in males, 41- 52 mm in females, or 23.0-24.4% of the wing length. Middle toe long. Underwing strongly barred. A broad longitudinal middle stripe on the throat is present in all plumages. Distribution. This species has an exten- sive range in south-east Asia. On the main- land it occurs along the Himalayas to as far west as Kashmir, in Assam, Burma, Thailand, Indo-China, central, south and east China; also Hainan and Formosa, southern penin- sular India and Ceylon, the Andamans the Philippines, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Bali and Flores. Habitat. A. virgatus is essentially a forest bird, this in contradistinction to A. gularis which (at least in its winter quarters) prefers the more open types of vegetation provided by village gardens and cultivated country. The vertical range is from the lowlands to 3000 m. Wattel (1973: 40) stated that: ‘“The species is found in moist-deciduous forests and plan- tations in the mountains of southern India and Ceylon. ..in the equatorial belt it ranges most- ly between 1000 and 2200 m’’. However, in Ceylon, an island certainly within the equa- torial belt, A. v. besra ranges over all zones, from sea-level to at least 6000 ft (Whistler 1944: 249). In southern India, Ali (1969: 56) knew it from levels of 600-1200 m, but the specimens from Point Calimere (? ad.) and Bhavnagar (¢ im.) prove that it does visit the lowlands. As lowland forest has become so scarce through the activity of Homo sapiens, it will be difficult to decide whether the apparent restriction to the higher levels is actually caused by a preference for these levels, or is due to a forced retreat from the lowland as a result of human activities. Although both Voous (1950) and Wattel (1973: 40) reported A. virgatus in the Sunda Islands as a mountain bird, it is not exclusively so, for-Coomans de Ruiter (1936) found a nest in Koeboe, West Borneo, a lowland re- gion remote from any mountains. Both Voous (1950) and Wattel (1973: map 4) overlook- ed this record as well as a whole string of other records from Borneo (summarized by Smythies 1957: 578; see also Smythies 1960: 149 and 1968: 152), and concluded mistakenly 381 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 that in Borneo this species is known from Mt Kinabalu only. On the distributional map given by Brown & Amadon (1968; map 37) the Bornean race A. v. rufotibialis is also shown as restricted to Mt Kinabalu, although in their text these authors record it also from Mt Dulit and the Kelabit Plateau, which is of course still giving it much too limited a dis- tribution. The clutch from Koeboe, collected by Coomans de Ruiter personally, is now in our collection (RMNH no. 73548); the two eggs agree well with eggs of A. v. virgatus from Java and I see no reason to question their identification. As Coomans de Ruiter mentioned an additional clutch from Koeboe and also two nests from Pontianak, it is evi- dent that reproduction in the lowlands of West Borneo is not exceptional but takes place regularly. In Java also, the assumption that A. vy. vir- gatus is confined to mountain forest requires revision. Its range as defined by Voous (1. c.) is: “Java and Bali, at 1200-2200 m altitude; occasionally in the lowlands (juvenile from Brebes...less than 100 m)’’. Although Voous did mention the juvenile bird from Brebes, he did not comment on the material from Buitenzorg (270 m) that he examined and he failed to indicate that locality on his map. Neither did he discuss Soekaboemi (600 m). On the other hand, he extended the normal vertical range up to 2200 m on the basis of a single specimen from that altitude. That is how mountain birds are created in literature. Our collection contains specimens from the following lowland localities: Meester Corne- lis, Buitenzorg, Moeara Beting-Krawang (this would have been mangrove forest), Tjibareno, Bandjar, Tegal-Brebes, Djember (all below 300 m), Tjibadak (400 m), Soekaboemi (600 m), etc. It is necessary to state that amongst 382 birds from lowland localities there are several in fully adult plumage, so that the occurrence in the lowlands cannot be dismissed as merely a matter of juvenile dispersal in the post- breeding period. I note that Hoogerwerf (1970: 454), on admittedly very slender evidence, assumed breeding in the lowland reserve of Udjung Kulon. The explanation for the fact that in Java the species has more often been recorded from the higher levels appears to be simply that it is a forest bird and lowland forest in Java is and was already in the first half of this century, extremely scarce. The most one can say is that the bird is perhaps more common at the higher levels (cf. Hoo- gerwerf l.c.). Wattel (1973: 40) refers to Sody as evid- ence that in Java A. virgatus occurs in the teak forests; now Tecfona grandis plantations provide a very open kind of woodland and in Java they are to my knowledge practically confined to the flat lowlands, whereas accord- ing to Wattel (admittedly erroneously as pointed out above), the vertical distribution of A. virgatus in Java is from 1000-2200 m. Checking the reference given (Sody 1953: 138) I found that the bird was recorded under the name A. v. gularis and was moreover clearly stated to have been: ‘“‘Een exemplaar van het trekkende ras”’. Voous’s opinion that in the Sunda Islands, within suitable habitat, the species is rare, is also in need of modification. At the time Voous was able to muster only 27 specimens from the Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands com- bined, but through purchases (mainly of the Bartels collection) and bequests our collection has grown so much that now we have 85 specimens from Java alone. The number of skins of A. gularis from Java in our collection is now 62, so that the ratio between the two SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS species has become reversed. Geographical variation. Wattel (1973: 34- 43) divided the subspecies of A. virgatus into three groups, the gularis-group, the virgatus- group and the affinis-group. I consider his gularis-group to constitute a distinct species, A. gularis, not even very close to A. virgatus. This leaves Wattel’s two other groups: the virgatus-group in which he placed the sub- species from the Sunda Islands and the Phi- lippines, as well as A. v. besra from southern India and Ceylon, and the affinis-group, re- served for A. v. affinis. He explained this view with the statement that: “Birds from southern India and Ceylon...are closely similar to the Malaysian races, but this similarity is due to convergence rather than to former geographi- cal contact’’. My opinion is that this division is artificial. The difference between A. v. besra and A. v. affinis, assigned to different groups by Wattel, is merely one of size, and every- thing points to the two being closely related, as indeed one would expect on zoogeogra- phical grounds. In making this unnatural divi- sion, Wattel may have been influenced by Hartert (1910: 210-211) and Swann (1921- 1922: 61 and 1926: 327), who treated A. v. besra as a race of A. virgatus, but treated A. v. affinis as a separate species under the name of A. affinis. On the other hand it is per- fectly true that A. v. besra as well as A. v. affinis are also very close to A. v. virgatus and certainly not sufficiently different for these subspecies to be placed in different groups. To me it seems that, if groups have to be made at all, the Philippine subspecies should rather be treated as a separate group. Unfortunately our collection contains only a single specimen from the Philippines (3 ad., 21-x-1887, Ayala, Mindanao, leg. F. S. Bourne) which is conspicuous by the com- plete absence of barring on the ventral sur- face, and by the strong reduction of cross- bars on the tail. I note that Wattel (1973: 42-43) appears to be of the same opinion, as he states: ““Apparently confusus originated in- dependently whereas vanbemmeli, virgatus, and rufotibialis had a common origin’. In this connection one wonders why, nevertheless, he placed them all in the same group, just as it seems illogical that he treats besra throughout as a member of the virgatus- group, but ends by saying that the similarity is due to convergence. The subspecies of Accipiter virgatus are the following: A. v. virgatus (Temminck, 1822): Java, Bali, Flores. A. v. vanbemmeli Voous, 1950: Sumatra. A. v. rufotibialis Sharpe, 1887: Borneo. A. v. besra Jerdon, 1839: Ceylon and southern India. A. v. affinis Hodgson, 1836: Himalayas to eastern China. A. vy. fuscipectus Mees, 1970: Formosa. A. v. abdulalii subsp. nov.: Andamans. A. v. confusus Hartert, 1910: northern Philippines. A. v. quagga Parkes, 1973: southern Phi- lippines. The subspecies A. v. kashmiriensis Whistler & Kinnear has not been included as it is only doubtfully separable from A. v. affinis, under which subspecies a discussion of its validity will be given. It should further be clear that this paper is not a revision and that subspe- cies will only be treated in as far as they have a bearing on the correct identification of birds from the Andamans. Therefore I have not attempted to study the subspecies from 383 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines. For a discussion of the former, I refer to Voous (1950), for a discussion of the latter see Parkes (1973: 17-19). In this paper I am not particularly con- cerned with historical zoogeography but it will be clear that the apparently wide distri- bution of A. virgatus in the tropical lowlands makes at least debatable Waitel’s (1973: 18, also 43) surmise that: ‘‘A. virgatus probably never had a continuous distribution across the Sunda shelf, because at present it is restrict- ed to hill and mountain country. Therefore, its dispersal must have taken place earlier or was achieved by long-distance colonization. The occurrence of A. virgatus on the Andamans and on Flores prove that such long-distance colonizations have occurred...”. It is also unclear to me what exactly Wattel means with a dispersal that has taken place earlier; earlier than what? Accipiter virgatus affinis Hodgson Accipiter affinis Hodgson, 1836, Bengal Sporting Mag. (n. s.) 8: 179—Nepal (refe- rence not verified). Material examined. oo, undated, before 1862, Nepal, collector unknown (RMNH cat. no. 1, recorded by Schlegel 1862: 33 as Nisus gularis); & im., undated, North Bengal, leg. S. Pinwill (BM no. 76.10.20.29); &, undated, Darjeeling, leg. J. Fortheringham (BM _ no. 77.2.20.6); @, 1873, Darjeeling, collector un- known (BM no. 85.8.19.681); @, xii.1877, Darjeeling, leg. Hume (BM no. 85.8.19.684); ? im., undated, Murree, Punjab, leg. J. Bid- dulph (BM no. 97.12.10.1749); 9, xii.1910, Sukna, Darjeeling, leg. H. K. Robinson (BM no. 1921.7.12.31); 2, 8.v.1922, Ranikhet, U.P., leg. F. Field (BM no. 1949 Whl. 1-161); 9° im., 15.viii.1922, Gulmarg, Kashmir, 9000’, leg. B. B. Osmaston (BM no. 1949 Whl. 1- 384 170); Q. 9.41.1932, Kangkwa Cliq, Tuiwa Re- rame, Katha Distr., Burma, 1100’, leg. H. C. Smith (BM no. 1948.80.3652); @ juv., 9.1x.1935, Chilung Pati, Nepal, 9500’, leg. F. M., Bailey (BM no... 1938 7:15a2 aoe 11.vii.1936, Nyug La, Pachakshiri, S. E. Tibet, 10,000’, leg. F. Ludlow (BM no. 1937.1.17. 85); 2 im., 16.xi.1938; Chungkar, S. E. Bhu- tan, 6500’, leg. illegible initials (BM no. 1938-12.13:99); In addition | made use of the list of measure- ments of material I examined some years ago (Mees 1970: table II). Distribution. The distribution as ascertained from material examined and from reliable literature records is from Kashmir and the extreme north-east of Pakistan (Murree near Rawalpindi) eastwards along the Himalayas, through Assam, Burma, northern and eastern Thailand, to Indo-China, southern, central (to as far north as the Tsinling mountains, cf. Cheng 1973: 47) and southeastern China. The range does nowhere extend into the Indian Plain. The vertical distribution is considerable, extending from little above sea level to 3000 m (cf. list of materia! examined, which was collected between 1100’ and 10,000’, or be- tween 330 and 3000 m). In Burma, A. v. affinis is widely distributed; it is obviously a resident on Mt Victoria (Stresemann & Heinrich 1940: 249) and has been recorded from Pegu (BM no. 84.1.30.22, cf. Mees 1970: 288), but I doubt that it occurs in Tenasserim: the eggs collected by Hopwood near Tavoy and listed by Baker (1935: 115-116) under the name A. gularis nisoides might be referable to A. badius rather than to A. v. affinis. Characters. A large subspecies: wing length of 27 3& 159-171, 34 92 190-207 mm. Discussion. In the discussion of range and SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS movements (see also the section “Is A. v. affinis migratory”), A. v. kashmiriensis has not been separated from A. v. affinis. The former is still a somewhat controversial sub- species. It was accepted by Ripley (1961:47), Ali & Ripley (1968: 246-247) and Abdulali (1969: 704), but rejected by Vaurie (1965: 165), whereas I (Mees 1970) was doubtful of its validity. Wattel (1973) entirely ignored the name, but whether this was because he did not recognize it, or simply overlooked it (as suggested by the fact that in his extensive bibliography the paper in which this subspe- cies was described is not listed) is not clear. I have no new evidence; anyway, A. v. kash- miriensis is at most a weakly differentiated form, continuous in range with A. v. affinis, so that it appears entirely justified to treat the two together. It is perhaps relevant to mention that although the subspecific name kashmiri- ensis was bestowed on the western birds, the type-locality is Murree, which is in the Pun- jab and has never been in Kashmir although it is close to the border. Whistler & Kinnear (1936: 435), writing about A. v. kashmiri- ensis, stated with much confidence: ‘The birds which appear in winter in the United Provinces belong to this western form’. They remained completely silent, however, on which birds exactly they had in mind when making this statement. As mentioned, I have been unable to find any reliable records of winter birds from outside the presumed breeding range. | Incidentally, in dealing with the subspecies A. v. kashmiriensis a nice point arises as to whom authorship should be ascribed. The paper which I am citing as being written by Whistler & Kinnear, actually bears on its title page the indication that it is “by Hugh Whist- ler, assisted by N. B. Kinnear’. Even so, both authors would be responsible for this and other new names, but I noted that in the dis- cussions accompanying the descriptions of the new names, invariably the first person singu- lar is used Kinnear’s contribution is nowhere made clear. Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon 1839, Madras J. South Accipiter besra Jerdon, Litt. Sci. 10: 84-—Soonda Jungles, India. (reference not verified). Material from Sri Lanka. 3, undated, Cey- lon, no collector (BM no. 77.5.24.17); o&, un- dated, Ceylon, leg. S. Bligh (BM no. 1955.6. N.20.2802, ex Norwich Castle Mus.); o&, un- dated, Ceylon, leg. S. Bligh (BM no. 1955.6. N. 20.2803, ex Norwich Castle Mus.); 9?, un- dated, Ceylon, no collector (BM _ no. 87.11.1. 242, ex. Coll. Tweeddale); o', V. 1894, Coney- gar, leg. A. L. Butler (BM no. 1916.9.20.524); 3, 6.1i1.1956, Kalatuwawa, E. of Colombo, leg. E. C. Fernando (BM no. 1956.44.8); 3, 20.iv.1956, Kalatuwawa, leg. E. C. Fernando (BM no. 1956.44.7); o&, 23.x.1958, Kalatu- wawa, leg. E. C. Fernando (BM no. 1959. LOA) Material from India. 3, 18.xi.1881, Coo- noor, Nilghiris, leg. W. Davison (BM no. 85.4.10.1); 9, undated, Ootacamund, Nilghi- ris, leg. W. Davison (BM no. Gurney 2795, ex Newcastle Mus.); ? im., 18.ix.1901, Oota- camund, Nilghiris, no collector (BM no. 1949 WhlI. 1-168); ¢@, 10.xi.1939, Biligirirangan Hills, Mysore, ca. 3000’, leg. Sélim Ali (BM no. 1949, Whl. 1-169); @ im., 1.1.1956, Bhav- nagar, Saurashtra, leg. Dharmakumarsinhji (BNHS no. 20773); @ juv. (large nestling or just fledged), 24.v.1956, Perumalmalai, Palni Hills, 5000’, leg. N. A. Fuller & Bro. Novarro (BNHS no. 20016); “#”=9@, 8.xi.1958, Shem- bagnur, leg. N. A. Fuller (BNHS no. 20734); sex?=9, 21.xii.1971, Point Calimere, leg. BNHS party (BNHS no. 23911). 385 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Distribution. Sri Lanka and southern India in forested parts: Palni, Nilghiri and Biligiri- rangan Hills; along the Western Ghats to as far north as the vicinity of Bombay and perhaps beyond. The bird from Bhavnagar must have been a straggler, the species is unlikely to breed in Saurashtra. Discussing the distribu- tion of this subspecies, Baker (1928: 160) wrote: “‘there are typical specimens in the British Museum from Mhow’’. This must refer to specimen BM no. 75.6.24.15, the only spar- row-hawk of the virgatus/gularis group from Mhow in the BM collection; although labelled A. v. besra, it is A. gularis (see further under that species). Very little is known of the oc- currence in the easterly regions of India: the older records were summarized by Whistler & Kinnear (1936: 435) and recently a specimen was collected at Point Calimere, as listed above. Note that the breeding range of A. v. besra is widely separated from that of A. v. affinis and that the map published by Brown & Amadon (1968: map 37), which shows the two subspecies in broad contact along the Himalayan foothills, is completely misleading. Characters. This subspecies differs from A. v. affinis merely in its smaller size: wing length of 8 gf 150-158, 7 2 180-193, against 27 fo 159-171, 34 ¢ 190-207 mm in A. v. affinis (see table of measurements and Mees 1970; table II). Although there is a slight overlap in measurements, only two out of 34 females of A. v. affinis have a wing length of less than 194 mm (190, 191 mm). I am unable to confirm the existence of con- sistent colour differences between A. v. affinis and A. v. besra, which most previous authors claimed (cf. Baker 1928: 159, Ali & Ripley 1968: 248). Admittedly some males from Sri Lanka are conspicuously red on the under- 386 parts (BM no. 77.5.24.17 being an extreme in this direction), but other specimens from the same island (cf. BM no. 1916.9.20.524) agree completely in plumage with average A. v. affinis. Elsewhere I have commented upon a rather red female of A. v. affinis from Tehri (Mees 1970: 291). Discussion. Swann (1926: 324) gave for A. vy. besra the following wing measurements: 3 165-167, 2 188-203 mm; although he cor- rectly mentioned that this subspecies is larger than A. y. virgatus, the measurements he pre- sented are much too large. Whistler & Kin- near (1936: 436) provided correct measure- ments, but erroneously claimed A. v. besra to be of the same size as the nominate race. This was repeated by Brown & Ama- don (1968: 469), who made no direct compa- rison between this subspecies and A. v. affinis, but stated: “‘about the same size as the nomi- nate race, but not so richly coloured. Wing 3 145-166, 2 182-189’. These figures were obviously although without reference copied from Baker (1928: 160). The range of varia- tion given for the males is surprisingly large, probably it includes measurements of A. v. affinis as Baker mentions under the name besra: “‘two specimens labelled as from North Bengal from the Pinwill Coll. These may be wrongly marked’’. I have examined one of the Pinwill specimens and see no reason to query its pro- venance, but of course it is A. v. affinis. Wattel’s (1973: 39) diagrams and figures indicate that A. v. affinis has a relatively longer tail than birds of his virgatus-group (includ- ing A. v. besra). For A. v. affinis he found a tail-length of 78.32% of the wing-length and for the virgatus-group this same value was 75.82%. By combining virgatus with besra, Wattel has, however, marked the fact that in relative length of the tail A. v. besra is SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS intermediate between A. v. affinis and A. v. virgatus, just as it is intermediate in linear measurements. The values found by me for the three subspecies are as follows: A. v. virga- tus 10 & 73.9%, 10 2 73.3%; A. v. besra 8 ov 74.7%, 7 2 716.5%; A. v. affinis 27 3 76.8%, 33 2 78.0%. For comparison the fig- ures for the largest of all subspecies, A. v. fuscipectus, are 12 & 78.2%, 9 2 80.0% (cf. Mees 1970: table I). It looks as if there is a direct relation between general size and re- lative length of the tail, the larger subspecies having relatively longer tails, but there is no evidence at all of a break between A. v. besra and A. v. affinis, sufficient to place them in different groups. The bird from Bhavnagar was first record- ed by Dharmakumarsinhji (1956) under the name A. virgatus; he did not go into the matter of its subspecific identity. The same bird was again discussed by Abdulali (1969: 704-705), who commented: “The @ from Bhavnagar (wing 185, tail 142) which was re- corded as besra agrees in size with the adult female (by plumage) from the Palnis, but it is a juvenile and much paler in colour and appears to be of a northern race’. As explain- ed above, Dharmakumarsinhji did not assign the specimen to a subspecies; he used the name Besra in a vernacular sense only, but I have examined the specimen and do indeed consider that it to belongs to A. v. besra. I do not find the bird paler than other specimens of this race and the measurements confirm its identity. Although the bird is immature, it is certainly full grown. Note that Baker (1928: 159 in key) claimed A. v. besra to be: “‘above paler in both sexes at all stages” than A. v. affinis. (A. v. kashmiriensis had not yet been described at the time and would have been included in affinis) and that Ali & Ripley (1968: 249) called A. v. besra ‘much paler” than A. v. affinis. As mentioned above, I am unable to see any colour differences between A. v. affinis and A. v. besra, and as regards colours, the specimen from Bhavnagar fits well into either. Accipiter virgatus abdulalii subsp. nov. Material examined. 6, 25.11.1964, Betapur, Middle Andaman, leg. H. Abdulali (BNHS no: 21897,. «type of . A. v.-abdulali);.. °. 14.iv.1873, South Andaman, leg. W. Davison (BM no. 85.8.19.690); @ juv., viii.1875, Andamans, leg. R. J. Wimberley (BM no. 85.8.19.688); 2 juv., vili.1875, Andamans, leg. R. J. Wimberley (BM no. 85.8.19.689); o juv., ix.1879, Andamans, leg, R. J. Wim- berley (BM no. 85.8.19.687); 9, 25.11.1964, Betapur, Middle Andaman, leg. H. Abdulali (BNHS no. 21896); 2, 9.iv.1969, Wrightmyo, South Andaman, leg. H. Abdulali and party (BNHS no. 23111). Distribution. At present known from Mid- dle Andaman and South Andaman, the two largest islands of the Andaman Group. Diagnosis. Closest to the continental races A. v. affinis and A. v. besra; smaller than the former, but in size agreeing with the latter. The adult male differs conspicuously from besra as well as from all other races of the species in the coloration and colour-pattern of the underparts. The breast is greyish tawny, flanks and belly are dull tawny, vent and under tail-coverts are white, and the feathers covering the tibiotarsus are uniform light grey. Apart from on a few axillaries, there is no trace of white cross-bars, or any other barring or pattern, except that the feathers of the breast have the outer margins a trifle darker and greyer than their central parts, giving the breast a faintly scalloped appearance. In the 387 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 races besra and affinis cross-bars are always present, if not on the breast, at least on flanks and thighs; the upper breast usually has white in the middle with some dark longitudinal streaks, and the lower breast has a white median longitudinal streak; moreover although there is some variation in colour of the breast, not a single specimen has the greyish tawny colour of the Andaman bird. Adult females are similar to females of besra, except that the bill appears to be a little larger, with especially the ridge of the culmen broader, less sharp. In addition the three Andaman birds have the cross-bars on the under surface a little broader and less sharply defined, and have the barring of the feathers covering the tibiotarsus weaker, than the four specimens of besra with which they were compared, but the variation found in males and in other races suggests that indi- vidual variation would cover these differences if sufficiently large material were available. Discussion. The description of A. v. abdul- alii of which females and juveniles have been in collections for over a century, was made possible by the discovery of an adult male. It is with real pleasure that I dedicate this subspecies to the collector of this specimen, Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who has made such outstanding contributions to ornithological knowledge of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Whether my statement that this subspecies agrees in size with A. v. besra is entirely cor- rect, remains uncertain as long as only one adult male of A. v. abdulalii is known. Actual- ly the two males of this race are a little smal- ler than any of A. v. besra I have examined, but then the juvenile male (wing 145 mm) is perhaps not quite full grown and that may also have influenced the figure for the sexual 388 difference in wing length (males 80% of females, against 82.7-84% in the other races). ACCIPITER GULARIS (TEMMINCK & SCHLEGEL) Characters. The two subspecies of which this species consists are in several respects so different that it is difficult to supply diagno- stic characters covering both. As A. g. iwasakii is confined to two small islands in the Riu Kius, where it is known to be sedentary, whereas the nominate race is widely distribut- ed and, being strongly migratory, in its winter quarters with which this paper deals is fre- quently confused with other species, I shall give here the diagnostic characters of A. g. gularis only. Sexual difference in size is considerable, but not so great as in A. virgatus. Sexual dimor- phism in plumage remarkable: the adult female plumage is quite unlike that of the male, or than that of any of the other small species here treated, in that the underparts with the exception of the white throat, are densely barred with dull brown on a white background. Wings pointed, wing tip in males 49-56, in females 55-66 mm, or c. 30-32% of wing length. Under wing strongly barred. Tail relatively short. Dark median streak on the white throat variable, almost absent in some specimens, distinct in others, a variation that shows no obvious relation with age or sex. In the immature plumage this species may be distinguished from A. virgatus in having the underparts less strongly marked. In A. virgatus the spots are strong on the lower abdomen, where they are less conspicuous or almost absent in most specimens of A. gularis. Moreover, in the former the markings are usually darker, and provided with rusty *SorlIas aziz] B Ul pUNoJ se odi4ys Ieyns oy) JO JUaWIdojaasp Ul sawetxa ajisoddo ay} MoyYs g pue ¢ ‘sou ayy ‘pe & supjns “8S -p (9) SWI & Slipjns “3 -p (¢) vpe & slipjns ‘Sp (p) Spe 2 supjns “Sp (¢) Spe S snwssa ca cp (Z) “pe P snipssia “a cp (J) SYMPP-MOITVAS :Sd9JA] ALV Ig ZL ‘O0§ “LSIH “LVN AvaWOog ‘f SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS edgings; the sides of the breast are tinged with rust colour. In A. gularis, on the other hand, all markings are of a uniform and rather dull brown. Habitat. The nominate race is in summer an inhabitant of mixed forests and deciduous forests of the cool-temperate region. In the winter quarters it is found in all kinds of semi- open and wooded country, not only in the lowlands, but also at higher elevations. Mate- rial in our collection is singularly devoid of indications of altitude, although some of the localities of collecting are suggestive even without them. In Java, Hoogerwerf (1948: 123) considered it to occur at all levels, but rare or absent above 2500 m. The habitat of A. g. iwasakii will be discussed separately. Geographical variation. There are two well-marked subspecies, the widely distributed A. g. gularis and the insular A. g. iwasakii, confined to two small islands in the Riu Kius. The two are so different that a strong case could be made for the view that they are distinct species, see the discussion of A. g. iwasakii given on a later page. In the literature one frequently finds refer- ence to Accipiter stevensoni Gurney (1863), a name based on two specimens: one from Macao and one from Tientsin (rather than Peking). In the original description no men- tion is made of A. gularis, with which evident- ly it was not compared. Later authors have usually regarded the name as a synonym of A. gularis (cf. Ogilvie-Grant 1896, Hartert 1914: 1161, etc.), but from time to time at- tempts have been made to recognize it as a subspecies. Apparently Baker (1928: 163) was the first to revive it, in the combination A. gularis stevensoni; compared with A. g. gularis he claimed it to be: ‘distinctly paler, both in the male and the female, most notice- ably on the lower plumage’. This was accept- ed by La Touche (1932: 195) and with some doubt by Peters (1931: 223), who introduced the trinomial A. virgatus stevensoni. Note that the breeding ranges given by the mentioned authors for the two alleged subspecies are more or less the same; for A. v. gularis it is: “northern China and Japan’, for A. v. steven- soni: ‘Manchuria to northern China’’; note also that there is no mention of the main breeding range of A. gularis, which is in Siberia. Voous (1950: 97) stated: “I am of the opinion that the Chinese breeding birds ...must be recognized as a separate race (stevensoni Gurney, 1863) from the Japanese form (gularis Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) on account of the conspicuous paleness of the underparts in males [2 breeding males from Kwantung (Berlin Museum) and one from Shantung (Leiden Museum) examined]. Fe- males do not seem to be different. In the series of wintering males from Malaysia the two types of coloration are apparent, hence the pale males are supposed to originate from China (or Manchuria) and are tentatively re- ferred by me to A. v. stevensoni. The male type specimen of Astur (Nisus) gularis Tem- minck & Schlegel from Japan was examined in the Leiden Museum; it has rather dark rufous brown under parts’. In this long quo- tation there is a lot that requires elucidation. Firstly, it is obvious that the types of A. ste- vensoni must have been migrants as A. gularis is not known to breed in China proper. To the “breeding males’ from Kwangtung and Shantung on which Voous based his opinion the same pertains. The Shantung specimen is a mounted bird in our old collection from Chefoo, May 1873 (without exact date), leg. R. Swinhoe, received under the name A. ste- vensonii, an identification presumably made 389 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 by its collector. Swinhoe (1874: 432) himself regarded at least the great majority of the birds as migrants from Korea and Manchuria, although he left open the possibility of occa- sional breeding near Chefoo (for which he was unable to produce any evidence). Sub- sequent observations, summarized by LeFevre (1962: 31) have confirmed that A. gularis does not breed near Chefoo. I would not des- cribe the underparts of the male type specimen of A. gularis (RMNH cat. no. 1) as “rather dark rufous brown’; actually they are only a trifle richer in colour, particularly on the sides of the breast, than in the Chefoo speci- men and both fit well in the not overlarge range of variation found in material trom the winter quarters. When Voous wrote his article, the presence of a breeding population in Japan had still to be confirmed; although now this confirmation has been obtained, it is pro- bably more common as a migrant, and whether the type-specimens of A. gularis belonged to a resident population is anybody’s guess. Pro- bability is against it. None of the authors who recognized sfevensoni could have examined the beautiful coloured plate accompanying the description of A. sfevensoni, for it shows a bird which certainly is very rich rufous underneath, of a far deeper, not paler, colour than the male type of A. gularis.* The only species with which A. stevensoni was actually compared in its original description, is A. rhodogaster. Gurney (1863) remarked that the colouring of 3 Surprisingly, the specimen from Paking/Tient- sin kept as type (BM no. 1955.6.N.20.2763, cf. Warren 1966: 282), which one would presume to be the figured bird, actually is rather pale, slightly paler than the three males from Japan in the BM collection, and shows other differences from the plate. It is not clear what has happened (Galbraith, in litt., 4.vi.1979). 390 the breast was much paler in A. stevensoni than in A. rhodogaster and in the minds of subsequent workers this remark may somehow have become transposed to A. gularis, leading to the belief that A. stevensoni was a particu- larly pale bird. As already mentioned above, the individual variation in colour of the underparts in specimens collected in the winter quarters is not large, and there is no evidence of bimodality in this variation which would be suggestive of different subspecies. It is true that from this generalization one specimen has to be excluded: ¢ ad., 12.11.1917, Batoetoelis near Buitenzorg (RMNH cat. no. 53); this bird has the underparts a deep cinnamon, practically unbarred; in the colour of its undersurface it is extremely similar to adult females of A. soloensis. Evidently the question as to whether or not the populations of A. gularis from continental Asia and Japan show any geographical variation can only be answer- ed when identified breeding birds are com- pared. It is true that according to Stepanyan (1959) birds from the western part of the breeding range show a_ clinal tendency to larger size, whereas in females the cross-bars on the under surface would be a little narrower and wider apart. In my opinion these average differences hardly justify recognition of a separate subspecies (A. virgatus sibiricus Stepanyan) and in the winter quarters even the distinction of extreme individuals would be practically impossible. For this reason I have not further considered the name sibiricus. Discussion. Whether or not A. virgatus and A. gularis are conspecific is still a point of controversy in literature. Following Strese- mann (1923), in a majority of recent publi- cations gularis has been treated as a subspecies of virgatus, but Vaurie (1965: 165 footnote) stated: “This hawk is often considered to be SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS conspecific with A. virgatus but it is very dis- tinct from it morphologically and appears to be a distinct species related to A. virgatus and A. nisus’. The breeding range of A. gularis as circumscribed by Vaurie overlaps exten- sively with that of A. virgatus in southern China (Kwangtung, Kwangsi) and Formosa, and this may have contributed to his decision to treat them as different species (cf. Mees 1970: 291, Wattel 1972: 27 and 1973: 42). Since then it has, however, become evident that the records on which this was based con- cern migrants and that in fact the breeding ranges of A. virgatus and A. gularis are widely separated, except for the peculiar occurrence of an endemic subspecies A. gularis iwasakii on the two southernmost Riu Kiu Islands (Ishigaki and Iriomote), adjacent to Formosa where A. virgatus fuscipectus lives. As a con- sequence, I considered the problem of the status of A. gularis to be open to discussion again, and I considered it prudent not to take a definite stand either way. In the course of studying A. g. gularis I have, like Vaurie and others before me, become in- creasingly impressed by the differences it shows from A. virgatus. These include the con- siderable sexual dimorphism in plumage, the smaller sexual difference in size, the shape of the wing, the relatively shorter tail, the somewhat smaller bill, the relatively shorter tarsus. Apart from morphological differences, ecological differences deserve also to be taken into consideration: A. gularis appears to in- habit (certainly in its winter quarters) a more open habitat than A. virgatus; whereas the latter is a sedentary inhabitant of tropical forests, where admittedly it ranges into the cooler montane zones, the former is as a breeding bird confined to the temperate re- gions, and is strongly migratory. All this led me to the conclusion that the relationship be- tween A. virgatus and A. gularis is far more remote than most recent authors believe it to be; it is not only that I regard them as diffe- rent species, but I am not even convinced that they are particularly close to each other. Thus my views came to be very close to those of Ogilvie-Grant (1896: 105), expressed eighty years earlier, and quite different from those of Stresemann (1923) whose article has strongly influenced later workers but was rather superficial. In the above summary of characters dis- tinguishing A. gularis from A. virgatus, the form A. g. iwasakii has been left out on pur- pose, for it completely spoils the picture. It shows no sexual dimorphism in plumage, the shape of the wing is similar to that of A. vir- gatus, bill and tarsus appear to be larger than in A. g. gularis. Ecologically it agrees with A. virgatus in that it is a sedentary inhabitant of a humid near-tropical habitat (cf. tables giv- ing temperature, humidity and precipitation on Ishigaki, published by Hachisuka & Uda- gawa 1953: 146). Here we come on the old problem of which characters are indicative of true relationship, and which ones are merely due to convergence. On the other hand a hope- ful point is that the adult plumage of A. g. iwasakii is similar to the female plumage of A. gularis, and shows no resemblance whatso- ever to that of A. virgatus. There is, of course, no need to point out here that the fact that characters are adaptive, does not necessarily invalidate them for studies of relationships as it can safely be argued that all characters are adaptive and some, like wing-shape, are only more obviously so than others. All characters add to the general distinctiveness of a form and may contribute to a judgement about its status in relation to other forms. More about 39) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 the systematic position of A. g. iwasakii will be said in the discussion of that subspecies. In the evaluation of the specific diversity of A. virgatus and A. gularis account should also be taken of the fact that in the only area where their ranges approach each other closely and under rather similar climatological conditions: Formosa and the southern Riu Kiu Islands, the two most diverse subspecies of each occur. Formosa is inhabited A. v. fuscipectus, largest member of the species A. virgatus, and the southern Riu Kiu Islands are inhabited by the smallest subspecies A. g. iwasakii, which is roughly of the size of A. v. besra, and much smaller than adjacent A. v. fuscipectus. Wattel (1973: 43), who treated A. virgatus and A. gularis as conspecific, speculated: “‘The distribution and the habitat of gularis point to an Oriental origin. After having become iso- lated in the Himalayas and adjacent moun- tains, the ancestors of A. virgatus recolonized the eastern parts of the Palearctic and diffe- rentiated into the present form gularis. This may have happened during one of the earlier Pleistocene interglacials. Several other Orien- tal birds of prey penetrate the eastern Palearc- tic in a similar way...”. In this quotation there is one point I do not understand, and that is why the habitat of A. gularis should point to an Oriental origin. As regards Wat- tel’s speculation about the origin of A. gularis, it will be evident that this can only be valid when one assumes that A. gularis and A. vir- gatus are closely related and that the former is an offshoot of the latter. But it is exactly this assumption which I believe to be highly questionable. Accipiter gularis gularis (Temminck & Schlegel) Astur (Nisus) gularis Temminck & Schlegel, 392 1844, Fauna Japonica, Aves: 5, pl. Ii—Japon. Material from the Andamans. @ im. 14.11.1964, Wimberleyganj, South Andaman, leg. H. Abdulali (BNHS no. 21895). Material from the Nicobars. 2, 27.iii.1966, Camorta, leg. H. Abdulali (BNHS no. 22581). Material from Continental India. Sex not recorded (= ? im.), undated, Mhow, ex coll. Whitely (BM no. 75.6.24.15); ¢, 16.x.1971, Point Calimere, leg. BNHS party (BNHS no. 23926); sex not recorded (= @? im.), undat- ed, Point Calimere, leg. BNHS party (BNHS no. 23700). Distribution in India. Hitherto A. gularis had only been recorded from the Andamans and Nicobars. Salomonsen (1953) published details of a specimen captured at sea in the Bay of Bengal, c. 10°N., 90°E., 250-300 km W. of Little Andaman, in the same general area. The specimens listed here constitute the first records from Continental India and their collecting localities indicate that this species may perhaps be found as a scarce winter vi- sitor throughout India. Some caution is, how- ever, necessary in the case of the specimen from Mhow as it has no original collector’s label and bears no date; it was provided by Whitely who was a taxidermist and trader (cf. Sharpe 1906: 510). Therefore it seems to me that the provenance Mhow given on its label is not entirely above suspicion. Distribution. As a breeding bird this sub- species appears to be confined to the tempe- rate regions of Central and East Asia. For its distribution in the Soviet Union see Flint et al. (1968: map 52) and for its whole breed- ing range Wattel (1973: map 4). In the east- ern part of its breeding range it seems to be uncommon; in Korea it is described as a scarce summer visitor (Gore & Won 1971: 163). Until recently, breeding in Japan was SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS considered to be very doubtful (Austin & Kuroda 1953: 376), and Wattel still provided the whole of Japan with a great query, but there are now breeding records from all three main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu and Shikoku (Ornithological Society of Japan 1975: 67). The distributional map published by Cheng (1976: fig. 68) illustrates clearly how wide the geographical gap is in China between the breeding ranges of A. gularis and A. virgatus, the former being almost confined to Manchu- ria. This is confirmed by other literature, for example Shaw (1936: 234), who as far north as Hopei knew A. gularis as a migrant visitor only, passing through in May and September- October. It is true that Fu (1937: 38) claim- ed breeding in the mountains of Fou-Niou and Son-Chan in Honan, but from the context it is not clear that he has considered the possi- bility that the nests could have belonged to A. soloensis, a species that ought to occur in Honan but is not mentioned by Fu. It has been assumed by a majority of au- thors that A. gularis occurs as a breeding bird throughout eastern China, to as far south as Kwangtung, Kwangsi and Formosa (Vaurie 1965: 165, Brown & Amadon 1968: 468 and map 37, Etchécopar & Hiie 1978: 150), where it was supposed to co-exist with races of A. virgatus. The matter was discussed in consi- derable detail by Wattel (1973: 42), who con- cluded that all records of breeding in southern and eastern China are based on late migrants and on misidentification. Previously I had pos- tulated the same for Formosa (Mees 1970: 291). Cheng’s map supports this. A. g. gularis is strongly migratory, occur- ring in winter in some numbers to as far south as Sumatra with its satellite islands, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands (Flores, Timor). Un- like A. soloensis it does not go far east; it has only once been recorded from the Celebes and is unknown from the Moluccas. Discussion. The fact that breeding records from the Andamans are due to confusion with A. virgatus abdulalii has been made clear on a preceding page. Ali & Ripley (1968: 250) further wrote under the heading A. virgatus gularis: ‘Occurs in the Nicobars; probably breeding, but status unconfirmed”. The speci- men listed here is the only one known from the Nicobars (Abdulali 1967: 155). Note in this connexion that Brown & Amadon (1968: 523) make under A. butleri the following sta- tement: “‘The only small sparrow-hawk oc- curring in the Nicobars, hence unmistakable’; this is misleading as actually three species of similar size are now known from the group (A. butleri, A. gularis and A. soloensis). Ad- mittedly A. butleri is the only resident but evidence is that in winter it is outnumbered by A. soloensis and perhaps also by A. gula- ris. Moreover the two migrant species may be expected to occur on all islands of the group whereas on present evidence A. butleri is con- fined to Car Nicobar and Katchal. Brown & Amadon (1968: 468) gave for A. gularis, with which the nominate subspecies is meant (they overlooked A. g. iwasakii) a wing length of ¢@ 160-187, 2 167-198 mm (numbers of specimens not mentioned). The measure- ments taken by me show a much smaller varia- tion of each sex but a much more pronounced difference in size between the sexes (see tables I and II). The figures published by Hartert (1914: 1162): 24 gf 164-171, 15 2 184-195, by Swann (1926: 329): ¢g& 163-170, 2 184- 200 mm (numbers of specimens not recorded), by Voous (1950; 97): tS. o'159-172, 21, 2 180-197 mm, and by Wattel (1973: 37 tab. 14): 32 og 158-174 (average 165.9), 21 9 180-197 (average 189.1) mm, agree with mine. 393 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 I must assume that Brown & Amadon have measured a large number of wrongly sexed specimens. Their tail lengths show a similar over-large range of variation: o 117-137, Q 111-143 mm. A combination of the dated material in Lei- den and Bombay shows that this species be- gins to arrive in its winter quarters in Octo- ber and stays until late April and early May. MontH VII IX X XI XII I iW iW IV V RMNH — — 6 10 10 8 9 10 4 2 1 eel The earliest autumn date is 4.x.1921 (Pan- gerango, Java, leg. Bartels, RMNH cat. no. 58), the latest spring dates are 9.v.1925 (Rem- bang, Java, leg. Sody, RMNH cat. no. 30), May 1912 without exact date (Medan, Suma- tra, leg. de Bussy, RMNH cat. no. 21). The four birds collected in April are from 16, 18, 21 and 23 of that month (all Java). Compare this with the data from the Malay Peninsula, summarized by Medway & Wells (1976: 107). Voous (1950: 106), who considered A. gu- laris and A. virgatus to be conspecific, made in the discussion of A. gularis the enigmatic statement: ““These birds are less closely re- lated to the Malaysian breeding birds than are the Philippine and Burmese races. They are probably rather close relatives of the North American Sharp-shinned Hawk (Accipiter ve- lox), whereas the S. E. Asiatic breeding birds represent a more primitive stage’. The sug- gested relationship between A. gularis and A. striatus (of which velox is a subspecies) has already been discussed and rejected by Wattel (1973: 114), so that there is no need for me 394 to cover that ground again, but what I do not understand in the quotation from Voous given above, and nevertheless read in it, is that the form he calls A. virgatus gularis, and there- fore regards as a subspecies of A. virgatus, would be more closely related to A. velox than to A. v. virgatus. Surely there is a contradic- tion here between the opinion he airs and the nomenclature he uses? I also fail to under- stand why A. virgatus, a specialized bird hunter of the tropical forest, should be called ‘primitive’, a word that without a lot of ex- planation is meaningless. Accipiter gularis iwasakii Mishima Accipiter virgatus iwasakii Mishima, 1962, Tori 17: 219--Ishigaki and Iriomote, southern Riu Kius. Material. 6 (against 2<6 or at most 2=6 in A. v. affinis). The legs of this specimen have been fixed in a stretch- ed position, making it difficult to find the joint between tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus, and the great length of the latter (agreeing with A. v. affinis but not with A. b. poliopsis) measured previously, was caused by my having included the distal end of the tibiotarsus. The measurements are entirely right for a male of A. b. poliopsis, as sexed by the collectors. In Indo-China, Hartert has also had: influ- SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS TABLE II INDIVIDUAL MEASUREMENTS Sex an ' Wing Tail Tarsus ‘Bill ‘from Middle Wing Wing Tail: Museum and reg. cere toe tip tip % Wing % no. A. Y. virgatus 10 @ ad: 141-152 104-112 45 -49° 103-12 27-30 32-36 «6.23.4 =473.9 RMNH 10 2 ad. 170-179 120-134 504-56 123-1474 31-36 37-44 23.55 73.3 RMNH E A. virgatus abdulalii rs) 148 103 48 = 28 39 26.3 70.0 BNHS 21897 8 juv. 145 103 46 12s 29 40 27.6 71.0 BM 85.8.19.687 g 185 138 ee ieee 15+ 354 52, 28.1 74.6 BNHS 21896 Q 181 “129 544 152 35 514 285 71.3 BNHS 23111 9 183 137 54 15 344 50 27.3. 74.9 BM 85.8.19.690 9 juv. 184 138 56 15 37 51 27.2 75.0 BM 85.8.19.689 A. v. besra } 152 110 49 11 , 28F 35 23.0 72.4 BM 1956.44.8 é 150 107 46 ls = 38 25.3 Fie3. BMr1959:19.1 ny 158 120 474 104 27 39 24.7 75.9 BM 1956.44.7 3 158 120 474 103 28 383 24.4 75.9 BM 1955.6.N.20.2803 } 155 119 50 103 29 > 39 25.2 76.8 BM 77.5.24.17 a 154 115 48 11 27 39... 25.3 74.7 BM 1916.9.20.524 & 152 115 $2 10 2 374 24.77 75.7 BM 1955.6.N.20.2802 } 150 112 484 104 Zi 36 24.00 74.7 BM 85.4.10.1 g 181 141 of 13 35 41 22.6 77.9 BM Gurney 2795 s) 180 140 55 134 344 43 23.3. 77.8 BM 1949 Whl. 1-169 Q im. 189 144 56 14 3 45 23.8 76.2 BM 87.11.1.242 Q im. 181 137 54 13 35 44 24.3 .75.7 BM 1949 Whi. 1-165 2 im. 184 143 554 134 344 49 26.6 77.7 BNHS 20773 Q 190 143 D5 ee — 35 44 23.2 (75.3 BNHS 20734 g 193 145 56 123 353 50 25.9 75.0 BNHS 23911 A. virgatus «ffinis g 171 126 54 113 304 42 24.6 1357 “BMEA71-2:20-6 é 168 7” 131 52) 10} 31 42 25.0 78.0 BM 1937.1.17.85 4d im. 160 125 49 11 28 43 26.9 78.1 BM. 76.10.20.29 4a juv. 164 118 524 11 28 4] 2910 — BM .1938.7.15.121 3} 164 123 54 11 30 42 25.6 75.0 RMNH cat. 1 9 204 155 61 14 39 504 24.8 76.00 BM 1948.80.3652 ie) 199 154 61 134 38 48 24.1 77.4 BM 1949 Whl. 1-161 2 197 151 59) 133 384 46 23.4 .76.6 BM .1921.7.12.31 g 205 158 64 13 354 504 24:6 771 BM 85.8.19.684 ig) 200 162 63 141 374 49 24.5 81.0 BM 85.8.19.681 Q im. 197 156 584 13 353 Dy) 26.4 79.2 BM 1938.12.13.99 Q im. 198 149 59 14 36 50 25.3 75.3 BM 97.12.10.1749 2 im. 194 147 Sif. 13 35 50 25.8 75.8 BM 1949 Whl. 1-170 407 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 A. g. gularis 102 160-169 111-117 463-51 10-114 26-29 49-56 30.9 68.2 RMNH 10 2 183-197 120-134 49-544 12-134 294-35 55-66 31.8 682 RMNH a 170 118 464 11 27 53 31.2 69.4 BNHS. 23926 a im. 158+ 115 46 10 274 — — — BNHS 21895 2 im. 190 134 49 124 31 57 30.0 70.5 BM 75.6.24.15 se) 192 132 52 123 32 58 30.2 68.8 BNHS 22581 2 im. 184 128 50 124 31 60 32.6 69.6 BNHS 23700 se) 187 124 49 114 30 584 31.3 66.3 USNM 172966 2 191 129 52 124 314 59 30.9 67.5 USNM 306735 A. g. iwasakii 4 157; 1124 50 11} Dil, 41 26.1 71.7 AMNH 533881 Q 181 132 53 —_— 314 46+ 25.7 72.9 AMNH 533880 A. badius badius 3 175 128 48 11 27 57 32.6 73.1 RMNH 5037 3 175 126 464 124 274 55 31.4 72.0 RMNH 5088 é 180 131 44 123 283 58 32.2 72.8 RMNH 5155 iS) 197 143 51 144 31 58 29.4 72.6 RMNH 4938 ic) 194 144 51 144 324 61 31.4 74.22 RMNH 4953 A. badius dussumieri & im. 184 139 504 13 28 57 31.0 75.55 MCM QO alti 184 143 48 123 25 63 B42) adel RMNH cat. 4 4 im. 172 129 45 123 26 53 31.0 75.0 RMNH 80201 3 175 127 45 12 26 50 28.6 72.6 RMNH cat. 6 é 174 125 50 114 26 53 30.5 71.8 RMNH cat. 5 3 184 130 474 123 28 534 29.1 70.7 RMNH cat. 1 é im. 175 136 47 12 aT 514 29.4 diel BM 1938 7.15.112 °) 198 148 54 14 29 624 31.6 74.7 RMNH cat. 2 2 im. 204 160 56 16 30 60 29.4 78.4 RMNH cat. 3 A. badius poliopsis 3 189 141 51 13 28 54 28.5 74.6 RMNH 12584 & im. 200 150 52 133 32 59 29.5 75.0 RMNH 12585 3 194 139 51 14 26 584 30.2 71.6 RMNH cat. 1* 2 205 154 56 15 31 58 28-3. 75 RMNH 12583 2 211 160 56 15 30 59 28.0 75.8 RMNH cat. 2* ie) 214 168 56 154 324 59 27.6 78.5 RMNH cat. 1 2 209 158 54 14 31 65 31k6) 75:2 RMNH cat. 2 2 im. 210 154 57 143 304 63 30.0 73.3 RMNH eat. 3 A. soloensis 10 2 183-194 119-128 414-44 114-134 23-26 68-72 37.2 65.6 RMNH ie 188-197 121-137 42 -49 114-14 23-264 68-75 36.7 65.6 RMNH SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS ence as will be clear from this quotation on the distribution of A. v. affinis: “Niche dans Himalaya jusqu’au Yunnan. En hiver, des- cend dans l’Inde et IlIndochine. Il es! possible qu’il soit sédentaire sur les montagnes du nord du Tonkin et du Laos’? (Delacour & Jabouille 1931: 111). Specimens I have exa- mined from Djjiring, 18.11.1927; Blao, 17.11. 1930; Langbian Peaks, vi.1939; Dalat, 20.vi 1961, and Fyan, 1.viii.1961 (cf. Mees 1970: table IL), localities in southern Viet Nam be- tween 11°30’ and 12°N, provide proof that even in the most southerly mountain regions of Viet Nam the species is a permanent resi- dent. In addition there are records from Pleiku in May (David-Beaulieu 1939: 29), Thateng, southern Laos, in December (Engelbach 1932: 458), Tranninh, Laos, in July and August (David-Beaulieu 1944: 75), etc. Clearly A. v. affinis ranges throughout the interior of Indo-China, and is sedentary. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS In the first place I want to thank Mr. H. Abdulali (Bombay), who suggested that I should write about his Andaman specimens, and without whose interest and encouragement this paper would not have been written. For making available material and for providing information on specimens in their care, I am under obligation to: Mr. J. C. Daniel (Bom- bay Natural History Society), Mr. I. C. J. Galbraith [British Museum (Natural History), Tring], Mr. M. J. Largen (Merseyside County Museums, Liverpool), Mrs. M. K. LeCroy (American Museum of Natural History, New York), Dr. A. K. Mukherjee (Indian Museum, Calcutta), Dr. R. A. Paynter (Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass.), Mr. R. T. Sauey (International Crane Foun- dation, Baraboo, Wisconsin), Dr. H. Schifter (Naturhistorisches Museum, Wien), Dr. G. E. Watson (National Museum of Natural His- tory, Washington, D.C.), Dr. J. Wattel (Zo6- logisch Museum, Amsterdam), Dr. D. R. Wells (University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur), Dr. Y. 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Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 23: 447-500. Hume, A. O. (1874): Contributions to the orni- thology of India. The islands of the Bay of Bengal. Stray Feathers 2: 29-324. (1876): Additional notes on the avifauna of the Andaman Islands. ibid. 4: 279-294. Husain, M. A. & BHALLA, H. R. (1937): Some birds of Lyallpur and their food. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39: 831-842. Jesse, W. (1903): A list of the birds of Luck- SPARROW HAWKS OF THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS now, Part III. Ibis (8) 3: 49-81. JuNGE, G. C. A. (1948): Notes on some Suma- tran birds. Zool. Meded. 29: 311-326. == & Kooiman, J. G. (1951): On a collection of birds from the Khwae Noi Valley, western Siam. Zool. Verh. 15: 1-38. KeELHAM, H. R. (1881): Ornithological notes made in the Straits Settlements and in the western states of the Malay Peninsula (Part I). Ibis (4)5: 362-395. Kina, B. F. & Dickinson, E. C. (1975): A field guide to the birds of south-east Asia. Collins, Lon- don. Ko.LtTHorF, K. (1932): Studies on birds in the Chinese provinces of Kiangsu and Anhwei 1921- 1922. Goteborgs K. Vet. Vitt.-Sam. Handl. (5) B 3: 1-190. Kuropa, N. (1936): Birds of the Island of Java. II: Non-passeres. Tokyo. LapzyuK, V. I., NAzARov, Yu. N. & NECHAEV, V. A. (1971): The birds of the islands in the north- western part of the Gulf Petra Velikogo. Inst. Pedol. Biol., Far-Eastern Sci. Cent., Acad. Sci. USSR, Proc. (n. s.) 6: 52-78. (Russian with Eng- lish subtitle). La Toucue, J. D. D. (1931-1934): A handbook of the birds of eastern China Il. Taylor and Fran- cis, London. Le Fevre, R. H. (1962): The birds of north Shantung Province, China, York, Pennsylvania. Mayr, E. (1949): Geographical variation in Ac- cipiter trivirgatus. Amer. Mus. Novit. 1415: 1-12. Mepway, Lorp & WELLS, D. R. (1976): The birds of the Malay Peninsula 5. H. F. & G. Wither- by Ltd., Penerbit Universiti Malaya. London, Kuala Lumpur. Mees, G. F. (1970): Notes on some birds from the island of Formosa (Taiwan). Zool. 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Voous, K. H. (1950): Geographical variation in the Lesser Sparrow Hawks from Indonesia (Acci- piter virgatus). Amsterdam Nat. 1: 95-107. WarrEN, R. L. M. (1966): Type-specimens of birds in the British Museum (Natural History) 1. Non-passerines. British Museum (Natural History), London. WaTTEL, J. (1972): Geografische differentiatie in het genus Accipiter. Luxora, Wormerveer. (1973): Geographical differentiation in the genus Accipiter. Publ. Nuttall Orn. Cl. 13. WHISTLER, H. (1944): The avifaunal survey of Ceylon conducted jointly by the British and Colom- bo Museums. Spolia Zeyl. 23: 119-321. WHISTLER, H. & KINNEAR, N. B. (1936): The Vernay scientific survey of the Eastern Ghats (orni- thological section). Part XIII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 418-437. WIcKHAM, P. F. (1910): Note on the nesting of the Besra Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter virgatus) and the Andaman Nightjar (Caprimulgus andamanicus) in the Andamans. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 592-993. STUDIES ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF HAIR IN SOME INDIAN BATS: (MAMMALIA: CHIROPTERA)' J. H. Sapnis? (With nineteen text-figures) This paper describes the characteristics of hair of some Indian chiroptera. A series of camera lucida diagrams depicting the hair structure of 19 species of bats is presented. The structural pattern of the hair of bats reveals variations at generic as well as species levels. INTRODUCTION The present study was undertaken in order to contribute information on the structure of hair in some Indian chiropteran forms in the light of the new method of description sug- gested by Adorjan and Kolenosky (1969). MATERIAL AND METHODS The hairs used for the study were from the dorsal side of the body. They were carefully washed in hot water and slides were prepared in Canada balsum after they were air dried thoroughly and passed through ether and xylol. The camera lucida drawings were drawn of each hair showing cuticular and medullar pat- tern. The proximal, medial and distal regions of the hairs were observed. The measurements given are averages. The diagrams on the left side in the plate show the structure of the hair at proximal end, in the middle the medial and the right the distal end. OBSERVATIONS The basic parts of a typical mammalian hair are the cuticle, cortex, medulla, pigment 1 Accepted May 1979. 2Department of Zoology. vidyalaya, Amravati-444 604. Vidharbha Maha- and hair cells. In the system of hair identi- fication to be outlined only cuticle and medul- la are important. The structure of these pat- terns which form the basis of hair indentifi- cation under study are given according to order and family of the specimens. They are arranged according to order and families of the species as given by Simpson (1945). Family PTEROPIDAE Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus (Fig. 1) Gross appearance: Length 8 mm. Hair stem soft and slender. Colour greyish, basally white, diameter of proximal region 24 1. Microscopic appearance: Hair nodular with corollar serrate edges in the proximal region and the medial region. Borders appear spiny distally. Medulia con- tinuous in the proximal region but fragmented having a beaded appearance in the medial region. Rousettus leschenaulti (Fig. 2) Gross appearance: Length 4 mm. Hair stem soft. Colour white in the proximal region followed by chocolate grey in the middle region; distal region yellow. Diameter at the proximal region 15 x. 413 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Microscopic appearance: Scales are corollary with spinulate borders in the proximal and medial regions. Distal region borders appear serra‘e. Hair non-me- dullated. Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Fig. 3) Gross appearance: Length 1.2 cm. Colour white at the proxi- mal region; brown in the media! region and greyish yellow in the distal region. Some hairs are pure black. Hair stems narrow at proxi- mal becoming a little broader in the medial and tapering in the distal region. Diameter at the proximal region 18 uz. Microscopic appearance: Scales imbricate with crenate borders in the proximal and the medial region. In the distal region the border appears serrate. The medul- la is not visible in the proximal region and the distal region, but it 1s fragmented in the middle region. Family RHINOPOMATIDAE Rhinopoma_ hardwickei (Fig. 4) Gross appearance: Length 5 mm. Hairs slender and soft. Hairs differ in colour, some being black and some brown. They measure 12 », in diameter in the proximal region. Microscopic appearance: Scales of corollary type with three to four dentate spines on their borders in the proximal and medial regions. Distal region spiny. Medul- la fragmented proximally, while it has a bead- ed appearance in the medial region. Medulla not visible distally. Family EMBALLONURIDAE Taphozous perforatus (Fig. 5) Gross appearance: Length 6 to 7 mm. Hair stems soft and 414 slender. Colour of hair white in the proximal region and black in the medial region. The remaining distal part is grey. Diameter of the hair at the proximal region 21 4p. Microscopic appearance: Hairs are nodular with corollary serrate borders in the proximal region, and dentate in the medial region. Distal region spiny. Pig- ment uniformly distributed along the border ot the hair but central area appears lightly coloured. Hairs are of the non-medullated type. Tapnozeus melanopogon (Fig. 6) Gross appearance: Length 6 mm. They measure 12 » in dia- meter at the proximal region. Colour of hair greyish white in the proximal region, brown medially and white tipped. Microscopic. appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar serrate borders in the proximal and medial region. Borders of the distal region dentate. Pigment of hair localised at the nodular girdle. Hair is of the non-medullated type. Taphozous longimanus (Fig. 7) Gross appearance: Length 6 mm. Hairs slender and soft. Hair distally and proximally black; grey in~the medial region. Measure 12 » in diameter at the proximal region. tn Microscopic appearance: Hair nodular with spinulate borders in the proximal region and dentate in the medial region. Distal region with a serrate border. Pigment uniformly distributed. The hair is of the non-medullated type. Taphozous theobaldi (Fig. 8) Gross appearance: Length 5 to 7 mm. Hair stems soft and slender. Diameter of the proximal region 12 p». Colour of hair white in the proximal CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS region, and dark chocolate brown in the me- dial and distal regions. Microscopic appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar serrate borders. Pigment distributed in the inter-nodular area; nodular girdle lightly coloured. The hair is of the non-medullated type. Taphozous kacchensis (Fig. 9) Gross appearance: Length 2 to 3 mm. Measure 21 p» in diameter proximally. Proximal one third of the hair white, remaining section black. Microscopic appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar serrate scales. Internodular areas pigmented in such a way that the dark rectangular patches are localised on either side of the centrally lighter coloured area. Hair is of the non-medullated type. Family MEGADERMATIDAE Megaderma lyra lyra (Fig. 10) Gross appearance: Length 8 mm. Measure 9 » at the proximal region. Colour of hair in the proximal region white, remaining areas greyish black. Microscopic appearance: The hairs are nodular, corollar dentate in the proximal region, medially serrate, but in the distal region it appears spiny. The medulla in the proximal region appears continuous but in the medial region it is fragmented beaded type. In the distal region the medulla is not visible. Family RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus (Fig. 11) Gross appearance: Length 4 mm. Colour of hair white in the proximal region gradually changing to yello- wish grey in the medial region, distally light brown. The hair measures 9 » at the proxi- mal end. Microscopic appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar dentate borders. Nodular pattern uniform throughout except in the proximal region which has sympodial nodular arrangement. The hair stems are of the non-medullated type. Family HIPPOSIDERIDAE Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Fig. 12) Gross appearance: Length 4 mm. Hair stems soft and slender. Colour of hair, white in the proximal region, medially greyish brown and distally black. Diameter of the proximal region 9 pz. Microscopic appearance: Hair appears nodular with corollar pattern with serrate borders in the proximal and me- dial regions. Nodes reduced in size in the distai region which appears pointed. Hairs stems are non-medullated. Hipposideros cineraceus (Fig. 13) Gross appearance: Length 4 mm. Hair stems slender. Colour of hair half yellow and half chocolate brown. Diameter of proximal region, 12 up. Microscopic appearance: Hairs appear nodular with corollar scale pat- tern, the borders of which appear plain in the proximal and medial regions. In the distal region the corollar borders are serrate. Hair stems are non-medullated. Family VESPERTILIONIDAE Pipistrellus coromandra (Fig. 14) Gross appearance: Length 6 mm. Colour of hair yellow pro- ximally, middle two third dark chocolate and remaining portion yellowish brown. Diameter 415 416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 : : : Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 1. Cynopterus sphinx, 2. Rousettus leschenaulti, 3. Pteropus giganteus giganteus. CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 4. Rhinopoma hardwickei, 5. Taphozous perforatus, 6. Taphozous melanopogon. 417 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 | Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 7. Taphozous longimanus, 8. Taphozous theobaldi, 9. Taphozous kacchensis. 418 CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS : : na Ns [2 Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 10. Megaderma lyra lyra, 11. Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus, 12. Hipposideros fulvus fulvus. 419 I3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ae 4 Diagrammatic representation of hair stucture of bats in 13. Hipposideros cineraceus, 14. Pipistrellus coromandra, 15. Pipistrellus mimus. 420 CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS 18 Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 16. Pipistrellus ceylonicus, 17. Pipistrellus dormeri, 18. Scotophilus temmincki. 421 JOURNAL BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, A Viol. 77. a 124 19 Diagrammatic representation of hair structure of bats in 19. Scotophilus heathi. at proximal region, 9 p» Micrcscopic appearance: Hairs nodular with plain borders in_ the proximal and medial regions. Distal region spiny. Hair stems non-medullated. Pipistrellus mimus (Fig. 15) Gross appearance: Length 4 to 5 mm. Colour of the first two thirds black; and remaining one third, grey. Diameter at the proximal region 9 p. Microscopic appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar scales having plain borders in the proximal and medial re- gions. Distal tip has the shape of a wheat grain. Pigment localised in the inter-nodular area. Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Fig. 16). Gross appearance: Length 5 mm. Colour of hair white proxi- mally, gradually changing to chocolate me- 422 -Gross dially. Distal region light brown. Diameter of the hair at the proximal region 9 yp. Microscopic appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar serrate scales in the proximal and medial regions. Distal re- gion spiny. Pigment localised in the nodular area. Hairs non-medullated type. Pipistrellus dormeri (Fig. 17) appearance : Length 5 mm. Colour of hair, uniform grey. Diameter at the proximal region 9 up. Microscopic appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar scales having plain borders in the proximal region, gradual- ly changing to serrate scales medially. The borders appear dentate distally. Hair stems non-medullated. Scotophilus temmincki (Fig. 18) Gross appearance : Length 4 mm. Colour of hair white in the CHARACTERISTIC OF HAIR OF INDIAN BATS proximal region and brown in the distal re- gion. In the medial region the white band ts separated by yellow band on either side. Dia- meter at the proximal region 12 up. Microscopic. appearance: Hairs nodular with corollar dentate scales having three to four denticles in the proximal and medial regions. In the distal region corol- lar surface plain ending in a pointed tip. Pig- ment distributed at inter-nodular area on either side alternately. Hair stems non-medullated. Scotophilus heathi (Fig. 19) Gross appearance: Length 3 mm. Colour of hair brownish yellow proximally and black distally, but is brown in the medial region. Diameter at the proximal region 12 yp. Microscopic appearance : Hairs nodular with corollar serrate scales in the proximal region, gradually changing to dentate in medial region. The distal borders of the hair appear serrate. CONCLUSION According to the nature of the structure of the chiropteran hair is of two types. The hairs of Cynopterus sphinx, Pteropus giganteus gig- anteus, Rhinopoma hardwickei are of the medullated type, while those of Rousettus, Taphozous, Pipistrellus and Scotophilus species are of non-medullated type. From the point of view of the scale patterns the hairs of bats may be roughly divided into two kinds—the nodular corollar type and the imbricate type. The megachiropteran forms Cynopterus sphinx and Rousettus leschenaulti have corollar type of scales, while Preropus giganteus giganteus showed the presence of imbricate crenate type of scales. All the genera and species which belong to families of Rhino- pomatidae, Emballonuridae, Megadermatidae, Rhinolophidae, Hipposideridae, and Vesperti- lionidae showed corollar type of scales. The families Pteropidae, Rhinopomatidae and Megadermatidae show common medular corollar hair structure, while non-medullated corollar scales are characteristic feature, for the majority of Microchiropteran forms stu- died. The structural hair pattern of Preropus giganteus giganteus is entirely different from that of other chiropteran forms investigated. It is medullated with imbricate crenate types of scales. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am thankful to Dr. H. Khajuria, Zoolo- gical Survey of India, Jabalpur for providing the hair specimens of bats. REFERENCES ADORJAN, A. S. AND KOLENOSKEY, G. B. (1969): A manual for the identification of hairs of selected Ontario Mammals. Department of Lands and Forests Research Report 90. SimMPSON, G. G. (1945): The principles of classi- fication and a classification of Mammals. Bulf, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 85: 1-350. Ww Lad SEDGES OF PUNJAB—ECOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION AND ENUMERATION' M. SHARMA? The paper gives a comprehensive ecological and distributional survey of the sedges of Punjab. 50 species have been enumerated along with their flowering and fruiting periods and field numbers. Four sedges, namely Cyperus atkinsonii Cl., C. bulbosus Vahl, Eleocharis acutangula Sch. and Scirpus triqueter L. are new to the flora of Punjab plain. INTRODUCTION The sedges are members of the Cyperaceae, a large family comprising of about 4,000 spe- cies distributed among nearly 90 genera (Airy Shaw 1973). They are of cosmopolitan distribution but are particularly abundant in the temperate and subarctic regions of both the hemispheres, mainly as _ marsh-plants. Studies on the taxonomy and distribution of Cyperaceae have received good amount of attention throughout the world including India (cf. Tiwari & Maheshwari 1964). But the taxonomic treatment of this group in the floras or botanical reports of erstwhile com- posite Punjab or any of its parts (Edgeworth 1838, 1842; Aitchison 1868, 1869; Stewart 1869; Coventry 1901; Collett 1902; Bamber 1916; Parker 1918; Kashyap & Joshi 1936; Sabnis 1940) has remained neglected so far. It is pertinent to point out here that the family Cyperaceae has not been dealt with by Bam- ber (1916), Parker (1918) and Kashyap & Joshi (1936). To complete the last work Ahmad (1954) published a supplement that deals with the sedges and grasses of Lahore, no more a part of present Punjab (India). 1 Accepted December 1978. 2Department of Botany, Patiala-147 002, India. Punjabi University, 424 One exception is Collett’s FLORA SIMLENSIS which does deal comprehensively with the sed- ges but from the hilly terrain of Simla. This treatment is virtually of no use to the thrice truncated Punjab (mainly a plain country) since 1947. Whatever little that has been written about the sedges of this region in the above-mentioned works is nomenclaturally anachronistic. The present account is an at- tempt to fill that gap and is based on the collections made during numerous botanical excursions undertaken by me uninterruptedly for nearly fifteen years, as a part of the sur- vey of the flora of Punjab state. In continua- tion with my other preliminary floristic obser- vations dealing with Punjab or its parts (Sharma & Sharma 1966: Sharma 1974, 1975, 1977; Sharma & Sharma 1974) this publication is a further step in the compilation of the flora of reorganized Punjab. SOILS AND CLIMATE The present state of Punjab is essentially monotonous plain country with arid to semi- arid climate, scanty to moderate (48-110 cm per year) precipitation and very low to very high (—1.7°C to 48.3°C) temperatures. Soils are sandy to sandy-loam. Somewhat moist, rocky Siwaliks rising to 665 m and with an annual rainfall of 85-125 cm delimit Punjab along its north-eastern border, SEDGES OF PUNJAB ECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF SEDGES Edaphic and climatic factors prevailing during the different seasons of the year affect the occurrence and distribution of sedges. Rainy season is the most favourable for their germination, development and survival. With the advent of the drier season the cyperaceous vegetation dries up. Perennials manage to sur- vive through rhizomes and tubers. Only a few sedges flourish in dry soil. Noteworthy among these being Bulbostylis barbata Cl., Cyperus arenarius Retz., C. atkinsonii Cl., C. bulbosus Vahl, C. rotundus L. and Fimbristylis falcata Kunth. In this category also fall the sedges recorded from Siwaliks such as Cyperus niveus Retz., C. paniceus Boeck. var. roxburghianus Kuk. and Eriophorum comosum Nees; the last one being the most conspicuous on steep rocks or hanging from vertical cliffs. Besides, Cyperus compressus L., C. michelianus Link subsp. pygmaeus Asch. & Graebn., C. squar- rosus L., C. triceps Endl., Fimbristylis bisum- bellata Bub., F. dichotoma Vahl, F. ferru- ginea Vahl, F. ovata Kern, F. schoenoides Vahl, F. tenera Roem. & Sch. var. oxylepis Cl. and Scirpus tuberosus Desf. can survive on damp to dry soil. Most of these appear with the onset of monsoon and have been observed to thrive well in dry areas. The sedges form the most conspicuous communities in or near the banks of rivers, canals irrigation courses, ponds, pools, pud- dles and ditches. Common ones included here are Carex fedia Nees, Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb., C. alulatus Kern, C. brevifolius Hassk., C. compactus Retz., C. difformis L., C. digitatus Roxb., C. eleusinoides Kunth, C. exaltatus Retz., C. globosus All., C. iria L., C. pumilus L., C. rotundus L., C. sanguino- lentus Vahl, C. serotinus Rottb., Eleocharis dulcis Hensch., EF. palustris R. Br., Fimbristylis bisumbellata Bub., F. dichotoma Vahl, F. fer- ruginea Vahl, F. quinquangularis Kunth, Scir- pus litoralis Schrad., S$. mucronatus L., S. roy- lei Parker and S. tuberosus Desf. In the rice-fields which provide marshy habitat Cyperus alulatus Kern, C. compressus Li Codifformis. ©. .sCriria Ly, C..rotunduso&.; C. tenuispica Steud., Eleocharis atropurpurea Presl, Fimbristylis miliacea Vahl, F. quinquan- gularis Kunth, Scirpus roylei Parker, S. supi- nus L., §. tuberosus Desf. grow most luxuriantly. Cyperus alulatus Kern, C. com- pressus; Io... C.iria, ,..C. .rotundus 1, C. squarrosus L. and Fimbristylis tenera Roem. & Sch. var. oxylepis Cl. also grow as weeds in other kharif crops. Bulbostylis barbata Cl., Cyperus bulbosus Vahl and C. rotundus L. inhabit the groundnut fields which offer ex- tremely sandy and xerophytic habitat—an unusual locality for sedges. While Cyperus kyllingia Endl. and C. iri- ceps Endl. grow in gardens and fruit orchards as a herbaceous undergrowth on moist, grassy areas; others like Cyperus alulatus Kern, C. bulbosus Vahl, C. compressus L., C. iria L., C. rotundus L. and Scirpus tube- rosus Desf. are common in moist, waste lands along roadsides during the monsoon period. Cyperus flabelliformis Rottb. is the only member of the Cyperaceae which has been observed as an ornamental grown in the gar- dens of Punjab in green houses or on roc- keries. SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION In all 50 species belonging to 7 genera have been gathered by the author. For convenience, the genera and species are enumerated in the alphabetical order. Flowering and fruiting 425 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 season follows the correct name of the species. The sedges collected during the course of the investigation run into 232 fields numbers and have been deposited in the herbaria of Panjab University, Chandigarh (collected during July 1963 to April 1966 and indicated by a single asterisk), Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (collected during May 1966 to Sep- tember 1968 and indicated by double aste- risks) and Punjabi University, Patiala (col- lected since October 1968 and unmarked). Collector for all may be read as M. Sharma. LIST OF SPECIES Bulbostylis barbata Cl. Aug.-Sept. 2272*, 103**, 345, 1452, 1563, 2109. Carex. jedia, Nees. \Keb:-Apr 926997: 03 72%, 1843, 2804, 4252. Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb. Throughout the year 222 "* 43221. 3 724. C. alulatus Kern. June-Sept. 343, 941, 3732, 4013, 4334. C. arenarius Retz. July-Sept. 2749*. C. atkinsonii Cl. Suly-Oct. 2992, 3073, 3102. C. brevifolius Hassk. Apr.-Nov. 2368*, 780*, 966; °22032°289159 2973. 2277*, DOG: C. bulbosus Vahl. July-Sept. 2740*, 102**, 341, 1448, 4283. C. compactus Retz. July-Oct. 2780*, 946**, 775, 1506, 4032, 4322. C. compressus L. July-Oct. 2273*, 225**, 342, 2869, 4347. C. difformis L. July-Sept. 2270*, 136**;' 379, 909, 1439, 1525, 2962. C. digitatus Roxb. Aug.-Oct. 2266*, 314**, 2185, 2265, 5631. C. eleusinoides Kunth. July-Oct. 2761*, 2246, 2949, 2985, 3766, 4329. C. exaltatus Retz. July-Sept. 2118, 2167, 2210, 2296, 4637. 426 C. flabelliformis Rottb. Nov.-Mar. 427**, S139: C. globosus All. Mar.-Oct. 2267*, 781**, 913, 1361, 2284, 2495, 2504, 2825. Cr iria L. July-Oct:' 2280*}" 14044) 3784) 902) 942, 1539, 2900. C. kyllingia Endl. June-Sept. 2274*, 920, 2879, 2994, 3754. C. laevigatus L. Mar.-Sept. 2350*, 1375, 2003, 2587, 2904, 3498. C. michelianus Link subsp. pygmaeus Asch. & Graebn. Aug.-Sept. 815**. C. niveus Retz. June-Sept. 2271*, 187**, 1460, 2874, 3589. C. paniceus Boeck. var. roxburghianus Kuk. July-Sept. 2751*. C. pumilus L. July-Sept. 2491*, 2995. C. rotundus L. Throughout the year. 2269*, 148**" 322, 9107 1557, 3597, 4358: C. sanguinolentus Vahl. Aug.-Oct. 2531, 4079. C. serotinus Rottb. Aug.-Oct. 2276*, 3104, 3207, 3741, 4328. C. squarrosus L. July-Sept. 2756*, 1517, 2116, 2195, 2993; 3746. C. tenuispica Steud. Aug.-Nov. 1668, 4649. C. triceps Endl. July-Sept. 2275*, 745**, 344, 993: Eleocharis acutangula Sch. July-Oct. 3548, S71. FE. atropurpurea Presl. Aug.-Nov. 2770*, 963**, 1436, 1532. E. dulcis Hensch. Aug.-Oct. 2793*, 4638. FE. palustris R. Br. Mar-May. 542**, 1711, 1712, 2001, 2676, 3865. Eriophorum comosum Nees. Mar.-May. 2268*. Fimbristylis hisumbellata Bub. Mar.-Nov. 2451*, 353**, 949, 1655, 1849, 2038. F. complanata Link. Aug-Oct. 895**. F. dichotoma Vahl. July-Oct. 81**, 388, 971, 1000, 1376, 1484, 1534, 2093, 2289, 2494, 3576. SEDGES OF F. falcata Kunth. June-Sept. 2734*, 738**, 994, 2053, 2867. F. ferruginea Vahl. July-Sept. 2279*, 193%**, 2231, 2875, 2948, 3561. F. miliacea Vahl. Aug.-Oct. 988, 4533, 4629. F. ovata Kern. July-Sept. 199**, 1444, 1530, 2871, 3762. F. quinquangularis Kunth. Aug.-Oct. 2281*, 254**, 355**, 591, 1438, 1504, 2961, 3214. F. schoenoides Vahl. July-Sept. 2278*, 2249, 35512 3773: F. tenera Roem. & Sch. var. oxylepis Cl. July--Sept. 2276*, 253**, 388, 1535, 5325. Scirpus litoralis Schrad. Mar.-Apr.: Oct.-Nov. 391**;.. 1897, 2649. S. mucronatus L. Mar.-Oct. 2518, 2588, 4247, 4327, 5661. S. roylei Parker. July-Nov. 2789*, 359**, 911, L6/15 3103, 3201. S. supinus 1. Aug.-Nov. 2772*, 792**, 1633, 1676,3592: S. triqueter L. July-Sept. 5328. S. tuberosus Desf. Mar.-Nov. 1674*, 224**, iaSimw ld. 2012, 3912. Besides the listed species, the following 8 species have also been recorded from the erstwhile united Punjab by Clarke (1893-94), S928 Fe eQT8Ts PUNJAB Ahmad (1954) and Parker (1960) and are likely to occur within the present boundaries of the state: Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb., C. esculen- tus L., C. michelianus L., C.° nutans Vahl, Fuirena wallichiana Kunth, Scirpus articulatus L., §. juncoides Roxb. and S. sguarrosus -L. NEW RECORDS A perusal of the relevant literature. dealing with the plants of Punjab shows that Cyperus atkinsonii Cl., C. bulbosus Vahl, Eleocharis acutangula Sch. and Scirpus triqueter L. the new plant records for Punjab plains. are ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am thankful to the Heads of Botany Departments of Punjab, Punjabi, and Punjab Agricultural Universities for help. Thanks are also due authorities of Forest Research stitute, Dehra Dun, National Botanic Gar- dens, Lucknow, and Central National Her- barium, Howrah, for herbarium and library facilities and Director, Royal Botanic Gar- dens, Kew, for the identification of some spe- cimens. In- REFERENCES AuMap, S. (1954): Grasses and sedges of Lahore district. Lahore. Airy SHAw, HH. K. (1973): J. C. Willis, A Dic- tionary of the flowering plants and ferns. Cam- bridge. AITCHISON, J. E.T. (1868): Flora of Hushiar- pur District of the Punjab. J. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.) 11:17-22. *—__________._ (1869): A Catalogue of the plants of Punjab and Sindh. London. BAMBER, C. J. (1916): Plants of the Punjab. Lahore. CLARKE, C. B. (1893-94): Cyperaceae. In J. D. Hocker. The Flora of British India. Vol. 6. London. CoLLet?, H. (1902): Flora Simlensis. Calcutta and Simla. *CoOVENTRY, E. M. (1901): A Catalogue of the trees and shrubs of the Punjab. Lahore. EpcewortuH, M. P. (1838): Botanico-agricultural account of the protected Sikh States. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 7: 751-766. —————-— (1842): Note to the botanico-agri- cultural account of the protected Sikh States. ibid. lise 26-077 KasuyaP, S. R. & Josui, A. C. (1936): Lahore District Flora. Lahore. PARKER, R. N. (1918): A forest Flora for the Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore. 427 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, (1960): Cyperaceae. In J. F. Duthie, Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and sub-Himalayan tracts. Vol. 2, repr. ed. Calcutta. SABNIS, T .S. (1940): A Contribution to the Flora of the Punjab plains and associated hill re- gions. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42: 124-149, ibid. 342-379, ibid. 533-586. SHarMA, M. (1974): A preliminary survey of the flora of Patiala District (Punjab). Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 28: 69-74. (1975): A systematic account of the cultivated flora of Punjab. ibid. 29: 141-146. (1977): Aquatic and marshy angios- 428 Vol. 77 perms of Punjab. Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 31: 52-60. & SHARMA, O. P. (1974): A flori- stic account of Ludhiana District (Punjab). Indian For. 100: 209-215. SHARMA, O. P. & SHARMA, M. (1966): Obser- vations on the flora of Chandigarh and its neigh- bourhood. Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. 17: 371- 405. STEwarT, J. L. (1869): Punjab Plants. Lahore. Tiwarl, S. D .N. & MAHESHWARI, J. K. (1964): The Cyperaceae of Madhya Pradesh. Indian For. 90: 147-159, ibid. 616-629. * Originals not seen. A POPULATION STUDY OF TWO SPECIES OF NON- HUMAN PRIMATES: MACACA MULATTA AND MACACA RADIATA’ RAGHUBIR SINGH PIRTA,? P. PRAKASH & MEWA SINGH? (With two text-figures) A population of 1496 rhesus monkeys living in 38 groups, and a population of 664 bonnet monkeys living in 31 groups, was counted in the forests of Dehra Dun and the forests and the urban areas of Mysore respectively. The rhesus monkeys had a mean group size of 39.37 individuals, whereas the bonnet monkeys had a mean group size of 21.42. Significant differences were found in the group size. the adult male and the adult female sex ratios between the two species. The importance of population stu- dies is discussed from two view points: a) the species- and the population-specific adaptations to a particular ecological niche. b) conservation of these two primate species. INTRODUCTION A population study of non-human primates is important for two reasons: First, the ulti- mate group size (Crook 1972) and the ‘socio- economic sex ratio’? (Carpenter 1934) in the groups of primates living in their natural en- vironment are the adaptive social behaviour patterns to the ecological pressures, and so, are directly shaped by the evolutionary con- tingencies. Second, a few surveys on the popu- lations of rhesus (Southwick ef al. 196la, b: Lindburg 1971; Neville 1968) and bonnet (Si- monds 1965; Nolte 1955; Rahman and Partha- sarthy 1969) monkeys were made in early and mid sixties. Since then, many noticeable en- vironmental changes such as_ afforestation, 1 Accepted December 1978. 2 Dept. of Psychology, Utkal University. Bhuba- neshwar, Orissa. 3 Dept. of Psychology. University of Mysore, My- sore-570 006. agricultural expansion, unfavourable attitudes of the people toward monkeys, trapping of monkeys for experimental and hygienic pur- poses etc., have taken place. These drastic changes have threatened the very survival of these two monkey species. A new survey was required to be made on these species from the view point of conservation, as well as to study their group size and socioeconomic sex ratios with reference to the ecological forces. STUDY AREAS AND METHODS The present study was conducted in the years June to November, 1975, on rhesus and August to October, 1978, on bonnet. The study areas included 3 divisions of Dehra Dun forests viz., Eastern, Western and Siwalik (for rhesus), and Mudumalai and Bandipur wild- life sanctuaries and the roadsides in and around Mysore City (for bonnet) (Fig. 1). The forests of Dehra Dun are moist decidu- 429 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 ( bs Viacaca rddiata inte ( fe) 400 bi (ees eel km. Fig. 1. Map of India showing the locations of study areas. 430) POPULATION OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES ous type and mainly covered by sal (Shorea robusta) trees. Large mammals such as panther (Panthera pardus), tiger (Panthera tigris) and elephant (Elephas maximus) are rare, but spotted deer (Axis axis) and langur (Presbytis entellus) are common. in the forests of Mudu- malai and Bandipur, elephant, tiger, panther, wild boar (Sus scrofa), gaur (Bos gaurus), wild dog (Cuon alpinus), spotted deer, sam- bar (Cervus unicolor)) and langur are com- mon. Most of the bonnet groups were found outside the forest, inhabiting roadsides near agricultural areas covered with a thick vegeta- tion of banyan (Ficus bengalensis), pipal (#i- cus religiosa) and imli (Tamarindus indica) trees. All these areas were visited on foot, and the monkeys were counted with naked eyes. The individuals were classified into four cate- gories, i.e. adult male, adult female, juvenile, and infant (for the details of the basis of clas- sification—see Southwick 1961; Pirta and Singh 1978). RESULTS A total of 1496 individuals were counted in 38 groups of rhesus monkeys, with a mean group size of 39.37. In bonnets, 31 groups were counted, with an average group size of 21.42 and a total of 664 monkeys. A com- parative analysis of the group size for the two species yielded a significant difference (Table I); The per cent for each category of individuals was computed against the total animals of each group. A ‘t’? analysis of significance was applied to compare the group composition for the two species. The mean per cent, 23.7 of males in bonnets was significantly higher than the mean per cent, 11.5 in rhesus (P < .O1). On the other hand, the mean per cent, 26.9 for female bonnets was significantly less (P < .01) than the mean per cent, 32.0 for the rhesus female. A comparison of the mean per- centages for juveniles and infants revealed non- significant difference between the two species (fable. 2) A significantly higher per cent of males in bonnets, and a significantly higher per cent of females in rhesus affected the socioeconomic sex ratio (adult male: adult female) of the two species, which was found to be 1:3.0 in rhesus and |: 1.2 in bonnet monkeys (Fig. 2). 4 3 O | 2 - < oa! Rhesus Bonnet Fig. 2. Socioeconomic sex ratio (Adult male: adult female) in rhesus and bonnet macaques. For the study of population dynamics, a bonnet group was observed for four years. Inspite of an average of 5 females breeding each year, the size of the group increased from 23 to 29 only, though, slight changes toox place in the socioeconomic sex ratio (Table 3). 43] JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE 1 DIFFERENCES IN GROUP SIZES OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS. Shecies No. of No. of Mean et B groups monkeys group size : df P Rhesus 38 1496 39.37 ey Bonnet 31 664 21.42 4.67 67 0.01 SS TABLE 2 DIFFERENCES IN GROUP COMPOSITION OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS. SS Age/sex Species Mean% “ df p classes per group Rhesus 11.5 c Adult 2 6.89 67 0.01 Bonnet 23.7 he a Se ee Rhesus 32.0 Adult 2 3.29 67 0.01 Bonnet 26.9 Rhesus 37.4 Juveniles 1.65 67 0.20 Bonnet 33.1 Rhesus 19.1 Infants 1.65 67 0.20 Bonnet 16.3 i it a a ET RL A A a a SA ARS Rs hh SS a TABLE 3 HISTORY OF A BONNET GROUP. Year Group Adult Adult Juveniles infants Socioeconomic size males females sex ratio Oct., 1974 23 4 5 9 5 eG June, 1975 Pf 4 5 14 4 iP Sale? June, 1976 32! 10 6 11 5 1:0.6 June, 1977 291% 8 7 11 3 1:0.8 Feb., 1978 5am 1 22 1 1 * 5 monkeys left the group. ! 4 monkeys died when the group moved out of its home range. !* The whole group was trapped except 5 individuals. ** These 5 monkeys were also not seen in the area after some time. 432 POPULATION OF NON-HUMAN PRIMATES DISCUSSION It was found in the present study that the percentages of infants and juveniles were not different statistically between the two primate species. On the other hand, the percentages of adult males and adult females were significant- ly different—females constitute a larger part of the adult section of the group in rhesus, whereas the bonnet group contains an equal number of males and females. The male—fe- male sex ratio in infant rhesus is found equal (Lindburg 1971). This indicates that there is no difference in the reproductive strategy of the two species. The less number of adult rhesus males may be due to the reason that during the process of development, a considerable number of males is eliminated from the group. On the other hand, the bonnet males enjoy an equal ratio with the females. Several in- vestigators have indirectly attempted to ex- plain this phenomenon. It has been reported that the kinship ties are stronger in bonnets than in rhesus (Rosenblum 1970). Pirta and Singh (1979) reported that many rhesus ma- les, who leave the group, get wider know- ledge of the habitat. If they join the natal group again, they will prove to be more efli- cient leaders. It may be possible that, because a less number of males is sufficient to insemi- nate a larger number of females, the extra males are thrown out of the group. But the last two explanations are not applicable in case of bonnet monkeys. Only a thorough in- vestigation of the ecological forces and adap- tations will explain such differences. Similarly, another explanation is required for the differences observed in the group sizes of two different populations of the same spe- cies. A very interesting phenomenon was ob- served in the present study. The group size was larger in the interior forest areas (mean 48.0) than the areas near to human interaction (mean 31.0) in rhesus, whereas the bonnet were in larger groups in the urban and semi- urban areas (mean 22.8) than their forest counterparts (mean 13.8). These variations indicate that the group size, though, is a spe- cies-specific characteristic, it is prone to change according to the modification in the ecological niche. Predation, trapping, affores- tation and the agricultural expansion may bring about significant variations in the group size. It seems that these factors have brought about the above mentioned population-——speci- fic (urban and forest) differences in group size. On the other hand, the differences in the group sizes of rhesus and bonnet living in the forest areas may be because of the differences in the energy requirement of the two species, though the energy yield of these forests may be same. The present study, with reference to the old surveys made on rhesus and bonnet popula- tions, reveals that the habitats of these species are changing tremendously. Southwick ef al. (196la) reported that 11% villages of Dehra Dun had resident monkey groups, but during our survey, no group was found in any of those villages. Siddiqi and Southwick (1975) found that ‘ta population sample of rhesus monkeys in an agricultural area of western U.P. declined from 403 monkeys in 21 groups in 1962 to 197 monkeys in 11 groups by 1974.” Similarly, Simonds (1965) reported some bon- net groups in the forest areas, some of which have totally vanished. In one group of Bandi- pur forest, 15 monkeys were observed two years before, and now there are only 5 ani- mals. It was also observed that bonnet mon- keys are very rare in the interior forest, and some groups which do live in jungle are found 433 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 near tribal huts or the forest bungalows. On the other hand, the changes taking place in the urban groups of bonnet are peculiar. A group was observed for four years, in which sudden increases or decreases of sex ratio were found. The pressures of the urban areas are quite different than those of the semi-urban, agricultural and the forest areas. However, the severity of these pressures is quite threatening to the survival of these monkeys irrespective of the habitat. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The senior author is grateful to the help ex- tended by H. S. Pirta during rhesus monkey survey, and Jaswanti during the survey on bonnet monkeys. REFERENCES CARPENTER, C. R. (1934): A field study of the behaviour and social relations of howling monkeys. Comp. Psycholo. Monog. 10: 1-168. Crook, J. H. (1972): Sexual selection, dimor- phism, and social organization in the primates. Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man. (B. G. Campbell Ed.). LinpBurG, D. G. (1971): The rhesus monkeys in North India—An ecological and behavioral study. Primate Behavior (L. A. Rosenblum Ed.) Acade- mic. Press, New York, pp. 1-106. NEVILLE, M. K. (1968): Ecology and activity of Himalayan foothill rhesus monkeys. Ecology, 49: 110-123. No.te, A. (1955): Field observations on the daily routine and social behavior of common Indian mon- keys, with special reference to the bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata Geoffroy). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 177-184. Pirta, R. S. AND SINGH, M. (1978): Ecodevelop- ment of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in the forests of Doon valley. Proceedings of the Work- shop on Wild Life Ecology. F.R.I., Dehra Dun. 434 im ——, —————— .. (1979) : Some factors affecting the size and location of home range in natural groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulat- ta). Pro. Ind. Acad. Sci. (Animal Sciences). (in press). RAHMAN, H. AND PARTHASARTHY, M. D. (1969): Studies on the social behavior of bonnet monkeys. Primates, 10: 149-162. ROSENBLUM, L. A. (1970): Kinship interaction patterns in pigtail and bonnet macaques. Procced- ings 3rd Int. Congr. Primatol. Zurich, 1970. Simonps, P. E. (1965): The bonnet macaques in South India. Primate Behavior: Filed Studies of Monkeys and Apes, (I. DeVore ed.), Holt Rine- hart & Winston, New York, pp. 175-196. Sippiet, M. F. AND SouTHwick, C. H. (1975): Population trends and dynamics of rhesus in Ali- garh District. Abstracts Winter School on Use of Non-Human Primates in Biomedical Research. SouTHwick, C. H., Bec, M. A. ANp Srppiqi, M. R. (196l1a): A population survey of rhesus mon- keys in villages, towns and temples of North India. Ecology, 42: 538-547. THE RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR AND LENGTH- WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF A FRESHWATER CARP, LABEO GONIUS (HAM.) (CYPRINIDAE, TELEOSTEI)' ANIL CHATTERJI? (With five text-figures) INTRODUCTION The relative condition factor (Kn) and length-weight relationship of a fish, Labeo go- nius (Ham.) is reported here. These two fac- tors are generally used for obtaining data on robustness, gonad development, time of spawn- ing and the size at first maturity. MATERIAL AND METHODS The materia! for the present study were ob- tained from the commercial catch from River Kali at Aligarh from October, 1972 to Octo- ber, 1973. Specimens ranging from 150-450 mm in length and 27-930 gm in weight were included in the present investigation. The ana- lysis of relative condition factor and length- weight data was done using the methods given by LeCren (1951). RESULTS Variations in the values of relative condi- tion factor in relation to size are presented in Figure 1. The value was found to be high- est in smaller fishes of both sexes. High va- lues were obtained upto 210 mm in males and 1 Accepted July 1979. * Section of Ichthyology and Fisheries, Depart- ment of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Ali- garh-202001, India. 230 mm in females. The values increased and decreased alternately upio the length of 450 mm and three peaks and three valleys were obtained at the lengths of 210 mm, 330 mm and 390 mm in males, while at 310 mm, 370 mm and 430 mm in females (Fig. 1). The gonado-somatic indices showed season- al variation in both sexes. It started increasing from March and reached a maximum in May in case of males and June in case of females when the fish possessed fully ripe gonads. The gastro-somatic indices dropped suddenly in July and from July to February, it almost re- mained constant (Fig. 2). There was a sharp increase in condition- with gonad from April to June while the con- dition-minus-gonad in females decreased con- siderably. The decrease in condition-with gonad during July and August was also very significant whereas, condition-minus-gonad did not show any remarkable decrease. No dif- ference between condition-with-gonad and condition-minus-gonad was observed during rest of the year. A similar trend was noticed for males. Gastro-somatic index was found to decrease significantly from April to July in females. During rest of the months, the values were found to increase gradually in both sexes (Figs. 3 and 4). Regression analysis on length-weight rela- tionship along with the test of significance have been presented in Table 1 and the analysis of 435 STATISTICS OF REGRESSION OF LOG WEIGHT ON LOG LENGTH OF L. gonius JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 TABLE | Regression §.S. due to Residual Source coefficient regression S.S. DE. Correlation Observed 5% s ‘n’ coefficient aE: t Male 3.1010 38.3750 3.6945 59 0.0375 2.0997 2.001 S Female 3.0981 24.3953 3.8283 119 0.2669 1.9951 1.981 S Juvenile 3.1322 26.3333 3.0166 13 0.5831 2.4861 2.160 S Maturity stage— I Male 3.0030 1.3440 0.1633 18 0.6719 1.7403 1.101 NS Maturity stage— I Female 3.0547 0.6868 0.0334 29 0.0815 0.4399 2.045 NS Maturity stage— lH Male 3.1568 0.9215 0.0383 8 0.2018 0.5396 2.306 NS Maturity stage— II Female 3.0677 1.1559 0.0501 20 0.7704 1.5265 2.086 NS Maturity stage— III Male 3.0140 1.1689 0.0627 11 0.0980 0.3408 2.201 NS Maturity stage— Ill Female 3.3744 1.5398 0.0300 17 0.4400 1.0831 2.110 NS Maturity stage— IV Male 3.6112 0.4898 0.0347 12 0.6441 1.7929 Poh: NS Maturity stage— IV Female 3.6625 0.6592 0.0933 25 0.2608 1.3232 2.060 NS Maturity stage— V Male 3.0734 0.5328 0.0254 5 0.6084 1.5332 2.571 NS Maturity stage— V Female 3.0377 0.5774 0.0380 23 0.0785 0.3691 2.069 NS Total within different maturity stages 3.0837 16.7605 7.9044 171 = — = = DIFFERENCE 0.0307 10 a ras ar = Total between means of different maturity stages 3.1780 0.9038 0.0407 9 — = -— — TOTAL 7.9451 191 ~~ -— — — Combined (Male, Female and Juvenile) 3.7794 17.6643 7.9450 192 0.6316 11.2874 1.960 S DIFFERENCE 0.0001 1 = a ro =o S.S.=Sum of squares. D.F.=Degrees of freedom NS=Not significant S = Significant. 436 RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF LABEO GONTUS TABLE 2 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR DATA OF TABLE | Source Sums of D:.F. Variance square Due to total regression 17.6643 1 17.6643 Between regression coefficient within 0.0307 10 0.0030 different maturity stages Difference between pooled within 0.0001 1 0.0001 different maturity stages and means regression Deviation of means from means regression 0.0407 9 0.0045 Residual 7.9450 171 —— Total 25.6808 192 oo 110 x-----x FEMALE e—e MALE 108 106 1041 102 100 RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR 98! 170 = 210 25 SIZE GROUPS Fig. 1. Mean ‘Kn’ values at different size groups of Labeo gonius, 437 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 x----x Female 1 e—eMale 109 cc oO 107 | md O xt LL e105 3) = a Zz. 103 o) S) Tt > 101 tt bs - ° : Chatterji e¢ al. 1977). In small fishes, the ob- bs As’ 3 SSQ served weight was recorded lesser than the z NSdos calculated weight while opposite was true for F bBen | 2825 the larger fishes (Jhingran 1952, Chatterji ef 5 was Sece pean ree ‘ Re ' toa n ripe fishes, the values of ‘n’ were higher £Bs ‘c g $5 S whereas, in spent fishes, they were lower. Dur- i ie i bar 9 ing spawning period, the weight of the gonads 9 te) Sete increased considerably resulting in an increase aa oer SAAR in the total weight of the adult fish as well as may ch oF os a higher ‘n’ value. As soon as the fish dis- “De charged their gonad products the weight of 3 oS 34 the fish decreased resulting in a simultaneous 3 s Eee decrease in ‘n’ value. Such changes in ‘n’ 442 RELATIVE CONDITION FACTOR OF LABEO GONIUS values reflect the onset of spawning season of the fish (Chatterji e¢ al. 1977). The length- weight curve of males lies above the length- weight curve of females upto the length of 250 mm and beneath the length-weight curve of females afterwards. The point of intersec- tion (between 250-265 mm) seems to represent the size at first maturity of the fish as reported by other workers also (Olsen and Merriman 1946, Natarajan and Jhingran 1963, Khan 1972 and Chatterji e¢ al. 1977). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Prof. S. M. Alam, Head, Department of Zoology, for providing neces- sary facilities. Gratitude is expressed to Prof. A. Q. Siddiqui and Dr. Asif A. Khan for en- couragement. IJ thank Dr. Absarul Hasnain, Scientist-Pool for his valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to CSIR, New Delhi for the award of a Post-doctoral Research fel- lowship. REFERENCES BAL, J. N. AND Jones, J. W. (1960): On the growth of brown trout of Llyn Tegid. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 134: 1-41. BATNAGAR, G. K. (1972): Maturity, fecundity, spawning and certain related aspects of Labeo fim- briatus (Bloch) of river Narmada near Hoshanga- bad. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 4: 26-37. Buatr, V. S. (1977): Studies on the biology of some freshwater fishes. Part-III AHeteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). Indian J. Fish. 15: 99-115. BLACKBURN, M. (1960): A_ study of condition (weight for length) of Australian Barracouda, Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen). Aust. /. Mar. Freshw. Res. 1]: 14-41. CHAKRABARTY, R. D. AND SINGH. S. B. (1963): Observations on some aspects of the fishery and biology of the mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.) from Allahabad. Indian J. Fish. 10: 209-232. CHATTERJI, A., SIDDIQUI, A. Q. AND KHAN, A. A. (1976): The relative condition factor of bata, Laheo bata (Ham.) from the river Kali, Uttar Pradesh. Indian J. Anim. Res. 10 (2): 63-68. (1977): Length-weight relationship of a carp, Labeo bata (Ham.). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 86 (B): 189-194. JHINGRAN, V. G. (1952): General length-width relationship of three major carps of India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 18: 449-460. Kuan, R. A. (1972): Studies on the biology of some important major carps. Ph.D. Thesis. Aligarh Muslim University. Aligarh. LeCren, E. D. (1951): The length-weight rela- tionship and seasonal] cycle in gonad condition and weight in perch, Perca fluviatalis. J. Anim. Ecol. 20: 210-219. NATARAJAN, A. V. AND JHINGRAN, A. G. (1963): On the biology of Catla catla from the river Jamuna. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 29: 326-355. OLSEN, Y. H. AND MERRIMAN, D. (1946): Stu- dies on the marine resources of Southern New Eng- land. IV. The biology and economic importance of the ocean trout, Macrozoarees americanus (Bloch and Schneider). Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 9: 1-184. PANTULU, V. R. (1963): Studies on age, growth, fecundity and spawning of Osteogneiosus militaris (Linn.). J. Cons. int. Explor. Mer. 28: 295-315. Pittay, T. V. R. (1953): Studies on food and feeding habits and alimentary tract of the grey mullet. Mugil tade (Forskl.). Proc. Nat Inst. Sci. India 19: 777-827. QayyuM, A. AND QasIM, S. Z. (1964): Studies on the biology of some freshwater fishes. I Ophi- cephalus punctatus (Bloch.) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 74-98. RAMAMOHANA RAo, G. AND HANUMANTHA RAO, L. (1972): On the biology of Labeo calbasu (Ham.- Buch.) from the river Godavari. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 4: 74-86. SAROJINI, K. K. (1957): Biology of grey mullet of Bengal. I-Biology Mugil persia. Indian J. Fish. 4: 160-207. Sippiqul, A. Q.. CHATTERJI, A. AND KHAN, A. A. (1976): Reproductive biology of the carp. Labeo bata (Ham.) from the river Kali. India. Aquacul- ture 17(1): 181-191. 443 SOME ASPECTS OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF BLACKBUCK IN NEPAL* JoHN F. LEHMKUHL? Blackbuck antelope (Antilope cervicapra L.) were considered extinct in Nepal until 1975 when 2 small remnant populations were found in the Banke and Bardia districts of the western Terai. Observations of these blackbuck were made from 1 October 1976 to 27 January 1977 to determine population status, behavior patterns, habitat use, and preservation options. This report describes population numbers, daily activity patterns, breeding seasons, territoriality, and food habits. INTRODUCTION In Nepal, the blackbuck was commonly found in the eastern and western Terai, an extension of the Gangetic Plain lying along the base of the Himalayan foothills. Until re- cently, blackbuck were considered extinct in both areas. Reports by Dinerstein (1975) and Wegge and Wilson (1976) revealed the exist- ence of two small remnant populations in the Bardia and Banke districts, respectively, of the western Terai. This report describes aspects of the life history of blackbuck in the 2 remnant populations, obtained from a larger study to determine the status of blackbuck in Nepal and the means for their preservation as part of Nepal’s unique fauna. METHODS The Bardia population was observed from 18 to 30 October 1976 and from 22 to 27 January 1977. The Banke population was studied from 3 to 10 November 1976 and from 7 to 13" Vanuaty "1977. Observations were made on foot, except in 1 Accepted July 1979. 2? USDA-Forest Service, 517 Gold SW, Albuquer- New Mexico 87102, U.S.A. que, 444 Bardia, where an observation platform was built in a tree that was centrally located in the dominant male’s territory. Population esti- mates were made from simultaneous sightings, individual recognition, and by drives where appropriate. Binoculars of 7x35 power and a 20x telescope were essential for observing the animals. Study Area Bardia: The Bardia area, about 2.6 km/?, is situated approximately 4 km north of the town of Gularia, in a bend of the old Babai River bed, near the village of Kaidi. A blackbuck protection guard post, operated by the Forest Department, is situated there. Standing water is found in the old River bed during most of the year, but dry areas appear in many places during the hot season of March to June. The area is mostly margi- nal agricultural land and grazing land border- ed on three sides by the old river bed and on the other side by scrub jungle. The agricultural land consists of a patch- work of fallow and cultivated fields, the major crops being corn (Zea mays), wheat (Triti- cum aestivum), rahar dal, mas dal (Lens escu- lenta), musoori dal (Phaseolus mungo), mus- tard (Brassica campestris or B. junceae), and peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). Rice (Oryza BLACKBUCK IN NEPAL sativa) is not a major crop as the soil is sandy and porous. Rahar dal is the major and most conspicuous crop because of its height (up to 2 m), dense growth, and persistence throughout the year. Vegetation on fallow fields varies with the intensity of the livestock grazing regime, which is determined by the size of the area and the earness of standing crops that may be dam- aged by livestock. Short-cropped dub grass (Cynodon dactylon), and the forbs chamcham (Cassia tora) and ganja (Cannabis sativa) form an herbaceous layer in large (greater than 1 ha), agriculturally unproductive, heavily grazed fields. Ber (Zizyphus mauriteous), a thorny shrub, is dense in heavily grazed areas with relatively little past cultivation. The small (less than 1 ha) fallow fields are generally more productive and less heavily grazed than the larger fields, and are inter- spersed in a patchwork fashion with standing crops. The following short graminoids domi- nate: Eragrostis coercta; Panicum spp. (2): Paspalum distichum; Eleusine indica; Setaria glauca; Thylactodenia aegyptum; Fimbristylis sp.: Cyperus sp.; Chrysopogon asciculatus; Saccharum munja; and Sporobolus diander (Dinerstein 1975). These graminoids, spared from grazing, form a thick mat under the rahar dal plants. In the jungle to the northeast, simal (Bom- bax malabaricum) dominates, but khair (Aca- cia catechu) and sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo) are also found. The understorey is dominated by dense clumps of ber with an herbaceous layer of chamcham and heavily grazed gras- ses. The canopy cover is rather open, but visi- bility is restricted in the understorey by ber. ' Banke: The Banke area is situated about 37 km southeast of Nepalganj, between the Rapti River and the Dudwa Range, near the villages of Jamuni and Bhaghawanpur. It is mostly open, cultivated land with a few scat- tered clumps of mango trees covering roughly 8 km’. The Rapti River makes a wide annual floodplain of sandy flats vegetated mainly by Tamarix indica and short annual graminoids. Floodplain areas subject to periodic flooding are partly covered with a tall grass, Vetiveria zyzanoides. Order parts of the area are used as transient grazing and crop lands. Rice is practically the sole crop, with mus- tard, wheat, and various types of dal of limit- ed importance. During the hot season, the fields are not cultivated, but cattle graze on what little vegetation remains. The jungle along the base of the Dudwa Range has been heavily affected by grazing and woodcutting. The dense growth of thorny and unpalatabice shrubs, that dominates the first few hundred metres from the edge of the croplands, is the result of this disturbance. Beyond the first few hundred metres, the un- derstorey opens into small glades of 0.04-0.2 ha. These “‘dhoenias’’ are characterized by large dhoe trees (Lagerstroemia parviflora) with large clumps of ber, short grasses, and chamcham below. Dhoenias “are distributed patchily throughout the jungle up to the base of the hills. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Estimates Bardia: In the Bardia area, 11 blackbuck were sighted by myself or forest guards (3 adult males, 1 two-year-old male, 1 yearling male, 3 adult females, 1 yearling female, and 2 fawns). Banke: Estimating the number of black- buck in the Banke area was difficult because of unharvested rice in the agricultural areas 445 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 during 1976. In addition, the nocturnal be- havior of the animals hindered observations in 1977. Simultaneous sightings of 5 females (3 adults and 2 yearlings), and 1 adult male were made by myself and villagers during 1977. Other villagers reported seeing, at dif- ferent times, 2 groups of 6-7 blackbuck, with 1-2 adult males in each group. Whether these groups represent different animals is difficult to say: I observed females ranging widely throughout the area. From the above information, a minimum of 7 blackbuck used the Banke area. Wegge and Wilson (1976) only saw 2 blackbuck, but they concluded from local interviews that 15-20 biackbuck used the area during 1976. Villagers confirmed this estimate, but said that black- buck were extremely scarce in 1977, and they could not give an estimate of blackbuck num- bers. Some villagers speculated that the 1976 monsoon flooding of the Rapti River had driven the animals to India, 1.5 km to the south. Daily Activities Bardia: The blackbuck in Bardia, being less disturbed than those in Banke, were more easily observed. The 4 bachelor males were usually seen feeding and interacting in open pastures and fields outside the dominant male’s territory, during evenings and early mornings. Toward midmorning, when farmers and cattle became active, the bachelor males moved to cultivated areas where cover, in the form of rahar dal and corn, was better. Similarly, the main group (the dominant male, 2 adult females and their fawns, and the yearling female) was seen feeding in large fields (greater than 1 ha) during the evenings and early mornings, when human disturbance was least. During the day, the group stayed 446 in an open, about 0.5 ha, fallow field feeding, interacting, and resting. Upon being disturbed, they would escape to the dense rahar fields that surrounded the open field on 3. sides; 15-30 minutes after the disturbance ended, the group would come into the open, usually the dominant male first, and remain until disturb- ed again. Banke: Because of the limited number of observations on Banke blackbuck, little is known about their daily habits. The 4 females were observed 4 times in the fallow fields near the forest edge before sunrise. Twice they were seen travelling across the open fields from the direction of the Rapti floodplain, some 2 km distant. Immediately after sunrise, the females moved into the scrub jungle, where they pre- sumably stayed all day to avoid contact with farmers, hunters, and cattle. Apparently, after nightfall they returned to the fields to feed. Breeding Season Bardia: On 20 October, in Bardia, 1 of 2 adult females appeared to be pregnant. On 23 October, a new fawn was seen with the group, probably having been born to this female a day or 2 before. On 26 October, a second 1-2 day old fawn was seen with the group. Three instances of rutting behavior, such as nose-up display (nose up and horns parallel with the back), chasing, and attempted mount- ing were observed in October. The 2 females that were courted had just given birth and were not receptive to the male’s approaches. Copulation was not observed. Banke: Villagers in Banke said that fawns were born in February and March. A villager raised a male blackbuck that was found as a newborn in February. Although males are sexually active at all BLACKBUCK times of the year (Schaller 1967), rutting peaks are caused by the availability of estrous females, which is influenced by fawning peaks; these peaks, in turn, are influenced by seasonal changes in environmental conditions that in- fluence fawn mortality (Mungall 1978). Mun- gall stated that females are polyestrous throughout the year until bred; thus, in the absence of environmental extremes, fawning, and therefore breeding, occurs throughout the year. Records of 125 blackbuck born in the Lon- don zoo (Jarvis and Morris 1962, cited in Schaller 1967) indicate no birth peaks. Schaller (1967), working with wild Indian blackbuck in Kanha Park, reported that | fawn was born during September, and 12 were born between February and April. Conversely, at Sikandra, near Agra, he noted that 16 fawns were born between August and September, and only 3 were born in February. Some births were noted at all times of the year. With a 5-6 month gestation period (Brown 1936, Asdell 1946, and Mungall 1978), the fawns in Bardia were conceived during late April. This agrees with Schaller’s (1967) data for Sikandra; but, for Kanha, he reported a minor peak in April, and a more intense peak from August to October. Lydekker (1924), Asdell (1946), and Prater (1948) reported the main rutting season as February and March. By looking at seasonal environmental chan- ges occurring in Nepal and northern India, one can discern some advantages of the Feb- ruary to April rutting peak observed in this study, and predominantly reported in the lite- rature. A female is bred in March, and early gestation, the least energy demanding period of gestation (Moen 1973), proceeds during the hot dry season when forage quality is low and heat stress is high. Precipitation increases IN NEPAL with the approach of the monsoon rains in June, causing a flush of new vegetation at the same time as energy demands of gestation be- come greatest. Good conditions prevail through- out the monsoon, which ends by the end of September. Fawns are born in October and mature during the mild winter season when abundant, nutritious forage is available to the lactating mother. Breeding and fawning during other times of the year would appear disadvantageous, with respect to availability of nutritious for- age and favourable climatic conditions, for late gestation, lactation, and_ post-lactation fawn survival. Nevertheless, Schaller (1967), for Kanha Park, reported a higher fawning peak from February to March, than for August to October, while some births occurred throughout the year. Seasonal changes apparently do not strongly limit the breeding cycle of blackbuck, as they do with ungulates in more extreme north tem- perate climates. Indeed, Schaller proposed the same hypothesis, and noted that sexual cycles of other Indian ungulates, such as chital (Axis axis) and barasingha (Cervus duvau- celi), varied from area to area, seemingly in response to local environmental conditions. Territoriality Bardia: Of the 3 adult males, only | had established a territory. Another adult male, a 2-year-old, and a yearling formed a bache- lor herd that roamed the area along the peri- phery of the territory. Forest Department guards said that the third adult male ranged widely throughout the area with an adult female. The other 3 females and the 2 fawns were not observed outside the territory of the dominant male. Mungall (1978) reported that females, in 447 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Texas, iravel a daily circuit, with a maie at- tending them as they pass through his territory. Schaller (1967), working in India, found that does stayed with a territorial buck from Feb- ruary to November; during December and January, the breeding groups disbanded, and the blackbuck congregated in mixed groups. He noted, though, that the 2 breeding groups in Kanha Park stayed intact during the entire year. He hypothesized that variations in the pattern of social behavior may occur with small populations: in the absence of conti- guous territories and competition for does, breeding groups may remain intact for longer periods. Apparently, that is the case for Bar- dia blackbuck; low numbers of animals and restricted range of movement has resulted in a stable breeding group. The dominant male marked his territory by snifling, pawing, urinating, and defecating at established dung piles. He also marked bushes and tall forbs with scent from his pre- orbital glands, and thrashed small bushes with his horns. The territory covered 36-40 ha; about 10 ha were planted with rahar dal, the rest was mainly pasture with some fields plant- ed with mas dal. On 2 occasions, the dominant male was seen chasing other males from his territory. Once, the 2-year-old and the yearling of the bachelor group were feeding in the dominant male’s territory; the dominant buck approach- ed them through the cover of a rahar dal field and, after entering the open, immediately be- gan chasing the yearling at full speed. The chase lasted approximately 5 minutes and covered about 1 km, ending in the bachelor males’ area. The 2-year-old trotted back to the same area. The second time, the yearling was feeding with the females in the dominant male’s territory; the dominant male again 448 approached through a dal field and gave chase in the manner described above. No territorial challenges were observed. The dominant male was seen several times with the bachelor group during early mornings. Once, he sparred with the adult bachelor male for approximately 2 minutes; after sparring, the dominant male stotted a short distance and trotted back to his territory. The bachelor males continued to spar intermittently for about 15 minutes, a third male often attempt- ing to mount one of the sparring males. Banke: Since I did not see any males in Banke, little can be said of their social be- havior. Probably, normal patterns of social behavior are severely disrupted because of low numbers of blackbuck and the high degree of disturbance there. Food Habits Blackbuck in both areas depended heavily on agricultural crops for food. Villagers re- ported that blackbuck ate rice, mas dal, wheat, and mustard. Table 1 shows the main crops found in the blackbuck areas and their sea- sonal availability as food items. Schaller (1967) reported that short grasses, such as Chrysopogon, Paspalum, and Sporo- bolus, composed the bulk of the diet, in Kanha Park. Young shoots of tall grasses, Themeda and Vetiveria, were eaten after burn- ing. He noted that blackbuck were frequently associated with agricultural areas. Habitat dis- placement was a major reason for this be- havior; nevertheless, blackbuck probably favored those areas because of the short gra- minoids associated with early successional stages resulting from heavy livestock grazing and agriculture. Preference for early successional stages is an important consideration for blackbuck BLACKBUCK IN NEPAL TABLE 1 MAIN CROPS OF THE BLACKBUCK AREAS AND THEIR SEASONAL AVAILABILITY AS FOOD ITEMS Oct Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Nov Dec Rice x x x x > x Corn x x x Wheat x ms x x x Mas dal x x Xx x Rahar dal >a x < x x x x x x Musoori dal x x Xx Mustard SZ x Xx Peanuts x x x habitat management. According to Puri ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (1960), in northern India _ short-grass types are maintained by heavy grazing and periodic fires. In the absence of grazing, large un- broken stands of Jmperata cylindrica, a rela- tively unpalatable 0.5-1 m high grass, deve- lop and are maintained by periodic fires. Where edaphic conditions are not /imiting, eli- minating fire leads to grasslands dominated by tall grasses (2-3 m), such as Phragmites and Saccharum. Succession can be reversed to favor short grasses by burning and mechani- cally breaking Jmperata stands, making the area more suitable for grazing animals such as blackbuck. Thanks are due to officers of HMG Nationai Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office for their support of the study. Special recognition is due Mr. P. B. S. Pradhan, Mr. H. Mishra, Mr. R. B. Bista, and Mr. K. M. Shrestha. I am also grateful to Mr. O. P. Rungta and to Mr. B. L. Das, officers of HMG Forest De- partment, for their assistance in facilitating the field work. Special thanks to Dr. B. W. O’Gara, Leader of the Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, for editing the manu- script. REFERENCES ASDELL, S. (1946): Patterns of Mammalian Re- production. Ithaca, New York. Brown, C. (1936): Rearing wild animals in cap- tivity, and gestation periods. J. Mammal. 17: 10-13. DINERSTEIN, E. (1975): A second status report on Nepal’s most endangered species, the blackbuck of Bardia. National Parks and Wildlife Conserva- tion Office, Kathmandu. Mimeo report, 2 pp. JARVIS, C. AND Morris, D. (eds). (1962): The international zoo yearbook. Vol. III. London. LYDEKKER, R. (1924): The Game Animals of India, Burma, Malaya, and Tibet. London. Moen, A. N. (1973): Wildlife Ecology: An Analytical Approach. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. MUNGALL, E. C. (1978): The Indian blackbuck antelope: a Texas view. Kleberg Studies in Natural Resources, No. 3, 184 pp. PRATER, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Ani- mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Puri, G. S. (1960): Indian Forest Ecology. Ox- ford Book and Stationary Co., New Delhi. SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger: A Study of Wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. WEGGE, P. AND WILSON, P. (1976): The black- buck of Banke district. National Parks and Wild- life Conservation Office, Kathmandu. Mimeo report, 5 pp. 449 MATERIALS FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR" P. V. BoLe? AND M. R. ALMEIDA? Mahabaleshwar is the most popular _hill- station of Maharashtra and sometimes refer- red to as the queen of the Western Ghats. It is situated at about 17° 56’N. latitude and 73° 40’E. longitude, at an altitude of 1300 metre. It receives 690 cm average rainfall and more than 95% of it is restricted to four months of the year, June to September. While the maximum temperature hardly ever touches 32°C, the minimum is seldom below 13°C. The meteorological and other ecological data pertaining to the hill-station is proposed to be given in the form of an appendix in the last instalment of this contribution. There have been several contributions to the floristics of Mahabaleshwar but a comprehen- sive study of flora still remains to be provid- ed. Therefore in this work we intend to fur- nish an up-to-date list of flowering plants. Our studies are based on collections by the late Rey. Fr. H. Santapau and of the senior author who has spent more than ten years in the study of the flora of this area. We invite corrections, deletions or additions to the information provided here which will be gratefully acknowledged if and when the FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR is published in book form. The materials on which these observations 1 Accepted April 1980. 2 Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bom- bay-400 001. 3 Present address: Alchemie Research Centre Pvt. Ltd. Thane-Belapur Road, P.O. Box 155, Thane 400 601, Maharashtra. 450 are based, are preserved in the Blatter Her- barium, except in the cases where it is stated otherwise. We list below the publications which we have referred very frequently. Other references are cited as per standard practice in the text wherever necessary. Birpwoop, H. M. (1886): A Catalogue of the Flora of Matheran, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 1: 203-214. — (1887): A Catalogue of the Flora of Mahabaleshwar and Matheran, ibid. 2: 107-132. (1896): A Catalogue of the Flora of Matheran and Mahabaleshwar, ibid. /0: 394-439. (1897): Flora of Matheran (Rev. Ed.) (Bombay). BLATTER, E. AND BLATTER, E. & MCCANN, C. (1926-1932): Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency, (22 parts). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. vols. 31-36. Cooke, T. (1885): List of the principal Mahabaleshwar plants, Appendix-A, in Bom- bay Gazetteer, vol. 19 (Satara): 647-652. (1887): Note on the Flora of Mahabaleshwar and Matheran, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 2: 133-140. (1896): Supplementary note on the Flora of Matheran and Mahabaleshwar, ibid. 7/0: 440-448. (1901-1908): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vols. I-II. (London) (Reprinted ed. vols. I-III, Calcutta, 1958). A Catalogue of the and Mahabaleshwar. FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR DALZELL, N. A. & Gipson, A. (1861): The Bombay Flora...together with a supplement of introduced species. (Bombay). GRAHAM, J. (1839): A Catalogue of the Plants growing in Bombay and its Vicinity. (Bombay). Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): tish India (FBI), vols. I-VU. Leg, H. H. (1885): List of Plants of Maha- baleshwar, Appendix-A, in Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 19 (Satara), 625-646. Hissoa, J. C. (1883): List of the Plants seen at Mahabaleshwar at the end of the last hot season, in J. Royal Asiat. Soc. (Bombay) 15: 203-224. MarkKHAM, C. R. (1862): Travels in Peru and India. (London). Flora of Bri- NairRNE, A. K. (1894): The Flowering Plants of Western India. (London and Bom- bay). Puri, G. S. & MaAnasan, S. D. (1960): The Study of the evergreen vegetation of Mahaba- leshwar area. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 2 (1 & 2): 109-137. SANTAPAU, H. (1953): Excursion Botanica a Mahabaleshwar, in Anales Del, 1. Botanico, A. J. Cavanilles 1 (11): 281-317. — (1962): The Botanical Explora- tion of Mahabaleshwar. Proc. Summer School of Bot.: 395-400. (1967): The Flora of Khandala on the Western Ghats of India, (3rd Ed.) (Delhi). TaLpotT, W. A. (1909-1911): Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency. vols. I-II. (Poona). VarTAK, V. D. (1962): Some imperfectly known Plants from Poona and Satara Districts, in J. Univ. Poona (Sci. & Tech.) 10: 5-12. (1970): Some Imperfectly known Plants from Poona and Satara Districts—Part II. ibid. 78: 77-98. WicuHT, R. (1840-1850): [lustrations of Indian Botany. vols. I-I (London). (1838-1858): Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, vols. I-VI. (Madras). WIGHT, R. & WaALKER-ARNOTT, G. A. (1834): Prodromus Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis. (London). Wooprow, G. M. (1897-1901): The Flora of Western India (8 parts). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. vols. 11-13. RANUNCULACEAE 1. Climbing shrubs, leaves opposite Clematis Clematis Linn. 1. Leaves glabrous except the young parts; flowers white or greenish white.............. 2 2. Flowers exceeding 2 cm in diameter...... ER rN eee ar eR Ree eee C. triloba 2. Flowers less than 2 cm in diameter....... 3 3. Connective of anthers not produced.... C. gouriana 3. Connective of anthers much produced... C. hedysarifolia 1. Leaves silky villous on both surfaces; flowers yellow C. wightiana 1. Clematis triloba Heyne ex Roth. Nov. Pl. 251, 1821; Dalz. & Gibs. 1; FBI 1: 3; Nairne; 6; Lisboa: 208; Cooke 1: 2(2); Talbot 1: 3. Included on the authority of Lisboa and Birdwood. However while discussing the occur- rence of this species at Mahabaleshwar with Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, he mentioned that he had seen it once on the slopes of Fitzgerald Ghat, but he could not collect a specimen in spite of his best efforts. No authentic speci- men from Mahabaleshwar is available. LOCAL NAMES. Morvel, Ranjai (Lisboa). 2. Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC. syst. 1: 451 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 138, 1818; Graham, 1; Dalz. & Gibs.: 1; FBI 1: Nairne: 5; Birdwood: 6; Cooke 1; 2(2); Puri & Mahajan; 119. Highly decorative plant when in flowers or fruits. Common on slopes of Fitzgerald Ghat and along the fringes of forests. 10-20 m long and sometimes reaching the canopy of the trees, especially at an altitude + 1000 m. Fitzgerald Ghat. FLOWERS. |November-December; December-March. LOCAL NAME. Morvel. FRUITS. 3. Clematis hedysarifolia DC. Syst. 1: 148, 1818; FBI. 1: 4; Birdwood: 6; Cooke i: 2(3); Talbot 1:1; A. S. Rao, in Bull. Bot.. Surv. India 6(1): 19-21, 1964; Santapau. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 6(1): 59-69, 1964. Found on slopes of Fitzgerald Ghat along with the preceding species but is not as com- mon. Flowers, when fresh, are white and rather attractive and fruits are very conspicuous and persistent. Often confused with preceding one but could be distinguished from it by its much produced connectives. However in the herba- rium this species could be easily separated as it has strongly reticulate veins and more co- riaceous texture in dried leaflets. Fitzgerald Ghat, Koyna Valley. LOCAL NAME. Bendrichi vel (Cooke). FLOWERS. October-November; FRUITS. No- vember-May. 4. Ciematis wightiana Wall. ex Wight et Arn. Prodr.: 2, 1834; Grahm; 1; Dalz. & Gibs.: 1: FBI 1: 5; Nairne: 5; Cooke: 648; Birdwood: 6; Cooke 1: 3(3); Talbot 1: 6; Puri & Maha- j 119; Santapau; 305. jan: This is the commonest species of Clematis confined to higher elevations. The entire plant 452 is generally covered with villous, shining, silky hairs. An ornamental climber worthy of in- troduction in tropical gardens. LOCAL NAME: Morvel. FLOWERS. November-January: FRUITS. De- cember-March. Thalictrum Linn. 1. Stipules oblong, membranaceous; achenes nar- row, voblongite. 15. tae T. dalzellii 1. Stipules fimbriate; achenes compressed ........ T. obovatum 1. Thalictrum dalzellii Hook. Ic. Pl. 9: t. 868, 1852; Dalz. & Gibs.: 2; Cooke 1; 4(4); VD, Varttak 77,8 G Known from Mahabaleshwar from only one collection by Mr Laxman (V. D. Vartak). FLOWERS. August. 2. Thalictrum obovatum Blatter, in J. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (N.S.) 26(1): 339- 40, 1930. A rare species, only known from type col- lection. According to Blatter it is allied to T. dalzellii Hook., from which it differs due to its consulcate stem, fimbriate stipules, broad- ly obovate and anguiculate sepals which are also shorter than stamens, flattened filaments and distinctly stipitate and compressed ovary. The type of this species (E. Blatter: P-26), collected half way between Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani is deposited in the Blatter Her- barium (BLAT). FLOWERS & FRUITS. July. DILLENIACEAE Dillenia Linn. 1. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb., Corom. 1: 21, t. 20, 1795; Birdwood: 6; 1897. Besides Birdwood’s report there is no other evidence to confirm the existence of this spe- cies at Mahabaleshwar. FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR MAGNOLIACEAE Michelia Linn. 1. Michelia champaka Linn., Sp. Pl. 537, 1753: FBI 1: 42; Lisboa: 208; Birdwood: 6: Nairne: 7; Cooke 1: 7(8). A cultivated ornamental tree. FLOWERS. May; FRUITS. May-August. LOCAL NAME. Champa, Sonchampa. ANNONACEAE Following four species have been reported by Lee and Birdwood but no specimens are avaiable in any herbarium. They have not been seen by any subsequent collectors. These species were in all probability observed at the foot of the hills on the way to Mahabalesh- war, but do not occur on the plateau. 1. Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.), Benth. et Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 1: 63-4, 1S72;Lee? 19: 1885. Uvaria narum Wall. ex W. & A., Prodr. 9, 1834; Birdwood: 6, 1897. 3. Uvaria lurida Hook. f. & Thomson, Flora Indica: 101, 1855; Birdwood: 6, 1897. 4. Sageraea laurifolia (Grah.) Blatter, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 294, 1930. Guatteria laurifolia Graham, Cat. 4, 1839. Bocagea dalzellii Hook. f. & Thoms. in FBI 1: 92, 1872; Birdwood: 6, 1897. w MENISPERMACEAE (Key based on male specimens) 1. Stamens connate; anthers in a terminal head or il 2; ATS MnO AE ee AD Rost RON Ce See Sh ee oe 2 2. Flowers stalked, solitary or in umbellate RCA CS peg ans ceuersge tv ccnsy Sesh pec cree at Stephania Zee PlOWers) iM “panicles ois ess eke ee 3 3. Calyx campanulate ............ Cyclea 3. Calyx of 4 spreading sepals 1. Stamens free 4. Leaves obtuse or subcordate; panicles + 30 =p ihe tee Cae cAI BORO ROE recon REE Tinospora 4. Leaves deeply cordate; panicles small...... em long ts EAn ie tits 3 altos bee Diploclisia (Key based on female specimens) 1. Style scar terminal Tinospora 1. Style scar basal 2. Inflorescence subtended by foliaceous cordate BEACtSH tics EE Ry nae Rod eae Cissampelos 2. Inflorescence not subtended by cordate bracts uatiasdecaceean eter Grabtey Cee age S oars see eee seus 3 3. Ovaries 3-many ............ Diploclisia 3 (Ovary: Solitary. “cc rqa entettereusc cers shee Ae 4 4. Flowers in panicles............ Cyclea 4. Flowers in umbels.......,.. Stephania Tinospora Miers. 1. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.), Merr. in Sun- yatsenia 1: 193, 1934. Tinospora malabarica (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thoms., Fl. Ind. 183, 1855; Dalz. & Gibs.: 5; FBI 1; Nairne; 10; Woodrow: 121; Cooke 1: 19(19); Talbot 1: 36; Blatter 34: 549; Santa- pau, 301. Compylus sinensis Lour., Fl. Cochinch.: 113, 1790. Menispermum malabaricum Lamk. Encycl. 4: 96, 1797. Cocculus malabaricus 1818; Graham: 4. Collected from Fitzgerald Ghat; it is a rare plant. Young stems become terete on drying. FLOWERS. November; FRUITS. January (Woodrow). DG... syst... le Sis; Cissampelos Linn. 1. Cissampelos pareira Linn., Sp. Pl: 1031, 1753; FBI 1: 103; Nairne: 11; Woodrow 11: 121; Cooke 1: 22(24); Blatter 31: 555: Santa- pau: 4. a This species is known from only one collec- tion from Mahabaleshwar. 453 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, FLOWERS. May-September; FRUITS. August- October. LOCAL NAME. Pahad vel. LOCAL USES. Roots are considered of medi- cinal value. Cyclea Arn. 1. Cyclea peltata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thom- son, Fl. Indica; 201, 1855; FBI 1: 104; Cooke, T. 1: 24(25); Birdwood: 6; Puri & Mahajan: 119. Menispermum peltatum Lamk. Encycl. 4: 96, 1797. Frequently seen along the Fitzgerald Ghat. FLOWERS. Throughout the year; FRUITS. March-April. LOCAL NAME. Padal. Stephania Lour. japonica (Thunb.) Miers, in 14, 1866; Blatter 1. Stephania Ann. nat. Hist. ser. 3, 18: 31: 555; Santapau: 4. S. hernandifolia (Willd.) Walp., Repert. 1: 96, 1842; FBI 1: 103 (p.p.); Cooke, T. 1: 22 (23); Puri & Mahajan: 119; Santapau: 301. Clypea hernandifolia Wt. & Arn., Prod.: 14, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 939. A quite common climber among the bushes mostly in shady places. Tiger’s Path, Ling- mala, Chinaman’s falls, Kate’s point, etc. FLOWERS. July-August; FRUITS. September- December. LOCAL NAME. Tanvel. Diploclisia Miers 1. Diploclisia giaucescens (Blume) Diels, in Engl...Pfreich. 46: 225, t..-77, .1910;, Blatter 31: 551; Santapau: 301. Cocculus glaucescens Blume, Bijdr. 25, 1825. C. macrocarpus Wt. & Arn., Prod.: 13, 1834; Graham: 5; FBI 1: 101; Cooke 1: 20(22); Bird- wood: 6; Puri & Mahajan: 119. 454 Voli. Common in thick forest along Fitzgerald Ghat. Large liane over 30. m in length climb- ing over tallest trees. The glaucous green colour of the leaves and their distinctive round shape renders the plant quite conspi- cuous. The large pendulous racemes of ma- ture, white fruits is a unforgettable sight in the month of May. FLOWERS. February-April; August. LOCAL NAME. Waroli, Watan vel. LOCAL USES. Leaves used as beedi wrappers. Fruits are considered to be poisonous. FRUITS. May- NYMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea Linn. (Nom. cons.) 1. Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f., Fl. Ind.: 120, 1768; Santapau; 5. N. pubescens Willd. Sp. Pl. 2: ter 34: 294. N. rubra Roxb. ex Salisb., Parad. Lond. 1, subt. 14, 1805; Wight, Ills. t. 10; Graham; S. N. lotus Hook. f. & Thomson, FBI 1: 114, 1872 (non Linn. 1753); Cooke 1:25 (26). Some plants of this species are cultivated as ornamental plants in open tanks at Madhu- Kosh and Bhilar Estate. Red, white and blue flowered plants were seen. 1154, 1799; Blat- PAPAVERACEAE Argemone Linn. 1. Argemone mexicana Linn., Sp. Pl.: 508, 1753; Graham: 6; Dalz. & Gibs.: 6; Cooke: 699 & 1: 27 (29): Birdwood: 6; Puri & Maha- janes 119. A weed of waste lands and of cultivated fields. This yellow flowered Mexican Poppy dies quickly with the onset of monsoon. FLOWERS. April-May; FRUITS. April-May. LOCAL NAME. Piula Dhotra, Dharuri, Kante Dhotra. FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR BRASSICACEAE WePlantsxeslabrOus) 2.6 ia eecssno vdeo a soe as 2 2. Fruits less than 3-times as long as_ broad. SIT CUNT Me Ghar Bec Nees aie gs A catlosamoy sdsceyint tent ards aga 3 3. Fruits strongly compressed, flat ........ 4 4. Seeds 1-2 per fruit........ Coronopus 4. Seeds 4-many in each fruit... .Lepidium 3. Fruits not or scarcely compressed, ovoid, inflated or with crested valve.......... Meigs cotnat f tera e ta aubeh eats S Rorippa 2. Fruits 4-times or more as long as_ broad, SLL CU Une ats tt acd aii ee uihsit e-siaas he Sard 5 5, Fruit biarticulated, beaked or with a short. beak-like stvlar apex........... Brassica 5. Fruits neither jointed or beaked...... 6 6. Fruits straight, opening from below upwards; seeds one-seriate........... Sach as nee Cathet eer eee ea Cardamine 6. Fruits + curved. opening uniformly; seeds == 2- seriate Impiblants pilose or chairy..........0..0.0..60..0005 7 7. Hairs simple 8. Fruits generally less than 3-times as long as broad 9. Fruits ‘compressed }....:........). 10 (if not compressed then winged or didymous) 10. Fruits more or less winged, culti- vated plants Iberis 10. Fruits not winged or slightly wing- ed above; valves keeled Lepidium 9. Fruit not compressed, neither winged nor didymous Rorippa 8. Fruits 4-times or more as long as broad 11 11. Leaves simple, entire or dentate .... Ee a Rab SER ye te en I Ainae aa Brassica 11. Leaves pinnatifid or pinnatisect .. 12 12. Fruit dehiscent by valves..... 13 13. Petals yellow Sisymbrium 13. Petals white or pink....... Ree Na eee Cardamine 12. Fruits breaking transversely into SepmentSe eee Raphanus 7. Hairs branched or stellate, sometimes glandu- lar and intermixed Capsella Brassica Linn. 1. Racemes elongated, neither fleshy nor covered with leaves B. oleracea var. oleracea abbreviated, B. oleracea var. botrytis 1. Brassica oleracea Linn., Sp. Pl.: 667, 1753; var. capitata Linn., Sp. Pl.: 667, 1753. Cultivated vegetable crop grown in gardens. LOCAL NAME. Kobichi bhaji. 2. Brassica oleracea Linn. var. botrytis Linn., Sp. Pl.: 667, 1753. This is also a cultivated vegetable crop grown occasionally in farms. LOCAL NAME. Phul kobi. fleshy and 1. Racemes congested, — covered with leaves Capsella Medik 1. Capsella bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medik., Pflanzengatt 1: 85, 1792; Birdwood: 7: Cooke 1: 32 (34); Puri & Mahajan; 119. Thalaspi bursa-pastoris Linn., Sp. Pl.: 647, 1753. An introduced weed recorded from culti- vated fields. Cardamine Linn. 1. Cardamine hirsuta Linn., Sp. Pl.: 655, 1753. C. trichocarpa Hochst. cx Rich., Tent. Fl. Abys. 1: 18, 1847; Santapau: 7. C. subumbellata Hook. f. & Thomson. in FBI. 1: 138, 1872; Birdwood: 7; Cooke: 649 & 1: 30 (32); Puri & Mahajan: 119. Common and abundant weed along road- sides and among the cultivated plants: Coronopus J. G. Zinn 1. Coronepus didymus (Linn.) Smith, Fi. Brit. 2: 691, 1804. Sinha Lepidium didymum Linn., Mantissa 1: 92, 1767. A weed in wastelands in town and near Lod- wick point. 455 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Tberis Linn. 1. Iberis amara Linn., Sp. Pl.: 649, 1753. Collected only once at Yenna lakeside. Lepidium Linn. 1. Lepidium sativum Linn., Sp. Pi.: 644, 1753; Cooke, T: 1: 29 (37). Rarely cultivated in farms at Mahabalesh- war. LOCAL NAME. Aliv. R.Br. 1. Nasturtium officinale R.Br. in Aiton, Hort. Kew., ed 2, 4: 110, 1812; Birdwood: 7; Cooke: 649 & 1: 29 (31); Puri & Mahajan: 119. Sisymbrium nasturtium-aquaticum Linn., Sp. Plc 70571753: Rorippa —— nasturtium-aquaticum (Linn.) Hayek, Sched FI. Styr. Exs.: 22, 1905. Lingmala, Mahabaleshwar. An introduced cultivated plant found grow- ing wild, near water-courses. Nasturtium CLEOMACEAE Cleome Linn. 1. Cleome speciosissima Lindl., in Bot. Reg.: 1312, 1836; Dalz. & Gibs. suppl.: 5; Lisboa: 209. A native species of Mexico, commonly cul- tivated in gardens. Often runs wild. Reported by Lisboa. FLOWERS. April-May. CAPPARACEAE Capparis Linn. 1. Flowers in corymbose inflorescence aU Gudertnal cat Werth eps soparineneRonst Ra eRatOren C. rotundifolia 1. Flowers axillary, solitary or in umbels ........ 2 2 spines “Straights een ements C. divaricata 2, spines hooked) shen aie) ete ee 3 456 C. spinosa C. tenera 3. Fruits ovoid or oblong 3. Fruits piseiform 1. Capparis rotundifolia Rottl. in Ges. Naturf. Fr. Nene Schr. 4: 185, 1809. Capparis longispina Hook. f. & Thomson, in FI. Brit. India 1: 176, 1872; Birdwood: 7; Talbot 1: 60; Blatter, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 906; Santapau: 291 & 399. C. pedunculosa var. longispina Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 1: 48 (51), 1901. C. pedunculosa (non Dalz. & Gibs. 1961) sensu; Birdwood: 7; Puri & Mahajan: 119. This is one of the commonest straggling spiny bushes at Mahabaleshwar. It resembles Scutia circumscisa in appearance, but can be differen- tiated by its green pendulous fruits on long stalks. Fitzgerald Ghat, falls, Tiger path. FLOWERS. March-May. FRUITS. May-June. LOCAL NAME. Kolisna. Lodwick point, Dhobi’s 2. Capparis divaricata Lam., Encycl. 1: 606, 1785; Wight, Icon. t. 889, 1844; FBI 1: 174: Lisboa: 208; Cooke 1: 45 (48). Capparis stylosa DC., Prod. 1: 246, 1824; Gra- ham: 8; Dalz. & Gibs.: 10; Blatter 31: 904. Included on the authority of Lisboa who re- ports it from the foot of Mahabaleshwar, bet- ween Bhima and Krishna rivers. FLOWERS. April-May. 3. Capparis spinosa Linn., Sp. Pl.: 503, 1753; Nairne: 17; Birdwood: 401; Woodrow: 11; Cooke 1: 44 (47); Talbot 1: 53; Blatter 31: 903. C. spinosa var. vulgaris Hook. f. & Thoms. in FBI 1: 173, 1872; Birdwood: 7. C. murrayana Graham, Cat. Bombay PIl.: 9, 1839; Wight. Icon. t. 379; Dalz. & Gibs.: 9. C. spinosa var. murrayana Lisboa in J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bombay 15: 209, 1883. A common plant along the banks of the lake and on sides of nullas in stony situations. Some- times it is seen growing on the walls of the bridges. Fitzgerald Ghat, Yenna lake. FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR FLOWERS. December. 4. Capparis tenera Dalz. in Hook., Kew J. Bot. 2: 41, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs.: 9; Lisboa: 209. Included on the authority of Lisboa. No spe- men available. FLACOURTIACEAE 1. Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr., Inter- pret. Rumph. Herb. Amb.: 377, 1917; Santa- pau in Fl. Khandala: 10. Gmelina indica Burm. f., Fl. Ind.: 132, t. 39, f. 5, 1768. F. inermis Graham, Cat. Bombay PIl.: 10, (non Roxb. 1820). F. ramontchi Lisboa in J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bom- bay, 15: 209, 1883. F. ramontchi L’Her. var. latifolia Wook. f. & Thomson, FBI 1: 193, 1872; Talbot 1: 77. F. latifolia Cooke in Fl. Pres. Bombay 1: 56, 1901; Blatter: 913; Santapau: 296; Puri & Mahajan: 119. This is one of the common forest com- ponents of Mahabaleshwar. Fruit is edible when ripe, but very strongly astringent when raw. Trees of this species very often found loaded with Loranthaceous parasites. LOCAL NAME. Tambat. FLOWERS. January-June; FRUITS. January- October. 1839 PITTOSPORACEAE 1. Pittosporum floribundum Wt. & Arn., Prod.: 154, 1834; Graham: 38; FBI 1: 199 (p.p.); Birdwood: 401; Cooke: 647 & 1: 58 (61); Talbot: 81; Puri & Mahajan: 119. P. nepaulense Blatter, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 302, 1930. A rare tree at Mahabaleshwar. Fitzgerald Ghat, Rotunda Ghat. LOCAL NAME. Yekandi. POLYGALACEAE 1. Polygaia persicariaefolia DC. Prod. 1: 326, 1824; FBI 1: 202; Cooke: 649 & 1: 63 (63); Blatter 34: 302; Chodat, Monogr. Polygal, pt. 2, 939le te /2/, th. 22-23, 1914: Birdwood: 7; Pari & Mahajan: 119. Common monsoon species in grassy patches at the edges of the forests. Rare at Mahabalesh- war. Lingmala. FLOWERS. October-November. CARYOPHYLLACEAE le Stipules scanlousiss. erate stato = Polycarpon Dro LIPUles! .O Xs a aus veh cation nn. Owen ds I ee deen anaes 2 2. Calyx gamosepalous; petals long clawed .... BUstata hanes mt Mtucuchonsie’ Wokelsl scidaa acute 4 atraieas Vaccaria 2. Calyx polysepalous, petals subsessile, not claw- ed or altogether absent Stellaria Stellaria Linn. 1. Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. Hist. Pl. Danph. 3: 615, 1789; FBI 1: 230; Birdwood: 7; Wood- row: 11; Cooke 1: 64 (68); Blatter; 304: Puri & Mahajan: 120. Alsine media Linn., Sp. Pl.: 272, 1753. Common chick-weed. Weed of cultivation and wastelands. FLOWERS & FRUITS. December. Polycarpon Linn. 1. Polycarpon prostratum (Forsk.) Aschers. et Schweinf. in Oster. Bot. Zeit. 39: 128, 1889; Santapau: 12. Alsine prostrata Forsk., Fl. Aeg.-Arab.: 207, 1775. P. indicum (Retz.) Merrill in Phil. J. Sci. Bot. 10: 302, 1905; Blatter 34: 304. P. loeflingiae Benth. & Hook. f., Gen. Pl. 1: 153, 1862; Cooke 1: 65 (69); Birdwood: 7; Puri & Mahajan: 120. A prostrate herb of wet places. When dry whole plant turns deep brick-red. Yenna lake, Lingmala, Dhobi’s falls, Bus stand, etc. FLOWERS. April-May; FRUITS. June. 457 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Vaccaria 1. Vaccaria pyramidata Medik., Phil. Bot. 1: 96, 1789; Santapau: 12. Saponaria vaccaria Linn., Sp. Pl.: 409, 1753; FBI 1: 217; Nairne: 22; Woodrow: 124; Cooke 1: 66 (66). Soapwort. Often cultivated in gardens. Estab- lished locally as an escape from gardens. LOCAL NAME. Sabni. FLOWERS. February-April; May. FRUITS. April- Dianthus Linn. 1. Dianthus caryophyllus Linn. Sp. Pl.: 410, 1753; Blatter: 304. Cultivated in gardens. LOCAL NAME. Pink carnation. FLOWERS. May-June. PORTULACACEAE 1. Portulaca oleracea Linn., Sp. Pl.: 445, 1753® FBI 1: 246; Birdwood: 401; Cooke 1: 72 (72) & 469; Puri & Mahajan: 120. The common Purslane. A prostrate succu- lent herb in yellow flowers. Rare in Mahabal- eshwar, in wastelands and fallow fields. FLOWERS & FRUITS. Dry seasons. CLUSIACEAE Lo Galyxaok 4 core Sesepalsoes-ee eee Garcinia 1. Calyx bursting open in two valves .... Mammea Garcinia Linn. 1. Garcinia indica (Du Petit-Thou.) Choiss. in DC., Prodr. 1: 561, 1823; Birdwood: 7. Brindonia indica Du Petit-Thouars in Dict. Sc. Nat. 5: 339, 1804. This species included here on the authority of Birdwood. 458 Mammea_ Linn. 1. Mammea suriga (Buch.-Ham.) Birdwood, Cat. Fl. Matheran & Mahableshwar: 7, 1897; Kosterm. in Comm. For. Res. Inst. Indonesia, Bogor 72: 23, f. 19, 1961; Santapau: 15. Calophyllum suriga Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 608, 1832; FBI 1: 276, 1874. Calysaccion longifolium Wight, Ill. 1: 130, 1840 and Icon. t. 1999. Included on the authority of Birdwood only. No specimen available. TERNSTROEMIACEAE Camellia Linn. 1. Camellia sinensis O. Kuntze. Erde; 500, 1881. Thea sinensis Linn., Sp. Pl.: 515, 1753; C. thea. Link., Enum. Hort. Berol. 2: 73. 1833; Lisboa U582209: The Tea plant was introduced for cultiva- tion at Mahabaleshwar about the middle of last century, but the project did not prove commercially sound. There are still some bushes growing on the slopes near Bhilar, about 10 km away from Mahabaleshwar on way to Panchgani. FLOWERS & FRUITS. December. LOCAL NAME: Chaha. MALVACEAE 1. Erect trees; flowers with accrescent involucre. BT ee ae rm es AS NA TI Bion. Kydia 1. Shrubs, undershrubs or herbs................ 2 2. Involucral “bracts absent?.495. ase 3. Flowers + 5 cm in diameter. showy; leaves cordate) oi.) 22! }. ea eeee Abutilon 3. Flowers = 2.5 cm in diameter; leaves not cordate «5... ..1.:.\Shy ae eee Sida 2. Involucral bracts present Sess eee 4 4. Calyx spathaceous. deciduous .......... Fab aR ep os gna ae A belmoschus FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR Kydia Rosch. 1. Kydia calycina Roxb., Pl. Cor. 3: 12, t 215, 1819; Graham: 20; FBI 1: 348, Birdwood; 8: @ooke-1: 94°(100); Talbot 1: 127, t. 78; Blatter 34: 629; Santapau: 16. This is a very rare tree on Mahabaleshwar plateau. However it is very common at lower elevations: Often cultivated along roadsides. Koyna valley. FLOWERS & FRUITS. August-December. Abutilon Linn. 1. Abutilon persicum (Burm. f.) Merrill, Philipp. J. sci. 19:. 364, 1921. Sida persica Burm. f., Fl. Ind.: 1768. A. polyandrum (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn., Prod.: 55, 1834; Graham, 15; FBI 1: 325; Nairne: 28; Bird- wood: 8; Cooke 1: 95 (101); Blatter 34: 629; Santapau: 17. Sida polyandra Roxb., Fl. Ind. 3: 173, 1832. A common shrub or undershrub found on grassy slopes, very conspicuous by its very prominent yellow or pale orange flowers. Often associated with Carvia callosa at the edges of the forests. Chinaman’s falls, Fitzgerald Ghat. LOCAL NAME. Madan. FLOWERS & FRUITS. November-January. 1485 th 47s, te 15 Sida Linn. WR @OCCHMaTIState, Gi e cisotn ih ei artca-e stared S. ee Coccimactite. not “aristate ..21 secs) ese anes 2 2. Pedicels jointed below middle S. orientalis 2. Pedicels jointed above middle............3 3) Pedicels: longer ithan: Jeaves..........:... Puig wath Sie Mets sys wary ds a Stentor S. cordata 3. Pedicels shorter than leaves......s S. acuta 1. Sida acuta Burm. f., Fi. Ind.: 147, 1768; Cooke 1: 93 (98); Blatter 34: 628; Puri & Mahajan: 120; Santapau: 15. S. carpinifolia Linn. f. suppl.: 126, 1781; Fer 1: 323; Birdwood: 8; Cooke: 648. There is only one specimen of this species from Mahabaleshwar. This specimen is slightly hairy on the under surface of lamina. 2. Sida rhombifolia Linn. Sp. Pl: 684, 1753. Sida orientalis Cav., Diss. 1: 21, t. 12, f. 1, 1791. S. rhombifolia var. rhomboidea Masters in FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 324, 1874; Santapau: 16. S. rhombifolia forma rhomboidea Blatter. J. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 629. 1930. Occasionally found in open situations on loose, red soil. Tap root is very long. Lodwick point. Chinaman’s falls. FLOWERS & FRUITS. September-January. 3. Sida spinosa Linn., Sp. Pl.: 683, 1753; Lis- boa: 209; Cooke 1: 92 (98); Blatter 34: 628. S. alba Linn., Sp. Pl., ed. 2: 960, 1763; Dalz. & Gibs:2), 17: Included here on the authority of Lisboa. 4. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borssum, Blumea 14: 182, 1966. Melochia cordata Burm. f.. Fl. Ind.: 143, 1768. S. veronicifolia Lam., Encycl. 1: 5, 1763; Puri & Mahajan: 120. Included on the authority of Puri and Maha- jan. Hibiscus Linn. |. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn., Sp. Pi.: 694, 1753; Graham: 13; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl.: 6: Cooke 1: 113 (120); Blatter 34: 634; Santa- pau: 18: Puri & Mahajan: 120. Cultivated shrub which is grown for its or- namental flowers, used for decoration as well as for worship. LOCAL NAME. Jasvant. FLOWERS. Throughout the year. 2. Hibiscus hirtus Linn., Sp. PL: Cooke, 2: 106 (113). A rare plant at Mahabaleshwar only known from one collection by Rev. R. D. Acland from Chakdeo. 694, 1753: 459 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 Abelmoschus Medik. 1. Abelmoschus manihot (Linn.) Malv. Fam. 46, 1787; Santapau: 18. Hibiscus manihot Linn. Sp. Pl. 696, 1753. A. tetraphyllus Graham, Cat.: 14, 1839. H. tetraphyllus Roxb., Fl. Ind. 3: 211, 1832; Fs1., 1: 341; Cooke 1: 111 (118); Talbot 1: 123, t. 74. Occasional but conspicuous species due to its large yellow flowers found on the grassy hill-slopes, during monsoon as well as _post- monsoon periods. LOCAL NAME. Ran bhendi. FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-November. Medik. Malva Linn. 1. Malva sylvestvis Sp. Pl.: 689, 1753. Malva mauritiana Linn. Sp. Pl.: 689, 1753. A cultivated ornamental plant occasionally seen in gardens. Azanza Alef. 1. Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef. in Bot. Zait. 19: 298, 1861; Santapau: 19. Hibiscus lampas Cay. Diss. 3: 154, t. 1787; Graham: 13; Wight. Icon. t. 5. Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay 56, f. 2, Fl.: 19, 1861; FBI 1: 345, Talbot 1: 124, t. 75; Nairne 32. T. macrophylla Blume, Bijdr. 73, 1825; Cooke. 1: 114(121). A common monsoon shrub on_ sloping grounds among the grasses. The bark of this plant used by natives for cordage. LOCAL NAME: Ran bhendi. FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-November. BOMBACACEAE 1. Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endli- cher, Melet. Bot. 35, 1832; Saldanha & Nicol- son, FI., Hassan Dist.: 145, 1976. 460 479, 1824; Birdwood: 8; Bombax malabaricum DC. Prodr. 1: Beddome, Fl. Sylv. t. 82, 1871; Cooke. 1: 120 (127). There is one tree of this species near 56th milestone on Kelghar Ghat on Satara Road. LOCAL NAME: Semul, Savar. STERCULIACEAE 1. Flowers unisexual, petals 0............ Sterculia 1. Flowers hermophrodite, petals present........ 2} 2. Fruits spirally twisted; seeds not winged.... Helicteres seeds winged Pterospermum 2. Fruits not spirally twisted; Sterculia Linn. 1. Sterculia foetida Linn. Sp. Pl.: 1008, 1753; Graham: 18; Dalz. & Gibs. suppl. 10; Wight, Icon. t. 181; FBI 1; 354; Cooke 1: 130 (130); Blatter 34: 878. A tall tree, shady in hot season. Flowers with strong and disagreeable odour. Only seen in cultivation near Bhilar. Seeds are eaten locally. LOCAL NAME: Jungli badam. FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-May. Helicteres Linn. 1. Helicteres isora Linn. Sp. Pl.: 963, 1753; Graham: 16; Dalz. & Gibs. 22: Wight, Icon. t. 180; Nairne: 35; Birdwood: 403; Woodrow 12: 129; Cooke 1: 138 (136); Talbot 1: 146, t. 89; Blatter 34: 897; Santapau: 22. A shrub with bright red flowers and twisted fruits. Colour of the flowers gradually changes to pale lead colour. Common in undergrowth on Fitzgerald Ghat and in the Koyna Valley. LOCAL NAME: Murad sheng. FLOWERS: July-Septmber; FRUITS: Decem- ber-March. LOCAL USE: Used in children’s medicine. FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR Pterospermum Schreb. 1. Pterespermum acerifolium Willd. Sp. PI. 3: 729, 1800; Graham: 20; FBI 1: 368; Cooke 1: 137 (137); Talbot 1: 149; Blatter 34: 880. Found in gardens in cultivation. LOCAL NAME: Kanak champa. Friolaena DC. 1. Ericlaena candoliei Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rare. 1: 51, t. 64, 1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 24: FBI 1: 370" Cooke 1° 131 (140); Talbot 1: 151, tt. 92-93; Lisboa: 209. Included on the authority of J. C. Lisboa. LOCAL NAME: Bothi. FLOWERS: April-May. ELAEOCARPACEAE 1. Drupe Btceiledteni Aes. fu E. sphaericus Pee rupemni-se celled ctw cs est ces eens 2 2. Drupe oblong, falcate............ E. serratus 2. Drupe ovoid, straight.......... E. tectorius 1. Elaeocarpus serratus Linn., Sp. Pl.: 515, 1753; Puri & Mahajan: 120. Puri and Mahajan reported this species from Lingmala. 2. Elaescarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) Schum., in Engl. & Prantl. Pfam. 3(6): 5, 1895; San- tapau: 27. Ganitrus sphaerica Gaertn., Fruct 2: 271, t. 139, 1701; Wight, Icon. t. 66, 1838. E. ganitrus Roxb., Fl. Ind. 1: 400, 1832; Graham: 22; Dalz. & Gibs.: 27; FBI I: 400; Cooke 1: 151 (160); Talbot 1: 170, t. 105; Lisboa; 209. Included on the authority of Lisboa. FLOWERS: Cold season (Lisboa). 3. Elaeocarpus tectorius (Lour.) Poiret in Lam. Encycl. suppl. 2: 704, 1812; Saldanha, Fl. Hassan: 131. Craspedum tectorium Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 336, 1790. E. oblongus auct. (non Gaertn. 1788), Graham, Cat. Bombay: 21, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs.: 27; FBI 1: 403; Cooke 1: 138 (161); Talbot 1: 146, t. 89; Birdwood: 9; Puri & Mahajan: 120. There are a few trees of this species on Lingmala plateau and near Yenna Lake. It is a very beautiful tree when in flowers. LOCAL NAMES: Kasau, Kas, Kasso, Kasu. FLOWERS: March-June; FRUITS: March- November. TILIACEAE 1. Fruit unarmed 2. Inflorescence terminal; mesocarp of the fruit fIDTOUS HA, ee ee helene ehh eee. Microcos 2. Inflorescence axillary or extra-axillary; meso- Carpianote mibrous™ 22.2 e tees sae Grewia NEUES PTC KI Van 8 Seger ee rn epee vaits Bune cus e vs Sucks 3 3. Trees; fruits over 3 cm long....Erinocarpus 3. Herbs or undershrubs; fruits less than 1 cm LON Deere te tee tie wart ana: Triumfetta Microcos Linn. 1. Microcos paniculata Linn., Sp. Pi.: 514, 1753; Santapau, Fl. Saurashtra 1: 70. Grewia microcos Linn., Syst. (ed. 12): 602, 1767; Graham: 21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 26, Nairne: 38; Birdwood: 403 & 9; Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke 1: 145 (154); Talbot 1: 168; Blatter 34: 890; Pierre, Pl. Cochinch. t. 152; Puri & Mahajan; 120; Santapau; 309. Common tree on Fitzgerald Ghat, in Koyna Valley and Savitri Valley. The terminal in- florescence and fibrous mesocarp of the fruit are distinctive features of this species. LOCAL NAME: Shiral. FLOWERS: May-October; FRUITS: December. Grewia Linn. iL LeavesmolaDrouse amis cee cee ee 2 Qeeriruits4-lobedma. serie acre G. orientalis Da wePUits y2-LODEMH i 20052 aspects cls eae cnegs G. glabra Ie eaves tOmentOse ques... a ucsceei nici ater norte 3 Se ECAVESH OVALC mani nena ine een G. tilaefolia see eavesmlineat-ODlong see t ete mee 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 4. Leaves 4-5 ribbed; flowers white iA, RRP R RE ies tien sy, ay the 3-248 G. hirsuta 4. Leaves 3-ribbed; flowers yellow......... RATE ATE APLAL AS Acne ear aoa ey caret G. pilosa 1. Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl, Symb. Bot. 1: 35, 1790; Graham: 21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 26; FBI 1: 386; Birdwood; 9 & 403; Woodrow; 11; 130; Cooke 1: 141 (150); Talbot 1: 160; Blatter 34: 887. G. arborea Roxb. ex Roth. in in Neve Schr. Ges. Nat. Freund. 4: 205, 1803. Included on the authority of T. Cooke, who reports it from Koyna Valley. LOCAL NAME: Dhaman. FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-August. 2. Grewia orientalis Linn., Sp. Pl.: 964, 1753; Blatter 34: 886. G. columnaris Sm. in Rees, Cyclop.: 17: no. 5. 1811; Graham: .21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 26; FBI 1: 383; Nairne: 38; Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke 1: 138) aCli47) ize Dalbot s1:.0157. Included on the authority of Nairne. . Grewia glabra Blume, Bijdr.: 115, 1825. G. disperma Rottb. ex Spreng., Syst. 2: 579, 1825; Santapau: 24. G. laevigata auct. (non Vahl, 1790) FI. Br. India 1: 389, 1874; Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke 1: 143 (152); Talbot 1: 164, t. 101; Blatter 34: 888. A small tree along Fitzgerald Ghat with creamy white flowers. LOCAL NAME: Kaori. FLOWERS: August-December; FRUITS: October-February. 4. Grewia hirsuta Vahl, Symb. Bot. 1: 34, 1790; Graham; 21; FBI 1: 391; Nairne; 38; Woodrow: 130; Cooke 1: 144 (153); Talbot 1: 166; Blatter 34: 889. Reported here on the authority of Nairne. FLOWERS: August-September: FRUITS: November-January. w 5. Grewia pilosa Lamk., Encycl. 3: 43, 1789; Dalz. & Gibs.: FBI. 1: 388: Nairne: 38: Birdwood: 403: Woodrow 12: 130; Cooke 1: 26: 462 143 (151). G. flavescens Juss. in Ann. Mus. 4: 91, Blatter 34: 888. G. carpinifolia Masters, in Flora Brit. India 1: 1804; 387, 1874. Included here on the authority of Birdwood. LOCAL NAME: Khatkhati. FLOWERS: August-October. Erinocarpus Nimmo 1. Erinocarpus nimmonii Graham, Cat. Bom- bay Pl.: 21, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs:: 27; Bird- wood: 403; Woodrow 12: 265: Talbot 1: 168, t. 104-105; Blatter 34: 889; Santapau: 25; Puri & Mahajan: 120. E. nimmonianus Mast. in FBI 1: 394, 1874; Nairne: 38. This species is found in Koyna Valley be- low Mahabaleshwar plateau. LOCAL NAMES: Bher, Chaora. FLOWERS: August-September; FRUITS: October-July. Triumfetta Linn. J. Bristles of fruit == 710) mm see T. pilosa 1. Bristles of fruit == S/mmi S32 T. rhomboidea 1. Triumfetta pilosa Roth,, Nov. Pl. Sp.: 223, 1821; Dalz. & Gibs.: 25: FBI 1: 394; Nairne: 38; Birdwood: 9 & 403: Woodrow 11: 265; Cooke 1: 174 (156): Santapau: 30. T. cana Blume. Bijdr.: 113, 1825; FBI 1: 396. T. tomentosa Noronha ex Blatter. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 890, 1931. This is a rare species and has been collected only from Lingmala. LOCAL NAMES: WNichurdi, Kutree-Wandree. FLOWERS: November-December; FRUITS: February-March. 2. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq., Enum. PI. Carib.: 22, 1760; FBI 1: 395; Nairne: 38: Birdwood: 403: Woodrow 11: 262; Cooke 1: 147 (156). FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR T. bartramia Linn., Syst. (ed. 10): 1044, 1759 (nom. illeg.); Blatter 34: 890; Santapau: 30. T. angulata Lam., Encycl. 3: 421, 1789; Graham: 21; Dalz. & Gibs.: 25. Fairly common and abundant weed, often gregarious on the outskirts of the forests, in open situations. The plant appears in second half of the monsoon. LOCAL NAME: Nichurdi. FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-December. LINACEAE 1. Annual herbs 1. Shrubs Linum Linn. 1. Linum mysurense Heyne ex Benth. apud Lindl. in Bot. Reg. 16: sub tab. 1326, 1830; Graham: 33; Dalz. & Gibs.: 16; FBI 1: 411; Nairne: 40; Birdwood 9 & 11: 265; Cooke: 649 & 1: 155 (164); Blatter 34: 892; Santa- pau: 401; Puri & Mahajan: 120. A variable annual 3-30 cm tall, found on grassy hill-slopes. Fairly common all over. LOCAL NAMES: Undri, Bhamburti. FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-December. Reinwardtia Dumortt. 1. Reinwardtia Comm. Bot.: 19, 1822. R. trigyna (Roxb.) Planch. in Hook. London J. Bot. 7: 522, 1848; Dalz. & Gibs.: 16; FBI |: 412; Nairne: 40; Birdwood 9 & 403; Woodrow 11: 265: Cooke 1: 155 (165); Blatter 34: 89; Santapau: 299; Puri & Mahajan: 120. Linum trigonum Roxb. Asiat. Res. 6: (non Linn. 1753); Graham: 34. This species has been collected from Ling- mala, Fitzgerald Ghat, Chinaman’s falls and Koyna Valley. Sometimes it is found in culti- vation also. FLOWERS: August-January; indica Dumortier, 35i3 L799 FRUITS: October-January. MALPIGHIACEAE Hiptage Gaertn. |. Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz, in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 43(2): 136, 1874; Blatter 34: 893; Saniapau: 34. Benistera benghalensis Linn., Sp. Pl.: 437, 1753. H. medablota Gaettn., Fruct. 2: 169, t. 116, 1791; Graham: 28; FBI 1: 418; Birdwood: 404; Wood- row 11: 265; Cooke 1: 157 (167): Talbot 1: 178, t. 110. This species seen occasionally along the Fitzgerald Ghat only. LOCAL NAME: Madhavi vel. FLOWERS: January-March. FRUITS: March- May. OXALIDACEAE 1. Plants not bulbiferous; flowers yellow........ Z 2. Plants= not: hirsute)... 0.5.4. O. 2 lantsie MITSute savas eee O. corniculata corniculata var. hispida 1. Plants bulbiferous; flowers violet or pinkish- WINES Magee gon Nara A acca teot Ai rs AB eck ae ee 3) 3. Bulbs fibrous; flowers violet..... O. latifolia 3. Bulbs not fibrous; flowers pinkish-white.... Ee rae ava ee ects eatou adh oe shan aysaaeean onsen Mee pains O. rubra 1. Oxalis corniculata Linn. Sp. Pl: 435, 1753; Graham 35; Dalz. & Gibs.: 42; Lisboa: 210; Wight, Icon. t. 18; Nairne: 43; Bird- wood 9 & 404; Woodrow 11: 266; Cooke: 650 & 1: 167 (177); Blatter 34: 898. A quite frequent weed on moist ground in semi-shaded places. Collected from Lod- wick Point & Kelghar Ghat. LOCAL NAMES: Ambuti, Amrul. FLOWERS & FRUITS: January-August. 2. Oxaiis corniculata var. hispida Blatter in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34(4): 898, 1931. Only distinguishing character of this variety from the type variety is that the whole plant is villous. 463 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 3. Oxalis latifolia H.B.K., Nov. Gen. Sp. 5: 184, t. 567, 1821; Blatter 34: 898; Santapau: 3D. This Mexican species is found naturalized as a common weed of the cultivated fields. FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-December. 4. Oxalis rubra St. Hill, Fl. Bras. 1: 124; 1824; Bailey, 601, 1949. This species is very often found in cultiva- tion for its showy flowers, but wherever it grows in open fields it spreads very fast and 464 becomes a troublesome weed. Quite frequently it is seen along roadsides. FLOWERS: December-January. 5. Oxalis martiana Zucc. in Densksehr. Acad. Muench. 9: 144, 1823-4 (1824); Puri & Maha- jan: 120. O. corymbossa DC. Prodr. 1: 696, 1824. A rare species, only known from a single collection. (BSI). (To be continued) FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIELD ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN BATS* Y. P. SINHA? Although some information on general acti- vities, sex ratio, food, reproduction, fat depo- sition, winter lethargy etc. of some bats from Rajasthan and neighbouring areas are provid- ed by Brosset (1962 a, b, c,), Prakash (1963), Khajuria (1965, 1971, 1975), Agrawal (1967), Sinha (1976 a, b; 1977) and Sinha and Advani (1976), nevertheless there is a big lacuna in our knowledge of ecology of bats from these areas. During 1972-1976, I made extensive field surveys in Rajasthan and ecological data so obtained for 15 species have been checked with previous data and new findings are pre- sented below for each species. Family PTEROPODIDAE Rousettus leschenaulti leschenaulti (Desmarest) The Fulvous fruit bat was obtained from dark, deserted rooms of an old monument at Gagaron-ka-kila (10 km. east of Jhalawar, Rajasthan) in a forested area. The size of co- lony in the Gagaron-ka-kila was about 1,000 exs. It was noticed in association with Rhino- poma microphyllum kinneari in Jhalawar (Ra- jasthan). It was seen in the vicinity of bushes laden with ripe fruit at Jhalawar late in the night 1 Accepted November 1979. 2Gangetic Plains Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Patna-800016 (Bihar), India. and was captured in mist-net between mid night and 4 A.M. Many seeds of fruits were seen on the ground at its roosting place. Gut contents showed only brown thick liquid like substances from which it can be concluded that this bat takes only soft parts of fruits. Several ectoparasites, ticks, mites and wing- less fly (Nycteribidae, Diptera) were obtain- ed from the body. Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Briinnich) This large fruit bat was not seen in the ex- treme arid part of Rajasthan due to nonavail- ability of large trees and scarcity of water but is known to occur at Jodhpur (Prakash 1963) in a garden on Ficus tree near a big tank. It is common in humid parts of Rajasthan where large trees are available. Colonies (size 100- 1,000 exs.) on banyan (Ficus bengalensis), peepal (Ficus religiosa), tamarind (Tamarin- dus indica), neem (Azadirachata indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) were observed in various localities (viz. Pali, Jhunjhunu, Dun- garpur, Bundi, Ajmer, Banswara and Jhala- war) in semiarid and humid parts of Rajas- than. Further this bat was found always near or in towns and villages near human habitation. It was not found in deep forest nor in temples or old buildings as mentioned by Sanderson (1969) for some other species of Preropus. Some ectoparasites, wingless fly (Nycteri- biidae, Diptera), ticks and mites were obtain- ed. Cynopterus sphinx sphinx (Vahl) The short-nosed fruit bat was found active 465 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 in Banswara and Bundi (Rajasthan) imme- diately after dusk on guava trees in a garden. Gut contents had only remains of unidenti- fied material. Some wingless flies (Nycteribiidae, Diptera) were obtained from this bat. Family RHINOPOMATIDAE Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari Wroughton Besides the desert (Prakash 1963), this bat was obtained from various localities (Sinha 1980) in semiarid and humid parts of Rajas- than. The colony (size varying from 25-500 exs.) was found in somewhat dark and un- inhabited houses, temples, caverns and under ground man made tunnels. Besides previous records (Prakash 1963) this bat was also found in association with Hipposideros fulvus pallidus (in Mandore tunnel, and Bhim Bharak cave near Jodhpur and in Jhalara-Patan fort near Jhalawar) and with Rousettus |. leschenaulti (in Gagaron-ka- kila near Jhalawar) in Rajasthan. It was also observed in pure colonies in various localities in Rajasthan (namely Malarna Dungar, Sawai Madhopur Dist.; Maroth village, Nagaur Dist.; and Ransi village, Jodhpur Dist.). It seems that this bat is often captured by birds and mammals as it was seen in the beak of a kite and a crow in Maroth village (Nagaur Dist.) and being carried by a cat in Malarna Dungar (Sawai Madhopur Dist.). Several ectoparasites, e.g., wingless fly (Nyc- teribiidae, Diptera), bugs (Cimicidae), ticks and mites were collected from this bat. Large quantities of the guano of this bat is collected by the local people every year and used as fertiliser. According to local people the guano is a good fertiliser especially for 466 chilli and onion. Rhinopoma hardwickei hardwickei Gray Prakash (1963) collected this bat from dark portions of ruins and the man-made caverns in arid parts of Rajasthan. Further it was col- lected from dark portions of deserted houses, temples, caves and tunnels in various places in semiarid and humid parts of Rajasthan by me (Sinha 1980). In comparison with R. mic- crophyllum kinneari colonies of this bat were smaller, not exceeding 50. Besides association with Rhinolophus 1. le- pidus (mentioned by Prakash 1963) it was observed with R. microphyllum kinneari, Hip- posideros fulvus pallidus and Taphozous_ k. kachhensis in Bhim Bharak cave (Jodhpur), with Taphozous p. perforatus in a_ ruined house at Dungarpur, with Pipistrellus minus in a temple at Salawas and with R. m. kin- neari in Surpura (both in Jodhpur Dist.), Jha- lawar and Bundi. Fat deposition appears to coincide with breeding and winter conditions (Sinha 1976b). Some information on food and reproduc- tion of this species collected from Rajasthan have already been reported by Sinha and Ad- vani (1976). Ticks and dipteran fly (Nycteribiidae) were obtained from the body. Family EMBALLONURIDAE Taphozous perforatus perforatus Geoffroy Previously this bat was known only from arid parts of Rajasthan (Prakash 1963). I ob- served this bat in both arid and humid parts in deserted houses (Luni and Dungarpur) and under ground tunnel (Mandore). It is found in association with Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari (Prakash 1963). The size of colony was small (1-5 exs.) in Rajasthan. This bat was seen to be very active in roosting place ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN BATS even in day time and hence difficult to catch. Winged dipteran fly (Streblidae) was ob- tained from its body. Taphozous longimanus longimanus Hardwicke The haunt of this bat is quite different from other species. Sinha (1976a) found it in hol- lows and crevices of peepal and banyan trees in Rajasthan. Brosset (1962a) describes simi- lar habitat in Anand. The size of colony varies from 6-40 exs. It was as active during day time as T. perforatus and therefore very difficult to catch. It was never met in association with other bats. Brosset (1962a) also mentions that it does not tolerate other species. Observations on food and reproduction are recorded by Sinha and Advani (1976). Ticks, mites and bugs (Cimicidae) were found on this bat. Taphozous kachhensis kachhensis Dobson Like Rhinopoma_ microphyllum kinneari, this bat is common in Rajasthan. Prakash (1963) collected it only from Jodhpur. The present observation is based on the collections made from different localities by me (Sinha 1980) in arid as well as humid parts of Ra- jasthan. Its favourite habitats are cracks, cre- vices and holes in caves, old houses etc. Its colonies are usually small (4 to 5 exs.) but there are several such colonies in the same building. Brosset (1962a) and Prakash (1963) have not mentioned its association with other bats. I observed this species in association with Rhi- nopoma m. kinneari and Hipposideros fulvus pallidus in Mandore tunnel, Bhim Bharak cave and Jhalara-Patan fort in Rajasthan. Sinha and Advani (1976) found one fe- male in advanced stage of pregnancy in the last week of September. A female obtained in the last week of July (24.vii.1976, Bhim Bharak cave, Jodhpur) had a suckling young (forearm 53% of the mother; gular sac and pectoral pore well developed; body naked; head well furred; and eye open) in her arm. The female had the right horn of the uterus well swollen (width 5 mm) while the left horn had regressed (width 2 mm). A female collected in the last week of August (Jodh- pur, 29.viii.1976) had early pregnancy. Bros- set (1962 a) found pregnant females in June at Ahmedabad and towards end of August in Maharashtra. The present observation thus shows that this bat evidently breeds at least twice a year once in July-August and again in October. The female carrying a suckling young which had the right horn of the uterus swollen was obviously a case of post partum pregnancy as mentioned by Gopalakrishna (1955) in Taphozous longimanus. Bugs (Cimicidae) and mites were found as ectoparasites. Family © MEGADERMATIDAE Megaderma lyra lyra Geoffroy Previously this bat was obtained by Prakash (1963) only from the Mandore nulla and Jodhpur fort (Jodhpur Dist.). It was observ- ed and collected from a tunnel in the old mine (Nangal village, Jnunjhunu Dist.), a dark room in the Ranthambhore fort (Sawai Ma- dhopur Dist.) and Dara fort (Kota Dist.), dungeon (Banswara, Banswara Dist.) and Jha- lara Patan fort (Jhalawar Dist.). The colony size varies from 5-100 exs. When approached the bat sometimes flies towards the intruder. It often flies low, some- times touching the ground. In Nangal (Jhunjhunu Dist., Rajasthan) it was found in association with Rhinopoma m. Kinneari and R. h. hardwickei. Sexes may occur mixed or separately, and no regular sexual segregation was noted. 467 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 It harbours the winged fly (Streblidae, Dip- tera). Family RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus Blyth Prakash. (1963) observed this bat in small numbers in a pit under the ceiling of a cavern at Bikaner and in a well at Pilani in arid part of Rajasthan. It was observed by me hanging from ceiling of dark temples in forested area (Sikar Burz, Bundi Dist. and Ranthambhore, Sawai Madhopur Dist.). When approached it did not fly out of the room but flew very fast inside the room as earlier reported by Pra- kash (1963). Only solitary bats were seen and no colony was found. It has not been observ- ed in association with other bats either. Hipposideros fulvus pallidus Andersen Inhabits dark, abandoned rooms and tun- nels around Jodhpur (a basement in a crowd- ed suburb; a ruined building in a sparsely forested area; a rocky tunnel); also in an abandoned fort (Jhalara Patna). It is very active in day time, and flies away on human approach. The flight is slow, low and fluttering. It lives in small colonies not exceeding 25 exs. (generally 4-6), in which both sexes are found. At Jhalawar it was found in association with Megaderma I. lyra, Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari and R. h. hardwickei and in Jodhpur only with R. A. hardwickei. Sinha and Advani (1976) have given some information on food of this bat in Rajasthan. In July, at Jodhpur, a pair of infants were found, suggesting breeding in June. This is the sole information on breeding. [Brosset (1962b) who combined this species with H. bicolor recorded breeding of this ‘complex’ in April in Maharashtra]. 468 Family MOoLossIDAE Tadarida aegyptiaca thomasi Wroughton It was obtained from dark crevices and cracks in ceilings and walls and from narrow space between wall and notice board from va- rious places in Rajasthan, viz. Rajgadh fort (Ajmer Dist.) Kishorepura temple, Kota (Kota Dist.), Dungarpur Middle School (Dun- garpur Dist.), ruined houses in Bundi (Bundi Dist.) and Jodhpur court (Jodhpur Dist.). The size of colonies varies from 5-20 exs., sometimes solitary individuals are also found. Sinha and Advani (1976) have given some information on food and reproduction of this bat. Further, pregnant females collected in August in Jodhpur also support the birth of young in September as indicated by Sinha and Advani (loc. cit.) and Brosset (1962c). Bugs (Cimicidae), ticks and mites were found as ectoparasites. Pipistrellus mimus mimus Wroughton This bat was obtained from cracks, crevices and holes in walls and ceilings of temple and houses in Jodhpur and Salawas (Jodhpur Dist.). The colony size varies from 12-50 exs.; a solitary bat was found hiding in a crack in an old house in Tonk (Tonk Dist.). At Jodhpur, it starts flying in the evening about 20 minutes after sunset, and returns in the morning 15-20 minutes before sun rise. This bat and P. dormeri have been observed in Jodhpur in the same hunting territory ex- ploring among old houses and trees. Some information on food is given by Sinha and Advani (1976). At Jodhpur, females with two sucklings youngs were found in August suggesting birth in August in Rajasthan. Sinha (1970) has re- ported female with suckling young in Septem- ber from Calcutta. ECOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN BATS Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson) This bat was observed in holes, cracks and crevices in ceilings and walls of old houses and temples at Dungarpur, Banswara and Jodhpur in Rajasthan and in holes of banyan trees (Ficus bengalensis) at Sukal Tirath (Bha- roch Dist., Gujarat). At Jodhpur, in summar it starts leaving the roost just after Pipistrellus mimus mimus (about 20 minutes after sunset). It was very active in the hunting territory up to 90 mi- nutes after sunset and then disperses. It re- turns to the roost many times till it settles in finally before sunrise. It was not found in association with other bats but observed in Surat, Gujarat in the same building in which other bats wiz. Cynop- terus s. sphinx, Scotophilus h. heathi and T. k. kachhensis live in different corners. Madha- van (1978) observed this bat often in asso- ciation with other bats in Maharashtra. There is no sexual segregation and both sexes are found in the same colony. Pregnant females with one or two foetuses were found in July (early pregnancy) and September (advance pregnancy) in Jodhpur (Rajasthan). Madhavan (1978) mentions that this bat does not have sharply restricted breed- ing season but breeds throughout the year in Maharashtra. Bugs (Cimicidae), ticks and mites are found as ectoparasites. Scotophilus heathi heathi Horsfield This bat was obtained from cracks, crevi- ces and holes in walls and ceilings of build- ings from various localities in Rajasthan. At Sawai Madhopur it was also collected from a hole in banyan tree. The size of colony was generally not more than 10 exs. but in Ban- swara a colony of 25 exs. was seen. As mentioned by Brosset (1962 c), in Ra- jasthan (Bundi) also two females were found in a state of torpor in a big hole of a wall on a very cold day of December. Sexual segregation is not common, but in Bundi the two sexes were found in separate colonies. Some observations on food have already mentioned by Sinha and Advani (1976). Nothing is known about its breeding from Rajasthan. Ticks, mites and insects (Diptera: winged Streblidae and wingless Nycteribiidae; Hemip- tera: bugs of family Cimicidae) were collect- ed from this bat. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Prof. M. L. Roonwal for guidance and criticism and to Dr. T. N. Anan- thakrishnan, Director, Zoological Survey of India for facilities. REFERENCES AGRAWAL, V. C. (1967): New mammal records from Rajasthan. Labdev (J. Sci. Tech.),5: 342-344. BrosseT, A. (1962 a): The bats of central and western India. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 59: 1-57. (1962 b): The bats of central and western India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 59: 583-624. (1962 c): The bats of central and western India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 59: 707-746. GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1955): Observations on the breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian Sheath-tailed Bat. Taphozous longimanus (Hard- wicke). Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India, (B) 21: 41. KuasuriA, H. (1965): A novel method for the capture of the Indian Flying Fox (Pteropus g. gi- ganteus Briinnich) for meat, fur and control. Chee- 469 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, tal, 8: 37-39. (1971): On the habits of the Indian Flying Fox, Pteropus g. giganteus (Brinnich). Cheetal, 14: 37-39. (1975): Methods of suspension, crawling, swimming and defecation in Indian bats with remarks on possible causes of chiropteran head- down ward suspension. Dr. B. S. Chauhan. Comm. Vol., 99-105. Mapnavan, A. (1978): Breeding habits and asso- ciated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part V-Pi- pistrellus dormeri (Dobson)-Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 75: 426-433. PRAKASH, I. (1963): Taxonomic and _ biological observations on the bats of the Rajasthan desert. Rec. Indian Mus., 59 (1961): 149-170. SANDERSON, I. T. (1969): Living mammals of the world. Hamish Hamilton, London. 470 Vol. 77 SINHA, Y. P. (1970): Taxonomic notes on some Indian bats. Mammalia, 34: 81-92. (1976a): New record of the Indian Sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus, from Rajasthan with remarks on winter fat deposition in T. kachhensis. Sci. & Cult., 42: 169-170. — (1976b): Fat deposition in rat-tail- ed bats (Rhinopoma sp.) in Rajasthan, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73: 206. (1977): A new and a rare record of fruit bat (Pteropidae) from Rajasthan (Mam- malia: Chiroptera). Sci. & Cult., 43: 264-265. (1980): The bats of Rajasthan: zoogeography. Rec. zool. Surv. Taxonomy and India., 76: 7-63. SINHA, Y. P. AND ADvaANI, R. (1976): Notes on food and reproduction of some Rajasthan bats. Geobios, 3: 37-40. FLORAL BIOLOGY OF MIMUSOPS ELENGI LINN.' C. SuBBA REppI AND A. JANAKI Bar’ (With three text-figures) INTRODUCTION There is practically no information on the floral biology of tropical plants. Further, to quote Percival (1965), “‘we do not know the complete floral biology of any species of plant. Some economic crops have attracted consi- derable attention, but even for these the data are incomplete. This means that. any observer may amass original data and add to our knowledge in this field.’ The floral biology of Mimusops elengi has been therefore studied and its pollination potential ascertained in all its aspects. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Mimusops elengi Linn. is grown in parks and road-sides because of its evergreen nature and of its beautifully scented flowers. The plants are mostly confined to tropics. Morphology of the flower:—The flower mor- phology of Mimusops elengi was earlier des- cribed by cooke (1904), Gamble (1921), Bor (1953) and McCann (1959), but the descrip- tions are not from the angle of making a spe- cial study of pollination. Three types of plants of Mimusops elengi occur in nature. One type with flowers having only functional stamens (bearing no fruits); second type with flowers 1 Accepted November 1977. 2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Waltair 530 003. having functional ovaries only (bearing fruits); third type with flowers having both ovaries and stamens functional (bearing fruits). The following description of the flower is a generalised one. The pedicillate flowers, either solitary or fasicled, occur in the axils of newly formed leaves, the blades of which do not completely unfold (Fig. 1). They are pendulous because Fig. 1. Twig with pendulous flowers. of the curvature of their pedicels. Calyx per- sistent, consists of 8 lobes in two whorls of 4 each (the inner ones narrow and petaloid), valvate. Corolla scented, deciduous, white, tube very short, consists of 24 lobes in two series, the exterior of 16, linear spreading lobes, and the inner of 8 linear erect lobes. 47] JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 77 The inner ones are narrow at the base but boader above (spathulate), each adpressing against one another; they are contiguous and convergent around the style. Aestivation of either series imbricate. Stamens inserted on the tube of the corolla, fertile ones opposite to calyx lobes and the inner lobes of the co- rolla; filaments slender, short; anthers lanceo- late-sagittate, larger than the filament, 2-celled, dehiscing lengthwise, extrorse; sterile ones alternating with the fertile ones, ovate, acute, toothed, hairy at the base; ovary hirsute, 6-8 celled with one ovule in each locule but in the fruit only one ovule develops, others become suppressed, style cylindrical, exserted, stigma small, furrowed and provided with cylindrical papillae.. Nectar produced at the base of the ovary. Morphology of pollen grains: Pollen grains are monads, roughly spheroidal, dry, non-cohe- rent, 30-45 ym in size (average of 100 grains 36 wm), (3)4(5) colporate, exine thin and smooth, contents granular. Viability of pollen grains: Pollen grains readily germinated in 5% sucrose solution. They (50% of the grains) remained viable for 6 days under laboratory conditions. Output of pollen grains: In estimating the pollen output, the method used by Subba Reddi (1976) was adopted. The number of pollen grains per anther varied from between 15,321 and 22,253, the weighted average being 19,933 (+ 2148). There are 8 anthers in a flower and as such on an average 1, 59, 464 pollen grains could be produced per flower. Pollen liberation: The style emerges before the calyx and corolla expand (Fig. 2). Even before the emergence of the style, the anthers were found to dehisce. However, the pollen grains are prevented from contacting the stigma because both are separated by the inner series 472 of corolla lobes which are connivent forming a cone surrounding the style, thereby conceal- ing the stamens. Even when the calyx and the Fig. 2. Flowers showing the emergence of the style before the calyx and corolla stretch out, the con- vergence of the inner series of corolla lobes forming a cone around the style, and the deciduous nature of the corolla. outer series of corolla lobes stretch out, the inner series of lobes remain converging around the style. Because of this contrivance, though the flowers are pendulous and the anthers de- hisce even when the flower is in the bud con- dition, the pollen grains are arrested from being poured down. After a day or so depending on the pre- vailing weather conditions the flower begins to lose its turgidity and hence the inner series of corolla lobes become flexible. Consequent- ly, a narrow way is formed between the tip ‘of the corolla and the style. When there are requisite wind speeds to disturb the flowers FLORAL BIOLOGY OF M. ELENGI sufficiently, the pollen grains escape through the narrow space formed between the tip of the corolla and the style, and are wafted by wind currents. Unless the flowers are disturbed no release of pollen grains would occur. This had been verified in the laboratory. Twigs with flowers, the calyx lobes and the outer corolla lobes of which just unfolded, were brought to the laboratory and their cut ends were kept in a beaker of water. Microscope slides coated with glycerine jelly were placed just beneath the flowers. Under relatively still conditions no pollen grains were found deposited on the slides even after the corolla lobes become flexible. When the flowers were disturbed one could see the pollen coming out as a white powder. To know whether or not all the pollen grains produced in a flower would get into the ambient air, batches of corollas with anthers that fell on the ground were kept in stoppered tubes immediately after collection. After bringing them to the laboratory, the usual procedure for estimating the number of pollen grains was followed. The number of grains in such fallen corolla varied per anther from between 1385 to 2771, the weighted average being 2128. This means that about 11% of the total pollen that could be pro- duced per anther might remain unliberated into the air before the corollas drop off from the tree. Terminal velocity of pollen grains: Terminal velocity was measured by releasing pollen grains at the top of a column of still air in a vertical glass cylinder of 160 cms in length and finding the time taken by them to arrive at the bottom. Calculations were made follow- ing Weinhold (1955). The observed terminal velocity is 4 cm/sec. Incidence of pollen grains in the air: To know the power of pollen grains to remain airborne, rod impactors of 0.53 cm diameter with 18 mm square sticky cellophane strips wound round them were exposed at a height of 2.5 m a.g.l. and at a distance of 25 m in the down wind direction (determined at the time of placing the impactor) of the tree in full bloom at Sitammadara in Visakhapatnam for 24-hour periods during April-May 1976. The exposed cellophane strips after mounting in glycerine jelly were scanned at 1 mm gaps across the stagnation line and the number of pollen grains thus counted on 81 sq. mm of trap surface were estimated to number on 324 sq. mm, the total trap surface. The re- 664 ow Gl2e= 372=—= ==? 90a == 33,6 om ©